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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high-poverty urban schools

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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high-poverty urban schools

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SCHOOL-WIDE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: LESSONS FROM HIGH-PERFORMING, HIGH-
POVERTY URBAN SCHOOLS
by
Qiana L. Jackson-Newman

______________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2008

Copyright 2008 Qiana L. Jackson-Newman
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who have supported me
throughout this three year program. Your encouragement helped me achieve what at
times I thought to be impossible. This dissertation would not have been completed
without all of you in my corner.
I am especially grateful for the guidance and support provided by my chair,
Dr. Kathy Stowe. Her thoughtful and useful feedback helped me create a project that
I am proud of. I admire her tenacity and hard work in getting our thematic
dissertation group through this process on time.
Special acknowledgement is given to my good friend Sherry Marsh, with
whom I began this journey. Our daily discussions, late night study sessions, and
weekly writing dates at Starbucks made this an unforgettable adventure. Going
through this program with you made this process so much easier. We can now sit
back, relax and enjoy life. We deserve it!
Most importantly, a special thanks goes to my family for putting up with my
absences and always bringing my laptop with me when I came to visit. Mom and
dad, you have always been there for me since I can remember and you both provided
me with that extra push to keep going. To my husband, Christopher, who has been
my rock, always wiping away my tears of frustration and letting me know that you
were proud of me when I needed to hear it. Thank you all.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS …………………………………………………. ii
LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………….. iv
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………. v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ……………….… 1
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE …….…………….. 15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY …………………….…………… 41
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ……………………………….………….. 53
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………………….……. 102

REFERENCES …………………………………………………….………. 116
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………….……. 122
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Percentage of Students scoring proficient and above on
California standards test in English language arts ……………………………. 23

Figure 3.1 Theoretical Framework …………………………………………… 45
Figure 3.2 Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions …………….. 46
Figure 3.3 Matrix of Artifacts to Research Question ………………………… 49
Figure 3.4 Creswell’s Data Analysis Process ………………………………… 51
Figure 4.1 API by Significant Subgroups…………………………………….. 57
Figure 4.2 AYP in English Language Arts by Significant Subgroups ………. 59
Figure 4.3 AYP in Math by Significant Subgroups …………………………. 60
Figure 4.4 CELDT Performance Level ……………………………………… 62
Figure 4.5 Teacher Ethnicity ………………………………………………… 63
Figure 4.6 Student Ethnicity ………………………………………………… 64
Figure 4.7 Number of Special Education Students Enrolled by Ethnicity ….. 65
Figure 4.8 Suspension and Expulsion Rates ………………………………... 66
Figure 4.9 Retention Data for 2004-2006 …………………………………... 67
Figure 4.10 PYP and MYP Student Profile and Attitudes ………………….. 77
v
ABSTRACT
High poverty urban schools with a large population of students of color have
traditionally been associated with low student achievement. However, research has
shown that there are certain structures and systems implemented at schools that can
increase the student performance for students of color. This research has led to a
qualitative case study of high poverty, high performing urban schools.
The purpose of this study was to identify the organizational structures and
systems implemented at high performing, high poverty urban school with a large
concentration of students of color. Additionally, the research sought to find out how
leadership affected the implementation of the structures and systems at the school
site. A case study of a K-8 urban school in Southern California, focused on four
research questions: (1) What are the trends and patterns of performance among
students of color? (2) What are the organizational structures and systems that are
perceived to contribute to high student performance in high poverty urban schools
with large concentrations of students of color? (3) How are the organizational
structures and systems implemented to support school-wide classroom instruction
that promoted student learning? (4) How is the construct of race reflected in the
school’s structures and systems?
The school studied provided insight into the organization’s structures and
systems that led to high academic performance among students of color. Standard
based instruction was the structure identified to foster effective instructional
practices. The systems that promoted student learning were the international
vi
baccalaureate program, teacher collaboration, monitoring of student progress through
data and assessment, student engagement and goal setting.
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
Historically, high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students
of color have been associated with low student achievement. Valid tests of student
achievement consistently show that students of color and students living in poverty
are scoring far below their White and more affluent peers. On the 2003 National
Assessment of Educational Progress results, there was a 26 point gap between
African-American and Hispanic fourth grade students and their White peers in
reading. Overall in 2003, fourth grade students in large urban public schools had
lower percentages of students performing at or above proficient than students in rural
or urban fringe schools. According to the NCES (2005) while only 30% of all fourth
graders were proficient in 2003, 18% of fourth grade students were proficient in
large urban schools, compared to 34% in rural schools and 22% in urban fringe
schools.
Competing theories—including economic and social reproduction, cultural
incompatibility, and social capital—have tried to explain the reasons for low student
achievement (Anyon, 2005; Ogbu, 2003; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Ladson-Billings,
1994; Kozol, 1991). While it is important to take into account the conceptual
theories and frameworks for understanding low student achievement, the factors
educators can control are easier to address. Research indicates that educational
outcomes for students of color have been associated with cultural dissonance, and
unequal access to educational resources which include quality teachers and
2
curriculum (Marzano, 2005; A Nation Still at Risk, 1998; Darling-Hammond, 1998,
Kozol, 1991).
Effective teachers are an integral part of children’s intellectual and social
development. During a school year students who have the most effective teacher
will gain much more knowledge than students who have the least effective teacher
(Marzano, 2003). Therefore, the results could be harmful for students who
continuously have ineffective teachers. With the dismal achievement results for
students of color and students living in poverty, attention has been placed on reform
efforts that can improve teaching and student performance. Examples include the
Elementary and Secondary Act of 1964, standards based reform, and No Child Left
Behind of 2001.
Despite historical trends, research based structural and systemic practices
contribute to high student performance in high poverty urban schools. Marzano
(2003) indicates that effective schools can positively impact student achievement;
dispelling the idea that schools cannot be held accountable for student achievement
(Coleman, 1966). Schools that positively impact student achievement and
demonstrate that students of color and low-income students can achieve at high
levels have structural and systemic practices in place. These structural practices
include teacher assignments, resources, curriculum, and instructional time (Marzano,
2003). Systemic practices include accountability, professional development and
data-driven decision making (Johnson 2002, Kannapel & Clements, 2005, Williams,
Kirst, Haertel, et al., 2005). An essential component to the effective implementation
3
of structures and systems in schools is leadership that works within the structural,
human resource, political and symbolic leadership frames identified by Bolman and
Deal (2003).
Strong instructional leadership is vital to developing and sustaining excellent
schools where all students are able to perform at high academic levels. Researchers
such as Blasé and Blasé (2004), Marzano (2003), and McEwan (2003), have
expressed that leadership is necessary for effective reform. Leadership can also
improve student learning (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; Leithwood, Louis,
Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004). The influence of instructional leadership on student
achievement is dependent on the ability to support and influence teachers by creating
systems that support student learning.
Specific school organizational structures and systems have a positive impact
on classroom instruction in high performing urban schools. Although there are many
different organizational structures and systems that can be implemented, specific
case studies have identified certain structures and systems that led to high academic
achievement. High performing schools are using standards based instruction,
implementing data-driven decision making, providing professional development, and
have accountability systems in place. Johnson (2002) states that data-driven decision
making allows schools to identify successes and challenges, identify areas for
improvements, and evaluate practices. Blankstein (2002) and Elmore (2004) believe
that effective professional development focuses on the improvement of student
learning through the refinement of the skills and knowledge of the educator. To
4
ensure that structures and systems are working effectively accountability systems
need to be in place to improve student learning (Reeves, 2005).
Consistent school-wide implementation of effective classroom instructional
practices foster high student performance in high poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color. Teachers are conveying the necessary skills and
topics related to state standards to their students. The skills and knowledge learned
from professional development opportunities is incorporated into the daily
instruction in classrooms. The achievement of these schools is not accidental.
Schools identified in the 90/90/90 and the Hope for Urban Education case studies
(Reeves, 2005; Charles A. Dana Center, 1999) provide a few examples of how these
schools have put in place successful structures and systems that resulted in high
student performance for all students.
Background of the Problem
Race continues to be a factor in the educational experiences among African-
American and Hispanic students. Critical race theory is a framework that challenges
the way race implicitly impacts the educational system limiting opportunities for
African-American students.
Despite the rhetoric of education being the “great equalizer” in the United
States, the educational experiences of African-American and Hispanic students
continues to be substantially separate and unequal (Darling-Hammond, 2000; A
Nation Still at Risk, 1998; Kozol, 1991; Epps,1995). Prior to the Brown vs. Board of
Education Supreme Court case, White schools received more school funding, had a
5
longer school year, teachers received better pay, and more money was spent on
physical facilities than in schools for African-American and Hispanic students
(Ravitch, 1983).
Unequal opportunities for African-American and Hispanic students continue
to be evident. Jonathan Kozol (2005) examined the conditions of many urban public
schools with a majority of African-American and Hispanic students. His research
indicated that most of the schools did not have music or art programs; had
overcrowded classrooms, dilapidated buildings, and less per pupil spending (Kozol,
2005).
The conditions of urban schools affect African-American and Hispanic
students more than White students because students of color have a higher chance of
attending an urban school. According to NCES (2005), African-American students
and other students of color most likely attend schools with large concentrations of
students from poor families and schools with large populations of students of color
than White students. Approximately 51% of African-American and 56% of Hispanic
fourth graders attended schools in which 75% or more of the student population were
students of color (NCES, 2005)
Presently some schools have unconsciously decided which students will
receive the best public education possible, instead of expanding the opportunity for
all students to succeed. The National Partnership for Teaching At-Risk Students
(2005) reported that African-American and Hispanic 12
th
graders perform at the
same level in reading and mathematics as White eighth graders. The high school
6
graduation rate for Hispanic and African-American students is roughly 55%,
compared with 78% for White students (National Partnership for Teaching At-Risk
Schools, 2005).
Although there is some evidence of improved public school performance
across the country, the improvement is not enough where all students are achieving
at high levels. Since 2000, the gap in reading scores, between the achievement of
White and African-American fourth grade students, has decreased from 34 to 29.
During that same time, the gap between White and Hispanic fourth grade students
decreased from 35 to 26 (NCES, 2005). In mathematics, the score gap between
White and African-American fourth grade students was narrower in 2005 than in any
previous assessment year (NCES, 2005). These statistics show that even though
small gains have been made in closing the achievement gap in reading and math, the
achievement gap has not been closed completely. The achievement gap between
African-American students and their White peers is perpetuated by a combination of
organizational and instructional barriers including the lack of (a) effective teachers,
(b) instructional resources, (c) social class, and (d) cultural differences between
teachers and students.
Statement of the Problem
Many schools are failing to implement practices that would ameliorate the
achievement gap between students of color, students living in poverty and their
White peers. There are numerous articles that describe how students of color are
associated with low student achievement. However, there are a few documented
7
cases that describe how schools have effective structures and systems in place that
are increasing the student achievement of students of color (McGee, 2003; Barth,
Haycock, Jackson, Mora, Ruiz, Robinson & Wilkins1999; Charles A. Dana
Center,1999).
Instead of education being the “great equalizer” schools in the United States
generally are sites where patterns of privilege and inequality are maintained and
reproduced. In order to improve the instructional quality of the educational system,
practitioners have researched to determine which structural and systemic practices
have been proven to raise student achievement of African-American and Hispanic
students and those living in poverty. Marzano (2003) indicated that effective
schools can improve student achievement by analyzing school, teacher, and student
level factors. Numerous schools have implemented the structures and systems that
have been identified in the research, yet the lack of sustainability and the degree of
implementation of the systems are preventing all schools from being high
performing.
What is not known is how other high poverty urban schools can replicate
effective organizational structures and systems to increase student achievement. If
low performing schools with a high population of students of color are claiming to
have the same structures and systems in place then the degree of implementation
needs to be examined. Further research needs to be done on how instructional
leadership affects the implementation of systems in schools to impact instructional
practices in the classroom.
8
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the structures and systems
implemented in a high performing, high poverty K-8 urban school with large
concentrations of students of color in Southern California. Additionally, the study
analyzed how the structures and systems worked together to increase the academic
achievement of students of color and the effect that leadership had on the
implementation of the structures and systems.
Research Questions
For the purpose of this study the following research questions were
examined.
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Significance of the Study
This study has significant importance for site and district administrators of
urban schools with large concentrations of African-American and Hispanic students
and those living in poverty. The “education debt” or “under-education” of students
of color needs to be eliminated. This education deficit can lead to a variety of social
9
problems not excluding, crime, low wages, and low labor force (Ladson-Billings,
2006). Site administrators can design practices that can facilitate school-wide
instructional practices that can positively impact the achievement for all students.
Limitations
The following limitations were identified.
• Due to the length of time allowed for the study the data collected was limited
to an investigation of one K-8 school.
• While efforts were made to prevent participant bias, the researcher had no
control over any preexisting biases the participant may have already had
therefore, affecting the responses given and the outcome of the study.
• Participation in the study was voluntary.
• Participant responses may not reflect the opinions of all the members in the
included population.
• The percentage of students on free or reduced lunch might not be reflected
accurately.
• The analysis of the data was subject to the interpretation of the researcher,
but was determined by how the data was collected.
• The school chosen only has 72% of their students on free and reduced lunch.
Delimitations
Delimitations were determined by the doctoral candidates that were focusing
on high poverty, high performing schools with large concentrations of students of
color.
10
• A descriptive case study approach was used to gather data from one school
within a large urban district in Southern California which may limit the
ability to generalize the study.
• The finding may not be generalizable beyond the specific population from
which the sample was taken.
• Asian and Filipino students were excluded from our study.
• The school site was selected based on pre-selected criteria
 The school was located in an urban area.
 The school had at least 60 percent of their student population being
students of color.
 75 percent of their student population was on free and reduced lunch.
 All subgroups at the school had shown consistent growth on the
California Standards test for a minimum of three consecutive years.
• The operational definitions of high performing, large concentrations of
students of color, and urban may also have prevented the study from being
generalized based on how the terms were defined.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are operationally defined
below:
Academic Performance Index (API): The numeric indicator of a school’s
performance level which can range from 200-1000, on the California Standards Test
(California Department of Education, 2007).
11
Accountability: The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an
organization (e.g., a school, school district, or state department of education) should
be held responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or
sanctioned for their success or lack of success in doing so (EdSource, 2007).
Achievement Gap: A consistent difference in scores on student achievement
tests between certain groups of children and children in other groups (EdSource,
2007).
Assessment: Another name for a test, it may be written or oral, formal or
informal. Depending on the type of assessment, results can be used for a variety of
reasons. There are several types of assessments: criterion, formative, summative,
progress-monitoring, and curriculum embedded (EdSource, 2007)
California Standards Test: The annual assessment based on the state’s
content standards.
Content Standards: The knowledge, concepts and skills that students should
know by the end of each grade level in the core academic subjects (EdSource, 2007).
Disaggregated Data: The presentation of data broken into segments, for
example test scores for students from various ethnic groups instead of in the
aggregate, for the entire student population. Often test data is broken into groups of
students who are economically disadvantaged, from racial or ethnic minority groups,
have disabilities, or have limited English fluency, thereby allowing parents and
teachers to see how each student group is performing in a school (EdSource, 2007).
Equity: Equalizing students’ access to educational outcomes.
12
Free/Reduced Price Meals: A federal program to provide food, typically
lunch and/or breakfast, for students from low-income families. The number of
students participating in the National School Lunch Program is increasingly being
used as a way to measure the poverty level of a school or district population. The
number of children in this program can affect schools’ or districts’ eligibility for
grants or other funding aimed at helping lower-income families (EdSource, 2007).
High Concentration: At least 60% of the student population being students
of color.
High Performing: Showing a trajectory of growth among all subgroups
within a five year period. The schools also must move a minimum of two deciles
within five years.
High Poverty: 75% of the students being on free and reduced lunch.
Highly Qualified Teachers: According to the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB), a teacher who has obtained full state teacher certification or has passed the
state teacher licensing examination and holds a license to teach in the state; holds a
minimum of a bachelor's degree; and has demonstrated subject area competence in
each of the academic subjects in which the teacher teaches (EdSource, 2007).
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): This is a national test
that is given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A small
sample of student representatives of the state are tested (EdSource, 2007).
Organizational Structures: Institutional mechanisms, policies, and
procedures put in place by federal state or district policy and legislation or widely
13
accepted as the official structure of schools; not subject to change at the local school
site; i.e. Funding mechanisms (federal, state, district), Personnel policies (hiring,
evaluation, credentialing, etc.), instructional time, Class size, Program regulations,
i.e., special education, bilingual education.
Organizational Systems: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time,
personnel, students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that
school visions, missions, and goals are met; i.e. Professional development, Teacher
collaboration, Parent involvement policies, Use of instructional time, School
budgets.
Standards Based Reform: A shift in educational policy and school reform
toward reaching consensus on and establishing standards for what students need to
know and be able to do at each grade level (EdSource, 2007).
Students of Color: People who have been historically disenfranchised
(African-American, Hispanic, Indigenous People).
Title I: A federal programs that provided funds for economically
disadvantaged students (EdSource, 2007).
Urban: a high population density with high concentrations of students of
color.
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study presented the introduction, background of the problem,
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, importance of the
study, limitations and delimitation, and definitions of terms. Chapter 2 reviews the
14
relevant literature on the historical overview of education, barriers to student
achievement, and the organizational systems and structures. Chapter 3 provides the
methodology used in the study including the sampling and selection process, as well
as the research design. Chapter 4 presents the findings, analysis and discussion of
the study. Chapter 5 provides the conclusions, a summary of the study and possible
implications.
15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
A popular assumption is that there is an inextricable relationship between
poverty, ethnicity, and academic achievement (Reeves, 2005; Rothstein, 2004;
Anyon, 2005). The combined effects of Ethnicity and poverty have been linked to
test scores, graduation rates, teacher retention, teacher experience, student health
and other factors that influence educational opportunities. On the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) tests in the core academic subjects,
students on free and reduced lunch consistently scored in the lowest category when
compared to their peers (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2005).
Furthermore, students living in poverty were more likely to underachieve than their
more affluent peers and were more at risk of not completing school (Taylor, 2005).
There are far too many documented stories of schools that perpetuate the cycle of
poverty and therefore limit the life choices of children.
Jonathan Kozol (1991) described the notable differences between urban
public schools serving students of color and their suburban peers, which typically
have more instructional resources that will help prepare their students for college.
In Detroit, there are schools that do not offer advanced placement or music classes,
and teach word processing without computers. In East St. Louis High School there
are science labs that are outdated by 30 to 50 years. There is no running water in
the science labs, no laboratory tables and not enough microscopes, or dissecting kits
to effectively instruct students. Some classrooms are so cold in the winter that
16
students wear coats in class, while students in other classes are sweltering in rooms
where the heat cannot be turned down. In contrast, there are schools in the suburbs
that have computers connected to the internet, have state of the art science labs, and
offer a number of advanced placement classes. These aforementioned differences in
educational opportunities were still occurring even after the landmark report A
Nation at Risk.
A Nation at Risk (1983) reported the dismal state and the consequent
outcomes of education in the United States. International comparisons of student
achievement revealed that Americans were never first or second, but at the bottom
seven times in comparison with other industrialized nations (National Commission
on Education Excellence, 1983). These concerns were reinforced on the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). A Nation at Risk (1983)
described the role of education as allowing citizens to secure employment and the
ability to contribute to society. Educational experiences of low income and students
of color are not preparing them to obtain highly skilled jobs so they can serve in
society. Moreover, the report claimed that approximately 23 million Americans
were functionally illiterate with regard to everyday reading, writing and math
(National Commission on Education Excellence, 1983).
Since A Nation at Risk, a number of well-intentioned efforts to reform U.S.
schools have been documented, but academic achievement has remained relatively
flat. The rise of standards based reform in the 1990s provided a new framework for
instructional improvement. In 2001, No Child Left Behind, called for increased
17
accountability, annual assessment of students, and for schools to re-evaluate how
they are educating students of color and students living in poverty. With the focus
on state standards and increasing all students’ academic performance, there have
been some schools that have begun to defy the odds.
Researchers have found schools that have overcome patronizing assumptions
and have achieved academic success (Charles A. Dana Center, 1999; Reeves, 2005;
Izumi, 2002; Barth, Haycock, Jackson, Mora, Ruiz, Robinson & Wilkins, 1999).
Common factors that were implemented at the high achieving schools were
professional development, the use of data, the use of standards, a focus on student
learning, and a culture of high expectations for all students. The implementation of
these factors could not have transpired without effective leadership. Research has
found that leadership has a considerable effect on student achievement (Marzano,
Waters & McNulty, 2005). According to Elmore (2006), leadership needs to be
connected to instructional improvement and student performance.
This chapter reviews the literature relative to this study to provide a
foundation contributing to the knowledge base. First, a description of race and
culture are discussed. The chapter then examines specific examples of instructional
barriers that exist for African-American students and those living in poverty and
provides an explanation of how the barriers prevent students from maximizing their
learning potential. The achievement gap is presented and the factors that contribute
to the achievement gap examined. A brief historical overview of what has occurred
in the field of education and academic achievement is provided. A review of
18
organizational structures and systems is discussed to illustrate how specific
researched based structures and systems are implemented to overcome the barriers
and increase student achievement of African-American students and students living
in poverty. The chapter presents effective classroom practices that increase the
school-wide academic achievement of African-American students and those living in
poverty. Finally, an examination of what still needs to be answered in order for all
schools to have high academic success with African-American students and students
living in poverty will occur.
Race and Education
The history of education for African-Americans was never meant to be a
story of wealth and freedom but one of “struggle and disappointment” (Lynn, 2006).
As early as the 1830s Africans were not provided the opportunity to participate in
any type of schooling as forbidden by law (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Instead they
were trained for manual labor and domestic service thus, creating separate and
unequal existence for African-American students.
Schools were designed to preserve the Eurocentric ideals, cultures and beliefs
which support deficit notions about students of color (Yosso, 2005; Lynn 2006;
Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). The deficit model argues that the values of students of
color are abnormal and hinder the educational achievement of African-American
students (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). Blaming students’ characteristics for their low
achievement instead of on structural inequalities helps to maintain Eurocentric
beliefs and dominance in society (Nieto, 2005).
19
Critical Race Theory
Theories rarely examine the effects of race on school practices and policies.
Critical race theory is a framework that “theorizes, examines and challenges the way
race and racism implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, and practices”
(Yosso, 2005). Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) argue that racism is salient in
American society in which race continues to be a factor in determining educational
inequities. These inequities can be manifested in low expectations for African-
American students, tracking, remediating the curriculum, and limited access to high-
level courses (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 2001).
Barriers to Student Achievement
Cultural Discontinuity
Cultural discontinuity exists when students are provided culturally different
learning environments such as rules of communication and interaction, social
competence, and behavior that are dissimilar to what students have learned and
experienced at home (Ogbu, 1982). African-American students bring their own
cultures and values with them into the classroom and these values may be in conflict
with the culture and values that their teacher brings with them (Graybill, 1997).
Teachers’ own cultural experiences influence their perceptions of what is considered
to be appropriate behavior, therefore viewing students’ behavior negatively
(Graybill, 1997). The teacher’s experiences are based on Eurocentric, middle class
values and beliefs, which is different from their students’ experiences causing
conflict in classrooms.
20
Cultural discontinuity inadvertently interferes with teaching and learning.
When faced with a cultural conflict, teachers may react based on their cultural
background and develop assumptions that influence their actions (Graybill, 1997).
Teacher assumptions can lead to lower expectations and limited teacher-student
interactions for African-American students.
Teacher Quality
“Teacher effectiveness is the single biggest factor influencing gains in
achievement,” (Haycock, 2004; Marzano, 2003). In too many of our urban schools
African-American students and students living in poverty do not have the
opportunity to be taught by effective teachers. A large number of teachers are
inexperienced, poorly prepared, and less qualified than in more successful schools
(National Partnership for Teaching in At Risk Schools, 2005; Barton, 2004; Evans,
2005; Haycock, 2004). Poorly qualified teachers tend to treat African-American
language, prior knowledge and values as an anomaly. Teachers assume it is their
job to rid the students of their culture because they may not understand the specific
and unique qualities of the African-American culture (Ladson-Billings, 2000).
Teacher beliefs and treatment of students’ cultural backgrounds can hinder
their use of effective pedagogy. These beliefs are related to the notion that African-
American students are inferior based on the assumption that African-American
students are not able to learn complex material, leading to low educational
expectations (Epps, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). To
compensate for low expectations the teachers remediate the curriculum which can
21
result in low achievement on grade level standards (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001).
Teachers’ beliefs have such an impact on how African-American students are taught,
that it is feasible and fair to conjecture that these beliefs can and do actually limit the
achievement of African-American students (Landsman, 2004).
Historical Overview
Achievement Gap
The continuous inequality in academic achievement between students of
color and their White and Asian-American peers is a persistent challenge in
education. Educational outcomes of minority students are more than just test scores,
but a function of their unequal access to educational resources, including skilled
teachers, quality curriculum, and funding (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Schools with
high percentages of students of color and low income students are more likely to
employ teachers with three or fewer years of experience (NCES, 2007). In 2003-
2004, the total expenditures per student were higher in low-poverty districts than in
high-poverty districts (NCES, 2007). These barriers are preventing students of color
and students living in poverty from receiving the type of education all students
deserve regardless of their skin color and socio-economic status.
Research has shown that in spite of the Supreme Court decision in Brown vs.
Board of Education, educational experiences for students of color living in poverty
have continued to be a system of “separate but unequal” (Kozol, 1991; Darling-
Hammond, 1998; A Nation Still at Risk, 1998; Lyman & Villani, 2004). African-
American and Hispanic fourth graders are more likely to attend schools with large
22
concentrations of students of color (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2006).
These schools tend to lack the instructional resources necessary to provide students
of color with adequate educational experiences to allow them to pursue college.
Since the achievement gap has been brought to public attention, different
approaches have been tried to close the achievement gap. The achievement gap can
be defined as a consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between
certain groups of children and children in other groups (EdSource, 2007). The first
federal policy was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, providing
resources to meet the needs of students who had educational disadvantages. In
addition, states have also tried different curriculum, testing and instructional models
to help close the gap. Students of color have made some steady gains in
achievement but are still not performing as well their White peers. On standardized
testing, typically African-American and Hispanic students perform lower than White
and Asian students and those living in poverty tend to perform at the lowest level.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the disparities of achievement between subgroups on the
California Standards Test.
23
Figure 2.1– Percentage of Students Scoring Proficient and Above on the California
Standards Test in English Language Arts
Subgroup 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
African-American 23.8% 23% 28.9% 31.7% 32.7%
Hispanic/Latino 21% 27.3% 26.9% 29.9% 31.1%
White 55.1% 55% 60.8% 63.8% 64.3%
Asian 56.5% 68.9% 64.6% 68.2% 68.9%
Economically Disadvantaged 21% 27.7% 26.5% 29.4% 30.4%
English Learners 18.5% 27% 21.9% 24.8% 25.8%

To address the issue of poverty, the federal government intervened and
introduced the most comprehensive legislation at the time to provide more
educational opportunities to low income children.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, (ESEA), declared that
every student in public schools had the right to an education that would provide the
knowledge and skills necessary to become productive citizens (Grimes, 2006). The
purpose of ESEA was to focus on the educational needs of poor students and it also
established federal standards on educational equity for disadvantaged students
(Kantor, 1991). It provided federal aid to elementary and secondary schools for
supplemental educational programs that were intended to support poor and
educationally disadvantaged students (Kantor, 1991).
24
A Nation at Risk
A Nation at Risk presented a very negative picture of education throughout
the 1980s into the 1990s (Marzano, 2003). This report revealed that American
students did not possess the educational skills necessary to be productive citizens in
society. The report noted that the United States was lagging behind other countries
in science, technology innovations, and commerce while educational systems in
other countries were flourishing (National Commission on Excellence, 1983).
This report purported that the educational decline was due to the inadequate
educational opportunities which included curriculum, expectations, time and
teaching. The following recommendations were made to help reform American
schools: state and high school graduation requirements needed to be more rigorous,
standards should be more challenging, and expectations higher, more time needed to
be spent on the core subject areas, and improve the preparation of teachers.
Some of the recommendations by A Nation at Risk have been utilized today.
Adopting rigorous and measurable standards and increasing the instructional minutes
of the core curriculum are just a few examples (National Commission on Excellence,
1983). Even though standards have been implemented and schools have increased
their instructional minutes, many of the same problems that were illuminated in the
report still exist today.
While A Nation at Risk did not target students of color, or those living in
poverty, it did indicate several weaknesses within the American educational system.
It would appear that A Nation Still at Risk, which was a 1998 follow up to the
25
original report, made attempts to focus on how the educational system treated
students of color and students living in poverty.
A Nation Still At Risk
Fifteen years after A Nation at Risk, another report, A Nation Still at Risk,
was published to once again review the conditions of the American educational
system. It was predicted that the American economy would decline (National
Commission on Excellence, 1983). However, this did not occur as predicted; instead
a risk of a different kind was brought to America’s attention.
The educational system was failing too many people and a feeling of
indifference was still taking place in schools (National Commission on Excellence,
1983; A Nation Still at Risk, 1998). The report also emphasized that a dual
educational system had been once again recreated that was not equitable for all
students. Students of color were not being challenged and were promoted to the next
grade without the necessary skills to be successful, therefore preventing students of
color from the pursuit of higher education, better jobs and a better life (A Nation Still
at Risk, 1998). The separate but unequal system that had been created was teaching
White students while poor students of color floundered or dropped out (Paige, 2003).
It was reported that students of color attended the “bad schools,” had the least
qualified teachers, and had less expected of them (A Nation Still at Risk, 1998).
Little has been done to mitigate the findings of A Nation at Risk and A Nation
Still at Risk. The current issues of school segregation, equity and poor educational
achievement were emerging in A Nation at Risk and A Nation Still at Risk. The
26
major focus of the first report was the educational well being of all students whereas
the second report began to look closely at the achievement of students of color and
those living in poverty. Even though both reports made recommendations to
alleviate these concerns the suggestions were not adequately adopted, thus failing to
do just that.
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) supported
the findings of A Nation at Risk, in regards to the ineffectiveness of the United States
educational system. The TIMSS study was defined as the most comprehensive and
most rigorous international study of schools and students ever performed. It studied
forty-one countries at grades four, eight, and twelve and compared their performance
in science and math. TIMSS reported that U.S. fourth graders were above the
international average in both math and science, yet were still outperformed by seven
countries in math. In eighth grade, the U.S. students scored above the international
average in science, but below in math. In regards to twelfth grade, the U.S. students
scored below the international average and were ranked towards the bottom in both
science and math.
Four years after the TIMSS study, the TIMSS-R presented a new set of
international and domestic comparisons focused on the achievement of eighth grade
students in science and math. This study was able to concentrate on the disparate
achievement between America’s poor and minority students as compared to their
White peers, once again emphasizing the need to focus on “the next great civil rights
27
issue” of equal educational opportunity that was mentioned in A Nation Still at Risk.
The United States was able to compare the achievement of eighth graders from the
first study with eighth graders from this study as well as look at the cohort of fourth
graders and their achievement as eighth graders. The results did not show substantial
improvements, when comparing the results of the 1995 study with the study in 1999.
It was found that there was no measurable change in both math and science for the
eighth grade students. Using the fourth grade cohort of 1999, it was found that the
students performed lower as eighth graders than they did as fourth graders. The
report also indicated that African-American students made minimal gains between
the two studies.
The Third International Mathematics and Science Study of 2003 is the third
comparison of math and science that had been done since 1995. Between 1995 and
2003 there were no significant gains in math for fourth grade students. The
comparisons between 1995 and 2003 showed a small increase for African-American
fourth graders, but not enough to close the gap between their White peers. Overall,
the results did not alleviate the educational concerns in the nation.
The findings from TIMSS 1995 to 2003 mirrored the findings of A Nation at
Risk and A Nation Still at Risk reports. Nationally the country was still lagging
behind in the areas of math and science when compared to the rest of the
industrialized world. The achievement gap between students of color and their
White peers still existed. Given the importance of math skills for employment and
citizenship in the 21
st
century, math teachers should have a strong foundation in the
28
subject they are teaching. Instead the study found the opposite to be true. There
were more teachers teaching math and science who did not have the necessary skills
to do so than math teachers who had the necessary requirements. With increased
effort to address the achievement gap and alleviate the continual cycle of teachers
teaching subjects they were not qualified to teach, the newest federal educational
policy was introduced to the nation, No Child Left Behind.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is the latest policy that hoped to
reform education, strive to improve student achievement, and close the achievement
gap between minority and disadvantaged peers in elementary and secondary schools.
NCLB compels schools and districts to analyze how they are servicing their students
of color living in poverty and determine where schools need improving.
The NCLB Act, which reauthorizes the Elementary and Secondary
Educational Act of 1965 includes strategies and principles proposed by President
George W. Bush. These contain increased accountability for schools, districts, and
states; greater choice for parents and students; more flexibility for states and districts
in the use of funds; and a stronger emphasis on reading (U.S. Department of
Education, 2002). The strategies and principles were established with the hope of all
students achieving at high standards regardless of race, ethnicity or socioeconomic
status.
With the advent of NCLB, states have been required to implement a
statewide accountability system incorporating all public schools and students. The
29
system must be based on the content standards in reading and math, annual testing in
grades 3-8 and annual statewide progress objectives guaranteeing that all students
will reach proficiency by 2014 (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Assessments
are then to be disaggregated by poverty, ethnicity, race, disability and English
proficiency to ensure that no group is lagging behind. Schools that fail to make
annual yearly progress (AYP) will be subjected to corrective action.
NCLB was put in place to substantially close the achievement gap, not only
on national comparisons, but also between all students in the United States. NCLB
urged schools and district to reevaluate how students are being served. Schools and
districts need to ensure that all students are making progress and are on the way to
reaching the target for the 2013-2014 school year (U.S. Department of Education,
2001). With the urgent need to increase the achievement of all students, schools will
need to continue to monitor and put in place support for students who are not
succeeding. Even with the implementation of NCLB, educators will need to analyze
other factors such as teacher beliefs that may be preventing students of color and
students living in poverty from performing as well as their White peers.
Throughout the history of education numerous reports have informed
Americans about the state of our educational system. As a result of these reports,
policies and different legislation has been implemented to alleviate the achievement
gap among African-American students and their White peers. It is important to
know how schools positively address these policies and legislation to increase the
student achievement of African-American students and students living in poverty.
30
Organizational Structures and Systems
Certain organizational structures and systems can be implemented in schools
to help close the achievement gap and increase student performance. High poverty,
high performing schools that have been identified in a handful of case studies have
implemented common structures and systems at their school sites but how each
school implements them varies. Among these are systems of leadership, teaching
and learning, and data-driven decision making. Effective implementation of the
various systems and structures to close the achievement gap heightens the need for
leaders to analyze the policies and practices that perpetuate the cycle of low
achievement and to make the necessary changes.
Leadership
Today’s accountability structures emphasize the need for effective
educational leaders to develop systems to ameliorate the low academic achievement
of minority students (Johnson & Uline, 2005). A leader that is able to work within
Bolman and Deal’s four leadership frames: structural, human resource, political and
symbolic (Bolman & Deal, 2003) has the ability to improve the educational
organization to ensure that all students are successful.
Bolman and Deal (2003) identified each of the frames in the following
manner. In the structural frame the leader is focused on goals, rules, formal
relationships, and specialized roles. The human resource frame emphasizes human
needs to assist people in getting the job done while feeling good about themselves.
The central concepts in the political frame are power, conflict, competition and
31
organizational politics. Operating in the symbolic frame sees organizations as
cultures that are based on rituals and ceremonies. The different frames allow the
leader to organize their schools through multiple lenses that best fit the
organization’s needs.
Building School Culture
A school’s culture is a complex pattern of norms, behaviors, attitudes, beliefs,
values, ceremonies and traditions that are deeply ingrained in the school (Barth,
2002; Webb & Norton, 2003; Deal & Patterson, 1999; McEwan, 2003). Leaders
have the opportunity to positively shape school culture, therefore impacting the
learning environment and student achievement. School leaders can shape culture in
many ways (Deal & Patterson, 1999). For example, they can:
• Develop a mission that is student centered
• Strengthen positive existing culture
• Build on established traditions and values
• Recruit and hire staff that shares the same values of the culture
Building a positive school culture that does not focus on students’ deficits
can ameliorate the cultural discontinuity and negative teacher beliefs of African-
American and Hispanic students. These barriers can be eliminated and increase the
student achievement of students of color.
Instructional Leadership
McEwan (2003) expressed that instructional leadership is a key component in
developing and creating sustainability of highly effective schools. Some research
32
has been done on the principal’s role as an instructional leader and the direct
relationship to instructional practices that improve student achievement.
A common definition of instructional leadership or what characteristics are
most important in an instructional leader has not been agreed upon by researchers.
Blasé and Blasé (2004) have identified the following characteristics: encouraging,
promoting teaching and learning, providing effective professional development, and
establishing coaching relations with teachers. Elmore (2000) noted the importance
of understanding effective instructional practices and assessment, and the ability to
work with teachers on a daily basis when they have problems in this specific area.
As instructional leaders, principals leading high performing schools, spend
more time on instructional leadership activities. Principals are in classrooms
observing teachers, teaching lessons and helping improve their instruction (Blasé &
Blasé, 2004; Charles A. Dana Center, 1999). After classroom observations,
principals provide teachers with specific feedback and make suggestions that will
improve teaching and student learning. Principals also teach lessons in classrooms in
order to model good instruction.
A key aspect of instructional leadership was emphasizing the importance of
teaching and learning. The teaching focused on the classroom instruction, while the
learning focused on student outcomes. It is important for instructional leaders to
concentrate on how students of color are being taught. These factors are necessary to
increase student achievement for all students.
33
Teaching and Learning
Standards Based Instruction
Standards inform parents, teachers, and principals on what each child is
expected to master by the end of the academic year. Prior to having standards, the
educational system loosely defined what needed to be taught, and it was students of
color and students from low income families who suffered (Scheurich & Skrla,
2003). The curriculum for African-American students was less rigorous than the
curriculum for White students. Standards establish a principle that all students
should experience the same expectations for attainment and educational
opportunities (Ravitch, 1996). Unfortunately, in low performing schools, teacher
beliefs and expectations limit the educational opportunities and attainment for
African-American students.
High poverty, high performing schools focus on providing standards based
instruction to ensure that students have a chance of learning what is expected of
them. Teachers identify essential standards and use these standards to guide their
daily instruction in the classroom (Williams, Kirst, Haertel, et al, 2005; Barth,
Haycock, Jackson, Mora, Ruiz, Robinson & Wilkins, 1999). Knowing what needs
to be taught during the school year provides teachers with the opportunity to map out
the standards in the curriculum for language arts and math to know when to teach or
revisit a specific standard.
34
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Culturally relevant pedagogy has been identified as a way to bridge the gap
between home and school for students of color. To increase learning opportunities
for students, teachers need to know the cultural and social contexts of teaching and
learning (Banks, Cookson, Gay, Hawley, Irvine, Nieto, et al., 2001). High
performing, African-American students are more likely to be successful if they
attend schools where their culture and race are supported by the school and
instruction of the classroom (Kuykendall, 2004; Noguera, 2003). Ladson-Billings
(1995) states that culturally relevant pedagogy is based on three propositions: (1)
students must experience academic success and teachers must attend to the students’
academic needs, (2) students must maintain and develop cultural competence by
utilizing students’ culture as a tool for learning, (3) students must critique cultural
norms that maintain social inequities.
Many teachers may not have an extensive enough background to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy into their classrooms. Culturally relevant pedagogy
needs to be incorporated into classrooms school-wide in order to address the
instructional needs of African-American students. Professional development can
assist in helping teachers put in place the necessary strategies that would benefit all
their students.
Professional Development
The mission of professional development is to support and prepare teachers
to help all students to achieve (U.S. Department of Education, 1995). Teacher
35
preparation and ongoing support for their continuing professional development is
critical to the quality of schools and increases student achievement (Kame’enui,
Good & Harn, 2004). The Curriculum Development and Supplemental Material
Commission (2007) describe the characteristics of effective professional
development as follows:
• Professional development of teachers focuses on student learning, with an
emphasis on student’s instructional needs.
• Educators participate in planning their own professional learning.
• Activities are planned to be ongoing and include a variety of strategies to
help teachers implement what they have learned and sustain improved
instruction.
• Time is allocated for teachers to reflect, analyze, discuss and refine their own
instructional practices.
• The administration supports, provides ongoing follow-up, and evaluation of
professional development.
In high poverty, high performing schools, professional development is focused on
standards based instruction, culturally relevant pedagogy, and professional learning
communities.
Professional development that is focused on standards based instruction
includes aligning curriculum with standards, collaborative standards based lesson
planning, evaluation of student work (O’Shea, 2005). Teachers are able to see how
the curriculum relates to the standards, plan effective lessons for all students and
36
learn how to assess student work to determine if specific standards have been
mastered. Standards based professional development provides the teachers with the
necessary knowledge to ensure that all students, even students of color are achieving.
The characteristics of effective professional development can be used as the
criteria for implementing professional development on culturally relevant pedagogy.
Ongoing support and training need to occur for teachers to understand the benefits of
culturally responsive pedagogy (McClure, 2006). In addition, professional
development should assist teachers in understanding the characteristics of African-
American students and the manner in which race, language, and social class interact
to influence student behavior (Ladson-Billings, 2000). Leaders need to ensure that
teachers are receiving professional development that includes the effective elements
of culturally relevant pedagogy.
Research suggests that if low-income students are continuously provided with
teachers that are motivated, well-prepared and experienced, then student
achievement will increase (Learning Point Associates, 2005; Marzano 2003).
Marzano (2003) concluded that classroom teachers have the greatest impact on
student achievement. Effective teaching is not intuitive. All teachers need
instructional support through effective professional development. Marzano (2003)
posits that effective professional development needs to be focused on specific
strategies related to pedagogy, require teachers to apply new knowledge in their
classroom, and be cohesive and continuous. Other researchers agree with Marzano,
but also believe that professional development should be based on data and student
37
learning. An effective use of professional development is allowing time for teachers
to collaborate with one another.
Professional Learning Communities
Professional learning communities have emerged as the best way to
continually improve instruction and student achievement (Schmoker, 2006; DuFour
& Eaker, 1998; Blasé & Blasé, 2004). Professional learning communities are a
group of teachers who meet regularly as a team to analyze lessons, current levels of
achievement and adjust instruction based on assessments (Schmoker, 2006).
According to Blasé and Blasé (2004) a viable professional learning
community focuses on (a) teacher collaboration, (b) teacher leadership, (c) access to
resources, (d) empowerment, and (e) constructivist learning and leadership. Teacher
collaboration enables teachers to plan together, learn from each other, discuss
instructional issues, and evaluate student work (DuFour & Eaker, 1998; Blasé &
Blasé, 2004). For teacher collaboration to be effective a culture that supports regular
meetings, encourages risk taking, shared responsibility and develops solutions that
addresses student learning needs to be developed. Through the discussion teachers
begin to share a common body of knowledge as well as a common language. The
principal plays an important role in creating this relationship.
The principal needs to provide time for teachers to collaborate on a frequent
and consistent basis (Blasé & Blasé, 2004; Charles A. Dana Center, 1999).
Providing time for teachers to collaborate emphasizes the importance of
collaboration and that teaching is shared effort.
38
Data Driven Decision Making
Data use is important for continued school improvement of student learning
(Learning Points Associates, 2004; Datnow, Park & Wohlstetter, 2007; Johnson,
2002; Waholstrom, 1999). Effective data use allows schools to identify their
strengths and weaknesses, evaluate practices and programs, and guide improvement
strategies in a systematic manner (Mason, 2002). Research has suggested that data
driven decision making can increase student achievement (Johnson, 2002; Datnow,
Park & Wohlstetter, 2007; Reeves, 2005; Williams, Kirst, Haertel, et al, 2005).
A process for effectively analyzing and using data is essential for
accomplishing goals (Learning Points Associates, 2004; Johnson, 2002; Sutherland,
2004). An identification of objectives and goals need to be determined when looking
at data by having a set of questions to be explored (Johnson, 2002; Learning Points
Associates, 2004). Successful schools have developed a process for effectively
analyzing and using their data. Schools are using trailing and leading data to provide
a complete, accurate, and timely picture of student learning. Trailing data, such as
standardized tests, indicates the effectiveness of past instructional practices, while
leading data, such as benchmark assessments informs immediate instructional
decisions (Datnow, Park & Wohlstetter, 2007). The use of trailing and leading data
inform teachers on which students, especially students of color have mastered the
curriculum standards. In addition, data from multiple sources, for example,
programs, practices, and discipline referrals should be collected before making
decisions.
39
Researchers such as Blankstein (2004) and Learning Points Associates (2004)
have identified a school improvement cycle revolving around data. High-performing
schools are using continuous and cyclical processes to make improvements in their
schools. The first step in the improvement cycle is to identify specific goals based
on the data. This information will guide what needs to be improved. After
identifying the goals, a plan needs to be developed and implemented. It is essential
to study the plan to determine if it worked to achieve the goals that were identified.
The final step is to adjust the plan and revise the targeted area if necessary.
It is necessary for the use of data to become a system that is sustainable and
part of a school’s culture. In high performing schools, leaders establish norms,
expectations and guidelines to effectively use the information from data to make
improvements (Johnson, 2002). Leaders also use data to guide professional
development, classroom instruction, and monitor the progress of all students,
especially students of color and those living in poverty.
Summary
Much attention has been given to the quality of education that has been
provided to America’s students. With the constant pressure and legislative mandates
to reduce the achievement gap between students of color and their White peers,
academic growth as a whole has been marginal. In contrast, there are high poverty
urban schools with large concentrations of students of color that are achieving
academic success.
40
Research has been done on the impact of leadership, teaching and learning,
professional development, and data-driven decision making on student achievement.
Leadership is the foundation to ensure the aforementioned systems are implemented
with integrity and fidelity to achieve the desired results.
A number of urban schools are implementing professional development,
standards based instruction, and data-driven decision making at their sites, but are
not getting the same results as these high performing schools. It is important to
know how these factors work in systems based on critical race theory. Critical race
theory challenges barriers such as, cultural discontinuity, low teacher expectations
and teacher beliefs that hinder students of color from academic success.
This chapter has reviewed pertinent literature around the important aspects of
the implications of race within education, barriers to academic achievement for
African Americans, educational history and what specific urban schools are doing to
create student success among students of color.
41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
There are some high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color who are performing at high levels in spite of historical trends and
beliefs. These schools have effectively implemented structures and systems that
positively promote school-wide instructional practices that lead to high student
achievement among students of color. This study analyzed the organizational
structures and systems in high poverty urban schools that fostered high student
performance among students of color. The study examined a Southern California
urban K-8 school that was high performing based on consistent growth in the
school’s academic performance indices (API) for a minimum of three years. This
chapter describes the methodology, the sample, and the population for the study. It
also discusses the instrumentation, techniques for data collection, and data analysis.
In collaboration, a thematic group of 17 doctoral students decided upon the
following questions to research.
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
42
Research Design
A qualitative case study design was selected as the appropriate research
methodology. The researchers were interested in describing a process of a single
entity or “phenomenon” (Merriam, 1998). The case study methodology allowed for
the researchers to study in-depth significant details in their natural settings and from
the perspective of those involved in the “phenomenon” (Patton, 2002; Gall, Gall, &
Borg 2007). This case study “provided a detailed account of the phenomenon under
study” (Merriam, 1998).
Sample and Population
Criteria for Selection
A group of doctoral students in the University of Southern California’s
Rossier School of Education program set forth to find a high-performing, high-
poverty urban school with large concentrations of students of color in California.
Specific criteria were identified through purposeful sampling to guide our search and
selection process. With purposeful sampling, the researchers wanted a site that
would be “information rich” in respect to the purpose of the study (Gall, Gall, &
Borg, 2007). The criteria included the following:
• 75% of students receiving free and reduced lunch
• A minimum of three years of consistent growth in their academic
performance index (API) and annual yearly progress (AYP).
• Moved at least two deciles in their similar schools ranking
• An urban public school
43
• 60% of the student population are students of color
• Student population of at least 400 students in an elementary school, 700 for a
middle school and 1000 for a high school.
Process of Selection
The school chosen for the case study was selected through purposeful
sampling based on the criteria identified by the research team. Purposefully
selecting the site best helped the researcher understand the problem and the research
questions (Creswell, 2003). After discussing the criteria the investigator searched for
schools to research. The California Department of Education, Just 4 Kids, Schools
Moving Up and district websites were used to establish a pool of eligible schools.
From the preliminary list of schools, a more in depth analysis was conducted to
ensure that each school met the criterion. Schools that did not meet the criterion
were eliminated, leaving only a handful of schools.
School and Student Characteristics
This case study focused on a K-8 school in Los Angeles County with a
student population of 1083. This school has about 73% of its student population
identified as socio-economically disadvantaged, slightly less than the 75% criterion
that was decided upon. The school showed consistent growth in student achievement
for all subgroups and in its school-wide API. The school became a California
Distinguished School in 2002 and 2006. It also won the Title I National Achieving
School Award in 2002 and 2006.
44
This urban school’s student population is comprised of 41% Hispanic, 31.2%
Filipino, 19.5% African-American, 3% Asian, 2.9% Pacific Islander, and 1.6%
White. About 24% of the students are English learners.
Information about the school and participants were factual, but pseudonyms
were given to protect their anonymity. Instead of specific names, participants were
referred to by generic descriptions. Participants in the study included the principal,
assistant principal, teachers, classified staff, and parents.
Theoretical Frameworks
Members of the research team collaboratively developed three theoretical
frameworks for the study. The socio-cultural framework was the overall framework
that guided the study’s data collection, analysis and reporting. This framework
originates from Vygotsky’s learning theory which emphasizes that students learn
through social interaction, language, and within their zone of proximal development.
The socio-cultural framework, emphasizes, the importance of cultural settings in
determining what students already know and the knowledge students bring to
schools. With the emphasis of culture being a key factor in student learning another
theoretical framework needed to be considered.
Culturally relevant pedagogy was also a framework incorporated into the
study. Culturally relevant pedagogy provided insight on how students’ culture
should be integrated into instructional practices and curriculum to promote greater
understanding of content (Gay, 2002). Often the students’ cultural orientation is
45
different from the cultural orientation of their teacher leading to a cultural dissonance
which negatively affects students of color access to education.
There were historical, contemporary and educational influences that
negatively affected how students of color were educated. Successful schools had
structures and systems that positively affected the student achievement in high
poverty schools with large concentrations of students of color, which was consistent
with the last framework included in this study. Marzano’s (2003) meta-analysis
revealed that schools needed to have multiple school structures and systems
effectively working together to improve student achievement. A visual
representation of the theoretical framework has been provided.

Figure 3.1 – Theoretical Framework

46
Instrumentation
The instrumentation for this study was developed by Ed.D candidates that
met during the summer of 2007. The interview questions were designed to answer
the research questions. In addition, the interview questions were directly linked to
the research questions and were carefully designed for each group in the sample.
The interview questions for each of the participants are located in the Appendices.
A semi-structured interview process was used to interview the participants.
This method allowed for a series of structured questions to be asked and then the
researcher probed further with open ended questions to obtain additional information
(Merriam, 1998). Interviews were approximately 45 minutes to one hour in length.
Any follow-up interviews were done in person, by telephone. All interviews were
taped recorded and transcribed.

Figure 3.2 - Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions
Interview
Questions
Research
Question #1
Research
Question #2
Research
Question #3
Research
Question #4
Question #1 X X
Question #2 X X
Question #3 X X
Question #4 X
Question #5 X
Question #6 X X X X
Question #7 X X X X

47
The observation guide was also developed by the researchers. The
observation criteria covered the four research questions and aligned with the
theoretical frameworks. The research team came up with the following examples,
but can incorporate other examples as needed: instructional strategies, symbols
posted in the classroom, seating arrangements and student work.
Data Collection
This descriptive case study utilized three types of data collection: interviews,
observations, and document analysis (Patton, 2002). Data collection took place at
the participants’ school site to maximize the opportunity for in-depth data collection.
Interviews
Interviews allowed for open ended exploration of topics and provided
specific quotations from people about their experiences, opinions, knowledge and
feelings (Patton, 2002). Interviewing shed light on events that could not be
replicated and when behaviors, feelings and participants’ interpretations could not be
observed (Merriam, 1998).
Semi-structured person-to-person interviews were conducted because a
“special kind of information was needed to be obtained” (Merriam, 1998). A semi-
structured interview involved asking a series of structured questions and probing
further for additional information using an “open form” of questions based on the
participants’ responses (Gall, Gall, & Borg 2007).
48
Observations
Merriam (1998) and Patton (2002) state that observations should be done for
the following reasons: (a) they allow the researcher to notice things that have
become routine to the participants, (b) observations help to understand interactions
among people, (c) they provide knowledge on specific behaviors and incidents that
can be used as reference points in interviews, and (d) to learn about things that
people were not able to discuss during the interview. The purpose of the
observations was to describe in detail what was happening at the school and in the
classrooms. This included describing the setting, the activities taking place, and the
people who participated in the activities (Patton, 2002). The observations took place
in the classrooms, at staff meetings, at the leadership team meeting, and on school
grounds outside of the classrooms.
Documentation
Documents provided a wealth of information regarding the case study.
Collecting documents were important because they provided a path of inquiry that
could be investigated further through observations and interviews (Patton, 2002).
Documents were also considered to be written evidence and enabled the researcher
to obtain the language and words of the participants (Creswell, 2003).
The documents that were analyzed were chosen by the research team.
Documents that were chosen to be analyzed include but are not limited to the school
site plan, staff meeting agendas, professional development plan, school site council
49
agendas/minutes, assessment reports, and discipline policy. These documents
provided valid information for the specific research questions in this case study.

Figure 3.3 Matrix of Artifacts to Research Question
Artifacts Research
Question #1
Research
Question #2
Research
Question #3
Research
Question #4
Meeting Agendas X X X X
Ethnicity of Staff X
School Site Plan X X X
Parental Involvement
Plan
X X
Site Professional
Development Plan
X X X
District Professional
Development Plan
X
Professional
Development
Agendas
X X X
School Site Council
Agendas
X X X
District Assessments X X
Classroom
Assessments
X X X X
School Discipline
Plan
X X X
Classroom Discipline
Plan
X X X
IB Policies and
Programme

API Growth Report X
AYP Growth Report X
CELDT Data X
California
Distinguished School
Application
X
50
Data Analysis
Through the collection of the data, common themes, explanations, and
hypotheses emerged which completed the initial phase of the data analysis process.
The data analysis process was conducted simultaneously with data collection to help
guide the next type of data to be collected.
The management and organization of the data from the interviews,
observations, and documents was essential. Creswell’s (2003) data analysis
procedure was used to analyze the data collected in the study.
1. Organized and prepared data for analysis – Interviews were transcribed and
data was sorted and arranged according to the type of information revealed.
2. Read through all the data – Recorded general thoughts about the data and
gathered a general sense of what the data was revealing.
3. Coded the data – Labeled the data according to similar patterns, topics and
themes
4. Generated a description of the setting, people, themes and categories for
analysis
5. Used a narrative passage to represent the description and themes – A
description of how the themes were represented to convey the findings from
the case study by use of quotations, participant wording, and visual
representations.
6. Interpreted and made meaning of the data – Determined what lessons were
learned from the data and decided on what interpretations could be made.
51
A visual representation of Creswell’s (2003) data analysis process is provided.

Figure 3.4 - Creswell’s (2003) Data Analysis Process

Validity and Reliability
The use of consistent interview and observation protocols developed by the
researchers helped ensure the reliability of the study. In addition the implementation
of triangulation and thick description was used to strengthen the study. This
qualitative research study was designed to incorporate the process of triangulation.
Within this process multiple types of data was collected to provide “cross-data
validity checks” (Patton, 2002). Triangulation was aimed at strengthening reliability
and internal validity of the study (Merriam, 1998).
52
Providing a detailed description of the case study enhanced the possibility of
the results to be transferred to other situations with similar populations (Merriam,
1998). Using a method of thick description resulted in a detailed account of the time
and setting within the school. Thick description assisted readers in understanding the
perspective of members within the school (Patton, 2002).
Ethical Considerations
Participation in the study was voluntary. With the principal’s permission, all
participants were provided with the document approved by the University of
Southern California’s Instructional Review Board (IRB) to inform the participants of
the study’s authorization and the participant’s rights. This document provided an
overview of the study, including the purpose and the research questions to be
studied. It emphasized the anonymity of the participants and the confidential nature
of the data collection. Since the interviews were tape recorded, once the interviews
were transcribed the tapes were destroyed.
Summary
This chapter discussed the methodology used for this study. It described the
sample, the population, instrumentation, as well as the data collection instruments
used for the study. The findings from the analysis of the data collected to address
each research question are presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
This chapter reports the findings of a case study of one high-performing,
high-poverty urban school with large concentrations of students of color located in
Southern California. Urban schools typically have been associated with low student
achievement. Despite this trend, the school identified in this case study has “beaten
the odds” and has established organizational structures and systems that have
contributed to high student achievement among students of color and students living
in poverty. The focus of this research was to analyze how leadership affects the
implementation of organizational structures and systems and how they work together
in a high poverty urban school to increase the academic achievement for students of
color.
The first part of this chapter provides an overview of the case study and
background of the school. The chapter then presents a summary of findings from the
data related to the following four research questions:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools
with large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to
support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student
learning?
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4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Next, the chapter will present an analysis and discussion of the findings, how they
are connected to the research, and the role of the instructional leader. Finally, the
chapter will close with a summary.
Overview of Case Study
This qualitative case study was conducted at Sunshine Valley K-8 School in
the Best Unified School District. Sunshine Valley has a student population of about
1083 and was selected because of the following characteristics:
• A student of color population of at least 60%
• 73% of the students participating in the free and reduced lunch program
• Demonstrated a minimum of three years consistent growth in their academic
performance index and annual yearly progress
• Moved at least two deciles in their similar schools ranking
• Located in an urban area
• Student population of at least 700
The data was collected over a one-month period during which time
observations and interviews were conducted and documents were reviewed. Data
collection instruments were developed for this study and were used to collect data.
These instruments included: (1) Administrator Interview Protocol (Appendix A); (2)
Teacher Interview Protocol (Appendix B); (3) Classified Interview Protocol
(Appendix C); (4) Parent Interview Protocol (Appendix D); (5) Classroom
55
Observation Guide (Appendix E); (6) Observation Protocol (Appendix F); (7)
Professional Development Observation Guiding Questions (Appendix G); and (8)
Leadership Team Meeting Guide (Appendix H). Fourteen interviews were
conducted over a period of one week which included six classroom teachers, three
administrators, one International Baccalaureate coordinator, one guidance counselor,
one administrative assistant, one community assistant, and one parent.
Documentation included achievement data, meeting agendas, school plan, school
accountability report card, and various other documents and reports. Observations
were conducted in seven classrooms, on the school grounds, during a leadership
team meeting, school site council meeting, and professional development. The data
was organized, analyzed, interpreted and presented using the four research questions
and dominant themes.
Background of Sunshine Valley
Sunshine Valley is a racially and culturally diverse campus in an urban area.
There were 1083 students and 54 teachers at the school. The school had a
disproportionately high mobility rate as compared to the state average. Over 30
students were homeless and transient students were processed daily through the
school’s transitional center. A full-time social worker helped students transition into
Sunshine Valley when parents moved into nearby shelters. The principal stated “We
believe there is not a correlation between poverty and intelligence and you will not
be able to identify the homeless students within our environment.”
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As the researcher stepped foot on the school grounds of Sunshine Valley a
large mural of a hawk with the words Sunshine Valley Hawks was painted on the
outside wall of the school. Next to the mural, were the American flag and the Title I
Achievement School flag prominently displayed on the flagpole. Just outside the
office was a mural labeled “Graffiti of Career Choices.” The mural was a depiction
of racially diverse adults in professional careers, such as doctor, astronaut, lawyer,
and engineer. As soon as the researcher walked into the office, someone was there
with a friendly greeting of “Hello, Welcome to Sunshine Valley. How can we help
you?”
During recess, it was observed that all students were dressed in uniforms
interacting in racially diverse groups. African-American, Hispanic, and Pacific
Islander students were playing basketball, while another group of racially diverse
students were playing handball. The same observations were made during lunch and
after school.
Interactions between students and teachers appeared to be positive. Teachers
acknowledged students as they walked by and one teacher engaged in conversation
with a group of students by asking “how they were doing.” Students also greeted the
researcher as she walked around the campus with a verbal “hello.” The informal
interactions between the researcher, staff and students set a friendly tone and a
welcoming environment.
57
Findings
Research Question 1: Trends and Patterns of Student Performance
The first research question asked, “What are the trends and patterns of
performance among students of color?” Analyzing the trends and patterns of
students of color was facilitated by a wide array of data from the California
Department of Education, Dataquest website, and School Accountability Report
Card which was needed to understand how schools function on behalf of students’
growth and development. At one time Sunshine Valley was a member of the “500
Club” a name used by the principal and staff because their school’s Academic
Performance Index (API) was in the 500s. In 2006, the school became a part of the
“800 Club” with an API of 814. Figure 4.1 shows the pattern of growth school-wide
and for significant subgroups at the school from 2004-2007.

Figure 4.1 API by Significant Subgroups

Note: 2004 API for English learners N/A
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Overall, Sunshine Valley had made steady growth on the California
Standards Test (CST) scores as measured by the API with the exception of 2007
when there was a slight decrease. Specifically, African-American, Hispanic and
socio-economically disadvantaged students have increased their API on the CST
from 2004-2006 and slightly decreased in 2007. English learners had a modest
increase in their API over a three year period. Over the four year period,
economically disadvantaged and Hispanic students had the largest increase in their
API by 51 points. School-wide, the growth in API was 47 points, and African-
American students grew 42 points, demonstrating the least amount of growth during
the four year period. English learners grew eight points but over a three year period.
During 2004, 2005 and 2007, African-American students had shown growth, but
were not performing as well as the other subgroups, including English learners. In
2007 and prior to 2006, African-American students had the lowest API when
compared to the other subgroups. Although each subgroup demonstrated academic
improvement over the years, the subgroups consistently scored below the school-
wide API.
Similar patterns of achievement were evident when the percentage of
students scoring proficient and above was used as a measure. Under No Child Left
Behind (NCLB), California determined that a minimum of 24.4% of students needed
to score proficient or above in English language arts between 2005-2007. All
significant subgroups at Sunshine Valley exceeded the federal expectations for AYP
during 2004-2007 as seen in Figures 4.2 for English language arts
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Figure 4.2 AYP in English Language Arts by Significant Subgroups

School-wide the number of students scoring proficient increased from 2004-
2006 and decreased in 2007 in English language arts, which still exceeded the 24.4%
requirement. There was a vast difference between the percentage of students scoring
proficient school-wide and the percentage of English learners, African-American,
and Hispanic, students scoring proficient. African-American students only increased
the number of students scoring proficient or above in English language arts by 4.4%.
English learners increased students scoring proficient by 7.1%, Hispanic students by
8.7%, economically disadvantaged students by 9.9%, and school-wide by 10.4%.
Prior to 2007, all subgroups had increased the percentage of students scoring
proficient or above in English language arts, nonetheless the proficiency rates for all
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subgroups still transcended the 24.4% guideline. In addition, all subgroups with the
exception of African-Americans had already met the 2008-2009 AYP target of 46%
in English language arts.
Looking at patterns of achievement in math, a minimum of 26.5% of students
needed to score proficient or advanced. Figure 4.3 provides a picture of student
performance in math.

Figure 4.3 AYP in Math by Significant Subgroups

In math, African-American students increased the percentage of students
scoring proficient or above by 4.4%, the least amount of growth made when
61
compared to their peers. Hispanic students increased the number of students scoring
proficient or above by 7.8%, English learners by 9.2%, economically disadvantaged
students by 9.7%, and school-wide by 9.9%. Similar to English language arts, prior
to 2007, all subgroups increased the percentage of students scoring proficient or
advanced. In addition, all subgroups except for African Americans, had already met
the 2008-2009 AYP target of 47.5% in math.
Data from the California English Language Development Test (CELDT)
provided information on students who were limited English proficient. The purpose
of the CELDT is to identify students who are limited English proficient, determine
the level of English proficiency of students who are limited English proficient, and
assess the progress of students who are limited English proficient in listening,
speaking, reading and writing (California Department of Education, 2008).
Figure 4.4 represents the number of English learners identified at each
performance level on the CELDT.
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Figure 4.4 CELDT Performance Level

The English learners at Sunshine Valley spoke seven languages that included:
Spanish, Tagalog, Khmer, Hmong, Samoan, Vietnamese, Portuguese, and German.
Since 2004, the number of English learners had decreased at Sunshine Valley. With
the decline of English learners, there was a decline of students scoring beginning and
early intermediate on the CELDT. In 2004 there were 329 English learners while in
2007 there were only 197. In 2004, there were fewer students performing at the
advanced levels of English proficiency when compared to 2005 and 2006. In 2007,
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the number of students who scored at the advanced levels was about the same as the
number of students that scored at the intermediate and beginning levels of English
proficiency.
This data illustrated more students were demonstrating growth in their
listening, speaking, reading and writing of English. According to Vygotsky’s
learning theory, people learn from language and social interactions. Therefore,
learning was occurring among the English learners due to the growth on the CELDT
and the growth in the subgroups API and AYP.

Figure 4.5 Teacher Ethnicity

64
Figure 4.6 Student Ethnicity

The perception of the interview participants at Sunshine Valley was the staff
was representative of the student population, but the data above showed otherwise.
The teaching staff was predominately White, while the student population was
predominately Hispanic. The Hispanic, Filipino, and African-American students
were 92% of the student population, but the Hispanic, Filipino and African-
American teaching staff was 35% of the total staff.
65
Figure 4.7 Number of Special Education Students Enrolled by Ethnicity

Hispanic and African-American students made up the largest group of
students identified for special education. The number of Hispanic students identified
for special education remained steady over the four year period. In contrast, the
number of African-American students identified for special education decreased over
the same period of time. Specifically, Hispanic students made up the largest
enrollment of special education students with an average of 37 students compared to
an average of 26 African-American students enrolled each year during 2002-2005.
Though Hispanics represented 41% and African-Americans represented 21% of total
enrollment, Hispanics had a lower proportion (.0813) of students in special education
as compared to African-Americans (.1115). This statistic showed African-
Americans were placed in special education at a higher rate and was consistent with
66
the research that there is a disproportionately higher rate of African-American
students receiving special education services in relation to the overall population in
the school (Obiakor, 1999).

Figure 4.8 Suspension and Expulsion Rates
School Year Suspensions Expulsions
2005-2006 1 0
2004-2005 0 0
2003-2004 5 3
Note: Data for 2006-2007 N/A

Over the three-year period, the number of students suspended and expelled
decreased. The decrease in both suspensions and expulsions was attributed to the
discipline policy that was implemented at Sunshine Valley, which will be discussed
further in research question two. The interview participants commented that
discipline was usually dealt with in the classroom. One teacher stated, “Teachers are
encouraged to take care of as many of the problems as they can within the classroom
to minimize the instructional minutes that would be lost when students are sent away
from the classroom.” Therefore, very few students were disciplined outside of the
classroom. In addition, the interview participants mentioned that the classroom
discipline policy needed to clearly state the rules, progressive consequences, and
67
rewards for students in order for the discipline policy to work effectively. Figure 4.8
displayed the number of student suspension and expulsions that occurred by school
year.

Figure 4.9 Retention Data for 2004-2006

Best Unified School District has a retention policy stating that students in
grades 1-5 needed to demonstrate proficiency on reading benchmarks and math facts
or students were recommended for retention. At Sunshine Valley, first grade had the
most students retained over the four year time period, while third, fourth, and fifth
grades had the least number of students retained. The literacy specialist declared,
“Students retained in first grade did not have the foundational skills of reading to be
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successful in the second grade.” In addition, the students did not pass the required
reading benchmark. The most students that were retained happened in 2005 and
2007.
Summary of Research Question #1
The academic growth in student performance was consistent with Vygotsky’s
theory of learning. Through curriculum, instruction, and assessment, Sunshine
Valley incorporated Vygotsky’s recommendations which include: designing a
curriculum that emphasize student interaction, providing the appropriate scaffolding
for students to learn independently, and creating assessments students can do
independently as a means to increase student learning. These recommendations
assisted in the academic growth demonstrated in Sunshine Valley’s API and AYP
and will be addressed further in research questions two, three, and four.
The data from the California Department of Education, demonstrated
consistent growth in student performance among African-Americans, Hispanics,
English learners, and economically disadvantaged students prior to 2007. The
trajectory of growth school-wide and for significant subgroups exceeded both the
district and state averages in student performance as measured by API and AYP. In
spite of this increase in academic achievement, the significant subgroups were not
performing as well when compared to school-wide API and AYP at Sunshine Valley.
Furthermore, there had been a decrease of students identified as English learners and
students identified in special education over the four year period. Furthermore, over
69
the four year period there were more first grade students retained than at any other
grade level.
Research Question 2: Organizational Structures and Systems
The second research question asked, “What are the organizational structures
and systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-
poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color?” This inquiry
focused on the perceived organizational structures and systems at Sunshine Valley
that contributed to high student success gathered from interviews, observations, and
documents. This research question was guided by the socio-cultural framework and
Marzano’s (2003) analysis that school-level factors must work together
systematically as integrated systems to achieve desired results.
Organizational Structures
Sunshine Valley incorporated specific organizational structures within their
school to effectively increase the achievement of students of color. Structures are
the institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal, state,
or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of
schools not subject to change at the local school site (i.e instructional time,
programs, No Child Left Behind (NCLB)). Federal, state and district policies
required Sunshine Valley to follow specific requirements. The perceived structures
that led to high academic achievement at Sunshine Valley were standards, district
assessments, and district professional development.

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Standards
California developed standards to encourage the highest level of achievement
for every student by defining the knowledge, concepts and skills that students were
to master for each grade (California Department of Education, 2006). Standards
were intended to focus teaching and learning and guide curriculum. “The California
state content standards form the yellow brick road that delineates what all students
should know and be able to do by the end of each grade,” as stated in Sunshine
Valley’s California Distinguished Elementary School Application for 2006.
Sunshine Valley implemented standards-aligned curriculum across all subjects from
kindergarten through eighth grade. The standards informed the teachers about what
they were expected to teach their students during the school year. The researcher
noticed grade level standards were posted on walls next to student work, which
informed students and visitors what standard was taught. A sixth year teacher stated,
“Because of standards we know what we have to teach and what standards students
have to master.” To monitor the students’ mastery of the standards, assessments
were administered to evaluate the student’s knowledge.
District Assessments
Sunshine Valley’s district monitored student progress through reading
benchmarks, basic math facts, and open ended math (OEM) assessments. The
teachers turned in their students’ results on the assessments to the principal on a
monthly basis. Benchmarks were reading assessments associated with reading levels
from Pre-K to eighth grade. Benchmarks in both fiction and non-fiction were given
71
to students at Sunshine Valley when teachers believed students would pass. Students
read the text aloud to their teacher and answered comprehension questions. Students
who successfully met the criteria were determined to be reading at that grade level.
One third grade teacher stated, “Benchmarks let me know if students are having
problems with decoding or with comprehension and I then address the students’
needs.”
A series of math facts tests were administered to ensure students at Sunshine
Valley in grades 2-8 mastered their addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
facts. Each assessment had 70 problems and students needed to successfully answer
at least 93% of the problems in ten minutes. Teachers informed the researcher that
students were given the different facts tests on a weekly basis. Additionally, students
took open ended math (OEM) assessments. For each math standard there were three
OEMs that students had the opportunity to take and pass. The students demonstrated
their knowledge of the math standards through writing about their thinking and
understanding of a math problem. The highest OEM score for each math standard
was written in the student’s portfolio. OEMs and their scoring rubrics were
displayed on classroom walls.
District Professional Development
As part of the Best Unified School District’s professional development plan,
the district required all first and second year teachers to attend a series of trainings
during the school year to enhance the instructional strategies that would meet the
needs of diverse learners. Professional development that is focused on academic
72
content and curriculum contributes to increasing student achievement (Elmore, 2006;
Whitehurst, 2002). At Sunshine Valley, each year new teachers attended seven days
of training in the following areas: essential elements of effective instruction (K-8),
basic literacy training (K-5), math institutes (K-5), and content institutes (6-8).
Essential elements of effective instruction (EEEI) was required for new
teachers during their first and second year in the district. The objective was to
improve the effectiveness of teachers by incorporating the essential elements of
effective instruction, the characteristics of standards based instruction, student
engagement strategies, and monitoring student progress. The assistant principal
reported, “Follow up professional development on EEEI components is provided at
least three times a year to remind teachers about the important elements needed for
effective instruction.” For example, a professional development on activating prior
knowledge was revisited.
International Baccalaureate Authorization
The authorization process for Sunshine Valley to become an International
Baccalaureate (IB) World School was created by the IB Organization, explained in
the school’s manual for IB protocol to become eligible for authorization, the school
had to successfully complete a number of stages. Sunshine Valley first examined the
program to determine if it would meet the needs of their students and arranged for
key administrative staff to agree to participate in IB approved professional
development. Sunshine Valley then taught the program for at least one year on a
trial basis. This qualified Sunshine Valley to be named an IB candidate school in
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2006. The IB regional office arranged for the school to be visited by the IB team in
Fall 2007 and the school is waiting to hear if it will be granted authorization.
Organizational Systems
The organizational structures worked in tandem with the systems the
principal had implemented at the school site. Systems are the coordinated and
coherent use of resources at the school site to ensure that the school’s vision, mission
and goals are met. According to Marzano (2003), schools need to have multiple
school structures and systems working together to improve student achievement.
Through interviews, observations and documents it was evident the leader had
successfully put in place a system for data analysis, teaching and learning, discipline,
and academic support that led to the academic success for students of color at
Sunshine Valley. “These systems have been institutionalized and go across the
spectrum from kindergarten to eighth grade and all teachers have made a
commitment to use them” declared Principal Erica Johnson.
Data Analysis
Interview participants at Sunshine Valley identified data analysis as an
essential ingredient to increasing student achievement. The purpose of data is to
improve learning opportunities and outcomes for students (Johnson, 2002). With the
implementation of NCLB, educators need to know how to analyze, interpret and use
data to make decisions about student learning (Datnow, Park, & Wohlstetter, 2007).
The principal created a culture of data use and provided the staff with multiple
opportunities to participate in data analysis as mentioned during teacher interviews.
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One middle school teacher emphasized, “We look at data as a school. We look at
data in departments or grade levels. We look at data in meetings with the principal.
We are looking at data every chance we get.” Sunshine Valley’s school plan
indicated multiple opportunities for data analysis to take place such as: during staff
meetings, leadership team meetings, grade levels, department meetings, meetings
with the administrative team titled “Looking at Student Assessment Results
meeting,” released planning time, and during common planning periods.
Principal Johnson took an active role in guiding her teachers to analyze data
as revealed through staff interviews. According to both assistant principals, her role
in having the staff use data was to “help them understand the data when they read it.”
During the interviews, the principal and teachers explained the process for data
analysis. Principal Johnson directed her staff to look for trends by asking, “What do
you notice with your class? What do you notice at your grade level?” The teachers
then identified areas of strength and areas of improvement. The principal asked
reflective questions such as “How did you teach this skill to your students? What
type of scaffolding was provided to students who did not understand the skill?” to
encourage the staff to think about the instructional strategies used to achieve positive
results. In addition, teachers determined what strategies they should incorporate to
make a positive difference in the area of improvement. According to the principal,
“we believe very strongly in looking at data.” Teachers and staff interviewed
supported this finding. A veteran teacher reported,
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A big part of our success is data analysis. We look at our strengths
and our weaknesses based on the California standards test scores and
based on classroom assessments and analyze it to identify the
weaknesses of the students and determine what we need to work on.

In particular, prior to the beginning of the school year, the teachers
mentioned they disaggregated the data from the California Standards Test (CST) and
developed action plans based on areas to improve. Teachers looked for trends and
patterns among students, classes, grade levels, and school-wide. Strengths and
weaknesses were identified, school goals were created for areas to improve, and
action plans were developed to reach the school’s academic goals. This process was
further documented by the action plan forms teachers were required to complete.
According to the school plan, the areas of strengths were word analysis, vocabulary,
and reading comprehension in second, third, and fifth grades. The areas to improve
included literary response and analysis in fourth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades.
Teachers then discussed what instructional strategies they used to teach their
students. During an interview one teacher revealed she asked her colleagues, “How
did you teach personification to your students?” The principal encouraged teachers to
discuss how they would instruct their students in their areas to improve during the
upcoming year and created an action plan. The action plan teachers created was
based on the area of improvement decided by the grade level. For the action plan,
teachers included the area of improvement and listed three effective instructional
strategies that would be used when teaching the area of improvement. Teachers then
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decided what assessment would be given to the students to determine if there was
growth in the area of improvement.
The students participated in a similar process as mentioned by the staff and
assistant principals. At the beginning of the school year, an assembly was held for
students in grades 3-8 to look specifically at their own results on the CST. The
administration explained the meaning of the different performance levels on the
CST. Students received copies of their CST scores to learn how to read their scores
and know where there were performing. The administration then informed the
students their goal was to reach proficient or advanced performance levels. “We
showed them where they are, where they needed to be and then we talked about
different strategies that they can do during the year to help them reach the next
level,” declared assistant principal Michelle Smith.
International Baccalaureate Programme
The International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary and Middle Years Programme
is a holistic inquiry based philosophy that had been at Sunshine Valley for the past
three years. Sunshine Valley was identified as a candidate IB school in 2006 and
was seeking authorization to become an IB World school for the Primary and Middle
Years Programme. The IB Coordinator indicated that Sunshine Valley received a
federal magnet grant that was used to implement the IB programme at their site after
the principal and a few teachers visited another IB school. One teacher provided the
following information, “At first many teachers thought IB was yet another program,
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but as teachers attended the IB trainings, the buy in to become an IB school
increased.”
Every interview participant concurred with the statement “much of their
academic success was attributed to the implementation of the IB Programme.” The
school’s manual for the IB programme indicated that the IB programme was based
on the constructivist theory in which people construct meaning based on personal
experiences that incorporated state standards, district curriculum and inquiry based
learning. The purpose of the IB programme was to facilitate international education
of students by developing the students’ intellectual, personal, emotional, and social
skills to live and learn in a global world. As students participated in the IB
programme the goal was for students to develop the characteristics listed below in
Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 PYP and MYP Student Profile and Attitudes
Learner Profile Attitudes
Knowledgeable
Principled
Thinker
Balanced
Open-Minded
Communicator
Caring
Risk-Taker
Inquirer
Reflective
Respect
Tolerance
Consideration
Confidence
Independence
Curiosity
Integrity
Creative
Commitment
Empathy
Appreciation
Enthusiasm
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Professional Development
The teachers at Sunshine Valley were not just teachers but learners as well.
Throughout the year, teachers participated extensively in professional development
as represented in Sunshine Valley’s professional development plan. The preparation
of teachers and ongoing support for their continuing professional development is
important to the quality of schools and increases in student achievement (Schmoker,
1999). In the California Distinguished School application the principal stated,
“Professional development is a vital force that works behind the scenes preparing
teachers, administrators and classified staff to effectively guide students on their
educational journey toward academic proficiency.” Professional development was
aligned with curriculum, instruction, assessments, and the school’s goals and
objectives. For instance, prior to the beginning of school, teachers stated that they
participated in planning sessions to align their curriculum, instruction, assessments
and integrate them to the IB themes and philosophies.
The principal ensured there was ample time allotted for professional
development to occur. Sunshine Valley did not have banking time, therefore
professional development transpired through buy-back workshops, content
collaboration sessions, released planning time, department, staff and grade level
meetings as indicated in the professional development plan. If professional
development did not occur during the aforementioned time periods, it took place
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before or after school on one Thursday a month depending on the type of
professional development.
Teachers participated in ongoing staff development created to foster a
common understanding of effective practices in literacy instruction, depth and
complexity, international studies, writing and IB curriculum which was reflected in
the Distinguished school application, the school accountability report card, and in the
school plan. For example, a professional development on writing strategies was
provided for teachers to expand their knowledge of effective instructional strategies.
Furthermore, a collaboration session was observed with grade level representatives,
IB coordinator, and technology coordinator to discuss how to integrate curriculum
lessons related to internationalism at each grade level. During released planning
time grade levels planned IB units, analyzed data and identified various instructional
strategies that fostered academic growth in students.
Moreover, a middle school teacher expressed that middle school staff
participated in walkthroughs at the high school located next door. The walkthroughs
provided the staff with information on what they needed to do to prepare their
students for high school. Middle school teachers also had double planning periods
each month to allow grade levels to discuss lessons, develop common assessments
and analyze results.
Teacher Collaboration
As an instructional leader, teachers declared that the principal highly
encouraged and supported teacher collaboration. The principal created a culture of
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collaboration and learning that supported the study of teaching and learning just as
Blasé and Blasé (2004) recommended. Principal Johnson expressed, “Everyone
benefits from collaboration. I think that it’s so powerful that I pay for substitutes so
grade levels can collaborate together during the school day.”
The Sunshine Valley staff met weekly in grade levels, department teams,
cross grade levels, and in articulation meetings documented in the school plan, and
communicated by the teachers and principal. These meetings took place before or
after school due to the elimination of banking time for the 2007-2008 school year.
Teacher collaboration built collegiality among the teachers at Sunshine Valley.
Teachers shared failures and mistakes and constructively analyzed and provided
feedback on practices and procedures. During cross grade level meetings, teachers
were able to meet with the grade level above or below to discuss standards alignment
and identify what students need to know to be successful in the following year.
Discipline
Marzano (2003) asserts, schools have little chance of positively affecting
student achievement if they do not have a safe and orderly environment. The
principal at Sunshine Valley had implemented a discipline system that supported
academic achievement. The principal stated, “Students cannot learn if they are not in
the classroom.” As mentioned previously, discipline was often handled in the
classroom. The principal further described the reason most discipline problems were
dealt with in that manner. Four years ago students would be sent to the office for
minor offenses and missing a large amount of instructional minutes. Realizing that
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students were not in the classroom learning, the principal made changes to the way
discipline was handled. Now, students were only sent to the office for discipline if
they had a fight or were extremely disrespectful to the teacher. With most discipline
issues handled in the classroom, teachers were required to create a safe and orderly
environment as suggested by Marzano (2003).
Teachers established well articulated rules and procedures. For example, one
teacher had a box titled, “Sorry you were out.” This box was used for students that
were absent to get the assignments they missed. Additionally, teachers used specific
strategies that reinforced appropriate behavior and had specific consequences for
inappropriate behavior as reflected in the classroom discipline policies. One student
was observed being disruptive during a class discussion. The teacher moved over to
the student and stood by the student. Once the student stopped the teacher moved
away from the students. In another class, a student was placed in time out in the
classroom so the student was still able to participate in the lesson but was separated
from the group.
To assist with discipline, a full-time guidance counselor was at Sunshine
Valley. The role of the guidance counselor was to deal with behavior and character
development. The guidance counselor stated, “I present lessons on recognizing and
preventing bullying to the students.” Through the Second Steps Violence Prevention
Program, the guidance counselor was able to teach students appropriate ways to
prevent violence.

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Academic Support
Academic support was a system that appeared to be a priority with the
participants at Sunshine Valley. Academic support was provided to students by
classroom teachers and literacy specialists. In the school plan it claimed that many
teachers provided academic support to their students outside of classroom
instruction, which was supported by further responses from classroom teachers.
Teachers volunteered to work with students before school, during lunch time, and
after school.
The school plan documented the type of support available to students at
Sunshine Valley. In grades 6-8, students below grade level in reading or math had
the opportunity to enroll in an additional period of math or reading receiving small
group instruction to assist them in their area of need. After-school tutoring and math
club was also provided for students who were not proficient in English language arts
or in math. Furthermore, students that received a D or F on their progress report or
report card attended Academic Support club for an hour, four days a week. This
provided students an opportunity to receive additional support on homework or
projects, directly from the core content teacher four hours each week.
A veteran teacher acknowledged:
Academic support clubs are where the teachers give support to students after
school, before school, or at different times depending on the teacher and
depending on the subject, and they actually meet the students exactly where
they are and help them to reach the next level.

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Specialized support targeted English language learners as identified in
interviews, in the professional development plan, and school plan. English learners
in grades 6-8 attended English Language Acquisition Program (ELAP) tutoring
Monday-Thursday one hour per day. English learners also received additional
English Language Development (ELD) support when Fluent English proficient
students and English only students attended Spanish class for one hour each week.
Furthermore, English learners that scored beginning or early intermediate on the
CELDT worked with bilingual staff in after school tutoring two days per week.
In addition to support provided by the teacher, Sunshine Valley had two
literacy specialists, one that worked with students in first through fifth grade for one
hour, five days a week and one that worked with students in grade sixth through
eighth. The literacy specialists communicated that they provided additional support
out of the classroom for struggling readers. Students were identified to work with
the literacy specialist based on if students were retained, teacher recommendations,
CST scores and district benchmark levels.
The Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program also
provided support to students in grade 6-8 as mentioned in the school plan and by the
middle school staff. AVID is an elective program designed to increase the number
of students who enroll in four year colleges by preparing students that received Bs
and Cs on their report cards. At Sunshine Valley AVID elective classes were offered
to students. In the elective class students were taught organizational skills and study
skills, note taking, writing and reading methods, and received academic help from
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peers and college tutors. Students also selected a university and career choice as part
of their name tag displayed in the AVID room.
Summary of Research Question #2
The implementation of organizational systems and how they strategically
worked together within the organizational structures at Sunshine Valley to increase
the student achievement among students of color was attributed to effective
leadership. The theoretical framework used to analyze this research questions is
based on Marzano’s emphasis on the importance of all structures and systems to
work together systematically. Data largely influenced the type of professional
development teachers needed to effectively teach their students. In addition, data
influenced which students received additional academic support and what type of
support they received. A change in the discipline policy was also influenced by the
use of data by the principal. The educational and societal influences prompted the
principal to create a school of data users to monitor the progress of students,
teachers’ instruction, and incorporate a school-wide focus on achievement and
continuous improvement.
Marzano (2003) stated effective schools have certain school level factors
which include: a guaranteed and viable curriculum, a safe and orderly environment,
and collegiality and professionalism. Principal Johnson had a pivotal role in
implementing Marzano’s (2003) school level factors at Sunshine Valley. The
principal ensured and monitored that teachers taught state standards to all students at
the grade level. The principal had teachers engage in meaningful professional
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development designed to positively impact student achievement. A safe and orderly
campus was a priority at Sunshine Valley. Rules and procedures were revisited and
changed so students did not miss instruction sitting in the principal’s office or with
the guidance counselor.
The literature review identified specific organizational systems and structures
that increased student performance. Through interviews, observations and analysis
of documents, academic support was identified as helping to increase the school’s
academic performance but was a system that was not discussed in the literature
review.
Research Question 3: Implementation of Organizational Structures and Systems
The third research question asked, “How are the organizational structures and
systems implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning?” This research question was guided by Marzano’s
(2003) meta-analysis that school-level factors must work together systematically as
an integrated system. Based on the triangulation of data, standards based instruction
was the structure identified as fostering effective instructional practices. The
systems included 1) international baccalaureate program, 2) teacher collaboration, 3)
monitoring student progress through data and assessment, 4) student engagement,
and 5) goal setting.
Standards Based Instruction
Standards based instruction was observed in all classrooms at Sunshine
Valley. In classrooms, teachers had standards posted next to student work on the
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walls. During a math lesson, a teacher told the students they would be focusing on
“Counting numbers to one hundred.” The teacher also had written the standard
number sense 1.1 on the board so any person would be able to identify what standard
the teacher was teaching. Standards written on the whiteboards was commonly seen
throughout the school. Another teacher stated, “I write the standard or objective in
student language so they and anyone else can identify the focus of the lesson for that
day.”
Teachers at Sunshine Valley identified key standards necessary for all
students to learn, which was supported by the distinguished school application, the
school plan, and revealed through interviews. The teachers participated in backwards
mapping of the curriculum. This strategy required teachers to examine what students
would be tested on at the end of the school year and find where the standard was
taught in their district curriculum. A third grade teacher mentioned, “In our district
curriculum some standards are taught after state testing or are taught so close to the
test that students are not given enough time to practice the skill.” Therefore, teachers
made adjustments to teach the specific standard earlier so students were given
enough time to learn the standard. This strategy is further supported by Marzano
(2003) emphasizing the importance of standards being organized and sequenced to
optimize student learning.
The organization and sequencing of standards was further demonstrated when
teachers spent time unpacking the standards, or breaking the standard apart into
simplified components for language arts and math. A fifth year teacher explained,
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“Some standards are very broad and have several components, and unpacking the
standards was a strategy used to understand everything students needed to learn to
master the standard.” Next, teachers considered how they would assess students on
the standard. Lastly, after the type of assessment was determined, the teacher
planned for instruction on how to teach the component of the standards by using
state adopted materials.
Sunshine Valley utilized textbooks that were standards based in all subject
areas as mentioned in Sunshine Valley’s SARC. The textbooks were used as tools to
teach the state standards. One teacher emphasized, “Textbooks do not teach
students, we teach students, and it is how we instruct our students that will make the
difference if they learn the standards or not.”
Organizational Systems for School-wide Classroom Instruction
International Baccalaureate Programme
Sunshine Valley’s manual for the IB programme emphasized that at the core
of the IB programme, was the emphasis on inquiry based learning. Inquiry based
learning was an instructional strategy implemented by all teachers at Sunshine
Valley. Teachers and the administrative staff stated that students individually or in
collaborative groups engaged in active learning to investigate questions they had. A
general feeling among the staff was “Students are much more exited and curious
about learning because they are taking ownership of their learning.” The mission
statement of Sunshine Valley directly aligned with the international baccalaureate
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programme and the process of inquiry based learning. Sunshine Valley’s mission
states:
Our mission is to collaboratively create an international community of
learners who are challenged to reach their highest potential. A focus on
interdisciplinary instruction based on standards, inquiry, and service learning
inspires students to become reflective, compassionate, and caring leaders who
help create a better, more peaceful world through intercultural understanding.

To achieve the school’s mission, teachers developed units of inquiry and in-
depth investigations of important ideas based on themes through the collaboration of
teachers that not only focused on standards but the whole child, documented in the
teachers’ lesson plan. This comprehensive approach to teaching provided guidelines
on what students should learn, how teachers should teach, and what assessment
strategies should be used. To illustrate this example, the fifth grade teachers
developed a unit on “Exploration” to investigate the idea that people explore other
lands for various reasons resulting in a change of cultures. Throughout the unit, the
teacher mentioned that the students had the opportunity to participate in activities
that developed their higher level thinking skills. For example, students researched
Amerigo Vespucci and discussed why there should be a Vespucci Day instead of a
Columbus Day.
In middle school, teachers also developed units of inquiry related to specific
subject areas, as reflected in lesson plans. Specifically, the eighth grade Humanities
teachers developed a lesson on the Early Republic related to the area of community
and service that focused on how leaders solve domestic and foreign policy and the
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effects it has on the world. For this unit, students generated arguments to support
their belief, and found evidence that supported their arguments.
The researcher observed the students using IB vocabulary in their
conversations with their peers and teachers. One student explained the
characteristics of a risk-taker and connected it to how the pilgrims had to be risk-
takers when they came to America. In another classroom, a student working in a
collaborative group mentioned to another student, “You have to be open-minded to
other people’s opinions.”
Teacher Collaboration
The staff believed in collaborative planning and teachers working together.
Teachers revealed that they used the collaboration meetings as opportunities to
discuss and further refine their teaching skills. Collaborating is a time when teachers
share responsibility for assessing the needs of students and develop solutions that
address the needs of all students (Blankstein, 2004). One teacher stated,
When we work together either as a department or grade level we can
look and see how we are performing. If there are any differences in
student learning between teachers we can put our heads together and
figure out what we are going to do next.

Teachers spoke with their colleagues to reflect on lessons and plan new
lessons together to ensure instructional consistency at the grade level. A fourth
grade teacher reported, “Collaborative planning is important to make sure the grade
level is consistent. Therefore, all students at that grade are being taught the same
skills.” Elementary teachers made a commitment to meet after school on their own
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time, in addition to time that may have been provided during school hours, while
middle school teachers had common planning periods every day. Teachers also
participated in study groups. For example, sixth grade Humanities teachers studied
the impact of increased reading fluency on comprehension.
Teachers explained that during weekly grade level meetings teachers assessed
student work, planned lessons, reflected on teaching practices, and shared ideas
through daily conference periods. Many of the teachers believed analyzing student
work with colleagues helped the teachers generate consistent expectations and
standardized how assignments were graded. One teacher stated, “An A in one
classroom is the same A in another classroom.” Middle school teachers met with the
literacy specialist and resource specialist program (RSP) teacher weekly to find ways
to meet the needs of students who were not yet proficient, in RSP, or English
learners.
Monitoring of Student Progress Through Data and Assessments
Sunshine Valley was committed to the success of all students. The school
identified problems before they existed and children had a chance to fail through the
monitoring of student progress just as Blankstein (2004) recommended. Teachers
revealed in interviews that they informally monitored student progress by constantly
observing students through active participation and checking for understanding to
determine if students were learning the concepts and skills being taught. The
researcher observed students engaging in a Think-Pair-Share about how the story
Urban Critters was related to the unit theme of city wildlife. The teacher listened to
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conversations and provided corrective feedback when one group was not able to
make the connection between the story and the theme. Formally, teachers assessed
their students by giving quizzes or tests.
Multiple assessments aligned to state standards were used in the classroom to
determine the students’ levels of proficiency which included district, site and
common classroom assessments. The SARC, school plan, Sunshine Valley’s Goals
and Objectives document and teachers verified the type of assessments administered,
which included: the K-2 literacy screen, reading benchmarks, unit or lesson tests,
site word tests, authentic theme-based projects, writing exams, end of course exams
in math, history, English and science, math facts, pre/post tests, weekly quizzes and
teacher created assessments. The administration and teachers reported that the
results from these assessments helped teachers plan, modify and extend instruction to
meet the students’ needs. At Sunshine Valley, teachers had access to an assessment
scoring machine that aided teachers in grading students’ tests. The software program
used in tandem with the scoring machine allowed teachers to analyze students’
errors. Therefore, teachers were quickly able to identify which students did not
demonstrate mastery on a particular standard and which standards need to be
revisited.
Teachers were provided with an assessment binder which included data from
the state, district and individual students that assisted teachers in developing next
steps and tracking progress. A veteran teacher stated, “We do a lot of data analysis.
It is good to see where we are and discuss how we are going to teach more
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effectively.” During an observation of a meeting, teachers were having an open
dialogue about the results of a language arts assessment, what students they wanted
to work with in small groups, and what instructional strategies they wanted to
implement to increase student success.
The frequent monitoring of student progress ensured the necessary supports
were in place if students were not understanding and mastering specific concepts and
skills. Informal and formal assessment data alert teachers when students are not
progressing at acceptable rates (Stecker, Lembke, & Foegen, 2008).
Student Engagement
Throughout the school, teachers at Sunshine Valley ensured that all students
were actively engaged in lessons through active participation. Increasing students’
active participation was consistent with the California standards for the teaching
profession, engaging and supporting all students in learning. Active participation
required students to be cognitively engaged in the learning environment and
responding to questions asked by the teacher. Examples of active participation
included: choral responses, think-pair-share, tell me altogether, thumbs up or down,
show me with your fingers, or writing the answer on individual white boards.
During a first grade math lesson the researcher observed students utilizing white
boards during guided practice to solve math problems. After the students solved the
problem they showed the teacher what they wrote when provided with the verbal cue
“Show Me.” The teacher had a quick visual of which students were able to work the
problem correctly and which students needed additional assistance. In another
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classroom, students were able to discuss answers with their neighbors before
answering the teacher’s question out loud. During discussion, the teacher walked
around to monitor conversations. A beginning teacher explained,
Before incorporating active participation strategies in my classroom,
the same students would always raise their hands to answer questions.
Now, students that would not answer questions before are
participating and responding.

Through active participation, teachers were able to monitor their students’ responses
and adjust their instruction based on those responses.
Goal Setting
Teachers empowered students to be responsible for their own learning
through the use of goal setting strategies in their classrooms. Students’ goals
influence the extent to which they actively engage themselves in academic tasks
(Edmonds, 1979). Teachers explained in interviews that students and teachers
collaboratively reviewed assessment data, set learning goals and developed action
plans in order for students to meet their goals. According to the middle school
assistant principal,
Each teacher believes that the students can and expects them to do well in
school. It is important that the students know how they are performing, not
just on standardized testing, but also in the classroom by giving them their
grades. The teachers talk to them about how they are performing, about the
standards they need to master and where they need to be.

A specific example of goal setting took place during an observation of a 1
st

grade language arts lesson. Students were being quizzed on high frequency words.
After the quiz the teacher conferenced with individual students about the words they
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read incorrectly. The teacher and the student determined a specific number of words
the student would learn be the end of the following week and developed an action
plan of how the student would practice to achieve their goal. Through goal setting,
the student had an incentive to learn.
Summary of Research Question #3
The organizational structures and systems implemented at Sunshine Valley
positively influenced classroom instruction that promoted student learning. The
systems and structures supported, guided and informed classroom instruction. The
principal, with buy-in from the teachers, took the structures in place and effectively
integrated the systems of the IB programme, opportunities for collaboration,
monitoring of student progress, student engagement, and goal setting which resulted
in student learning.
Research Question 4: Construct of Race
The fourth research question asked, “How is the construct of race reflected in
the school’s structures and systems?” This research question was based on
Vygotsky’s learning theory with an emphasis on the socio-cultural theoretical
framework and the theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. As mentioned previously,
the socio-cultural framework emphasized learning as a social interaction and the
importance of cultural settings in determining what the students know and what they
bring to school. Culturally relevant pedagogy focuses on incorporating the cultural
characteristics, experiences and perspectives of students of color as a vehicle for
teaching them more effectively (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay, 2002).
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Constructs of Race
Sunshine Valley had a student population of 1083 students and 99% were
students of color. The common response from the staff regarding addressing the
needs of students of color was, “That is who we are and what we do.” The principal
declared, “We are not addressing the needs of students of color, but addressing the
needs of individual learners.” During the participant interviews the staff did not
make any references to race. Non-recognition of race places all students of color
into the same category regardless of their cultural background or ethnicity (Williams
& Land, 2006). Although the staff was aware of the different student ethnicities, the
teachers did not feel race was an issue in regards to student learning.
As mentioned in research question one, the teaching staff and the students at
Sunshine Valley were not representative of one another. A majority of the teachers
at Sunshine Valley were White and a majority of the students were Hispanic,
Filipino and African-American. Research often suggests that the mismatch between
teacher and student cultures can affect their expectations and relationships of
students (Gay, 2002; Graybill, 1997; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Despite the research,
the differences among teachers’ and students’ ethnicities were not affecting the
overall achievement of students of color at Sunshine Valley.
Making Cultural Connections
When students are able to use their own cultural experiences and knowledge
to connect to academic lessons they develop a greater understanding of the content
(Gay, 2002). The staff at Sunshine Valley through the implementation of the IB
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program addressed students’ cultures through different instructional strategies
consistent with culturally relevant pedagogy. The IB program assisted teachers in
developing a knowledge base by knowing the cultural values, learning styles, and
traditions of different groups as recommended by Gay (2002). For instance, the
teachers at Sunshine Valley provided numerous opportunities for students to work in
groups to complete assignments or give presentations. One teacher stated, “Through
IB professional development we learned that many of our students are raised in
cultures where the members are responsible for helping each other.” With this in
mind teachers created opportunities for students to dialogue with their peers in order
to learn from each other. The researcher observed collaboration among students in
all classrooms. In a second grade classroom, students acted out a vocabulary word in
groups of four. While students acted out the vocabulary word the other groups of
students guessed the word and made sure that everyone in the group knew what the
word was and its definition. Then the teacher called on a student to tell the class the
word. Another example of collaboration occurred in a fifth grade class. Students
were working together to create a timeline of an explorer they wanted to learn more
about.
A number of culturally responsive strategies and classroom activities have
already been discussed in detail. Teachers focused on the academic achievement of
students through the monitoring of student progress and goal setting. Through
inquiry based learning, students participated in open-ended projects that incorporated
discussion and critical thinking. The staff at Sunshine Valley genuinely believed in
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the academic potential of all students and did everything to foster student
achievement in all students.
High Expectations for All Students
Embedded within the school culture were high expectations for all students.
At Sunshine Valley there was a climate of high expectations in which the staff
believed and demonstrated that all students can learn, be successful and most
importantly that teachers have the ability to help all students succeed (Edmonds,
1981). The vocalizing of high expectations started at the top with Principal Johnson.
One teacher expressed, “We have a principal who very much in her heart believes
every child can succeed and there is no reason for any child to fail.” Teachers’ high
expectations for students of color had a positive impact on student learning. The
staff mentioned the phrase “Soaring to Success” on numerous occasions when the
staff spoke about students and the school. The researcher noticed a mural on the
outside of the school had the phrase, “Soaring to Success” painted in big blue letters
for everyone to see when they first entered the school grounds. The same phrase
was also written as the heading on staff meeting agendas. Students were also
reminded of how they were “Soaring to Success” through discussions of the school’s
API at assemblies. Instead of greeting Principal Johnson with a “Hello,” students
greeted her with “814,” letting her know that students knew the school’s 2006 API
score.
Teachers interviewed never blamed the students for not learning but focused
on what the teachers could do to improve their instruction. A common phrase used
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by the teachers was “We are always reflecting and recognizing where instructional
improvements should be made to meet the students’ needs.” During classroom
observations, teachers were asking higher level questions and creating assignments
to build students’ critical thinking skills. For example, in a second grade class,
students were writing an alternate ending to the story “Cinderella” in groups.
One of the school’s objectives was to promote a college going environment
which highly encouraged students to attend college upon finishing high school. The
researcher noticed every student had a nametag on their desk that included college of
choice and anticipated career. The emphasis on college was further demonstrated by
the display of college pennants in the hallways throughout the campus. Furthermore,
a mural of students from different cultures was painted on a wall wearing different
college shirts symbolizing that students of all colors can attend any university.
Summary of Research Question #4
Sunshine Valley empowered students to exceed standards and expectations
by valuing students’ cultural diversity. Teachers used instructional strategies that
made connections to students’ culture to increase their understanding of the content.
The staff focused on teaching and meeting the needs of individual students instead of
focusing on the student’s skin color. The principal’s belief in the achievement of all
students had a top down affect on the staff and students at Sunshine Valley.
Analysis and Discussion
This study sought to ascertain the influences of organizational structures and
systems related to the school-wide implementation of effective classroom practices
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in high poverty, high performing urban schools with large concentrations of students
of color. The findings from this study were reflected in this chapter. The
information was organized in response to four research questions. Sunshine Valley
had implemented structures and systems that had clear goals, high standards and
expectations, and assessments that are aligned to standards to increase student
achievement (Johnson, 2002).
During the data analysis process of this study one major theme, instructional
leadership, surfaced from the findings. This theme was reflected in the literature on
successful high poverty schools discussed in chapter two.
Instructional Leadership
Instructional leaders are responsible for guiding the creation, implementation,
and evaluation of clear goals and standards for their schools (McEwan, 2003). A
school-wide focus on achievement and continuous improvement was Sunshine
Valley’s principal’s main objective. A culture of data users and data gathers was
created and facilitated by the principal. The principal guided teachers through
reflective thinking by asking questions such as “What does that data not tell us?”
“What did direct instruction of the lesson look like in your class?” By incorporating
teacher reflection, the principal created a culture and climate conducive to student
learning.
A culture and climate conducive to learning was observed throughout the
campus of Sunshine Valley. A variety of techniques were used to keep students and
teachers focused on the goal of learning. The principal communicated high
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expectations for student learning to the staff, and in turn, the staff created academic
experiences that enhanced students’ belief that they could learn. High expectations
were exhibited by standards-based instruction, through student engagement, and the
monitoring of student progress. Through symbols such as college banners, college
murals, the daily pledge, and the phrase Soaring to Success, it was evident Sunshine
Valley expected all students to go to college. Students who lived up to the
principal’s and teachers’ high expectations were recognized.
The principal created positive relationships with students by celebrating their
successes. There were many opportunities for student to be recognized for their
achievements at Sunshine Valley. Students were recognized for positive citizenship
and demonstrating characteristics of the IB attributes at monthly assemblies.
Additionally, there were quarterly awards for students who made the principal’s
honor roll, received benchmark scores on quarterly language arts and math
assessments, and made improvements on quarterly language arts and math
assessments. The principal expressed, “The students wanted to be recognized for
their academic achievements.” With this request, the principal made student
recognition a priority.
Summary of Chapter
This chapter reviewed the findings from a case study of Sunshine Valley K-8
School through observations, interviews, and documents. The data collection,
analysis and discussion were based on four research questions. Included in the
report of findings were the trend and patterns of student achievement, the
101
organizational structures and systems, the implementation of organizational
structures and systems, and the constructs of race. The discussion included the
dominant themes that emerged and how the findings are related to the research. A
summary, conclusion, implications of this study are presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The academic achievement of African-American students, other students of
color and students living in poverty has not grown at the same rate as their Asian and
White peers. While some schools have incorporated effective practices to help
increase and maintain a high level of academic success for students of color, other
schools have implemented research based practices that should lead to increased
student achievement but are not getting the desired results. However, a handful of
high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color have
successfully implemented structures and systems that have fostered high student
achievement among students of color.
This chapter begins with the purpose of the study, methodology and an
explanation of the theoretical frameworks. A summary of key findings for the four
research questions and their significance are discussed. The chapter ends with
implications for policy and practice and recommendations for further research.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the organizational structures and
systems that have led to the academic success of students of color and students living
in poverty attending an urban school. To do so, the researcher studied the
organizational structures and systems implemented at an urban K-8 school in
Southern California in regards to the following four research questions:
103

1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Methodology
This qualitative case study examined one urban school’s school-wide
implementation of organizational structures and systems that have led to the
academic success of students of color and economically disadvantaged students.
Data collection instruments included interviews, observations and documents. The
instrumentation for this case study was developed by group of doctoral candidates
that met during the summer of 2007. The interview questions and observation
guides were comprised of questions intended to answer the four research questions.
Documents provided a source of information that validated and confirmed
information gathered from interviews and observations. The theoretical framework
was also developed with the doctoral students and was utilized to facilitate the
process of the data collection instruments.
104
Theoretical Frameworks
Three theoretical frameworks were used as a means of framing the collection
of data for this study. Each of these frameworks were developed in alignment with
the four research questions and included (1) Vygotsky’s learning theory with an
emphasis on the socio-cultural framework, (2) Culturally relevant pedagogy and (3)
Marzano’s (2003) meta-analysis of how school components systematically work
together as an integrated system to achieve desired results. According to Vygotsky,
learning takes place through social interactions, language, and within the students’
zone of proximal development. With this in mind, the socio-cultural framework
added the importance of cultural settings in determining the knowledge students
bring to school, what students already know, what they have learned through life
experiences. The theory of culturally relevant pedagogy further emphasized the
importance of using cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of
students of color as a channel to teach students more effectively (Gay, 2002).
Influences from history, society and education affected the contemporary
societal and educational influences. These influences such as tracking, deficit
thinking and cultural dissonance have negatively impacted student achievement
among students of color. To alleviate the negative influences, schools have
implemented structures and systems that have led to high achievement in high
poverty schools with large concentrations of students of color.
105
Summary of the Findings
The findings and the conclusions of the four research questions were
answered through interviews, observations, and documents. An analysis of the data
collected in this study led to the findings that are summarized for each research
question presented below.
Research Question One
The first research question asked, “What are the trends and patterns of
performance among students of color?” Data collection and analysis was done
utilizing documents from the California Department of Education (CDE) website,
Dataquest website, and the School Accountability Report Card (SARC). The
findings supported the criteria for school selection for this case study; the school
demonstrated consistent academic growth in API and AYP over a minimum of three
years. An analysis of data led to the following major findings for research question
one:
• All subgroups increased in their API prior to 2007.
• Economically disadvantaged and Hispanic students had the largest API
growth.
• African-American students had the lowest API in three out of the four years.
• Economically disadvantaged students had the largest percentage of students
proficient in English language arts and math during the time period
researched.
106
• African-American students had the lowest percentage of students proficient
in English language arts and math during the time period researched.
• African-American students were placed in special education at a higher rate
than any other subgroup.
The pattern of student achievement in both English language arts and math
had been positive at Sunshine Valley. The significant subgroups examined during
this study were Hispanic, African-American, English learners and economically
disadvantaged. All subgroups were above the state averages in API and AYP for
English language arts and math. Although the trajectory of growth school-wide had
been positive, there was an achievement gap between the different subgroups and
school-wide API and AYP at Sunshine Valley. While Filipinos were excluded from
the study, they will now be discussed to provide a comparison between all other
subgroups. This comparison can provide an explanation for the gap between the
API for all students and the API for the subgroups studied. From 2004-2007,
Filipino students consistently scored in the 800s on their API which far outscored the
API of the other subgroups. This pattern mirrored the API results at the state level
when comparing Filipino students’ to African-American, and Hispanic students.
Research has suggested that students of color have limited access to GATE
and high-level courses (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 2001;
Noguera, 2003). The researcher had hoped to obtain data on students identified
GATE by ethnicity, but was not provided with that information.
107
The findings from this research question were significant because Sunshine
Valley was achieving despite the historical trends. All subgroups demonstrated a
trajectory of growth well above the required percentage rate in English language arts
and math between 2004-2006. Sunshine Valley was one example of a high poverty
urban school that demonstrated poverty and race do not correlate with low student
achievement.
Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “What are the organizational structures
and systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-
poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color?” The principal
had incorporated effective systems that worked within the structures that positively
influenced the academic achievement of all students as evidenced by:
• Sunshine Valley’s principal Johnson created a culture of data analysis.
• Effective professional development guided by data.
• Academic support for students guided by data.
The requirement that all students reach proficiency in English language arts
and math by 2014 has placed increased accountability on schools to ensure that all
subgroups are sufficiently prepared. In response to this accountability, the principal
identified the need for teachers and administrative staff to analyze data to take
informed actions. Data should be used as an indicator on whether decisions at the
school are leading to higher student achievement (Johnson, 2002). As previously
mentioned in Chapter Four, the principal worked closely with her staff to use data to
108
address the instructional and learning needs of the students. Data was the basis for
the type of professional development provided at the site, identifying students that
needed additional support, and the discipline policy that was developed.
The principal created multiple opportunities for professional development to
take place at Sunshine Valley. Professional development was a vehicle to enhance
and refine the instructional practices to increase student achievement. Activities
were designed to be ongoing and in-depth to help teachers apply what they had
learned.
Academic support was guided by student data. Certain students were
identified to receive help from the literacy specialists, attend tutoring or homework
assistance based on the results of benchmark and other assessment data. Support was
given to targeted students before, during and after school to provide additional
instructional assistance. Teachers volunteered to make sure struggling students
received what they needed to be academically successful.
Much of the research stressed the importance of parental involvement in
increasing students’ academic achievement (Marzano, 2003; Kuykendall, 2004).
During interviews, parental involvement was not mentioned by the Sunshine Valley
staff or principal. Parental involvement was only observed at a School Site Council
meeting the researcher was able to attend. Although, parental involvement is an
important factor in regards to student achievement it seemed that teachers at
Sunshine Valley made it their personal responsibility to ensure that all students
learned with or without parental involvement.
109
The aforementioned findings were consistent with much of the research on
successful schools. What was most significant about these findings was the
leadership needed to effectively implement the organizational structures and systems
to have a positive effect on student achievement. The principal strategically
developed a culture of data use, professional development that could be incorporated
into the classroom, and teacher collaboration as a mechanism for teachers to reflect
and make the necessary changes to their instructional practices for optimal student
learning.
Research Question Three
The third research question asked, “How are the organizational structures and
systems implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning?” The structures and systems implemented at Sunshine
Valley guided, informed and supported classroom instruction. This was evidenced
by the following:
• Standards based instruction was provided in all classrooms and was delivered
in an explicit and sequential manner.
• Teacher collaboration at Sunshine Valley allowed for instructional
consistency among the grade levels, analysis of effective instructional
practices, and reflection.
• Sunshine Valley teachers monitored student progress to give students
effective feedback, provide appropriate scaffolding, and modify instruction.
110
Standards based instruction was a vital component to the success of students
of color at Sunshine Valley. The site administrator provided teachers with
opportunities to identify essential standards at the grade level. Teachers took this
information and backwards mapped the standards so the necessary content could be
taught and mastered by students in a timely manner.
Another key factor that promoted student learning was teacher collaboration.
Teachers were able to share their successes and failures with their colleagues to
improve their instructional skills. Moreover, collaboration allowed for students at
the same grade level to be taught skills and concepts in the same manner. Sunshine
Valley teachers also reflected on their teaching and received feedback on their
instructional practices to guarantee that effective teaching occurred.
The monitoring of student progress was used as a safety net to identify
students that were not understanding skills and concepts. Teachers were able to
provide students with immediate feedback and determine the type of scaffolding
students would need to be successful. Student monitoring also was a signal to
teachers to adjust their instruction for optimal student learning.
The importance of these findings revealed that Sunshine Valley delivered
standards based instruction to all students. Teachers worked with their colleagues on
identifying how to best implement and deliver standards based instruction. The
monitoring of students enabled teachers to track student progress towards mastery of
standards and analyze their instructional practices to determine their effectiveness.
111
Research Question Four
The fourth research question asked, “How is the construct of race reflected in
the school’s structures and systems?” This was evidenced by:
• Teachers and staff had a color-blind ideology towards students of color.
• Principal and teachers making cultural connections with students.
• Teachers look introspectively at their teaching practices.
• The principal created a culture of high expectations for students
Teachers focused on meeting the individual needs of their students and not on
students’ race. Having a color-blind approach is not increasing the student
achievement of their African-American students at the same rate as other subgroups.
With the Filipino students driving the school’s API and AYP scores, teachers need to
become more knowledgeable about how the non-recognition of race can stagnate the
success of students of color.
Different instructional strategies derived from culturally relevant pedagogy
were implemented into the classrooms. Teachers made connections between
students’ backgrounds to what they were learning in class. One way in which
Sunshine Valley used students’ culture as a tool for learning was through
collaboration and inquiry. Additionally with the IB program, students were able to
expand and learn about different cultures around the world.
Students were never blamed for not learning what was taught by their
teachers. Instead, the teachers at Sunshine Valley often reflected on their teaching
112
practices to identify what they could do to improve their instruction. Self reflection
allowed teachers to make changes to their instruction to increase student learning.
The belief that all students can learn was critical to school-wide success at
Sunshine Valley. High expectations for all students filtered throughout the staff.
Students were expected, encouraged, and rewarded for doing their best. Slogans,
such as “Soaring to Success” were communicated on murals, in assemblies, and on
the school letterhead. Furthermore, teachers ultimately found it to be their
responsibility and not the students’ if the students were not learning.
These findings were significant because acknowledging the uniqueness of
students’ race can positively impact the educational outcomes for students of color.
Furthermore, the instructional practices implemented at Sunshine Valley were
consistent with the research about which practices are needed for students of color to
be successful. Instructional practices consistent with culturally relevant pedagogy
were implemented through the school’s IB programme, such as group collaboration.
Teachers looked at what knowledge students brought with them to the classroom and
built upon those aspects to create new knowledge.
Implications for Policy and Practice
This study revealed the findings and conclusions that may serve to provide
important insight to educators charged with the responsibility of increasing the
student achievement in high poverty, urban schools with large populations of
students of color. The implications below are presented for district and site
113
administrators in urban areas. To increase and sustain the academic achievement of
students of color the following should be considered:
• Successful high performing schools have implemented standards based
instruction. Teachers need to be provided with multiple opportunities to
work with their colleagues to plan and determine the most effective way to
deliver standards based instruction to students of color.
• Provide ongoing professional development designed to build the teachers’
conceptual knowledge of culture and how to link culture to classroom
instruction.
• A positive school culture and climate can build confidence, create
enthusiasm, and strengthen relationships (Kuykendall, 2004). Therefore,
teachers and administrators must ensure that classroom and school climates
do not suppress students’ confidence and academic growth by creating a
culture of high expectations for all students.
• A substantial body of research supports the use of culturally responsive
pedagogy. Administrators need to gain a better knowledge of culturally
responsive practices and support the teachers in their efforts to change their
instructional practices and classrooms to better support the students they
serve.
Recommendations for Further Research
The findings of this study have resulted in the following recommendations
for further research in the area:
114
1. This study revealed that Filipino students were achieving at higher rates when
compared to African-American and Hispanic students. These same results
were reflected at the state level on the California Standards Test. Even
though Asian students are typically associated with high student performance
on the CST, Filipino students are not considered part of the Asian subgroup.
For schools that service a significant subgroup of Filipino students, effective
classroom instructional practices that promote student learning needs to be
identified. Therefore, further research is needed to determine what effective
classroom practices lead to high levels of student achievement for Filipino
students.
2. Middle school students attending the researched K-8 school were achieving
at higher levels when compared to students in a middle school serving 6-8
grades. What needs to be researched are organizational structures and
systems implemented at a middle school with students in 6-8 grades and
compare it to the organizational structures and systems implemented at a K-8
with the focus on grades 6-8 to determine what create high student
performance.
3. As previously mentioned, the students in 6-8 grades attending a K-8 school
were out performing students attending a 6-8 middle school. The transition
to high school is vital to students’ academic success. Therefore, a
recommendation for future research is to conduct a longitudinal study
comparing the transitional experiences to high school of 6-8 grade students
115
from two different high performing institutional types: a K-8 school, and a 6-
8 middle school.
The findings from this case study of one K-8 school in Southern California,
confirmed that high poverty, urban schools with large concentrations of students of
color can have high levels of academic achievement. Sunshine Valley had shown
consistent academic growth in both language arts and math, which is a challenge for
many high poverty urban schools.
The principal had an essential role in successfully implementing systems that
worked together within the structures that supported the school’s academic
performance. The principal strategically planned and carried out how the structures
would support classroom instruction that cultivated student learning. Although, this
study provides timely and pertinent information about one high poverty urban school
with large concentrations of students of color, administrators need to ensure that
schools serving students of color are achieving at the same level as their White and
Asian peers by implementing effective organizational structures and systems.
116
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APPENDIX A: ADMINISTRATOR PROTOCOL
Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your students’ high student performance.
o Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
practices and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them or
maintain them?
o Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance?

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress?
b. What assessment tools do you use?

4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-wide Plan?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students?
b. What is your role in helping teachers provide effective instruction?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?
b. What is your role as a school leader in guiding the use of data to
improve the school climate and classroom instruction?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students of
color?
a. Does your discipline policy help students adopt behavior that
contributes to their learning?
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APPENDIX B: TEACHER PROTOCOL
Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
practices and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them or
maintain them?

b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance

2. What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate in the school that
engages all students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers.
a. For students?
b. Parents
i. How do you monitor student progress?
ii. What assessment tools do you use?

4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-Wide
Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the
school-wide plan for students of color?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students including students of color?
i. You may want to add to this the probing questions “including
students of color” if the school is highly diverse.

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?
124
APPENDIX C: CLASSIFIED PROTOCOL
Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to the high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these and
practices and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them or
maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things the school has done over the
last 3-5 years to improve student performance?

2. How would you describe the school climate here?
a. In what ways does the school engage/involve all students and respect
cultural diversity.
b. What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?

3. What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?

4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?

5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?

6. How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?

7. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur?
b. How do the students react to testing?
c. How do teachers react?
d. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data?
e. How is it made known?

8. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impact students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad choice?
b. Does the discipline policy help students engage in behavior that
contributes to their academic success?
125
APPENDIX D: PARENT PROTOCOL
Interview Questions
1. What is the school doing to help all students succeed?

2. How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?

3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?
a. How does the school communicate that information to you?

4. How does the school address the needs of all sub-groups of students?

5. How do you describe a good or effective teacher?

6. What are some of the ways the school lets you know your child is doing?

7. Describe the school’s discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?
b. Do you consider the discipline policies fair to all children? Can
you give an example of its fairness?
126
APPENDIX E: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDE
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4: Is there a range or variety of instructional
practices /strategies used? Are they appropriate for the content and students?

Examples of instructional practices/strategies?
• Cooperative grouping
• Use of time
• Differentiated instruction
• Feedback to students
• Culturally relevant and responsive

Research Question #2: What visuals, symbols and other items are posted in the
classroom?

Examples of items:
• School wide discipline policy
• Images of people of color
• Classroom library
• School vision

Research Question # 2: Physical Class Environment

Example of things to observe:
• Seating arrangement
• Teacher student interaction student
o Discipline
• Student work posted
o Feedback/rubric
o Standard based
• Student Engagement
127
APPENDIX F: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Physical Setting: To allow readers to visualize the setting, the researcher will record
the following observations during each visit:

School grounds
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• School calendar for academic year
• Visual of school goals / mission / vision
• Symbolic representations (drug free zone, anti-violence, college
paraphernalia, culturally relevant items)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)

Classroom specific
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• Classroom calendar
• Classroom schedule
• Classroom rules or expectations
• Culturally relevant items
• Location of classroom (bungalow, main building, isolated, included)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
• Classroom spacing (proximity of students’ desks to one another and teacher)

Social Climate/Environment: During each visit, the researcher will record elements
of human interactions.

School-wide environment
• Adult-Adult and Adult-student interactions (use of greetings, use of names,
friendliness, smiles, affect)
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age)

Classroom climate
• Structure, order, rigidity of classroom environment; is teacher in control of
class, students out of their seats, loud talking, on task
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age, or teacher assignment)
128
APPENDIX G: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION GUIDING
QUESTIONS
• Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?

• Is there engagement among the staff?

• What types of data are being used? How is data used?

• Is professional development is aligned to the vision?

• How are students discussed among teachers and other staff?

• Is the professional development geared toward teaching to standards mastery
or performance?

• Is the professional development practical and adaptable?

• Are the expectations clear for implementation of the professional
development?

• How are teachers held accountable for the professional development
provided?

• Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?
129
APPENDIX H: LEADERSHIP TEAM MEETING
Questions for Reflection
To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the school plan?

Does the leadership team analyze student achievement data in order to take informed
actions?

Did (or does) the leadership team discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive (culturally
relevant and responsive) learning environments?

How are the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership team?

Structure: Is the meeting for information or systems planning?

Is the meeting operational- or instructional-focused?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract High poverty urban schools with a large population of students of color have traditionally been associated with low student achievement. However, research has shown that there are certain structures and systems implemented at schools that can increase the student performance for students of color. This research has led to a qualitative case study of high poverty, high performing urban schools.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jackson-Newman, Qiana L. (author)

Core Title School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high-poverty urban schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/08/2008

Defense Date 04/28/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,high poverty,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,urban schools

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Rousseau, Sylvia G. (committee member)

Creator Email qjackson@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1324

Unique identifier UC1210466

Identifier etd-JacksonNewman-20080708 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-81615 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1324 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-JacksonNewman-20080708.pdf

Dmrecord 81615

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Jackson-Newman, Qiana L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu