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The placement and participation of gifted African American students in advanced academic services: a case study
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Content
THE PLACEMENT AND PARTICIPATION OF GIFTED AFRICAN AMERICAN
STUDENTS IN ADVANCED ACADEMIC SERVICES: A CASE STUDY
by
Laurie Diane Inman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2010
Copyright 2010 Laurie Diane Inman
ii
DEDICATION
I have achieved another milestone on my journey as a lifelong learner, one which
I had not planned for, but was planned for me. I thank God for reminding me, that I am
enough! I know that I could not have achieved this without the love and guidance of my
parents whose support has lifted me to heights I never believed possible.
To Herbert Johnson Sawyer II - Thank you, Daddy for being my rock, my
champion, and my biggest fan. Your own achievement of earning your Bachelor‟s degree
at 65 years old is an inspiration and I am proud of you. May 1, 2005 was the hardest day
of my life, saying good-bye to you, but I know that you are with me always. “You were
my strength when I was weak, you were my voice when I couldn't speak, you were my
eyes when I couldn't see, you saw the best there was in me, lifted me up when I couldn't
reach, you gave me faith 'cause you believed, I'm everything I am, because you loved
me.” I love you!
To Myrna Jane Carter Sawyer – Thank you, Mom for being the perfect partner for
Dad. You have been the strong, resilient, positive role model in my life. You are an
incredible woman, an amazing mother, and the best Nana ever! I am grateful for the
competitive spirit you instilled in me; it has served me well, not to win, but to excel in
everything I do. You are my motivation and I am forever grateful. More than anything,
you are the wind beneath my wings. I love you!
I have been very blessed in my life and realize the sacrifices that my four children
have made over the last three years. They have given me their endless support and I am
grateful. I only hope that I have given them something in return to make them proud.
iii
Every step of my journey was made with each of you by my side. You are the loves of
my life! To Zachary Alexander Inman – I have watched you grow into a handsome,
mature, responsible, young man and I look forward to your graduation as you earn your
degree in nursing. Remember, Sawyer-Inmans never quit! Thank you for being there, for
encouraging me and for making me smile on the most difficult days. To Adrian Jamaal
Inman – We share so much in common and when it all comes to light for you, you will
understand. You are at the tip of something grand and if you just have faith in yourself
and all that you are capable of, you will soar to heights you never imagined. Thank you
for supporting me when I needed it most. To Camille Diane Inman – the inspiration for
my dissertation. I learned so much more about you, as I learned about gifted African
American students. I can‟t even begin to tell you how proud I am of the young lady who
has evolved, much like the caterpillar that grows into a gorgeous butterfly. Your
resilience, perseverance and personal dedication to excellence is admirable and will serve
you well all of your life. Thank you for guiding my work and for being there with those
nice long hugs on the toughest of days. To Noah Xavier Inman – my little old wise man.
The day you were born, I knew you were destined for something big. To have two gifted
African American children (formally identified) speaks volumes. It is the opportunity to
demonstrate to those who doubt us most, what is possible. I have no doubt that you will
do just that, as a scholar and an athlete. Thank you for making me laugh when I wanted to
cry, making me smile when I wanted to frown, and making every day worth doing my
best. I could not have asked for children that are more giving, caring, patient, supportive
iv
and encouraging than my four magnificent beings. I am eternally thankful and can‟t wait
to celebrate your milestones, as you embark on your own journeys.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have so many people to acknowledge and I will begin with my USC family.
First, my dissertation chair, Dr. Sandra Kaplan, who I must thank for sharing your
brilliance, your insight, your expertise, not only in the realm of gifted education, but in
the world of scholarly achievement. I am grateful for your patience, your never-ending
support and your confidence in my abilities. I want to thank my committee members - Dr.
Robert Keim for his assistance, support and statistical wisdom, and Dr. Margo Pensavalle
for the time that you took to read and review my dissertation. Your feedback and genuine
interest in my topic was motivating.
I want to thank members of my thematic group for being there to answer
questions and share frustrations. A special thank you to Luz Torres.
I want to acknowledge my first family – my siblings - Vanessa Lowe, Heather
Wright, Jennifer Sawyer, Frances Sawyer and Jay Sawyer. The times are few and far
between, yet the one thing I know is that we will always be there for each other. Family is
everything!
The writing of this dissertation would not have occurred without the support and
encouragement of Richard and Marianne Steverson, my guardian angels and friends -
there are no words to express my thanks and love; Felicia Jackson, my sister from another
mother, you are the best and I am filled with joy knowing that you are always there for
me; Zachary L. Inman for supporting my professional endeavors over the years; and
Virginia Ward-Roberts, there are no words to express my gratitude for all that you have
done, especially in the waning hours. You have inspired me with your fortitude and
vi
honored me with your friendship. I am also indebted to my editor and dearest friend,
Melody Hubbard. Your keen eye and grammatical wisdom were the final touches that
made all the difference. I thank you and I thank Miles for the friendship we have
nurtured.
I also want to acknowledge a host of family and friends, too many to name here,
that offered their words of encouragement over the three years it took to get here. Thank
you all for your support.
I am sincerely grateful to the six students who were giving of their time, their
hearts and their minds. Carter, Clair, Ashtrid, Sallie, Carnation and Alex -you are
incredible, young, gifted African Americans with bright futures ahead. I look forward to
watching you excel and hope we will always be friends. I am also appreciative of your
parents for sharing you all with me.
Last, but certainly not least, I must thank Mr. Eddie Starr for his unwavering love
and support. It will never be forgotten.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments v
List of Tables x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Statement of the Problem 1
Gifted African American Students 1
Gifted Education 2
Case Selection 6
Purpose of the Study 9
Importance of the Study 11
Assumptions 11
Delimitations 12
Definition of Terms 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction 14
Advanced Academic Services 15
Administrative Intervention – Grouping 16
Instructional Interventions – Acceleration 19
Adjunctive Interventions 23
The Gifted African American Student 24
The Issues 27
Policies and Practices 28
Recruitment and Identification 28
Retention 31
Institutional Influences 31
Academic, Affective & Social Development of Gifted 32
African American Students
The Learning Environment 35
The Role of School Personnel 37
Conclusion 44
viii
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction 45
Research Design 47
Sample and Population 49
Instrumentation 56
Focus Group Interviews 56
Questionnaire 58
Document Review 59
Pilot Study 60
Data Collection 60
Data Analysis Strategy 62
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF FINDINGS
Introduction 66
Population 67
Profiles 67
Early Placement 70
High School Placement 73
Methodology 74
Presentation of Findings 76
Research Question 76
Placement 76
Figure1: Perceived Factors for Placement in Advanced Academic 76
Services/Accelerated Programs
Continued Participation 79
Research Question 86
Perceptions of the High School Experience 86
Research Question 98
Adult-Student Interactions 98
Research Question 105
Development Consistent with Needs 105
Summary 109
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction 111
Purpose of the Study 111
Methodology 112
Key Findings 113
Implications 126
Limitations 128
Suggestions for Future Research 129
Conclusions 130
ix
References 131
Appendices
Appendix A: Telephone Script for Referral 145
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter 146
Appendix C: Parent Consent Form 147
Appendix D: Youth Assent Form 152
Appendix E: Telephone Script for Follow-Up 156
Appendix F: Focus Group Interview Protocol 157
Appendix G: Student Questionnaire 160
Appendix H: Multiple Criteria for Gifted Identification in LBUSD 164
Appendix I: Elementary Scope and Sequence for Differentiation 165
in LBUSD
Appendix I: Secondary Scope and Sequence for Differentiation 166
in LBUSD)
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Results of Snowball Sampling For Obtaining Sample 53
Population
Table 4.2: Frequencies by Gender, Grade and Current GPA 70
Table 4.3: Frequencies by Elementary School & Gifted Program 71
Table 4.4 Frequencies by Middle School & Gifted Program 72
Table 4.5 Characteristics of High School Advanced Academic 73
Services and Programs
Table 4.6 2008-09 Statistics for Gifted Enrollment by Ethnicity 91
for State, County and LBUSD (LBUSD, 2009b)
Table 4.7 Synthesis of Predominant Themes 110
xi
ABSTRACT
The underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted
education has been the topic of much research in recent years, and a corresponding
improvement has been seen in recruitment and identification. However, the
representation and retention of gifted African American students has received less
attention in both research and practice. While increases in growth have occurred in
elementary schools, numbers dwindle as students matriculate to secondary education,
particularly at the high school level.
This case study investigated the perceived reasons for placement and/or
participation of gifted African American students in advanced academic services in the
high school setting. It also sought to illuminate the perceptions of gifted African
American students‟ high school experience from their own perspective.
The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, the study explored the potential
societal, institutional and human factors that impact the placement and participation of
gifted African American students in the high school programs that provide advanced
academic services. Second, this study wanted to discern the experiences of the
participants as they partake in their course of study, whether it included advanced
academic services or not.
Six identified gifted African American students attending high school in the Long
Beach Unified School District made up the sample for this case study, which used a
mixed methods approach. A focus group interview and questionnaire were utilized to
facilitate the data collection process.
xii
The findings suggest that placement of gifted African American students in the high
school programs for advanced learners or advanced academic settings is based on factors
beyond what is published. The findings also indicate that gifted African American
students have mixed perceptions about their high school experience, based on interactions
with school personnel and their academic, affective and social environment. Those
perceptions are shaped by adult and student behaviors and attitudes, instructional
opportunities and interventions, and the cultural support they receive in all areas. The
most resounding finding was the resilience and strong racial identity of the six students
which allowed them to excel, despite the challenges and obstacles that they faced. They
attribute much of their success to the parent and family support that they receive.
1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Abundant data suggest that gifted programs are perhaps the most segregated educational
programs in this nation (Ford & Webb, 1994).
Statement of the Problem
The underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted
education has been the topic of much research in recent years, due to the increased racial
and ethnic diversity in United States schools. In 2004, The National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES) reported two in every five students as a student of color. Three years
later, statistics showed that 43% of public school students are culturally diverse, with
57% of these students located in the Western states (NCES, 2007). Despite the
demographic shift in our schools, there are still a disproportionately small number of
culturally diverse students in gifted education, particularly African American children.
Moreover, even when increases have been realized in recruitment, identification and
placement, there is a dire need to secure the participation of these students once they have
been recognized (Ford & Whiting, 2008).
Gifted African American Students
An examination of the research on gifted African American students reveals that
the majority of the studies have focused on recruitment and identification (Bernal, 2002;
Ford, 1998, 2002; Frasier & Passow, 1994). Equally important, yet much less attended to,
is the issue of retention or sustained participation. Moore III, Ford, and Milner (2005a)
suggest that what has been learned about the persistence and retention of African
2
Americans in predominantly white, post-secondary, educational institutions may shed
light on this same issue in gifted education. Citing Tinto‟s model of persistence and
departure, Moore III et al. (2005a) agree that there are institutional and individual
variables that influence the experiences of African Americans in schools, especially those
in gifted education. Ford (1994) maintains that African Americans face social, cultural
and psychological forces that impede their motivation to remain. As a matter of fact,
these students must deal with being both gifted and African American, which means that
they may experience gifted programs differently from gifted European American students
(Ford, 1996), and as such, realize different academic and social outcomes (Grantham &
Ford, 1998).
With the diverse nature of many high school campuses today and the advent of
small learning communities specifically designed to address the needs, interests and
abilities of all students, it could be assumed that the barriers have been abated.
Nonetheless, statistics continue to support the fact that African American students are
being left behind or excluded, even in gifted education, in spite of their previous
identification and successful record of achievement in elementary and middle school
programs.
Gifted Education
The concept of educating the gifted and talented child began long before the
United States Office of Education commissioned Sidney P. Marland to study the status of
gifted education at the Federal level (Marland, 1972). According to the Federal definition
in Public Law 91-230, which was the stimulus for the study, “Gifted and talented children
are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding
3
abilities are capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated
educational programs and/or services beyond those normally provided by the regular
school program in order to realize their contribution to self and society” ( p. 2). The idea
of differentiated educational programs requires that teachers use a variety of appropriate
instructional strategies for both the learning styles of the gifted and the curriculum.
Furthermore, teachers must ensure that higher cognitive processes are tapped and/or
special grouping arrangements are made (Marland, 1972). Historically, special grouping
arrangements have been referred to as interventions (Gallagher, 1966; Goldberg, 1965) or
programs (Southern Regional Project for Education of the Gifted, 1962).
Interventions or services have taken on a multitude of configurations, which can
be divided into three categories – administrative, instructional, and adjunctive. Gallagher
defined each of these in his 1966 publication, Research Summary on Gifted Child
Education. Administrative interventions refer to changes or modifications in the structure
of the program for gifted students and range on a continuum from providing enrichment
in the regular classroom to special schools for the gifted. Instructional interventions are
modifications made in the classroom, to the curriculum, and/or in delivery of the content.
Adjunctive interventions call for services, above and beyond the regular program, to be
provided to gifted students (e.g., counseling).
More than 30 years later, gifted education is still being studied at the federal level.
The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, an entity which focuses
research on meeting the needs of gifted and talented students, is funded under the Jacob
K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act (No Child Left Behind, 2002). The
Javits Act, originally authorized in 1988, was reauthorized in 1994, and subsequently
4
enacted as part of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB).Furthermore, Public
Law 107-110 calls for closing the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, and
choice, thereby ensuring that no child is left behind, including the gifted as stated in Title
V, Part D, Sub-part 6 – Gifted and Talented Students (NCLB, 2002). Even with this
major resource at the federal level, all decisions and responsibilities are the rights of the
states. Each state can be classified into one of five categories of programming and
funding: a) mandated programming with full funding, b) mandated programming with
partial funding, c) mandated programming with no funding , d) no mandated
programming but funding is available, and e) no programming or funding (Davidson
Institute, 2009). Twenty-two states mandate programming and provide partial funding,
while seventeen do not mandate programming at all. California is one of the states that
does not mandate programming, yet makes funds available. Education Code 52200 states
that “The Legislature finds and declares that it is in the public interest to support unique
opportunities for high-achieving and underachieving pupils in the public elementary and
secondary schools of California who are identified as gifted and talented” (California
Department of Education, 2005). Education Code 52205 maintains that districts who
choose to provide programs for gifted and talented students may establish programs that
are integrated and differentiated within the regular school day, and can also augment and
supplement with other activities related to the core curriculum. Section B of this code
expects the school board to determine the “most appropriate curricular components for
participating pupils within its district” (CDE, 2005).With these legal provisions as a
foundation for creating learning opportunities that support gifted students, the
possibilities for meeting the needs of these students, at the secondary level, is feasible.
5
According to a position paper by the California Association for the Gifted (2003),
gifted learners in the regular classroom must be provided effective learning opportunities
as part of the regular day. Most high schools offer service options, such as International
Baccalaureate (IB), a program designed to challenge the gifted student to excel
academically and personally, and/or Advanced Placement (AP) courses that are
traditionally included in the course of study for gifted students. The Advanced Placement
Program offers all students access to college-level learning with a curriculum that is both
high quality and high intensity (College Board, 2007). In recent years, the College Board
has made a conscious and concerted effort to increase the number of underrepresented
students, particularly African Americans and Latinos, with access to AP courses and
opportunities for success by achieving a score of 3 or better. The Advanced Placement
Program‟s official Equity Policy Statement reads:
The College Board encourages the elimination of barriers that restrict
access to AP courses for students from ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic
groups that have been traditionally underrepresented in the AP Program.
Schools should make every effort to ensure that their AP classes reflect the
diversity of their student population (p. 10).
Their efforts have also included providing incentives to schools to support
summer professional development institutes; to teachers to complete preparation courses,
specifically in math, science, and foreign languages; and to students to take and pass AP
courses and examinations (United States Department of Education, 2008). While
Advanced Placement course offerings and those labeled honors or accelerated are
appropriate choices for the gifted student, they do not constitute a complete gifted
program (California Association for the Gifted, 2007).
6
The continued focus on providing all high school students with college-
preparatory curricular choices offers structures that afford all adolescents with
coursework based on their interests. In spite of these attempts, there is a clear
stratification of learning opportunities within schools. This stratification can result in
creating programs that are exclusive, rather than inclusive for the underrepresented gifted
student (Gamoran, 1987). "Most school mission statements proclaim the intention of
educating every child to the level of his or her potential, yet many times those words have
no translation value for the gifted as they sit bored in classrooms where their instructional
level exceeds by years their age-peers” (VanTassel-Baska, 2005a, p. 90).
According to Sytsma (2000), there is no comprehensive, national data regarding
the prevalence or nature of gifted programs for students in the high school sector.
Preliminary information suggests that high schools choose to either designate classes or
programs specifically for identified gifted students, or they design a programmatic strand
that categorizes students by ability level without defining a program as being for the
gifted. Regardless of the label, gifted and talented students must be provided a “full
service education,” if they are going to flourish and be challenged to reach their full
potential (Gilson, 2009; Parke, 1992, p.1).
Case Selection
Due to the nature of this study, thoughtful selection of a critical case sample will
allow the research to be considered as a logical generalization of other cases (Patton,
2002). That is to say, that if the factors that affect placement and participation of gifted
African American students are true in this case, it is likely to be true in others. Moreover,
it is also likely that maximum application of the information to other cases (i.e. gifted
7
African-American students in urban high schools) will be possible. With this in mind,
students attending school in the Long Beach Unified School District became the intended
population from which to draw a sample to provide “information-rich cases” (Patton,
2002, p. 242).
The percentage of gifted African American students identified in the Long Beach
Unified School District (LBUSD) is in accordance with the average number of students
found in many other school districts in Southern California. School districts, such as
Compton, Oakland, Vallejo and Moreno Valley have higher percentages of identified
gifted African Americans, but not nearly the record of success in educating these
students, as is found in this diverse urban school district (California Department of
Education, 2009a). Also in contrast to these districts, LBUSD has received many
accolades for its achievements in academic excellence. The district earned the Broad
Prize for Urban Education in 2003 and has a record five nominations in the last six years.
Based on the Broad methodology for selection, students of color have outperformed their
counterparts in other parts of the state in academics, with African American students
demonstrating significant gains. LBUSD continues to narrow achievement gaps that
remain prevalent in many other school districts nationwide and has seen greater
participation of minority students taking Advanced Placement exams and the Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT). In addition, the district has a graduation rate of 79%, its high school
students amass millions of dollars in scholarships annually, and their students are
accepted at colleges and universities at consistent rates. It stands to reason that a district
with a longitudinal pattern of accomplishment could serve as a model for success for all
students, including the gifted African American student.
8
LBUSD provides several program options for its students, as they matriculate
from elementary to secondary, in preparation for attending postsecondary institutions.
There are a total of eleven high schools (regular, alternative and specialized) providing an
education for 28,162 students (CDE, 2009b). As a large urban school district, Long
Beach defies the odds by consistently demonstrating that students of all ethnicities,
socioeconomic status, and abilities can excel, when provided with the appropriate
learning environment. In their own words, LBUSD affirms “The idea is to prepare the
most promising students for admission to the most competitive universities and colleges”
(Long Beach Unified School District, 2008-09).
Eight of the high schools in the district provide opportunities for students to excel
in “small learning communities with a focus on advanced learners” (LBUSD, 2010a, p.
2). Six schools offer several program strands and two schools are specialized programs.
The Gifted and Talented Education Office provides information on the “Accelerated
High School Programs” and states the opportunity for gifted and high achieving students
to excel (LBUSD, 2010b). A statement also makes clear that participation in honors and
Advanced Placement classes is also available. In addition, every incoming freshman is
mailed an application that lists the 15 different programs that are highly selective in
nature due to the competitive admissions process. To ensure equal opportunity, all eighth
grade students may apply to these programs for placement, regardless of whether or not
they were previously identified as gifted. The concept of ignoring gifted identification as
a prerequisite for programming into the high school setting has also emerged as a trend in
the survey conducted by the National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented
(Sytsma, 2000).
9
The placement process for program strands of advanced academic services is
initiated at the middle schools where the counselors submit a standard application for
each student that reports the students‟ cumulative GPA for grades 6 and 7, the seventh
grade California Standards Test Scores in the areas of English-Language Arts and
Mathematics, and a High School Index Score. The student is then given the application to
take home and review with a parent. Together, they indicate the student‟s top three
choices for their high school experience and complete any additional steps (i.e., essay,
interview) that are a part of the application process.
After the deadline date, the applications are sent to each high school based on a
student‟s first choice. Each student is subsequently sent a letter of acceptance or denial
and their placement for the ninth grade year. Students who have been identified gifted
and are participating in a rigorous program in the middle school are compared as equals
to all other eighth grade students. Placement outside of an advanced program of study
becomes problematic for the gifted student who is accustomed to an accelerated
curriculum with GATE-trained teachers who use instructional practices and strategies
(i.e., depth and complexity), as well as have standards and expectations that are directed
at meeting their educational needs.
Purpose of the Study
Research supports the need for the gifted to be appropriately challenged and
nurtured in a developmentally appropriate manner (Marland, 1972; National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented, 2005; Van Tassel-Baska, 2005b). In addition, there
are research-based recommendations that suggest more information is needed regarding
10
the number of gifted African American who are placed and remain in gifted education
programs, as well as the factors that promote their persistence (Moore III et al., 2005a).
With the preponderance of high school gifted students in regular classroom
settings (Cox, Daniel and Boston, 1985), including the gifted African American student,
this research attempts to answer questions regarding the impact that placement has on the
participation of gifted African American students within, and outside of, advanced
academic services. The study also seeks to understand students‟ perceptions of their high
school experience, and the effects of participation on their academic, intrapersonal and
interpersonal development.
To direct the purpose of this study, the following research questions have been
established:
1. What factors affect the placement and participation of gifted African American
students in the advanced academic services offered at the high school level?
2. How do gifted African American students perceive their high school experience?
a. How do the interactions with the adults at school (teachers, counselors,
program coordinators and administrators) impact their desire to
participate?
3. How does placement affect the academic, affective and social development of
gifted African American students who are and who are not participating in
educational services consistent with their identified needs?
11
Importance of the Study
There is a need for more information regarding the retention of African American
students in gifted education who attend today‟s urban high schools (Ford, 1995a; Moore
III et al. 2005a, 2005b). The significance of this applied research study lies in the
findings, which are intended to shed light on the issue of placing gifted students from
underrepresented populations into the advanced academic services at the high school
level, with great consideration for the nonnegotiable options (VanTassel-Baska, 2005a).
Utilizing the information gained from gifted African American students who are directly
affected by policy and personnel, significant changes may be called for in the manner in
which students are counseled, taught and regarded by the adults who they come into
contact with on a daily basis. More importantly, positive changes in the teaching and
learning of gifted students can ultimately affect the teaching and learning of all students
through the instruction provided by teachers.
Assumptions
In this study, it will be assumed that the gifted students surveyed and interviewed
expected to participate in an academically challenging curriculum through four years of
high school. It will also be hypothesized that those who were not placed have made
accommodations to assimilate into the regular classroom setting. Another supposition is
that the adults at the high school have various levels of experience working with gifted
African American students receiving advanced academic services. It will be assumed that
all respondents will answer honestly and with candor. The final conjecture would be that
gifted students placed in the regular program submitted an application for placement in
12
the accelerated programs at their high school, in order to receive placement in advanced
academic services.
This case study will be a combination or mixed methods sampling, indicative of
the experience of the gifted African American student in urban high schools only and
solely focused on the underrepresentation of gifted African American students as it
relates to retention (placement and participation). Certain limitations will exist due to the
sampling methodology (snowball or chain), which will restrict the ability to generalize
results across the population. Any other constraints to the generalizability of this study
will be due to the various curricular experiences and those limits which exist, based on
research, from the use of a case study methodology.
Delimitations
This case study will be a combination or mixed methods sampling, indicative of
the experience of the gifted African American student in urban high schools only and
solely focused on the underrepresentation of gifted African American students as it
relates to retention (placement and participation). Certain limitations will exist due to the
sampling methodology (snowball or chain), which will restrict the ability to generalize
results across the population. Any other constraints to the generalizability of this study
will be due to the various curricular experiences and those limits which exist, based on
research, from the use of a case study methodology.
Definition of Terms
Advanced Academic Services are interventions for gifted students that are provided at the
secondary level to meet their needs through acceleration and/or ability grouping.
13
Advanced Placement refers to the courses that have been established in a collaborative
partnership of secondary and postsecondary institutions to provide college-level
coursework to high school students in preparation for the rigors of university academics.
Culturally and linguistically diverse students represent children who have been
historically minority and/or are consistently overrepresented in special education and
underrepresented in gifted education and Advanced Placement. Racial and ethnic
categories refer to African Americans, Hispanic/Latino, and Native Americans/American
Indian.
Giftedness, for the purpose of this study, will be defined using the definition adopted by
the Long Beach Unified School District, from where the sample population will be drawn
for this case study.
Honors classes are defined as the level of coursework designed to challenge the high
achiever, who excels academically, but does not qualify for identification as a gifted
learner.
Retention is defined as sustained participation in gifted education, for the purpose of this
study.
Underrepresentation is considered severe when there is a 10% discrepancy in the
percentage of minority students in the school and the gifted population (Chinn & Hughes,
1987). Underrepresentation in this study will refer to a deficit in the placement and
participation of African American students in gifted or accelerated services as compared
to the dominant culture (i.e., white, middle class) (Hunsaker, 1997).
14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Far too often, gifted African American children are overlooked and their educational
needs are not met (Ford, 1996).
Gifted education has traditionally served the needs of students who fit the mold of
American education – the white, middle-class majority. For the last 20 years, there has
been a trend to eradicate the institutional segregation of gifted programs. Issues
associated with recruitment, identification, and placement, have become matters of
national interest. Yet the numbers still remain small and the underachievement of African
Americans continues. Much of the research on gifted education has focused on
elementary services, where settings are as diverse as the students served; however, the
gains that have been seen in identification and placement in the early years begin to
diminish as students enter the secondary level. Advanced academic service options
become less accessible to students who have already proven their ability to excel in a
gifted or accelerated environment. Moreover, when the opportunities are thwarted, there
may be long–term effects on the academic, affective and social development of the child.
To eradicate the problem, it is important to determine what factors inhibit or promote the
continued participation of African American gifted students in secondary level programs.
This literature review will study several areas to ascertain the concerns present in the
overriding problem. Four key areas will be addressed:
1. The advanced academic services that are current options at the secondary level
(i.e., what they are, why they are needed and how they are implemented)
15
2. A historical and current examination of the placement and participation of African
American students in gifted education
3. The academic, affective and social development of gifted African American
students and the factors that can affect their perceptions about giftedness
4. The role of school personnel in the gifted African American student‟s life
In 1979, the National Research Council (NRC) conducted a study regarding the
overrepresentation of minority students in special education. Twenty years later,
Congress asked the NRC to revisit the issue, extending their study to include minority
students in gifted education. What they discovered was a scarcity of data-based research
studies that conclusively supported the use of interventions that make a difference, for
students placed in gifted education and even less text available on gifted minority
students (NRC, 2002). Even with the dearth of information, approximately 20-30% of
the research they examined can be used to help understand what academic service options
are available to increase the achievement of gifted students. Given that the eventuality of
confirming effective interventions will occur, a much greater concern exists when
minority children who may benefit from gifted education are not identified and/or placed
(NRC, 2002).
Advanced Academic Services
Advanced academic services for gifted students were first created over a century
ago, in 1868, when the St. Louis Public Schools developed the first gifted program in the
United States (National Association for Gifted Children, nd). It allowed students to move
at a faster pace, thereby accelerating their promotion from grade to grade (Passow, 1996).
This was followed by similar plans in three states. In Elizabeth, New Jersey, students
16
accelerated through the grades at a 3:2 ratio (Passow, 1996), while the Santa Barbara Plan
provided opportunities for students to accelerate beyond their classmates (Kulik & Kulik,
1982). In 1920, the National Society for the Study of Education published a series of
recommendations regarding the education of gifted students, many of which have become
the tenets of a comprehensive and effective program for the gifted (Purcell & Eckert,
2006; Shore, Cornell, Robinson & Ward, 1991). Over 50 years later, the Marland report
clearly delineated the need for gifted students to receive educational programs and
services markedly different from the regular program (Marland, 1972). Gallagher (1966)
substantiated these findings and provided descriptions for the types of interventions that
could be provided for gifted students. The three major interventions take the form of
administrative, instructional and adjunctive services.
Administrative Interventions - Grouping
Administrative interventions, particularly enrichment of the gifted student in the
regular classroom, generally serve as a vehicle to give gifted students more work in terms
of volume, than it does to provide them with intellectually challenging situations in which
they can use their gifts and talents (Gallagher, 1966). The concept of enrichment refers to
the presentation of curriculum content with more depth, breadth, complexity, or
abstractness than the general curriculum; however, the implementation of such has not
occurred in the heterogeneous setting. Terman and Oden (1947) came to the conclusion
early on that “so called enrichment often amounts to little more than a quantitative
increase of work on the usual level. This may keep the gifted child out of mischief, but it
is hardly educational” (p. 264). In a 1962 report, the Southern Regional Project for
Education of the Gifted described this intervention as a “bulwark behind which scarcely
17
anything desirable has transpired” (p. 53). More successful interventions exist in special
school settings, special classes and ability grouping, which all provide additional avenues
for meeting the needs of the gifted.
In today‟s educational environment, ability grouping which may include special
schools is the most widely accepted option and varies in type. Van Tassel-Baska (1992)
defines grouping as “an organizational mechanism by which students at proximate ability
levels…are put together for instruction…in a way that honors individual differences” (p.
68). These groupings, when observed at the secondary level, typically take the form of
full-time, special class, within-class, cluster, and independent variations (Rogers, 1993;
Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a).
Full-time grouping consists of gifted students completing their program of study
in classrooms with gifted peers, in all subject areas. This supports the students‟ needs to
interact with others at their ability levels (Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a), and because of the
nature of the population, studies have found the largest effect sizes on academic
achievement within this arrangement (Kulik & Kulik, 1982). The Kuliks meta-analysis
specifically addresses a particular type of ability grouping that separates students into
ability groups in the same school setting, which has been historically labeled as tracking
(Oakes, 1985). A variation of this grouping occurs in the form of special class groupings,
which entails students being grouped for subject matter instruction where strengths have
been identified in some, but not all areas (Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a).
Proponents of full-time programs for gifted students cite several advantages. First,
students need the stimulation derived from the rigor and complexity that they experience
and are more enthusiastic and motivated to excel (Feldhusen, 1989). Next, studies have
18
demonstrated that students‟ attitudes are more positive about the subject areas being
taught (Kulik & Kulik, 1982). Those who oppose full-time programs specifically
designed for the gifted tend to align it with the concept of tracking (Oakes, 1985;
Gamoran, 1987).
With-in class and cluster groupings are utilized to meet the needs of gifted
students when they are assigned to a heterogeneous class setting. While this may be the
least favored option for gifted learners, the reality continues to be that more often than
not, gifted students are spending their entire high school experience in a mixed ability
environment (Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a). Within-class groupings place students within a
class into smaller groups based on their abilities and allow the teacher to differentiate the
instruction and materials for students (Kulik, 1993). Consequently, research has proven
that as much as 84% of the time gifted students are not involved in instruction or
activities that meet their need and many times become bored underachievers (Reis, 2007;
Westberg, Archambault, Dobyns & Salvin, 1993). In-class grouping at the secondary
level is normatively found as honors and Advanced Placement classes, where gifted,
high-achieving students and even average achieving students interact in an academically
supportive environment (Van Tassel-Baska, 2005b).
Cluster grouping, on the other hand, intentionally places a number of gifted
learners with a teacher who has been specifically trained to teach the gifted. While the
remainder of the class has heterogeneity, their needs are better met, because of the
purposeful placement (Rogers, 1993).
Independent groupings are those opportunities that involve more personalized
participation, such as projects, internships, and mentorships that provide gifted students
19
professional interactions with adult and community resources. These experiences address
their interests and increase their intellectual growth (Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a, 2005b). It
is important to note that administrative interventions alone cannot make a difference for
gifted students; therefore, any form of special class or grouping must be accompanied by
another form of intervention (Rogers, 1993).
Instructional Interventions - Acceleration
Instructional interventions are supported by the work of Jerome Bruner, an
American psychologist, who felt that students should learn the basic structure or the most
important ideas of the curriculum. Research on making adjustments to the curriculum
seemingly prove that how well students do has much to do with their intellect, motivation
and readiness for a course; the pacing of the curriculum; and the concepts that were
presented from the subject area of the curriculum (Gallagher, 1966). These adjustments
are best made with the most effective intervention to date, based on research, but the least
used and most controversial – acceleration (Bailey, Chaffey, Gross, MacLeod, Merrick &
Taggett, 2004; Kulik & Kulik, 1984, 1982; Rogers, 1992; Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a,
2005b).
Acceleration can be defined as “an educational intervention that moves students
through an educational program at a faster than usual rate or younger than typical age”
(Colangelo, Assouline & Gross, 2004, p. 5). It means that instruction and services are
commensurate with the developmental needs of a student, regardless of age (Van Tassel-
Baska, 1992). It is the most researched and conclusive of all gifted practices, yet the most
resisted and least used in its variations (Van Tassel-Baska, 2004a). This may be attributed
to teachers being unaware of the 18 types of acceleration. Much of the research on
20
acceleration has been written by Benbow (1983, 1991) with and without fellow
researchers and provides a picture of efficacy and positive long-term effects (Van Tassel-
Baska, 1992). Everything from Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate to
grade skipping, subject matter acceleration and curriculum compacting or telescoping, as
well as, concurrent/dual enrollment and early college entrance, fit under the pretext of
acceleration. With the advances made in technology, greater access to acceleration
opportunities continues to exist. The options that are most prevalent at the secondary
level will be addressed in more depth in the next section.
Advanced Placement
The Advanced Placement Program (AP) allows students in the high school to
participate in college level coursework (College Board, 2009). Through the collaborative
effort of secondary schools and colleges, students are able to acquire sophisticated
academic skills and better preparation for college. In A Nation Deceived, AP is discussed
as an “equalizer,” as it “certifies mastery of the defined content designed for the college
level” (Colangelo, Assouline & Gross, 2004, p.32). Any student is able to attain this
distinction, thus no student is left without this challenging opportunity. As an acceleration
option, it combines the concept of special class grouping and subject matter acceleration
with the additional requirement of trained teachers.
Online Courses
Twentieth century advances in technology changed the face of correspondence
courses, making access to acceleration possible for secondary students in all geographical
locations and in all subjects with developed curriculum. For students in rural areas,
access to Advanced Placement courses has been encouraged. Stanford University and
21
Johns Hopkins have online opportunities for gifted students in elementary, middle and
high school to address their varied needs. Online courses are a viable alternative to those
wishing to participate in subject matter acceleration, grade skipping and early entrance.
International Baccalaureate
The International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme is an internationally
acclaimed and challenging program of study for students aged 16 to 19. The program
prepares students for post-secondary education through coursework in six subjects and
builds their skill sets to ask challenging questions, to learn how to learn, and to develop a
strong sense of their own identity and culture so that they might communicate with and
understand people from other countries and cultures. This academic option combines full-
time grouping with subject acceleration and requires certification of both the program and
educators involved in the curriculum.
Dual/Concurrent Enrollment
Dual enrollment is an acceleration mechanism that allows high school students to
pursue an advanced curriculum related to their postsecondary interests. In California,
Assembly Bill 2207, Chapter 1073, Statutes of 2000, authorizes school boards to grant
requests for students to attend community colleges, whether full or part-time (CDE,
2005). This academic service can provide gifted students with acceleration of subject
matter or grade skipping, by entering college early.
While schools have a variety of other options, it is very rare that these alternatives
are explored, most likely due to the multitude of misconceptions about acceleration.
Those who concur with the concept of acceleration assert that it allows students to
work with their peers who have matching abilities, relieves boredom, presents challenges
22
and creates better study habits and self-efficacy (Kulik & Kulik, 1982). Rogers (2002)
explains that studies have shown that students are approximately six months ahead in
achievement and social skills are elevated. On the other side of the argument, opponents
fear the negative effects of this practice claiming that there may be a disconnect between
intellectual ability and social or physical maturity or that the system loses out because
students are leaving before their classmates. The meta-analyses that the Kuliks have
conducted consistently demonstrated that acceleration helps students academically
without hindering them socially and emotionally. It would seem then that acceleration is
a viable option for gifted students and works principally with a grouping strategy, as well
as with a teacher who has the pedagogy to make it all work.
Considering that pedagogy has as much to do with student achievement as does
the curriculum content (Gallagher, 1966), the teacher becomes a salient part of the
equation. In fact, the National Research Council (2002) believes that the interactions of
the student, the teacher and the learning environment also determine a child‟s success and
achievement. According to Goldberg (1965) in a review of research by Eckstrom and
Passow, gifted students grouped by ability in special classes demonstrated “academic
advantage” (p. 35), only when the teaching methods and materials were differentiated.
Gallagher (1966) contends that instructional interventions may be the absolute best way
to differentiate for the gifted student; yet, any alteration in even one of these
characteristics will change the outcome. With placement in the regular classroom, gifted
students may not experience either of these variables, while students in ability groupings
or special classes may encounter one or the other.
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Adjunctive Interventions
The final type of intervention has been termed adjunctive. Adjunctive
interventions refer to counseling and educational programming that has been designed to
address the issues of underachievement (Gallagher, 1966). Counseling has consistently
been reduced to paperwork and testing, virtually eliminating this intervention as being
productive. Yet, the research of Gregory (1984) found that counseling on a consistent
basis promoted the adjustment of advanced learners when encountering new
environments. While students do want to have positive working relationships with their
classroom teachers, they particularly want a counselor to whom they have access to
support their emotional and social development (Leroux, 1989).
Educational programming has led to some success in proving that underachieving
students placed with teachers who have personable characteristics, are flexible, and work
to address the emotional, social and academic well-being of the students, can increase
their achievement. However, there is no significant research to say this is true for every
circumstance. When faced with gifted students who are educationally disadvantaged,
little has been done to address these students; instead the focus has been on the
remediation of the non-gifted population of the educationally disadvantaged.
Meeting the needs of gifted students should include multiple interventions rather
than a single feature (Rogers, 1993; SRPEG, 1962; Van Tassel-Baska, 2005a). This
becomes increasingly true at the secondary level of education, when students are no
longer in the self-contained classroom, are subject to a variety of curricular options, and
are attempting to find stability and support from peers and teachers. Many of the cliché
expressions become the underlying assumptions of how the interventions are or are not
24
implemented. “The gifted can take care of themselves…,” “If it‟s good for the gifted,
then it‟s good for all,” “Any reasonably good teacher can teach the gifted,” “They should
be kept with their own group,” and “All children have gifts” (SRPEG, pp. 59-61). With
this in mind, much attention should be placed on the interventions designed for the gifted
high school student, who must struggle with puberty and peer pressure, while making
their transition into the high school setting. Without a doubt, placement in a gifted
program is widely viewed as beneficial. In addition to providing instruction that is closely
tailored to the students served, eligibility signals positive judgment of the student as
highly capable. It may even be accurate to say that the “gifted” label itself may confer a
benefit through higher expectation and positive perceptions of teachers, peers, and placed
students (National Research Council, 2002, pp. 321-22).
Regardless of the research presented that shows that there have been significant
gains in achievement for the gifted student as a result of some of these interventions,
there is no conclusive information to say that any one intervention is the ultimate answer.
As long as society values the label more than the intervention provided, understanding
the needs of the students being serviced is critical, particularly the culturally and
linguistically diverse, and for the purpose of this study, the gifted African American
student.
The Gifted African American Student
Culturally and linguistically diverse students have become the focus of attention
in the field of gifted education, in light of increasing enrollment and attention to the
federal definition from the United States Office of Education presented in 1993.
Replacing the 1978 definition, the government made it a point to broaden the scope of
25
inclusion by using specific terms that acknowledge cultural and linguistic differences.
The definition recognizes a variety of abilities beyond IQ, realizing that gifts are as
contrasting as the children and youth who possess them. As a result of this expanded
definition, the promise of more students of color, especially African American, Hispanic
and Native American achieving identification as gifted individuals, was created.
Whereas the percentage has narrowed for two of the three populations, African American
students continue to be under referred, under identified, and underrepresented. Ford
(1996) posits that “without increased attention and substantive commitments to redress
these issues, gifted programs will continue to be racially and socioeconomically
segregated; Black students will continue to be underserviced educationally” (p. 6). For all
the efforts to enlighten the masses to the inequities in identification, placement and
retention, there has been little to no effect; and the gap has become wider. Ford and Webb
(1994) boldly contend that data suggest that “gifted programs are perhaps the most
segregated educational programs in this nation” (p. 358).
Even with the increased level of concern regarding the gifted African American
student, an Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) database search
1
revealed
that between 1991 and 2010, a mere 27 articles where published in selected gifted
education journals.
1
The searches were conducted using the key words gifted and African American or Black and male, gifted and African
American or Black and female, gifted and African American or Black and high school. Next records were reviewed for
journal names and accuracy. For example, if the author‟s name last name was Black or the publication was not a gifted
journal, that article was excluded.
26
A breakdown of those articles on gifted African Americans indicates that 59%
have focused on gifted African Americans in high schools (n = 16), 33% have focused on
gifted African American males (n = 9) and 7% have focused on African American
females (n = 2). Three additional journals that focus on youth and adolescence
contributed another three articles between 1978 and 2003. While the ERIC database has
additional entries on gifted African American students, there are a limited number of
publications and studies that specifically center on the issues of placement and
participation at the high school.
A review of the literature on gifted African American students finds a
disproportionately higher degree of research on the underrepresentation of African
American students as it relates to assessment and identification, with a paucity of material
on the retention of identified children in gifted education. Jenkins (1936) was the first
researcher to address the issue of a deficit in identification of minority students. This
unintentional segregation was of little concern, since the nation was experiencing the
same problem. With the 1954 Supreme Court decision of Brown v. the Board of
Education of Topeka, Kansas, which in effect legalized integration, a natural trend should
have been established that aligned representation in educational opportunities across the
realm of education. Almost fifty years later, Ford and Webb (1994) explained the reasons
that African Americans were still absent from gifted programs. They attributed it to:
“exclusionary definitions and theories of giftedness, culturally biased identification
practices, a lack of understanding among educators regarding the effect of cultural
differences on learning, inadequate training of teachers to recognize gifted students from
diverse cultural backgrounds, a lack of encouragement for African American parental
27
involvement in education placement decision making and inadequate definitions of
underachievement among the gifted” (p. 359). In our current state, almost every reason
that existed then, exists now, fifteen years after Ford recommended changes to improve
practices.
The problem is incessant, because there is no federal mandated legislation for any
aspect of gifted education, including the definition. Hence, not every district uses the
federal version; therefore, there is little consistency in equity across states or districts
when it comes to defining giftedness. No other culture has suffered more from this
discrepancy than the African American student. While gains have been made in
identification and even in placement, the impetus for ensuring retention in gifted
education must command attention (Ford, 1994, 1995a; Ford & Whiting, 2008).
In 1991, Harris and Ford examined all the literature that was germane to the
research on minority students in gifted education, with the intent of locating specific
works on African American students. Less than two percent was discovered pertaining to
minority students; even less for African American. Today, most of the literature that has
been written about gifted African American students is authored by Ford and several of
her colleagues. Her work illuminates the direction for action beyond recruitment and
identification. The challenge is to retain identified African American students in gifted
education, predominantly at the high school level, and to address the issues that affect
their participation.
The Issues
In our society, African Americans have often been perceived as flawed -
genetically, culturally, and academically. Ford, Grantham and Whiting (2008) mention
28
the labels that have perpetuated the status of African Americans as inferior, deprived and
disadvantaged. This “deficit thinking” orientation supports discriminatory policies and
practices that become entrenched in our institutions and “hinder meaningful educational
change and reform” (p. 293). It shapes the manner in which African American students
approach education and the institutional agents that determine much of their school
experience. In addition, it affects their social, psychological and academic development
when ignored or not supported.
Even more compelling an issue is the infrequency of African American males in
gifted programs (Grantham, 2004), and the fact that they are more underrepresented in
gifted programs than females (Ford, 1996). While there is research that discusses
retention strategies to motivate gifted African American students (Ford, 1994), especially
males, the phenomenon of underrepresentation in advanced academic services, continues
at the high school level.
Policies and Practices
Deficit thinking drives the attitudes and beliefs of decision-makers and stake-
holders, which includes administrators and teachers, often resulting in actions that
support the negative and prejudicial stereotypes that bring about problematic policies and
practices. The problem with recruitment and identification is well known and will be
discussed briefly, in order to address the more troublesome area of retention.
Recruitment and Identification
The long-standing policy of using IQ tests to identify gifted learners has largely
contributed to the underrepresentation of African Americans in gifted education. Renzulli
(1986) and Sternberg (1985) oppose IQ tests as the only basis for gifted identification and
29
support a more pluralistic view of giftedness. With the revised wording in the definition
of giftedness (National Association for the Gifted, 2008), some districts have made
appropriate adjustments to use multidimensional assessments (Davidson Institute, 2009),
yet others resist the opportunity to lessen the exclusivity created by this practice (Harris
& Ford, 1991). Van Tassel-Baska, Patton and Prillaman (1989) discovered another
common practice of using norm-referenced, standardized tests as the single measure of
giftedness. Not only does this exclude most students of color, it also eliminates those
from economically and linguistically diverse groups. As states begin to understand the
intent of the USDE definition, students are being screened and identified using multiple
criteria.
Another common practice used to initiate identification is teacher nomination or
referral. Yet, Forsbach and Pierce (1999) found teacher referral ineffective for
identifying African Americans for gifted education, primarily because White teachers are
unable to appropriately refer students of color. Ford (1996) also found that despite high
test scores, grade point average and a high IQ score, African American students are
frequently overlooked due to a teacher‟s inability to relate to the student. While teacher
referral can be a part of a multidimensional assessment, the relevance of using such
measures has not proved to be successful. For example, a study by Elhoweris, Mutua,
Alsheikh and Holloway (2005), used vignettes to determine what recommendations
teachers would make based on the information given. Although the content of the
vignettes never changed, the ethnicity of the students did, and so did the
recommendations of the teachers. McBee (2006) found that teachers were considerably
more capable of nominating White and Asian students than culturally diverse students for
30
gifted services, thereby reinforcing the notion that discriminatory practices occur as a
matter of practice.
An additional problem that has been a primary factor in identification is the
barrier that could be thought of as self-inflicted, the choice not to participate (Grantham
& Ford, 2003). Students and parents have at times made a conscious decision not to
participate in gifted education. The concerns of being isolated from their African
American peers or alienated from White students in class have a negative effect, as does
being accused of “acting White” by peers (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). Not only does this
contribute to underrepresentation, but also to underachievement for those who do choose
to participate.
One solution for addressing the problems associated with referrals and
identification lies in the definition of giftedness. Torrance (1977) with his 19 non-
psychometric creative positives and Renzulli (1978) who described gifted behavior as the
interaction of above average ability, creativity, and task commitment as brought to bear
upon a special area of interest, have documented more inclusive definitions. These
definitions opened the door to appreciating culture, intelligences and learning styles. In
fact, there is a general consensus that if the USDE definition were combined with
Renzulli‟s, it would produce the best operational definition for ensuring opportunity for
African American children (Harris & Ford, 1991). In the end, creating a stronger
foundation for placing African American students in gifted education will allow for more
critical work to be done in the area of participation and retention.
31
Retention
Institutional and personal factors have a profound effect on the retention of gifted
African American students, especially at the secondary level. As students promote from
the K-8 educational setting, they enter an environment that promotes small learning
communities, which at times, contributes to the segregation of students. Gifted African
American students find themselves immersed in a different circumstance than previously
experienced. This situation creates affective and academic challenges when the support
that was available in their previous learning environment no longer exists.
Institutional Influences
Administrators, counselors and even teachers become the gatekeepers of
secondary programs and whether unintentional or intentional, African American students
including the gifted, are denied equity and access to advanced academic services (Ford et
al., 2008). The authors assert that it is an administrator‟s responsibility to ensure that
school personnel who are influential in the education of gifted African American students
are knowledgeable about giftedness and cultural diversity. Without a basic understanding
of the behavior, communication and learning styles of African Americans, teachers and
counselors will continue to have a deficit thinking orientation. For instance, a common
error in judgment that teachers tend to make is asking that a student be removed,
believing that he/she does not belong in a program or course (Ford et al., 2008).
It is well-documented that pre-service teachers are inadequately prepared to teach
students from culturally and linguistically diverse populations (Hoffman & Pearson,
2000; Rogers, Marshall & Tyson, 2006). To intensify the concern for servicing gifted
African American students, Van Tassel-Baska and Stambaugh (2006) found that less than
32
three percent of colleges and universities make courses available in gifted education. This
presents a double-edged sword for these students entering the classrooms of new
teachers. By the same token, in-service teachers are not always any better prepared (Bean
& Morewood, 2007; Ford et al., 2008; Ford & Webb, 1994) and may have the same
institutional preconceived notions about students of color. Many times, because of this,
the learning environment is not conducive to promoting the growth of gifted African
American students.
Academic, Affective & Social Development of Gifted African American Students
African American students face a variety of academic, social, emotional and
psychological challenges each day, as they attend high schools that are designed by and
created for the white-middle class majority (Moore III, et al., 2005b). It is when African
American students enter high school that they become increasingly aware of their
academic, racial and gender identities, which are difficult to separate from one another
(Howard, 2003).
Academically, the most worrisome predicament that the gifted African American
student faces is underachievement. It is a persistent, serious dilemma that affects many
students, but predominantly African Americans (Ford & Harris, 1996). In a 1998 study of
underachievement among gifted African American females, Ford found that the
underachievement of the subject of her case study was directly connected to the social
injustices that were experienced on a daily basis. Data from an earlier study, which Ford
conducted with Harris, reviewed additional variables that contribute to
underachievement, including attitudes and perceptions toward achievement, school,
curriculum, the achievement of peers, and the adults that support their development (Ford
33
& Harris, 1996). Moore III et al., (2005b) discussed the research on the cultural
characteristics of African American students to demonstrate the impact that culture has
on achievement. According to Boykin as cited in Recruitment Is Not Enough: Retaining
African American Students In Gifted Education, there are nine cultural styles that center
African American students: (a) spirituality, (b) harmony, (c) oral tradition, (d) affect, (e)
verve, (f) communalism, (g) movement, (h) social time perspective, and (i) expressive
individualism. These styles when paired with the five dimensions of culture (Storti, 1989;
Hofstede, 1991) illustrate the importance of acknowledging and addressing the cultural
implications for this population.
The first dimension addresses concept of self and the need to be an individual and
part of a collective. Grantham and Ford (2003) contend that students who do not have a
healthy racial identity are likely to be underachievers. The second dimension focuses on
personal vs. social responsibility, which is dually affected by peer and family pressures.
The third dimension is referred to as concept of time and deals with an idea that at times
feels like an oxymoron – time is precious and efficiency is key, while on the other hand,
there is always time and we must be flexible. The fourth dimension speaks to the locus of
control, which can cause much strife, and the fifth dimension positions styles of
communication.
The cultural mismatch that currently exists between White teachers and culturally
diverse students is real and not to be taken lightly. When teachers honor the cultural
needs of gifted African American students and appropriately modify instruction,
achievement is enhanced. When these needs are not met, underachievement is inevitable,
34
primarily due to the likelihood in loss of self-esteem and an absence of healthy
development of their racial identity.
Unlike their White peers, African American students have tolerated
discrimination, racism and prejudice daily, as the color of their skin determines how
others think and interact with them (Moore III et al., 2005a, 2005b). This provides an
intolerable amount of stress for many and results in lower achievement, lack of
motivation and unhealthy perceptions about their worth. The decline in African American
educators who can serve as cultural connections and role models does not help the
situation (Gardner, Ford & Miranda, 2001). In addition to their individual identity,
students also yearn to belong and connect to their own cultural group, as a collective
identity. For gifted African American students who possess a strong sense of self, who
have learned to negotiate the system without giving up their culture and who have the
persistence and courage to push ahead, underachievement seldom becomes an issue.
There are too many students who instead have low self-esteem and feel the need to
assimilate into the mainstream culture, seeming to lose their own identity, and
experiencing a lack of support that leaves them with a feeling of helplessness and
hopelessness (Ford, 1996). Socially, gifted African American students experience
negative peer pressure that may result in the students rejecting the opportunity to
participate in gifted education (Grantham & Ford, 2003; Moore III, et al., 2005a). There
is an emotional conundrum that they battle, volleying between being who they are and
being seen as “acting White” (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). They must deal with the feelings
of isolation that occur when they are not accepted by their White peers. Conversely, they
must protect themselves from the teasing of their own African American peers who do
35
not share a similar intellectualism. When they do not have the fortitude to handle these
pressures, the easier choice is to opt out. The loss of these gifted individuals is one
society can ill afford to accept with the declining percentage of participation at the
secondary level.
This psychological havoc, alongside the social pressures and academic
competition of gifted programs can have a detrimental effect on the motivation and
confidence of the gifted African American (Moore III et al., 2005a). Those who are most
resilient typically possess the academic preparation and determination to make the
adjustments necessary to sustain their participation. For those who struggle with these
challenges, it is important for them to have institutional agents committed to assisting
them (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Fortunately, some of the solutions can be found at the
school site. With the right attitude, mindset, training and desire to learn the culture, as
well as building relationships with the African American student, school personnel can
make a difference. While the majority of studies have defined the struggle that many
gifted African American students face, there are also studies that have demonstrated that
environmental stressors do not have to be the norm. Studies that have identified high
achievers among gifted African Americans in urban schools prove that learning
environments with people who have consciously worked to nurture gifted African
American students are possible (Butler, 2003).
The Learning Environment
According to Sedlacek, as cited by Moore III et al., (2005a), there are
noncognitive variables that can affect the learning environment for gifted African
American students and influence their retention in gifted programs. They are social and
36
psychological in nature, and can guide the support necessary for success or impede their
ability to participate. The eight variables are: a) positive self-concept or confidence,
b) realistic self-appraisal, c) understanding racism and being able to deal with it,
d) preference for long range goals vs. short-term goals, e) availability of strong support
person, f) successful leadership experience, g) demonstrated community service, and
h) knowledge acquired in the field. Fundamentally, these variables when met with
positive circumstances can shape the achievement and motivation of African Americans
participating in gifted education. Each variable assumes interaction with school
personnel-administrators, counselors and teachers-who must possess the cultural
competence to engage students appropriately and a superior understanding of gifted
education to challenge students accordingly.
The Role of School Personnel
Urban high schools are synonymous with densely populated communities, as the
numbers in many of them exceed the 4000 mark. Thousands of adolescents between the
ages of 14 and 18 are trying to fit in and find their niche in a fast-paced environment
dramatically different from their elementary experience. One aspect becomes very clear –
each student is looking for someone to care about them (Ford, 1995b). Thus, the role of
school personnel becomes critical to the academic, affective and social development of
these teens.
Administrators
The culture of a school is inherently dependent on the leadership provided.
Several research studies confirm the value of strong school culture and the correlation of
increased student achievement and motivation, as well as teacher productivity,
37
satisfaction and motivation (Cheng, 1993; Fyans & Maehr, 1990; Stolp, 1996). Because
the principal has the greatest influence on how the school responds to gifted students‟
needs, his/her actions are central to the behaviors of others (Deal & Peterson, 1999). Van
Tassel-Baska (1981) attributes success of a gifted program to significant engagement of
the leadership. Accordingly, the status that the administration affords gifted education,
cultural diversity and equity will determine the level of access that gifted African
American students are provided.
There are four important aspects that the administrator needs to attend to for
effective implementation of a gifted program (Gilson, 2009). The first is identification of
gifted students for placement and participation. Since students are typically identified
long before they reach the secondary level, it is crucial that a principal have a basic
understanding of gifted education, in order to support the programs that are present at the
site. This knowledge of giftedness is also important when communicating with parents
about their child‟s course of study, as a reassurance that the student‟s needs will be met.
Finally, administrators must apply that knowledge when establishing policy to ensure that
inclusion is a priority for the previously identified gifted student, in particular, those that
are culturally and linguistically diverse.
The second aspect deals with the professional development of teachers, so that
they are capable of meeting the needs of gifted students (Gilson, 2009; Harris & Ford,
1991). It is critical to have an understanding of the characteristics of the gifted and how
they learn at a different pace, possess a deeper understanding than the average student
and enjoy a multitude of interests (Maker, 1982). Administrators want to make certain
that teachers employ a variety of strategies that allow students to encounter a range of
38
learning experiences designed to challenge, extend and excite. In addition, teachers must
also gain cultural competence or “a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that
come together in a system, agency or professional” that enables then to work effectively
in and across cultures (Ford & Whiting, 2008, p. 105). Administrators want teachers to
also be competent in providing metacognitive study and learning skills for gifted
students, thereby dispelling the myth that gifted or culturally diverse students
automatically possess this capacity (Ford et al., 1997).
By the same token, when program coordinators are appointed, they should also be
provided professional development and be held accountable for establishing and/or
maintaining a program consistent with the administrator‟s expectations. In essence, they
should simply become an outgrowth of the leadership that guides and nurtures the
environment.
It is assumed by the nature of their career choice, that counselors are trained in
gifted and multicultural education, and understand the psychological needs of people. It
could also be assumed that when earning a Pupil Personnel Service Credential (California
Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2001), counselors would be specifically trained to
work in secondary settings with students with diverse needs. Still, in a small number of
studies conducted by Klausmeier, Mishra and Maker (1987) that asked school counselors
about their training, it became evident that there is a divide between what is and what
should be in formal preparation for working with gifted students or minorities (Ford,
1995a, 1995b). Fundamentally, professional development for counselors is essential for
building the capacity of these individuals (Gilson, 2009; LeRoux, 1989)
39
The third important detail to a systematic plan for gifted programs is to have a
strong counseling component that addresses the present and the future. As the next
section will discuss, counselors are an essential part of the high school experience for all
children; yet the concerns of and for gifted students are much more complex (Coangelo,
2002). For the gifted African American student who faces a unique set of circumstances
beyond giftedness, counseling is even more crucial (Ford, 1995a).
The final concept for administrators to bear in mind is program evaluation
(Gilson, 2009). It is vital that the administrator consciously assess overall quantity,
quality, and appropriateness of the program, in order to make informed and valid
decisions that are in the best interest of gifted students. Ford (1991) shares Gilson‟s
thoughts about the essentialness of collecting valid and reliable programmatic data, as
well as, student data that address the placement process, the effectiveness of teaching and
counseling, the benefits to students, and the student outcomes (academic, affective and
social).
The administrative leadership must take care in establishing policies and practices
that promote equity and excellence for all gifted students. Furthermore, they must
intentionally focus on the culturally and linguistically diverse students to ensure they
have equal access to the same opportunities as their White and Asian peers, to alleviate
the imbalance in representation (Ford et al, 1997; Ford & Webb, 1994). This imbalance
can only be corrected through a concerted effort of leadership and counseling.
Counselors
As previously stated, counseling is essential to the well-being of gifted students
(Coangelo, 2002). Attention to counseling the gifted dates back to the mid-1920s, when
40
Terman and Hollingsworth studied the psychological, social and emotional needs of
White gifted students. It became clear that gifted students had just as many needs, if not
more, that merited consideration. It took another three decades before a real interest took
hold with the work of Rogers (1991) followed by programs established by research
groups. In the 1980s, counseling gifted females, minorities and the issue of
underachievement rose in importance, as did special needs students in the 1990s
(Coangelo, 2002). Forasmuch as increased attention was showered on the counseling
needs of gifted students, counselors at the high school level have been delegated to the
role of scheduling/programming, monitoring graduation requirements, assisting teachers
in behavioral or academic interventions and testing. It is rare that one finds the counselor
who is providing preventative counseling in small group or individual sessions focused
on the social and affective development of the gifted learner of any race or ethnicity
(Coangelo, 2002).
The lack of counseling attention for gifted African Americans students is more
complex and involves more than just a lack of time on the part of counselors. African
American students present unique and individual difficulties that generally fall into one
or more categories of academic, social, and emotional development. These students deal
with issues that are culturally-based and affect every interaction that occurs at school
(Ford, 1995a, 1995c). Counselors have the ability to prevent, counteract and resolve
many of these dilemmas, if they actively promote the students‟ overall well-being. They
also have the power to affect the placement and sustained participation of gifted African
Americans in gifted programs at the high schools.
41
Counselors must possess cultural competence in order to begin to address the
needs of gifted African American students. They need to have an awareness and
understanding of the learning, communication and interaction style of African Americans
students (Ford, 1995a, 1995b). They also need to be aware of the social and affective
issues that gifted African Americans deal with from their peers, teachers, siblings and
parents, each with their own enduring influence. With the majority of high school
counselors being of the middle-class White majority, they have to make a determined
effort to begin to understand why African American students, especially males, do not
seek their assistance. This group of disenfranchised students, as a case in point, is in need
of the most assistance to avoid what Renzulli, Reis, Hebert and Diaz (1995) describe as
“victims of educational suicide” (p. 61). African American students tend to believe that
counselors cannot help them with many of the issues they face, in particular, those that
are racially-based. Being culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of gifted
learners is the first step to counselors ensuring that gifted African American students
remain in gifted programs (Ford, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c).
Teachers
Despite their status in society, teachers play a decisive role in decisions that affect
students for the remainder of their school career. Special education and gifted education
are the two best examples of this phenomenon. Culturally diverse students have either
been over-diagnosed or under-identified, respectively, in the two programs whose labels
create the most dissonance (NRC, 2002). Once students are placed, teachers spend the
greatest amount of time with students and should, therefore, exude the most energy in
making the learning experience meaningful, relevant, appropriate and engaging. The
42
knowledge, skills and abilities of the teacher have an enormous bearing on the academic,
affective, and social development of students. It is in this awareness, recognition and
understanding of one‟s own prejudices, personal biases, and discriminatory practices that
teachers will need to reflect, reconcile and readjust their attitudes, perceptions and
behaviors towards gifted African American students in the high schools.
The negative conditions described are documented in many research studies
regarding teacher referrals and recommendations of gifted students. Ford (1995a) shares
that as far back as 1959 in a study by Pegnato and Birch, junior high teachers erred on
both sides by failing to nominate gifted students, yet also nominating average students.
Van Tassel-Baska (1989) revealed that teachers frequently use the wrong criteria for
nominating students. In some circumstances it is the teacher‟s perceptions or
expectations of a child that shape the decision (Ford et al., 2008). Data from Mims (as
cited in Ford, Baytops & Harmon, 1997) indicate that minorities are under referred and
Ford (1996) communicates that teachers fail to see the strengths in students who do not
look, act or live like them. This lack of support for minorities, chiefly African Americans,
creates the underrepresentation that in 1992 was at 43% and is still present in 2009. It
also affects the placement and continued participation of gifted African American
students in advanced academic services at the high schools.
Teaching practices may have something to do with the lack of desire of African
American students to continue in gifted programs. Culturally, most classroom
interactions do not fit the learning style of African American students (Moore III et al.,
2005b). Ford et al. (2008) has determined that as a culture, African Americans are very
social, vocal and tactile learners, yet the curriculum and strategies used are very
43
“monocultural or ethnocentric” (p. 297). Gifted African American students are subjected
to classroom experiences every day that do not relate to their cultural heritage or their
learning style. Butler (2003) refers to this phenomenon as “cultural contradictions.” This
would indicate that teachers must possess cultural competence, so that they can begin to
distinguish relevancy and appropriateness of learning experiences for the gifted African
American student. This cultural sensitivity would also begin to address the low
expectations that teachers sometimes have for African American students and change the
deficit thinking orientation that can result in teachers making incorrect and improper
requests for students to be removed from gifted programs (Ford et al., 2008; Moore III et
al., 2005b).
Establishing a teacher-student relationship that promotes achievement is one of
the cornerstones to gifted African American students remaining in a program. Ford and
Harris (1996) found that gifted African American students who had positive relationships
with teachers did better in school. This is supported by the work of Steele (1997) and
Ogbu (2003) who established that when African American students did not feel that they
had caring, supportive relationships with teachers, they faced negative stereotyping or
“stereotype threat” (Steele, 1997, p.613). This concept defined, is the threat that others'
judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them and lead students to
effectively disengage from school. This is a double-edged sword for the gifted African
American facing the frustrations of being African American and gifted.
Teachers can play a significant role in recruiting, identifying and teaching gifted
African American students if they are willing to learn more about gifted education and
the cultural nuances of their students (Ford, 1994). Understanding the richness of what
44
these students have to offer can produce new possibilities for a different kind of thinking
– one that respects and appreciates the contributions of the gifted African American
student.
Administrators, counselors and teachers all have the capacity to inhibit or promote
the participation of gifted African American students in gifted programs or other
accelerated services available at the high school level. How they relate to the students
carries tremendous weight towards the end goal of student achievement and personal
growth. Each plays a principal role in the academic, affective and social perceptions and
growth of the student.
Conclusion
Advanced academic services are a commodity at the high school level, typically
reserved for the mainstream, and historically limited for culturally and linguistically
diverse students. A focus on equity and excellence continues to challenge the lack of
progress in the achievement of African American students, especially those who have
been identified gifted and have experienced success in the elementary and middle school
environments. In order to ensure that gifted African American students have all their
academic, social and affective needs met, school personnel must engage in relevant
professional development that includes both gifted and multicultural education. They
need to be proactive and pay attention to the identified students who enter the high school
ready to participate in advanced services, actively find a way to tear down the barriers
and provide consistent, relevant support to promote their placement and participation.
“The time for turf protection has long passed and the time for thoughtful consideration of
how best to support the access of all students is upon us” (NRC, 2002, p. vii).
45
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The concern regarding the underrepresentation of African American students in
gifted and talented programs has been the focus of numerous articles (Ford, 1994, 1995a;
Ford et al., 2008; Moore III et al, 2005a). The research regarding the retention of these
students in advanced academic services at the secondary level is not readily available,
and when addressed, the deficit has been attributed to one of three causes: (a) the social
emotional needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students, (b) familial concerns
regarding the students‟ well-being, and/or (c) the underperformance demonstrated in
classrooms (Ford et al., 2008). Along with these causes, there is also a belief that several
non-cognitive variables contribute to the scarcity of gifted African American students in
gifted programs (Hebert, 2002; Moore III et al, 2005a).
This study investigated the perceived reasons for placement and/or participation
of gifted African American students in advanced academic services in the high school
setting. Preliminary data showed that there is a disparity between the percentage of
African Americans in the general population and African American students receiving
advanced academic services (CDE, 2009a, 2009b). It also sought to illuminate the
perceptions of gifted African American students‟ high school experience from their own
perspective.
The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, the study explored the potential
societal, institutional and human factors that impact the placement and participation of
gifted African American students in the high school programs that provide advanced
46
academic services. Second, this study sought to discern the experiences of the
participants as they partake in their course of study, whether it includes advanced
academic services or not. To direct the purpose of this study, the following research
questions were established:
1. What factors affect the placement and participation of gifted African American
students in the advanced academic services offered at the high school level?
2. How do gifted African American students perceive their high school experience?
a. How do the interactions with the adults (teachers, counselors, program
coordinators and administrators) at school impact their desire to
participate?
3. How does placement affect the academic, affective and social development of
gifted African American students who are and who are not participating in
educational services consistent with their identified needs?
The results of this study offer firsthand information that can assist educators in
better understanding the experience of the gifted African American student in high
school. The results can be utilized as contribution to the research that has sparked interest
in the last few years regarding the retention or continued participation of gifted African
American students, in the high school context. The findings can also inform district and
school level policy makers about the factors for placement and participation that impact
the experience of gifted African American students. Finally, it supports the need for more
research to ensure that the status quo, meritocracy and biases that exist in society, do not
filter into schools to create a haven of inequities.
47
Research Design
Case study has been utilized for nearly 35 years to shed light on educational
practices and is a suitable methodology for dealing with critical problems of practice
(Merriam, 1988, 1998). When case study is well-designed, it can result in a rich and
holistic account of a phenomenon and can produce meaningful insights, discoveries
and/or interpretations. The case study as the prime strategy for this research was used to
develop theory which illuminated educational policy and/or enhanced educational
practice (Bassey, 1999). Buchanan and Feldhusen (1991) suggested that “case study
methods hold great promise for helping to bridge research, theory, and practice within the
field of gifted education” (p. 175). While the information learned was not conducive to
creating a scientific generalization, it provided a deeper understanding and clarity of a
phenomenon.
Case study research has always been an ambiguous concept in a manner of
speaking. In 1934, Waller described it as an artistic process, which Simons (1996)
correlated with her stance of being the way an artist communicates enduring truths about
human conduct. Kemmis (1983) described it as being in the imagination of the case and
the invention of the study, while Cohen and Manion (1989) speak of it as observations of
an individual unit to delve into a phenomenon and make a generalization about the larger
population to which the unit belongs. According to George and Bennett (2005), the most
common understanding of the term is that it is research that investigates the properties of
a single phenomenon, instance or example, a simplistic idea of a rich design. Robert Yin
(1994), who is the most well-known researcher in this field, defines case study as:
48
An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
its real life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon
and context are not clearly evident and copes with the technically distinct
situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data
points and relies on multiple sources of evidence with data needing to
converge in a triangulating fashion and as another result benefits from the
prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and
analysis (p. 13).
Stake (1995) held a similar view with the specificity of case study being a single
case (individual, group of phenomenon) under study, to better understand the wholeness,
particularity and/or complexity of the circumstance. Although case study has a range of
meanings, there are similarities across the research when discussing type, design, case
selection, methods and sources, even with the use of different and diverse terms.
The special features of a case study also support the use of this research design.
Merriam (1998) refers to three features described as particularistic, descriptive and
heuristic. The importance of a case lies in what is revealed about the phenomenon, what
it is in particular that might cause the problem or circumstance. It also focuses on how
specific groups of people address particular problems faced in everyday occurrences.
Through rich, thick description of information, a case study can reveal the complexities
of the situation. Additionally, a case study may illuminate previous unknown variables or
insights that affect the manner in which the phenomenon really occurs, making the
heuristic quality of a study particularly significant.
Accordingly, the overall intent of this case study was to be intrinsic and
descriptive, in nature. The research on the retention, or continued placement and
participation of gifted African American students in gifted education was minimal and as
such, basic information regarding this phenomenon was of interest, particularly, the
49
description within the context of secondary education (Hancock &Algozzine, 2006). For
this case, in particular, no theory existed for the discrepancy in placement and
participation of gifted African American students, thus giving room for the research to
conceptualize a possible hypothesis through interpretation of the data collected.
Sample and Population
Students from the Long Beach Unified School District were selected as a potential
population, because of the district‟s record of successful achievements. In the 2008-09
school year, the district educated 28,162 high school students of which 4,873 were
African American students. (CDE, 2009b). Purposeful sampling was used to promote the
selection of “information rich cases whose study would illuminate the questions under
study” (Patton, 2002, p. 46). In order to gain information-rich cases, a snowball or
network sampling was utilized. Patton (2002) says this strategy involves identifying
participants or cases of interest from “people who know people who know people who
know what cases are information-rich, that is, good examples for study, good interview
participants” (p. 243), thereby maintaining the credibility of purposeful sampling which
convenience sampling would have defeated.
The study was originally designed to include students and school personnel in
LBUSD and presented to the University of Southern California‟s (USC) Institutional
Review Board (IRB) for approval. One step of the process required approval from the
district through their approval process. The researcher submitted the appropriate
documentation, which included an Application for Permission to Conduct Research in the
District and the proposed study. Due to budget cuts and the district‟s desire to limit
impact on district staff and schools, only required research studies were being supported;
50
therefore, the original study was denied. LBUSD personnel in the Research Department
allowed a revision of the study to be resubmitted, which focused only on students, under
a new set of guidelines, which included the following statement:
The Long Beach Unified School District has been a pioneer in the
approval of large numbers of Applications to Conduct Research in the past
because we believe research will ultimately improve our practices. But,
due to significant budget cuts within the district with more on the horizon,
only a very limited number of proposals will be approved this school year.
Subsequently, the researcher received an email stating, “A review of your revised
application to conduct research…has been conducted. This email notice is to inform you
that at this time, we are unable to approve your application to conduct research in the
Long Beach Unified School District.”
The researcher contacted the IRB at USC to determine if the revised research was
a viable option, if the sampling methodology was changed, and all research was
conducted during non-school hours, off school grounds, and with a clear statement on all
documents which asserted that there was no connection to a district or school. The IRB
determined that this was acceptable, contingent upon the researcher satisfying all requests
for further information to clarify the steps to be taken to ensure that LBUSD would not be
impacted in any manner (i.e. no recruitment to occur at school, parents to receive packets
in U.S. mail, etc.). After a stringent review process which included the IRB
Administrator, the study was approved.
Due to the nature of the case selection process in the revised study employing the
use of snowball sampling, a key informant was obtained. The key informant, who was the
researcher‟s daughter (per IRB approval) and a gifted African American student
attending a school in Long Beach Unified, provided the first contacts, two students who
51
fit the criteria for the study. She provided the names for one male and one female to assist
the researcher in having both genders to initiate contact. Because the researcher was
working with students, the phone numbers that were given belonged to youth who were
under the age of 18. This required an additional protocol to be developed, and approved
by the Institutional Review Board, that allowed the researcher to call the student and ask
for his/her parent (see Appendix A). The parent was provided an explanation for the call
and asked to supply their home or email address. Parents were told that they would
receive a packet in the next few days and asked permission to speak to the student again.
At this point in time, the researcher asked the student to refer another student. The first
three referrals agreed to receive the packet containing the recruitment letter
(introduction), the parent consent form, and the youth assent form, which was mailed
within 24 hours (see Appendices B, C and D).
The researcher continued to follow the IRB approved protocol each time a student
was referred. However, the process ceased after the fourth student, because the parents
did not return the phone call; therefore, a student referral was unavailable. The researcher
went back to the original referring student and acquired an additional name. Although it
was another female, it allowed the process to begin again. In this particular case, the
parents‟ phone number was made available, so the researcher spoke to the parent.
Unfortunately, the student never responded with a referral, and progress was halted again.
To ensure timeliness in collecting data, the original student was asked to generate a list of
15 potential students, who were believed to fit the criteria, based on her participation in
her current placement and in her previous middle school gifted program.
52
The researcher faced other obstacles as the attempt to obtain participants
continued. First, female students kept referring female students, as they had each other‟s
phone numbers readily available. The females did not have any male phone numbers.
One female simply asked one male for his parents‟ names, sharing that she was
participating in a study that he might be interested in and explaining that the researcher
wanted to call his parents to ask permission to mail a packet.
The researcher began to use alternate methods, including a people search engine
on the Internet to obtain parent phone numbers and addresses, as well as obtaining cases
of interest from adults with knowledge of the study criteria. When a male name was
given, the researcher used the student‟s name to search for an address or phone number,
based on the probability that the student was named after the father.
As the process moved forward, more than two-thirds of the students referred by
others, had to be eliminated. Although the students were participating in the programs of
advanced academic services, they were not identified gifted. This was discovered as the
researcher contacted parents or when one student spoke to another student to share that
they would be giving the researcher their name. Students did this of their own accord; it
was not requested by the researcher.
The researcher received a better response from the cases of interest recommended
by adults. A volunteer coach from a Pop Warner football league was able to connect the
researcher with a parent who tutors athletes. This parent is the mother of two gifted
African American students and was also able to provide the name of another parent with
a student who fit the criteria. Both parents were contacted using the IRB-approved script,
one by email, the other by phone. They were sent the packets and both sets of parents and
53
students were interested in participating, adding three additional students to the three
already committed. A phone call was made to ensure that they all received their packets
(see Appendix E).
At the end of five weeks, a sample of six gifted African American students was
obtained, one male and five females, who fit the criteria for the study. Since the findings
from this research were not going to be used to create a generalization, the sample size
was adequate. Creswell (2008) and Patton (2002) suggest that the number of participants
in qualitative research can span the range of anywhere from five to twenty-five. Patton
makes very clear that “Sample size depends on what you want to know, the purpose of
the inquiry…and what can be done with the available time and resources” (p. 244). Table
4.1 provides the results for the snowball sampling effect that occurred.
Student Referral School/Program
Carnation Sallie Poly/CIC
Sallie Student A (non-responsive) Poly/PACE
Carnation Ashtrid Lakewood /Merit Scholars
Ashtrid Student B (non-responsive) Lakewood/Merit Scholars
Non student referral (parent
volunteer)
Parent of Alex/Clair Poly PACE
Alex/Clair Carter Lakewood/Merit Scholars
Table 4.1: Results of snowball sampling for obtaining sample population
The students came from two schools: Long Beach Polytechnic High School
(Poly) and Lakewood High School. Poly is located in central Long Beach, in an area that
is so densely populated that almost half of the city‟s high school population lives within
its boundaries. In 2008, Poly housed 4,756 students of whom 1,319 were African
American or 27.7% of the student population. African Americans were also the largest
ethnic demographic at the high school out distancing Hispanics by .7%, Asians by 4.0%
54
and Whites by 15.8%. Although no district statistics were kept delineating the number of
gifted students at any of the high schools, a logical assumption was that Poly also had a
high concentration of African American gifted students.
Lakewood High School, in contrast, is located in the city of Lakewood on the east
border of the city of Long Beach. It has a more suburban-like atmosphere than the more
urban setting of Poly. In 2008, Lakewood housed 4,297 students of whom 666 were
African American or 15.4% of their student population. Both Hispanics and Whites
outnumber African Americans by 14% and 13.9%, respectively (Ed-Data, 2010).
It should be noted that Poly High School is highly regarded in the community and
has the distinction of having two of the most prestigious and popular programs in the
district, the Program of Additional Curricular Experiences (PACE) and Center for
International Commerce (CIC). The Program of Academic Curricular Experiences is
described on the school‟s website as follows:
PACE is the essence of AUTHENTIC college preparatory education. We
exist to ensure that our students will enter college as the best prepared in
their class. This is made possible by the combination of a highly skilled,
highly dedicated PACE faculty, a 9
th
and 10
th
grade curriculum designed
to put in place the educational foundations needed to succeed in the most
sophisticated Honors and Advanced Placement classes in the nation during
the junior and senior years, and a student population that has elected a
high school educational route of authentic rigor. PACE alumni will tell
you that this educational approach has given them the skills they needed to
achieve their post-high school educational, professional, and personal
dreams. It is not inappropriate to note that the only student in Long Beach
to see the world from the top of Mt. Everest is a PACE graduate.
A statement on page eight of the LBUSD GATE plan reports that the PACE
program at Poly High School provides a small learning community for gifted and
potentially gifted students (LBUSD, 2010a).
55
The second specialized program at Poly, The Center for International Commerce
(CIC) is an international studies honors program that addresses the needs of gifted and
high achieving students who are university bound. CIC offers students a challenging,
seven-class curriculum of accelerated, honors, and AP classes and takes great pride in its
language program, offering Japanese and Chinese, languages more commonly taught at
the university level. Moreover, CIC‟s Japanese language program is the largest program
of its kind in the continental United States (LBUSD, 2008-09).
With a proven record of success for more than three decades, hundreds of eighth
grade students apply each year for a limited number of placements. Both programs have
requirements that detail student eligibility, yet due to popularity of the programs and the
reputation of the school, even the unqualified tend to apply.
Lakewood High School also offers two specialized programs, Merit Scholars and
Applied Technology Magnet, commonly known as ATM. The informational sheet
provided to eighth grade students in their school of choice packet provides the following
description:
Merit Scholars is a rigorous college preparatory program committed to
preparing students for university level work. In preparing students for
higher education, the Merit Scholars curriculum exceeds the UC/CSU
admission standards. All students are required to take a minimum of three
Advanced Placement courses. Students who excel will not only be
prepared for the college of their choice but will be acclaimed Magna,
Summa or Cum Laude upon graduation. Ninth grade requirements
include: 3.3 GPA, academic preparation for Algebra 1, standardized test
scores in the top quartile, satisfactory attendance, and good citizenship.
Like Poly, Lakewood‟s second program, the Applied Technology Magnet has its
own distinctive focus. It is a program designed for students to increase their academic
and technology skills. It has both university and technology bound pathways to
56
accommodate students‟ varying needs and levels. Students prepare throughout their four
years for a culminating project in which they present a digital portfolio of their work, in
their senior year. Although, students are also selected through the competitive admissions
process, their eligibility criteria states that, “students may enter the program in their
freshman year with average reading ability and an interest in computer/technology”
(LBUSD, 2010b). To ensure student success, the program provides a mentoring program
beginning in the freshman year that takes students through the transition to post
secondary education.
While the six gifted African American students were from only two of the eight
high schools, they represented three of the four programs: Poly PACE, Poly CIC, and
Lakewood Merit Scholars. A profile of each student is presented in chapter four.
Instrumentation
Focus Group Interviews
A focus group interview was utilized to provide qualitative information that
yielded data that could not be derived from a questionnaire. It provided the opportunity
for participants to respond to questions, interact with each other and stimulate one
another‟s thinking (Lichtman, 2006). Krueger and Casey (2000) have recommended that
focus groups consist of six to eight participants, because smaller groups show “greater
potential” (p. 656). The semi-structured or guided focus group interview process allowed
participants to provide free and open responses to a set of questions that “encourage
capturing of respondents‟ perceptions in their own words…,” (Flechtling, Sharp &
Westat, 1997, pp. 3-5) in order to obtain the emic or insider‟s perspective (Merriam,
57
1998, p. 6). The nature of the focus group enhanced the data quality, acting as a system of
checks and balances that eliminated variant views (Krueger & Casey, 2000).
Patton (2002) also elucidates the fact that the group dynamics associated with
focus group interviews allows members to hear the responses of their peers and add to
their own comments. Ideally, a sense of camaraderie and a lack of vulnerability are
created, which increases the likelihood of candor and honest responses. More
importantly, the use of focus groups for this research allowed for exploration of the issue
of placement that promoted the retention of gifted African American students (Morgan,
1997).
The question of reliability and validity of an interview is widely contested
according to the research presented by Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2000). Both concerns
were addressed through careful formulation of questions, which included avoiding
leading questions; eliminating interviewer bias, and sampling. For example, open-ended
questions were crafted to permit students to express their perceptions using words of their
choice, instead of words that lead them to a conclusion the researcher might want. In
addition, as close-ended questions were developed, care was taken to avoid using jargon
or language that would have implications for a particular response.
The researcher used a semi-structured interview guide that was composed of a
grand tour question to begin the discussion followed by questions specifically designed to
have students respond about their knowledge, feelings, background, experiences,
behaviors, opinions and values. All of the questions were open-ended and probes were
used to elicit responses and ensure students responded in depth (see Appendix F).
58
Use of the focus group interview process enhanced the researcher‟s knowledge
regarding gifted programs for the African American student and reduced the researcher‟s
perspective (Lichtman, 2006).
Questionnaire
The questionnaire, as a data collection strategy, is one of the easiest, least
expensive and most popular choices in research (Munn & Drever, 1991). It allows for
anonymity and standardization, while requiring sufficient time for design - “A well-
designed questionnaire yields unambiguous information and a good response rate” (p.
17). The questionnaire utilized contained a combination of closed and open-ended
questions, which allowed some data to be quantified and provided respondents the
opportunity to develop their own ideas (Munn & Drever, 1991).
The overall design of the questionnaire focused on the students‟ knowledge of
giftedness, their perceptions and attitudes toward being gifted and their perceptions of
how their giftedness affects their social and affective interactions with peers and school
adults (see Appendix G). The initial section of the questionnaire asked for demographic
or background data for each student. This data included grade level, current grade point
average, details of elementary and middle school enrollment/placement, eighth grade
eligibility information and sibling participation in advanced academic services.
The second section of the questionnaire provided 10 statements which the student
was asked to rate on a Likert scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
They were asked to select the answer that best describes their point of view or
perceptions. The statements spanned a series of concepts including placement,
59
participation, and high school experiences. Three true/false statements were also included
to acquire information about their parents‟ participation in their education.
The third section of the questionnaire addressed perceptions regarding the
academic, affective and social effects of the educational services which gifted African
American students received from their personal perspectives. The final section of the
questionnaire asked open-ended questions that were used to gather in-depth information
that provided more detailed data for the case study. This also served the purpose of
addressing time and ethical constraints, sample size and supported the strategy of
purposeful sampling.
Reliability and validity of the questionnaire was addressed through the
maximization of the response rate, and the nature of the sampling (Cohen et al., 2000),
while credibility was addressed through the expert review in the pilot study described
below.
Document Review
A third data collection strategy that focused on the review of relevant
documentation was planned to triangulate and strengthen the validity of the data. The
participants did not have the requested documents readily accessible, with the exception
of the California High School Exit Exam, which the sophomores and junior were able to
produce. All students self-reported their level of proficiency on the California Standards
Tests in English-Language Arts and Mathematics, as advanced proficient and /or
proficient.
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Pilot Study
To increase the reliability and validity of the questionnaire that was utilized with
the students, an expert review was conducted (personal communication, S. Kaplan). Ten
experts, with verifiable credentials in gifted education, met to review the questions that
were developed for the students. The experts conducted an examination to ensure that the
questions addressed the research questions and provided relevant data. As a result,
content validity was addressed as well as the idea of credibility. In short, the expert
review addressed the following:
Validated the relevancy of the questions;
Assisted with redesign of questions, when needed;
Determined procedures for focused interviews and questions;
Checked the correctness of the statistical and analytical procedures for the data
collected, and;
Developed and implemented the questionnaires to determine the logistics of
administration and collection
Information from the pilot study helped define the resources needed to perform
the full study in terms of time, cost, and data management (Simon, 2008).
Data Collection
A mixed methods design was used to gather the data for this study. Neither
qualitative nor quantitative methods of data collection can give a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomenon in question (Patton, 2002). Therefore, qualitative
research in the form of a focus group interview provided the primary data necessary to
61
answer the research questions. At the same time, quantitative information derived from
the survey of both open-and closed-ended questions provided additional sources of
information (Creswell, 2008). The qualitative and quantitative data were simultaneously
collected from participants in the study. To facilitate the collection process and minimize
the time commitment, the two techniques for data collection occurred in a two-and-a- half
hour time period or less.
The intent of any interview is to make the setting as natural as possible (Morgan,
1997). After two postponements, the focus group interview took place in a familiar
location, a local library which the participants had visited at least once. The researcher
met the parents as they dropped off their children. Parent and youth assent forms were
collected and/or signed and parents were asked to remain nearby. In addition, they were
provided a gift card to a local coffee house to utilize as they waited for their children to
complete the study. The parents returned to pick up their children at the end of the
designated time period.
A separate, quiet room was reserved for use in order to promote confidentiality
and to achieve high quality of the audio and video-taped session. A second researcher
was present for two purposes: (a) as an African American male, he was there to ensure
that the male participants were comfortable, and (b) to take notes and observe for non-
verbal data. In addition, a videographer was present to ensure quality video was captured.
The focus group interview was also audio-taped.
Students were reminded that they were selected to participate in the interview
process, because they met the criteria of the study. The criteria were shared with students
and they were given the option, once more, to continue or leave. Further explanation of
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how the interview would be conducted was clarified. The students were also told that the
role of the researcher was to facilitate or moderate the conversation, rather than
participate in the discussion (Patton, 2002).
Due to other extracurricular activities that coincided with this activity, three of the
six students did not attend the focus interview. They did, however, reschedule for an
interview session with the researcher. One female interviewed alone, while the other two,
one male and one female, joined the researcher in a two person group interview the
following week. The same procedures were adhered to in these sessions to ensure
students were aware that they still had the option not to participate.
The students completed the questionnaire immediately following their interview
session. They were given as much time as they needed. In addition to answering the
background questions on the program they are currently enrolled in and their grade level
for placement in high school, they were also asked to provide a pseudonym to be used in
the reporting of the data and subsequent interpretation of the data.
Data Analysis Strategy
Data collection and data analysis for qualitative research is a recursive and
dynamic process that occurs as data is collected and more intensively, when collection is
completed (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 2002). Nonetheless, qualitative analysis is much more
challenging than quantitative, because there are no hard and fast rules (Patton, 2002).
Furthermore, “the process of qualitative analysis aims to bring meaning to a situation
rather than the search for truth focused on by quantitative research” (Rabiee, 2004, p.
657).
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The major strategy used for analyzing the data was Kruger‟s (1994) framework
analysis approach, as a means to help the first-time researcher manage the complex
nature of the data. To move from the raw data into interpretation, five concepts guided
the work: familiarization; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping
and interpretation.
In order to become as familiar as possible, the data were reviewed several times
by listening and viewing the audio/videotapes before, during and after they were
transcribed, by reading the transcripts repeatedly in their entirety, and by re-examining
the summary notes that were written after each set of interviews.
The next three concepts of identifying a thematic framework, indexing, and
charting were completed in an adjusted sequence. Using a computer-based approach to
coding, the interview responses were assigned a specific color associated with each of the
research questions. As the researcher sifted through the data, quotes were read and a
systematic process used to ensure relevance to the purpose:
1. Did the student answer the question that was asked? If yes, see question 3. If not,
see question 2. If not sure, put it aside and review it later;
2. Did the student answer a different question in the interview, through the
response? If yes, code it to the appropriate question. If not, see question 3;
3. Did the student‟s response say something of importance to the topic? If yes, code
it to the appropriate question. If not, put it aside;
4. Does the response mirror something that was said earlier? If yes, code it and place
it under that question; if not, put it aside.
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Once the quotes were all color-coded, three copies of the transcripts were printed.
The four research questions were written on large pieces of Post-it chart paper and hung
on the wall. The transcripts were then cut apart and sorted by color-code. Next, each pile
was sorted through once more. The quotes were re-read and categorized by the themes
that began to emerge. The color-coded quotes were then placed with the relevant research
question, theme by theme, and labeled accordingly.
The final analysis of mapping and interpretation looked at the data not only as
individual cases, but also as a single case, searching for relationships and links between
the data as one. The data were subsequently examined using criteria set forth by Krueger
(1994) that included examining words, context, internal consistency, frequency and
extensiveness of comments, specificity of comments, intensity of comments, and big
ideas. An example for each criterion is given below:
Words: In considering the actual words used and their meaning, the word “label”
came up for all students in the discussions. They used it to describe how they were
perceived by their peers, rather than as a descriptive word that is simply used to describe
a person or group.
Context: When the researcher asked the students about pressures they may feel as
gifted African American females, one student‟s response influenced the context in which
additional comments were made.
Frequency and extensiveness of comments: All of the students spoke at length
about their parents and the assistance that has been provided to them.
Intensity of the comments: The most intense comments occurred when students
spoke about their feelings of isolation and being the only African American in a class.
65
There was still an even greater intensity when the four students in PACE and Merit
Scholars spoke of the perceived treatment that they experience from their non-African
American peers, in the classroom.
Internal consistency: Based on data, there was an internal consistency throughout
the discussions. Students did not change in opinion or position about any topic.
Specificity of responses: The students stayed very specific in their responses. They
did not pose any hypothetical situations or speak in generalities, which strengthened the
researcher‟s ability to use their responses.
Big ideas: The interview data were comprised of three separate interview
sessions; however, one big idea that transcended the various discussions was the impact
that counselors have on the students‟ high school experience.
This process proved beneficial because it allowed the themes to develop from the
participants‟ input and experiences, as well as from the research questions (Rabiee,
2004). The questionnaire, as a secondary source, supplemented the qualitative data and
served as text that supported the findings (Creswell, 2008).
This framework analysis of the case study provided answers to the research
questions and brought clarity to the concept of the gifted African American student who
participates in the advanced academic programs. In addition, the analysis provided extra
data regarding the process of gaining access after the first year. The findings are
presented in Chapter 4.
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CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS
The process of qualitative analysis aims to bring meaning to a situation rather than the
search for truth focused on by quantitative research (Rabiee, 2004)
Introduction
The achievement gap between White students and other ethnic groups continues
to dominate the educational discourse of educators and policy makers at all levels of
government. While attention is typically focused on contrasts between groups, little
attention is given to the gaps that exist within groups, particularly in the sphere of gifted
education (Kaplan, 2008; Slocumb, 2008). Despite gains in recruitment, identification
and placement that are notable at the elementary level, the placement, participation, and
retention of children of color, in secondary education, remains problematic. The purpose
of this case study was to investigate the factors that influence the placement and
participation of gifted African American students in advanced academic services at the
high school level. Similarly, there is very little research directed at the experiences of
high-achieving African American students in urban school environments, particularly
from an additive perspective (Butler, 2003). The study also sought to elucidate the
perceptions of these high school students who may or may not be currently participating
in advanced academic services.
The overall intent of this case study was to be descriptive in nature. At the same
time, the particularistic and heuristic features of a case study were used to guide the
communication of the rich, in-depth descriptions (quotations) that best capture the
experiences of the participants (Merriam, 1998). Just as Patton (2002) stated, the group
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dynamics associated with focus group interviews allowed for camaraderie and candor,
when participants responded to questions. The interactions provided the opportunity for
participants to share particular details that illuminated their thoughts, beliefs, opinions,
experiences and the facts surrounding their lives as gifted African American high school
students.
The goal of Chapter 4 was to analyze the data derived from interviews and a
survey instrument that contained questions and statements designed to gain information
about the experiences, thoughts, beliefs and facts pertaining to participants‟ engagement
in gifted education and advanced academic services. To this end, the following research
questions were addressed:
1. What factors affect the placement and participation of gifted African American
students in the advanced academic services offered at the high school level?
2. How do gifted African American students perceive their high school experience?
a. How do the interactions with the adults at school (e.g., teachers,
counselors, program coordinators, administrators, etc.) impact their desire
to participate?
3. How does placement affect the academic, affective and social development of
gifted African American students who are and who are not participating in
educational services consistent with their identified needs?
Population
Profiles
The sample population was composed of six gifted African American students
attending two high schools in the Long Beach Unified School District. Four students
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attended L.B. Polytechnic High School, while the other two were enrolled at Lakewood
High School. To get a better idea of who participated in the study, a profile for each
student follows. The names of all students are pseudonyms, which were self-selected.
Alex, a junior, was the oldest participant in the group. He participated in the
Program of Additional Curricular Experiences (PACE) program at Poly High and played
for the basketball team. His cumulative university grade point average was 3.78 and he
had completed four Advanced Placement courses. He passed the California High School
Exit Exam (CAHSEE) last year with a score of 450 in English-Language Arts (including
a 3.5 on the written essay) and 447 in Mathematics. Recently, this researcher learned that
Alex was offered and accepted a basketball scholarship to the University of Southern
California.
Clair, a freshman and Alex‟s sister, also participated in PACE. Also an athlete,
she played tennis for the school. As a freshman, she completed a course of study with
several accelerated classes and earned a 4.0 grade point average in her first year of high
school.
Sallie and Carnation, both sophomores at Poly, participated in the Center for
International Commerce (CIC) program. They met in middle school and have been best
friends ever since.
Sallie, a quiet, yet, spirited student, excelled in dance and theater. Her sister also
attended Poly and was a 2010 graduate. She earned a GPA of 3.7 and recently passed the
CAHSEE, with a score of 445 in English-Language Arts (including a 3.5 on the written
essay) and 450 in Mathematics.
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Carnation, like Alex and Clair, was an athlete at the school; her sport was soccer.
As a freshman, she was placed in the math/science academy where she achieved a 3.85
grade point average. As a participant in the accelerated curriculum of CIC, she earned a
4.0 grade point average for the year. She passed the CAHSEE exam with the highest
possible scores: 450 in English-Language Arts (including a 4 on the written essay) and
450 in Mathematics, missing only three questions on the entire exam of 152 questions.
The final two participants were enrolled at Lakewood High School and both were
Merit Scholars. They were also sophomores and attended elementary school together.
Carter went on to Hoover Middle School and participated in their gifted program,
Accelerated Learning Program (ALP). The fourth athlete in the group, she played
basketball and ran track. As a freshman, her GPA was 3.86.
Ashtrid was in the Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program
at Marshall Middle School, a college preparatory curriculum. Unlike the other five
students, Ashtrid‟s parents were immigrants to the United States from the Virgin Islands
and Nigeria. Her CAHSEE scores were unavailable.
While this sample population was small, Creswell (2008) and Patton (2002)
suggest that the number of participants in qualitative research can span the range of
anywhere from five to twenty-five. Patton makes it clear that “Sample size depends on
what you want to know, the purpose of the inquiry…and what can be done with the
available time and resources” (p. 244). This study sought depth, not breadth, to obtain
information rich cases.
Table 4.2 offers a brief description of the gender, grade level, and current grade
point average (GPA) of the participants:
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Gender Grade Current Grade Point Average
(GPA)
Category Male Female 9 10 11 4.0 3.86 3.7 3.6
Number 1 5 2 3 1 2 1 2 1
Table 4.2: Frequencies by gender, grade and current grade point average
Early Placement
All of the participants were identified as gifted during elementary school. The
process of identification in the Long Beach Unified School District was initiated in one of
two ways. Either a teacher nominated the student to be screened for gifted placement or
the Office of Gifted and Talented Education (GATE Office) recognized that they had
significantly advanced standardized test scores. The counselor at the school site
completed a “Referral for Gifted Identification” (LBUSD, 2010c) and reviewed student
data that included grades, reading scores on the district‟s benchmark assessment, scores
on district math, language arts and writing assessments and California Standards Tests
(CST).
Long Beach uses multiple criteria, with a weighting system, which allowed for
additional characteristics to be considered when evaluating a student. Appendix H
provides a sample of the most current form for students in grade five. The assessment
process began with the administration of the Cognitive Abilities Test, a test of verbal
reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and non-verbal reasoning. Four scores were achieved,
one for each area and a composite score. Additional measures considered in the process
included CST scores in English-Language Arts and Mathematics and district tests in
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reading, language arts and math. Points were earned for each measure depending on the
degree of achievement. Points were also earned if students were reading, both fiction and
non-fiction, significantly above grade level, as measured on the district‟s Benchmark
Reading Test. In addition, points were gained for exceptional creativity, leadership or
extraordinary development in the arts, as evidenced through documentation. Long Beach
even considered significant medical, economic, or second language acquisition factors
that might impact educational performance. All of the criteria were scored and to be
identified gifted, each student had to earn a score of ≥ 10. Students were identified under
the classification of intellectually gifted or by high achievement. Once identified, the
students remained as such for elementary and middle school placement in GATE
programs. The LBUSD GATE Philosophy Statement describes what identified students
can expect, “When participating in a differentiated curriculum, bright, talented students
will become analytical thinkers, creative producers and practical problem solvers”
(LBUSD, 2010a)
Table 4.3 shows the school and program that the students attended in elementary school.
Elementary School and Program
Category Gant GATE Bixby GATE Signal Hill
SHARP
Number 2 1 3
Table 4.3 Frequencies by elementary school and gifted program
All elementary schools followed a scope and sequence of differentiation that
adhered to the GATE standards, therefore, the program at Gant and Bixby were similar in
nature. The differentiation strategies of compacting, depth and complexity, scholarliness,
universal themes, independent study, models of instruction, think like a disciplinarian,
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thinking skills, and tiered assignments were all available for use. Signal Hill‟s program
also used such strategies; however, this program was also a magnet funded program.
Therefore, additional monies were allocated to enhance the early research capacity of
students.
Middle School/Program
Category Hill
RISE
Hoover
ALPS
Hughes
TAP
Marshall
AVID
Number 2 1 2 1
Table 4.4: Frequencies by middle school and gifted program
Table 4.4 shows the placement of the six participants in their middle school
programs. All of the students reported their continued participation in gifted education
while in middle school. However, upon review of the information, the AVID program
reported by one student (Ashtrid) was not considered a gifted program, but is designed to
prepare students for success in four-year colleges and universities. The program includes
rigorous coursework, tutoring and an AVID-elective course focused on organization,
study skills and critical thinking (AVID, 2005). According to a recent district posting,
Marshall‟s AVID program earned the prestigious honor of being a National
Demonstration Site, which only six other middle schools among 285 in Los Angeles
County share. While the program did not carry the label of gifted, its success in providing
rigorous classes and achieving a pattern of exceeding state expectations on tests,
presented an equivalent alternative based on the purpose of gifted and high-achieving
programs (LBUSD, 2010a).
As in the elementary environment, secondary schools were also provided a scope
of sequence of differentiation to employ the same strategies with more advanced and
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rigorous student outcomes. Both the elementary and secondary versions of the scope and
sequence can be found in the Appendices (See Appendix I and J).
High School Placement
The six participants attended two high schools, Lakewood and L.B. Poly. Each
had a program designated as gifted/high achieving in Merit Scholars and PACE. Poly
also had CIC which is considered a “special program” (LBUSD, 2010b). In the most
recent high school application for eighth grade students, these programs were all referred
to as specialized programs. Regardless of the distinction, identified gifted African
American students were participating in environments that expected them to perform at
levels consistent with their demonstrated ability.
High School and Program
Category Lakewood
Merit Scholars (2)
L.B. Polytechnic
PACE (2)
L.B. Polytechnic
CIC (2)
Academy Focus Rigorous College
Preparation
Authentic Rigor for
University Success
Academics and World
Economy
Provides University
“a-g”
Exceeds Exceeds Exceeds
Differentiation
Strategies
Depth and
Complexity, Models
of Instruction,
Thinking Skills,
Universal Themes,
Scholarliness
Depth and
Complexity, Models
of Instruction,
Thinking Skills,
Universal Themes,
Scholarliness
Depth and
Complexity, Models
of Instruction,
Thinking Skills,
Universal Themes,
Scholarliness
Honors or Accelerated
Courses
Yes Yes Yes
Advanced Placement Minimum of 3 Minimum of 3 Minimum of 2
Foreign Languages Spanish, French Spanish, French,
German, Japanese,
Chinese
Japanese, Chinese or
French
Career Connections Multiple Pathways N/A N/A
Technology Focus No No No
Table 4.5: Characteristics of high school advanced academic services programs
Table 4.5 provides some of the characteristics of each program, as reported by
students and/or as found on the school district website, http://www.lbschools.net or in
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other district documentation. The common characteristic of differentiation strategies is
consistent with the District GATE Plan, as is the opportunity to take Advanced Placement
courses. The differences found in the foreign languages offered and the focus of each
academy provided variation that made each program somewhat unique.
Four of the participants shared that they were placed in the program they chose, as
indicated on their high school choice application. One of the tenth grade students (Carter)
shared that “I actually didn‟t pick Lakewood Merit Scholars; I picked Poly PACE, but
my GPA which was 3.6, wasn‟t high enough (italics added).” The other student
(Carnation) who did not get her first choice either reported that, “My first choice was
Poly PACE, my second choice was Poly CIC and then, I think, Poly Beach. And I got
into Beach.” The following year, she was placed in CIC. “Throughout my 9th grade year,
I kept my grades up and I got, I think, one B and the rest were A‟s and so I applied for
CIC (again) and they denied me. My mom called the principal and they put me in
PACE.” Carnation was actually one of the two students that participated in CIC, which
came about because, “I didn‟t have the summer work done for the history class (because
of the late placement) and then the environment is totally different. …, so I spoke to the
PACE counselor about my concerns and she moved me to CIC.”
Methodology
A case study methodology was used for this research study, because it allowed
the researcher to use three features: particularistic, descriptive and heuristic. The
particulars that are involved in the problem of placement and continued participation of
gifted African American students in advanced academic services were revealed. The
manner in which students have addressed specific problems faced in their everyday
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occurrences was illuminated and rich, thick description of the information was used to
reveal the complexities of the issues. Finally, unknown variables and insights that affect
the manner in which the phenomenon, placement and participation of gifted African
American in advanced academic programs occurred were shared through the students‟
perceptions.
A focus group interview was utilized to provide qualitative information that
yielded data that could not be derived from a questionnaire. It provided the opportunity
for participants to respond to questions, interact with each other and stimulate one
another‟s thinking (Lichtman, 2006). However, due to personal commitments and time
conflicts for three participants, there was one individual interview held and another two-
person interview on three separate dates.
The questionnaire, which had a Likert scale which could have been quantified,
reported in the descriptive narrative, as the small sample size was not sufficient to
achieve anything statistically significant (R. Keim, personal communication, June 9,
2010).
To analyze the raw data from the three interview sessions, Krueger‟s 1994
framework analysis was utilized to guide the analysis. Interview responses were color-
coded by research question and sorted by the patterns demonstrated in the responses.
Upon reviewing the statements a second time, any responses that did not clearly fit the
pattern were discarded or placed with another research question where there was a clearer
fit. The final analysis led to the creation of themes or categories that depicted the
experiences of the participants. In addition to the data from the interviews, the data from
the survey instrument were used as a correlate of information. Each of the 24 items was
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analyzed separately, providing response frequencies, and also analyzed conceptually to
generate inclusiveness within the emergent themes.
Presentation of Findings
Research Question
What factors affect the placement and participation of gifted African American
students in the advanced academic services offered at the high school level?
The first research question examined the factors that affect placement and
participation of gifted African American students; therefore, these two distinct issues
were addressed as separate categories or concepts.
Placement
The questionnaire contained a section which asked students to indicate the factors
that they believed impacted whether or not a student was placed in programs for
advanced learners in the high schools in LBUSD. The results are displayed in Figure 1.
GPA
Tests
Gifted
Ethnicity
Gender
Essay
Counselor
Sibling
No Interest
Figure 1. Possible factors for placement in advanced academic services/accelerated
programs
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Using an inverse effect for the information found in Figure 1, students believed that grade
point average (GPA); California Standards Test scores; written essays, which are required
of some programs; and interest in participating were the strongest factors for placement.
In addition, three students believed that ethnicity, being identified gifted, and input from
the middle school counselor have some effect. One student in CIC felt that a sibling‟s
previous success or failure contributed to placement and one student in Merit Scholars
felt that gender was an indicator. None of the factors was selected by all six students.
One of the interview questions specifically asked students if they had applied to
the program for gifted and achieving students when they selected their choice of high
school programs. In particular, it was important to know if they knew the eligibility
requirements; just as important was whether or not there had been any circumstances,
situations or people who had influenced their decision.
Grade point average.
According to published criteria in the High School Course Selection Guide
utilized by the Long Beach Unified School District (2008-09), students must have a
specific grade point average to apply for the specialized programs offered at each of the
high schools. Three of the female students mentioned this concept. Sallie knew that “you
had to have a certain grade point average.” There was concurrence from Carter, who
stated that “you would also have to have a specific GPA to get into that (program of
choice).” Carnation felt that her grade point average, an earned 3.85, would have easily
qualified her for placement in her program of choice, after her freshman year.
While there are research studies that have been conducted on the achievement of
African American high school students and the concept of GPA, the focus is typically on
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the theories of underachievement as a source of data, instead of high achieving students
(Moore III et al., 2005b; Ford, & Harris, 1996; Ford & Webb, 1994).
Human influences.
Having attended four different middle schools before deciding upon a high
school, the participants experienced various institutional and/or social influences, as they
chose their school and program of choice. Four of the six participants all spoke of a
common theme – the influence of other people, especially, friends. Alex remembered
that:
There were a lot of people in our neighborhood, a lot of the kids went to
Saint Joseph Elementary School and a lot of them were kind of funneled
into Wilson. So, you got a lot of Wilson minded people saying
Distinguished Scholars is the way to go and stuff like that. But I had
heard PACE is rigorous with long hours and massive amounts of work and
I had heard about people staying up an “X” amount of hours into the night.
Clair also had friends who went to Wilson who told her, “That‟s (PACE) going to
be really hard, and you‟re going to have no life and you‟re just going to be miserable in
that.” Carter was offered various opinions:
A lot of the older kids who were in Merit Scholars or knew about Merit
Scholars went to Lakewood and Poly too. When I was applying they were
saying that it‟s going to be challenging, if I play sports. So, they were
telling me that it‟s going to be hard for me to balance out the sports and
the study level.
While peers seemed to be providing the most advice in terms of quantity of work,
adults at the middle school offered their own insight. This was a positive experience for
Sallie who said that “a lot of the counselors actually were very helpful.” Carter shared
two opposing perspectives, one positive and the other more negative:
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The teachers always encouraged us, but there was one counselor and she
was telling me that it‟s going to be a challenge and she doesn‟t know if my
GPA will be as high or will be that high, because it is considered higher
learning.
This latter response validated the research on counselors and teachers becoming
the gatekeepers of secondary programs, thereby denying equity and access to advanced
academic services (Ford et al, 2008). Ashtrid and Sallie were placed into the program that
they desired. As Ashtrid proclaimed, “Merit Scholars at Lakewood was my first choice,
so I got right in.”
Continued Participation
Once gifted African American students were placed into programmatic strands of
high school advanced academic services, the challenge continued. Ford (1994)
maintained that African Americans face social, cultural and psychological forces that
impede their motivation to remain. Although none of the participants have chosen to
leave their program, concerns regarding access to Advanced Placement classes and
diversity in the classes and programs were constant frustrations. In contrast, the resiliency
of the students in the face of adversity speaks highly of their commitment to their own
achievement. Yet, of all the themes that emerged from the interview data, the
participants‟ acknowledgement of parents and family encouraging their sustained
participation was the most consistent theme.
Access to advanced placement.
All of the participants agreed that AP classes have been a part of their program of
study and in most cases, is a requirement. The problem is, as defined by Sallie, “some
people can‟t take APs until like their junior and senior year, if they aren‟t in one of the
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identified accelerated programs.” Based on students‟ responses, even the study
participants have faced difficulty with enrolling in Advanced Placement classes, despite
the national trend to provide more opportunity. Ashtrid was told by her current English
teacher,” I don‟t want you taking AP English next year.” Carnation shared her beliefs,
based on her own experience, ” I don‟t think that they‟re (AP classes) open to everybody,
because you have to be getting an A, and also if your grade isn‟t higher than one student
you can get crossed off the list, because there is a limited amount of space.” These
situations are in direct opposition to the philosophy of the College Board, who has
encouraged the elimination of barriers that restrict access to AP courses. Specifically, the
organization has said that schools should make every effort to ensure that the ethnic,
racial, and socioeconomic diversity of their student population should be reflected in the
courses that they offer (College Board, 2008). Data from the 2007 administration of
Advanced Placement examinations and graduation rates clearly showed a major
discrepancy between the percentages of graduating seniors by race compared to the
percentage who took the AP exams. According to the data, African American students
were the most underrepresented race among examinees by approximately 50% (Whiting
& Ford, 2009). This discrepancy matched what is seen in the representation of African
Americans in gifted programs.
For example, in the 2006-07 school year, Lakewood Merit Scholars had 38
African-American students out of a total of 587 gifted and high achieving students in the
program. Poly PACE and CIC, had 50 African American students out of 675 students and
105 African American students out of 657 students, respectively (program coordinators,
personal communication, 2007). In the same year, data for Advanced Placement
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enrollment for African American students in the district showed a rate of 8% for
Lakewood and 14% for Poly (LBUSD Office of Research and Evaluation, 2007).
Although the researcher did not have access to the specific enrollment and examination
data for the 2008-09 school year, if the rate of participation coincides with the number of
African Americans being identified gifted (729 in 2006-07 and 764 in 2008-09), the data
may not show a significant increase in Advanced Placement participation rates either.
Diversity.
As gifted African American students, all participants stated that they had
experienced a lack of diversity in a class or their program. Alex lamented as he spoke of
his experience:
I think I‟m the last African American male in PACE in my class. When I
came in there were like three or four, I think, and I believe all of them
transferred to CIC. There‟s one kid that transferred schools, but I think
I‟m the last one in my class. I know there are a couple of seniors, but I
think I‟m the last one in my (junior) class. So that‟s a great deal of
pressure in the sense that it‟s almost like I‟m fighting a war for the
brothers or whatever.
Carnation preferred to change from PACE to CIC. She found that in PACE,
“there wasn‟t enough diversity.” However, in CIC, “there‟s like so many different races.”
Sitting alone in class, Ashtrid disclosed that she often thinks, “where‟s everybody else,
why aren‟t they in these kinds of classes with me?” Carter observed how this lack of
diversity weighs on the achievement of her African American peers. She explained, “In
my class of 2013 Merit Scholars, there are only four to five Black people and that‟s it.
I‟m friends with all of them, and at least three of them are failing.” The students‟
experiences are a reflection of the limited studies that have been conducted in this area.
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Ford (1998) reviewed two decades worth of the trend of underrepresentation of
African American, Latino and American Indian students in gifted education and found
that there has always been this lack of diversity. Four years later, data from the U.S.
Department of Education‟s Office for Civil Rights revealed the continued poor
representation of students of color, labeling it discrimination in school settings and gifted
programs. Karnes, Troxclair and Marquardt (1997) examined 38 complaints or letters of
finding in a study they conducted regarding gifted programming. They found that almost
half (n=17) pertained to discrimination ranging from identification of gifted students,
placement in gifted programs and/or admission to gifted programs. According to Ford et
al. (2008), the lack of attention to retaining culturally and linguistically diverse students
in gifted programs and AP classes contributes to the underrepresentation we continue to
face.
Resilience.
Of all of the themes that arose during the interviews, the most intriguing was the
level of resiliency each of the six students exhibited in their responses to several
questions. Reis, Colbert & Hebert (2005) defined resiliency as an individual‟s ability to
adapt successfully to difficult, challenging, or threatening environments and experiences.
Five of the six students have experienced a lack of support from an adult at their school,
either a teacher or an athletic coach. Despite the manner in which that adult responded to
them, including making discouraging comments, none of the students ever spoke of
leaving their program. Ashtrid recognized that being in her program gives her an
advantage and Alex added that, despite the challenges:
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I am glad that I am in the program that I am in, because I know it will
prepare me for my future. And I know that when I go to college and
whatever job I have in the future, my background in high school will help
to prepare me for that.
In a review of the literature, research describes the gifted African American
student who possesses a strong sense of self, who has learned to negotiate the system and
has the persistence and courage to push ahead (Ford, 1996). Students who are resilient
use challenging circumstances as a source of motivation to maintain their own
expectations, set goals, find solutions and become socially competent (Wang, Haertel, &
Wahlberg, 1994). These six students were prime examples of the very type of student
who possesses the resilience and strength to achieve in spite of all the factors that are
typically discussed in research that tends to focus on the deficiencies of adolescent
African Americans (Trusty, 2002).
Parents and family.
A predominant variable of affect for the students and their continued desire to
participate in advanced academic services was the role of parents and family. Of the six
participants, four of them live in a two-parent household, while two of the females have
been raised by a single parent – the mother. Each participant has one sibling, except
Carnation, who has three siblings. All of the parents have an educational level that
includes a high school diploma and some amount of postsecondary education. As
reported on the survey instrument of each participant, students indicated that their parents
are very involved in the educational experience at the high school and have always been
involved in their education. For example, when it came to applying for the advanced
academic program that he is in, Alex stated that advice came from all directions, and not
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all of it was supportive. Alex acknowledged the role of his parents, “My parents knew
that it was the right program for me and that it would help me for the future. So, we
made the right decision in placing me there.” In contrast, Carnation did not get placed in
her program until her sophomore year, after “my mom called the principal.” She went on
to explain that she had no doubts that she was capable of the work and would do well, as
she described her support system, “My whole family helps, because I think everybody‟s
really smart and even if they can‟t help me, I kind of have like a second family because
of the relationships that my brothers have made and brought into our family.” For Alex,
his parents each play a pivotal role:
My dad is definitely the – we call him the athletic coordinator. My mom„s
academic. He‟s been kind of my trainer, my coach, for most of my life
and stuff. It‟ll be funny, let‟s say I do poorly on a test or something like
that and it shows up on School Loop and my mom and I will talk about it,
stuff like that. We‟ll discuss it. So then a week later he‟ll go on and check
it. He‟ll be like, what‟s this, and it‟s like Dad, we already talked with
mom about that and it‟s already taken care of.
Clair, Alex‟s sister and also a participant in the study elaborated on the role of their
parents:
My mom, like she‟s always been the academic person. My dad is more
into sports. He still cares, but my mom has always been there for us, any
subject she will try her best to help us. She‟s always encouraging us. I
remember last year when he (my brother) was a sophomore and he was
having a really hard time and he was like, „I want to go to CIC,‟ and she
was like, „No, you‟re not going to do it, you‟re just going to stay in here
and it will all be good in the long run,‟ and stuff like that. My parents are
always encouraging. All our other family members are so proud of us,
that we were able to be in the PACE program.
Conversely, when students were asked if their parents left their education up to
the people at the school, five of the six participants gave the response of “false.” Ashtrid
did not respond to this question, but offered the following comment: “I used to just do
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everything by myself, but now that I am in high school, I ask my parents for help and
they‟ll be able to help me.”
There is a growing body of research on the impact of parents on the scholarly
achievement of their children. In a review of the literature completed by Stewart (2007),
she cited 13 studies that have shown that African American parental involvement in a
child‟s schooling positively impacts the academic achievement of that child. Stewart
elaborated on the involvement of family and claimed that “the home environment itself
plays a role in the extent of persistence and achievement of an individual in any particular
endeavor.” (p. 20) Moreover, in a longitudinal study, Wu and Qi (2006) found that of the
varying aspects of parenting that might affect the achievement of African American
students, the most consistent and influential factors were the parents‟ beliefs and
expectations for their children‟s “highest educational attainment” (p. 426). They also
discovered that the family structure (i.e. type of household) had little significance and
parent involvement in school had limited significance. Furthermore, they discovered that
the socioeconomic status of families, while a powerful predictor of school achievement is
not significant enough to minimize the impact of parents‟ beliefs and expectations.
Finally, and perhaps the most critical, was the resilience and perseverance of parents, as
they participated in their children‟s education.
While numerous variables for placement and participation provide insight into the
opportunities students have for accelerated achievement, the critical nature of this study
was found in the research questions that follow. They centered on the students‟
perceptions of their own experiences in advanced academic services at the high school
level.
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Research Question
How do gifted African American students perceive their high school
experience?
Perceptions of the High School Experience
The second research question was designed to ascertain the perceptions of the
gifted African American students as they described their experiences through the
responses to the interview questions and several questions on the questionnaire. When
students were asked to rate their perception of whether they were enjoying their high
school experience as a gifted African American, three students strongly agreed, two
agreed and one took a neutral position.
The most prevalent concepts that evolved from the interview consistent for all of
the students were perceived as follows:
1. Middle school transition
2. Gifted identity
3. Isolation
4. Peer relations
5. Being prepared for future endeavors
6. The learning environment
7. Elements that would make a difference
The middle school transition.
In this study, 84% of the respondents participated in a middle school gifted
program that was selected by their parents. One student participated in the AVID
program at the middle school, which provided a college-preparatory environment;
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however, this student may not have experienced the same strategies employed by
certified teachers of gifted students. As students in GATE classrooms, the five other
students were provided an identified curriculum that imparted critical thinking skills
using depth and complexity, as well as, content imperatives to extend and expand their
abilities (LBUSD, 2010d).
As these students moved into high school, being identified gifted did not offer the
advantages that the students enjoyed in their previous school years. The six gifted African
American students enrolled in two different high schools and were placed in four
different programs of study. Regardless of the academic setting, as an adolescent, each
had to deal with the typical adjustments that many young teens experience in a new
school environment, such as fresh academic expectations and an unknown social milieu.
Carter was critical of the high school orientation, that she felt she did not receive, which
would have prepared her for the rigor of high school. Based on her perception, high
school teachers should ensure that students have the tools necessary to provide a strong
beginning. For example, she stated that as her new math class began, the teacher should
have demonstrated, “how to use the calculator in Geometry”. She continued with her
concern:
Most of the teachers in my school think you know it and some of the kids
don‟t…on the calculators there are a lot of different things especially
coming from middle school where we couldn‟t use calculators. We had to
use our scratch paper and now having calculators, I don‟t know what all
the buttons mean. So the teacher says all you have to do is this and I‟m
like, it‟s not that easy.
Ashtrid described her surprise at the change in her own expectations for what was
necessary to succeed in high school:
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In middle school, I never had to study for a test, because I always got it.
And then in 9th grade, it was just a whole big „nother world! In high
school, you have to study more often; you really have to pay attention to
what the teachers are saying.
Sallie found little difference between the two environments other than instructional
strategies that were more interactive in middle school, as well as the demeanor of the
teachers. She made the following comparison, “It‟s more serious in high school – middle
school teachers are more laid back.”
The research on the transition from middle school to high school is limited;
however, the National High School Center has studied and researched best practices that
are designed to support the transition of students to the high school learning environment.
Research shows that a student‟s experience in their freshman year has a profound effect
on their success throughout high school and beyond (Williams & Richman, nd). It is
typically a time characterized by a decline in attendance and grades (Barone, Aguirre-
Deandreis & Trickett, 1991). Yet, based on the data, these gifted African American
students did not experience this degeneration in their academic pathways; they made the
necessary adjustments and continued working to their ability.
The gifted identity.
In the opinion of three of the six students in the study, the concept of giftedness
was viewed as a label. Carter and Clair thought that the term should be changed, so that
other students didn‟t feel inferior; Alex thought the term should be more inclusive
beyond just being academically gifted. All of the students felt that they were labeled as
the “smart kid,” and sometimes found themselves battling an opinion of their peers. Clair
stated, “They think that I possibly think that I‟m better than them.” This was a consistent
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attitude that all of the gifted African American students have had to endure. The students‟
responses led to the next question, which ensued into a discussion between Carnation,
Ashtrid and Carter. It should be noted that the intensity of the discussion increased during
the verbal interaction:
Inman: “As an African American female, what pressures do you face being
gifted?”
Carnation: “I feel like people would expect me to act ghetto.”
Ashtrid: “Yea.”
Inman: “Tell me more.”
Carnation: “Because Poly is in a not a bad area, but not in the best area.
And so most kids, I don‟t know how to explain like ghetto though.”
Ashtrid: “Like most kids think that African Americans, all African
Americans are one way. Like other nationalities think that all African
Americans are loud and should be wearing like-”
Carter: “short shorts.”
Ashtrid: “that expose themselves.”
Carter: “and always around boys.”
Ashtrid: “Yea”
Carter: “And they wanna like be…”
Ashtrid: “And they don‟t care about school and they‟re fast and all of that,
but that‟s not true, because that‟s not like how everybody is.”
In a separate two student interview, Clair echoed the same sentiment about pressure,
saying that it comes:
Probably from peers, and seeing other African American females around
me and how they‟re not in PACE for CIC or something like that. And
how it seems that they look at you differently like you‟re a nerd or like you‟re just
not as cool. Like you focus on the books rather than doing the fun stuff. So, that‟s
how I think it is.
In fact, Carter used the same term to describe how the gifted are referred to by peers,
adding the term “geek.” This garnered a great deal of laughter in the focus group
interview.
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Five of the six students strongly disagreed when asked if they would prefer not to
be identified as gifted on the questionnaire. The other took a neutral stance. They
validated their responses during the interview, citing the benefits of being gifted and the
pride they had in their abilities.
Much of the research regarding high-achieving and gifted African American
students references the sociological standpoint of Fordham and Ogbu (1986) who
discussed how African American students must deal with the accusation of “acting
White” and therefore do not always achieve to their potential.
During the interviews, none of the students presented this viewpoint as a pressure
that they face. On the contrary, they seemed to feel that they must “act Black” based on
the reactions of females, but not males. Alex said his African American friends have
accepted his gifted status, “I have a lot of friends that are very accepting and know how
smart I am.” Yet, he did have pressure from another aspect that he shared, “But there are
some underlying currents also among teachers.” When adults are unable to integrate
giftedness and African American students into a consolidated mind-set, one of the
concerns becomes the cultural competence of those individuals. Ford and Whiting (2008)
cited the 1988 work of Cross on cultural competence in which Cross outlined a
continuum of responses to cultural differences from cultural destructiveness to cultural
proficiency. When cultural proficiency is achieved, African American students will no
longer be stereotyped and labeled as anything more than gifted by the adults who matter
in their development.
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Isolation/aloneness.
Statewide data for the 2008-09 school year (CDE, 2009a) provided a profile that
supports the feelings of these gifted African American students, who have participated in
programs that traditionally lack diversity in race and ethnicity. Table 4.6 displays the
statistics related to this issue looking at total student enrollment.
LBUSD
District
Total
American
Indian or
Alaska
Native Asian
Pacific
Islander Filipino
Hispanic
or Latino
African
American
White (not
Hispanic)
Multiple
or No
Response
19 1,150 122 652 2,892 764 2,398 110
Los
Angeles
County
Total
American
Indian or
Alaska
Native Asian
Pacific
Islander Filipino
Hispanic
or Latino
African
American
White (not
Hispanic)
Multiple
or No
Response
409 25,425 634 6,292 61,668 7,866 36,885 1,241
California
Statewide
Total
American
Indian or
Alaska
Native Asian
Pacific
Islander Filipino
Hispanic
or Latino
African
American
White (not
Hispanic)
Multiple
or No
Respons
e
3,318 94,890 2,972 22,924 163,439 21,340 213,866 10,865
Table 4.6 2008-09 statistics for gifted enrollment by ethnicity for state, county and
LBUSD (CDE, 2009a)
Data showed that the number of African American students being identified as
gifted in the district was less than 10% of the total population in Los Angeles County. In
contrast, the population of gifted students who were White, Hispanic, Asian and Filipino
was above 10% of the state level for each ethnicity. With these statistics, it stands to
reason that these six students would often find themselves being the only African
American in a classroom or in the company of very few others. For many it becomes a
very lonely existence day after day. For example, Carnation shared, “I get tired of being
the only Black kid.” During the interview, all of the students shared the loneliness that is
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felt; nonetheless, it doesn‟t deter them from wanting to be a part of what they each
believe they deserve. They want to be treated just like any other gifted student. Alex‟s
remark was indicative of each student‟s belief in him/herself, when he said, “I feel like if
I come to class and I carry myself like I deserve to be here, then that‟s how people will
treat me, and they‟ll give me the respect that I deserve.” Regardless of how alone they
each might feel, their desire to participate outweighs the occasional frustration of
isolation.
Grantham and Ford (2003) discussed the feelings of loneliness and isolation that
students face particularly when their high achievement is not accepted by their peers.
However, none of the students‟ perceptions correspond with this issue. The students‟
responses indicated the issue was about relationships. Grantham and Ford (2003) also
stated in their work that “mutual understanding and respect between White students and
racially diverse students and between White school personnel and racially diverse
students is necessary” (p. 24). To achieve this, it will require a concerted effort
particularly from counselors and teachers to learn about African-American students in a
holistic manner.
Differential treatment by peers.
The gifted African American students who participated in this study were
acquired using a snowball or network effect (Patton, 2002). It was only after we met for
the focus group interview, that we discovered the connections that existed. For example,
Ashtrid, Carter and Carnation all attended the same elementary school and participated in
the gifted program there. Over the years, Ashtrid and Carnation have remained friends,
despite their different pathways. Ashtrid and Carter attended the same high school and
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were in the same program. Carter, Clair and Alex shared a social connection through their
parents‟ friendship. The collective group demonstrated the connections that are made
among gifted students that transcend life‟s changes.
For many students, high school is a time for reuniting with elementary and/or
middle school friends and peers. At times, the pressures that students have felt extend
beyond dealing with being labeled, or the expectations of acting a particular way. Peer
relationships can have more of an influence on how students achieve than other
relationships. For these students, however, the peers that they spent most of their time
with aren‟t their friends, but were their classmates. In this circumstance, peer
relationships have had an entirely different effect. Carter offered the following account:
I‟m considered one of the higher African Americans and a lot of people
don‟t think that I should be. So when I go into class a lot of the time they
kinda look at me and they question if I do my homework - like other races
will question if I did it right. Then if I try to help them, they‟ll say, „Oh I‟ll
just ask the teacher, you don‟t have to help me‟ and I know what I am
talking about, but they don‟t believe me.
This sequence of questions and probes was especially relevant to Carter, so she
continued to talk about her interactions with her peers:
I think a lot of the children if you didn‟t go to the same middle school or
you don‟t know each other from the same sports team, you‟re kinda
distant away from them, unless you push yourself to go talk to them. A lot
of the kids just do their work and then, they‟re unsociable after that. They
just read or sit there. They don‟t say things like, „Oh hey, I saw you in my
Biology class.‟ They just look at you when you say hi, and they‟re like
„hi.‟ It‟s like they‟re not, they don‟t want to be your friend, and they just
think you‟re an associate… They‟re not really friends, unless you make it
that they‟re your friends. They‟re just there. Like they‟ll help you, but
after the bell rings, they‟re just like people walking around.
Similar to the research of Hallihan and Williams, Stewart (2007) proposed that
peers have more influence when they are close friends and/or acquaintances. This
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influence can be positive or negative, depending on the peer group. Ashtrid made the
same point, as she commented, “In high school you wanna hang out with people who are
determined to have a life; they know what they want to do in the future.”
Carter also shared that the treatment by peers sometimes borders on hurtful:
Yeah, a few people have actually asked me „How are you so smart and
you‟re Black, African American?‟ People think - I‟m in Merit Scholars
and I‟m African American. They think I must cheat, I must copy, but I‟m
not. And they‟re often shocked, so you have to prove them wrong, a lot of
the time.
Ford, et al. (2008) have illuminated, in their research, the “deficit
thinking” orientation that is perpetuated in society. When this idea becomes
entrenched in our institutions, it hinders growth in policies, practices, personnel,
and in students.
Preparation for life.
Students indicated their satisfaction with the program in which they are placed
and had participated and felt that it gives students an academic advantage now and in
their choices for college. While they didn‟t all strongly agree with these two statements
on the questionnaire, they were all in agreement. When students were asked about the
strengths of their educational program during the interview, four of the six felt that they
were being prepared for the future, academically, personally and professionally. Sallie
stated that ongoing preparation for the SAT essays and Advanced Placement
examinations are in alignment with the message that is sent. “They (the school personnel)
are always talking about life. They don‟t talk about high school requirements. They talk
about the UC requirements and stuff.” Ashtrid was of the same opinion, “you have the
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opportunity to take a lot more APs, and you can finish your first year of college while
you‟re still in high school.” The others concurred with this and Alex added:
I know that when I go to college and whatever job I have in the future, my
background in high school will help to prepare me for that. I know people
personally that have come back and said, „Oh, if you go through PACE,
college is easy.‟ And that‟s kind of what I look forward to. Not that I‟m
looking to take a break, but just looking that, yes, I‟m in a rigorous
program and, yes, I know next year is going to be tough just like this year
is tough, just like last year was tough. It all has a purpose and I‟m glad to
hear that in the end, there‟s a reward. There‟s a light at the end of the
tunnel and that a college diploma is within reach and I won‟t be like some
of the other kids who kind of took a lighter load in high school and now
have to load up in college or have to struggle and go through that,
because I want to be able to enjoy my college experience, just like I‟ve
been able to enjoy high school.
The learning environment.
Throughout the interview, the cognitive and affective values, as well as abilities
and interests of the students became even more evident with particular questions. As they
talked about the way things were in their school, program or classes, the importance of
their learning environment was apparent. Sallie wished, “the classes were more fun. Most
teachers just put up a Power Point and talk.” The lecture strategy was a unanimous dislike
for all six students. Clair and Carter were clear about their preference for working with
others. Clair, who is a freshman, acknowledged:
I personally like group work and not being alone. I‟m not one to be like
all on my own figuring out one problem, unless I know the material well.
But I like discussions too, and getting in and making it more comfortable
and not so much on the spot and you specifically have to get it right.
Carter, the other ninth grade student, affirmed this idea as she shared:
I think I‟d have more, like in Spanish, we call them AB activities where
you work with your partner a lot just so that we can talk to each other and
learn about each other‟s lives, because those are probably going to be the
people that are gifted and be there with you throughout your whole high
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school. So I‟d have more partner activities, more days where you can just,
not sit and talk, but debate against each other and interact with one another
more.
Alex, the only junior in the group, touted that he enjoys being able to “think
outside the box” and being encouraged to have discussions. He said, “So it‟s kind of cool
in the sense that everyone is allowed to contribute ideas and I think that‟s what creates
new lessons and makes everyone smarter in the end.” Carnation also felt that the
“advanced classes with better teachers that actually teach the students instead of just
giving them work to do and expecting them to learn it on their own,” enhanced her
learning environment. Carter and Ashtrid have endured more of the “lecture and reading
out of the book” and in particular, Ashtrid did not find this conducive to her learning. She
explained, “With some teachers, they don‟t really use the books like they‟re supposed to
and then they do their test based on the book. She further clarified, “We read something
that was not in the book and then have a test on something that was in the book…”
Ashtrid also stressed her unhappiness with her inability to participate in supplemental
activities:
Well it‟s not like all the other SLCs at our school. They have, I forgot
what you call it, not meetings. They have assemblies in the auditorium all
the time. Since I have been in Merit Scholars, we haven‟t had our own
assembly, we don‟t get together, we don‟t go on field trips, like all the
other SLCs. They just want you to focus on school. They don‟t even do
college trips like all the other SLCs do.
Sallie contended that she‟s also missing out on the same type of activities. She
explained, “Well, we don‟t do very much in our academy; like some of the other
academies go on field trips and a lot of stuff and we don‟t, so that‟s a downer.”
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From the responses, one can look to the findings of research by Van
Tassel-Baska (2005a) which stated that gifted students need multiple
interventions rather than a single feature. Using mostly lecture without other
instructional interventions is in direct opposition to this research. It is also in
opposition to the learning styles, influenced by culture that African American
students appreciate. Use of strategies and activities that allow for movement,
expressive individualism, social time, oral tradition and communalism are more
likely to meet the needs of gifted African American students (Moore III et al.,
2005b). Carter and Clair specifically spoke of such activities when they voiced
their desire to have more social and cooperative learning occur.
Desires.
Like any developing adolescent, these six gifted African American
students had their own desires to make their learning environment more
conducive to their needs. When asked if there were any weaknesses about their
program, two-thirds thought that classes were too crowded; two-thirds felt that
they needed to have more activities that broadened the scope of their program and
Ashtrid proclaimed that she would, “have more African American teachers,
because at our school, there‟s only one African American in the whole school.”
The research indicates that there is a decline in the number of African
American educators who are able to serve as role models and cultural connections
(Gardner et al., 2001). The students‟ responses validated this claim and its
implications. Ashtrid went on to say, “It would be nice to see teachers that look
like us and understand what we go through as gifted African Americans.”
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Research Question
Adult-Student Interactions
How do the interactions with the adults at school (e.g., teachers,
counselors, program coordinators, administrators, etc.) impact their desire to
participate?
The role of school personnel is a critical aspect for the academic, affective and
social development of adolescents. While there are various adults that may play a vital
role in shaping the experience of students, the affect is individually personal and
holistically complex. As a subset of the second research question and a definitive
indicator of a student‟s school experience, it was imperative to know how the interactions
with the adults at school, impact a student‟s desire to participate in advanced academic
services.
Administrators.
As students began to speak about the adults at their schools, only one student
mentioned a principal. In the context of requesting placement in her sophomore year,
Carnation spoke about the situation which required her mother to call a principal.
However, no other student mentioned the administrator in the context of any question.
Van Tassel-Baska (1981) described the importance of the administration‟s stance
on gifted education, cultural diversity, and equity in determining the level of access that
gifted African American students are provided. In light of the research and students‟
responses, the reason for the absence in the discussions with the researcher, may support
Gilson‟s work on effective implementation of a gifted program (2009). Gilson identifies
the four essentials for leading an effective program: (1) placement and participation of
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students, (2) professional development of teachers, (3) a systematic plan with a strong
counseling component, and (4) program evaluation. The student responses, during the
interview, did not indicate that they perceived that these essentials were all in place at
their respective high schools.
Counselors.
During the interview, students were asked two questions which provided them an
opportunity to speak about their school counselors. First, they were asked to discuss any
adult at the school with whom they interact on a regular basis and who they feel supports
them academically, emotionally or socially. Without any hesitation, Alex spoke about his
counselor, Ms. Loggins:
I see her probably three, four times a week. Usually just passing in the
hallway, but she‟ll come in the class if she has anything to talk about to us.
Or she‟ll just call me in, but I usually pass her office all the time. I know
she really wants me to succeed…she is kind of like a second mom at the
school and she always has her eye on me. She goes to a couple of
basketball games and stuff like that. I know that she is going to do
everything in her power to make sure that I go to college and that I‟m
prepared to be successful in college. So I would probably point to her as
the one person that I can really count on most of the time.
In a separate interview session, Ashtrid referenced a counselor; however, the
counselor she mentioned isn‟t her academic counselor. Instead Mr. Winston, an activities
counselor, has made such an impact on her life that she was compelled to share:
There is this counselor at our school named Mr. Winston. He‟s an African-
American. He helps, but he is not really a counselor, he‟s not my
counselor. He always helps all the African American students, almost all
the African American kids that go to our school. You go to his office and
there are tons of them in his office and he‟s not their counselor; but, they
ask him for help and he is always there to help.
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Carter had the same reaction about Mr. W, as she called him:
He is almost like a dad at the school, because you go to his office and it‟s
almost like you‟re at home. He is always straight forward with you. He
helps you… like you pull out any type of homework and he will try to
help you or call someone on his phone and try to help you.
When I asked the students about their academic counselor, Carter and Ashtrid, who have
the same counselor, both shared their perceptions:
Ashtrid: My counselor, I haven‟t spoken to my counselor ever. Well, only
when you have to pick out your classes. You‟ll go to her office and there‟s
like seven kids waiting. You‟ll go during passing period and there‟s
always a line waiting to talk to her or she‟s never in her office. So, if I
were to want to change my classes, I don‟t know if I could, because she‟s
never there or she has a long line of students just waiting to talk to her.
Carter: My counselor, she is just kind of there. It‟s like her office is way in
the back and she‟s there if you need it and if you really need to go to her.
Then you sit and wait for the line. She is not very involved in your
schedule. Our counselor is just a person that works there.
Carnation, like Alex, attends the other high school and she also had positive comments
regarding her counselor:
My counselor is very, very supportive. Yesterday, my science teacher
asked me if I wanted to take Honors Chemistry, because I was nominated
for it. Today, when I was helping out in the attendance office after school,
she (the counselor) told me, „Congratulations, I just changed your
schedule, so you have Honors Chem.‟ And so she‟s really supportive and
fun to be around.
The research states that counseling is essential to the well-being of gifted
students (Coangelo, 2002). Yet research by Ford (1995a, 1995b) clearly shows
that counselors are failing to engage in ensuring the retention of African
Americans in gifted programs. The needs of these students are unique from both a
cultural and social perspective and require counselors to have the ability to
resolve their dilemmas and conflicts. They must have cultural competence and
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knowledge of the gifted to ensure these students do not become disenfranchised
(Renzulli, Reis, Hebert and Diaz, 1995). The six gifted African American students
provided us with descriptions of their counselors, two of whom are addressing the
needs of the students effectively. One explanation might be that the counselors are
culturally competent and relate to the students or it might be from their years of
experience. In contrast, two students stated their discontent with the counseling
that they received from their school counselor. However, they were pleased with
the assistance provided by their activities counselor, who they stated is African
American.
Additionally, counselors are in an advantageous position to support gifted
African American students. They can consult with teachers and help them identify
those instructional interventions and curriculum that will be more attractive to
gifted African American students (Price, 2000 cited by Butler, 2003)
Teachers.
When asked the same question about adult support, Clair and Sallie each
mentioned a teacher:
Clair: Mine is actually a teacher inside the classroom. She is Ms. Curry.
She‟s my favorite teacher and she makes learning really fun in the class
because she‟s young and like she‟s kind of casual and she doesn‟t have
that many rules and stuff. She knows what she‟s talking about because
people listen. She likes to do discussions, so everyone participates and we
all start thinking and she just makes learning fun while at PACE.
Sallie: Well, my drama teacher, Mrs. Hubbard… It‟s not really an
academic class, so we‟re all close in there and everything. She‟s always
talking to me about my grades and she‟s like always there for me. I can
always talk to her. She‟s someone I can always talk to.
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Throughout the interview, as students answered various questions, teachers came
up more than any other person that affects students at the school sites. Students offered
conflicting views of their interactions, which at times depended on the content area of the
teacher. English, mathematics and science teachers were mentioned most often, although
economics and drama were also brought up. Teachers that were referred to in a positive
light had the characteristics of being supportive, encouraging, helpful, challenging,
respectful, and non-discriminatory. Carnation spoke about a math teacher who is
demanding, yet fair; serious while being good-humored. Students spoke about other
teachers who demonstrated negative attributes as in the case of Clair who revealed that,
“once in awhile, I‟ll raise my hand in class or something like that and they (teachers)
always go to other people first.” Ashtrid has had the same English teacher for two years
and feels she has experienced inequitable reactions to her pattern of tardiness:
She always sends me out of class, but when I started giving her passes she
said “Oh don‟t make it a habit”. Other times, she‟ll send me to OCS (on
campus suspension) and if somebody else comes in after I leave and gives
her an excuse, she‟ll let them stay in class for the rest of the period.
Alex described his math teacher as “sarcastic, blunt and abrasive”, yet he asserted
that she does care that each student in her class succeeds. Meanwhile, he reported that
another teacher is indicative of the fact that school personnel can make false assumptions
based on their own lack of cultural competence:
My sophomore year, I was having some trouble in my English class. I
was trying to pick up my grade. I wanted to get a B. I was staying at like a
B- or C+. I wanted to get a strong B to finish the year out, and I remember
having my teacher call home, and my mother told me this. She said the
way that she was talking was as if she was afraid of what might happen, in
the sense that she said „Alex is really trying to work hard and trying to
get his grades up.‟ But the way she said it was almost as if she didn‟t
know how my mother was going to respond. If my mother was going to
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be kind of labeled as ignorant or kind of just shoot off at the mouth or if
she was going to be accepting of what my teacher had to say. So things
like that really do actually bother me, because that‟s not what my family is
like at all. Just to have people think that before they actually know that
exactly, it‟s kind of hurtful. But that kind of stuff has happened, since I
was in kindergarten.
The National Research Council (2002) believes that the interactions of the
student, teacher and the learning environment determine achievement and success.
Borrowing from the work of Cross (1988), we can look at her continuum of cultural
competence to determine how teachers will typically treat gifted African American
students (or other students of color). The students offered their perceptions of teachers
who can be described along the continuum, as destructive, incapacitated, blind, pre-
competent or in an advanced stage of cultural competence. It is through their descriptors
that we can begin to determine the real effect teachers have on gifted African American
students.
Other significant influences.
Each high school program of advanced academic services had a program
coordinator who was responsible for the organization and formal administration of their
designated program. Similar to the administrator or principal, the program coordinator
was not mentioned by any of the students. While a specific question was not asked about
this person, the lack of any discussion might or might not have meaning.
There was another category of school personnel that was made known by two of
the participants. Four of the six students are athletes and for Carnation and Carter, their
coaches have not made a positive impact on their school experience. Based on the
perceptions of their interactions, the coaches were disrespectful, rude, impolite, and have
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no qualms about making smart remarks to the young ladies. Based on their perceptions,
one played favorites and the other demanded unreasonable actions in practice.
Ashtrid and Carter stated that they have encountered more than one adult who
exuded suspicion and doubt for their gifted classification:
Ashtrid: „Even at our school like if you were to get in trouble and a
counselor or even an adult at the school will stop. They‟ll be like what
SLC are you in and you say Merit Scholars and they act like they‟re
shocked.”
Carter: “Yea.”
Ashtrid: “and you‟re like “No, really!”
Carter: “They‟ll like ask for the ID.”
Ashtrid: “Let me see your ID.”
Carter: “They‟re like “Who‟s your counselor?”
Ashtrid: “Yea.”
Nevertheless, there were other support personnel who were important to students
like Carnation:
When I don‟t have sports, I go to the attendance office, and help the
attendance clerk. She is pretty much always there when I need her, and I
mean she supports me in every way that you described.
There is no research that says that influence is limited to the authoritarian
figures at a school or institution. In Epstein‟s model of overlapping spheres,
influence comes from school, family, community and the integration of all these
components (Epstein, 1995). Therefore, it is only natural that students might have
extended support networks and/or institutional agents committed to assisting them
(Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
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Research Question
Development Consistent with Needs
How does placement affect the academic, affective and social
development of gifted African American students who are and who are not
participating in educational services consistent with their identified needs?
Gifted students need specific interventions to ensure that they are appropriately
challenged and supported. The final research question was asked to determine if
placement affects their academic, affective and/or social development consistent with
their identified needs. The questionnaire that students answered also yielded information
in this area as well as in the area of instructional interventions used by teachers and
preferred adjunctive interventions. The questionnaire asked students to respond to
inquiries regarding their point of view pertaining to their overall development. The
students all agreed that a counselor, various opportunities and their program were
meeting their needs and pushing them to grow academically, emotionally and socially.
While four students agreed that teachers were also able to meet their needs, one student
disagreed and another remained neutral. The data show that the students from Lakewood
were not as likely to agree that their needs are being met as the Poly students were, and
PACE students strongly agreed at a higher percentage than CIC students on some
questions.
Academic.
A specific question was asked of students to determine if they felt they were
learning new and interesting concepts that increased their academic growth. They all
agreed and were very open about discussing whether or not their academic needs were
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being met. The predominant answer was yes; they were pleased with the pace of the
classes, with the preparation for college and the future, and with the challenging
curriculum. Their displeasure occurred when teachers expect them to “just know it” or
“learn how to do it by ourselves” or just simply not answer a question, because they
should be able to figure it out. Equally important to what the teachers were teaching, was
how the teachers were teaching. When asked which instructional interventions are being
used, the most common strategies were exercises and projects that allow you to question
and investigate (6 responses), lessons that present higher-level skills and concepts (5
responses), use of multiple texts, materials and resources (5 responses), faster-paced
instruction during class time (5 responses), exercises and activities organized from simple
to complex that includes extending your knowledge beyond your “grade/age” (5
responses), more frequent use of discussion (4 responses), testing to determine your basic
skill knowledge to skip what you already know (4 responses), moving through the
content that you are learning at a faster pace (4 responses), combining of different
curriculum areas in lessons (4 responses), ability/skill grouping (3 responses), and
independent study or individual learning contracts (3 responses). Contrary to what should
be a frequently used strategy, based on the idea of differentiating instruction, none of the
students were experiencing lessons based on their interests or those of their classmates.
The 1972 Marland report recommended that teachers ensure that higher cognitive
processes are tapped and/or special grouping arrangements are made to meet the needs of
gifted students. Feldhausen (1989) affirmed that students need the stimulation derived
from rigor and complexity and Van Tassel-Baska (2005a, 2005b) challenged that
acceleration, while being the most controversial is the most effective research
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intervention to date. The gifted African American students in the study confirmed the
need for this academic interaction from their teachers.
As Ashtrid and Carter shared in their interview, they‟ve experienced some
annoyance with teachers believing that they should “just know it.” In 1962, The Southern
Regional Project for Education of the Gifted identified many of the cliché expressions
about gifted students‟ abilities, which was followed by the work of Ford et al. (1997) who
worked to dispel the myths that gifted culturally diverse students automatically possess
the capacity to learn on their own.
Affective
The gifted African American students were also eager to share their responses and
the reactions they have received from their teachers that affect their emotional well being.
While two of the students who are athletes shared their perceived concerns with how their
coaches treated them, they found ways to cope with this aspect. Ashtrid shared the
problems that she was having with her English teacher and said, “She just discourages me
for whatever I try to do.” When asked how it made her feel, she responded, “I don‟t like
it because I know she is treating me like something I‟m not.” She and Carnation also
talked about how on any given day, they‟ve experienced a roller-coaster of feelings as
they went throughout the day. They described feeling great in one class and going to the
next and experiencing the complete opposite. These responses led to a probe in which the
students were asked, “Do you think that the people who present you with a challenge -
Do you think it‟s because they don‟t understand students who are gifted or do you think it
has more to do with being African American?” Ashtrid felt it was because she is African
American “considering that all of the students in her (the English teacher‟s) classes are
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gifted or high-achievers.” Carter specified it is because she is gifted, since the person who
gives her the hardest time is African American. Carnation and Alex felt it was a little of
both. Alex has had to experience more of the stereotypical behavior from teachers than
from anyone else. He explained, “There are some underlying currents …especially the
common stereotypes that African Americans have to face that I‟ve had to deal with in my
three years at Poly.” Neither Sallie nor Clair had experienced any challenges with an
adult that garnered such feelings.
Several research studies have convincing evidence that teachers are not
well prepared for teaching gifted African American students and many have institutional
preconceived notions about students of color (Bean & Morewood, 2007; Ford & Webb,
1994; Ford et al., 2008). Four of the six students reported having interactions that support
the research in this area. In a review of the literature by Stewart (2007), she found
research which demonstrated a positive correlation of achievement and affect, when
students were involved in extracurricular activities and/or interscholastic sports.
Social.
Responding to the last variable that affects these students, the social aspect ranged
from an awareness of social inequities and the feeling of discrimination to the
connectedness to their peers. None of the students reported feeling unconfident or
disillusioned and they were not interested in lessening their efforts. Sallie may have said
it best when she announced, “Sometimes it‟s stressful, but socially it‟s not really
anything.
The students‟ responses did not draw a parallel to the research that connects social
and environmental or psychosocial and social-emotional variables as problematic areas
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for concern. Once again, their statements were a testament to the resiliency that they
possess, which has allowed them to persist despite the non-cognitive variables that might
affect less capable students (Moore III et al., 2005a). The six students did not seem to
experience the negative peer pressure that Grantham & Ford (2003) identified in their
research, so participation is not an issue for them. They didn‟t report going through the
emotional turmoil of “acting White”, although they did suggest that they are aware of
when they aren‟t fully accepted by their White peers (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).
Summary
In summary, Chapter 4 began with an explanation of the study including its
purpose and the methodology used for the study. After describing the population and
presenting a brief profile of the participants, the process of data analysis was described,
the themes/concepts were disclosed and the data were presented.
The themes in the chapter centered on the placement and participation of gifted
African American students and their perceptions of their high school experience. Their
perceptions included their interactions with adults and the affect of placement on their
academic, affective and social development. In addition, several sub-themes (e.g. grade
point average, human influences, access to Advanced Placement, diversity, etc.) were
identified to portray the students‟ experiences in a rich-thick descriptive manner
(Creswell, 2008). Table 4.7 synthesizes predominant themes to demonstrate the nature of
the students‟ responses. A thorough discussion of the findings will be offered in chapter
five.
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Predominant Themes
Consensus Ideas Individualistic Ideas
Placement in programs based on GPA,
CST scores, essay and interest
Placement based on gender
Friends offered opinions about which
program(s) to apply for placement
Counselor was not supportive of
applicant‟s ability to apply for placement
Programs for advanced learners lack
diversity
Accelerated program has more diversity
Resilient students Neutral stance taken when asked if
preferred not to be identified gifted
Parent and family support No expectations to act in a certain way –
accepted as is (male)
Embrace giftedness despite “labeling” that
occurs
Administrator helpful in placement
Feelings of isolation
Expectations to act in a particular way –
described as “acting ghetto” (females)
Appropriately prepared for future
Desire for more African American
educators
Preference for interactive instructional
strategies
Table 4.7: Synthesis of predominant themes
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The experience of the African American in the high school setting has typically
been one of underachievement according to most research found on the subject. More
recently however, studies on African Americans students have begun to focus on the
factors that contribute to their achievement; however, this has not included the gifted
African American student. These students are noticeably absent from gifted programs for
various reasons including, but not limited to, culturally biased identification practices,
educators lack of understanding regarding cultural effects on learning and inadequate
training in working with students who are from diverse cultural backgrounds (Ford &
Webb, 1994). Also absent is a substantial body of research on minority students in gifted
education, and an even greater paucity exists of research specifically on African
American students. This study sought to examine the perceptions of gifted African
American students in high school who may or may not have been participating in
advanced academic services and the effect of such a decision, whether it was their own
choice or the judgment of others.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that impact placement and
how that placement affects the participation of gifted African American students within,
and outside of, advanced academic services. In addition, it was also important to
understand student perceptions of their own high school experience including the effect
of school personnel on their academic, interpersonal and intrapersonal development.
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Methodology
Case study methodology was used to illuminate as many facts, thoughts, beliefs
and perceptions of the participants thus far, in their high school experience. Through
purposeful snowball or chain sampling, six key informants or cases were located (Patton,
2002). The sample included two female ninth grade students, three tenth grade females,
and one eleventh grade student, who was the only male. They represented the spectrum of
three programmatic strands of advanced academic services.
An interview protocol was used as the primary collection tool, while a survey
instrument served as a secondary source of data. The interviews were conducted, using a
semi-structured approach, over a two-week period. The goal was to gather information
from a personal perspective from several viewpoints. In addition, the survey instrument
or questionnaire was used to cross-check interview responses and gain additional
information that would answer the research questions which focused on:
Factors that affect the placement of gifted African American students
Factors that influence the participation of gifted African American students
The perceptions of gifted African American students in regards to their high
school experience, in direct connection to the interactions they have with adults
The overall effect of their experience on their academic, affective and social
development
The recorded interviews were transcribed and along with the questionnaire data,
an analysis was completed through a procedure of coding and then sorting into emerging
themes. Narrative descriptions were utilized to give the thick-rich information derived
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from a qualitative study of this nature. This chapter summarizes the findings, discusses
the implications of these results, and proposes areas for future research.
Key Findings
Question
What factors affect the placement and participation of gifted African American
students in the advanced academic services offered at the high school level?
Findings on Placement
Research question one had two key concepts regarding gifted African American
students. The first part of the question focused on the factors that affect placement. One
revelation was that the identification of giftedness appeared to have no correlation to
being placed in advanced academic services in the high school setting. Each of the
students had been identified in elementary school with five of them continuing in a gifted
program in middle school. One of those five was twice denied placement into either of
the accelerated services at her school. According to the survey results, students believed
that the most probable factors for placement when matriculating from middle to high
school were grade point average, standardized test scores, required essays in the
application for high school and student interest in participating. None of the factors from
which they had to choose was selected by all six participants. As far as human factors,
students shared that most of the advice they received came from friends who were either
in one of the programs or knew someone in a program. Unfortunately, one participant did
experience a negative reaction to her choices from her middle school counselor, thereby
validating the research by Ford et al. (2008) on counselors and teachers being the
gatekeepers of secondary programs.
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Discussion on Placement
After analyzing the student responses to the question regarding placement, there
was no conclusive evidence to answer the question. Although students selected grade
point average and standardized test scores high on the list, all of the students had grade
point averages of 3.6 or above. They also had standardized test scores in the Advanced
Proficient or Proficient bands in English/Language Arts and Mathematics. This is the
criteria that the district already publicizes, yet a student with a lower grade point average
than one of the others in the sample was accepted into an accelerated program when the
other was not. The essays that are written with the applications are not consistent for
every accelerated program; therefore, it is unknown if this is the “tie-breaker.” Interest
must be discounted, as every student who applied was interested.
There does seem to be some influence on which school is requested, as there is a
numerical cap on space, especially at Poly High School. Poly High School is known for
their exemplary results academically and athletically. They have produced the most
football players in the National Football League and a PACE student had a perfect score
on the Scholastic Aptitude Test several years ago. The program has been in existence for
thirty-five years and has made very little change in its policy, which might make one ask,
is it the allure of the program or the participation itself? It has been communicated that
they only accept 175 freshmen in PACE (program coordinator, personal communication,
2007), yet close to 800 students apply every year. Without the physical, fiscal, or human
resources to expand their programs, the consequence is students being denied and forced
to pick another choice. If they want to be placed in an accelerated program, they have to
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select another high school. Otherwise, their only alternative to attending Poly is in a non-
advanced services learning community.
In regard to the human influence, the participant who was basically told she
probably wouldn‟t have the grade point average to get placement (3.6) may be an outlier
or she may be an example of gifted African Americans being dissuaded to apply.
Whether this is a school problem or an individual case of counseling, it is an issue that
needs to be resolved. At the same time, without information from primary sources at the
district or school level, the question of factors that affect placement remains unanswered.
Summary on Placement
The concept of placement has a long history and is a complex issue to bring to
resolution. For years, the issue has been viewed through a lens of discrimination and bias
with attention from organizations like the ACLU and NAACP. This is not an isolated
problem and stretches across geographic, racial and socioeconomic boundaries.
California, in particular, has made sincere efforts to improve their practices; however,
discrepancies continue to exist. In addition, there are a multitude of variables that must be
studied to begin to address this issue with rigor. This research only substantiates the need
to further examine and elucidate the complexity of the variables in order to solve the
issues, as the issues are much bigger than the scope of this study.
Findings on Participation
After placement in advanced academic services, participants are faced with a lack
of diversity in their peer groups, and at times, limited access to Advanced Placement
classes. Despite these challenges, the participants are upstanding models of resilience and
116
perseverance which is demonstrated in their character, demeanor and achievement. They
credit much of their success and motivation to their parents and family support system.
Discussion on Participation
The participants shared their ongoing concern with the lack of diversity found in
their classrooms amongst the peer group with whom they spend most of their school
hours. In her 1994 study on the recruitment and retention of African American students in
gifted education, Ford concluded that abundant data suggest that gifted programs are
perhaps the most segregated educational programs in this nation. This conclusion is
supported by the participants‟ responses and comments, which illuminate the fact that
programmatic versions of advanced academic services have never been fully integrated.
Moreover, sixteen years later, in a time when culturally and linguistically diverse students
are the majority population, it is puzzling that the educational system has not developed
school personnel, in particular teachers, to recognize the same traits in students of color
that are seen in White and Asian students. For example, Elhoweris et al. (2005)
conducted a study in which teachers, after reading student information in vignettes,
provided a recommendation for gifted identification. In the vignettes, when the ethnicity
was listed as White and Asian, teachers were capable of nominating these students for
gifted services. When the researchers gave the same information, but changed the
ethnicity of the students, their recommendations changed and did not include nomination
for gifted services. This reinforces the notion that discriminatory practices, whether
intentional, institutional or voluntary occur as a matter of practice.
Students were very clear about the opportunity to participate in Advanced
Placement classes, as a part of their program of study. What became problematic was the
117
perception of students that the teachers were becoming gatekeepers (Ford, Grantham &
Whiting, 2008). In one instance, it was because of limited space, thereby eliminating
anyone who didn‟t have an “A” in the prerequisite course. In the other case, the teacher
simply decided she didn‟t want the student to take the AP course. In both situations, the
matter is subjective; until high schools have an objective grading system (i.e. standards-
based), teachers will continue to make choices and recommendations based on arbitrary
ranking systems or other unknown factors, whether they are aware of these institutional
practices or not.
The six students that participated in this study exhibited a resiliency as evidenced
by their descriptions of events and interactions with school personnel and peers. From the
sophomores who felt disrespected to the junior who deals with the stereotype mind-set
presented by school personnel, the students have continued to achieve at high levels, as
self-reported on the questionnaire and evidenced by their current grade point averages
and test scores. It is obvious that the confidence that each one of them possesses is a
testament to their perseverance and commitment to their own person.
Just as committed to the success of these students is their strongest support
system, their parents and family members. Studies have been conducted to determine
how parental involvement affected the achievement of African American students. Wu
and Qi (2006) deduced that parental beliefs and expectations for high educational
achievement is more significant than any other parent factor, including the activities in
which they participate or the socioeconomic status.
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Summary on Participation
Successful participation in advanced academic services depends upon the
individual characteristics and abilities of a student. Resilience, self-confidence,
commitment, a support system, and participation in school activities were identified in
this study and are supported by research. However, one of the ideas synthesized from the
findings was the culture of scholarliness that is cultivated at Poly High School. None of
the students gave the impression that to receive good grades was viewed as a negative
action; indeed, each student took great pride in his/her grade point average and the
classes they were taking. Regardless of the labels they were given or the feelings of
having to act a particular way, the students excelled academically and athletically. Poly‟s
motto is the “Home of Scholars and Champions,” and they consistently promote this
ethos. A culture of scholarliness transcends all variables that might interfere with
placement and participation in advanced academic services. While programmatic strands
might be denied, access to Advanced Placement and honors classes provide opportunities
for students who know how to excel in any environment.
Question
How do gifted African American students perceive their high school experience?
Findings
As students responded to the questions which were designed to illuminate the
high school experience of gifted African Americans, several unexpected themes
developed. Based on their comments, some of the participants attributed their middle
school experience and transition to high school as pivotal to the decisions and
adjustments they are making to ensure their success. The overarching category of what is
119
perceived to be discrimination became more and more apparent, as students discussed
how peers and adults unknowingly or perhaps, intentionally treat them with disdain,
disbelief, disrespect and ignorance. Whether it was acknowledging or ignoring their
gifted identification or treating them as if they couldn‟t possibly be in the right
program/class, students agreed that while annoying, it is shaping them into being better
students. What did not show up in the data was the accusation or feeling of “acting
White.” From this researcher‟s perspective and based on what the students shared about
their lives, this may very well be because they have grown up in well-educated
households that do not mirror society‟s perspective of African American families. In fact,
all of the females specifically commented on how they felt an expectation existed for
them to act a certain way by their African American female peers, that three of the
females labeled as “ghetto,” not to be judgmental, but rather from a lack of words to
describe this phenomenon. Fordham and Ogbu‟s (1986) research would call it “acting
Black,” a less discussed topic than “acting White.”
There was a general agreement in the perceptions on the quality of preparation
that students are receiving. They felt that they were being properly prepared for college
and their future; however, some more completely than others. The more privileged the
program was perceived, the stronger the preparation. In fact, one student felt that the rest
of the students in the school were being neglected as a result of so much emphasis and so
many resources being put into the programs of advanced academic services.
All of the students had desires for changes in their learning environment. They
felt that more teaching needed to occur through interactive and activities-based
assignments. They wanted less lecture and more discussions or debates. Their responses
120
alluded to the idea that teachers have treated them as if they were supposed to know
everything, but on the other hand, they were not encouraged to use their critical thinking
and communication skills to further their learning. More than anything else, they wanted
to see more African American students and teachers participating and being given the
same opportunities that they are being afforded.
Discussion
As students transition from middle school to high school, they are full of
expectations and wonder. How they perceive their experience will depend upon many
variables. As gifted students matriculate from middle to high school, it is by institutional
practice, that the formal identification, which has allowed them to participate in GATE
programs, usually taught by trained teachers, is in effect voided. This becomes somewhat
of a paradox for them as they strive to continue learning at high levels of achievement
and at the same time just “fit in.” Even without the identification, they are still seen as
nerds and geeks or the smart kids. Yet, this does not affect these students in a negative
way.
Moore III et al. (2005a) found national trends that indicate gifted African
American students will choose not to participate when they feel alone or isolated, if there
are few minorities in class with them, or they lack a strong racial identify. While the
students face the first two inevitable scenarios, what they do not lack is a strong racial
identity. Throughout all of the trials and tribulations, as well as the activities and
successes of high school, these students stand firm in who they are and what they are
determined to accomplish.
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Summary of General Perceptions
The concept of a strong individual identity is critical to the success of all students
and may center on self-efficacy as an adolescent, especially as young people matriculate
to high school. For example, one student was told not to take AP English; however,
despite the gatekeeper mentality of the teacher, the student must learn not to acquiesce to
this pressure. If the student has high expectations and believes in her own abilities, the
teacher‟s opinion should not stop her from taking advantage of the opportunity.
Nevertheless, if a district‟s policies promote the concept of teachers as gatekeepers, by
not allowing students to take AP classes unless they secure the permission of a teacher,
then the policy needs to be re-evaluated.
Question
How do the interactions with the adults at school (administrators, program
coordinators, counselors, and teachers) impact their desire to participate?
Findings
This subset of the second research question sought to find out if there was a
relationship between gifted African American students‟ participation in advanced
academic services and the interactions they had when encountering different adults on a
regular basis. During the interview, only one student mentioned an administrator and the
interaction was not a direct event; her mother contacted the principal to facilitate her
placement in tenth grade. Likewise, the program coordinators were not mentioned at all.
It would seem then, that these two leadership positions are not significant factors in the
implementation of the programs.
122
Conversely, the counselors and teachers had many more interactions with
students; obviously teacher contact was more prevalent. Two of the students had neither
initiated interaction nor had their counselor take much interest in them, beyond standard
scheduling. They perceived that she was unapproachable, due to the load of students she
was always trying to handle or inaccessible, because she was not in her office many
times. Even when she was, there was a line. Neither of the students felt compelled to
approach her and one said she was unsure that she could. Still, they did have another
counselor, at the school, with whom they connected. They felt especially comfortable,
because he too is African American.
Ford et al. (1993) reviewed the 1983 work of Abramowitz & Murray, as well as
the 1990 study from Atkinson, Jennings and Liongson. These researchers found that
African Americans do not utilize counselors to the extent that they could and it was also
determined that the counselor‟s race was a significant factor. Many times, African
American students do not believe that a White counselor can meet their needs; therefore,
they will avoid them.
Meanwhile, at the other school, the four students had more to say about their
interactions. One student had minimal contact, but knew she could see her counselor if
needed; the other three had experienced interactions initiated by their counselors, both
educators of color. The students felt that the counselors had their best interests at heart
and helped to make their experience positive. Finally, the students had many different
encounters to speak of when it came to teachers. They spoke of teachers who were there
as advisors, counselors and facilitators who were focused on student learning. There were
others who were less helpful, less supportive and enjoyed lecturing. They have had
123
teachers who appreciate their giftedness, some to the extent that they believe they don‟t
need teaching. Ford and Harris (1996) posit that the cornerstone for students to remain in
gifted programs is teachers being able to establish positive relationships with the
students. While none of the students is completely satisfied with the interactions they
have with the adults in their daily experiences, they have continued to participate of their
own volition and desire to achieve at the highest levels.
Discussion:
Adolescence has its own set of challenges to contend with as students make their
move to high school. They are, like all children, looking for someone to care about them
(Ford, 1995b). School personnel becomes vitally important for students, particularly
those who are most affected by societal and institutional practices that are neither fair nor
equitable. Leadership sets the tone for the culture of the school, especially the status of
gifted programs (Gilson, 2009). Counselors have the most power when it comes to
retaining gifted students in the advanced academic services, yet are doing a poor job of
ensuring this. They are also critically unprepared to communicate with students and
provide solutions for the issues they encounter as African Americans (Ford, et al., 1993;
Ford, 1995a, Ford, 1995b; Butler, 2003). The six gifted African American students in
this study are resilient, self-motivated, and have a habit of success and achievement, thus,
they have not become disenfranchised and will not become what Renzulli, Reis, Hebert
and Diaz (1995) describe as “victims of educational suicide” (p. 61). However, with such
small representation and dwindling numbers, how many of their gifted African American
peers have the potential to do just that?
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Summary of Adult Interaction
This research was a study of student perceptions not a study of statistical data nor
a study of a large population, which would generalize the information found. However,
perception is a reality that people internalize and react to in a manner that is in
accordance with their values and belief system. The primary concept that can be
synthesized from this data is the need for teachers to know their students and to build
relationships that better serve the classroom and school community. Relationships
between teacher and student, as well as, student and student must be nurtured to begin to
establish environments that are conducive to the academic, affective and social growth of
gifted students, African American students and gifted African American students.
Question
How does placement affect the academic, affective and social development of
gifted African American students who are and who are not participating in educational
services consistent with their identified needs?
Findings
Overall, the six gifted African American students who participated in this study
felt that their academic, affective and social development was consistent with their
identified needs. Academically, they are in programs of study that schedule them
appropriately for college preparation, yet at times their progress is stymied by
institutional practices that do not have their best interest in mind. Emotionally and
socially, they have been able to deal with the minor challenges that come with being
gifted and/or African American. Even when an adult or peer is particularly biased,
typically through their actions rather than their words, the students have had an inner
125
strength that supports them. They recognize that their peer groups inside the classroom
and those whom they interact with outside the classroom have certain beliefs about them
as gifted students and as African Americans. They have not had to endure blatant racism,
but they are all aware of the underlying currents that exist within the classrooms and
within the school.
This may be attributable to the overall diversity of the district and the high
schools that the students attend, even though the programs in which they participate
aren‟t equally diverse. It may be due to the resilience and positive self-concept and racial
identify that these students possess. While they sometimes feel different than their
African American peers, they do feel accepted.
Discussion
Although underachievement is a serious dilemma among African
American students (Ford & Harris, 1996), the research of Butler (2003) has
identified high-achieving African American students in urban high schools. When
students do not have persistent stressors like racism and prejudice on a daily basis
(Moore III et al., 2005a, 2005b), poor racial and collective identity (Ford, 1996),
negative peer pressure (Grantham & Ford, 2003), social pressures and relentless
academic competition (Moore III et al., 2005a), they will excel. There is still the
need for African American educators to serve as role models and make the
cultural connections that enrich African American students‟ lives (Gardner, et al.,
2001). Educators must also gain cultural competence (Cross, 1988).
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Summary of Development
The academic, affective and social development of gifted African
American students is complex. Growth has to occur for these students as
adolescents, as gifted individuals, as African Americans, as males or as females
and as learners in the secondary environment. The idea that we need to socialize
all students into a culture of scholarliness is important and those responsible-
administrators, counselors, teachers, and parents-must all learn how to do so.
Students must also learn to be accepting of their peer groups as scholars whether
their peers mirror their ethnicity or not. This reinforces the concept that many of
the issues and variables that exist, can be affected by building relationships that
support and foster intellectual, intrapersonal and interpersonal development in our
youth.
Implications
The results of the study indicate that educators in secondary education should
consciously and systematically evaluate the gifted and high-achieving programs that are
embedded in the culture of the middle and high schools. Although, the results cannot be
generalized, the perceptions and experiences the six students shared are valid and reliable
accounts of the daily events that make up the whole of their high school experience. One
of the implications of this study is that the factors or criteria for placement at the high
school should become totally transparent to all stakeholders. The factors that the students
stated as contributors to placement cannot possibly be the totality of the decision making
process. Whatever is being used to decide how students are placed must be made
127
transparent to everyone and those criteria should be actively promoted beyond the school
boundaries (i.e. in community locations).
The next implication of the study calls for the high schools to look at their
policies and practices to ensure that diversity exists in direct alignment to the population
at the high school. With the number of gifted African Americans identified in the district
(CDE, 2009b), moving fluidly from elementary to middle school, these identified
students should have an equal opportunity as gifted students to move into gifted programs
in the high school. This might imply that gifted identification should be a factor that
contributes to the placement in the high school setting and that the factors being used
should not be so heavily dependent on the subjective grade point average created by
teachers. It also implies that for equal access, the middle schools should establish an
objective, standards-based grading system. If these students are scoring well on the
California Standards Test in the Advanced Proficient and Proficient bands that proves
they have learned their grade level standards, why would a 3.0 grade point average lower
their chances to participate in advanced academic services?
A third implication lies in access to Advanced Placement. Once again, if space is
an issue, schools should consider training more teachers to teach AP courses to all
students who meet an objective based measure.
A fourth implication addresses the antiquated methodologies of high school
teaching – lecture isn‟t always the best practice (Van-Tassel Baska, 2005a; Moore III et
al., 2005b). Various instructional interventions, pedagogical practices and culturally
responsive strategies should be utilized to best meet the needs of gifted students. These
may include but not be limited to depth and complexity (Kaplan), curriculum compacting
128
(Renzulli), acceleration, social and cooperative learning and storytelling and drama, as
examples. High school teachers should collaborate with elementary and middle school
teachers on best practices for student centered learning. Another implication deals with
recruitment and hiring of teachers of color. This is a much larger issue with additional
implications, but nonetheless, one which needs to be addressed.
Finally, more intensive and extensive professional development needs to take
place for administrators, program coordinators, counselors and teachers (Ford, et al.,
1993; Ford, 1994; Ford, 1995a; Ford, et al., 1997; Moore III et al., 2005a; Moore III et
al., 2005b; Ford et al., 2008). Areas to be covered must include cultural competence and
sensitivity, recognizing giftedness in African American students, and addressing personal
and institutional bias and racism that is inherent in the gifted arena. School personnel
must also learn to teach students to be goal-oriented and participate in an environment of
scholarly behavior that promotes self efficacy, realizing that they will be required to do
things differently than they‟ve been done before.
Limitations
There were additional limitations that became apparent in the data collection
process. Use of snowball sampling produced a large sample population; however, as
parents and students were contacted, the sample dwindled to six, as most of the
participants in advanced academic services were either never screened for giftedness or
missed identification according to district criteria “by one point” (students, personal
communication, May 2010).
A second limitation occurred in the interviewing process, because school events
kept occurring that took participants away from the focus group. Therefore, the interview
129
with the individual student did not provide the rich discourse which the group interviews
produced.
The final limitation exists in the raw data that were collected in this study. The
data consists of the perceptions of six gifted African American students with real
encounters that shape their high school experience. There is no statistical support,
documentation or additional interviews to either validate or negate their information.
Suggestions for Future Research
Future research recommendations lie in many of the same areas that Ford (1995a,
1995b, 1995c) has expressed as grave concerns. It is imperative that research continue on
high-achieving African American students in urban environments, much like the work of
Stewart (2007), Wu & Qi (2006), and Hebert & Reis (1999). In particular research on the
retention of gifted African Americans, as well as Latinos must take center stage to ensure
that what is started in the elementary schools is finished in the high schools. Research
should be conducted that includes teachers and counselors of the gifted to determine their
foundational knowledge in gifted education and cultural diversity. This research would
include how they see their roles in gaining the knowledge, understanding and ability to
provide the educational excellence to gifted students of color. Professional development
and best practices for teachers of students with diverse backgrounds is another area that
warrants research, as does the concept of attaining African American educators. Finally,
there remains the question of how to reduce the bias that exists in institutional and
instructional practices, in order to make education an accessible and equitable process for
gifted African American students.
130
Conclusion
The recommendations made by Ford and her colleagues in previous research
(1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1996; Ford & Webb, 1994, Ford & Whiting, 2008, Moore III et al.,
2005) provide direction for action regarding the continued participation of gifted African
American students. It is imperative that these students continue to experience gifted
programs or advanced academic services in the high school setting in order to continue to
meet their academic needs. It is also critical that school personnel, especially counselors
and teachers, pay attention to their affective and social needs to ensure that institutional
variables do not lead to discouragement, underachievement and/or elimination. Most
importantly, gifted African American students have a voice; they have the right to
advocate to receive equitable and fair treatment and should also have a choice to be
provided the absolute best education comparable to that of their White and Asian peers,
so that meritocracy in high school advanced academic services ends.
131
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145
APPENDIX A
Telephone Script for Student Recruitment
Call made to student after referral through snowball sampling
Hello, may I please speak to the parent of (name of student)? If the parent/student is not
available, a message will be left with the researcher’s contact information.
My name is Laurie Inman and I am a doctoral student at USC. Your son/daughter’s name was
given to me by one of their friends (name of friend), because I am conducting a research study
on gifted African-American students. I would like to mail information to you and your
son/daughter explaining exactly what I am doing, so that you can discuss it and decide if s/he
would like to be involved in the study. May I please have your address so that I can send you
everything? If the parent says yes, record the address. If the parent says no, thank them for
speaking to me and ask them if you can ask one other question.
Just as your son/daughter was referred to me by a gifted African-American student, I was
wondering if I could ask your son/daughter for the name of another gifted African-American
student that s/he knows. If the parent allows this and the student knows someone, record the
pertinent information.
If the student says that they don’t know anyone, try to “jog their memory” – How about
someone that was in your middle school classes or goes to class with you now? Proceed as
appropriate to the answer.
Thank you for speaking with me, I appreciate your time.
146
APPENDIX B
Recruitment Letter
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
May 10, 2010
Dear Parents,
My name is Laurie Inman and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I
am conducting a research study for my dissertation. Your son or daughter has been referred to
me by one of his/her classmates, as a potential participant for this study. The study is entitled, The
Placement and Participation of Gifted African-American students in Advanced Academic
Services at the High School: A Case Study. Your child‟s participation is voluntary.
Enclosed in this mailing is a parent consent form, which describes, in detail, exactly what the
study is about, what will take place, and how you can contact me, if you have any questions or
concerns regarding the study or your child‟s participation. A youth assent form is also enclosed
that your son or daughter should read to gain an understanding of the study. Please discuss this
opportunity and whether or not, s/he agrees to participate or you give your consent, the parent
consent form should be signed and returned to me in the pre-addressed, pre-stamped envelope or
when you bring your son/daughter to the interview process on Thursday, May 27, 2010. If your
child agrees to participate, s/he will be asked to sign the Youth Assent Form before the focus
group begins.
As a gifted African-American student, your son/daughter has experienced much success during
their elementary and middle school programs of study. As he/she entered high school, the same
opportunity was available; however, it has been revealed that not all gifted African-American
students are able to participate in the same advanced environment. The aim of this research study
is to find out why this might be occurring. This study also seeks to discern the effect of
participation on the academic, affective, and social development of the both participating and
non-participating gifted African-American students.
This is a research study that is not connected in any way to the high school or school district in
which your son/daughter is enrolled. Your child will not be graded on this research study, nor will
anyone in the school know whether or not your child participated. The interview session will be
done after school hours or on a weekend day in a public library. The interview is anticipated to
take no more than 2.5 hours to complete. Your child‟s name will not be associated with his/her
responses; a case number will be assigned for identification purposes in the final report, should
he/she be quoted. Your child‟s responses will remain confidential.
Please feel free to contact me, Laurie Inman, at 562-822-6651 or by email at linman@usc.edu at
anytime, should you have any questions or concerns regarding this research study. Thank you.
Sincerely,
Laurie D. Inman
147
APPENDIX C
Parent Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
PARENTAL PERMISSION
The Placement and Participation of Gifted African-American Students in Advanced
Academic Services: A Case Study
Parent Consent Form
Your child is invited to participate in a research study conducted by Laurie Inman, M.Ed.
and Sandra Kaplan, Ph.D., from the University of Southern California because he/she is a
gifted African-American student currently enrolled at a high school that offers advanced
academic services (e.g., PACE, CIC, Advanced Placement, etc.).
Your child‟s participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand before deciding whether to participate
and/or allow your child to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the
consent form. Your child will also be asked his/her permission and given a form to read,
which is called an assent form. Your child can decline to participate, even if you agree to
allow him/her. You and/or your child may also decide to discuss it with your family or
friends. If you and/or your child decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form,
and your child be asked to sign the assent form. You will be given a copy of this form.
This is a research study that is not connected in any way to the high school or school
district in which your son/daughter is enrolled. Your child will not be graded on this
research study, nor will anyone in the school know whether or not your child participated.
Your child‟s name will not be associated with his/her responses; a case number will be
assigned for identification purposes in the final report, should he/she be quoted. Your
child‟s responses will remain confidential.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study is designed to gather information about the advanced academic services that
are available at your son/daughter‟s high school. The research will center on the
placement and participation of gifted African-American students and the variables which
affect his/her opportunities. We are particularly interested in his/her perceptions of the
experiences s/he has had as a gifted African-American student.
148
Signing this consent form will also give the researcher permission to review your
son’s/daughter’s records, that you are able to provide, for information pertinent to
this study (e.g., grade point average, test scores, academic history, etc.)
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you agree to allow your child to participate, your child will be asked to participate in
two study related procedures. S/he will be asked to participate in a focus group interview
and complete a questionnaire.
A focus group is a group of individuals who discuss specific topics. The questions that
will be used to guide the discussions will focus on perceptions of being gifted, how
people at school respond to your child, and how placement or non-placement in the
advanced programs affects your child‟s academic, emotional and social development. To
ensure accuracy in reporting, the sessions will be audio- and videotaped. Please note that
your child can participate in individual interviews if he/she does not wish to participate in
the group setting. S/he also has the choice to decline to be audio/video-recorded.
The interview process will take place at the Long Beach Public Library – Dana Branch
located at 3680 Atlantic Ave., Long Beach, CA 90807 on (place date and time here). It
will take approximately two and one-half hours for the entire process. The focus group
interview will take place first, and last for 1 to 1.5 hours. Immediately following the
interview, your child will complete a questionnaire, which will take one hour or less.
Once s/he turns in the questionnaire and any of the documents that you are able to bring,
s/he will be free to go.
If your child decides to participate in individual interviews, the interviews will be
arranged at a time and place convenient to your child and the researchers.
The documentation that would help to provide additional data for analysis are records
that you may have on file in your home. If you have the following documents, please plan
to provide a copy to the researcher on the interview day: (1) California Standards Tests
for the last 1-3 years; (2) Report Cards/Progress Reports for the last 1-3 years; and (3) the
High School Application or materials. If you do not have these materials, please do not
worry. Your son/daughter can still participate in the other procedures.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to participating in this study. Your child may be
uncomfortable answering questions and/or being taped.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Your child may not directly benefit from his/her participation. There is the possibility that
other gifted African-American students could benefit from the research as schools
continue to work towards having appropriate representation of African-American
students in gifted education.
149
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Your child will receive a $5.00 gift card to a local eatery at the end of his/her
participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will be disclosed only
with your permission or as required by law.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. Neither you nor anyone at your son/daughter‟s school will have access to your
child‟s responses or to the audio/video-recordings. If you would like copies of the
questions asked of your child, please contact the researcher using the information found
at the end of this form.
Due to the nature of the focus group, confidentiality cannot be guaranteed, although your
child is asked not to repeat the focus group discussions with his or her friends and peers.
Please be advised that any behaviors that are reportable to authorities should occur, the
researcher has an obligation for the safety of all students, and the appropriate authorities
will be contacted. Your child‟s participation in the advanced academic services provided
at his/her high school will not be affected in any way, as this is an independent doctoral
study that has no direct connection to the school or district.
The data will be stored in a locked file in a professional office building that is located in a
security guarded, gated area. The audio and video tapes, as well as, the transcriptions will
be available for review and edit, by your child. The principal investigator will transcribe
all data from these tapes. All research data and related records will be coded, stored, etc.,
to prevent access by unauthorized personnel. Only this researcher and the data analyst,
Dr. Robert Keim, will have access to the data. The data will be kept for three years after
the completion of the study and then destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your child‟s participation is voluntary. Your child‟s refusal to participate will involve no
penalty or loss of benefits to which you or your child are otherwise entitled. You may
withdraw your consent, and your child may withdraw his/her assent, at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You, or your child, are not waiving any legal
claims, rights or remedies because of your/your child‟s participation in this research
study.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your child‟s alternative is not to participate. If your child would like to participate in the
research, but does not want to participate in the focus group, s/he may choose to complete
the questionnaire or participate in individual interviews.
150
INVESTIGATORS CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
Laurie Inman, Principal Investigator by phone (562-822-6651), email (linman@usc.edu)
or by mail (3500 W. Manchester Blvd., Inglewood, CA 90305).
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant
you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have
questions, concerns, complaints about the research and are unable to contact the research
team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact
the University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.
SIGNATURE OF PARENT(S)
I/we have read the information provided above. I/we have been given a chance to ask
questions. My/our questions have been answered to my/our satisfaction, and I/we agree
to have our child(ren) participate in this study. I/we have been given a copy of this form.
□ I agree to allow my child to be audio/video-recorded
□ I do not want my child to be audio/video-taped/photographed
□ I agree to provide my child’s academic records (e.g. GPA, test scores, etc.), if
they are in my possession. I also agree to the researcher reviewing such
records for the purpose of this study.
□ I do not want to have my child’s academic records (e.g. GPA, test scores, etc.)
to be reviewed for the purpose of this study.
Name of Child
Name of Parent
Signature of Parent Date
151
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and his/her parent(s), and answered all of
their questions. I believe that the parent(s) understand the information described in this
document and freely consents to participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
152
APPENDIX D
Youth Assent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
ASSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
FOR YOUTH (AGES 12-17)
The Placement and Participation of Gifted African-American Students in Advanced
Academic Services: A Case Study
Youth Assent Form
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Laurie Inman, M.Ed.,
Mark Jones, and Sandra Kaplan, Ph.D. at the University of Southern California, because
you are a gifted African-American student currently enrolled at a high school that offers
advanced academic services (e.g., PACE, CIC, Advanced Placement, etc.).
Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate.
Your parent‟s permission will be sought; however, the final decision is yours. Even if
your parents agree to your participation by signing a separate consent document, you
don‟t have to participate if you don‟t want to. Please take as much time as you need, to
read this form. You may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you agree
to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
This research study is not connected in any way to your high school or school district.
You will not be graded on this research study, nor will anyone in the school know
whether or not you participated. Your name will not be associated with any of your
responses and they will be confidential.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study is designed to gather information about the advanced academic services that
are available at your school. The research will center on the placement and participation
of gifted African-American students and the variables which affect their opportunity. We
are particularly interested in your perception of the experiences you have had as a gifted
African-American student.
153
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to take part in two study
procedures, a focus group or individual interview and the completion of a questionnaire.
Your parents will be asked to provide a few academic records, if they have access to
them.
A focus group is a group of people who discuss specific topics. The questions that will be
used to guide the interviews will relate to your perceptions of being gifted, how people at
school respond to you, and how placement or non-placement in the advanced programs
affects your academic, emotional and social development. To ensure accuracy in
reporting, the interviews will be audio- and videotaped. If you do not want to participate
in the focus group interview, you can request to participate in a private interview.
The interview process will take place at the Long Beach Public Library – Dana Branch
from 5:00 – 8:00 p.m. located at 3680 Atlantic Ave., Long Beach, CA 90807. It will take
approximately two and one-half hours for the entire process.
The interview will take place first, and last for 1 to 1.5 hours. Immediately following the
interview, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire, which will take one hour or
less.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to participating in this study; however, you may be
uncomfortable being taped and/or answering some questions.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation. There is the possibility that other
gifted African-American students could benefit from the research, as schools continue to
work towards having appropriate representation of African-American students in gifted
education.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $5.00 gift card to a local eatery at the end of your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in a locked file in a professional office building that is
located in a security guarded, gated area. Neither your parents nor anyone associated with
your High School will have access to your responses. The principal investigator will
transcribe all data from these tapes. You will be able to review and edit the transcriptions,
audio and video tapes. All research data and related records will be coded, stored, etc., to
154
prevent access by unauthorized personnel. Only the researchers and the data analyst, Dr.
Robert Keim, will have access to this data.
Due to the nature of the focus groups, confidentiality cannot be guaranteed; however, you
are asked not to repeat the focus group discussions with your friends and peers. Please be
advised that any behaviors that are reportable to authorities should occur, the researcher
has an obligation for the safety of all students, and the appropriate authorities will be
contacted.
The data will be kept for three years after the completion of the study and then destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in the study, you may
withdraw at any time without any consequences. You may also refuse to answer any
questions you don‟t want to answer and still remain in the study.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is not to participate or you can choose to participate in part of the
research study. For example, if you do not want to participate in the focus group
interview, you can request an individual interview or you can complete the questionnaire.
If you do not want to complete the questionnaire, you can participate in the focus group
interviews or request an individual interview. Your grades will not be affected whether or
not you participate in this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
Laurie Inman, Principal Investigator by phone (562-822-6651), email (linman@usc.edu)
or by mail (3500 W. Manchester Blvd., Inglewood, CA 90305).
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant
you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have
questions about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to
talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park IRB
(UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
155
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions.
My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this
study. I have been given a copy of this form.
□ I agree to be audio/video-recorded
□ I do not want to be audio/video-recorded
Name of Participant
Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I
believe that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely
consents to participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
156
APPENDIX E
Telephone Script for Follow-Up
Call made to ensure that parents received the mailing
Hello, may I please speak to the parent of (name of student)? If the parent is not available, a
message will be left with the researcher’s contact information.
My name is Laurie Inman and I am a doctoral student at USC conducting research on gifted
education. Recently, I mailed you a large white envelope, marked urgent and confidential, that
contained several documents regarding a research study that I would like for your child to
participate in. Did you receive that information? If the parent says yes, continue with the script.
If the person says no, ask permission to resend the information, confirm the address and tell
him/her to expect it in the next couple of days.
Today, I am calling to find out if you have any questions and if so, take time to answer them. I
can also provide you with details about the study, if you would like to hear more about it. The
researcher will respond accordingly.
Regardless of whether or not you are willing to allow your son/daughter to take part in my
study, I need to let you know that even if you sign acknowledging your permission, it will still be
up to your son/daughter to decide if s/he wants to participate. If you agree to allow your child
to participate in the research study, please sign and return the consent form to me in the self-
addressed, pre-stamped envelope that was provided by (a date will be placed here).
Thank you for your time and have a wonderful day/evening.
157
APPENDIX F
Focus Group Interview Protocol
Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California
The Placement and Participation of Gifted African American Students
Focus Group Interview Protocol
Number of Students Present: _____ #Participating in Advanced Academic Services ____
Date: __________________ Time: __________________
[Introduction: The purpose of this interview is to gain a better understanding of the
academic, emotional and social development of gifted students at your high school. I
believe that students should have an opportunity to give CONFIDENTIAL input that
could provide valuable insights to the adults who make decisions on your behalf. I‟d like
to record what you say so I don‟t miss any of it. I don‟t want to take the chance of relying
on my notes and maybe missing something that you say or inadvertently changing your
words somehow. So, if you don‟t mind I would very much like to both video and audio
record, because we are in a group situation. I want you to know that only the researchers
will have access to this information, and while the results will be available in the final
report, no names will be used to identify anyone. This interview will take 60 -90 minutes.
I am going to ask several questions and anyone is free to begin the discussion. I would
love to have each one of you give your opinion or perception for each question; however,
if you feel the question doesn‟t apply to you, don‟t feel that you have to respond. Also, if
you want to answer a question, but do so off the record, all you have to do is ask. Do you
have any specific questions before we begin?]
1. What does it mean to be gifted? I am not looking for a definition, but what you feel –
what it means to you as a student. (Grand Tour question)
2. Please describe for me how being identified gifted affects your life? You can talk
about it academically, emotionally and/or socially. (research question 3)
a. For example, being gifted probably allowed you to go to the school of your
choice when you were in middle school. Or being gifted may make you feel
isolated at times.
3. Do you ever wish you were not identified gifted? Why or why not? (research question
3)
a. How might your school life be different?
b. How might your social life be different?
4. As an African American female/male, what pressures do you face being gifted?
(research question 3)
a. Any pressures from teachers?
b. Any pressures from your peers?
158
5. Did you apply for PACE or CIC, when you selected your high school choice? What
was the result? If you didn‟t apply, why not? (research questions 1, 2, and 3)
a. What were the eligibility requirements for being accepted?
b. Where there circumstances, situations or people who discouraged you from
applying (e.g. middle school counselor)? What did they say or do?
6. For those who didn‟t get in, what do you believe was the reason for the denial? How
did it make you feel? Did it affect your work in grade 9? (research questions 1 and 3)
7. Did you apply or reapply at the end of grade 9 or 10? What was the result? If you
didn‟t, why not? (research questions 1 and 3)
8. I want you to think of an adult at the school that you interact with on a regular basis.
Describe for me how that person supports your academic, emotional and/or social
development (research questions 2 and 3)
a. What does _____ do to make you feel so supported?
b. Who has provided you with assistance when you found yourself struggling in
a class?
9. Who supports your academic, emotional and social development the least? (research
questions 2 and 3)
a. Why do you think this person doesn‟t support you? Could it be that he/she
does not have a clear understanding of what it means to be gifted?
10. Based on your experiences, what are the strengths of your educational program?
What are the weaknesses?(research question 2)
a. What are some of the things you like about your program
b. What are some of your dislikes?
11. Describe some of the things that teachers do that you feel meet your needs best?
(research question 2 and 3)
a. What affect do your teachers have on your academic growth?
b. What affect do your teachers have on your emotional growth?
12. What things would you like teachers to do to provide the challenge, motivation, or
curriculum that would best facilitate your academic growth? What is missing?
(research questions 2 and 3)
13. Describe your contact with your counselor in regards to your participation in
advanced academic services? (research question 2 and 3)
a. Has your contact been initiated by you or the counselor?
b. Did you consider the experience(s) positive or negative and why?
c. What was the result of your contact?
d. What do you believe is the responsibility of your counselor?
159
14. If you had the power to change things about your experience as a gifted student, what
would you have happen differently? (research question 2)
15. How do you think your participation in (name the program) will impact your ability
to get into a college or university? (research question 3)
16. If you could say anything to one of the adults that impacts your participation and have
no repercussions, what would you tell him or her about how s/he affects your
academic, social or emotional development?
[Concluding Remarks/Questions: Does anyone have anything you want to add that we
have not talked about? Thank students for their time and participation. Tell them that the
report and any follow-up will be shared with them before the end of the school year. ]
160
APPENDIX G
Student Questionnaire
Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California
The Placement and Participation of Gifted African American Students
Student Questionnaire
Participant Code Identification________________________ Date ____________________
Circle One: PACE CIC Beach Other Academy (please identify) __________________
Grade level when placed in PACE or CIC______ Check here if you were never placed in either___
The following questionnaire is divided into four sections. The first section asks for general
background information. The second section contains a set of statements to which you will select
your level of agreement. The third section allows for multiple responses to a set of questions,
while Section 4 asks open-ended questions that can be answered in a brief manner. Your
responses will provide valuable information regarding the placement and participation of gifted
African-American students in the advanced academic services offered at your high school.
Section 1
Directions: Please circle the appropriate response or fill in the requested information, as relevant
Grade level: 9 10 11 12 Current Grade Point Average (GPA)_______
Elementary School (s)_____________________________Elementary Program(s)_____________
Middle School(s)______________________________ Middle School Program(s)_____________
What was your GPA when you applied for PACE or CIC? _____ High School Index Score? _______
Have any of your siblings ever been in PACE or CIC? ___ If yes, how many?_____
Section 2
Directions: For each statement below, please select the best answer that describes your point of
view or perceptions:
1. I am enjoying my high school experience as a gifted African-American student.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. I am learning new and interesting concepts that are increasing my academic growth.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
161
3. I am very satisfied with the program/academy in which I am placed and participating.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. PACE and CIC are important programs for students who have been identified gifted.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. My grades match my true ability.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I would prefer NOT to be identified as gifted.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I feel that my teachers are able to meet my academic, emotional and social needs.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. I feel that my counselor is addressing my academic, emotional and social needs.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
9. Participating in PACE and/or CIC gives students an academic advantage now and in their
choices for college later.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. I am provided a lot of different opportunities that push me to grow academically,
emotionally and socially.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
11. My parents are very involved in my educational experience at the high school. True False
12. My parents have always been very involved in my education. True False
13. My parents leave my education up to the people at the school. True False
Section 3
Directions: For each of the following questions, please check as many of the answers that you
feel are appropriate to express your thoughts and opinions:
14. Which of the following do your teachers use to meet your needs in the classroom?
Ability/skill grouping
Lessons that present higher-level skills and concepts
More frequent use of discussion (than lecture)
Independent study or individual learning contracts
Testing to determine your basic skill knowledge to skip what you already know
Moving through the content that you are learning at a faster pace
Exercises and projects that allow you to question and investigate
162
Use of multiple texts materials and resources
Lessons based on your interests and those of your classmates
Combining of different curriculum areas in lessons (English, math, science, history,
etc.)
Faster-paced instruction during class time
Exercises and activities organized from simple to complex that includes extending
your knowledge beyond your “grade/age”
My teachers do not do anything particularly different from what I have always
experienced
15. Why do you believe that some students are not placed in the advanced academic or
accelerated programs?
Grades and Assessments
Cumulative GPA presented on middle school application
They are not identified as gifted
California Standards Test scores or performance
Other factors
Ethnicity
Gender
Poorly written essay
Middle school counselor input
Sister or brother did not do well when they were in PACE or CIC
Not interested in participating
Other : Please specify
______________________________________________________
16. Which type of strategy would best meet your needs? Select as many as you would
prefer and explain why it would work.
Grade skipping
Dual enrollment in college
Accelerating through the curriculum
Various types of groupings
Independent study
Mentoring or internship
Early graduation from high school
Section 4
Directions: Please provide a brief, narrative response to the following questions:
17. Why do you believe you were identified as gifted?
18. How do your African-American peers, who are not gifted, respond to you because you
are gifted and/or in PACE/CIC?
163
19. How do your peers, who are not gifted or African-American, respond to you because
you are gifted and/or in PACE/CIC?
20. How do your gifted peers in your classes respond to you?
21. Please describe any interactions you have had with any other school personnel as a
result of being in your academy (PACE, CIC, Beach, Pac Rim, MAPS, etc,)
22. Please describe a social situation that has occurred that had an impact on you? How has
it affected your social development?
23. Please describe an emotional situation that has occurred that had an impact on you?
How has it affected your emotional development?
24. For those of you who are not participating in PACE or CIC, if you had the opportunity to
participate in either program, would you or would you not and why?
25. Please add any comments, questions or additional information you would like to share
with me in this space.
Thank you for taking the time to complete this very important questionnaire. You responses are
very important to this study and greatly appreciated!
164
APPENDIX H
Multiple Criteria for Gifted Identification in LBUSD
165
APPENDIX I
Elementary Scope and Sequence for Differentiation in LBUSD
166
APPENDIX J
Secondary Scope and Sequence for Differentiaton in LBUSD
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted education has been the topic of much research in recent years, and a corresponding improvement has been seen in recruitment and identification. However, the representation and retention of gifted African American students has received less attention in both research and practice. While increases in growth have occurred in elementary schools, numbers dwindle as students matriculate to secondary education, particularly at the high school level.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Inman, Laurie Diane
(author)
Core Title
The placement and participation of gifted African American students in advanced academic services: a case study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
08/04/2010
Defense Date
06/28/2010
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
gifted African American high school students,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions of the high school experience for gifted African American students,representation and continued participation of gifted African American students
Place Name
California
(states),
Long Beach
(city or populated place)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Kaplan, Sandra N. (
committee chair
), Keim, Robert G. (
committee member
), Pensavalle, Margo T. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
laurinz4@yahoo.com,laurinzblest@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3275
Unique identifier
UC1209798
Identifier
etd-Inman-3851 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-372437 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3275 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Inman-3851.pdf
Dmrecord
372437
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Inman, Laurie Diane
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
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Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
gifted African American high school students
perceptions of the high school experience for gifted African American students
representation and continued participation of gifted African American students