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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from a high-performing, high poverty urban school

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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from a high-performing, high poverty urban school

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SCHOOL-WIDE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: LESSONS FROM A HIGH-PERFORMING,
HIGH POVERTY URBAN SCHOOL

by

Yvette Marie Ventura

_________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2008

Copyright 2008 Yvette Marie Ventura
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First I would like to thank my
parents Edward and Mary Ventura who have been a constant source of support and
inspiration for me throughout my life. To my brother Eddie Ventura and my sisters
Lorraine Ventura and Roxanne Angel for putting up with me throughout my
educational career.
To my nieces, nephews and godchildren: Ashley Ventura, Ricky Ventura,
Cassandra Ventura, Fayth Angel, Ralph Angel Jr., Hailey Ventura, Lauren Altuna,
and Brianna Rodriguez, I hope that I have served as a role model to show that with
hard work and dedication you can accomplish your goals.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express sincere appreciation to the members of my dissertation
committee for their support and guidance during this study. I would like to especially
thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Sylvia Rousseau, for her expert advice and
assistance during the dissertation process. Your hard work and dedication to our
thematic group has been a great inspiration as we add to the body of knowledge in
urban education. I would also like to thank committee member, Dr. Kathy Stowe,
USC Ed.D director, for your ongoing support and encouragement throughout this
dissertation process. Also, a special thanks to Dr. David Marsh, a USC professor,
for his time and support in this dissertation process.
A special acknowledgement to the staff at Urban Intermediate for allowing
me to conduct my research at their school site and adding to the body of research at
an Urban School, with a large concentration of students of color, showing that an
urban school can provide high levels of student achievement.
To the extraordinary individuals, Teresa Lanphere-Ames and Karen Dabney-
Lieras, whom I have the opportunity to meet through this experience and who have
become life-long friends.
A special thank you to my friends Claudia Villarruel, Martine Laplante,
David Madina, and Kelly Orozco who has been extremely supportive and have
edited many of my papers throughout my three years at USC. Words cannot express
how your support has helped me through these three years by keeping me sane and
providing encouragement when I doubted myself. Last but not least, to my best
iv
friend Licia Villagracia whom I have known my entire life, thank you for always
being there for me throughout my life… the good and the bad… day or night…you
are always there for me.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATIONS …………………………………………………………….. ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………………. iii
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………….. viii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………... ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY …………………….. 1
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………… 18
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ……………………… 81
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ………… 100
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS ………... 184
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………. 201
APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………. 214
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Achievement Gaps in Average Reading Scores by Grade: Years
1992 & 2005 …………………………………………………………………… 23

Table 2.2. Achievement Gaps in Average Mathematics Score by Grade:
Years 1992 & 2005 ……………………………………………………………. 23

Table 2.3. Chart of Similarities and Differences Between Effective School
Correlates and Common Characteristics of High Performing Schools ………… 27

Table 3.1 State wide and Similar School Ranking from 2000-2007 …………… 88

Table 3.2 Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions ……………….. 91

Table 3.3 Process of Data Analysis …………………………………………….. 94

Table 3.4 Relationship of Data Collection Instruments to Research
Questions …………………………………………………………………….…. 97

Table 4.1 Student Enrollment by ethnicity between 2001-2007 ………………. 102

Table 4.2 Number of English Language Learners by Language from
2001-2007 ……………………………………………………………………… 103

Table 4.3 Urban Intermediate state and similar school rankings from
2000-2006 ……………………………………………………………………… 104

Table 4.4 CST English Language Arts Percent Proficiency by subgroups
from 2001-2007 ……………………………………………………………….. 105

Table 4.5 CST Mathematics Percent Proficiency by Subgroups from
2001-2007 ……………………………………………………………………… 107

Table 4.6 CELDT Annual Scores from 2001- 2007 for Spanish Speaking
Students ………………………………………………………………………... 108

Table 4.7 CELDT Annual Scores from 2001-2007 for Vietnamese Speaking
Students ………………………………………………………………………... 108

Table 4.8 Percentage of student’s re-designation from 2001-2007 109

Table 4.9 Teacher Credential from 2001-2007 ……………………………….. 110

vii
Table 4.10 Teacher Experience from 2001-2007 …………………………….. 111

Table 4.11 Percent of teacher ethnicity from 2001-2007 …………………….. 112

Table 4.12. Achievement Gaps in Percent Proficiency on CST
Language arts and mathematics: Years 2001-2002 & 200-2007 …………….. 113

Table 4. 13 Positive School Culture at Urban Intermediate as compared
to Research …………………………………………………………………… 138

Table 4.14 The number of advance classes from 2001-2007 ………………… 150
Table 4.15 AVID elective percent composition from 2004-2006 ……………. 151

Table 4. 16 The number of AVID students in rigorous course
compared to the state average for 2006-2007 school year …………………….. 152

Table 4.17 Extended day programs at Urban Intermediate 2007-2008
school year …………………………………………………………………….. 165

Table 4. 18 Characteristics of High Performing School as compared to
Urban Intermediate …………………………………………………………….. 181
viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. The Event Dropout Rate by Ethnicity for 2004 ……………………… 63

Figure 2.2: Characteristics of Effective Transition Programs and
Effective School programs ………………………………………………………. 66

Figure 2.3: Ethnicity Breakdown of AVID Student populations for
2005-2006 ……………………………………………………………………….. 72

Figure 2.4. Visualization of AVID Systems …………………………………… 78

Figure 3.1: Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High Performing
Schools Study …………………………………………………………………... 84

Figure 3.2 Urban Intermediate Demographics …………………………………. 87

Figure 3.3 Urban Intermediate API Scores ……………………………………. 89

Figure 3.4 Process of Data Analysis ……………………………………………. 95

Figure 4.1 Urban Intermediate API score from 2000-2007 ……………………. 104

Figure 4.2 Organizational Systems and Structures supporting a college
going environment at Urban Intermediate …………………………………….. 135

Figure 4.3 AVID Systems and Structures at Urban Intermediate ……………… 137

Figure 4.4 Monitoring of students’ progress by stakeholders at Urban
ntermediate ……………………………………………………………………. 165

Figure 4.5 Systems and Structures in support of Alignment of Curriculum
to Standards …………………………………………………………………….. 169

Figure 4.6 Data analysis is used at Urban Intermediate? ………………………. 170

Figure 5.1: Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High Performing
Schools Study …………………………………………………………………... 185

Figure 5.2 AYP percent proficient in language arts from 2001-2006 ………….. 189

ix

ABSTRACT
The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of systems and
structures in promoting high academic achievements among students of color in high
poverty schools; particularly as they prepare students for the transition from middle
school to high school. The study seeks to examine the effectiveness of AVID as a
system in producing a high performing, high poverty urban middle school.
A high performing, high poverty urban intermediate school with a large
concentration of students of color in the Orange county area of California was
selected for the study that had an AVID program. The criteria for a high performing
school included schools that maintained or improved their API growth in a three to
five year period. High poverty was defined as schools with 75 percent or more of
their student population on free or reduced lunch and identified as Title I. Urban was
defined as an area with a high population density and a high concentration of
students of color. High concentration is defined as a minimum of 60 percent of
students of color at a school site.
The case study was completed using a qualitative research design. Methods
of data collection included observations, interviews and document analysis. Within
this qualitative case study design, a process of triangulation was incorporated. A
triangulation of the data was enabled through interviews, observations and school
artifacts that were collected to gain a larger picture of the systems and structures at
x
the school site to confirm findings.
Analysis of the data supported previous research findings on the systems and
structures that supported high performance in a high poverty, urban school with a
large concentration of students of color. The study also identified the need for
systemic approaches driven by multiple leaders to implement these multiple factors
effectively. The positive school culture at Urban Intermediate is the driving force in
ensuring that all students have the opportunity to learn, and this was achieved by
multiple factors working simultaneously. In addition an effective AVID program can
provide students of color and low socio-economic status with access to rigorous
curriculum and support for rigorous courses that they may not normally get at an
urban school. AVID can also have an impact on a school’s organizational systems
and structures such as a college going environment, number of advance classes and
providing social agents as identified in this study.
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Historically, high poverty, urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color have been associated with low student achievement. The gap in
achievement between these children and those from more economically advantaged
backgrounds is a result of numerous factors; the problem is not exclusively
educational. Rather, the achievement gap is a byproduct of America's socio-
economic, cultural, familial and racial crises. These issues intertwine to produce the
conditions that create the achievement gap in the nation’s schools.
One major factor, contributing to the achievement gap among certain
segments of our student population, stems from a history of racial segregation, which
has had an enormous impact on school segregation. Numerous cases beginning with
Plessy vs. Fergusen (1896), Roberto Alvarez vs. the Board of Trustees of the Lemon
Grove School District (1931), Murray vs. Maryland (1936), Mendez v. Westminster
(1946), and the historic Brown vs. the Board of Education (1954) have sought to end
segregation in education, however despite judicial interventions, desegregation in the
United States has achieved only mixed success.
Although many more children attend school with children of other races now
than in 1954, in numerous cities, racial segregation in education remains as high or
even higher than previously. Faced with the challenges of shifting populations,
sluggish courts, segregated housing patterns, and the stubborn persistence of racism,
comprehensive school desegregation—long hoped for a remedy to past
discrimination against students of color—remains an elusive goal.
2
Beginning in the 1960’s, the federal government launched many programs to
address problems endemic to urban schools which included insufficient funding,
outdated facilities, high drop-out rates, and low student achievement (Kantor &
Brenzel, 1992). Two programs, the Impact Aid and the Elementary and Secondary
Educational Act (ESEA), were of major importance in the attempt to address the
problems in urban schools. Despite these programs and the slight improvement they
provided, urban schools continue to remain in a state of crisis.
This state of crisis is most evident in the low achievement of students of color
compared to their white counterparts. According to the National Center for
Educational Statistics (NCES) the achievement gaps of blacks to whites and Latinos
to whites have shown little change since the 1990s (U.S. Department of Education,
2006b). This achievement gap is not only present in the reading and mathematics
performance of blacks and Latinos compared to their white counterparts, but they are
also present in the disparate graduation rates and the number of students entering
college (Greene & Winter, 2005).
Systems and Structures of High Performing, High Poverty Schools
Despite these historic trends, there are high performing, high poverty urban
schools. These schools have identified ways to reduce the achievement gap.
Researchers have found that high-performing schools have a number of common
characteristics (Carter, 2000; Craig, Butler, Cairo, Wood, Gilchrist, Holloway,
Williams, & Moats, 2005b; Dana Center, 2002; Ron Edmonds, 1979b; Izumi, 2002;
Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Reeves, 1999; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003; Zeedyk,
3
Gallacher, Henderson, Hope, Husband, & Lindsay, 2003). In 1966, the U.S. Office
of Education in accordance with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, commissioned James
Coleman to write a report on educational equity in America. Colman’s findings
credited students’ family backgrounds as the main reason for student success in
school. His findings proposed that children from poor families and homes, lacking
the conditions or values to support education, would have little opportunity to learn,
regardless of what the school did. Edmonds (1979), in an effort to refute the findings
of the Coleman Report, set out to prove that schools can and do make a difference.
Edmonds (1979) introduced the Correlates of Effective Schools that are the means to
achieving high and equitable levels of student learning. These effective school
correlates included:
• High expectations for student success
• Strong instructional leadership
• A clear and focused mission
• Opportunities to learn
• Student time on task
• Frequent monitoring of student progress
• Home school relations
• Safe and orderly environment
The original research on effective schools was conducted by Edmonds and
Frederiksen (1979) and Brookover and Lezotte (1979), which focused on elementary
schools. Their research, Search for Effective Schools and Changes in School
4
Characteristics Coincident with Changes in Student Achievement found schools
where poor children were learning which, in turn, contradicted the Colman Report
(Brookover & Lezotte, 1979a; Ronald Edmonds & Frederiksen, 1979). Research
continues today which identifies public schools in poor communities that are making
substantial progress in closing the achievement gap and are considered high
performing (Carter, 2000; Izumi, 2002; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Reeves, 1999).
Common systems and structures in this research focused on a positive school
culture that embraces: a standards-based curriculum, a rigorous and relevant
curriculum for all students, high expectations that are monitored by both adults and
students, professional development focused on the improvement of instruction and
obtaining parent and community involvement. For this study a structure will be
defined as institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal
state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of
schools not subject to change at the local school site. A system will be defined as
coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel, students, parents, funds,
facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions, missions, and goals are
met.
There are similarities and differences between early and recent research
around high performing schools as seen in Table 1.1.
5

Table 1.1. Similarities and Differences Between Effective School Correlates and
Common Characteristics of High Performing Schools

Characteristics Effective school
Correlates
(Edmonds, 1979)
Common characteristics
in high performing
schools (Carter, 2000;
Izumi, 2002; Kannapel &
Clements, 2005; Reeves,
1999)
High expectation for all
students
X X
Strong Instructional
Leadership
X
Clear and focused vision
and mission
X
Opportunities to learn X
Safe and Orderly
Environment
X
Frequent Monitoring and
Assessment
X X
Home school relations X X
Time on Task X
Positive School Culture X
Standards Based
Instruction
X
Rigorous and Relevant
Curriculum
X
Professional
Development
X
6
In recent research regarding high performing schools the focus is more on a positive
school culture through a rigorous and relevant curriculum based on standard based
instruction.
Systems and Structures that Support Standard Based Instruction
Specific school organizational structures and systems do produce a positive
impact on classroom instruction in high performing urban schools. A school culture
of high expectations results from systems and structures that are directly focused on
promoting standards-based instruction throughout the school. Many schools have
improved student achievement by closely aligning their curricula with the content
standards used to measure achievement (Billig, Jaime, Abrams, Fitzpatrick, &
Kendrick, 2005; Cawelti, 2000; Levine & Lezotte, 1995; McGee, 2004; Shannon &
Bylsma, 2003). In many cases, the standards that are leading to positive change are
state content standards. Middle schools, by providing standards-based instruction to
all students and by providing access to grade level content are able to level the
playing field for students of color and those who come from low-income families
(Heck & Mahoe, 2006). These students are over-represented in the lower tracks and
do not progress through the curriculum as rapidly or with the same depth of
understanding as students in more rigorous academic programs (Gamoran, 1987).
Middle schools in low-income areas that have implemented effective standards-
based instruction provide students the opportunity to gain access to college
preparatory classes at the high school level.
7
Programs that Provide Systems for Access to a Rigorous Curriculum
Some schools have turned to or developed programs to ensure that the
systems needed to implement effective standard-based instruction provide high
achievement in high poverty schools with large concentration of students of color.
These programs work to overcome inequities that historically surround low-income
students of color. These programs leading to systemic reform provide
underrepresented groups access to instruction, curriculum and the social capital they
need to achieve at high levels: One of these programs is AVID.
Advancement Via Independent Determination (AVID)
AVID is an in-school academic support program for grades five through
twelve that prepares students for college eligibility and success(AVID Center, 2007).
AVID targets students in the academic middle (with B, C, and sometimes D grades).
Usually, these students are of low socioeconomic status, members of an under-
represented minority group (e.g. Latino and African-American), and are often the
first in their family to attend college. AVID places these students in rigorous courses
and levels the playing field for minority, rural, low-income and other students
without a college-going tradition in their families, so their achievement levels are
more in par with their white counterparts. AVID provides support for these rigorous
courses through the design of their program. For one period a day during the AVID
elective, students learn organizational and study skills, receive academic support
from peers and college tutors, work on critical thinking, ask probing questions, and
participate in enrichment and motivational activities that make college seem
8
achievable (AVID Center, 2007). AVID provides support needed by low income,
minority students and those students who are first in their families to go to college,
who are often unprepared for and discouraged from taking rigorous academic
courses (Adelman, 2006). The system of the AVID elective class and AVID
curriculum are embedded in the school structure.
Transition from Middle School to High School
AVID in middle schools is particularly effective. The move from middle
school to high school is a critical transition for students- especially for students of
color and students in high poverty areas. Students experience a decrease in
achievement from middle school to high school (Alspaugh, 1998, 2000; Isakson &
Jarvis, 1999). In a study of 48 school districts, Alspaugh (1998) found that students
attending middle schools experienced a greater achievement loss in transition to high
school than students making the transition from a K-8 elementary school. In
addition to academic struggles, behavior problems that result in suspensions and
expulsions appear to increase significantly early in the ninth grade (Graber &
Brooks-Gunn, 1996). Students who have difficulty adjusting to the social and
academic demands of high school also experience a higher rate of academic failure,
disciplinary problems, feelings of not belonging, and dropping out (Cooper &
Markoe-Hayes, 2005).
These problems are particularly acute for students of color as high school
dropout rates continue to be significantly higher compared to that of their white and
Asian counterparts. Among the four largest racial/ethnic groups, Latino students
9
were the most likely to drop out in 2004 (8.9 percent), followed by black students
(5.7 percent), white students (3.7 percent), and Asian/Pacific Islander students (1.2
percent) (Laird, DeBell, & Chapman, 2006). By the same token, the number of
students of color who finish high school having met A-G requirements for access
into a four-year college, is in turn, significantly lower than that of their white and
Asian counterparts. In California, the percentage of students meeting A-G
requirements decreased for all students, but the gap between students of color and
white and Asian students remains as wide as it has always been(University
Preparedness of Public High School Graduates, 2005). This can be seen in Figure
1.1.

Figure 1.1 Percentage of Completion of “A-G” Requirements by Race/Ethnicity for
1998 and 2003.
Source: (University Preparedness of Public High School Graduates, 2005)
10
System and Structures of Effective Transition Programs
Despite these statistics, there are systems and structures in place at middle
schools that prepare low income and students of color academically for a successful
transition to high school to help decrease the drop out rate and increase the number
of students meeting requirements for college (Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005;
Hertzog & Morgan, 1998; Mizelle, 2005; Oates, Flores, & Weishew, 1998). Some
common systems that middle schools provide in preparing students for a successful
transition from middle school to high school include: collaboration between middle
school and high school, providing ongoing information, and providing an
academically rigorous list of coursework. An effective implementation of the
Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program in a middle school can
provide these systems that enable educational equity on behalf of low income and
students of color.
Statement of the Problem
Historically, students in high poverty urban schools have been associated
with low student achievement. Urban schools, attended by mostly low-income
African-American and Latino students continue to lag behind suburban, mostly
middle and high-income white students in achievement (Education watch:
California. key education facts and figures. achievement, attainment and
opportunity. from elementary school through college 2006). The preparation in
middle school for a successful transition into high school is an area of great concern
for educators, as large numbers of students experience a decrease in academic
11
achievement (Alspaugh, 1998, 2000; Isakson & Jarvis, 1999). These problems, as
well as additional barriers that low income and students of color often face, have a
long-term effect of causing these students to be inadequately prepared for college,
and consequently they do not meet eligibility requirements to four-year colleges.
The achievement gap has become much more apparent, as continuing
discontent with our education system, and the emerging field research has placed the
problem of educational inequity in the spotlight. Despite this gap, there are students
and schools who are achieving at appropriate levels. In recent years, a number of
innovative strategies have been undertaken that have been successful in fostering
school success among urban children and adolescents. Research has identified high-
achieving schools and their best practices. Research literature has also been produced
regarding the factors associated with improved student academic performance. What
is yet to be learned are the organizational structures and systems in a high
performing, high poverty urban middle school that prepares low income and students
of color for successful academic transition to high school. Additionally, we need to
know how these success systems and structures can be replicated in others schools
with a large concentration of students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of systems and
structures in promoting high academic achievement among students of color in high
poverty schools; particularly as they prepare students for the transition from middle
12
school to high school. The study seeks to examine the effectiveness of AVID as a
system in producing a high performing, high poverty urban middle school.
Research Questions
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Importance of the Study
The United States Department of Education’s “No Child Left Behind”
program has put an emphasis on accountability in education. Schools are being held
accountable for improving the academic performance of all students. There has been
a strong push in our society to educate every child, regardless of ethnicity, income or
background (United States Department of Education, 2004). According to the
United States Department of Labor, among the 2.7 million members of the 2005 high
school graduating class, 1.8 million (68.6%) were enrolled in colleges or universities
the following October (Labor, 2006). The numbers of minority groups entering
college are still lower than that of their white counterparts (Llagas & Snyder, 2003;
Shakrani, 1996). Among racial and ethnic groups, the number of students enrolled
13
in degree granting institutions is made up of a greater percentage of Caucasian
graduates (67.1%) than of African American (11.9%), Latinos (10%) or Asian
(6.5%) graduates (Shakrani, 1996).
Latinos are the nation’s fastest growing minority group and one in every two
children entering school is of Latino descent (States, 2004). Yet, according to the
National Center for Educational Statistics, Latinos have the highest dropout rates
(more than 27.8%) compared to whites (6.9%) and blacks/Non-Latino (13.1%). As
the U.S economy changes towards jobs that require highly skilled employees, our
country’s educational system needs to find ways to increase the number of minority
students entering colleges (Kaufman, Alt, & Chapman, 2002).
There are school programs that have a systemic purpose in removing barriers
that minorities face in education. One program that has assisted in overcoming these
barriers is the AVID program. AVID is an in-school academic support program for
grades 5-12 that prepares students for college eligibility and success. An AVID
target the student in the academic middle and usually places them in rigorous
courses. These students targeted are minority, rural, low-income and other students
without a college-going tradition in their families (AVID Center, 2007).
Limitations
Due to the limitation of time allowed for this study, data collection was
limited to an investigation of one public middle/intermediate school studied within
an urban Unified School District. Data collection occurred in a ten-week period
during the fall of 2008. These constraints, and the corresponding approach, limit the
14
ability to generalize specific results to other schools. While efforts were made to
prevent any undue bias, the researcher did not have any control over any bias already
present in the participants who agreed to be interviewed in this study. The analysis of
the data was subject to the researcher’s interpretation, but was based on how the data
collected interacted with and fit within the research questions delineated in the
theoretical framework.
Delimitations
Given the limitations noted above, the field of inquiry was limited to allow
for an in-depth analysis of the systems and structures in one middle school. An
analytical case-study approach was used to gather data from one middle school in
Southern California. The qualitative approach and sample size used in this study
limit the ability to generalize the result to other situations. The middle school
studied was purposefully selected based on the following criteria:
1. Urban school with a large concentration of students of color as evidenced by
a student population of at least 700 students with a minimum of 60 percent of
that population coming from ethnic minority groups. Asians were not
included as students of color for this study.
2. High poverty school as evidenced by a minimum of 75 percent of the student
population on free or reduced lunch and identified as a Title 1 school.
3. High performing as evidenced by a school wide trajectory of API (if in
California) and AYP growth over three years (including all subgroups) with a
minimal movement of two deciles within three to five years.
15
4. AVID school site as evidenced by an AVID elective being offered at each
grade level.
5. Public middle school in the Southern California region.
Assumptions
This study assumed that an effective AVID program in a high performing,
high poverty, and urban, middle school can provide or contributes to the systems that
produce students’ high performance. This study attempted to discover the essential
elements and accurately tell the story of the school’s success by achieving a
triangulation of the collected data and using accurate instruments. The data
collection instruments used in this study was based on a sound theoretical framework
and utilized field-tested instruments considered valid for the collection of data.
Respondents were expected to be truthful and information obtained from them is
assumed to be reliable.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms were operationally defined
as follows:
Academic Performance Index (API): The cornerstone of California's Public
Schools Accountability Act of 1999; measures the academic performance and growth
of schools on a variety of academic measures ("Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP),"
2007)
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): A statewide accountability system
mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 which requires each state to
16
ensure that all schools and districts make Adequate Yearly Progress ("Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP)," 2007)
College Awareness: College awareness is defined as the students’
knowledge of college entrance requirements, which includes taking college entrance
exams.
College Preparedness: College preparedness is defined as students meeting
the “A-G” requirements for college admittance.
Event Dropout Rate: estimates the percentage of students from both private
and public high school students who left high school between the beginning of one
school year and the beginning of the next without earning a high school diploma or
its equivalent (e.g., a GED). It can be used to track annual changes in the experiences
of students in the U.S. school system (Laird et al., 2006).
FEP: is the abbreviation for Fluent English Proficient
High Performing: School wide trajectory of API (if in California) and AYP
growth over three years (including all subgroups) with a minimal movement of 2
deciles within 3-5 years.
SES: SES is the abbreviation for socio-economic status.
Structure: Institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by
federal state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official
structure of schools; not subject to change at the local school site.
17
System: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel, students,
parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions,
missions, and goals are met.
Underrepresented students: Students who have traditionally been left out of
the college-going mainstream (i.e. students of color and poverty).
Urban: High population density and high concentration of students of color.
Organization of Study
The dissertation begins with Chapter one which contains an overview of the
study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the importance of the
study, the research questions to be answered, and the definition of terms. Chapter
two reviews the literature relevant to the study beginning with a broad overview of
the history of low academic achievement in students of color and moving to more
specific ways that high performing, high poverty schools with a large concentrations
of students of color are overcoming the achievement gap. Chapter three presents the
methodology used in the study, including the sample and selection process of the
participating school and individuals; study design; the instrumentation used in the
study; and how the data will be collected. The findings of the study, with analysis
and discussion of the data are detailed in chapter four. Chapter five summarizes the
study and proposes possible implications for practice. References and appendices
follow this section.
18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Historically high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students
of color have been associated with low student achievement. The gap in
achievement between these students and those from more economically advantaged
backgrounds is a result of numerous factors beyond specific educational issues. That
is, the achievement gap is a byproduct of America's socio-economic, cultural, and
racial, and educational histories. The educational system is but one part of the
problem although a major responsibility for solving the problem rests with the
schools. These issues all intertwine to produce the conditions that create the
achievement gap in the nation’s schools. One major contributor to the problem of
educational inequities is our history of racial segregation, which has had an
enormous impact on school segregation. Segregation efforts can be traced back to
the history of slave labor in America in which the plantation owners took little
interest in providing formal education for slaves, as educating slaves would have
threatened the system of slavery itself. During the early 1800’s, as part of the
increased aggression directed towards blacks, the formal education of blacks became
illegal in many states (Stephan, 1980). After the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863,
which freed slaves in the south and the ratification of the thirteenth amendment of
the constitution, the south enacted the “Black Codes”. These codes were created to
restrict the rights and freedom of blacks. Even though Congress reacted to the Black
Codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the rights to education, even a
segregated one, was not guaranteed by the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (Stephan, 1980).
19
By the end of the 19
th
century many states enacted laws mandating racial segregation
in public schools. The landmark Supreme Court case of Plessy vs. Ferguson of 1896
had a major impact on society by setting the precedent for blacks and whites to have
separate but equal accommodations. This precedent covered many areas including
public schools (Ravitch, 1983). However, southern states refused to provide blacks
with genuinely equal facilities and resources. It was evident in the south that separate
was not necessarily equal (Rosenberg, 1991). In the northern states one major form
of racism was housing segregation (Fitzgerald & Morgan, 1977). Housing
segregation left the African American community living on one side of town and the
white community living on the other with gross differences in the quality of life
(Fitzgerald & Morgan, 1977). Segregation was deeply entrenched in American
society long before Plessy vs. Ferguson, but this case legitimized segregation, which
became ever more prevalent over the next 50 years.
Public schools became a major focus in attempts to overturn Plessy vs.
Ferguson as enforced racial segregation was most clearly demonstrated in the
educational setting. The Roberto Alvarez vs. the Board of Trustees of the Lemon
Grove School District Case (1931), was the first successful school desegregation
court decision in the history of the United States (R. Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato,
2002). Then in 1935, the NAACP lawyer Charles Houston led the effort and pursued
further action toward reform in higher education in Murray vs. Maryland (1936). The
courts ruled that Maryland must admit Donald Murray to its law school, as the state
did not have a separate law school for Blacks (Stephan, 1980). In 1945, the Mendez
20
v. Westminster case became the first successful constitutional challenge to
segregation based on ethnicity. Attorney Thurgood Marshall, who later became a
supreme-court justice, fought this case pursued by five Mexican-American fathers
who challenged the practice of school segregation in the U.S. District courts in Los
Angeles. The fathers’ claim, which included their children along with 5,000 other
children of Mexican American descent, was that they were victims of
unconstitutional discrimination by being forced to attend separate schools in Orange
County, California (R. R. Valencia, 2005). This case helped pave the way for the
Brown vs. the Board of Education, which was also led by attorney Thurgood
Marshall. This was a major case with regards to public education as the Brown vs.
Board of Education decision determined that the “separate but equal” segregation of
schools violated the 14
th
amendment of the United States Constitution (Stephan,
1980).
Despite these landmark court cases, public education continued to be unequal
due to other factors, which included geographic redistribution of the population from
the cities to the suburbs. Beginning in the 1940s and accelerating through the 1970s
and `80s, a mass exodus of people, jobs, and businesses occurred in central cities,
inner-city neighborhoods, and older suburbs alike, producing a vacuum in once
vibrant communities. This drain of resources stemming from suburban flight left
behind poorer residents, mostly minorities, who possessed neither the money nor the
resources to follow their wealthier neighbors to newly developed suburbs around the
central city (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). In addition to the lack of money and
21
resources, the Federal Housing Administration policies discouraged loans to racially
mixed neighborhoods in favor of all-white neighborhoods in the suburbs. These
urban zoning practices preserved residential class segregation by closing the suburbs
to minorities (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). In 1959, more than half (56%) of poor
people in the United States lived outside metropolitan areas. More that 25 years later,
less than a third (30%) lived outside metropolitan areas in 1985 (Council, 1990).
The economic distinction between urban and suburban areas that
accompanied the geographical redistribution became evident. After the 1950’s, in
every metropolitan area of the country, the suburban to city ratio of median family
income increased. By 1980, the median family income in all central cities had fallen
to 74% of that in the suburbs and continued to decline to 72% three years later
(Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). These changes in the social organization of space had an
effect on public schools. As the white families moved out and African American and
Latinos moved into urban cities, the composition of the public schools began to
dramatically change. In 1950, whites represented the majority in all of the nation’s
largest school districts except Washington D.C. By 1968, students in six of the ten
largest school systems were more than half minority and by 1980s all urban districts
were at least two-thirds minority (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). Whether or not a city
was under a court-ordered plan to desegregate, African American and Latinos
students became more segregated from white neighborhoods, and attended schools
where economic resources were disproportionately concentrated to suburban
schools due to sub-urbanization (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). A more recent study by
22
Orfield and Lee (2005) showed that U.S. schools are now 41% non-white and the
majority of the non-white students attend schools that show substantial segregation.
Many African-American and Latinos students that live in urban cities are
more likely than whites to attend a high poverty or under-resourced schools (Orland,
1990). Beginning in the 1960’s the federal government launched many programs to
address urban school problems, such as insufficient funding, outdated facilities, high
drop out rates and low student achievement (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). The largest
single federal education program was Impact Aid, which pays for construction,
maintenance, and operation of schools in military bases and school districts with
high proportions of children receiving federal aid (Clark, King, Spiro, & Steuerle,
2001). From Impact Aid to the Elementary and Secondary Educational Act (ESEA),
these programs have made an attempt to address the problems in urban schools.
Despite these programs and the improvement they have provided, urban schools
continue to remain in a state of crisis as demonstrated by the achievement gap.
Achievement Gap
The inequities in education are still evident in the low achievement of
students of color compared to their White counterparts. According to the U.S
Department of Education (2006), the achievement gap of Blacks to whites and
Latinos to whites have shown little change in reading and mathematics scores since
the 1990’s as shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
23
Table 2.1 Achievement Gaps in Average Reading Scores by Grade: Years 1992 &
2005
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, 2006.

1992 2005
Grade 4:
Whites to Blacks gap 32 29
Whites to Latinos gap 27 26
Grade 8
Whites to Blacks gap 30 28
Whites to Latinos gap 26 25

Table 2.2. Achievement Gaps in Average Mathematics Score by Grade: Years 1992
& 2005
SOURCE: (U.S. Department of Education, 2006a)

1992 2005
Grade 4:
Whites to Blacks gap 35 26
Whites to Latinos gap 25 20
Grade 8
Whites to Blacks gap 40 34
Whites to Latinos gap 28 27

This achievement gap is not only present in the reading and mathematics
performance of blacks and Latinos to their white counterparts, but also present in the
graduation rate and the number of students entering colleges as mentioned in chapter
24
one. This data on achievement contribute to the high dropout rate and low college
admissions rate. In the class of 2002, approximately 78% of white students graduated
from a public high school with a regular diploma, compared to 56% of African-
American students and 52% of Latino students (Greene & Winter, 2005).
Academic disparities are also evident in the number of students who leave
high school prepared for college. According to the study by Green & Winter (2005)
of public high schools, there is a large discrepancy in the percentage of students who
are prepared for college based on race. In the graduating class of 2000, about 40
percent of whites compared to 23 percent African American and 20 percent Latinos
were college ready. College readiness was defined as meeting the minimum
requirements for the least selective four-year college. This included graduating with
a regular diploma, completing a minimum set of courses and the ability to read at a
basic level.
These inequities in education for students of color are magnified in urban
public schools. These urban public schools, already affected by a history of
segregation and geographic distribution, as described earlier in this chapter, have a
high concentration of students of color. Urban areas with a disproportionate number
of failing schools, across grade levels, are predominantly comprised of poor, racial,
and ethnic minority students. These segregated schools tend to have fewer financial,
human, and material resources than schools in more affluent areas. In thirty-one of
forty-nine states, school districts with the highest minority enrollments get fewer
resources than school districts with the lowest number of minorities enrolled. These
25
thirty-one states educate six out of every ten children of color in America (Carey,
2004). In high schools where at least 75 percent of the students are low-income,
there are three times as many uncertified or out-of-field teachers teaching both
English and science than in schools with wealthier populations (Wirt, Choy, Rooney,
Provasnik, Sen, & Tobin, 2004). By the time students who attend these schools reach
high school, the academic challenges they face have been compounded by years of
substandard education. This substandard education has been documented through a
history of an achievement gap as well as, graduation rates and preparedness for
college, and these inequities continue to exist for students of color. Despite a history
of substandard education, there are high performing, high poverty urban schools.
Characteristics of High Performing Schools
Researchers have found that high-performing schools have a number of
common characteristics. The professional and research literature has identified
various characteristics of schools that have been labeled as improving and effective
schools. One definition of an effective school given by Ronald Edmonds and
Lawrence Lezotte is one which demonstrates the following criteria: 95% (or greater)
of all students at each grade level demonstrate minimum academic mastery
(measured by performance on a standardized test) and are prepared to succeed in the
next grade anywhere in the United States. There was no significant difference in the
proportion of students demonstrating minimum academic mastery as a function of
socioeconomic class; and the above two conditions have been maintained for a
minimum of three consecutive years (Sudlow, 1985).
26
The original research on effective schools conducted by Edmond and
Frederiksen (1979), and Brookover and Lezotte (1979) focused on high performing,
high poverty elementary schools (Brookover & Lezotte, 1979b; Ron Edmonds,
1979a; Ronald Edmonds & Frederiksen, 1979). From these early studies, Edmonds
(1979) identified the correlates of effective schools. These effective school
correlates included:
• Safe and orderly environment,
• High expectations for student success,
• Strong instructional leadership
• Clear and focused mission
• Opportunity to learn
• Student time on task
• Frequent monitoring in student progress and home school
Research continues today that identifies public schools in poor communities
making substantial progress in closing the achievement gap that are considered high
performing (Carter, 2000; Izumi, 2002; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Reeves, 1999).
Common systems and structures in this research focus on a positive school culture
that embraces: a standards-based curriculum, a rigorous and relevant curriculum for
all students, high expectations that are monitored by both adults and students,
professional development focused on the improvement of instruction and obtaining
parent and community involvement. There are similarities and differences between
early and recent research around high performing schools as seen in Table 2.3.
27
Table 2.3. Chart of Similarities and Differences Between Effective School Correlates
and Common Characteristics of High Performing Schools

Characteristics Effective school
Correlates (Edmonds,
1979)
Common characteristics
in high performing
schools (Carter, 2000;
Izumi, 2002; Kannapel &
Clements, 2005; Reeves,
1999)
High expectation for all
students
X X
Strong Instructional
Leadership
X
Clear and focused vision
and mission
X
Opportunities to learn X
Safe and Orderly
Environment
X
Frequent Monitoring and
Assessment
X X
Home school relations X X
Time on Task X
Positive School Culture X
Standards Based
Instruction
X
Rigorous and Relevant
Curriculum
X
Professional
Development
X

Recent research regarding high performing schools focuses more on a positive
school culture characterized by a rigorous and relevant curriculum based on standard
based instruction. In the research to be conducted for this dissertation it will be
28
interesting to observe which of these systems and structures listed in Table 2.3 will
be in place at a high performing, high poverty, urban middle school with a high
concentration of students of color.
Systems and Structures of High Performing Schools
Current research has identified common systems and structures of high
performing schools (Lezotte, Skaife, & Holstead, 2002; Marzano, 2003; Quick &
Quick, 2000; Shear & Smerdon, 2003). In this study structures will be identified as
institutional mechanisms, policies and procedures put in place by the federal, state or
district policy or widely accepted as the official structure of schools, not subject to
significant change at the local school site. Systems will be viewed as coordinated
and coherent operations within the structures, producing high yield from resources at
the school site to ensure that the school vision, mission, and goals are met.
Common threads in this research include:
• Creating a culture that embraces the beliefs that all students need a
rigorous curriculum
• Relevant curriculum and that all children can learn
• Setting high expectations that are monitored by both adults and
students
• Professional development focused on the improvement of instruction
• Maintaining parent and community involvement.
Many of these common threads have also been identified in high performing, high
poverty urban schools. It is important to note that in a high performing school it is
29
just not one characteristic that produces high performance; it is probably multiple
characteristics working simultaneously to produce systemic change (Cawelti, 2000).
These common threads are embedded in the systems and structures. One example of
factors working together simultaneously to produce a systemic change is in the
creation of a school culture that embraces the beliefs that all students need a rigorous
and relevant curriculum and that all children can learn.
School Culture
A school’s culture and the student’s home culture can both positively impact
the academic path of a student. A congruence and connection needs to link both
school and home cultures in order for a student to access the demands of a rigorous,
quality education (Gay, 2000b). A positive school culture can exist when schools are
able to identify and validate a student’s home culture that is reflected in the
curriculum. The validation of a student’s home culture can be best described through
the tenets of socio-cultural theory, which draws heavily on the works of Vygotsky.
Vygotsky viewed a student’s learning development as affected by the culture--
including the culture of family environment--in which he or she is enmeshed.
Vygotsky found that interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as
parents and more competent peers, contributed significantly to a child's intellectual
development. (Ormrod, 2006). School is primarily a social environment, a culture
where people interact with one another. When a school is able to design curriculum
and instruction that builds on and integrates the cultural and intellectual capital the
30
student brings to school, it will be increasingly more effective than traditional forms
of schooling (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
The definition of school cultures has varied somewhat over time. Definitions
have focused around school patterns of values, beliefs and traditions of a school (R.
S. Barth, 2002; Deal & Peterson, 1990; Heckman, 1993). Other definitions have
focused more on the effectiveness and organization of a school (Goldring, 2002;
Weller & Weller, 2002).
Regardless of the specific definitions, research has shown that a positive
school culture that identifies and validates a student’s home culture has a great
impact on the success of students. Positive school cultures result from systems
working concurrently at a school site. First, it is important to identify the challenges
that urban schools have in obtaining a positive school culture and then identifying
systems in a school that overcome these barriers.
Schools in urban settings face unique internal and external challenges.
Internally, urban schools are part of a larger structure, the centralized bureaucracy
that may be slow to respond to the needs of the schools. Resources are often scarce,
and many buildings are in disrepair. There is the issue of a high turnover rate of
teachers as well as the quality of teachers in an urban school (Muijs, Harris,
Chapman, Stoll, & Russ, 2004). These are some of the structures in which these
schools are required to function. Urban schools also have to deal with the high level
of student poverty, cultural differences, mobility rates and large numbers of English
language learners. The external context may include neighborhoods with gang
31
activity, widespread availability and use of drugs, and a breakdown of the local
community structure. Students come to school carrying the burdens of poverty,
hunger, and poor housing (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997) as well as many
attributes gained in families whose resilience has enabled them to survive these
conditions. That is why connecting school to home cultures is an important factor in
improving students’ academic achievement.
Systems and Structures of a Positive School Culture
Some urban schools that have overcome these challenges, and have created
systems that promotes a positive school culture. The positive culture is a product of
systems that make good use of time, personnel, and resources in interlocking and
coherent ways. Kannapel & Clements’ (2005), study of high performing, high
poverty schools found that the high-performing schools did better than low
performing schools on eight items relevant to a productive school culture.
Coherence
In Muijs et. al (2004), a key element in providing a positive school culture in
economically deprived areas is coherence. Coherence about purpose cannot be
achieved by top-down fiats requiring everyone to be on the same page at the same
time. It comes, rather, through consistency of relationships and conversations, as
well as repetition of a limited number of processes and values over a range of
different circumstances. And these systems are based on time, resources and
personnel. These systems that support a positive school culture encompass a
dedication to diversity, having high expectations for all students, presenting
32
standards as goals, providing professional development and having parental
involvement.
Dedication to Diversity and Equity
To become more effective a school truly needs to understand that home and
school are two different cultural settings for students of color (Ogbu & Simons,
1998); therefore understanding students home experiences and values, and their
perceptions of formal schooling, will assist in educating them. When there is a
strong connection between home and school settings along with an “understanding”
of both cultural models, there is an increase in the achievement of students of color.
Building on the learning styles and strengths of students of color ensures they have
full access to the best learning opportunities (Irvine & Armento, 2001). Implications
for student learning are the basis for the strong focus on the relationship between
background knowledge and achievement in effective schools (Marzano, 2003).
Research has identified ways in which urban schools that provide high quality
education and produce high achieving students create cultures that support positive
behavior and learning.
Students of color bring a rich set of knowledge, values, and norms that are
brought from their home culture into the school culture. By understanding that
students of color bring different experiences to a school setting that is different to
middle class white norms and behaviors, educators can identify the mismatch and set
a course comprised with high expectations that promotes access to a rigorous
curriculum to all students.
33
School leaders assist culturally responsive educators with the goal of
providing sufficient opportunities to learn for each child (Irvine & Armento, 2001).
Therefore teachers need to be skilled in identifying, validating and respecting
students’ prior knowledge and experiences, which include their home language. By
understanding students’ abilities and skills, teachers can build on them and provide
scaffolds to assist students in achieving at higher academic levels. High student
achievement leads to access into tracked subject courses that are aligned to prepare
students towards higher education (Oakes, 1989). The systems that support higher
levels of achievement include professional development, positive school culture and
parent home relations.
Access is also a derivative when learning outcomes are made meaningful and
relevant. Students of color need to be able to see themselves in the curriculum in
order to make connections to the big ideas presented by their teachers (Nieto, 2000).
This match between a learner’s prior knowledge and experiences and those of an
educator’s high- expectation belief system fosters empowerment towards future
academic success. It also fosters the kind of relationship between teachers and
students that allows other aspects of the school experience to be a positive one for
students (Wubbles, Brekelmans, Van Tartwijk, & Admiraal, 1997).
A school that identifies and values diversity can be observed in all aspects of
a schools culture from the school goals, the level of expectation of students, the type
of professional development and the level of parental engagement.
34
Parental Involvement
Engaging parental involvement is another factor working simultaneously
along with dedication to diversity and high expectation that promotes a positive
school culture. Marzano (2003) describes the importance of schools engaging parents
in day-to-day activities of the school, decision-making, and regular communication.
A school system of parental involvement was identified as home-school relations in
early research of effective schools (Ron Edmonds, 1979a, 1979b; Ronald Edmonds
& Frederiksen, 1979; Levine & Lezotte, 1995; Sammons & et al., 1995). Home-
school relations were described as parents understanding and supporting the school's
basic mission and having the opportunity to play an important role in helping the
school to achieve that mission (Ron Edmonds, 1979b).
Parental involvement in schools has been shown to be different among
different levels of poverty as well as differing distributions of race and ethnicity
(U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Parents of students living in a household
above the poverty level are more likely to be involved in school activities than
parents of children living in a household at or below the poverty line. For example,
in 2003, 45 % of parents of children living above the poverty line acted as a
volunteer or served on a committee at their child’s school, compared with 27 % of
children living at or below the poverty line (U.S. Department of Education, 2005).
Latino and non-Latino black students were less likely to have parents who attended
school events or who volunteered their time compared with non-Latino white
students. Sixty-one percent of Latino students and 63% of non-Latino black students
35
had parents who attended school events, while 74% of non-Latino white students had
parents who had done so. Twenty-eight percent of Latino students and 32% of non-
Latino black students had parents who volunteered their time, compared with 48 %
of non-Latino white students (U.S. Department of Education, 2005).
Researchers have argued that in urban areas, parental involvement may be
especially challenging because of high dissolution rates among families and
numerous two-parent working families (Jeynes, 2007). Yet, there are high
performing, poverty schools with a high percentage of students of color that
overcome these challenges (Carter, 2000; McGee, 2004; Muijs et al., 2004). Systems
that support parental involvement include increasing communication (Jesse, Davis,
& Pokorny, 2004) and parental workshops (McGee, 2004). In the Carter (2000)
study of 21 high performing schools, the research indicated that schools found ways
to increase parental involvement. Carter (2000) identified that principals of the high
poverty, high performing schools established contracts with parents to support their
children’s efforts to learn. These contracts included defining the mission of the
school, demanding high academic achievement for all, clearly explaining the
school’s expectations regarding parental responsibilities, academic standards and
conduct and misconduct.
Other ways these schools have increased parental involvement included
providing the opportunity for parents to improve their literacy skills and parenting
skills (McGee, 2004). These systems that increase parental involvement provide
knowledge that helps the school focus professional development on improvement of
36
instruction that connects teachers to students’ home cultures and scaffold students
into meeting high expectations. All of these factors work together to establish a
positive school culture that plays an important role in high performing urban schools.
These specific school organizational systems have a definite impact on classroom
instruction in high performing urban schools. High expectations in a school culture
have a direct impact on classroom instruction. The school systems that support this
culture include professional development, support for teachers and students, and a
school vision that has high expectations for all students.
High Expectations for All Students
Many researchers have identified high expectations as a characteristic in high
performing urban schools (Carter, 2000; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Ragland,
Clubine, Constable, & Smith, 2002; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). Traditionally
students of color have not been held to high expectations. This lack of high
expectations is based on the constructs of race that have persisted in American
history since slavery. The systems and structures of American institutions have been
built to preserve these constructs that portray people of color as inferior and
incapable of learning. Without leaders who deliberately build systems that build on
the assets, versus deficits, of low-income students of color, high poverty schools
perpetuate a culture of failure. Harvard University’s Civil Rights Project concluded
that as inequity increases, there is also an increase in low teacher expectations for
poor students and students of color despite rhetoric that “all kids can learn” (G
Orfield & Yun, 1999). In Kannapel and Clements’ (2005) study of 26 high
37
performing, high poverty elementary schools in Kentucky, high expectations were
held by principals and communicated to the teachers. The teachers then held high
expectations of themselves and their students. This was also found in a study of
seven high-poverty middle schools in Texas where they were committed to high
expectations for all students. These high expectations the schools had for all students
moved the schools in a shared direction that helped eliminate distractions (Dana
Center, 2002). Systems that support high expectations in the literature include:
monitoring student work, effective feedback, and promoting standard based
instruction. The coherence among all factors create an effective systemic approach
that’s promotes high expectations.
Monitoring and Effective Feedback. Monitoring and effective feedback are
factors that contribute to high expectations for staff members and students. A system
of providing effective feedback is a factor identified by Marzano (2003) in
monitoring the progress towards meeting these challenging goals and providing
timely feedback. The monitoring of the challenging goals has been a prevalent
assessment technique in past and current research (Dana Center, 2002; Ron
Edmonds, 1979a; Izumi, 2002; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Levine & Lezotte,
1995; Reeves, 1999; Sammons & et al., 1995; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003).
Monitoring all aspects of initiated reform is a critical tool for a school system, as
systemic efficiency requires that many factors work simultaneously to be effective.
This includes monitoring teaching and learning by paying attention to both the
effectiveness of school and classroom procedures and student learning results
38
(Schmoker, 1999). Teachers themselves monitor teaching through self-reflection
and through administrator’s informal and formal evaluation. Tracking results using
different assessment criteria monitors learning. These different assessments may
include test scores, grades, performance on student projects and portfolios (Jesse et
al., 2004; Muijs et al., 2004; Schmoker, 1999). It also necessary that schools has
valid ways to collect and encode data that provide evidence of student achievement
throughout the year.
Izumi (2002) also identified the use of frequent monitoring and feedback as a
factor in high performing schools. In Izumi’s (2002) study of eight high poverty
elementary schools in California, frequent monitoring and feedback was embedded
in the use of a direct instruction program called Open Court. One aspect of Open
Court is for teachers to follow a presentation book, which contains lesson plans from
which the teachers follow a script that gives teachers instructions on monitoring a
student’s progress (Izumi, 2002).
Measuring incremental success towards common goals carefully monitors
implementation of standards based instruction. This was accomplished through the
use of assessments throughout the school year (Dana Center, 2002; Fullan, 2000;
Levine & Lezotte, 1995; Newmann, Smith, Allensworth, & Bryk, 2001). Barth
(1999) reported that 81 percent of those 366 high-performing schools established
comprehensive systems for monitoring student progress regularly and frequently.
Some schools conduct assessments as often as once a week.
39
In Reeves (1999) 90/90/90 study of a variety of school settings of high
poverty students and high numbers of students of color in elementary to high school
in Chicago, a common characteristic was monitoring school progress. Many of the
schools implemented frequent assessments of student progress with multiple
opportunities for improvement that were developed by classroom teachers. These
frequent assessments of student progress were conducted weekly and they were not
district or state tests, but rather specific assessments created by the classroom
teacher. Ongoing, diagnostic assessment offers schools what McGee (2004) has
called an "internal capacity for accountability." Assessments must be aligned with
learning goals and purposes of the specific assessment (Shannon & Bylsma, 2003).
The fundamental purpose of assessment at high-performing schools is to diagnose
and guide the instruction of individual students (Carter, 2000; Kannapel & Clements,
2005; Ragland et al., 2002). Teachers use assessment data to identify where students
should improve and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. Because teachers
assess students individually, they can tailor instruction individually. Assessments
varied in high performing, high poverty schools. Assessments included formal and
informal assessment, evaluation of student work, unit tests benchmarking, direct
observations, progress reports, and report cards.
Data has also been used to monitor and assess standards based learning. In
Muijs’ et al. (2004) review of literature for improving schools primarily in socio-
economically disadvantaged areas, they found that data-rich schools not only
collected data, but also used it to improve student achievement. In the Educational
40
Trust’s “Dispelling the Myth” survey of high poverty, high performing schools used
standards extensively to design curriculum and instruction to assess student work and
to evaluate teachers (P. Barth, 1999b). In the schools studied, 94 percent used
standards to assess student progress and 59 percent of schools reported using
standards to gauge teacher effectiveness (P. Barth, 1999a).
Standard based instruction. A school culture of high expectations results
from systems and structures that are directly focused on promoting standards-based
instruction throughout the school. This school culture of high expectations for all
students includes teaching to the standards. Many schools have improved student
achievement by closely aligning their curricula with the standards used to measure
achievement (Billig et al., 2005; Cawelti, 2000; Levine & Lezotte, 1995; McGee,
2004; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). The state of California has created as structure of
standards-based instruction to set high expectations for all students, but schools have
to create the systems to implement effectively.
These state standards greatly influence instructional practices when schools
narrow the focus to mathematics, language arts and reading which are the same areas
emphasized on state testing and NCLB guidelines. Systems and structures that
ensure effective standards-based instruction in high performing, high poverty schools
must begin with the setting of goals.
Standards As Goals
Research has shown that school goals in high performing schools have
focused around standard based instruction (P. Barth, 1999b; Brown, Anfara, &
41
Roney, 2004; Craig et al., 2005b; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Shannon & Bylsma,
2003). A standards-based format clearly outlines common curriculum standards
and objectives that describe the essential learning for all students by the time they
exit at grade twelve. The goal in a standards-based curriculum is to get all students
to the “mastery level” or beyond. The standards also provide a common language for
learning expectations throughout the school, rather than individual teachers’ personal
priorities. In a systemic approach to providing all students access to a rigorous
curriculum, it has been shown that professional development is needed to support
and train teachers in implementing the curriculum.
Professional Development
Professional development is needed to assist classroom teachers in
implementing quality standards based curricula and instruction. (Haycock, 1998)
discovered that low-achieving students increased their achievement level by as much
as 53 percent when taught by a highly effective teacher. Implementing the California
Content Standards result in high levels of learning for all students and requires
effective teachers, but a major obstacle the urban schools usually have to deal with is
obtaining and retaining quality teachers. One aspects of this obstacle is the teacher
shortage, particularly in the fields of bilingual education, special education, science,
and mathematics. In order to fill these positions, urban schools are more likely to
hire individuals with emergency teaching credentials, long-term substitutes, or allow
teachers to teach a subject they are not qualified to teach. Students in these urban
schools are the students most in need, yet due to these obstacles students in urban,
42
high-poverty schools have only a 50 percent likelihood of being taught mathematics
and science by a qualified teacher in that field (Claycomb, 2000b).
It is essential that urban schools provide a system that includes recruiting
qualified teachers and providing professional development in order to give teachers
the tools and training they need to be successful in their environment. Wenglinsky
(2000) found that certain types of professional development might have an impact on
student achievement. Students whose teachers receive professional development in
working with different student populations are 107 percent of a grade level ahead of
their peers in math. Students whose teachers receive professional development in
higher-order thinking skills are 40 percent of a grade level ahead of students whose
teachers lack such training in mathematics. Students whose teachers receive
professional development in laboratory skills are 44 percent of a grade level ahead of
those whose teachers lack such training in science (Wenglinsky, 2000). Some urban
school districts have implemented structures to help urban schools get access to
effective teachers, which include:
• Soliciting university partnerships
• Providing non-traditional incentives
• Recruit teachers who live or grew up in urban areas
• Ensuring the best hiring and placement policies are in place
• Smooth transfer policies
• Providing professional support to new teachers (Claycomb, 2000a)
Professional development focusing on the improvement of instruction was
43
identified in high performing schools (P. Barth, 1999a, 1999b; Jesse et al., 2004;
Kannapel & Clements, 2005; McGee, 2004; Muijs et al., 2004; Shannon & Bylsma,
2003). Shannon and Byslma (2002) identified focused professional development as
one of nine characteristics of high performing schools. In their study of high
performing schools a strong emphasis was placed on training staff in areas of need
identified by the school site. An area of need in high poverty schools would include
culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy and skills in promoting second language
acquisition.
Teachers in high poverty schools with a large number of students of color
will find diversity in student learning patterns, background knowledge and the
experiences students bring to the classroom subject matter (Ormrod, 2006).
Teachers in these schools need explicit professional development to be effective in
these schools. From Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory, these students will come to
the classroom with different zones of proximal development. The zone of proximal
development is referred to by Vygotsky as the distance between the abilities
displayed independently and those that develop with social support (Ormrod, 2006).
In the social environment of a school, the zone of proximal development may not
always be positive. There can be a "zone of prohibited actions and another of barely
tolerated actions" (Goodnow, 1990), when the adult is more interested in restricting
access to objects or knowledge. In most cases the absence of the zone of proximal
development is due to the lack of joint interaction. Often teachers not willing to be
seen as partners where their students are too tied to their roles as controllers (Bruner,
44
1985). Teachers in high-achieving, high-poverty, urban schools build strong
relationships with the children in their classrooms, have consistent and fair discipline
policies, and use what children know to facilitate learning and community (Cochran-
Smith, 1995). Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory asserts that children learn from
interacting with adults within their zones of proximal development (Vygotsky,
1987).
In the McGee (2004) study, professional development is school-wide and
teachers are learning together instead of pursuing individual goals. The school works
as a team and their professional development is linked to their school improvement
plan. Mujias, Harris, Chapman, Stoll and Russ (2004) in their review of research on
improving schools in socio-economically disadvantaged areas also found that
professional development must be a continuous process. The professional
development described above contributes to the overall school culture of high
expectations. To be discussed later in this chapter is professional development that
focuses on standard-based instruction.
The following section will focus on research question three: How are the
organizational systems and structures implemented to support school-wide effective
classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
Systems and Structures in Support of a Standard-Based Instruction/Curriculum
Some of the same systems and structures needed to create a school culture in
support of high academic achievement specifically support implementation of
effective school-wide classroom instruction that is standards-based. These systems
45
and others that will be described in this section are particularly important in middle
schools where students are transitioning from elementary school and preparing for
high school. A rigorous curriculum has been identified as the alignment of the
curriculum vertically and horizontally with the state standards (Dana Center, 2002).
Alignment with standards ensures rigor, alignment between classrooms, access to a
rigorous curriculum for all students and alignment with feeder and destination
schools (Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007). In addition, a
rigorous instructional program tied to high standards builds student knowledge and
strengthens critical thinking skills, while assessments monitor progress and truly
measure what students can do. Standard-based instruction, beginning as early as
elementary schools or pre-school, includes a focus on reading and writing that plays
a major role in preparing students for college. It lays a foundation for students’
future educational success.
Specific school organizational structures and systems have a positive impact
on classroom instruction in high performing urban schools. Systems that implement
standard based-instruction varied in high performing schools. Some common
threads included: alignment of curriculum to the standards, teacher collaboration,
focused professional development.
Alignment of Curriculum to Standards
The alignment of the curriculum to the standards was found to be a factor in
the successful implementation of standards at high performing schools (P. Barth,
1999b; Craig et al., 2005b; Dana Center, 2002; Johnson, 1999; Shannon & Bylsma,
46
2003). In a study of nine high performing, high poverty urban elementary schools,
the standards were aligned into a coherent curriculum (Johnson, 1999). Having the
curriculum aligned to content standards helped teachers understand what they taught
and its relationship to their students’ performance on state assessments. In addition,
an instructional specialist worked with teachers to develop performance based
assessments. In a study of seven high performing, high poverty middle schools, the
findings related to the implementation of organizational structures included common
planning times for teachers, block scheduling, and professional development focused
on planning and aligning the curriculum to the standards (Dana Center, 2002)
In a study of standards-based reform in average to high performing middle
schools in California, key findings included schools that created systems and
structures that help implement standard based instruction through the master
schedule (Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007). An example
of this is found in the fact that in many middle schools algebra drives the master
schedule. This is a direct result of California establishing algebra as the eighth grade
content standards for mathematics. High performing schools differed in the ways
they schedule students into algebra. The placement varied as some schools placed all
students in algebra in eighth grade; some provided pre-algebra options, at others ELL
were given access to Algebra but were also provided support classes (Balancing
Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007).
Teacher Collaboration
Schools that are high performing are often organized to allow for teacher
47
collaboration. Even though teacher collaboration varied in high performing schools,
it was an aspect of all successful schools (Craig et al., 2005b; Kannapel & Clements,
2005; Reeves, 1999; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). In six high performing schools
(two elementary, two middle schools and two high schools) in Tennessee, the
administration supported collaboration among teachers (Craig et al., 2005b). This
support was accomplished through assigning all teachers of a particular grade level
the same planning period and regular scheduled department meeting. Many teachers
indicated that collaboration took place in informal settings. During scheduled
collaborations, elementary schools discussed specific skills, including aspects of the
standards-based curriculum with which students would have difficulties. High
schools’ collaborations occurred around specific disciplines.
In a study of best practices in the middle grades, a way the schools
implemented standard based instruction was through teacher collaboration time
(Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007). During this
collaboration time, the schools established clear goals of what was to be
accomplished during this time. They used this time to share best practices and used
data to facilitate learning (Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades,
2007).
In the Johnson (1999) study all nine-school principals provided structured
time for teachers to collaborate. Many schools created blocks of time to allow
teachers to collaborate. These blocked times varied by schools, some examples
included two 90-minute uninterrupted times each week; rearrangement of the
48
schedule was to allow for vertical and horizontal collaboration. This time of
collaboration was used to review student work, create assessments, grade
assessments, and identify common areas of academic strengths, needs and
instructional improvements. Time was also set aside for classroom visits and sharing
and for professional development.
Professional Development
Professional development as part of a system of standards-based instruction
has been identified as a characteristic of high performing schools (Balancing Acts:
Best practices in the middle grades, 2007; Izumi, 2002; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003).
Research has shown that professional development must be aligned to a school goal
and be embedded in the workplace (Muijs et al., 2004). The school goal as it is
related to standards-based curriculum is the mastery or proficiency of content
standards by the students. In the case of the best practices in the middle grades, the
school goals incorporate content standards and rigorous curriculum (Balancing Acts:
Best practices in the middle grades, 2007). Pedagogies that support student learning
help students and teachers to access the curriculum successfully (Haycock, 2001).
Culturally relevant pedagogies support students in achieving proficiency levels of the
content standards (Gay, 2000b). By providing professional development around
culturally relevant pedagogy teachers support students in assessing a standards
based-curriculum.
In this study of middle schools, professional development occurs on a
regular basis through staff development days or early release days that have been
49
built into the school calendar. The professional development in these middle schools
focused on reading, mathematics, and support for English Language Learners. The
professional development was provided through traditional workshops and additional
courses with support for implementation. The supports included peer coaching,
mentoring and providing time for scheduled time for teachers to collaborate.
(Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007). Professional
development was a key to implementing standards and rigorous curriculum in these
high performing schools.
Student Access to Rigorous Standards-Bases Instruction/Curriculum
A strong academic program in high school predicts college success better
than a student’s grade point average or scores on standardized admission tests such
as the SAT or ACT. Completing a rigorous high school curriculum has greater
impact on bachelor’s degree completion than any other pre-college indicator of
academic preparation, regardless of socio-economic status or race (Adelman, 1999).
Yet students of color must have access to this rigorous curriculum. In a study that
focused on access to duel credit courses in high schools, urban schools and schools
with a large number of students of color were less likely to offer theses courses
(Waits, Setzer, & Lewis, 2005). Duel credit was defined as courses where students
can earn both high school and postsecondary credits for the same course, these
classes included advanced placement and international baccalaureate courses (Waits
et al., 2005). The current school structure found in many urban school sorts students
into curricular tracks and ability groups that offer varying levels of academic
50
preparation. Calabrese, (1989) in a study examined scheduling practices in a large
Midwestern urban school district and found that there was strong evidence that
school organizations continue to employ strategies and policies that “Caucasianize”
upper level classes and discourage students of color from completing coursework
that will lead to college entrance. Policies that make such sharp distinctions in
students’ access and support for a rigorous school experience exemplify the place
historical constructs of race still have in American institutions, specifically schools.
These systems institutionalize low expectations and deficit views of the capabilities
of students of color.
Policies related to scheduling support discriminatory practices and re-
segregate according to race and social class as well (Calabrese, 1989). The
scheduling process in most schools has the following characteristics:
• Guidance counselors and teachers initially screen and filter students into
cultural and economic tracks.
• Schools use the practice of requiring prerequisites to screen minorities out of
courses
• Schools use the practice of offering "singletons", a course that attracts large
number of students of color (ex. Black History) to support tracking.
• Schools offer numerous "relevant" courses to enhance minority interest and
divert attention away from traditional middle-class courses, and certain
courses are designed to attract students based on race requirements.
• These policies are implemented through an open scheduling process, which
51

implies that any student no matter what ethnicity can take any course
(Calabrese, 1989).
Research has shown that a “school practice of tracking creates racially
separate programs that provide students of color with restricted educational
opportunities and outcomes” (Oakes, 1995). This open-closed system is supported
by the school culture and made operational by teachers. Teachers opt to allow
students of color to fail "Caucasianized" upper-level classes; thus, they exacerbate
conditions leading to the failure of students of color by employing a middle-class
teaching style without taking into account cultural differences (Calabrese, 1989).
Driven by racial myths that students of color cannot learn, that they must be
in a highly controlled environment, they are poor readers, they have no desire to
excel, and, if given the opportunity, will be dishonest, middle class educators create,
support and maintain these policies (Irvine, 1989). Attitudes like these contribute to
the prevalence of students of color, more so than other students, being placed in
classrooms for the emotionally disturbed, special education classes, and small, low-
level instruction classes (Cardenas & First, 1985). Because of these practices
students of color have been historically tracked into terminal courses that contribute
to a sense of hopelessness and lead to low-paying positions with little opportunity for
future professional or economic growth. These practices that schools implement
continue to exclude students of color from desirable positions in the job market. This
52
exclusion maintains the privilege and control of the dominant social groups
(Blossfeld & Shavit, 1993).
All students should have access to a challenging curriculum (Checkley, 2001;
Choi, 2003; Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000). All content areas through 12
th
grade
increasingly require reading and writing skills, and specific analytical strategies.
Literacy is more than the acquirement of these reading and writing skills; it is also a
key to social mobility. Learning the hidden rules and cultural codes of the dominant
culture facilitates upward mobility (Gee, 1991). Literacy allows students to be
successful in accessing educational and employment opportunities. Students of color
must be able to function both in the culture of their identity group and in the
dominant culture. Literacy provides an avenue for gaining access to a rigorous
curriculum that students of color have been excluded from throughout history.
In addition to literacy, the other most important course determining the
success of many students in high school is algebra. A rigorous curriculum at the
middle school level begins with algebra, which research has shown to provide a
pathway to higher levels of mathematics and science classes that are needed to meet
the A-G requirements for a four year college (Burris, Huebert, & Levion, 2004;
Checkley, 2001; Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000).
Importance of Algebra
Mathematics in many districts determines whether a student will be placed in
a college preparatory path in high school. A college preparatory path includes
meeting the A-G requirements for a four-year college. Checkley (2001) states
53
“algebra is the gatekeeper subject” (p.6). Early enrollment in algebra, in the middle
schools, is extremely important as it serves as a springboard for further math and
science, which are major requirements for admission into a four-year college (Burris
et al., 2004; Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000). Historically students of color and of
poverty are denied access to upper level classes and are tracked into lower level
classes as organizations continue to employ strategies and policies that
“Caucasianize” upper level classes and discourages minorities from completing
higher level class work (Calabrese, 1989). Taking algebra in the later years of high
school versus middle school puts a student at risk of not meeting the college
requirements.
Students who take algebra in eighth grade are prepared for more advanced
coursework in math and science once they reach high school. They are also more
likely to attend and graduate from college than eighth-graders who do not take
algebra (Atanda, 1999; AVID Center, 2007). Students from higher-income families
are almost twice as likely as lower-income students to take algebra in middle school.
Low-income students who took Algebra I and geometry were almost three times as
likely to attend college as those who did not. While 71 percent of those who took
Algebra I and geometry went to college, only 27 percent who did not take those
courses went on to college. (Math equals opportunity, 1997). Since early enrollment
in algebra has been shown to be important in terms of students having the
opportunity to take higher levels of mathematics and science, it is important for
students to have access to these courses in a middle school (Darity, Castellino,
54
Tyson, Cobb, & McMillen, 2001). According to the National Center for Educational
Statistics (1996), 12 percent of Latinos and13 percent of African Americans took
algebra in the eighth grade, which was considerably lower than that of white
enrollment in algebra at 22 percent.
Oakes (1992) found that secondary schools limited opportunities for lower
SES students to enroll in advanced mathematics by placing lower SES students into
lower academic tracks than their higher SES counterparts. In spite of this historical
trend that denies large numbers of students of color or low-income students to
algebra, there are programs created to overcome a history of limited access to higher-
level courses.
Programs that Provide Systems for Access to a Rigorous Curriculum
Some schools have turned to or developed programs to ensure that the
systems needed for high achievement in high poverty schools with large
concentration of students of color. These programs work to overcome inequities in
school systems that historically surround low-income students of color. The systemic
approach of these programs provides underrepresented groups access to instruction,
curriculum and the social capital that they need to achieve at high levels. Students of
color and low-income students need systems that mitigate the barriers in most
schools to their access or preparation for college.
A Systemic Approach to Social Capital
Stanton-Salazar (1997) states that in order to get into different socio-cultural
worlds and settings, it is necessary to cross certain borders and barriers. The four
55
barriers he references in the social capital framework are socio-cultural:
socioeconomic, linguistic, and structural. In order to be successful, minority students
must be able to decode systems in which these barriers are embedded.
According to Stanton-Salazar (1997), in schools that support low-income
students of color, school officials partially assume a parental role without limiting
their official role to empower students with access to social networks that they would
not typically be able to access. Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch (1995) identify an
individual’s social relationships as a means to gain institutional support. This type of
support includes the attainability of knowledge-based resources, such as, college
admission, guidance and job advancement. Institutional agents or those with the
capacity to offer academic resources to students, such as tutoring and mentoring, aid
in developing a positive educational outcome for minority students (Stanton-Salazar
& Dornbusch, 1995). These researchers refer to “social networks and affiliations” as
social capital and define social capital as a value gained by social ties and networks.
Students of color or low-income students need a social agent within the
school comparable to parents who are college graduates and therefore are aware of
the function of the university system. Oftentimes, parents do not consider that
individual teacher perceptions play a role in the information presented to their
children. Working-class parents tend to depend on the teacher to educate their child.
Parents of the middle-class culture are provided with more information about
schooling than parents with a low socio-economic status. The middle level parents
56
will form social networks within the school community, which will later impart a
greater degree of social capital on their children (Lareau, 1987).
Not only is access to college information limited for students of color and
low income, but they also have limited access to gifted programs that further ensure
students’ eligibility for a four-year college (Peterson, 1999). In Peterson’s (1999)
analysis of under-representation of non-mainstream children in gifted programs, he
reveals that teachers from the dominant culture tend to evaluate students of minority
groups based on the teacher’s own cultural value standards. This has historically
been part of the problem with identification of students of color and low-income
students. Students who have maintained the linguistic styles, aesthetic preferences
and interactions (habitus) of the dominant social group are viewed in a positive
manner by teachers (De Graaf, De Graff, & Kraaykamp, 2000). Fernandez, Gay and
Luretha (1998) contend that teacher perceptions of gifted Latino limited English
proficient students also play a large role in determining which students are tested for
gifted programs. Stanton-Salazar (2001) states that schools propel or hinder social
capital of students by adopting covert strategies. “The most important practices
occurring in our public schools and classrooms happen at the tacit, hidden, or
subterranean level, and that it is these practices that have the most lasting effects on
children” (Stanton-Salazar, 2001).
Most American schools are staffed by members of the dominant (Anglo-
American/Caucasian) culture. It is therefore noteworthy that few minority students
have been identified as gifted in this environment where the method of identification
57
is based on cultural biases of the teacher. Whether it be intrinsic or extrinsic, the
initial judgment is determined by the teacher and thus by that teachers’ value system
(Bourdieu, 1977). This value system is frequently based in enduring constructs of
race formed throughout America’s history. Students internalize this phenomenon and
have thus developed a falta de confianza (an absence of trust) towards school agents
(Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Middle-class, majority students maintain built-in support
through their social networks, whereas, working-class, minority students maintain a
defensive help-seeking orientation especially in relation to the school system. Their
life experience is not embedded in the same social capital as their majority, middle
class counterparts and this difference furthers their lack of social capital. Students of
color may be capable, but the type of social networks they maintain will prevent
them from gaining academic success. However, several pre-college programs give
these students the access to social networks that they need to be successful in school
through the influence of teachers. Several programs exist that help schools and
districts navigate through the challenges of increasing rigor in their middle and high
schools, including Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate
Program (Gear UP), Mathematics Engineering Science Achievement (MESA) and
Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID). Of these multiple programs,
AVID is the most comprehensive and systemic.
Mathematic, Engineering Science, Achievement (MESA)
MESA is an academic preparation program that assists California’s
educationally disadvantaged students to succeed in mathematics and science and
58
attain a four-year degrees in the mathematic and science fields ("About MESA,"
2006). MESA was founded in 1970 (one of the oldest such programs in the country),
and serves over 21,000 students throughout California from elementary to university
levels. MESA serves a very similar population of students to AVID. It serves
educationally disadvantaged students and, to the extent possible by law, emphasizes
participation by students from groups with low eligibility rates for four-year college.
MESA is a program managed by the University of California and funded through the
state legislature, corporate contributions, and grants. MESA operates four core
programs: The MESA Schools Program (MSP) focuses on middle and high school
students that are similar to AVID. The MESA model provides the following systems
that are found in high performing, high poverty schools containing high
concentrations of students of color and those in the AVID program: access to
professional development for advisors, opportunities for parental involvement, and
high expectation for MESA students. Professional development is provided through
annual institutes and teacher workshops. Parental involvement is provided through
parent workshops and academies. High expectations for MESA students are
encouraged throughout the program, from the individual academic plan to provide
for career and college exploration.
The MESA model includes a variety of services of academic achievement.
Some of these elements are individual academic plans, SAT preparation, academic
excellence workshops, MESA periods, hands-on math and science exploration,
academic and career counseling, collaborative learning techniques and study skills
59
and field trips to industry sites and university campuses. The MESA program is also
not a class within the school’s master schedule as is AVID. It depends on accessing
students before or after school or on weekends. Whereas AVID provides support for
all subject areas, MESA focus is on mathematics and science.
Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs
(GEAR UP) GEAR UP is a grant program for middle and high schools serving
students living in high-poverty areas. A group of students are identified with the
grant-aided school and those students are followed through high school. This
program also offers low S.E.S. students college scholarships. GEAR UP is not an
official program but offers supplemental funding to existing programs serving
traditionally underrepresented students ("California Gear Up: A bridge to the future"
2007; "Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs GEAR
UP" 2007). GEAR UP provides: instruction in reading, writing, study skills, and
other subjects necessary for success in education beyond high school. GEAR UP
provides this service to students after school, weekends and during the summer. Gear
up is not a class within the daily school structure. It also provides counseling,
exposure to academic programs and cultural events, tutorial services, mentoring
programs, information on postsecondary education opportunities, and assistance in
completing college entrance and financial aid applications (“Gear UP”, 2007). These
services are also provided to AVID students in the AVID program. All of these
services that GEAR UP provides to students, grants them opportunities that they may
not have received due to limited resources or access issues as we have been
60
discussing in a high poverty school. These systems provide the social capital most
often denied to students of color to be successful in the educational system. This
program differs from AVID in that it is not an actual class within the school
structure. Gear up provides services after school and tutors are available for core
classes during school hours. Tutors are used at the discretion of the teacher.
Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID)
Out of the many programs designed to mitigate the existing barriers that exist
for students of color and low-income students, AVID has the most systemic
approach and the greatest potential for affecting school-wide school systems.
All of the programs discussed above have systems similar to AVID in that
they:
• Engage parental involvement
• Provide student access to a rigorous curriculum
• Provide support for teachers through professional development
• Provide tutoring service
• Provide college counseling services
• Provide college awareness
Additionally, these programs provide the support for students to make the transition
to the next educational level. The difference between the programs described above
and AVID is that AVID program is not a college out-reach program; it is an
academic program with scheduled classes embedded within the daily school
structure. This study seeks to examine the role AVID has in providing the systemic
61
approach students in a high performing, high poverty, urban middle school with a
high concentration of students of color need to transition successfully into high
school. The middle school to high school transition, especially for students of color,
has been shown to be critical stage in determining whether a student will be
successful in high school and beyond.
Transition from Middle School to High School
The move from middle school to high school is a critical transition for
students, especially for students of color and students in high poverty areas.
Research has shown that students experience a decrease in achievement from middle
school to high school (Alspaugh, 1998; Alspaugh & Harting, 1997; Heck & Mahoe,
2006; Isakson & Jarvis, 1999). In a study of 48 school districts, Alspaugh (1998)
found that students attending middle schools experienced a greater achievement loss
in transition to high school than students making the transition from a K-8
elementary school. In addition to academic struggles, behavior problems in the form
of suspensions and expulsions appear to increase significantly early in the ninth
grade (Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1996). Students who have difficulty adjusting to the
social and academic demands of high school also experience a higher rate of
academic failure, disciplinary problems, feelings of not belonging, and dropping out
(Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005). This trend is more pronounced in students of
color; however, students who come from middle schools with effective systems that
produce high academic achievement among students of color and low-income
62
students, experience fewer of these transitional problems and they are more
successful.

Dropout Rates
According to Laird, Lew, DeBell, & Chapman’s (2006) National Center for
Education Statistics report on dropout rates in the United States for 2002 and 2003,
the status dropout rate for all students, defined as those 16- to 24-years old who were
not enrolled in high school nor had they earned a high school diploma or its
equivalency, such as GED, was 10 percent of all U.S. individuals in that age range.
The event dropout rates by race/ethnicity shows that students of color have a higher
dropout rate than their White and Asian/Pacific Islander counterparts. The event
drop-out rate estimates the percentage of both private and public high school
students who left high school between the beginning of one school year and the
beginning of the next without earning a high school diploma or its equivalent (e.g., a
GED)(Laird et al., 2006). Among the four largest racial/ethnic groups, Latino
students were the most likely to drop out in 2004 (8.9 percent), followed by Black
students (5.7 percent), White students (3.7 percent), and Asian/Pacific Islander
students (1.2 percent)(Laird et al., 2006). According (Gary Orfield & Lee, 2005), the
nation’s dropout problem is concentrated in segregated high poverty schools. Orfield
and Lee (2005) report that half of the nation’s African American and Latino students
are dropping out of high school. The most severe problems are in segregated high
poverty schools. For the high school class of 2002 almost a third of the high schools
63
that were more than 50 percent minority graduated less than half of their class.

Figure 2.1. The Event Dropout Rate by Ethnicity for 2004.
Source: (Laird et al., 2006)
64
In a multi-level study of 12, 972 eighth graders in 984 schools, findings
demonstrated that schools with a high concentration of minority students were more
likely to have fallen behind or dropped out of high school earlier than their peers
(Heck & Mahoe, 2006). The African American students made up only 10 percent of
the sample, yet 33 percent of this population fell behind their peers or dropped out
early. The Latino students made up only nine percent of the sample yet 39 percent of
these students fell behind their peers or dropped out earlier (Heck & Mahoe, 2006).
The focus on students as they enter high school is critical as drop out statistics reveal
a disturbing situation. One such focus has been in identifying what eighth grade
students are both concerned and excited about when they transition to high school.
Anderson, Jacobs, Schramm, & Splittgerber (2000) have suggested that
students who were not adequately prepared prior to transition would have difficulty
making the transition. They identified four dimensions: academic success,
independent and industrial work habits, conformity to adult standards and coping
mechanisms for such activities as resolving conflicts and keeping track of school
assignments.
Systems and Structures of Effective Transition Programs
There are studies that have shown successful transitions from middle school
to high school (Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005; Hertzog & Morgan, 1998; Mizelle
& Mullins, 1997; Oates et al., 1998). Research has indicated that facilitating students
transition from middle school to high school requires programs that specifically
address the transition period (Hertzog & Morgan, 1998). In a study by Heck &
65
Mahoe (2006) schools that had support programs had a 59 percent increase in the
odds of making normal academic progress over students without these programs.
Specific programs have included the Delta Project and the Community Learning
Project. In the Delta Project, the students stayed together for their middle school
years (6-8) and experienced more hands on, life related learning activities: integrated
instruction and cooperative learning (Mizelle & Mullins, 1997). The Delta Project
students made more of a successful transition than other students in the same school
that had a traditional middle school experience. The Community Learning Project at
a middle school in inner city Philadelphia consisted of key systems: three “houses”
of students, a dedicated teaching team, common prep time data-based staff
development, a learning management system that focused on developing student
responsibility for learning and behavior and an active program of family involvement
(Oates et al., 1998). Oates et al. (1998) found that the students in the Community
Learning Project were less likely to drop out of high school and more likely to
maintain their grade level attainment (Mac Iver & Epstein, 1991; Mizelle & Irvin,
2000).
Research has identified characteristics of successful transition programs
(Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005; Hertzog & Morgan, 1998; Mac Iver & Epstein,
1991; McAdoo, 1999; Mizelle & Irvin, 2000; Zeedyk et al., 2003). Some common
characteristics are systems that middle schools provide to aid in the transition from
middle school to high school (see figure 2.2). These characteristics include:
collaboration between middle school and high school, providing ongoing
66
information, and providing academic rigor of courses. These characteristics are part
of a larger system of a positive school culture. These are features provided through
the AVID program.

Collaboration between
middle school
and high school
College -going culture
Rigor
academic courses
On-going
information and support
for parents and students
Grouping of Students
Efective Transition
Programs
College -going culture
Systems of support for
academic classes
Parental involvement
Professional
development for teachers
Effective School
Support Programs
Characteristics

Figure 2.2: Characteristics of Effective Transition Programs and Effective School
programs
67
Collaboration
Collaboration was the most common characteristic found in successful
transition programs and recommendations. Collaboration varied among studies.
Setting up transition teams of educators and parents who can help students develop
plans for the future was found in Hertz &Morgan (1998) to be effective. They
recommended that middle schools develop an ongoing dialog between the eighth and
ninth grade faculty around curriculum mapping and develop curriculum articulation
between the two schools. MacIver (1990) also described bringing together middle
school and high school personnel to learn about one another’s curriculum and
requirements. Collaboration between eighth and ninth grade teachers is part of a
system that ensures that students are provided effective standard based instruction.
By teachers knowing what is expected from the high school when students transition
to high school, they can ensure that their content curriculum maps meet the
necessary standards for the transitioning classes. Curriculum based on the state
content standards provides a map for this dialogue and ensures continuity between
the middle school and the high school curricula.
Providing Ongoing Information and Support.
Successful transition programs provide ongoing information about the new
school, new programs and new expectations and offer support during the transition
(Mizelle & Irvin, 2000). These programs provide the social capital that may not be
available to students of color and poverty enabling them to become successful in the
educational system. Studies have suggested that lower socio economic status (SES)
68
students and students of color have access to fewer sources of information or their
parents lack the awareness of the importance of particular classes they may need to
be eligible for college. These students then may have to rely on institutional agents
such as teachers and counselors for guidance (Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Valadez,
2002). Valadez (2002), states that this implies that Latino parents with a higher SES
derive their knowledge from their own educational and occupational experience, a
practice that in turn gives them an advantage over the students of color with lower
SES parents. Parents who hold a high socioeconomic status can seemingly offer
more opportunities for their children. Also a student whose parent is a college
graduate will be aware of the requirements necessary to be eligible to enter a four-
year university and they may achieve a social network through their parent’s
affiliations. Conversely, a student whose parent(s) are without a college degree may
associate with other high school graduates and the child’s social network may not be
as college accessible.
The social networks of the minority students can determine success within an
educational system. The analysis of social networks by Stanton-Salazar and
Dornbush (1995) “revealed how success within the educational system for working
class and minority youths is dependent on the formation of genuinely supportive
relationships with institutional agents” (p.117). For a student, these agents can be
family members, counselors, teachers, peers and clergy. The institutional agents
described by Stanton-Salazar (1997) “as those individuals who have the capacity and
commitment to transmit directly or negotiate the transmission of, institutional
69
resources and opportunity” (p. 6). As Stanton-Salazar (2001) states, a teacher and a
counselor are “often key participants in the social networks of low-status children
and adolescents, and play a determining role in either reproducing or interfering with
the reproduction of class, racial, and gendered inequality” (p. 161). The AVID
program provides AVID students with access to these social networks and aids in the
transition from middle school to high school. This is accomplished as the AVID
teaches are “institutional agents” to the students.
MacIver (1990) discusses providing support during the transition as an
important aspect of a successful transition. Cooper & Markoe-Hayes (2005)
recommends that middle schools educate families about the importance of the ninth
grade transition and the need to inform parents about the importance of transition
especially for those who do not have educational training at this level.
Providing Rigorous Academic Courses
Providing a rigorous academic challenge during the middle years can provide
students with opportunities in high school and beyond (McAdoo, 1999). Research
has described different avenues for attaining rigorous academic coursework that is
tied to high standards that help students in the transition from middle to high school.
One avenue for attaining rigorous academic coursework is with stronger classroom
academic organization (i.e. classes highly structured, achievement oriented, strong
homework expectations and academic courses emphasized). In these schools
students were more likely to transition to high school successfully (Heck & Mahoe,
2006). In the Heck & Mahoe (2006) study, students’ membership in a more rigorous
70
academic program (as opposed to a vocational, technical or other program)
increased the likelihood (log odds=4.32) of graduating dramatically. Fewer than two
percent of these students fell behind or dropped out, and falling behind one’s peers
academically at grade ten significantly decreased the odds of graduating by about six
times (Heck & Mahoe, 2006). Schools where teachers provided culturally relevant
and responsive instruction in a standards-based curriculum were more likely to
ensure that students had access to and were successful in completing a rigorous
academic program.
By providing students with a more challenging curriculum, Mizelle &
Mullins (1997) found that it helped students learn strategies, be more responsible for
their learning and feel more confident about high school. Hertzog and Morgan
(2001) identified characteristics of best transition programs: counseling, school
visits, special summer courses that let students understand the culture of the new
school and setting up transition teams of educators and parents who can help students
develop plans for the future.
A College-Going Culture
In addition to the systems described in this chapter, a study that evaluated a
transition model for “a college-going culture” among entering ninth graders, found
the high performing urban school placed an explicit focus on “over determining
success” (Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005). Over-determining success involves
creating and exposing students to the opportunities to participate in evidence based
activities and programs that enhance academic success and college awareness.
71
Activities included cultural and social skill enrichment, mentoring and access to
technology. The model encourages and prepares students to move beyond the
educational levels of their families and builds partnerships and social network with
families to help support the transition into high school and beyond (Cooper &
Markoe-Hayes, 2005). One such program that provides these activities is the AVID
program.
Advanced Via Individual Determination (AVID) Systems and Structures
AVID is nationwide in-school academic support program for grades 4-12 that
prepares students’ college eligibility and success. AVID targets students in the
academic middle (B, C and sometimes D students) and are usually students of color
(see figure 2.3), and from low socioeconomic status and first in their families to
attend college (AVID Center, 2007).
72

Figure 2.3: Ethnicity Breakdown of AVID Student populations for 2005-2006
Source: AVID Online: General Data Collection (2006)

AVID is a means for instilling the desire and willingness to go to college and
the confidence to complete a rigorous coursework that might be previously absent in
a student. AVID itself is a system that supports students of color in high poverty
schools through many elements that the research stated earlier in the chapter
demonstrated to be essential. It provides access to a social capital, rigorous
curriculum, a culturally relevant and responsive social context for learning,
professional development, and parental involvement. These elements are provided
through time set aside in the school day for an AVID elective; a rigorous AVID
curriculum that gives students access to a rigorous standards-based, college
73
preparatory curriculum, and AVID faculty who provide the social capital needed to
gain admission to college; placement in a rigorous curriculum; professional
development for the AVID teachers of AVID students and parent involvement
(AVID Center, 2007).
AVID Elective and Curriculum
The AVID program takes into consideration the structural and systemic
barriers to college created in the social construct of race that historically worked to
limit educational opportunities and social mobility for people of color. The AVID
elective is part of the school’s master schedule and provides the structured time for
AVID students to meet. AVID is a one-period class where students learn
organizational and study skills, work on critical thinking and on asking probing
questions. They receive academic help from their peers and college tutors, and
participate in enrichment and motivational activities that make college seem
attainable (AVID Center, 2007). This type of intrinsic motivation falls within the
cognitive approach to motivation whereas, socio-cultural approach suggests
motivation is socially negotiated, socially distributed and context-specific (Rueda &
Dembo, 1995). The AVID curriculum is based on a rigorous curriculum driven by
the WICR (Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration and Reading) method. This curriculum
provides the AVID students with the skills needed to be successful in college
preparatory classes (AVID Center, 2007). This WICR methodology is used not only
in the AVID elective but also in the content classes at an AVID school site. WICR
can be used to reinforce learning around any content standard in any classroom.
74
AVID Faculty
The AVID faculty consists of the school AVID coordinator, elective teachers
and site support team. The AVID coordinator has a variety of duties some of which
include providing the organization of the AVID program at the school site, working
with colleagues in implementing the AVID methodologies school wide, and placing
students in college preparatory classes (AVID Center, 2007). The coordinator may
also be an elective teacher. The AVID elective teachers provide the day-to-day
support and implementation of the AVID methodologies. The AVID teachers also
connect these students to social networks at school and provide them with the social
capital, which is similar to that which more economically advantage parents are able
to provide through advantaged family connections. AVID teachers create a “college
going” atmosphere and encourage students to pursue college education. Often times
these teachers and coordinators serve as mediators for students as they embark on the
process of going to college (Mehan & et al., 1994b). The AVID teachers take on the
role of a mentor, coach, and cheerleader for these students (Stanton-Salazar, 2001).
Some AVID tutors are college students that work with the AVID students
during the elective period and help facilitate access to a rigorous curriculum. The site
support team consists of the AVID coordinator, elective teachers, parents, AVID
students, administration and other core teachers at the school site who provide
support of the AVID program and incorporate the AVID methodologies into their
core classes (AVID, 2007)
75
Student Placement into a Rigorous Curriculum
One main aspect of AVID is placing students in a rigorous curriculum. The
un-tracking used by the AVID program seeks to break the race-based patterns of
exclusion by placing underrepresented students into academically rigorous and
college preparatory classes (Mehan & et al., 1994a). Aldeman (1999) found that
academic rigor typical to honors and advanced placement courses is more important
in preparing students for a degree completion than grade point average. Historically
underrepresented students or struggling students are placed on a vocation or remedial
academic path.(Lockwood & Secada, 1999; Mehan & et al., 1992, 1994a)
In a study by Mehan et al (1992), low-income, ethnic minority students who
held middle level grades were placed in a situation where they were untracked.
Although these students were typically placed on a remedial or vocational track,
AVID placed them in college preparatory classes. The study took place in eight high
schools in San Diego over a three-year period. The study concluded that the un-
tracking program used by AVID was successful in preparing students for college.
Forty-eight percent of the students who participated in AVID for three years had
enrolled in a four-year university; 40 percent enrolled in two-year college; and 12
percent were not enrolled in college. These statistics exceeded the national average.
A study by Hubbard & Mehan (1999), was conducted in a high school in
Oakwood, where AVID was brought in to reduce the achievement gap between the
black and white students. AVID was met with resistance from educators and
community members who believed that intelligence is fixed and racially based.
76
AVID encountered resistance when it challenged the preconceived notions
concerning race and intelligence and challenged the schools to un-track their classes.
The deep-seated beliefs about race and intelligence and teachers' attempts to protect
the tracking accounted in large part for the relatively small size of the AVID
program in Oakwood (Hubbard & Mehan, 1999). A consequence of these deep-
seated beliefs according to Hubbard and Mejan (1999) is AVID remaining a small
program enrolling less than 10% of the student population in high schools in which it
is implemented. According to Hubbard and Mejan (1999) “as long as the program is
relegated to a ‘safe niche’, it will offer hope and opportunity to a small number of
low-achieving students and their families, but it will not seriously challenge the
special privileges accruing to students and their families in high-track classes”.
The un-tracking of AVID students has brought on positive results. At the
high school level it is the advance placement classes and college preparatory classes
that will meet the A-G requirement for a four-year university. The number of AVID
students in California who have completed the A-G requirement is 86 percent
compared to the California overall which was 35 percent (AVID Center, 2007). A
study of ten, Texas high schools in five districts, over a five year period, revealed
that AVID high schools and their districts showed gains in advanced course
enrollment compared to non-AVID high schools which showed a decrease in
enrollment (Watt, Powell, Mendiola, & Cossio, 2006).
At the middle school level students were placed into the most rigorous
courses available at the school site, which includes access to algebra in the eighth
77
grade with AVID support to successfully complete the courses. The percent of eighth
grade AVID students who take and pass algebra is 51.4 percent compared to the
national average of 22 percent (AVID Center, 2007).
Professional Development
A system of ongoing professional development is critical in supporting
students’ and teachers’ successes. AVID provides ongoing professional development
for the AVID faculty. AVID provides a summer institute where new school teams
are introduced to AVID methodologies while others learn about high-level AVID
strands that will help refine their knowledge of their AVID methodology. During the
summer institutes the school site teams are allotted time to meet and plan for the
upcoming school year. There is training for content area teachers in one or two-day
workshops throughout the school year. There are also coordinator workshops,
program-planning sessions, site team conferences which allow the time for site teams
to work together on a specific area of interest. There is also tutor training, where
tutors receive formal training before access to a classroom.
Parent Involvement
The involvement of parents is crucial in AVID. Parents are informed about
program events and expectations through newsletters and parent meetings. Parent
groups often become involved in planning programs and fund-raising. Ongoing
home contact in the form of regular telephone calls, letters and meetings for parents
and students, and the presence of a parent’s advisory board, are vital to the success of
the program. AVID provides a parent-training curriculum designed to assist families
78
with the college-going process (AVID Center, 2007). Parents can also serve on the
AVID site team and participate in AVID family workshops. Parents are part of the
social network described by Stanton-Salazar (2001) for their AVID students as they
provide encouragement to their students to achieve academically.
Conclusion
An AVID program’s systemic structure provides a socio-cultural setting for
students that encompass characteristics of both effective transition programs and
effective school support program (as seen in figure 2.4).

Collaboration between
middle school and
high school
Provides a
college-going culture
Grouping of students
into AVID Elective
Classes
Provides support
for rigorous courses
Places students into
rigorous academic
academic courses
ELECTIVE
AND
CURRICULUM
Collaboration between
middle school and
high school teachers
Engages
parental invovlment
Provides on-going
information and support
parents and students
SIte team is provided
with ongoing professional
development
AVID SITE TEAM
AVID
PROGRAM

Figure 2.4. Visualization of AVID Systems
79
By AVID encompassing the characteristics of a successful transition program and
school support programs, AVID can provide high poverty urban schools with
systems that promote a positive school culture. A positive school culture that
promotes high expectations through a standard based curriculum has been found to
exist in high performing, high poverty schools (P. Barth, 1999b; Craig et al., 2005b;
Dana Center, 2002; Johnson, 1999; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003).
High poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color
historically have been associated with low student achievement. The gap in
achievement between these children and those from more economically advantaged
backgrounds is a result of numerous factors and not just an educational problem.
Despite these factors there are cases of high performing, high poverty schools. In the
midst of the crisis, there are cases of high performing, high poverty urban schools
with a large concentration of students of color. Researchers have found that high-
performing schools have a number of common systems and structures (Lezotte et al.,
2002; Marzano, 2003; Quick & Quick, 2000; Shear & Smerdon, 2003). Specific
school organizational structures and systems have shown to have a positive impact
on classroom instruction in high performing urban schools. A school culture of high
expectations results from systems and structures that are directly focused on
promoting standards based instruction, that is culturally relevant and responsive,
throughout the school. Standard based instruction in high performing schools has
been shown to provide students access to a rigorous curriculum. Access to a
80
rigorous curriculum has also been identified as important factor in the transition of
one educational level to another.
The transition from middle school to high school is a critical time for
students, especially for students of color and students in high poverty areas.
Research has shown that students experience a decrease in achievement from middle
school to high school (Alspaugh, 1998; Alspaugh & Harting, 1997; Heck & Mahoe,
2006; Isakson & Jarvis, 1999). The decrease in achievement has been observed in
drop out rates and the percentage of students meeting the a-g requirements for a four-
year college or university. On the other hand, research has also identified systems
and structures that promote successful transitions.
This research study is intended to add to the knowledge of identifying the
systems and structures in high performing, high poverty urban schools with a high
concentration of students of color. Studying the systems and structures of one
intermediate school will do this.
81
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter describes the methodology, the sample, and the population for
the current study. It also describes the instrumentation, data collection techniques,
and data analysis. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the role of
systems and structures in promoting high academic achievement among students of
color in high poverty schools; particularly as they transition from middle school to
high school. The study also sought to examine the role of AVID and how it prepares
students for high school. It does so by exploring and describing one high
performing, high poverty urban middle school with a large concentration of students
of color. In order to explore these systems in structures in a high performing, high
poverty, urban school, the study examined the following four research questions:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Theoretical Framework
Four of the research questions were guided by the theoretical framework
discussed previously in chapter two’s literature review.
82
Research Question 1 and 2
The theoretical framework for research question one and two is based around
previous research that supports integrated systems. Historically high poverty urban
schools with large concentration of students of color have been associated with low
student achievement. Despite this history, research has identified multiple factors
and organizational structures and systems that contribute to high performing high
poverty school (Marzano, 2003).
Research Question 3
Research question three is based on the social cultural frameworks that
research identifies for schools to validate and build on students’ home culture in
order to help students develop more knowledge. It is what Vygotsky referred to as
Zones of Proximal Development—that place where students bring enough
knowledge for the teacher to apprentice them into new knowledge (Ormrod, 2006).
The new knowledge students need to acquire, includes social capital in order to gain
entry into different socio-cultural worlds and settings (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). These
different socio-cultural worlds and settings include an educational system that has
been built around meeting the needs of a specific group of students –the whites. In
order to be successful, students of color must be able to decode and navigate through
this educational system. Key institutional agents who help students decode this
system are teachers (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Teachers need to have socio-cultural
awareness to be able to both understand the students in the classroom and to build a
83
classroom culture in which all are comfortable and feel they belong. Without socio-
cultural awareness, teachers will judge students through to their own cultural lenses.
Research Question 4
Culturally relevant and responsive education is also a theoretical framework
for research question four. People coming from different racial, religious, and
geographical backgrounds have different cultures, different ways of learning, and
different ways of making sense of the world around them. Thus, it is crucial for
educational systems and educators to not only respect and value students’ cultural
backgrounds and histories, but incorporate it into the learning process. Schools
where teachers provided culturally relevant and responsive instruction in a standards-
based curriculum were more likely to ensure that students had access and were
successful in completing a rigorous academic program
A visual representation of the theoretical framework that guided this research
can be seen in Figure 3.1.
84

Figure 3.1: Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High Performing Schools Study

Type of Study
The researchers in this dissertation group decided to use a qualitative case
study design because it is “characterized as being particularistic, descriptive and
heuristic” (Merriem, 1998) . By concentrating on a “single phenomenon or entity
(the case), the researcher aimed to uncover the interaction of significant factors
characteristic of the phenomenon” (Merriem, 1998, pg 31). The qualitative approach
allowed for interaction among the subjects, data collection and the researcher
through the use of interviews, observation, and the review and analysis of relevant
artifacts. To increase the validity of this qualitative case study design, a process of
85
triangulation was incorporated through interviews, observations and school artifacts
that were collected to gain a larger picture of the systems and structures at the school
site.
Sample and Population
The school chosen for this case study was selected through purposeful
sampling based on criteria jointly defined by a thematic dissertation group of 17
doctoral students at University of Southern California’s Rossier’s School of
Education. The thematic group sought to identify representative Southern California
schools by applying the following criteria.
Process of Selection of School
The dissertation group of 17 doctoral students from the University of
Southern California Rossier School of Education, under the direction of Dr.
Rousseau and Dr. Stowe, developed and agreed upon the criteria for the selection of
schools. The school had to be a high performing, high poverty urban school with a
large concentration of students of color in Southern California. The criteria for a
high performing secondary school included schools that met or exceeded their API
growth target in a three to five year period. The school must also have had a
minimum of a 600 API scores. High poverty was defined as schools with 75 percent
or more of their students on free or reduced lunch and identified as Title I. Urban
was defined as an area with a high population density and a high concentration of
students of color. High concentration is defined as a minimum of 60 percent of
students of color at a school site.
86
A broad Internet search for schools in Southern California that met all of the
criteria set forth by the dissertation group for a middle school was completed. First,
schools were identified from the Title I Academic Achievement Schools. From that
list, the search was narrowed to 13 middle schools. From the 13 middle schools, only
five schools met the criteria developed by the dissertation group with regards to high
performance and high poverty, with a large concentration of students of color. In
addition to meeting the required criteria, the school needed to have the AVID
program as part of their master schedule. From the list of five schools, two of these
schools had AVID. The researcher also did a search of the California Department of
Education using the criteria set forth by the dissertation thematic group.
Overview of the District
Urban Unified School District (UUSD) is the third largest among 28 public
school districts in Orange County with 48,604 students, ranks 12th in size of more
than 1,000 school districts in California, and is the 88th largest school district of
14,800 in the United States. The district employs more than 5,000 staff members
and operates 70 schools: 47 elementary, 10 intermediate, 7 high schools, 2
continuation schools, 2 adult education centers, and 2 special education schools. The
district serves most of one particular city and parts of six surrounding cities and
encompasses 28 square miles. The district was the recipient of the 2004 Broad Prize
for Urban Education, the annual award honoring the nation’s finest urban school
system. The Broad Prize, an award in public education, showcases urban school
districts across the U.S. with the greatest success in raising overall test scores while
87
at the same time reducing achievement gaps across ethnic lines and between high
and low income students ("GGUSD Profile," 2007).
Overview of the School
Urban School is an intermediate school with grades 7-8. It is one of 80
schools in the Urban Unified School District and serves students from two
surrounding cities. AN urban school is defined as having a high population density
and high concentration of students of color. Urban school has a large concentration
of students of color with 97.2% (see figure 3.2). The total school enrollment for
2006-2007 school year was 852.

Figure 3.2 Urban Intermediate Demographics
Source: 2006-2007 School Accountability Report Card (2007)
88
Urban Intermediate school had 82.79 % of their students receiving free or reduced
lunch and 51. 63% students were identified as English Language Learners. Urban
Intermediate has also made gains in their API since 2000-2001which were a 3-10 to
their current status of a 6-10 (see figure 3.3). Each rank is based on a scale of one to
ten; one being the lowest and ten being the highest. The statewide ranking compares
Urban Intermediate with all middle schools in the state. Urban Intermediate began
with a statewide rank of three in 2000-2001 and increased to a statewide rank of six.
Urban Intermediate similar ranking, of middle schools with similar demographics,
has remained constant at a ten.

Table 3.1 State wide and Similar School Ranking from 2000-2007
School Year Statewide rank Similar rank
2006-2007 6 10
2005-2006 6 10
2004-2005 5 10
2003-2004 5 10
2002-2003 5 10
2001-2002 4 10
2000-2001 3 10

In the 2006 -2007 school year, the school had a slight decrease of nine points (see
figure 3.3) in their overall API score, but kept their current status of school rank and
similar school rank of 6-10.
89

Figure 3.3 Urban Intermediate API Scores
Source: California Department of Education

Urban Intermediate has also been recognized as an AVID National
Demonstration Site. An AVID National Demonstration site is identified as a school
that has been recognized as achieving the highest standards for AVID
implementation and expansion. As an AVID National Demonstration site they
represent the AVID system to other schools and districts (AVID Center, 2007).
Participants
At the school site, four groups of participants were interviewed. The
sampling strategy determined by the thematic group was purposeful sampling.
Purposeful sampling was chosen because it is aimed at providing insight about the
phenomenon and not a generalization from a sample to a population (Patton, 2002).
The four types of interviewees determined by the thematic group were
90
administrators, teachers, parents and classified staff. The four groups were chosen
because the thematic group came to an agreement that these were the stakeholders at
the school site who would provide the most accurate information for the study. A
total of 14 interviews were conducted.
Semi-structured interviews were held with all identified participants at their
school site. Interviews were based on a case study guide grounded in current
research literature and theoretical frameworks. All participants in the study were
voluntary. They were each provided with the Information Sheet for Non-Medical
Research, the document approved by the university’s Instructional Review Board
(IRB) to inform participants of the study’s authorization. The information sheet
provided an overview of the study, including the purpose and research questions, as
well as the researcher’s contact information. The information sheet also emphasized
the confidential nature of the data collection, and assured them of anonymity. After
the interview was complete a thank you gift of a ten-dollar gift card to Starbucks was
provided to each interviewee.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation for this study was developed by the members of a
dissertation thematic group of 17 Ed.D candidates who met during the summer of
2007. This case study involved three sources of data in order to construct validity,
interviews, observations, and the collection of artifacts. The instrumentation
consisted of both interview and observation protocols. Interviews were chosen as the
major source of qualitative data needed for understanding the phenomenon in the
91
study (Merriem, 1998). The interview protocol was designed to acquire answers to
the research questions developed by the thematic dissertation group. The interview
protocols were carefully crafted for each group of stakeholders: administrators (see
Appendix A), classified staff, (see Appendix B), teachers (see Appendix C) and
parents (see Appendix D). All interview protocols were developed and approved by
the university’s Instructional Review Board (IRB). Each structured interview
protocol contained eight open-ended questions geared toward giving information that
would provide answers for the four research questions as seen in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions
Interview
Questions
Research
Question #1
Research
Question #2
Research
Question #3
Research
Question
#4
Question #1 X X
Question #2 X X
Question #3 X X
Question #4 X
Question #5 X
Question #6 X X X X
Question #7 X X X

The interview protocol was constructed in such a way as to corroborate the responses
from each of the sample groups. Each interview protocol was field tested by the
dissertation group for validity.
92
The dissertation group developed the following guidelines: classroom (see
Appendix E), professional development meetings (see Appendix F) and leadership
meetings (see Appendix G). The observation guidelines consisted of key categories
with some examples to guide but not limit what is to be observed. All observation
guidelines were constructed from the theoretical framework to answer the research
questions for this study. The researcher reviewed the guide before observing a
meeting. A total of 20 formal observations were conducted: 13 classroom, three
professional development, three leadership meetings and one parent meeting. The
data was collected through scripting by the observer using the observation guidelines
as a template. The number of observation at the school site ranged from four to eight
observations. Observations led the researcher toward greater understanding of the
case (Stake, 1995). Observations consisted of detailed descriptions of people’s
activities, behaviors and actions that were part of the observable human experience
(Patton, 2002). The purpose of the observational data was to provide an overview of
the school’s structures and systems that could corroborate with data gathered from
interviews and artifacts. This observation guide is aligned to the four research
questions and the following is a list of those elements that were recorded through
scripting:
• Physical Setting
• School Grounds
• Classroom Specifics
• School-wide Environment
• Classroom Climate
• Teacher/student interaction
• Instructional practices
93
• Student engagement
• Symbols
• Rigor

Validity and reliability were established through triangulation. For data
source triangulation, the researcher looked to see if the phenomena or descriptions
remained the same at other times, in other places, and as people interacted differently
(Stake, 1995). Data source triangulation occurred horizontally in this study through
the interviewing of different individuals, observations within the same schools, and
through the gathering of artifacts.
Data Collection Procedures
Data collection took place at the school site over six school visits after
receiving approval from the IRB to proceed with the study. Data from the three
sources (interviews, observations, documents) were used to triangulate the validity of
the findings. The process was followed up by analyzing the data as outlined by
Cresswell (2002) in order to prepare the data, conduct analyses, move deeper into
understanding the data, represent the data, and make interpretations. The following
table and figure, Table 3.3 outlines the process of data analysis and Figure 3.4
provides an overview of the process.
94
Table 3.3 Process of Data Analysis

Step One:
Organize and
Prepare
• Sorting and arranging the data
• Transcribing interviews
Step Two:
General Sense
• Read through all data
• Reflect on the overall meaning
• Record general thoughts about data
Step Three:
Coding
• Create and label categories
• Organizing the material into “chunks”/categories
Step Four:
Description
• Generate a description of the
setting/people/categories/themes
• Detail rendering of information
• Generate small number of themes/categories
• Display multiple perspectives
Step Five:
Represented
• Narrative passage to convey the findings of the
analysis
• Detail discussion of themes
• Discussion with interconnecting themes
• Present a process model (grounded in theory)
Step Six:
Interpretations
• Meaning of the data
• Lessons learned
• Researcher’s personal interpretation
• Meaning derived from comparison of the findings to
literature/theories

After all data were gathered and interviews transcribed, Hyperesearch was
used to organize and code the data. The data were initially coded by the four research
questions. After further analysis, the data was re-coded into sub categories (see
Appendix I). These sub categories were then identified as the themes for answering
each of the research questions.
95

Figure 3.4 Process of Data Analysis
Source: Creswell, 2003

Artifacts that were collected included:
• Master schedule: to identify upper level classes offered at the school site and
the groups of students, including AVID, who have access to these classes.
• School Improvement Plan: to help identify how the school plan reflects the
school’s culture
• CST scores: to compare students of color with the overall school population
• CELDT scores: to compare levels of English language learners
• Re-designation data: to compare students of color with the overall population
Step 1 - Organize and
Prepare Data
Step 2 - Read Data
Thoroughly
Step 3 - Chunk Data
Step 4 - Design Detailed
Descriptions of Data

Step 5 - Convey
Findings
Step 6 - Interpret and
Assign Meaning to Data
96
• Agendas of Professional Development: to determine if school vision matched
professional development
• Bulletins, school and newsletters to parents and faculty: to determine the
amount of communication provided to stakeholders.
• AVID specific data collected included:
o Pattern of achievement of AVID students
o Number of students programmed into a College Preparatory
Sequence of Courses in High School, which will provide data on high
school preparation.
The artifacts chosen were to provide information for research questions developed
for this study. The matching of the research questions to the artifacts is seen in Table
3.4.
97

Table 3.4 Relationship of Data Collection Instruments to Research Questions
Data Research
Question #1.
Trends and
patterns of
students of color
Research
Question #2.
Systems and
Structures
Research
Question #3.
Classroom
instruction
Research
Question #4.
Construct of
race
Artifacts:
Master Schedule X X
School improvement
Plan
X X X X
School Calendar X X
Curriculum and Pacing
Guide
X X X X
Grades/GPA X X
CST Scores X
CELDT Scores X X
Re-designation Rates X X X
Parent Sign in Sheets X X X
Professional
Development
X X X X
Staff Development
Calendar
X X X
Bulletins and Newsletters X X X
Personal Plan for Success
Handout
X X X X
Student Agenda X X
AVID Data X X X
Interviews
• Administration
• Teachers
• Classified Staff
• Parents
X X X X
Observations
• Classroom
• Professional
Development
• Leadership
Meetings
X X X X
98
Study Design
The units of analysis for the case study were geographically focused as the
researcher studied one high performing, high poverty urban school. The sampling
strategies included a purposeful sampling. Qualitative data were collected through
interviews, artifacts and observations at the school site. This data triangulation was
used to strengthen the qualitative case study by checking the consistency of findings
generated by different data collection methods (Patton, 2002). A small amount of
quantitative data was used to provide descriptive information about the school site.
This included ethnic breakdown, number of students in Algebra classes, and number
of students programmed into college preparatory classes as ninth graders.
Thematic analysis was the analytical approach used. The validity of the data
was addressed using multiple sources; from the observation of the school site itself to
the interviews and focus groups, which included teachers, classified staff, parents,
and administration. The study took place during the fall of 2007. A site following a
traditional school-year schedule was used and the research began during the first
semester/trimester of the school calendar. The study was sequenced, first by
gathering descriptive data and focus groups, and then by the interviewing of
stakeholders.
Logistically, the researcher used her connections through the AVID network
to obtain permission to study this particular school site. As an AVID site team
member at another school, I had access to AVID data as well as the opportunity to
choose a school that fit the pre-determined set school requirements.
99
Ethical Considerations
Ethical issues and matters of confidentiality were handled using the informed
consent form through the IRB process. The resources that were available were
unknown at the time the research began. The cost of the study included time for data
analysis. The cost entailed money for food and snacks for focus groups and
interviews.
100
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Chapter four presents the findings from a case study of a high poverty, urban
school by identifying the organizational systems and structures that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance among students of color. In order to learn
more about what organizational structures and systems are in place in high poverty
urban schools, one intermediate school was selected to serve as the subject of this
case study.
Urban Intermediate school is located in Orange County and serves two
surrounding cities. Urban Intermediate school has a large population of students of
color; the majority is Latino. The school had 82.79% of their students on free or
reduced lunch and 51.63% of the students identified as English language learners.
The findings in this chapter are based on data from interviews, observations, and
artifacts. A total of fourteen interviews were conducted with administrators,
teachers, and parents. Along with sixteen classroom observations, various artifacts
that informed the research questions were reviewed and analyzed. The chapter was
organized to present the quantitative and qualitative data in response to each research
question.
Research Questions
The findings presented were directly related to the following four research
questions:
1) What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
101
2) What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived
contributions to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3) How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4) How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Data were interpreted and analyzed and findings were triangulated using interviews,
observations and artifacts in relation to one another whenever possible. This
methodology served to increase the reliability and validity of the findings. The
findings, presented in direct relation to the four research questions for the study, are
followed by a detailed analysis and discussion.
Data Findings
Research Question 1: Patterns and Trends
The first question asked, “What is the level of student performance in the
school among all students of color?” The ethnic makeup of Urban Intermediate, for
at least the past seven years, has changed only slightly. The two main ethnic groups
are Latinos/Latinos and Asians as seen in Table 4.1. Since 2001, the Latino
population has increased from 665 to 730 students while the Asian population has
slightly decreased from 119 students to 91. There has also been a decrease in the
number of whites attending the school. There are other ethnicities at Urban
Intermediate, but their numbers, in relation to majority groups are much lower. These
include African Americans, Filipinos, Pacific Islanders, and American Indians. In
102
this study, students of color are identified as the Latino population, as this group is
the majority of the school population.

Table 4.1 Student Enrollment by ethnicity between 2001-2007
Source: California Department of Education (2000-2007)

School year 2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
School wide 884 887 948 869 851 860
American Indian or
Alaskan Native
2 1 2 1 0 1
Asian 119 121 114 94 96 91
Pacific Islander 6 3 4 8 6 3
Filipino 9 5 5 4 3 4
Latino or Latino 665 712 780 719 717 730
African
American
9 4 5 5 5 6
White/non-Latino 34 41 38 38 24 25

With a large non-white population the school has a high percentage of
English Language Learners. The two main non-English languages at Urban
Intermediate are Spanish and Vietnamese as seen in Table 4.2.
103
Table 4.2 Number of English Language Learners by Language from 2001-2007
Source: Educational Demographics Unit (2002-2007)

School Year 2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
School- wide 550 591 559 515 444 442
Spanish 489 511 508 474 412 416
Vietnamese 49 47 36 32 24 14
Hmong 4 0 4 1 1 4
Filipino 3 0 0 1 2 2
Samoan 0 0 0 2 1 2
Japanese 0 0 0 0 1 1
Khmer 0 0 0 0 0 1
Lao 1 2 1 0 1
All other non-
English learners
3 27 7 11 3 0

Urban Intermediate, with a large concentration of students of color and low
SES, has risen three deciles points in the statewide rankings and has maintained a
rank of 10, as compared to the similar schools ranking as seen in Table 4.3.
104
Table 4.3 Urban Intermediate state and similar school rankings from 2000-2006
School Year Statewide rank Similar rank
2006-2007 6 10
2005-2006 6 10
2004-2005 5 10
2003-2004 5 10
2002-2003 5 10
2001-2002 4 10
2000-2001 3 10

In addition, the API scores at Urban Intermediate had consistently increased from
2000-2001 school year until 2005-2006 school year.

Figure 4.1 Urban Intermediate API score from 2000-2007
Source: CDE 2000-2007
105
At Urban Intermediate, the pattern of performance school-wide has grown
consistently in language arts across all sub-groups as determined by the California
State Test scores since the 2001-2002 school year, except in the students with
disabilities sub-group. Table 4.4 shows longitudinal data for AYP for each
significant subgroup at Urban Intermediate from 2001-2007 in language arts. In
school year 2002 -2003 and 2003-2004, the school did not make their AYP because
the students the students with disability subgroup did not meet their AYP goal in
mathematics and language arts. In 2003-2004 the school was identified as a program
improvement school; however, they exited program improvement status during the
2004-2005 school year. The students with disabilities increased their percent of
proficiency in language arts by 2.9 % in language arts and 2.4% in mathematics.

Table 4.4 CST English Language Arts Percent Proficiency by subgroups from 2001-
2007
Source: Educational Demographics Unit (2002-2007)
School
year
2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
AYP Goal Base 13.6% 13.6% 13.6% 24.4% 24.4%
School
wide
18.0% 22.2% 30.0% 35.7% 42.9% 44.0%
Latino 12.5% 16.3% 24.5% 30.8% 38.8% 39.0%
EL 14.7% 18.7% 22.5% 27.1% 40.8% 41.2%
SED 15.5% 20.0% 29% 33.1% 41.5% 43.4%
White 25.9% 42.1% 48.5% 62.1% 52.2% 65.0%
Asian 47.1% 50.0% 60.7% 64.8% 73.6% 72.9%
St w/dis 0.0% 1.6% 0.8% 3.7% 8.3% 15.3%
106
An achievement gap continues to exist between the white and Asian student
sub-groups in comparison with the students of color, primarily Latinos. However, at
the present time the Latino student subgroup is meeting the AYP goal for language
arts as set forth by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Since 2001, the Latino and
English Learners (EL) sub-groups have increased their proficiency percentage by
26.5%. The Asian subgroup has increased its proficiency rate by 25.8%, and the
White subgroup has shown the greatest increase with 39.1%. The next largest
increase was in the Socio-economically Disadvantaged (SED) subgroup with an
increase of 27.9% in Language Arts. There were no other significant subgroups
identified.
According to the CST scores for Mathematics, each subgroup’s proficiency
percentage declined with the exception for students with disabilities during the
school year 2006-2007 as seem in Table 4.5. Even with this decline, the school still
met the AYP goal for the year. Prior to the 2006-2007 school year, the school had
achieved double digit increases in the proficiency percentage for each significant
subgroup. Since 2001, the largest increase in the proficiency percentage, 26.3%, was
seen in the Whites sub-group. The smallest increase, during the same period, was
found in the special education with an 11.1% increase. Other subgroup scores
revealed the following increases: Latino 23.4%, EL a 23%, SED 21.3%, and the
Asian a 16.6% increase over the past five school years.
107
Table 4.5 CST Mathematics Percent Proficiency by Subgroups from 2001-2007
Source: Educational Demographics Unit (2002-2007)

School
year
2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
AYP Goal BASE 13.6% 13.6% 13.6% 26.5% 26.5%
School
wide
22.2% 38.2% 38.8% 41.9% 44.2% 33.6%
Latino 15.5% 31.0% 32.8% 36.7% 38.9% 28.8%
EL 20.2% 36.4% 32.8% 34.0% 43.2% 32.4%
SED 20.8% 35.8% 36.9% 40.1% 42.1% 32.6%
White 25.9% 57.8% 45.7% 58.6% 52.2% 30.0%
Asian 60.3% 65.4% 76.6% 75.0% 76.9% 68.2%
Std/ disab 3.2% 7.6% 2.5% 4.9% 14.3% 14.6%

The pattern shows an increase in the percentage proficient in all subgroups from
2001 to the 2005-2006 school year. During the 2006 -2007-school year all
subgroups had a decrease in the percent proficient in mathematics on the CST’s.
There was no explanation for this specific decrease.
Since 2001, the EL population has declined slightly from 466 to 436 students.
The number of “advance” status students on the CELDT increased between the
2001-2002 through the 2005-2006 school years. The pattern at Urban Intermediate,
as data show in Table 4.6 for Spanish Speaking students and Table 4.7 for
Vietnamese speaking students is that the majority of the EL students since 2001 have
performed at least at the intermediate level or higher. There has been a small
percentage of EL students in the lower levels of Early Intermediate and Beginning.
108

Table 4.6 CELDT Annual Scores from 2001- 2007 for Spanish Speaking Students
Source: Educational Demographics Unit (2002-2007)
School year 2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
Total Spanish
students tested
466
(100%)
473
(100%)
546
(100%)
464
(100%)
431
(100%
436
(100%)
Advance 2.0% 11.0% 10.0% 19.0% 37.0% 16.0%
Early Advance 38.0% 44.0% 45.0% 49.0% 38.0% 45.0%
Intermediate 44.0% 29.0% 30.0% 22.0% 15.0% 27.0%
Early
Intermediate
13.0% 8.0% 8.0% 5.0% 6.0% 6.0%
Beginning 3.0% 7.0% 6.0% 5.0% 3.0% 6.0%

Table 4.7 CELDT Annual Scores from 2001-2007 for Vietnamese Speaking Students
Source: Educational Demographics Unit (2002-2007)
School year 2001-
2002
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
Total Spanish
students tested
47
(100%)
46
(100%)
33
(100%)
30
(100%)
25
(100%)
15
(100%)
Advance 11% 20% 6% 20% 44% 20%
Early Advance 49% 46% 58% 16% 28% 53%
Intermediate 34% 11% 15% 7% 16% 7%
Early
Intermediate
6% 9% 12% 0% 12% 7%
Beginning 0% 15% 9% 1% 0% 13%
109
There is a slight disparity between the Vietnamese and Spanish speaking groups who
have achieved advance and above status.
The number of students re-designated as Fluent English Proficient (FEP) has
remained above the county and state average percentage since the 2003-2004 school
year as seen in Table 4.8. The greatest increase occurred in the 2003-2004, which
was the school’s final year with Program Improvement status. Urban Intermediate
had their greatest increase in re-designations, from 20 students in, 2002-2003, to 72
students in 2003-2004.

Table 4.8 Percentage of student’s re-designation from 2001-2007
Source: California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Unit (2007)

Year Students Re-designated FEP County Average State Average
2006-2007 45(10.1%) (8.1%) (9.2%)
2005-2006 68 (13.2%) (9.7%) (9.6%)
2004-2005 75 (13.5%) (8.3%) (9.0%)
2003-2004 73(12.4%) (9.0%) (8.3%)
2002-2003 20 (3.6%) (8.3%) (7.7%)
2001-2002 15 (2.9%) (4.8%) (0.0%)
110
Teacher Data
Research has shown that urban schools have higher numbers of uncertified
teachers and greater numbers of inexperienced teachers, than non-urban schools
(Darling-Hammond, 1998). At Urban Intermediate, at least 94% of the teachers have
been fully credentialed every year since 2001 as seen in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9 Teacher Credential from 2001-2007
Source: California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Unit (2007)

Year Number of
teachers
Fully
credentialed
Emergency
Credential
Waiver
2006-2007 34 34(100%) 0 0
2005-2006 34 34(100%) 0 0
2004-2005 34 34(100%) 0 0
2003-2004 39 38(97.4%) 2(5.1%) 0
2002-2003 38 36 (94.7%) 2(5.3%) 1(2.8%)
2001-2002 35 33(94.3%) 2(5.7%) 1(2.9%)

In addition to Urban Intermediate having a high a percentage of fully credentialed
teachers, over the past six school years the staff has remained stable with a minimum
average of 9.9 years of teaching experience. A very small percentage of the staff
during this time have been new to the profession leaving a very small number of new
teachers as seen in TAble 4.10.
111
Table 4.10 Teacher Experience from 2001-2007
Source: California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Unit (2007)

Year Number
of
teachers
Average
Years
Teaching
Average
Years in
district
# of first
year
teachers
# of 2
nd

year
teachers
2006-2007 34 10.3 8.4 5 (14.7%) 0 (0.0%)
2005-2006 34 10.6 10.2 3 (8.8%) 2 (5.9%)
2004-2005 34 9.9 9.5 2 (5.9%) 9 (26.5%)
2003-2004 39 11.3 10.8 9 (23.1%) 2 (5.1%)
2002-2003 38 13.4 12.9 5 (13.2%) 2 (5.3%)
2001-2002 35 12.9 12.4 6 (17.1%) 4 (11.4%)

In the 2006-2007, Urban Intermediate had a decrease in the number of teachers with
experience in place for the entire school year. This change in staff dynamics
occurred in the same year as the decrease in test scores was noted. When probed
about the decrease, the interviewees explained that approximately five to six teachers
went out on maternity leave before testing began and one teacher moved. These
teacher vacancies were filled by long terms substitutes for the remainder of the year.
Teachers interviewed identified this as a factor that contributed to a decrease in test
scores. The ethnic make-up of the teaching staff has not changed since 2001 as seen
in Table 4.11. The ethnicity of the teaching staff is not representative or reflective or
the ethnicity of the student population.
112
Table 4.11 Percent of teacher ethnicity from 2001-2007.
Source: CDE 2001-2007

Teacher\
Demographics
American
Indian or
Alaska
Native
Asian Pacific
Islander
Filipino Latino
or
Latino
African
American
Whites No
Response/
multiple
2006-2007-34 0 11.8 0 0 8.8 2.9 76.5 0
2005-2006-34 0 8.8 0 0 11.8 2.9 76.5 0
2004-2005-34 0 5.9 0 0 8.8 2.9 82.4 0
2003-2004-39 0 7.7 0 0 12.8 2.6 71.8 5.1
2002-2003-38 0 7.9 0 0 15.8 2.6 71.1 2.6
2001-2002-35 0 5.7 0 0 14.3 2.9 74.3 2.9

Analysis and Discussion for Research Question One
Findings show that an achievement gap in language arts and mathematics
exists between the students of color and their white and Asian counterparts at Urban
Intermediate School as demonstrated in Table 4.12. The achievement gap is also a
gap reflected in the California State Testing scores (CST) for mathematics and
language arts. In the subject area of language arts, the achievement gap in the
percent proficient between whites and Latinos and between whites and Socio-
Economically Disadvantaged has nearly doubled since the 2001-2006 school year;
yet there has been an increase in both subgroup scores. The achievement gap
between Asians and Latinos and SED in the language arts percentage proficient on
the CST has had a slight decrease. In the subject area of mathematics on the CST, the
gap in percent proficient between Asians and Latinos has slightly decreased from
44.8% to 40.2% percent proficient and between Asian and Socio-Economic
113
Disadvantaged from 39.5% to 35.6 % in the percent proficient, whereas the
achievement gap between whites and Latinos has decreased to a 1.2 % difference.
However, there is a great disparity between the Asians and Latinos. This is an area
for further research at the school site. Overall, Urban Intermediate has made some
strides in closing the achievement gap in mathematics, especially among whites to
Latinos and SED subgroups. There is a concern, however, in the doubling of the
achievement gap in language arts between whites to Latinos and Socio-Economic
Disadvantaged. On the other hand, they have at least doubled the number of students
proficient on the CST in all significant subgroups except the Asian Subgroup.

Table 4.12. Achievement Gaps in Percent Proficiency on CST Language arts and
mathematics: Years 2001-2002 & 200-2007
Source: CDE

Language Arts
2001-2002
Language Arts
2006-2007
Mathematics
2001-2002
Mathematics
2006-2007
Whites to
Latino
13.2% 26% 10.4% 1.2%
Whites to
SED
10.2% 21.6% 5.1% -2.6%
Asians to
Latino
34.6% 33.9% 44.8% 40.2%
Asians to
SED
31.6% 29.5% 39.5% 35.6%
114
There was a decrease in the number of students identified as proficient on the CST in
mathematics from the year 2005-2006 to 2006-2007.
Findings show that there was also a change in the master schedule during the
2005-2006 school year regarding mathematics. The master schedule was changed in
order to place every eighth grader in an algebra class. The majority of the
administration and staff as a factor identified this change, which occurred during the
2006-2007 school year, in the decline in the number of students identified as
percentage proficient on the CST’s. Teacher B stated:
I know that a lot of it the [CST scores] dip was in Math. [Urban Intermediate]
last year did something new. We placed some of the 8th graders in Algebra
1P that was a hard transition, another thing was that we lost a couple of key
math teachers’ mid year.

The change in the master schedule, which provided access for all eighth graders to
algebra, supports research that states students who take algebra in the eighth grade
are prepared for more advance coursework in math and science once they reach high
school. Also, these students are more likely to attend and graduate from college than
eighth graders who do not take algebra (Atanda, 1999; AVID Center, 2007). This
data may reflect that the same students who are not ready for algebra in eighth grade
are the same students who are not ready for college preparatory classes. Or the data
could also interpret that denying students access to algebra in grade eight causes
them to fall behind. This finding may require further research. By providing all
eighth grade students access to algebra, Urban Intermediate, is going against the
115
historical trend that traditionally denies large numbers of students of color and low
income from algebra, which can limit their access to higher-level courses.
In addition to changing the master schedule, staff members identified a huge
turnover rate in the math department as a factor in test score results. Classified staff
member A confirmed the loss of key math teachers by stating:
We had huge turn over in our math department; we had a lot of maternities.
We had two. We had some really key teachers out, and we had long-term
subs. I think that was a huge hurt for us. It was towards the end of the year
when kids are getting the biggest boost of instruction and review right before
testing, and we didn't have it. I think that hurt us huge especially in math.

The high turnover rate and the quality of teachers is an issue identified in research
that urban schools have to deal with constantly (Muijs et al., 2004). Quality teachers
at Urban Intermediate are defined as teachers who are fully credentialed. Urban
Intermediate has had 100 % of their teachers fully credentialed for the past three
years. The exception during the 2006-2007 school year occurred due to maternity
leaves, where positions were filled with long-term substitutes.
In the area of language arts CST scores, the EL subgroup is outperforming
the Latino sub group. The EL population at Urban Intermediate is predominately
Spanish speaking with a small percentage of students speaking Vietnamese. Urban
Intermediate re-designated students to Fluent English Proficient (FEP) at a higher
percentage rate than state and county averages as seen in Figure 4.7. From 2001-
2002, to 2006-2007 the percent increase in the number of students re-designated to
FEP is 7.2%. A concern exists as the EL population at the school is approximately
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one third of the students’ population and historically students of color are more likely
to experience an inferior education.
Summary
Analysis if the trends and patterns of students of color at Urban Intermediate
have shown that there are achievement gaps that continue to exist between the Asian
and whites as compared to Latinos in both mathematics and language arts. Within
this achievement gap, the data shows that Latinos, ELs and SEDs have consistently
exceeded the AYP goal from 2002 to 2007 in both mathematics and language arts.
The school continues to maintain a higher percentage of re-designations of FEPs
compared to the county and state averages. The growth in the areas of ELA and
mathematics contributed to the school being identified as a Title 1 Achievement
School for the 2005-2006 school year. Even though an achievement gap exists at the
school site, the school has shown, through data, that students of color and of poverty
are performing above the proficiency goals set by NCLB. The data also reveal that,
even though research has shown that urban schools have a higher number of
inexperienced and uncertified teachers, Urban Intermediate has the exact opposite -a
high percentage of certified teachers and a low percentage of inexperienced teachers.
The remaining challenge at Urban Intermediate will be to find ways to minimize the
achievement gap that continues to exist at the school site.
Research Question 2: Organizational Systems and Structures
The second research question asked: “What are the organizational structures
and systems perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-poverty
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urban schools with large concentrations of students of color?” Current research has
identified organizational systems and structures of high performing schools that
promote a positive school culture. This positive school culture was observed at
Urban Intermediate.
The way in which school culture has been defined has changed over time
from a focus around school patterns and beliefs and traditions of a school (R. S.
Barth, 2002) to a focus on the effectiveness and organization of a school (Goldring,
2002; Weller & Weller, 2002). Regardless of the specific definitions, research has
shown that a positive school culture that identifies with and validates a student’s
home culture greatly affects student success. A positive school culture is a product of
good use of time, personnel, and resources in interlocking and coherent ways.
Kannapels and Clements’ (2005) study of high performing, high poverty schools
found that high performing schools did better than low performing schools on seven
items related to school culture. These items include:
• High expectations
• Collaborative decision making
• Teachers accept their role in student successor failure
• Strategic assignment of staff
• Regular teacher-parent communication
• Caring staff and faculty
• Dedication to diversity and equity
Urban Intermediate was observed to have five of the seven characteristics.
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High expectation of all students. The organizational systems and structures
that support high expectations of all students at Urban Intermediate include
monitoring student work, providing effective feedback and promoting standards-
based instruction. These elements operate under the structure of a standards-based
curriculum as set forth in the California State Standards mandated for
implementation in all school districts in the state and by the district goals set for all
schools in the district. The district goals are:
Goal 1: Students will steadily progress toward meeting grade-level standards
in core academic subjects (by increasing one proficiency level each year) as
measured by the California State Standards.
Goal 2: English Learners will steadily progress toward developing English
Language proficiency (by increasing one CELDT level each year) as measured by
the California English Language Development Test.
These district goals were posted in every classroom that was observed
formally. The observer saw the district goals on posters displayed on the walls of
classrooms and on the wall adjacent to the entrance of the front office. Teacher D
stated that “ we do have district goals and we [teachers] know what they are”.
Teacher A described the district goals:
We have two goals in this district and it’s a policy of ours that all students of
ours will advance a band, whether its on the CST or the CELDT every year
and two years in the, basic bands. That’s a larger band; they have two years
to exit out of the basic band, so that after 5 years, they’ll be proficient in the
school district. And, to me that is a very clear-cut goal. That’s a very clear-
cut policy.

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In addition to teachers knowing what the district goals are, the district goal was
prevalent in the Single School Plan for Student Achievement (where the school was
analyzed in relation to the district goals).
Collaborative decision-making. High performing schools are often organized
to allow for teacher collaboration (Craig, Butler, Cairo, Wood, Gilchrist, Holloway,
Williams, & Moats, 2005a; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; Reeves, 1999).
Collaborative decision-making was prevalent throughout the observations at Urban
Intermediate. This included observations of professional development, leadership
meetings, staff meetings, AVID site team meetings, and parent meetings. One
example of collaboration among staff members was the discussion of the awards
assembly during a leadership meeting. The principal and vice principal asked the
Department Chairs for suggestions regarding the item or criteria that students should
be acknowledged for in the awards assembly. The chairs were asked to take the
suggestions back to their respective departments, discuss the items, and then e-mail
the principal and vice principal back with their departments’ thoughts and
suggestions. The department chairs were also asked to obtain feedback about when
the award ceremony should take place: during a modified collaboration day, during a
regular day, or during certain periods.
Another example of collaborative decision-making amongst staff members
was observed in the implementation of a new school-wide advisement worksheet that
would occur within the first ten minutes of first period. The suggested school-wide
advisement worksheet would involve all students during the first ten minutes of
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school, having them calculate their grade point average, with the advisement of their
teachers. The students would then reflect on their grades and establish new grade
goals. The vice principal asked for suggestions and concerns about going forward
with this advisement. The principal stated, “This can only be successful if you are
willing to support it”. Some concerns and comments were then shared by teachers
about the advisement piece. The teachers felt it was important for the administration
to make an announcement about the advisement on the day of implementation over
the loud speaker and also include a parent signature on the form. There was
consensus from the teachers and administration for the changes to be made.
Collaborative decision making, allows for teacher suggestions to be considered and
provides a greater buy in by the staff when implementing a new program and/or
developing school-wide feature. This is one of many pieces that contribute to a
positive school culture.
Sustained parent involvement and communication. Researchers have argued
that in urban areas, parental involvement may be especially challenging because of
high dissolution rates and numerous two-parent working families (Jeynes, 2007). In
high performing, high poverty schools with a high concentration of students of color,
systems that support parental involvement include increasing communication
(Jeynes, 2007) and parental workshops (McGee, 2004). Urban Intermediate was
observed to provide both systems to support parental involvement. Yet, this was an
area that school administrators felt they are continuously trying to improve further.
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Urban Intermediate was observed to provide parents with a variety of
different workshops. At the beginning of the school year at Back-to-School Night,
parents are informed about the school’s expectations, as well as expectations for each
individual class. The school provides parent education nights on three consecutive
days at the beginning of the school year as confirmed through the school calendar
and school kiosk. Teacher C commented that parents are provided with information
about the district goals and learn if their students are failing and what they can do to
help their student.
Teacher A added about the parent education nights…
They [administration] talk about interventions [for students]. They
[administrators] talk about all the programs the school has [to offer] and what
the parents can do. Then the students that are [identified as] far below basic
are kept back that evening. Then the English and Math teachers meet with the
parents and and this is what their test scores, and this is what they can do.

Administrator A added about the turnout of parents for these nights.
We get a great turnout. We fill up our multipurpose room with kids and
parents three nights, packed, of kids and parents in the multipurpose room, on
a Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday night. They come, kind of organized
by their English teacher, so we encourage and the English teachers come and
the math teachers come.

In addition to Back-to-School Night and the Parent Education Nights, AVID
provides opportunities for parent involvement. The AVID program provides
additional support to the school in maintaining parental involvement with AVID
parent meetings, AVID parent council meetings, AVID parent workshops, and
student recognition nights as verified through school calendar and interviews. The
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researcher observed an AVID parent council meeting, which was conducted in two
languages, Spanish and English. The following goals were addressed:
• Goal 1: How can families become more involved at Urban Intermediate?
• Goal 2: What positive role can Urban Intermediate have in the community?
• Goal 3: What parent education topics would you like to discuss at future
meetings?
A discussion on the “Ten Commandments for Parents” took place at the AVID
parent council meeting, hosted by Urban Intermediate AVID site team. This is a
workshop for parents provided by the Latino Educational Attainment (LEA)
Initiative of Orange County. The principal in attendance talked about wanting to
offer the workshop at the school site in Jan/Feb for parents. There were parents at the
meeting that attended these workshops and felt that it would be a good idea. Other
parents, who had not attended thought it would be something that they would want to
have offered to them. This was another venue that Urban Intermediate will provide
to involve more parents.
In addition to parent meetings, AVID hosts “AVID at the Half”, which
provides educational workshops to parents. Some of the workshops discussed at the
AVID parent council meeting for parents for this upcoming year include providing
information on A-G requirements, showing parents how to keep their students
organized in a workshop called “ Organization 101” and providing parents
information on teen influence and support. AVID also supports parental
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involvement at Urban Intermediate through AVID orientation meeting for parents,
AVID college fair and AVID awards night.
Last year (2006-2007), the mathematics department noticed that many
students were failing their classes. The math teachers developed a “Math Parent
Night”, where they actively had parents get involved by teaching them how to read a
test and their child’s homework. They also taught parents what to look for so that
they could be involved with their student. However, Teacher C stated, “The school
gets a lot of parent involvement, but this year the teachers have noticed a decrease
and [they are] not sure [if] that is affecting our students”. According to the parents
interviewed, the school provides multiple ways of communicating with parents.
These included:
• Email
• Notes home through their children
• Letters in the mail
• Progress reports sent home
• Personal Phone calls to home and cell phones
• Phone messages from Tele-parent
• Meetings with teachers
• Meetings with counselor and Vice principal
Parent 1 commented on the positive and frequent communication from the school,
“They call us on my cell phone. They call us at home. They send us a letter. So
many things.”
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Understanding that the parents of their students speak another language other
than English, the school provides all letters, parent notices, and messages going
home in three different languages: English, Vietnamese, and Spanish. This is a
structure put in place as a result of structural support of Title 1 funding. Artifacts
gathered that were available in all three languages included:
• Student Expectation Handout
• AVID agenda’s of parent meeting
• Parent information pamphlets “ quick tips”
• District parents handouts
One interesting service available at Urban Intermediate for parents was a Vietnamese
translator on site. In the morning hours, a community liaison that speaks Vietnamese
is available to provide teachers/parents/Administrative with translations when
necessary. In the afternoon, according to classified staff members, they have a
custodian who speaks Vietnamese who helps with translation when needed.
Classified staff member A mentioned, “There's very few times in this school that we
don't have somebody that can speak Spanish. And many of us can understand enough
that we can at least get through to them and understand”. Many staff members
mentioned that if they ever needed any help with translating and the liaison is not
available, they could ask other staff members to help out and they would willingly
comply. By providing Vietnamese parents with a liaison to help facilitate school
issues and communication shows families that Urban Intermediate values and
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understands their communities’ needs to support student success. This was
necessary as there is limited number of staff members who speak Vietnamese.
Fortunately, a number of staff members speak Spanish and can readily communicate
with parents in the school community that speak Spanish so they do not need an
official translator for Spanish. An in-service on the use of a new communication
program Tele-parent, was observed. Tele-parent was introduced to the school at the
beginning of the school year to provide an additional way of communicating with
parents. This service allows on-line access for each teacher with the teacher having
his or her own password and sign-in name. This program sends messages from 7am
to 5pm and calls in the student’s native language (23 languages are available). This
service allows teachers to send home messages via the telephone. There are
messages available in five main categories: Corrective, Attendance, Informational,
Grade Progress, and Rewarding/Positive.
One of the new efforts that Urban Intermediate has implemented is
communicating with parents of struggling students. To determine struggling
students, administrators based their decisions on first quarter grades, using the
criteria of students who are below a 1.5 GPA as struggling. Once students are
identified the Vice Principal and Counselor each take a grade level and they have
conferences with the students and parents where they develop an individual plan for
success. Administrator C describes how they approach these meetings:
Let us figure out what is going on. The parents come in and the student
comes in and we kind of talk about what are going on. And we figure out
most time it is because the kids aren't doing their homework. I have to be
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honest and they tell their parents they didn't have any or they finished it or
this or that. So, just the interaction then with me there, you have homework,
don't you and you are just not telling them. Oh, yeah. Then I will be direct
with the parents that like “ok, now I get the picture” because they want to
believe them of course. So, often times that is enough to change the situation
and that is one big thing.

Carter (2000) identified that principals of high poverty, high performing
schools established contracts with parents to support their children’s efforts to learn.
The contracts referred to by Carter (2000) should include the mission of the school,
and information demanding high academic achievement for all, providing clear
explanation of the schools expectations regarding parental responsibilities, and
providing academic standards as well as standards on conduct and misconduct. The
contract at Urban Intermediate, obtained through the gathering of artifacts, is called
“Personal Plan for Student Success”. This was a two-page handout. The first page
began with the school mission that Urban Intermediate students will “Believe,
Achieve, Succeed.” This was divided into three sections: the expectations of
students, expectations of parents, and expectation of staff. After each section there
was a place for the signature of each stakeholder. The principal signs the staff
expectations section. The second page provided information on expectations of the
students and behavior guidelines, which are signed by both parents and students. The
key characteristics as described above by Carter (2000) were present in the artifact
“Personal Plan for Success” for Urban Intermediate Caring staff and faculty. At
Urban Intermediate a caring staff and faculty was observed during every visit on the
school site. As you walk though every classroom, through the hallways before
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school, after school, and throughout the day, you can observe the positive interaction
between students with staff members. Teachers are having conversations with
students; students are saying, “Hello” and “how is your day going Mr. .X”. There is a
feeling of family/community as you walk around the campus.
While observing one of the AVID classes, in which there were three college
tutors, the tutors were discussing how the school is different from when they
attended Urban Intermediate. All three of the tutors were former students of Urban
Intermediate. One of the tutors commented that a major difference was in the caring
attitudes of the staff and faculty and how much the teachers care about the students.
Another way that staff was observed to be caring was in their availability to
put in the extra work. Teacher B stated that “ a lot of people are putting in a lot of
hours to make things happen…. kids need teachers who are dedicated, they are going
to put in 40-50 hours a week, every week at this school, and they are going to
commit to doing extra programs, helping, tutoring.” Teachers at Urban Intermediate
were observed being involved in many activities and committees in addition to
having more than one class to plan and prepare for. A Classified Staff member
commented;
When I came to Urban Intermediate, the staff is very friendly. The staff wants
to help kids. I have never seen in all schools I have been at, how many
teachers spend their own time before and after school helping kids. And when
a kid is in need, when the family is in need, the staff steps up.

They are also very concerned about the community. Parent A stated that:
They [teachers] are working with the community; especially the Latino
community and I saw that right away when I went to the class for the first
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time. They have [an] interest in the children to prepare them for college and
universitywhich I didn’t see before [at previous school] that are very
important for us and very important for the community especially the Latino
community.

The caring faculty and staff provide a family/community culture is another system
for the students at Urban Intermediate. This family/community environment that
students are immersed in can affect the learning development of students as
described by Vygotsky (Omrod, 2006). This family/community culture is another
stem that is part of the positive school culture at Urban Intermediate.
Dedication to Diversity and Equity. A positive school culture can exist when
schools are able to identify and validate a student’s home culture and this is reflected
in the curriculum (Omrod, 2006). The validation of a student’s home culture can be
described through socio-cultural theory. A school that identifies and values diversity
can be observed in aspects of a school culture from the school goals, the levels of
expectations, the type of professional development and the level of parental
engagement. Urban Intermediate was observed to value diversity and equity in all
aspects of the school culture as described above. The school goals, which are the
district goals, are focused on all students making progress towards meeting grade
level standards as measured by the California State Standards. The district goals
were also prevalent in the school site plan where they analyze the school progress
according to the school goals and determine what action steps need to take place
such as “Students will be provided lessons that use differentiate instruction and
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SDAIE strategies.” The school site plan is based on their school population, which
are predominately students of color.
The levels of expectation for students at Urban Intermediate are as Teacher A
stated: “There is a very grounded feeling that all our students can be successful
among all the teachers. That we [teachers] can make a difference in our students
lives”. Teacher B commented: “We [teachers] view the philosophy that every child
can succeed and will succeed and that we need to have high expectations of our
students if we hope they have success in the future in their education”. As described,
caring is demonstrated in the high expectations and the willingness of the teachers to
work hard for students to meet the expectations.
Positive Acknowledgement/recognition
In addition to the positive characteristics present at Urban Intermediate as we
have been describing, there was also a great emphasis on positive acknowledgments
of students and a staff that contributes to this positive school culture. Positive
acknowledgment was not limited to students only but for all staff members and was
found in abundance in observations, interviews and in artifacts. This great emphasis
on positive acknowledgement and recognition of students and staff was observed in
many forms at Urban Intermediate. Examples of systems at Urban Intermediate in
place that support positive acknowledgment include:
• Awards Assemblies
• Positive Messages through Tele-Parent
• Good News Phone call home “Outstanding Spartan”
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• AVID Good News
• Well Done Postcard
• “Spartan Spirit” Card
• ‘Six minute mile t-shirts”
• Culture of verbal positive acknowledgement
The awards assemblies were being planned during the process of gathering
data at the school for this research to recognize students for performing well
academically and for their citizenship during the first quarter grades. Perfect
attendance was one area that was to be recognized; at least four hundred students had
perfect attendance, with 200+ at each grade level. These students were going to be
placed in a raffle for 10-dollar Target cards. Those students who had three out of
four advanced scores on their benchmarks were also to receive pencils that read
“excellence”. Administrator B stated:
I have 45 eighth graders, …and 50 something kids in the seventh grade. I
started out with three out of four proficient on the benchmarks and I had 180
eighth graders and 250 seventh graders which is too many kids to call up [in
an assembly] So, I had to raise the bar and I hated doing it, to cut kids out of
getting awards…but how do I call up 250 kids, that is half the kids in the
assembly would come up for [and award], which is fantastic… I should have
figured out someway that [would] recognized half the kids in the assembly

Another form of acknowledgement was in providing awards for citizenship for those
students who earned all outstanding (O) on their report cards----these students were
to be given “Front of the Line” passes for lunch for two months. To receive
recognition for Honor roll, students had to have a minimum 3.0 GPA. For first
trimester there were 122 eighth graders and 147 seventh graders on the honor roll.
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There is also a Citizenship Honor roll if they did not get any Ns (needs
improvement) or Us (unsatisfactory) and at least four O's on their report card. All
honor roll students received wristbands that said “excellence.” These examples are
rather traditional ways to reward and motivate students as compared to the socio-
cultural theories of learning.
Two additional systems for positive recognition are the use of the Tele-parent
and the “Good News Phone Calls-Outstanding Spartan”. Tele-parent that was
previously described, allows teachers to send home “rewarding/positive’ messages to
parents. In a professional development meeting involving an in-service on Tele-
parent, an administrator came in and talked about the program and how valuable it
could be and mentioned that teachers should balance the negative comments with
positive comments sent out to students. The other is the “Good News Phone Call”
the district described this system in their district newsletter as “ Urban Intermediate
sharing students success one call at a time.” This is a new system by which the
principal makes weekly phone calls to parents sharing positive news about their
children. These phone calls can be made regarding academic improvement, greater
classroom participation, or for voluntary tutoring of a schoolmate. There is a
nomination process which teachers’ use, which requires them to fill out a form that is
available in the teachers lounge. The completed forms are also posted in the
teachers’ lounge for teachers and staff to view. The principal’s goal is to reach the
home of every student at least once during the school year.
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AVID good news forms are available to teachers for AVID students they feel
deserve to be positively acknowledged. These forms are then given to the AVID
teacher and are read out loud to the AVID class that the student is in. These forms
are then posted underneath a picture of the student in the classroom for all students to
view. Physical education teachers provide students who run the mile in six minutes a
t-shirt that reads “ 6 minute mile.” Teachers acknowledge positive student behavior
or academic achievement by using the well-done post card and the “Spartan Spirit”
Cards. The spirit cards are then used in a raffle that occurs every Friday. The
counselor purchases items as prizes for the winners of the raffle.
The culture of positive verbal acknowledgement is modeled by the
administration. Through shadowing the principal and observing administration
before, during lunch, between class periods and after school, it was apparent that
they were constantly talking to students. Administrators were observed consistently
asking students how they were doing. In addition they were observed acknowledging
students with comments like “ Thank you for helping.” “ You did a great job
on….”; “I heard you participated in the spelling bee, good job”. Observation within
classrooms showed this kind of acknowledgment as well from teachers: teachers
acknowledging students for their hard work in class, for their good work on essays,
for participating in the spelling bee, for helping with bringing in cans for the canned
food drive, the list goes on and on. In the classrooms where students were
acknowledge by the teachers, the students also positively acknowledged one another
by, “ Good job_____” “Way to go” “ All right.” They would clap for one another
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and pat each other on the back. Classified staff A stated that even when there is a
student in the office having a bad day that it is important to always give him or her
the “positive to do better.”
The positive acknowledgment was just not for students but for staff members.
In every meeting, the principal stated that he likes to start off with something
positive about the school, and in every meeting I observed, he did start with
something positive. In a staff meeting he introduced me and had me explain why I
chose their school for this study. In a leadership meeting the Principal started by
recognizing employees at the school that have provided 10 -15 years of service. The
principal wanted to let the department chairs know so they could also recognize them
when they see them. In addition, all around campus, positive visuals are posted.
There were two mottos that the school uses: “Everyone gets their job done at Urban
Intermediate” and “ Believe! Achieve! Succeed!” In classrooms some of the visuals
varied, some examples include posting of:
• Students of the month
• Students work:“ Math Stars”, “Poet Trees”, and “ Spartan Scientist”
• Posters stating: “Believe in yourself” “ Pass with hard work”, “Believe,
Achieve, Succeed”
In the front office there were certificates acknowledging the school was an AVID
demonstration site, pictures of students in AVID, and the pentathlon students.
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System of a College Going Culture
Another characteristic identified at Urban Intermediate that was greatly
influenced by AVID is the college going culture. A college going culture has been
identified in the field literature as a critical characteristic of a successful transition
model (Cooper & Markoe-Hayes, 2005). The model encouraged and prepares
students to move beyond the educational levels of their families by exposing them to
opportunities to participate in cultural and social skills enrichment, mentoring and
access to technology that enhances academic success and college awareness.
Research has shown that access to college information is limited for students of color
and low income students (Peterson, 1999). Urban Intermediate was observed to
provide access to college information for all their students. Students of color and low
income students need a social agent within the school, as compared to parents who
are college graduates and therefore were aware of the function of the university
system (Lareau, 1987). Students at Urban Intermediate were observed to have many
social agents: teachers, administrators and staff members. (Stanton- Salazar &
Dornburh, 1995) have described these agents as offering academic resources to
students, such as tutoring and mentoring, which aid in the developing of a positive
educational outcome for minority students.
In addition to providing the social agents, the school is also providing college
information visually through posters, college corners and teacher college artifacts.
Many classrooms had a college corner. In the college corner the teacher has his/her
college diploma, and many had artifacts from their respective school. Many
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College Going
Environment
classrooms also had posters with the A-G requirements, college pennants and some
classes had pictures of former Urban Intermediate students and where they were
attending college. The expectation that all students can go to college is the belief
shared by staff members. The school motto “ Believe! Achieve! Succeed!” was
found on the school kiosk, school website and school forms. The systems and
structures that Urban Intermediate provides that support a college going environment
can be seen in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Organizational Systems and Structures supporting a college going
environment at Urban Intermediate.

Systems
 Teacher acting as social
agents
 Access to technology
 Multiple expressions of a
school wide belief that all
students can succeed
 Visuals of college
information
Structures
 Rigorous Curriculum
 Access to algebra
 Support for Rigorous
curriculum through district
–funded extended day
intervention
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Classified Staff A, when asked about how AVID has changed the school
culture stated: “Yes, I think it’s a lot more [focused than] when I first started
[working] here; there was a focus on education as far as advancing yourself. But we
didn’t, I didn’t hear A-G requirements that much.” Teacher D stated, “Here it
[college information] was for the special kids [AVID students, it was so special and
it transformed our entire school because kids want to be in this program, everyone
thinks they have shot, “I can go to college!”. This college going environment is part
of the mission of AVID which is to ensure that ALL students, and most especially
those in the least served categories, as well as students who are in the middle:
• Will succeed in rigorous curriculum
• Will complete a rigorous college preparatory path,
• Will enter mainstream activities of the school
• Will increase their enrollment in four year colleges, and
• Will become educated and responsible participants and leaders in a
democratic society. (AVID, 2007)
The AVID mission statement of providing students with the necessary tools to be
successful in school accomplish this was posted in the main office and in many
classrooms. These tools are provided to students through the AVID methodologies
that have become school wide: Socratic Seminars, WICR, Cornell Notes as was
noted through interviews, viewing of student work, observation of classrooms and a
review of the Single School Plan. These AVID methodologies were implemented in
an AVID’s systems approach school-wide to support students and educators as a
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means for increasing school wide learning and performance (AVID, 2007). In
addition to school-wide implentatioms of AVID methodologies, AVID provides
organizational systems and structures specifically for the AVID student at Urban
Intermediate, which is approximately 25% of the student population as seen in
Figure 4.3.

Provides a
college-going culture
Grouping of students
into AVID Elective
Classes
Provides support
for rigorous courses
Places students into
rigorous academic
academic courses
Students
Engages
parental invovlment
Provides on-going
information and support
parents and students
Parents
AVID
PROGRAM

Figure 4.3 AVID Systems and Structures at Urban Intermediate
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Analysis for Research Question Two
During the data analysis process of Research Question two, systems and
structures identified at Urban Intermediate coincide with systems and structures of
high performing schools that are grounded in the literature reviewed in chapter two.
The organizational systems and structures at Urban Intermediate were observed as
coordinated and coherent operations within the structure, producing high yield from
resources at the school site to ensure that the school vision, mission and goals are
met for students of color and low SES.
A theme of supporting a positive school culture was identified within systems
and structure. Kannapel & Clements’ (2005) study of high performing high poverty
schools found that high performing schools did better than low performing schools
on seven items pertaining to school culture as seen in Figure 4.13. Urban
Intermediate was observed to have six of the seven characteristics working
coherently.

Table 4. 13 Positive School Culture at Urban Intermediate as compared to Research
Source: Kannapel and Clements (2005).

Characteristics Kannapel & Clements’
(2005)
Urban
Intermediate
High Expectation levels X X
Collaborative Decision Making X X
Teachers accepts a role in student successor
failure
X
Strategic Assignment of Staff X
Regular Teacher-parent communication X X
Caring Staff and Faculty X X
Dedication to diversity and equity X X
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A key element in Urban Intermediate’s school culture is coherence.
Coherence was identified as a key element in providing a positive school culture in
economically deprived areas (Muijs et al., 2004). Coherence at urban intermediate is
not achieved by top-down fiats that require everyone to be on the same page. Rather
it comes from the consistency of relationships and conversations, as well a repetition
of processes and values over a range of different circumstances. These systems are
based on time, resources and staff at Urban Intermediate and were observed in the
school culture.
The two areas that were not directly observed but implied through interviews,
observations and artifact analysis were 1) Teacher’s acceptance of their role in the
student’s success or failure and 2) the strategic assignment of staff.
An administrator’s acceptance of adults’ role in student success or failure was
implied through discussion of the dip in the school API from the 2005-2006 school
year to 2006-2007. Administrator C commented:
Of course, we have talked about it at length among the three of us
[administration] and part of it, I think was last year we had one, two, three of
our very strong teachers gone on maternity leave and one left. So, having
substitutes makes a difference. No matter how good they [students] are and I
think that also brings down the seriousness of students in their goals too,
because now all of a sudden it is what can we get away with instead of oh,
miss so and so expects this. I got to get this done. I think that had a big
influence, but I also kind of think that when you are doing well year after
year after year you get a little compliant. Sometimes you need a wake-up call
to say, hey, we still have more to work on and we have more we need to do
because we are not all that. We do need to work on these things and continue
and not just repeat the same thing we did, but do something different to make
a change. So, I think it is kind of a combination.

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Teacher A commented, “Falling nine points is an indicator that there's still a lot that
needs to be done.” In addition the comments by staff members, the use of data at the
school site to identify students who need additional support in core classes as well as
using data to help guide instruction from one grade level to another is an example of
staff members accepting the role in student success or failure. Another characteristic
identified by Kannapel and Clements (2005) that was implied through interviews
was the strategic assignment of staff. At Urban Intermediate the master schedule
showed that the majority of teachers are teaching more than one course title. In
addition to the Kannaple and Clements (2005) characteristics of a positive school
culture that were observed, positive recognition and a college going culture are also
factors that are working coherently to support a positive school culture at Urban
Intermediate.
Summary
In conclusion, findings related to Research Question 2 demonstrated
organized systems and structures at Urban Intermediate that contributed to high
student performance at a high poverty, urban, intermediate school, with a large
concentration of students of color. Research in the case study identified
organizational systems and structures that supported a positive school culture. These
systems and structures identified at Urban Intermediate are working together to
simultaneously produce a positive school culture that embraces the beliefs that all
students need a rigorous curriculum and that all children can learn. AVID plays a
major role in the implementation of the systems at the school site.
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Research Question 3:Systems and Structures to Support School Wide Instruction
The third question asked, “How are the organizational systems and structures
implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?” The organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning include
systems that support monitoring and assessment, alignment of curriculum to
standards, data analysis, professional development focused on the improvement of
instruction, teacher collaboration and extended day intervention programs.
Monitoring and assessment. Frequent monitoring of student progress was a
system found in high performing schools (Carter, 2000; Ron Edmonds, 1979a;
Levine & Lezotte, 1995; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). At Urban Intermediate there
were systems in place that supported frequent monitoring and assessment of students
and teachers. These systems included administrators’ daily classroom walks, teacher
collaboration and data analysis. Both the Vice-principal and Principal were observed
to be consistently active in visiting classes. Through the shadowing of the principal
as he visited the entire campus, the researcher observed that teachers were
accustomed to the principal and vice principal entering classrooms throughout the
day. Teachers and students didn’t stop or act surprised when an administrator walked
in a classroom. Administrators sometimes stood by the door for approximately five
minutes. At other times as students were working in groups, the administrators
would walk up to the groups and ask them to state the objective of the day; the
students would then answer. Another frequently asked question was “ What are you
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working on?” Administrator A stated, “ I am trying to be effective and efficient and
purposeful in our walks…. making sure substitutes are up and running okay, lesson
plans [are being followed], and behavior is appropriate to get the sense of a
successful day.”
In addition to making sure classes with substitutes are running smoothly, the
administrators are looking at what is posted on the walls in classroom. Administrator
A while visiting a classroom stated, “What I look for is what do I see in the room
that is aiding student learning”. Administrator A pointed to posters of academic
vocabulary with pictures representing the vocabulary words, posters of Costa’s
Levels of questioning, posters of the writing process and exemplarily student work
with rubrics posted next to it. As Administrator A walked from class to class, he
spoke of consistency. There were consistencies observed in all classrooms except the
math classes. These visuals that were consistently observed in most of the
classrooms included: posters of Costa’s level of questioning, the writing process,
academic vocabulary and exemplary work examples with rubrics were found. All
classrooms observed formally and informally were covered wall to wall with visuals
aiding student learning except in the math classes. Within departments visuals were
consistently posted. In the history classes, history time lines covered the walls. In
science classes posters of science concepts were posted. ELD classes had pictures of
academic vocabulary posted. Special Education had posters of language arts and
mathematic vocabulary and information. In the computer lab, there were posters of
the writing process, posters of transition words, sentence starters, the writing process,
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expository writing and posters having to do with the process of questioning,
predicting and summarizing. Along with the posters, student work was heavily
represented in the classrooms that were formally observed. The posting of student
work in classrooms supports the socio-cultural theories of learning, as it validates
students’ efforts in the classroom.
Another area the administrators look for in their walks is evidence of
effective teaching, expressed as “Are the students really understanding what is being
taught.” Administrators described that they looked to see if the students were
engaged and evidenced that they knew the learning objective. The administrators
were observed asking students “What are you learning about today?” “What are you
working on?” Students were observed engaged in their learning in a variety of ways.
One way was by taking Cornell notes while the teacher was teaching the lesson.
Another example was the students using white boards to write down words and
sentences stated by the teacher. There was a lot of group collaboration in the
classrooms. There were not very many classrooms with the desks in rows. The
majority of classrooms were set up for groups or in pairs. An example of student
collaboration was observed in a science class, where students were working in pairs
to gather information on a specific element for their “Adopt an Element Project.”
Student collaboration was also observed in an ELD class where they were working
together on learning vocabulary words and in an AVID class where they were editing
one another’s papers. Learning was observed to take place through social activities,
which supports socio-cultural theories of learning.
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Monitoring of student performance through student work has been identified
by research as an affirmative system in a positive school culture (Marzano, 2003).
Evidence of teachers monitoring student work was in abundance and came in many
different forms: consistently checking for understanding, using assessments and the
use of technology. Consistently checking for understanding in the classroom was
observed in all classroom observations; however the manner in which it was
performed varied from one class to another. Choosing students randomly throughout
the lesson was an example of monitoring in a language arts class where the teacher
consistently checked for understanding. The teacher would stop frequently during the
lesson and would call on students by name to provide examples, clarification, or
answers to specific questions. At any time students could be called upon, and all
students were observed engaged throughout the lesson. Some teachers used white
boards to check for understanding and to keep everyone engaged. This method was
carried out in two different ways. In one ELD class, each student had a white board
and a dry erase marker. The teacher had students writing sentences using their
science vocabulary. The teacher would say a sentence and the students using a
science dictionary, as a resource, would write the sentence on the white board. Each
student would write his or her own response and the teacher or aide would check the
student’s work. This process allowed the teacher to check whether students
understood what the teacher was saying and whether a student was able to write the
sentence in English. In another classroom, an AVID class, students read a story and
as a group had to write on a white board what the group thought was important about
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the story and share it with the class. The use of white boards in the classroom
provides the opportunity for the teacher to scaffold the lesson while monitor student
progress throughout the lesson.
The use of technology to monitor student work was also observed in the form
of smart boards and overhead projectors used to check for understanding. In this
process, students wrote parts of a paragraph or spelling words on the smart board
during a lesson. In another class, students came up to write their answers on the
overhead projector so that all classmates could see the student’s answer. When
students were working independently, teachers did not sit behind their desks but
walked around asking questions of students to make sure they understood the task
and provided help when needed. Instruction also occurred from bell to bell. In all
classrooms, it was observed that students were on task and teachers utilized time
effectively. These are examples of culturally responsive teaching, the use of a wide
variety of instructional strategies, the use of white boards and technology, that are
connected to different learning styles (Gay, 2000a).
Another way teachers monitored student progress was through the use
technology to post grades. Many teachers posted grades every Friday for students.
This weekly assessments of progress helped teachers keep themselves aware of
student progress in short intervals. The use of a Data-Director to monitor progress on
assessments is available and used by many teachers. Assessments also came in
many other forms:
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• Quarterly district benchmarks test results for all core subject areas:
ELA and mathematics, science and history.
• School benchmarks test results, developed by teachers, for all four
core subject areas: ELA, mathematics, science, and history.
• Quizzes, developed by teachers that provided formative and summative
results.
• State Standardized testing that included CST and CELDT results.
• Performance Assessments that were writing based and project based.
• District fall and Spring Writing Assessments for ELA.
School and district benchmarks seemed to be the primary assessments by which
teachers monitored student progress toward proficiency on state standards.
According to Administrator B:
That [benchmarking] has been going on for a long time. [Urban
Intermediate] is one of the first schools in the district to do it. It has been
probably going on for eight years… The district has been doing it probably
for the last three or four years and [Urban Intermediate] started it.

Monitoring student work was conducted not only by teachers and
administration but also by the students themselves. Students monitor their own
progress in a variety of ways. First, students record CST tests from the previous year
in their school agenda. Additionally, English learners record the California English
Language Development Test (CELDT) scores in their agenda. Then, there is room
on the same page for benchmark scores for their core classes; language arts
mathematics, history, and science, that students can keep track of throughout the
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year. Another way students monitor their progress is through the grades that many
teachers had posted in their classrooms on a weekly basis. As stated by Teacher A,
Grades are posted every Friday, so students know exactly where they are
every Friday, and they know what assignments they are missing, and then
you don’t wait till the end of the quarter, and you find you’re missing fifteen
assignment.

In one class that was observed, students were provided with the detailed
break- down of their scores from a district benchmark exam. Each student had a
printout of his or her proficiency on each of the standards assessed. Each student
had to graph her or his percentages correct for each standard and then reflect on their
performance. Students were able to identify how they performed on specific
standards of the benchmark. The students were able to identify if they were
advanced, proficient, and basic, below basic or far below basic on the standards on
which they had been assessed. These examples at Urban Intermediate of frequent
monitoring and feedback were part of systems identified by Izumi (2002) that occur
in high performing, high poverty schools.
Teachers at the school communicate frequently with each other through e-
mail about student progress. Through this communications teachers can see if
behaviors like scoring low on the tests or not turning in homework is a pattern in
other classes. The guidelines for meetings and collaboration for the English
department states, “School business will be conducted through email. For example
information about assessments, district dates, or pick up scantrons will be sent
through e-mail and not discussed at collaboration.” The system of using e-mail to
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communicate with one another is greatly encouraged at Urban Intermediate and
observed as a main form of communication. Teachers communicate about students,
benchmarking dates, department information, sharing of data and general school
information.
Monitoring, as a school system, requires many factors to work
simultaneously to be effective (Marzano, 2003). At Urban Intermediate, these factors
are working simultaneously. Administrators are making classroom visits a priority;
teachers are using benchmarks assessments on a regular basis, and there is frequent
communication amongst teachers and administration. The one aspect of monitoring
student progress that was not observed was a teacher working collaboratively to
analyze student work products that represent their students’ learning.
Alignment of curriculum to standards. The alignment of curriculum to
standards was found to be a factor in the successful implementation of standards at
high performing schools (P. Barth, 1999a; Dana Center, 2002; Kannapel &
Clements, 2005; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). At Urban Intermediate the systems that
support this alignment of curriculum to standards include the school wide use of
benchmarks, the use of curriculum pacing guides, professional development and
teacher collaboration.
Urban Unified School District’s Office of Secondary Education for grades 7-
12 instruction provides curriculum and pacing guides for four core classes. There are
curriculum-pacing guides for four core subject areas: English Language Arts (ELA),
mathematics, science and history as described by teachers at the school site. One
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example reviewed was the ELA curriculum-pacing guide. The ELA pacing guide
was divided into three major sections: pacing, graphic organizers and resources. The
use of pacing guides, a structure in which the school systems are operating, are based
around the focus of the California State ELA standards.
Benchmarks were observed being used by the core subject areas:
mathematics, language arts, science and history. The district provides quarterly
benchmarks for all four-core subject areas: Mathematics, language arts, history and
science that are based on the state standards, which the school site implements. The
Educational Trust’s “Dispelling the Myth” survey of high poverty, high performing
schools found that schools used standards extensively to design curriculum and
instruction to assess student work (P. Barth, 1999a). Even though the districts
department of 7-12 instructional services has provided quarterly benchmarks, the
core department has additional teacher -made benchmarks for their students.
Benchmarks calendars are available at the beginning of the year for each department
as described by an administrator. A “Benchmark calendar” was observed in the
teacher lounge where teachers write down the days of the benchmarks for each
subject area. Upcoming benchmarks at the school site were observed to be
communicated by the principal at a staff meeting. Frequent assessment was a
common finding in studies of high performing, high poverty schools (Craig et al.,
2005a; Kannapel & Clements, 2005; McGee, 2004; Picucci, Brownson, Kahlert, &
Sobel, 2002; Reeves, 1999).
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System of providing access to a rigorous curriculum. A system that AVID
has had an influence on is the increased number of advanced classes offered to
students at Urban Intermediate. Before AVID was introduced into Urban
Intermediate there were a total of three advanced classes offered at the school site.
These data were described in interviews and data were obtained from the master
schedules and the AVID certification binder. With 19 students (mostly Asians) there
were seven students who were enrolled in Geometry. Teacher B stated, “These
students had to walk to the local high school to take the class.” In AVID’s first year
the number of classes didn’t change, but the number of students increased from 19 to
34 students. As AVID has grown the number of advance classes being offered has
corresponding grown as seen in Table 4.14:

Table 4.14 The number of advance classes from 2001-2007
YEAR 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08
AVID No
AVID
1
st
Year
AVID
AVID
AVID Certified
with Distinction
AVID certified as a
Distinguished Site
AVID
# of AVID
Classes
0
7
th
- 1,
8
th
-1
7
th
- 2,
8
th
-2
7
th
- 2,
8
th
-2
7
th
- 3,
8
th
-2
7
th
- 3,
8
th
-3
# of students in
Advanced
Classes
19 34 129 140 175
#of ADV English
Classes
1 1 3
7
th
-3
8
th
-3
7
th
-6
8
th
-4
7 grade-6,
8 grade-4
# of ADV
History Classes
1 1 2
7
th
-2
8
th
-2
7
th
-2
8
th
-4
7 grade-2,
8 grade- 4
# of ADV
Science Classes
1 1 3
7
th
-2
8
th
-3
7
th
-2
8
th
-4
7
th
grade-2,
8
th
grade-5
# of geometry
classes
0 1 1 1 1 2
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The growth of the AVID program has influenced the master schedule and the
number of Urban Intermediate students, (students of color and low SES students)
who have access to advanced classes. Administrator C stated:
Before AVID when you would walk into an honors class you would see 30
Asian kids sitting there and we had 100 [Asian students total at Urban
Intermediate]… and AVID has changed that…. AVID has made it [so]
everybody is the same and no matter what race you are, you are in the class
because you are smarter. I think AVID has made that change for us. I think
without it we would be in the same place.

AVID students at Urban Intermediate comprise of approximately 25% of the
school population and a good representation of the school ethnic composition is seen
in figure 4.15.

Table 4.15 AVID elective percent composition from 2004-2006
Source: AVID(2008)

Ethnicity 2004 2005 2006
Asian 14.3% 17.6% 17.9%
Pacific Islander 0% 1.6% 0%
Latino 81% 76.8% 81.3%
White 4.8% 4.0% 0.7%

The number of AVID students placed in rigorous course is above the state average as
seen in Table 4.16.
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Table 4. 16 The number of AVID students in rigorous course compared to the state
average for 2006-2007 school year.
Source: AVID site report (2007)

Course 7
th
graders 8
th
grader School total State Average
Advance 102 71 173 30
Algebra 35 71 106 28

Creating a culture that embraces all students’ need for a rigorous
curriculum. One of the mottos that Urban Intermediate uses encompasses the word
rigor. In many classes there was signs posted on the walls that stated rigor, it is also
present on the school website. The home page of the school website states “Believe,
Achieve, Succeed, Rigor and Support”. The school promotes the motto “ Achieve,
Believe, Succeed”. This motto is posted on handouts sent home to parents, on the
school marquee, and in posters in classrooms. An example of encouraging dialogue
on rigor with the staff members was observed in a staff meeting, where the principal
provided teachers with reading material called Dialogue of Rigor. Their task was to
read it and come ready to discuss it at the next meeting.
Another way Urban Intermediate demonstrated that all students need to
experience a rigorous curriculum is the implementation of Costa’s Level of
Questioning. Costa’s Levels of Questioning were observed in posters on classroom
walls, on students’ classroom notes, and in the questioning of students in the
classroom. Teachers mentioned these levels of questioning as a best practice used at
the school site.
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A rigorous curriculum has been described as the vertical and horizontal
alignment of the curriculum with the state standards (Dana Center, 2002). At Urban
Intermediate, the curriculum and pacing guides are provided by the District’s Office
of Secondary Education, Department of 7-12 Instruction, for the four core classes,
which are aligned to grade level standards. This structure, provided by the district,
supports the culture that all students need a rigorous curriculum.
A rigorous curriculum at the middle school level includes algebra, which
research has shown to provide a pathway to high levels of mathematics and science
classes needed to meet the a - g requirements for college (Burris et al., 2004;
Checkley, 2001; Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000). During the 2006-2007 school year,
Urban Intermediate, provided access to algebra to all eighth graders. Urban
Intermediate also provides supporting lab classes for students who need additional
support within the school day. Additional support is provided in the form of after
school tutoring for mathematics.
Data Analysis. Mujis’ et al. (2004) review of socio-economically
disadvantaged areas found that data-rich schools not only collected data, but also
used them to improve schooling. Urban Intermediate was observed to be a data-rich
school. Data analysis was identified, as an effective practice at Urban Intermediate
by all school staff interviewed. Data Director is the program used school wide to
gather, analyze, aggregate and disaggregate data. Through the interviews it was
stated that the school has had Data Director for over a year. When it became
apparent that only a few staff members knew how to use it, the school provided
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training on how to use Data Director. The school has a teacher at the school site that
is a “data person” who makes templates for teachers to use. Some teachers have also
had training in data analysis called the Leadership Academy through the district. The
trained teachers have brought back the information to their departments and trained
them.
At Urban Intermediate, “Everything is run off of data” as Administrator B,
stated. The data observed to be used at the school site were CST Scores, benchmark
data, grades, attendance, GPA’s and citizenship grades. Teachers described in their
interviews that they use these data to plan their lessons, plan their classes, plan
intervention programs and reflect on their teaching. One teacher explained that their
department goes over benchmark data and they, as a group, decide which students
need extra help. Some teachers described re-teaching a standard if the data showed
that the class was not performing well. Teacher D identified how effective Data
Director is in red flagging students for particular standards in which they are not
proficient, but the teacher expressed concern that sometimes they are unable to
pullout those kids for intervention. Teacher D stated, “I would love to figure out a
way to get a group of kids to be able to do an intervention program.” An area for
improvement for the school is using the data to provide more focused interventions
for students who are not meeting specific standards.
Administrators use data for placing students into classes, providing
interventions, and student acknowledgements. Data are used to identify students
who are placed into advance classes, the AVID elective, and companion classes for
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mathematics and language arts. One of the biggest advantages of data, as identified
by an administrator, is that it changed the way a student is identified for advance
classes. Initially the student placement into an advanced class was based solely on
teacher recommendation. The change came when data started becoming available on
the CST and benchmarks tests; students are now placed on both teacher
recommendations and data. “Teachers would ask, ‘how did this person end up in this
class’, because maybe their work habits weren’t what they had been used to from
previous years and scores would be shown [to demonstrate] why they belonged in
the class… and that was the end of their conversation.” During the 2006-2007
school year, the district provided data (CST and Benchmark data) and criteria for
students to be eligible for advanced classes.
The structured mathematics companion classes are an additional period of
math for those students, based on the previous year’s data indicating students who
need additional support in mathematics. There is also Holt +, an intervention class
for language arts, also based on students previous data, which gives students needing
extra support an extra period of language arts during the day. If a student needs
classes, math and language arts, language arts takes precedence over the math.
The administration also used data to positively acknowledge students for
awards assembly as described earlier. Data to determine students who are advanced
on their benchmarks, who have maintained a 3.0 GPA, citizenship score etc., were
gathered and analyzed for the assembly.
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Data are even shared with parents and students. Parents are provided data on
their children, and the data are explained to them during parent education nights as to
where their child is academically. Students are aware of their CST scores,
benchmark scores, CELDT scores and GPA. At the beginning of the school year,
students are given their CST scores from the previous school year. In their student
planner that is used school-wide, there is a page where students are to write down all
their benchmark scores for each core classes, CST scores and CELDT scores.
Teacher D stated, “They [teachers] are constantly stressing the importance of
benchmarks, stating that writing and performance assessments are ‘everything
[and]…a path to go to college.” Teachers go over test scores with the students. As
seen in one language arts class, students were reflecting on their district benchmarks.
They received printouts provided by the teacher, and students identified the
standards in which they were proficient or above. Then they had to graph their
percentage on a graph. After that, they had to identify why they got their questions
wrong. In addition providing students data from their benchmarks, many teachers
post student grades in their classrooms.
Professional Development focused on Standard Based
Instruction/Curriculum. The first professional development meeting observed was
an in-service on Tele-parents. This is a new system introduced this school year to
help in communicating with parents about student performance. The second
professional developments/staff meeting was focused on effective instructional
techniques as stated on the agenda. The agenda for the staff meeting provided the
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objective of the meeting to “utilize a collaborative discussion about school wide best
practices to enhance instruction and student achievement”. The staff meeting
provided teachers the opportunity to share best practices from each department and
share them with one another. Each department contributed best practices:
• Language Arts /ELL: reflections, Socratic seminars, using Modern Language
Association (MLA) format for papers, and Costa’s Levels of Questioning
• History: organization and structure, writing across the curriculum, and
Costa’s Levels of Questioning
• Math: visual aids for vocabulary words, especially for EL learners, Cornell
Notes, Intervention strategies available, Using data director
• Special Education: Giving opportunities to learn, academic learning,
Collaboration, learning needs of students
• PE: Teacher modeling and repetition, flexible grouping
• Science: Cornell notes
After they identified best practices used in their departments, the principal asked
staff to identify areas they could improve in. Some of the departments listed these
ideas:
• LA/ELL: Teachers provide the students the standards but they need to find
ways to transfer the skills to the other classes/subjects
• Special ED: how to study, build in the skills
• Science: consistency- how different subjects are transferred to their subject
(math to science)
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The Principal and Vice Principal summarized what was discussed and then
mentioned to the teachers what tools and strategies the administration had identified
as they walked through the classes. The strategies include: Costa’s levels, WICR,
learning objective posted on white board, opportunity for students to talk and
discuss, Socratic seminar, reciprocal teaching and the Cornell Note.
Professional development is a structure provided by the district. The district’s
department of 7-12 instructional services provides much of the professional
development for teachers and administration. The district provides a staff
development calendar every month. In the month of November staff development
focused around school-wide English language arts planning and teaching for the
program HOLT, differentiation and scaffolding, academic vocabulary and math
strategies. As described by Administrator B, there are mandatory staff developments,
which occur during the school day, so teachers are out of the classroom on an
average of four days out of the year. There is also after-school professional
development, which is not mandatory, but encouraged. The district provides
professional development. As Haycock (2001) states, providing pedagogies that
support student learning helps students and teachers access the curriculum
successfully. Observed in the pacing guide for ELA was a page on “ District Writing
Assessments and Workshops by Quarter” with a calendar by grade level that listed
the writing assignments and district workshops corresponding to the assignment
provided by the district. There is also the Beginning Teacher Support and
Assessment (BTSA) for the new teachers, provided by the district. Some of the
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professional development offered on the “staff development” calendar during the
month of November included:
• Department Chair meetings for specific grade levels (ex. 7-8 Science
department chair meeting, 7-8 history/social science department meetings)
• AVID department chair meetings
• Differentiation and scaffolding
• Academic vocabulary
• Math strategies for struggling students
• Holt Co-plan/co-teach
• Difficult Parent Conversation Audio Conference
The staff development provided by the district and the school site are focused on the
improvement of instruction. On the November calendar there was no staff
development focusing specifically on culturally relevant pedagogy. Additional
calendar months were unavailable to the researcher. Research has shown that
culturally relevant pedagogies support students in achieving proficiency levels of the
content standard (Gay, 2000). The district did provide professional development
workshops on differentiation and scaffolding. There were professional development
activities listed that support student learning, math for struggling students and
academic vocabulary. The district also provided professional development that
allowed teachers access to the curriculum such as Holt +. The calendar was coherent
and coordinated. Staff members through interviews identified being out of the
classroom four to five days a year for staff development. The staff at Urban
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intermediate is also provided with the opportunity to attend professional
development on new strategies for teachers, or ways to help bridge the
communication between school and parent.
Teacher collaboration. Schools that are high performing are often organized
by a system of collaboration for teachers (Craig et al., 2005a; Kannapel & Clements,
2005; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). The findings highlighted a great emphasis on
collaboration among staff members. All teachers and administration interviewed
identified collaboration as one of the three most effective things the school has done
in the last three to five years to improve students’ academic performance. Teacher
collaboration was observed through formal meetings, such as department meetings,
staff meetings and also informally through e-mail as well as meetings before lunch
and after school. Systems at the school site that support collaboration included time
allotted for collaboration, support from administration and a culture of open
communication. The District also provided allotted time for teachers, specifically
department chairs, to collaborate with other teachers in the district in their specific
subject areas as identified on the staff development calendar.
Structured time allotted for collaboration was found throughout the data.
Meetings are scheduled on the master calendar and are called “ Collaboration Days.”
These meetings occur twice a month except for September and June, where they
occur once. Collaboration meetings are scheduled on minimum days for students that
allow time for teachers to meet with one another. There are scheduled days and
times for:
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• Leadership Meetings
• Staff Meetings
• AVID Site Team Meetings
• Department Meetings
• Professional Development
• Grading Days
Teacher A stated, “Having the collaboration time… I think having the
chance to talk to other teachers, to plan with other teaches, to discuss, to reflect and
we do everything in those meetings”. These scheduled times allow teachers to have
the opportunity to discuss and share ideas and concerns about school business.
Observations of these meetings gave no signs of tension among the teachers. In a
study of six high performing schools, teachers indicated that collaboration took place
in informal settings (Craig et al., 2005a). This is true for teachers at Urban
Intermediate. Teachers, administrators and classified staff commented on the
amount of collaboration that took place outside the structured meetings to discuss
students, lesson planning, mentoring and sharing of ideas.
Administrator B stated that they are using collaboration to find best practices
on the campus. The learning objective stated on the agenda of one of the staff
meetings that was observed was to “utilize a collaborative discussion about school
wide best practices to enhance instruction and student achievement. The location of
the staff meeting provides an additional opportunity for teachers to not only
collaborate but also observe best practices. Every staff meeting is hosted by a
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different teacher, which allows for other teachers to observe different classroom
environments. Administrator A stated:
One of the other changes is that with the department chairs [meetings] and all
the staff meetings [is that] we use rotating rooms… I am trying to get in
everybody’s room, I want to them [teachers] to see other things that are
taking place in this school different room environments etc…to see what each
other is doing it is important, when you often don’t get to see each other’s
rooms.

During meetings observed collaboration was primarily centered on usage and
analysis of data and school planning. In department meetings, the teachers planned
their next meeting and the focus was on planning and using the benchmark data to
drive instruction by developing lesson plans. This was also seen in best practices in
the middle grades, where collaboration time was used to evaluate data to facilitate
learning (Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007).
Support from administration for collaboration begins by “making sure they
create opportunities for all teachers to have the opportunity to talk and to work,” as
Administrator A stated. This coincides with a the study of nine high performing, high
poverty, urban schools, all nine principals provided structured time for teachers to
collaborate (Johnson, 1999). The department chair provides, in advance, an agenda
for their department meeting and after the meeting occurs, e-mails the minutes of the
meeting to the principal. An administrator was observed visiting the collaboration
meetings as they were being held. The administration also provides support by
encouraging a culture of open communication by allotting time, modeling
communication with staff, and operating with an open door policy. Teachers D and E
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at Urban Intermediate identified a culture of open communication as a practice that
contributed to the students’ high performance. Teacher E commented “ The teachers
work together very, very, well. I think that number one, we’re always sharing
lessons, sharing ideas.” Open communication was also identified as a characteristic
of their school through other interviews with teachers, staff and administrators.
Teachers felt that they could go to the administrators with concerns, ideas and
comments. Administrator B stated at a staff meeting that if any teacher had any
ideas, that the entire staff can come talk to them about it. He stated, “The door is
always open”.
Extended Day Intervention Programs. The school site provides a system of
support for students to improve student learning in the extended day intervention
programs as seen in figure 4.20. The school time structure allows for these programs
to occur between 2:10-3:10 pm. The school also provides a late bus for students who
stay for the extended day intervention programs. In order to account for students who
actually attended these programs, students must provide the bus driver with a late
bus pass given to them by a teacher in one of the after school programs. This allows
transportation for students who would not normally stay due to issues with finding
transportation home. These programs focus on mathematics and language arts
support. Other extended day interventions include the library, which is open, every
morning and a couple of days during lunch. There is also the “Drop-In” computer lab
available three times a week to support the use of technology in the classrooms, as
all students’ final papers must be word-processed. Students are required to word-
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process all writing assignment final drafts in MLA formatting. Each student is
required to have a flash drive for his or her assignments. If students are unable to
purchase one, a flash drive is checked out to them like a textbook. Then for those
students who do not complete their homework, “Friday Homework Detention” is
assigned, which is monitored by the vice principal. The “Friday homework
detention” is run by the vice principal as a resource for teachers whose students are
not completing their homework. The vice-principal was observed personally
entering classrooms and giving student reminder slips of their Friday homework
detention. The extended day interventions are widely used by students due to the late
bus provided by the district. This was observed each day at the school site. The
systemic approach of these intervention programs provides under-represented groups
access to instruction, Curriculum and the social capital they need to be successful in
their rigorous curriculum. The intervention and support programs provided by Urban
Intermediate work to overcome inequities that surround low-income students of
color. In providing access to all eight graders to algebra, Urban Intermediate has
recognized that there are students who will need the extra support to be successful.
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Table 4.17 Extended day programs at Urban Intermediate 2007-2008 school year.
Source: Urban Intermediate (2007).

ELA
Interventions
Math Interventions Other
Interventions
Algebra 1P
1 teacher
MTWTH-
AM
Algebra
1 teacher
MTWTH-
AM
Math Basic
Skills
1 teacher
TWTHF-AM
Pre-Algebra
1 teacher
MTWTH-
AM
Library
MTWTHF-AM
ELD (A&B)
Scholastic
Reading and
Writing
1 teacher
Tuesday
Algebra
1 teacher

Tuesday
and
Thursday
Pre-
Algebra
1 teacher

Tuesday
and
Thursday
Pre-Algebra
1 teacher

Tuesday and
Thursday
Pre-
Algebra
1 teacher
Monday
and
Tuesday
Drop-In
Computer Lab
Monday,
Tuesday &
Thursday
Geometry
1 teacher
Monday
and
Thursday
Algebra
1 teacher
Monday
and
Thursday
Friday HW
detention

Analysis of Research Question Three
There were major themes that were observed in Urban Intermediate that were
organizational systems and structures that support school-wide effective instruction
and that promotes students’ learning. The major themes include: systems that support
monitoring and assessment, alignment of the curriculum to standards, data analysis,
professional development focused on improvement and instruction, teacher
collaboration and the extended day intervention programs.
Frequent monitoring of students’ progress is a system found in high
performing schools (Carter, 2000; Ronald Edmonds & Frederiksen, 1979; Levine &
Lezotte, 1995; Sammons & et al., 1995; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003) and observed to
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exist at Urban Intermediate. Monitoring as a school system requires many factors to
work simultaneously to be effective. Monitoring at Urban Intermediate consists of
teachers, students and administrators working together to provide effective
instruction and promote learning as seen in Table 4.17. Teaching is monitored by
administrator’s informal and formal evaluation. Informal evaluation occurs daily
through the daily classroom walks by the principal and vice principal. Effective
feedback is provided through informal conversations.
Learning is monitored by the tracking different assessments (Jesse et al.,
2004; Muijs et al., 2004; Schmoker, 1999). Urban Intermediate used many types of
assessments as discussed earlier in this chapter that include: benchmarks,
performance assessments, checking for understanding, grades, and writing
assessments. It also required the school have ways to collect and encode data that are
evidence of student achievement throughout the year(Jesse et al., 2004; Muijs et al.,
2004; Schmoker, 1999). This is accomplished through the use of Data-Director.
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Figure 4.4 Monitoring of students’ progress by stakeholders at Urban Intermediate

Students also monitor learning as seen in Figure 4.4. Students are provided
with their CST scores at the beginning of the school year. They are also tracking
their benchmark scores for each core class. Teacher A stated that after every single
“major assessment we have or every major writing piece we [students] do a
reflection”. Many teachers post grades weekly, so students are informed of their
Monitoring of
Student Progress
Teachers
 Constant Checking
for Understanding
 Teacher Benchmark
Data Analysis
 Department
Collaborations
 Grade Posting
 Self Reflection
Students
 Student Benchmark
Reflection
 Knowledge of current
classroom grades
 Advisement GPA
grade calculation and
goal setting
 Using Agenda to
keep track of CST
and Benchmark
Scores

Administration
 Daily Classroom walks
 Minutes from Department
Meetings
 Benchmark Data Analysis
 CST Data Analysis
 Constant Communication
 Formal Teacher Evaluation
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progress and grades. The students were also provided with an advisement piece,
where all students calculated their first quarter GPA and provided goals for the report
card.
The second theme at Urban Intermediate is the systems and structures that
support access to a rigorous curriculum. Before AVID was implemented into the
school, there were only a few advanced classes that were filled mostly by the Asian
students as described by an administrator. There were only three-advanced classes
available as compared to the 25 advance classes currently available. These classes
are now being filled with the student population, students of color. Calabrese (1989)
states that in urban school policies such as: screening and filtering students into
cultural economic tracks, the use of pre-requests to screen minorities out of courses
and policies that are implemented through an open scheduling process, which
implies that any school no matter what ethnicity can take any course.
At Urban Intermediate there are grade level classes and advance classes,
there are pre-requisites for the advance classes: grades, CST scores and teacher
recommendation, this information is not used to screen minorities out of courses or
filtered into economic tracks. Because of AVID, more students of color have access
to advance classes than before AVID was implemented. One may say that AVID is
contributing to tracking with a portion of the school population having access to
these classes. Some would argue that all students should be held to this level of
expectations, and that all students should have access to a challenging curriculum
(Checkley, 2001; Choi, 2003; Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000). From where the school
169
was in 2001 to what is currently provided is a step in the right direction for students
of color. The steps that Urban Intermediate takes in the future may be to begin
providing all students with what they consider to be the “advanced curriculum” as
they are already providing access to algebra for all eighth graders. In addition to
providing increased access to rigorous curriculum, there were systems and structures
identified that supported the alignment of curriculum to the standards.

Figure 4.5 Systems and Structures in support of Alignment of Curriculum to
Standards.

Three of the systems are being supported by the district structures for the four core
subjects: mathematics, language arts, history and science. These structures include
curriculum maps for the four core classes; professional development workshops
scheduled by the district, and the district mandated benchmarks every quarter. This
Alignment of
Curriculum to
Standards
Use of
Benchmarks
Use of curriculum
and pacing guides
Professional
Development
focused on
Instruction
Teacher
Collaboration
170
State Test Scores
(CST and CELDT)
 Instructional
Planning
 Companion class
placement
 Students Extended
day Interventions
 Inform Parents
 Inform Students
 School Planning
 Teacher
Collaboration
Benchmark Scores
(District and School)
School usage:
 Lesson Planning
 Student
Interventions
 Teacher Reflection
 Student Reflection
 Positive student
acknowledgement
 Teacher
Accountability
 Teacher
Collaboration
 Professional
Development
Grades,
Citizenship,
Attendance
School usage:
 Student
counseling
 Student
Interventions
 Positive
Recognition
 Teacher
collaboration
 Parent
communication
 Student
reflection and
goal setting
support by the district allows the staff at Urban Intermediate to focus on the
implementation of the curriculum maps instead of having to develop them.
Data analysis was an additional theme identified at Urban Intermediate. As
stated earlier by Administrator B, “ everything runs off of data”, and this is very true
of Urban Intermediate as seen in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 Data analysis is used at Urban Intermediate?

DATA ANALYSIS
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All stakeholders are involved with data analysis, it is not just seen by staff members
but shared with students and parents.
Another systems in place is the extensive support for collaboration.
Research of high performing schools has identified that administration supported
collaboration among teachers (Craig et al., 2005a). In the Johnson(1999) study of
nine high poverty urban schools, the principals provided structured blocks of time
for teachers to collaborate. Structured time was provided at Urban Intermediate on
“ Collaboration” meeting days that occurred on students’ minimum days in a variety
of forums: Leadership team collaboration and department collaboration. In each of
these forums, clear goals were established verbally and on written agendas provided
to staff members. This was also observed in a study of best practices at the middle
grade level (Balancing Acts: Best practices in the middle grades, 2007).
Collaboration time was used to identify best practices at the school site which was
observed at a staff meeting, identify instructional improvements as observed by the
implementation of the advisement handout, and reviewing benchmark data and
lesson planning as was discussed in a department meeting by teachers setting the
agenda for their future meeting.
The final system observed was the structured time allotted for the extended
day intervention programs. Urban Intermediate provides students with interventions
in language arts and mathematics. The Language Arts focuses on the ELD levels A
and B, while the mathematics supports the school wide change to enroll all eighth
graders in algebra. In addition to the lab companion that is provided to students
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during the instructional day, there is support for students after school. For a student
who need additional support in both language arts and mathematics, language arts
becomes priority during the school day. The students can then attend the after school
intervention classes for mathematics.
Summary
The systems and structures in place at Urban Intermediate to support school
wide instruction goes beyond the traditional school day with the extended day
interventions and beyond the school itself with support from the district to promote
student learning. Yet, they all are working concurrently in order to provide an
effective implementation to support school wide instruction.
Research Question 4: Construct of Race
The final research questions asked, “How is the construct of race reflected in
the school’s structures and systems?” The school culture respects and embraces
students of color where high expectations are the norm for all students at Urban
Intermediate. This is reflected in the classroom through aspects of Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) refers to instructional
practices that build on the premise that the ways students learn and the cultural
capital students bring to the classroom may differ across cultures (Ladson-Billings
1995). Ladson and Billings (1995) state that culturally relevant pedagogy is
distinguishable by three broad conceptions regarding self and others, social relations,
and knowledge. These three conceptions were used to describe the findings observed
at Urban Intermediate.
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Conceptions of Self and Others
In an English class, a teacher was leading a classroom discussion on a story
called “The Musician” they had just read. The discussion began with common
responses as to what the literature was about and what the students thought of the
story. One student said it was boring, the teacher then replied give me evidence why.
After comments by other students that the story was boring the teacher tried to
connect the decisions the boy made in the story to decisions students make today
with their families. The teacher then asked the students to pair share a decision they
have made or may make in the future that is similar to the one in the story. After the
pair share, the teacher asked for volunteers to share a decision that they had made
that was similar to the one in the story. Two students shared out. The teacher
thanked the students for sharing and then directed the students to pair share about the
meaning of the story. The students were observed conversing with one another and
discussing the literature they had read. This allowed students to see themselves in the
story by making similar decisions.
In an ELD class where students were very limited in English, students were
learning new science vocabulary. The teacher scaffolded the information for the
students by first saying the word in English out loud. The teacher would then point to
the picture of the word in the book. The teacher had them write the vocabulary words
on white boards by using complete sentences. The teacher and the aide walked
around to each group of students and helped students phonetically sound out the
words. The teacher and the aide also physically showed the student where the
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vocabulary was located on their body (example showing where the heart is). When
the teacher noticed students still not understanding the English word, the teacher said
the word in Spanish (their primary language) and then again in English.
Along with promoting critical thinking skills, the school demonstrated that a
student’s culture is valued at Urban Intermediate. People of color were represented in
multiple ways in classrooms. These representations included pictures and
biographies of a minority scientist; former students’ high school graduation pictures,
“Person of the Week,” extra credit activity in which they had to research a famous
person of color; inspirational posters with different races presented; and classroom
libraries with autobiographies of famous people of color. In all classrooms observed
formally and informally through shadowing of administration (with the exception of
mathematics) students and their work was represented. In many classrooms, pictures
of students adorned the walls. Student work was always posted along with
comments on the rubric were visible in classrooms.
Conceptions of Social Relations
On the campus of Urban Intermediate the social relationship between teacher
and students was clearly observable. Teachers had developed relationships with
students that carried over beyond the classroom. Throughout the time spent at Urban
Intermediate from as early as 7:15 am classroom doors were open to students.
Students were observed conversing with the teachers about school and about home
life. The students seemed to be very comfortable talking and interacting with
teachers outside the normal classroom hours. In the mornings students were
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observed eating breakfast in a teacher’s classroom, assisting teachers with filing
papers, using the computers, and playing chess. Many classroom doors were open
before school, during lunch and after school. During a lunch hour, students came in
to tell the teacher they were trying out for the spelling bee. The teacher
acknowledged the students by wishing them good luck, and asked them questions
such as “ How many hours have you studied for this?” “ How many words did you
learn?” During many interviews, teachers stated that the classroom door remained
open to allow students to come in and work on the computer, complete homework or
study. There were many students who came in and out of the classroom during the
interviews wanting to talk to the teacher but noticed the teacher was talking to the
researcher and left.
Relationships are being developed with parents and the community through
workshops and communications as discussed in the findings of research question #2.
Parent A described the sense of “family”: “ I think the atmosphere here is very
unique, it is more like a family.” In addition to the relationship built at the school
site the district provides support in building relationships by providing “community
outreach meetings”.
Conceptions of Knowledge
Many teachers interviewed identified knowing the students on more of a
personal level. Teacher A described “knowing things…you know, knowing things
about their background, their history, their likes and their dislikes, and their
interests”. Knowing the backgrounds of students is the foundations of CRP, as
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teachers need to be familiar with the student’s background in order to build
instructional practices that meet the needs of students from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds. Administrators, teachers, and classified staff
identified teachers knowing students’ backgrounds as a characteristic of an effective
teacher. As described by a teacher “I think you just need to really be in tune with
their background and not all their backgrounds are the same, and I don't think that we
are able to say all Latinos are the same”.
An administrator described another example about their history department.
Administrator B stated:
I know that some of the teachers like our history department do [something]
at the beginning of the year, really try to engage the students in discussing
history and connecting it to a lot of the immigration and a lot of the practices
that we have now because if they are talking about American history, you are
talking about immigration, whether it be slavery, whether it be world history
and the different laws that have passed.

Analysis of Research Question Four
The findings for research question four: how the construct of race is reflected
in school wide systems and structures, was found throughout Urban Intermediate.
Many of the staff members described that since the school population is
predominately Latino, the school site plan reflects the school population.
Administrator A in describing how students of color are addressed in the school plan
said “ all those things really kind of go right back to our entire school in that, we are
a school of color, so I don’t know how to separated it besides...I think its just in the
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fabric of how we do business everyday”. These descriptions did not necessarily
acknowledge specific features of the Latino culture as examples of teachers
deliberately helping students dig into and understand their cultural heritage. There
was not strong evidence of teachers, school-wide, of teachers taking deliberate or
planned action to connect to students’ home and community cultures. This is an area
for improvement for Urban Intermediate: providing professional development in
culturally relevant pedagogy to assist teachers in making stronger connections to
students’ home and community cultures.
In addition all the interventions and part of AVID is funded through Title 1.
Urban Intermediate is aware of their student population. As administrator C
described, with regards to their recruitment of AVID students: “ Under AVID we are
always, always, looking at trying to recruit Latino males, because that is our students
population that historically is not doing as well as the rest of the population”.
Classified Staff Member A stated:
Everybody here is pretty much equal here and even though we have 80%
Latino students we have quite a few Vietnamese and a few Caucasian and
other, everyone is equal here

The equal treatment was observed in the belief system that all students could learn.
From the interviews Cultural Relevant Pedagogy was never directly mentioned as
what an effective teacher encompasses, but was implied through examples of what
effective teachers do. Urban Intermediate was found to provide two of the three
criteria of culturally relevant pedagogy as identified by Ladson-Billings (1995),
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although they were unevenly implemented. Ladson-Billings (1995) has stated that
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy rest on three criteria. These criteria include:
1. Conceptions of self and others
2. Conceptions of social relations
3. Conceptions of knowledge

Conceptions of Self
In Ladson-Billings (1995) conceptions of self states, students must
experience academic success. At Urban Intermediate student success was observed
in the high expectation that the staff has for the students and the belief that all
students can succeed. By providing students with extended day interventions,
teachers act as social agents and give students access to a rigorous curriculum.
Ladson-Billings (1995) states, “the trick to culturally relevant pedagogy is to get the
students to “choose” academic excellence” (p.160). This was observed throughout
the school, as students are eager to learn as they take advantage of the support
provided by the teachers and the program. The schools positive school culture
provides the environments that encourage students to “choose” academic excellence.
Administrator C noted that a student being responsible for and a part of their own
learning has made a huge difference at the school, “ they are not just sitting there
because the teacher tells them to. It is because they want to get proficient. They don’t
want to be basic anymore.”
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Conception of Social Relations
Criteria two, conception of social relations, was very prevalent at Urban
Intermediate. This was an area of culturally relevant pedagogy that was clearly
observable school-wide. The staff and students have developed relationships that
have promoted student achievement. This is accomplished through mentoring,
availability of teachers and the belief that all children can learn. The area that the
school has identified for an area of improvement is developing relationships with
parents and the community. Urban Intermediate provides many avenues for building
relationships with these two groups of stakeholders, but as in many schools there is
always room for growth.
Conception of Knowledge
Criteria three, conception knowledge, which utilizes students’ culture as a
vehicle for learning, was observed in classrooms and described by teachers as
examples of effective teaching at Urban Intermediate. Teacher A stated, “ I think you
need to be really in tune with their [students] background and not all their
backgrounds are the same”. Examples described previously include, making
connection in history to immigration and providing vocabulary in context to what
they know in the example of the vocabulary word ”pursuit”. These are examples of
teachers using the students’ culture as a vehicle for learning. Teacher C, who has
many EL students in her classes, described another example. “ I don’t know if this is
a modification, but sometimes I explain to them in their native language…it helps
them a lot’. By Teacher C explaining concepts or directions in the student’s native
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language of Spanish, she is subconsciously acknowledging the students home
language. This is the criterion that was not observed as a school-wide practice at
Urban Intermediate.
An area for growth at Urban Intermediate is to provide professional
development on providing culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom. Urban
Intermediate were observed to already implement school wide two of the three
criteria, the next step would be to provide professional development in the third
criteria, conceptions of knowledge for teachers. Providing professional development
will help teachers affirm that culture, teaching and learning are interconnected and
that school achievement increases to the extent that teaching employs the cultural
referents of the students to whom it is directed (Gay, 2000).
Summary
Culturally relevant pedagogy, as described by Ladson-Billings (1995) is
distinguishable by three broad conceptions regarding self and others, social relations,
and knowledge. These three conceptions were used to describe the findings observed
at Urban Intermediate. Urban Intermediate was observed to provide aspects of
culturally relevant pedagogy, but was not observed as a school-wide practice. Future
professional development on culturally relevant teaching will be necessary to
improve teacher-students interactions and relationships as well as the students’
academic achievement.
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Chapter Four Analysis and Discussion
The findings in this study were developed and presented by reviewing the
data collected in the context of the conceptual frameworks developed for each of the
research questions. The purpose of this section of the study was to identify the
organizational structures and systems of a high performing, high poverty urban
school with large concentrations of students of color. The systems and structures at
Urban Intermediate encompass the characteristics found in High Performing schools
as seen in Table 4.18.

Table 4. 18 Characteristics of High Performing School as compared to Urban
Intermediate

Characteristics Effective school
Correlates
(Edmonds, 1979)
Common characteristics in high
performing schools (Carter,
2000; Izumi, 2002; Kannapel &
Clements, 2005; Reeves, 1999)
Urban
Intermediate
High expectation for all
students
X X X
Strong Instructional
Leadership
X X
Clear and focused vision
and mission
X X
Opportunities to learn X X
Safe and Orderly
Environment
X X
Frequent Monitoring and
Assessment
X X X
Home school relations X X X
Time on Task X X
Positive School Culture X X
Standards Based
Instruction
X X
Rigorous and Relevant
Curriculum
X X
Professional Development X X
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The school’s AVID program continues to provide support for systems and structures
in place at Urban Intermediate for students of color and Low SES. AVID has exerted
strong influence on the systems in the school. It has influenced the college going
environment, which according to staff members did not exist before AVID was
implemented. AVID has also increased the access students of color have to rigorous
coursework through the number of advanced classes offered to students at Urban
Intermediate. AVID has also supported school wide effective instruction through the
implementation of the AVID methodologies. The systems at Urban Intermediate
that support school wide instruction and promote learning include monitoring and
assessment, alignment of curriculum to standards and the extended day interventions.
These systems and structures observed at Urban Intermediate focus around the needs
of students of color, as they constitute the vast majority of the school’s population.
The staff at Urban Intermediate recognizes and acknowledges that their students can
“ Achieve, Believe, Succeed.” The staff provided culturally relevant pedagogy by
connecting with their students and valuing their experiences.
Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the findings based on the data collected for this study
followed by a detailed analysis and discussion of the answers to the five research
questions based on how they were grounded in the literature presented earlier in this
study. The findings presented in this study were based on multiple data sources,
interviews, observations and artifacts, which served to strengthen their validity. The
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summary, conclusions, and implications of this study are presented in the next
chapter.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS
Introduction
Research has long documented the connection between student poverty and
low academic achievement. In public education, schools that are attended by mostly
low-income students are located in urban areas. These urban schools are
predominantly composed of African American and Latino students. Large numbers
of urban schools seem to be unable to identify and meet student needs as testified by
the achievement gap, which continues to exist across the nation. It is this inability to
meet the needs of these students that results in high student dropout rates and
disproportionate student achievement among these populations. The few schools that
have achieved success in high poverty urban schools have not been studied in ways
that facilitate successful replication to other schools and districts.
In addition, the disproportion in student achievement among students has the
effect of reproducing poverty among people of color. As these students are prevented
from being adequately prepared for higher-level classes in high school, they are
therefore unprepared for admission to four-year colleges or universities. Attending a
four-year college or university results in positive differences in the quality of life for
students of poverty and color. Despite the large number of poor performing schools
producing these dire results for students of color, there are urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color that are achieving at appropriate levels.
The purpose of this study was to identify systems and structures in high-
achieving, high poverty urban schools in order to support underperforming schools
185
as they seek practices to improve outcomes for students of color. These efficacious
systems and structures were explored at an urban intermediate school in Southern
California that met the criteria set by the thematic dissertation group. The study
conformed to the theoretical framework represented in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1: Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High Performing Schools Study

The theoretical framework for research questions one and two is based
around previous research that supports integrated systems and a socio-cultural theory
of learning. Research has identified multiple factors and organizational structures
and systems that must be in place in a systemic way to create a socio-cultural context
in which students can achieve high academic performance (Marzano, 2003).
186
Research question three is based on the socio-cultural frameworks that asserts the
school’s need to identify and validate students’ home culture and build on it in order
to help students develop more knowledge. One-way to meet this need is by
providing culturally relevant and responsive education, which is the theoretical
framework for research question four.
Significance of Study
This study is significant since it could provide a useful intervention at schools
across the country where an achievement gap continues to exist particularly among
students of color. The achievement gap among students of color and students of
poverty compared with their white and higher SES counterparts is not only found in
reading and mathematics, but in graduation rates and the number of students entering
college (Greene & Winter, 2005). Schools and districts need to find ways to reduce
the achievement gap and overcome the barriers students of color and poverty face in
education, which stem from a history of societal inequities. Even though the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has placed an emphasis on holding schools
accountable for improving the academic performance of all students, many schools,
especially urban schools, are not meeting the adequate yearly progress goals and are
being identified as Program Improvement Schools. Educators will need to identify
the organizational systems and structures that high performing, urban schools, with
large concentrations of students of color have put in place that are perceived to
contribute to schools that facilitate high student performance. In addition, educators
need to understand how the systems and structures are implemented to support
187
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promote student learning in order to
bridge the achievement gap that has existed historically.
Research Questions
Research questions were developed after a review of the literature, which
revealed that high performing schools share similar organizational systems and
structures, which are in place at school sites that produce high achievement. This
study has also revealed that these structures and system are working at the school
studied and they include all stakeholders: administrators, teachers, students and
parents. The research questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Analysis of Findings
In the section that follows, the linkages between the areas of research and the
findings from this study will be described. The major findings are summarized
within the context of the four research questions of this study.
188
Major Findings for Research Question 1: What are the trends and patterns of
performance among students of color?
The historical literature reviewed identified factors that have contributed to
the achievement gap between students of color and low socio-economic status with
their white and the more economically advantage peers. Prior research has
documented that the problem is not exclusively educational but a by-product of the
nation’s socioeconomic, cultural, familial and racial histories that are intertwined to
produce the conditions for this gap. This gap is magnified in urban schools where a
high number of students of color and poverty are enrolled. The findings revealed
that the achievement gap that continues to exist at schools across the nation
(Education, 2006) still persists at Urban Intermediate on the CST for language arts
and mathematics. Yet, in spite of some liabilities, teacher turnover and decrease in
experienced teachers, Urban Intermediate has made noteworthy gains in closing the
achievement gap. In the area of mathematics, Urban Intermediate has minimized the
gap between whites and Latinos since the 2001-2002 school year from 10.4% gap to
a 1.2% gap in 2006 and 2007. The gap between whites and SED no longer exists as
it was a 5.1% gap in 2001-2002 and is now a -2.7% in 2006 -2007. The gap between
Latinos and SES with the Asian subgroup has diminished only slightly.
In the area of language arts, the gap has doubled between whites and their
Latino and SED peers, while it has slightly decreased with Asians. The trends and
patterns show that Urban Intermediate has made some gains in reducing the
189
achievement gap for students of color, but continue to face some barriers, that have
been historically documented in urban schools.
As many schools are being identified as Program Improvement schools due
to their not meeting the AYP for identified subgroups, Urban Intermediate continues
to make their AYP. The subgroups Latino and low SES are exceeding the AYP
goals.

Figure 5.2 AYP percent proficient in language arts from 2001-2006
190
Even with, the AYP goals being met and exceeded for the school year (2006-2007),
the school still did not make their annual API. There were different reasons for this
as identified through interviews and artifacts gathered, which included 1) staff
turnover during the 2006-2007 school year, and 2) the school’s decision to place all
eighth grade students into algebra. The research of Mujis et al., (2004) have
identified teacher turnover rate, as an issue urban schools must deal with constantly.
The data gathered during the 2006-2007 school year showed a slight decrease in the
number of teachers with experience. This change occurred the same year that there
was a decrease in test scores. The study has led to a consideration of the impact even
of slight changes in teacher availablilty on students in urban schools have on
students’ performance.
Major Findings for Research Question 2: What are the organizational structures
and systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-
poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color?
The organizational systems and structures section of the literature review
analyzed and identified the systems and structures in high performing, high poverty
schools (Lezotte et al., 2002; Quick & Quick, 2000; Shear & Smerdon, 2003). The
characteristics of a positive school culture identified by Kannapel and Clements’
(2005) laid the foundation for analyzing the systems and structures identified at
Urban Intermediate. These characteristics were consistent with five of the seven
characteristics found At Urban Intermediate. Cawelti (2000) asserted that in high
performing schools, it is not just one factor that produces high performance, but
191
multiple factors working simultaneously. These identified factors are high
expectations, collaborative decision-making, teacher’s acceptance of their role in
student success or failure, strategic assignment of staff, regular teacher-parent
communication, caring staff and faculty, and dedication to diversity and equity. At
Urban Intermediate five of the seven factors that are consistent with the research are
working together to provide a positive school culture, and the school is producing a
pattern of high academic performance in students of color when compared with
similar schools. These systems were coordinated and coherent operations within the
school structure, producing high yields toward ensuring that the school vision,
mission and goals are met. This study also identified a very strong administration
that provided the support and resources for the theses systems to work effectively.
This system also required strong leadership, which was not limited to administration.
Many teachers and staff members have taken on multiple leadership roles in order
for these systems to work successfully. This study identified distributed leadership
as an important factor that contributed to the implementation of the systems at work
at Urban Intermediate School.
Two characteristics that were identified as a part of the positive school
culture at Urban Intermediate, but not identified as a characteristics in Kannapel and
Clements (2005) research were: 1) an emphasis on positive acknowledgments for
students for students’ and teachers’ accomplishments and 2) a college-going
environment. Urban Intermediate made a tremendous effort to acknowledge positive
aspects of the school during meetings, in the classrooms, and throughout the campus.
192
The school provided many traditional forms of positive extrinsic motivation by
acknowledging students through rewards for honor roll, outstanding citizenship, and
scoring “advanced” on benchmark assessments. Intrinsic motivation was promoted
in classrooms through teachers modeling behaviors, cognitive structuring, task
structuring, and questioning. This type of intrinsic motivation falls within the
cognitive approach to motivation whereas, socio-cultural approach suggests
motivation is 1) socially negotiated 2) socially distributed and 3) context-specific
(Rueda & Dembo, 1995). A few classrooms observed provided all three criteria for
a socio-cultural approach, but it was not observed to occur school-wide. Many
classrooms were observed to provide two of the three criteria: socially distributed
and a context specific approach to teaching and learning. Teaching practices
observed in many classrooms promoted collaborative and complex learning around
meaningful activities that were context specific. The criterion that was not readily
observed was socially negotiating. Socially negotiating, described in Rueda and
Dembo (1995), is where “the student and teacher are in negotiation and constantly
working collaboratively to obtain a goal that is understood by both to be important”
(p. 277). This is an area for which teachers can be provided with professional
development in order to provide a socio-cultural approach to motivation.
In addition, this study found that AVID has highly influenced a college going
environment at Urban Intermediate. According to interviews of staff members, prior
to AVID this college going environment did not exist. Although students of color
and of low socio-economic status are often hindered by the limited access they have
193
to college information, at Urban Intermediate this is much less the case. The major
contribution AVID has provided within this environment is the AVID teachers and
site team members who have become social agents for the students at Urban
Intermediate. The team of people provides students with knowledge-based resources
such as access to A-G requirements, information about colleges, study and
organizational skills, and support for rigorous courses. AVID has paved the way for
students at Urban Intermediate to become successful in decoding systems which
have traditionally been surrounded by barriers for students of color.
Major Findings for Research Questions 3: How are the organizational systems and
structures implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning?
Recent research regarding high performing schools has focused on a positive
school culture characterized by a rigorous and relevant curriculum based on
standards based instruction (Lezotte et al., 2002; Marzano, 2003; Quick & Quick,
2000; Shear & Smerdon, 2003). Systems and structures implemented to support a
rigorous and relevant curriculum based on standards-based instruction were readily
evident at Urban Intermediate. Urban Intermediate creates a culture that embraces
students’ need for a rigorous curriculum. These systems included: frequent
monitoring and assessments, alignment of curriculum to standards, data analysis,
professional development focused on the improvement of instruction, teacher
collaboration and extended day intervention programs. These factors worked
194
together as interlocking systems to support school-wide instruction and promote
student learning.
Advanced Classes
A major finding through this research is the impact AVID has had on the
number of advanced classes offered to students at Urban Intermediate. The number
of advanced classes offered has changed since the 2001 school year from three to 25
since the implementation of the AVID program. Before AVID the number of
advance classes, were limited to a group of 19 students who were predominantly
Asian. As AVID has grown, so have the number of advanced classes offered at
Urban Intermediate. Offering numerous advanced classes has provided the
opportunity for students of color and students from low-income families to access
higher-level classes, which historically have been severely limited to students of
color. An area for further research would be to identify the impact that AVID at
Urban Intermediate has had on its feeder high schools. Since AVID has been
identified as having an impact on increasing the number of advanced classes at the
school site, what impact has it had on the feeder high schools’ master schedules?
Algebra
The current school structure found in many urban schools sorts students into
curricular tracks and ability groups that offer varying levels of academic preparation
and typically students of color fall in the lower tracks (Calabrese, 1989). Urban
Intermediate with 97.2% of its school population being students of color and 82.79%
receiving free or reduced lunch, has made an effort to move away from sorting
195
students by levels of academic preparation in the area of mathematics. One example
is providing access to algebra to all eighth graders. Research has shown that students
who take algebra in eighth grade are prepared for more advanced coursework in high
school and are more likely to attend and graduate from college than eighth graders
who do not take algebra (Atanda, 1999; AVID Center, 2007). In recognition that
there are students who need additional support in mathematics, Urban Intermediate
has provided support through the mathematics lab companion class and extended day
interventions. This is an area for further research to determine if the support classes
offered have a positive impact on student performance. In addition, revisiting and
re-evaluating the way algebra is being taught in the classroom may reduce the
amount of remediation needed for students. Culturally relevant pedagogy was not
observed as a school wide instructional practice that can provide an effective means
of meeting the needs of the diverse group of students at Urban Intermediate. Also,
the mathematics classes where observed to have the minimal amount of student
work, posters, and academic vocabulary on the classroom walls as compared to the
rest of the school, that can provide an environment conducive to student learning.
Major Findings for Research Question 4: How is the construct of race reflected in
the school’s structures and systems?
Constructs of race were evident throughout the research in terms of data,
artifacts, the school culture and interviews. In a school that is predominately a
school of color, teachers described knowing that, even though the vast majority of
students may all be Latino, there are still cultural differences. Ormond (2006)
196
describes a positive school culture existing when schools are able to identify and
validate a student’s home culture and it is then reflected in the curriculum. At Urban
Intermediate, this occurs in the classroom as some teachers are providing aspects of
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, although this was not an instructional practice
observed school wide during the allotted time at the school site. Providing
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy to students’ school wide is an area of instruction that
Urban Intermediate can implement further to bridge the achievement gap that
continues to exist. Currently teachers at Urban Intermediate are not representative of
the school ethnic population and come into contact daily with a diverse group of
students whose background and experiences may not be similar to their own.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, which has been described by many researchers as an
effective means of meeting the academic and social needs of culturally diverse
students (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1994), may be helpful in further reducing the
achievement gap that still exist at Urban Intermediate. Providing professional
development in Culturally Relevant Pedagogy can provide teachers with the means
of more effectively meeting the needs of their diverse population. This is a
consideration that deserves further research as well.
In general, the systems and structures at Urban Intermediate support what has
been identified in previous research to support high academic achievement.
However, this study shed light on the need for multiple leaders to implement
systemic approaches to school effectiveness. The effectiveness of multiple leaders
was observed in the teachers, administrators and particularly the AVID teachers.
197
Some evidence of the effectiveness of this culture is demonstrated in the school’s
ability to make their AYP goals and produce a pattern of API growth each year, with
a few exceptions. Despite the achievement gap that continues to exist at the school
site, Urban Intermediate is making strides to close the gap. The following section
reflects this researcher’s recommendations for Urban Intermediate in their journey
towards closing the gap:
• Aspects of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy was observed at Urban
Intermediate, but were not observed to be occurring school wide. The
recommendation would be for administrators to develop, implement and
sustain professional development in Culturally Relevant Pedagogy for
school-wide implementation.
• The use of data at Urban Intermediate is commendable, but there is room for
improvement. Currently each department uses benchmark data differently.
One recommendation is for the leadership team to develop, implement and
sustain a school wide system analyzing benchmark data that allows for
collaboration, and accountability among teachers while providing a concrete
plan to provide targeted interventions for specific students.
• Urban Intermediate provides multiple ways to positively acknowledge
students’ accomplishments school wide. In addition to the traditional forms
of acknowledgment a shift towards socio-cultural motivational learning
school wide can provide an increase in performance of students as described
by Rueda and Dembo (1995).
198
Implications for Policies and Educators
An analysis of the current study’s findings in conjunction with previous
research on systems and structures of high performing, high poverty schools has
yielded implications for policies and educators. As the number of schools not
meeting the AYP of the NCLB Act are being identified as Program Improvement
Schools, and as schools look for ways to exit program improvement status, educators
trying to identify what has worked in schools similar to their school should consider
the following:
Positive School Culture
A positive school culture that promotes standards-based instruction and
contributes to a high performing, high poverty school can serve as a blueprint to
urban school districts and administrators. School districts and administrators need to
understand that the most essential component is the understanding that it is not one
system but multiple systems working coherently that produces a positive school
culture (Cawelti, 2000). Kannaple and Clements (2005) descriptions of
characteristics of a positive school culture can be used as a starting point for schools
in identifying what is currently occurring at the school site as well as areas for
improvement. Therefore administrators need to be able to identify the systems and
structures at their school site that are working effectively and which do not exist or
need to be re-evaluated in order to develop a positive school culture.
Collaboration
In order to implement and maintain a positive school culture, administrators
199
need to embed time into the school calendar for collaboration. Schools that are high
performing allow for teacher collaboration (Craig et al., 2005a; Kannapel &
Clements, 2005; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). School leaders must provide teachers
with time for the necessary training, guidance, and structures for collaboration.
School leaders must also serve as models for their staff members.
Professional Development
In schools that have a high number of highly qualified teachers, as defined
through NCLB, the achievement gap continues to exist. In order to bridge the
achievement gap of students of color and poverty with their white and higher SES
counterparts, schools need to provide continuous professional development for
teachers in areas such as Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, differentiation and
scaffolding, socio-cultural motivational learning.
AVID
An effective AVID program can provide students of color and low socio-
economic status with access to rigorous curriculum and support for rigorous courses
that they may not normally get at an urban school. AVID can also have an impact on
a schools’ organizational systems and structures such as a college going
environment, number of advanced classes and providing social agents as identified in
this study. It provides the social capital students of color from low-socioeconomic
backgrounds lack in typical school structures. Therefore, there is a need for schools
or districts to consider AVID in middle school rather than waiting for high school
implementation.
200
Recommendations for Further Research
The following recommendations for future research are based on issues that emerged
while conducting this study:
• Student perceptions were not included in this study and would present a
valuable perspective on the systems and structures in place that are perceived
to promote high student achievement in urban schools with a large
concentration of students of color.
• A longitudinal study to identify the impact of providing access to algebra to
all eighth graders in an urban school with a large concentration of students of
color in preparing students for higher levels of education, including high
school.
• How does an effective AVID program at an intermediate school impact or
affect the organizational systems and structures implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning at
its feeder high school?
• A similar case study to determine the influence of effective AVID program,
at Urban Elementary, on school-wide systems on behalf of students of color
and lowered socioeconomic students. The 2007-2008 school year is the pilot
year for AVID in the elementary levels.
201
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214
APPENDIX A: ADMINISTRATOR PROTOCOL
ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

School Name: _____________________________ Date: _________________

Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________

Position: __________________________________________________________

Researcher: _______________________________________________________

Time Started: __________ Time Ended: ___________ Total Time: _______

Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve school performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you perceive
contribute to your students’ high student performance.
a. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance?
b. I have noticed a dip your API score. What are your thoughts on that?
c. Do you feel that AVID contributes to your high student performance?
Can you explain how?

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?

215
3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress?
b. What assessment tools do you use?

4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-wide Plan?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students?
b. What is your role in helping teachers provide effective instruction?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?
b. What is your role as a school leader in guiding the use of data to
improve the school climate and classroom instruction?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students of
color?
a. Does your discipline policy help students adopt behavior that
contributes to their learning?
b. Please give an example.
216
APPENDIX B: TEACHER PROTOCOL
TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
School Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________

Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________

Position: _________________________________________________________

Researcher: _______________________________________________________

Time Started: __________ Time Ended: __________ Total Time: _______

Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve school performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.
• (Probe) Has your school encountered any obstacles in
maintaining these practices and policies? If so, how did the
school overcome them or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things you have done over
the last 3-5 years to improve student performance
• I have noticed a dip your API score. What are your thoughts
on that?
• DO you feel that AVID contributes to your high student
performance? Can you explain how?
217
2. What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate in the school that
engages all students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers.
a. For students?
b. Parents
i. How do you monitor student progress?
ii. What assessment tools do you use?

4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-Wide
Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the
school-wide plan for students of color?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students including students of color?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores that
demonstrate high student performance?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?
218
APPENDIX C: CLASSIFIED PROTOCOL
CLASSIFIED INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
School Name: _______________________________ Date: ________________

Name of Person Interviewed: _________________________________________

Position: __________________________________________________________

Researcher: ________________________________________________________

Time Started: _________ Time Ended: __________ Total Time: _______

Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve school performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to the high student performance.
• Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining
these practices and policies? If so, how did the school
overcome them or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things the school has done
over the last 3-5 years to improve student performance?
• I have noticed a dip your API score. What are your thoughts
on that?
• DO you feel that AVID contributes to your high student
performance? Can you explain how?
219

2. How would you describe the school climate here?
a. In what ways does the school engage/involve all students and respect
cultural diversity.
b. What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?

3. What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?

4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?

5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?

6. How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?

7. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur?
b. How do the students react to testing?
c. How do teachers react?
d. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data?
e. How is it made known?

8. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impact students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad choice?
220
APPENDIX D: PARENT PROTOCOL
PARENT INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
School Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________

Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________

Position: __________________________________________________________

Researcher: ________________________________________________________

Time Started: __________ Time Ended: ___________ Total Time: _______

Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve school performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Interview Questions

1. What is the school doing to help all students succeed?

2. How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?

3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?
a. How does the school communicate that?

4. How does the school address the needs of (ethnic sub-group) students?

221
5. How do you describe a good or effective teacher?

6. What are some of the ways the school lets you know how your child is
doing?

7. Describe the school’s discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?
b. Do you consider the discipline policies fair for all children?
c. Can you give an example of its fairness?
222
APPENDIX E: OBSERVATION GUIDE

Leadership Team Meeting
Questions for Reflections

To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the school plan?

Does the leadership team analyze student achievement data in order to take informed
actions?

Did (or does) the leadership team discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive (culturally
relevant and responsive) learning environments?

How are the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership team?

Structure: Is the meeting for information or systems planning?

Is the meeting operational- or instructional-focused?
223
APPENDIX F: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDE
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4: Is there a range or variety of instructional
practices /strategies used? Are they appropriate for the content and students?
Examples of instructional practices/strategies?
• Cooperative grouping
• Use of time
• Differentiated instruction
• Feedback to students
• Culturally relevant and responsive
• AVID methodology
o WICR
o Cornell Notes

Research Question #2: What visuals, symbols and other items are posted in the
classroom?
Examples of items:
• School wide discipline policy
o Friday Homework Detention flyer
• District goals
• Standards
• Images of people of color
• Classroom library
• School vision

Research Question # 2: Physical Class Environment
Example of things to observe:
• Seating arrangement
• Teacher student interaction student
o Discipline
• Student work posted
o Feedback/rubric
o Standard based
• Student Engagement
224
APPENDIX G: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION GUIDE
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4:
Professional Development Observation Guiding Questions

• Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?

• Is there engagement among the staff?

• What types of data are being used? How is data used?

• Is professional development is aligned to the vision?

• How are students discussed among teachers and other staff?

• Is the professional development geared toward teaching to standards mastery
or performance?

• Is the professional development practical and adaptable?

• Are the expectations clear for implementation of the professional
development?

• How are teachers held accountable for the professional development
provided?

• Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?
225
APPENDIX H: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OBSERVATION GUIDE
Physical Setting: To allow readers to visualize the setting, the researcher will record
the following observations during each visit:
School grounds
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• School calendar for academic year
• Visual of school goals / mission / vision
• Symbolic representations (drug free zone, anti-violence, college
paraphernalia, culturally relevant items)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)

Classroom specific
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• Classroom calendar
• Classroom schedule
• Classroom rules or expectations
• Culturally relevant items
• Location of classroom (bungalow, main building, isolated, included)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
• Classroom spacing (proximity of students’ desks to one another and teacher)

Social Climate/Environment: During each visit, the researcher will record elements
of human interactions.

School-wide environment
• Adult-Adult and Adult-student interactions (use of greetings, use of names,
friendliness, smiles, affect)
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age)

Classroom climate
• Structure, order, rigidity of classroom environment; is teacher in control of
class, students out of their seats, loud talking, on task
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age, or teacher assignment)
226
APPENDIX I: CODES FOR DATA ANALYSIS
Research Question 1
Research Question 2
Research Question 3
Research Question 4
AVID
API DIP
Community
Constructs of race
Data
data.benchmarks
Goals
High Expectations
High Expectation.students
High Expectation.teachers
Leadership
Monitoring & Assessment
Monitoring & Assessment.students
Monitoring & Assessment.teachers
Parental Involvment
Professional Development
Professional Development.collaboration
Programs
Programs.Homework Club
Refelection
Reflection.teachers
Reflection.student
School Culture
School culture.students
School culture.teachers
Schoolwide

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of systems and structures in promoting high academic achievements among students of color in high poverty schools

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ventura, Yvette Marie (author)

Core Title School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from a high-performing, high poverty urban school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/10/2008

Defense Date 04/18/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag AVID,case study,high performing,high poverty,OAI-PMH Harvest,systems and structures,Urban

Place Name California (states), Orange County (counties)

Language English

Advisor Rousseau, Sylvia G. (committee chair), Marsh, David D. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email yvmarie2@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1328

Unique identifier UC1232291

Identifier etd-Ventura-20080710 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-84361 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1328 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Ventura-20080710.pdf

Dmrecord 84361

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ventura, Yvette Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu