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The advanced placement program: a case study of one urban high school

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THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT PROGRAM:
A CASE STUDY OF ONE URBAN HIGH SCHOOL

by

Marika Elizabeth Manos

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Marika Elizabeth Manos
ii

Dedication
The following research is dedicated to my students. Everyday my students engage
in scholarly discourse and strive to learn course material. At the same time, I learn from
my students. My students are my motivation to teach, write, learn and be an activist. I
truly love every individual in my class and know that with love we can motivate students
to learn and be important citizens in our society. I believe in the potential of my high
school students and teacher candidates and have great joy when they make the content I
teach relevant to their experience. For me, this dissertation is about improving students’
human and social capital through exposure to rigorous coursework like Advanced
Placement courses. I know that more academic preparation in caring environments will
facilitate student access to and success in college.
iii

Acknowledgements
Completing a doctoral degree is no easy feat when working full-time as a
secondary educator and part-time as a teacher educator. I was only able to complete my
dissertation with the help and support of my family, friends and peers. My mother,
Deandrea an Ed. D. herself, gave me words of advice weekly and my boyfriend, Jesse
took me out to celebrate every achievement along the way. I was also given support by
my dissertation committee. Kristan supported me psychologically and academically by
reminding me of my writing skills and experience. She also gave us periodic updates
about our cohort for motivation. Michelle helped organize chapters one, two and three
and met with me to discuss chapters four and five. Tatiana gave me specific edits with
positive feedback, which motivated me to publish. In addition, my friend Jacqui helped
with transcriptions and my student Shaquille created some of my tables for me. Finally,
my friends and family consistently remind me about how proud they are of my
endeavors. I am greatly indebted to those I love.
iv

Table of Contents
Dedication........................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v
List of Figures.................................................................................................................... vi
Abstract............................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter One: Overview .......................................................................................................1
Chapter Two: Literature Review .......................................................................................17
Chapter Three: Research Methodology .............................................................................50
Chapter Four: Results ........................................................................................................70
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations .........................................................108
References........................................................................................................................125
Appendices.......................................................................................................................132

Appendix A: Student Focus-Group Guide.............................................................132
Appendix B: Student Interview Guide....................................................................133
Appendix C: Teacher Survey .................................................................................136
Appendix D: Administrator Survey .......................................................................149
Appendix E: Observation Protocol .........................................................................156
Appendix F: Document Review Guide...................................................................157

v

List of Tables
Table 1.1: Annual AP Program Participation ......................................................................3

Table 1.2: National Participation and Excellence in the AP Program.................................3

Table 1.3: Equity and Excellence in the AP Program .........................................................5

Table 4.1: Student Aspirations and Experience
............................................................................................................................................72

Table 4.2: Teacher Resources............................................................................................75

Table 4.3: Leader Resources..............................................................................................76

Table 4.4: Number of Students Participating in the AP Program at CGHS ......................78

Table 4.5: Number of AP Program Sections at CGHS .....................................................78

Table 4.6: College-Going High School AP Participation and Success
............................................................................................................................................97

vi

List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Model for Student Success...........................................................42

Figure 2.2: Conceptual Model for Student Success as Related to Capital Theory
............................................................................................................................................48

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model for Student Success as Related to Research Methods
............................................................................................................................................58
vii

Abstract
While Advanced Placement (AP) programs have been traditionally targeted
toward academically prepared students, some secondary administrators make AP courses
accessible to all students in order to support college readiness. The purpose of the present
study is to explore how the AP program is being implemented in an urban school where
many students have the opportunity to take AP courses, regardless of academic
experience. I address the following questions: How is the AP program currently being
implemented in one urban school? What are student, teacher, counselor and district leader
attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources available to support AP course
quality, and AP exam taking? I demonstrate student, teacher and administrator
experiences through surveys, interviews and observations. This data allows for a multi-
level analysis in one AP program.
Findings from this study demonstrate a commitment to student participation in AP
coursework. The AP program at the case-study school is open access whereby students
may take AP classes regardless of academic preparation and AP participation is
substantial. AP teachers offer students a challenging curricular experience and give
students academic supports such as one-on-one tutoring, study sessions and opportunities
to take AP practice tests. The AP program facilitates student success at one urban high
school.
1

Chapter One
It is widely assumed that the provision of Advanced Placement (AP) courses
increases access to college, particularly among students from low-income minority
backgrounds. However, there is a dearth of research into a host of critical questions
regarding whether offering Advanced Placement courses actually supports student
success across the board, and whether it does so only for some students, or only in certain
instructional contexts. In this dissertation, I illustrate the context in which AP courses
have come to be considered college access programs. Additionally, I summarize findings
from studies regarding the implementation of AP courses and their relation to college
access, as well as describe a powerful theoretical lens through which one understands
school success. I then present findings from a case study that explores how the AP
program is implemented in one urban school.
The Original Aim of the AP Program
The original aim of the AP program was to give students who were deemed
intellectually gifted the opportunity to take rigorous coursework. At a symposium on
College Composition and Communication in 1959, Robert Shutes from Palo Alto School
District describes the promises of the AP program: first, AP courses give talented
students the ability to take college level coursework; second, AP courses give teachers
the opportunity to work with able students and get recognition for exemplary teaching;
third, the AP program provides schools with a curriculum for talented students (College
Composition and Communication, 1959). Because AP coursework is rigorous, the most
academically prepared students tend to take AP classes. According to some research, not
2

all students are a good fit for AP coursework because the coursework is so challenging
(Burton, Whitman, Yepes-Baraya, Cline & Kim, 2002). Arguably, the students prepared
to take AP courses have high standardized test scores and teachers prepared to teach AP
courses are individuals with experience teaching at the college level and hold advanced
degrees in their course content. Many schools offer AP courses to attract academically
well-prepared students and teachers. One assessment of school quality is the number of
AP course offerings and student participants (Geiser & Santelices, 2004; cited in Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007). The number of AP courses offered and participation
in a school’s AP program is connected with status and higher test scores.
AP Program Demographics
As a result of reform efforts and the growing desire on the part of district leaders
to enhance the quality of secondary course-offerings, school and student participation in
the AP program have steadily increased over the last five decades. See table 1.1 for the
number of students participating in the AP program since the 1950s. Last year “nearly 1.7
million students worldwide took more than 2.9 million AP exams” (AP Program Facts,
2010). Over twenty-five percent of all public high school students nationwide participate
in the AP program and 32 percent of California’s public high school students took AP
exams in 2009. Of students taking exams, over fifteen percent nationwide and twenty
percent in California earned a score of three or higher. Scores of a three or better are
considered AP Success. See table 1.2 for rates of AP participation and success (The 6th
Annual AP Report to the Nation, 2010).

3

________________________________________________________________________
Table 1.1
Annual AP Program Participation
________________________________________________________________________
Year Schools Students Examinations Colleges
Note. Values taken from “Annual AP Program Participation 1956-2008,” 2008.

1959-1960 890 10,531 14,158 567
1969-1970 3,186 55,442 71,495 1,368
1979-1980 4,950 119,918 160,214 1,868
1989-1990 9,292 330,080 490,299 2,537
1999-2000 13,253 768,586 1,272,317 3,070
________________________________________________________________________
Table 1.2
National Participation and Excellence in the AP Program
2004 2009
Public School
Population
Examinees
with AP
Success
Public School
Population
Examinees
with AP
Success
California 90,550
(26.4%)
61,325
(17.9%)
124,154
(32.0%)
80,729
(20.8%)
National 548,733
(19.9%)
35, 121
(12.7%)
798,629
(26.5%)
479,349
(15.9%)
Note. These numbers represent the percentage of students taking at least one AP exam or passing at least
one AP Exam in high school with a three or better from the high school graduating class. Adapted from the
“6th Annual report to the Nation,” 2010, adapted from Appendix A.

In 2009, 56.3 percent take one AP exam, 25 percent of students take two AP exams and
11.5 percent of students take three AP exams (Number of AP Examinations Per Student,
2009). Although a majority of students nationwide take only one AP exam in a given
examination year, more students are taking and passing AP exams.
Information published in annual AP reports suggests that AP participation by
students coming from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds is increasing. In
2009, students identifying themselves as African American or Black made up 14.5
percent of the public school graduating senior class and 8.2 percent of the students taking
4

at least one AP examination in the high school career. In 2009, students identifying
themselves as Latino and Hispanic made up 15.9 percent of the public school population
and 15.5 percent of the students taking at least one AP examination in their high school
career. Additionally, students coming from low-income backgrounds make up 18.9
percent of the total AP exam-taking population in 2009. While many students from
disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds
1
take the AP exam, their rates of AP
exam success are not as high as their participation rates (Advanced Placement Report to
the Nation, 2005; The 6th Annual AP Report to the Nation, 2010). See table 1.3 for AP
Equity and Excellence data. Students from underrepresented backgrounds increasingly
participate in the AP program.

1
Students from social or economic subgroups with disproportionately lower numbers of students
represented on university and college campuses, in rigorous courses at the K-12 level, as well as graduating
from high school, are often called disadvantaged or underrepresented (see Burton et. al., 2002; see Geiser
& Santelices, 2004).
5

________________________________________________________________________
Table 1.3
Equity and Excellence in the AP Program
2004 2009
Percent of
Public
School
Population
Percent of
AP
Examinees
Percent of
Examinees
with AP
Success
Percent of
Public
School
Population
Percent of
AP
Examinees
Percent of
Examinees
with AP
Success

African
American

13.2%

6.0%

2.4%

14.5%

8.2%

3.7%

Latino

12.8%

13.1%

9.4%

15.5%

15.9%

14.3%

Low
Income
N/A 13.7% 13.4% N/A 18.9% 14.7%
Note. These numbers represent the percentage of students from underrepresented backgrounds in the
graduating class, percentage of students from underrepresented backgrounds taking at least one AP exam in
high school, and percentage of students from underrepresented backgrounds passing at least one AP Exam
in high school with a three or better from the high school graduating class. Adapted from “6th Annual
report to the Nation,” 2010, p. 2, Appendix A and “Advanced Placement report to the Nation,” 2005, pp.
11-12.

Though the AP program highlights information about the closing gaps in AP
participation and excellence among students from varying ethnic groups, the data does
not show the frequency of AP test taking. The data provided describes students taking at
least one AP exam throughout high school. Available AP data is not disaggregated by the
number of tests taken by individuals in varying socioeconomic groups. Also public
school population data count only students in high schools graduating class, thus
underestimating the total number of students in high school. Also the AP program does
not have information about how many students take the AP class and choose not to take
the AP exam. For this reason, AP course participation may be overestimated.

6

The AP Program as a College Access Program
Given research and the current political climate of accountability, the College
Board and many district and school leaders have redefined the purpose of AP course
participation as program to prepare students for college. Some high school
administrators, counselors and teachers offer AP courses to students to become college
ready because AP curriculum includes materials that facilitate student development of
reading, writing, and math skills, as well as content area knowledge (About AP, 2009).
Researchers regard access to rigorous coursework through honors and AP course taking
as necessary to improving the educational outcomes of students from underrepresented
backgrounds (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ferguson, Clark & Stewart 2002; Marable, 2003;
Ogbu & Simmons, 1998). AP programs have become part of school reform efforts to
provide students from underserved backgrounds
2
alternative pathways to transition into
college. Forty-four states implement AP programs to prepare students for the university
(Bragg, Kim and Rubin, 2005). Schools seek to increase the number of AP courses
available to and taken by students from underrepresented and disadvantaged

backgrounds to give students access to college-level coursework and possibly later
success at the university.
School leaders, teachers, and students also desire participation in the AP program
to build school reputation (Geiser & Santelices, 2004; cited in Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis &
Callahan, 2007). Rather than ask the most academically prepared students to take AP

2
Underserved students typically include “financially disadvantaged, racial/minorities, and first-generation
individuals who are not represented in colleges and universities in proportion to their representation in the
K-12 educational system” (Bragg, Kim & Rubin, 2005, p. 7).
7

courses, some AP program teachers, counselors and administrators encourage open
access to AP (cited in Milewski & Gillie, 2002). In other words, students take AP courses
regardless of their academic experience. District leaders and school administrators
increase the number of honors or college-preparatory courses in order to provide quality
curricula for all students, as well as improve the status of their school and district.
Research on the Impact of AP Course Taking
Although few studies assess the extent to which the AP program supports students
in urban settings and students coming from underrepresented and disadvantaged
backgrounds, research commissioned by the College Board and Educational Testing
Services makes a compelling case for the importance of AP course participation. Scholars
and policymakers argue that students taking AP courses have higher college retention
rates, increased secondary test performance, as well as increased chances for college
acceptance. This effect is especially true among students earning a score of at-least a
three on the five-point AP grading rubric. Research suggests that increased performance
on AP tests and in AP classes is related to higher college grade achievement (Geiser &
Santelices, 2004; Morgan & Klaric, 2007; Morgan & Ramist, 1998; Morgan &
Maneckshana, 2000). Others find a relationship between the types of AP courses taken
with student’s choice of major in college (Morgan & Maneckshana, 2000; Morgan &
Klaric, 2007). Additionally, authors cite increased college completion rates and
obtainment of a degree in a shorter length of time (Morgan & Klaric, 2007). AP course-
taking is often linked with success in high school and college.

8

AP Students
Few researchers portray the experiences of students the taking AP courses,
scholars doing so express the experiences of students labeled academically gifted.
Hertberg-Davis and Callahan (2008) question the degree to which AP and International
Baccalaureate (IB) programs are appropriate environments for students labeled gifted. AP
students interviewed express satisfaction with AP coursework and think that their AP
teachers are the best prepared on campus. AP student interviewees also mention the
difficulty of AP curriculum. Based on AP student, teacher and administrator observations
and interviews, the authors recommend that AP program administrators and teachers
emphasize the challenge that students will get in AP classes, as well as make available
teacher training in AP course content and differentiation or the pedagogy that aims to
meet the needs of learners with a variety of academic resources. Although Hertberg-
Davis and Callahan (2008) argue that AP and IB should not be the only option to meet
the needs of students who are labeled gifted, AP students contend that AP offers high-
achieving, gifted students the best environments. Students who are labeled as gifted
represent many of the students taking AP.
Many of the students taking AP courses do so in socioeconomically-diverse urban
areas. Based on the same research data set, Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis and Callahan (2007)
assess the extent to which AP and International Baccalaureate programs support the
unique needs of students labeled as gifted in high-poverty urban schools. Their findings
suggest AP students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds are best
served by teachers who have an understanding of culturally relevant teaching or
9

pedagogical strategies recognizing the cultural resources of students. The teachers having
whole-group expectations for their AP courses have the least success with AP students
coming from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds. The authors argue that a
group of dedicated parents, teachers, administrators and support staff must inculcate a
college-going culture by supporting academic success and college aspirations (Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007). According to studies on AP students, the extent to
which students earn passing grades in AP coursework and are prepared for AP exams
depends on student resources and attitudes, teacher preparation, school supports, as well
as district policies.
AP Teachers
AP teachers represent a relatively elite group of secondary educators inasmuch as
they have pedagogical experience, smaller teaching environments, and more control over
students taking their courses. In a study describing AP teachers most teachers hold
degrees in their course discipline, participate in AP professional development and
anticipate retiring in the next decade. The overwhelming majority of AP teachers identify
themselves as white. Researchers also find that many AP classes have fewer students and
student access to AP coursework is limited to students with academic experience. AP
teachers also stimulate student discussion by using current videos and articles (Milewski
& Gillie, 2002). In general, AP teachers have more academic and pedagogical experience
and teach a smaller number of well-prepared students.
In order to assess the effectiveness of AP teachers, researchers look at teacher’s
impact on students’ AP exam scores. Burton, Whitman, Yepes-Baraya, Cline and Kim
10

(2002) define successful teachers of students from underrepresented backgrounds as
those having students earning higher than predicted scores on the AP exams. AP Calculus
and Literature teachers fitting this description emphasize skills and concepts imperative
to their respective disciplines. Interview results from this study reveal that few
administrators and AP teachers admit to making any special effort recruiting students
from underrepresented backgrounds. Further, while all students are expected to take AP
exams, earning a three, four or five is not important goal of AP teachers (Burton et. al.,
2002). AP teachers who are successful with all students focus on academic preparation of
students and participation in the AP exam.
Key Definitions
The Advanced Placement Program. The AP program originated in the 1950s as a
result of talks among elite college faculty to give secondary students access to college-
level material in the humanities and general education (Lacy, 2010). Currently, the AP
program offers high school students thirty-seven courses and exams in over twenty-two
content areas. Students take AP coursework in the arts, languages, mathematics, sciences
and social sciences (About AP, 2009). After taking courses in the tenth through twelfth
grades, students take exams associated with the AP coursework in May. Each exam,
excluding the Art Studio exam, includes a multiple choice section and free response
section. Scholars in their discipline and secondary educators score exams on a five-point
scale. Student scores of three, four or five on AP exams are considered passing. Over 90
percent of universities and colleges in the United States accept passing AP exams scores
as evidence of college course completion and students earn college credit (AP Program
11

Facts, 2010). A few students take AP exams when they do not take AP coursework in
order to earn college credits. At some universities, students are awarded sophomore
standing for taking and passing many AP exams. Because of the rigor of AP coursework,
a majority of colleges take into account the number of AP courses taken when
considering student admission.
College Board. The College Entrance Examination Board otherwise known as the
College Board originated in 1900 in order to differentiate students identified as college-
bound from students who would not go onto college. The College Board streamlined the
college admissions process with an examination-based merit system (History, 2009). The
associations most popular programs include Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT),
Preliminary Scholastic Achievement Test (PSAT) and the AP program (The 5th Annual
AP Report to the Nation, 2009). In 1947 Educational Testing Services was developed to
administer many tests associated with the College Board like the SAT, the PSAT and AP
exams (About ETS, 2009). Many universities in the United States use the SAT as a
requirement for admission (About the SAT, 2009). The PSAT is taken by students in
order to prepare for the SAT and to qualify for the National Merit Scholarship
Corporation (NMSC), a scholarship for students earning a high score on the PSAT
(About PSAT/NMSQT, 2009). Also, high school counselors can use PSAT scores to
identify students ready for AP coursework. AP Potential, an instrument created by the
College Board, identifies student areas of strength in relation to AP course content and
skill-level according to the types of correctly answered questions from the PSAT (AP
12

Potential, n.d.). College Board policies and programs influence the implementation of AP
programs.
College Access and College Persistence. Recent studies point to the positive
effects of rigorous course taking, participation in AP and other college-preparatory
coursework, on college entrance and completion. College access refers to enrollment in
university coursework or one’s ability to gain admission into a four-year college or
university. Students taking rigorous courses in high school are more likely to gain college
access (Adelman, 1999, 2006; Horn & Kojuku, 2001; Martinez & Klopott, 2005; Perna,
2005). In addition to college access, the taking of college preparatory courses influences
whether a student will complete college or college persistence. Scholars link secondary
high school student taking of honors and AP courses with college persistence (Adelman,
1999, 2006; Horn & Kojuku; 2001). There is a relationship between students taking
rigorous coursework and entrance into college and completion of a college degree.
Student Success. Secondary school administrators, counselors and educators use
college readiness as one of many indicators of student success in high school. Significant
measures of a student’s relative success include attendance, grades, high-stakes test
scores and required coursework taken prior to graduation. On the continuum of
educational achievement, social science researchers emphasize college readiness, college
enrollment, college achievement, and post-college attainment (Perna & Thomas, 2008).
For example, a student who has taken college preparatory coursework and has a desire to
go to a four-year university may be deemed successful and college ready. College
readiness includes taking AP coursework because doing so often means academic
13

preparation for university coursework. AP students are successful when they complete of
AP coursework or achieve an “A” or “B” grade in an AP course. The College Board
identifies students earning scores of a three or better as successful in AP (Advanced
Placement Report to the Nation, 2005). College readiness is important to evaluating high
school outcomes and student success.
Dimensions of the Theoretical Frame. Sociology, economics, psychology and
education scholars provide theoretical lenses for understanding college access and
persistence, as well as student success. Laura Perna and Scott Thomas (2008) develop an
interdisciplinary framework for student success. This conceptual model includes four
layers: the internal, family, school and policy contexts. At the center of the model is the
internal context wherein student attitudes and behaviors influence their willingness and
ability to perform well in school. In the second layer or family context, individuals close
to students like parents, siblings, peers, teachers and counselors facilitate student
achievement. The school context refers to how an institution’s resources, needs, and
culture support students’ school outcomes in third layer. The fourth layer, the social,
economic and policy context, demonstrates the ways social conditions and public policies
influence student success (Perna & Thomas, 2008). In the following case study, Perna
and Thomas’ model helps me to describe how AP policy, school culture, student
relationships and student perceptions influence student success in the AP program.
Capital Theory. How schools define a student’s resources influences whether
students are placed in AP courses, choose to take AP courses and have success in AP
courses. Human capital is the increase in knowledge related to a certain task, social
14

context or discipline. According to Coleman (1999, 1987), human capital encourages
individuals to behave in new ways. Social capital is the accumulation of important
relationships with other individuals that could lead to the attainment of material wealth
or future connections (Bourdieu & Passerson, 1990; Dika & Singh, 2002; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Students with experience in rigorous classes, like honors and AP
course, have relationships with teachers and peers that will assist them in challenging
coursework in the future. The accumulation of human capital often leads to the
achievement of social capital, while access to social capital often leads the achievement
of human capital (Coleman, 1999, 1987). In other words, a student’s human capital and
social capital affect one another (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). AP program teachers,
counselors and administrator’s ability to positively affect student achievement are
dependent upon the schools ability to develop a student’s human and social capital and
recognize their cultural capital.
The Present Study
The purpose of the present study is to explore how the AP program is being
implemented in an urban school where many students have the opportunity to take AP
courses, regardless of academic experience. I address the following questions: How is the
AP program currently being implemented in one urban school? What are student, teacher,
counselor and district leader attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources available
to support AP course quality, and AP exam taking?
In a recently published study, researchers question the validity of the AP program
as a college access program. The authors suggest that AP students do not have better
15

college outcomes than non-AP students in general. The reason why students in AP
courses do better than non-AP students in college is because AP students are offered
better instruction in smaller classes and tend to represent the most academically prepared
students. Nevertheless, students taking AP may perform better in college course wherein
they took an AP course in the same subject and where they performed better on an AP
exam (Sadler, Sonnert, Tai, & Klopfenstein, 2010). Because students' experiences taking
AP vary, there is a need to study AP access further.
Despite the widespread assumption that the AP program increases college
outcomes, there is little research on how schools support AP students. For instance, we
do not know how much variation there is from school to school and from classroom to
classroom, in AP program implementation. Nor do we know how contextual factors such
as school climate, parental influence, or district policies contribute to the effectiveness of
AP programs. AP programs vary from district to district, from school to school and
among classrooms within the same school. AP course offerings and AP test scores vary
between students attending urban and suburban schools. Jeannie Oakes’ (1992; 1985,
2005) well-established research on school tracking describes the relationship between
racial and class characteristics of students and their class assignments, and thus
educational outcomes and college readiness. In particular, many students from low-
income African American and Latino backgrounds go to schools that do not offer or have
limited offerings of honors and AP courses. Moreover, students coming from
disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds are less likely to be placed in rigorous
courses (Oakes, 1992; 1985, 2005; Solórzano & Ornelas, 2002; Perna, 2005). Schools
16

often provide students with differing amounts of opportunities because of student needs,
teacher resources, counselor placement and policy initiatives (Oakes, 1989; 1992).
Within the same school students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds
are often disproportionately underrepresented in honors and AP courses. For this reason,
it is important to study to context of the school.
Features of This Case Study
This case-study provides a multi-layered understanding of student, teacher and
administrator participant experiences in one AP program. In the following chapters, I
portray the AP program at one urban school in southern California. I apply theories of
habitus, human capital, cultural capital, and social capital to explain how AP teachers,
counselors, as well as school and district resources increase student’s various forms of
capital. In chapter two, I depict the current policy context surrounding AP course
participation, studies describing the connection between college-going and advanced
placement course-taking, as well as research regarding AP teachers and students. Further,
this chapter develops a conceptual model for understanding student success and its
connections to capital theory. In chapter three, I justify the methods utilized for this
research in addition to the limitations of case study analysis. Chapter four highlights AP
student, teacher, and leader perceptions about AP policy and experiences participating in
the AP program. Finally, in chapter five I relate findings to previous research on AP and
discuss policy implications for the College Board and schools interested in opening
access to AP coursework.
17

Chapter Two
Advanced Placement (AP) teachers and students represent the most elite teachers
and students in the nation. AP students often have access to rigorous course curriculum
throughout kindergarten through the twelfth grade and AP teachers have higher education
in their disciplines. AP courses are meant to be college-level courses for high school
students. AP teachers use curriculum created by scholars to provide students with deep
and complex knowledge in a discipline. Although traditional perspectives on the AP
program engender notions that coursework is only appropriate for the best prepared
students, recent policies favor providing all students with AP coursework in order to
increase college readiness.
Because one of the most important predictors of college access is rigorous course
taking (Adelman, 1999; Adelman, 2006; Horn & Kojuku; 2001; Martinez & Klopott,
2005; Perna, 2005), some district and school officials use AP programs to increase
college access. In the United States, officials from forty-four states report using the AP
program to increase the participation of students from disadvantaged and
underrepresented backgrounds in college (Bragg, Kim and Rubin, 2005). AP programs
encourage the participation of all students in AP coursework, regardless of previous
academic experience, test scores and gifted identification (cited in Milewski & Gillie,
2002). Research does not take into account the contextual differences in how the AP
program is implemented. Previous research quantitatively links higher AP exam scores
with better college outcomes (Horn & Kojuku 2001; Morgan & Klaric, 2007; Geiser &
Santelices, 2004), describes perspectives of AP teachers (Burton et. al., 2002; Milewski
18

& Gillie, 2002) and illustrates the experiences of gifted students in AP courses (Hertberg-
Davis & Callahan, 2008; Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007). Scholars have not
studied how specific contexts, like schools, districts and classroom influence the success
of AP students. This case-study compares one urban school’s implementation of the AP
program to what we already know about the AP program.
Correlation Between AP and College Outcomes
Numerous studies relate student participation in AP coursework as significant to
student participation in college and student success in college. These studies explain the
relationship between participation in AP and the likelihood that students will take more
courses in the discipline of the AP course taken. Researchers also look at the extent to
which AP course-taking is related to better grades at the university and college retention.
Finally, scholars assess the correlation between AP exam performance and college grades
and persistence.
Rigorous Coursework. Several scholars regard the taking of challenging
coursework as related to college access and college persistence. Many of the following
pieces of research use regression analysis to find which variables have relationships with
college outcomes. Regression analysis is used to demonstrate the predictive value of any
one variable among many variables. King (1996) studies the likelihood of four-year
college attendance among high school seniors who had taken the SAT. Her basic research
model includes the following variables: personal background, high school characteristics,
family expectations, personal expectations, financial concerns, high school course work,
academic achievement and college counseling. Her findings suggest that many of the
19

aforementioned variables have a significant correlation with a student’s likelihood of
college attendance. One of the most important variables mentioned is academic
coursework taken. For example, each additional year of AP coursework taken has a
significant influence on whether a student would attend college (King, 1996). Following
a review of college access literature, Perna (2005) concludes that participation in
rigorous coursework is the key to college entrance. She argues that college preparation
programs must engender better academic preparation to mediate the uneven access to
challenging courses among students who are traditionally represented and students
coming from underrepresented backgrounds. The rigor of high school coursework is an
important predictor of student attendance at four-year universities. Adelman (1999, 2006)
also finds that the level of challenge and the amount of rigorous courses taken has a
positive relationship with a student’s likelihood of college attendance. He questions the
variables related to bachelor’s degree attainment and college attendance. Adelman builds
his model on data taken from transcripts from tenth graders in 1980 and eighth graders in
1988 followed until the age of 30 in each study respectively and uses eleven variables
model in a linear regression model. One important variable, academic resources,
measures a combination of high school course taken, class rank and high-stakes test
scores. He concludes that academic resources and continuous enrollment are the most
significant predictors of college-degree attainment. Academic resources have a stronger
relationship with college attendance and persistence among students from African
American, Latino and low-income backgrounds (Adelman, 1999, 2006). Based on
student self-reported course-taking patterns, Horn and Kojuku (2001) contend that
20

academic coursework taken was the most significant predictor of student persistence and
completion of college. The quality and the rigor of high school coursework taken is an
important predictor of college completion or college persistence, as well as college
access.
College Subject Matter. Research commissioned by Educational Testing Services
and the College Board finds a relationship between AP course participation and degree
choice. Morgan and Maneckshana (2000) argue that one important measure of the
effectiveness of the AP program is the extent of student interest in AP subject matter. The
authors look at the majors, grade point average and graduation dates of students from
twenty-one colleges. They find that AP students choose to take courses in the discipline
and even major in the discipline areas of their AP exam in all but two course areas at a
higher rate than non-AP students. In a recent study, Tai, Lui, Almarode and Fan (2010)
assess the extent to which students participating in AP Calculus and Science have a
higher rate of participation in science, technology, engineering, math (STEM) fields.
Based on data collected in 1988, 1990, 1992, 1994, and 2000, from a sample of 3,938
participants from a cohort of 25,000 students, researcher conclude that AP science and
math complete STEM degree at a higher proportion than non-AP takers. For example,
they find that former AP calculus students are four times as likely to earn degrees in
STEM fields as in non-science fields. In addition, AP science participants are two times
as likely to earn degrees in STEM fields as in non-science fields. Students are more likely
to complete a college course in a discipline or major in a field in which they have taken
an AP course.
21

AP Participation and College Grades. Additionally, scholars assess the extent to
which participation in an AP exam, regardless of scores, is linked to higher grades at the
university. Morgan and Klaric (2007) evaluate the college performance of 72,457
students from the incoming class of 1994 from 27 colleges who had taken AP exams
versus those who had not. The authors utilize regression analysis to account for academic
preparation with SAT scores. They find most AP exam takers have higher course grades
in intermediate coursework than the course grades of non-AP exam takers in introductory
courses. Similarly, Morgan and Maneckshana (2000) regard AP student performance in
college in comparison to non-AP student performance in college as a significant measure
of AP program effectiveness. Students earn higher grades in college courses after taking
an AP course in that same discipline.
AP Participation and College Persistence. AP course-taking is also related to
college persistence or degree completion. Adelman (1999) finds evidence that students
taking AP and honors courses have higher rates of college persistence through degree
attainment. Others find that AP participants finish their college coursework sooner than
non-AP participants. AP exam takers are more likely to complete college degrees in four
years rather than students who did not take AP exams (Morgan & Maneckshana, 2000)
and AP exam takers are more likely to graduate sooner than non-AP exam takers
(Morgan & Klaric, 2007). Although some research suggests that the students taking AP
courses are more likely finish their degree and do so in less time than non-AP students,
other studies find no correlation between AP course-taking and college persistence. In a
more recent study based on data taken from the University of Tennessee at Martin, Duffy
22

(2010) uses regression analysis to compare the college outcomes of students without
college-level experience prior to college to AP participants and students participating in
college coursework during high school. According to the results, AP participants and
students taking college-credit bearing courses had higher first-year grade point averages
(GPA) and greater likelihood of college persistence. Nevertheless, when controlling for
background characteristics of participants the authors contend that there is no significant
relationship between AP participant performance in college and student who did not take
AP. Research from Geiser and Santelices (2004) also demonstrates no correlation
between the number of AP and honors courses taken and drop-out rate in the first two
years of college participation. For this reason, there is some disagreement among scholars
regarding the importance of AP course-taking on college degree attainment and grades.
AP Exam Scores and College GPA and Persistence. Given the stress on
increasing access to AP courses, scholars question the extent to which AP and honors
course-taking relate to improved college persistence and grade point average. Morgan
and Ramist (1998) argue that there is a link between higher AP exam scores and better
college course performance. In other words, students performing better on AP exams also
tend to earn higher college grades.
Researchers skeptical about the relationship between AP participation and better
college outcomes find a relationship between AP exam scores and better performance in
college. Geiser and Santelices (2004) question the use of advanced placement and honors
courses as high stakes indicators of student academic performance in college. They
sample three freshman cohorts entering the University of California between 1998 and
23

2000. They utilize regression analysis in order to explain the relationship between second
year college GPA and the following variables: high school grade point average, school
Academic Performance Index (API) quintile, parents’ education, SATI and SATII scores,
and the total number of AP and honors courses taken. The authors apply the model
separately to high school GPA and the number of AP and honors courses taken to control
for the effects of GPA bonus points given to students taking AP and honors courses.
Moreover, they analyze groups of students within their declared majors in this regression
analysis. The authors find that the number AP and honors courses that are taken by
students do not predict college grades, even when controlling for the effects of high
school performance with API scores, parent education, high school grade point average
and high school test scores. The authors also perform similar analyses regarding the
relationship between college persistence and AP, IB and honors courses taken, as well
AP exam scores. Of all of the regression analyses, they argue that only AP exam scores
are significant predictors of college performance, college grades and retention. Likewise,
Sadler and Sonnert (2010) contend that the affect of AP course-taking on college student
grades in introductory math and science may not be impressive. Based on a survey from
4,207 undergraduates taking 124 first semester physics, biology and chemistry, the
authors find that there is not a great difference between the grades of AP course-takers,
honors course-takers and students taking a regular class. Yet, the authors find that
students earning at least a three on AP Chemistry, Biology and Physics exams performed
better in introductory courses than students who took regular and honors courses, as well
24

as students not taking or not passing AP exams. Some research explains the importance
of AP exam scores, rather than AP course participation.
While many studies look at the relationship between AP course-taking and exam
scores with college GPA, some research suggests that AP course-taking is not related
necessarily to higher university GPA. The results of the aforementioned studies are
significant because often it is not the quantity of AP courses taken, but the ability of the
student to pass the AP exam that makes a difference in college performance. When
studying the extent to which AP participation increases college outcomes, scholars must
consider student success when taking AP courses. In this vein, researchers need to
consider student exam performance and to some degree AP course grades.
AP Program Policy: A Commitment to Diversity
Given the research supporting the relationship between AP course-taking and
exam performance on college outcomes, the College Board commits to increasing
participation in the AP program especially among students coming from
underrepresented backgrounds. The College Board’s emphasis on racial and ethnic parity,
as well as overall student achievement on the AP exam underscores AP program policy.
In a quantitative study questioning the impact of affirmative action, Gurin, Dey, Hurtado
and Gurin (2002) analyze the influence of diverse school settings on student achievement
and civic mindedness. After a review of survey data from both national and local data
sets, the authors find that the types of interactions that students had with students from
differing cultural backgrounds are significant. Student interactions in informal settings
with students from racial backgrounds other than their own and student enrollment in
25

mandated courses on diversity related material positively influence political and
academic variables. Learning outcomes measures include: active thinking, intellectual
engagement and motivation, and academic skills. Democracy outcomes measures
include: citizenship engagement, compatibility of difference and democracy, perspective
taking, and racial and cultural engagement. Students having experiences in diverse
settings have increased learning and democracy outcomes (Gurin, Dey, Hurtado & Gurin,
2002). The conclusion that diversity benefits students’ academic and political
engagement is compelling. Because of research and the increasing need to prepare
students for college, the AP program is dedicated to increasing the number of students
from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds in AP courses.
College Board Diversity Policies. The College Board’s interest and accordingly
the AP program’s commitment to diversity are evidenced by policy emphases,
collaboratives, colloquiums and annual reports. Since the Supreme Court’s on affirmative
action decisions Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger in 2003, the College Board’s
Access & Diversity Collaborative develops and implements policy in accordance with
federal law. In the Grutter case the school’s affirmative action policy was upheld where
race is considered as one of many variables in university admittance, whereas in the
Gratz case the school’s affirmative action policy was said to be unconstitutional when
students receive points for their income, race and other identifiers. Affirmative action
programs must be created with the needs of individual institution in mind. While the
College Board’s Access & Diversity Collaborative policymakers argue in favor of using
race and ethnic constructs in narrowly tailored diversity policies, they also suggest the
26

need for exploration of race-neutral alternatives. The College Board finds “compelling
interest” to support diversity in higher education (Coleman, Palmer, & Holland & Knight
LLP, 2006; Coleman, Palmer, Winnick, & Holland + Knight, 2007). Thus, the College
Board has an interest in increasing participation the AP program. Of the eight topics
listed as important College Board policies, Access and Success in Education, College
Affordability and Diversity, and Equity in Education specifically target students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds. Within the realm of Diversity and
Equity in Education, the College Board identified the following subjects: Undocumented
Students and the DREAM Act, Access & Diversity Collaborative, Minority Issues in
Education, and Diversity Conferences (National AP Equity Colloquium, 2009). College
Board policies and research indicate the AP program’s commitment to diversity.
The Annual AP Report to the Nation. In 2005, the College Board began issuing
reports regarding equity and excellence in the AP program. Equity refers to the number
of students from varying subgroups participating in AP exams and excellence
encompasses student scores on AP exams. The College Board highlights three major
pieces of data. First, they study the percentage of students earning a three or higher on AP
exams during high school. According to the College Board, three, four or five on the five-
point rubric is considered a passing score, which is considering AP success. Second, they
compare the number of students in the high school population from differing ethnic and
racial backgrounds taking AP coursework. Finally, they highlight the schools with the
greatest numbers of students from African American and Latino backgrounds having
success on AP exams (Advanced Placement Report to the Nation, 2005). Findings from
27

the 6th Annual AP Report to the Nation (2010) illustrate that 15.9 percent of students
from public schools had AP course experiences that resulted in an AP examination score
of a three or higher and 26.5 percent of the public school students take AP exams. The
AP program demonstrates an effort to make data about AP program equity and
excellence widely available with annual public reports.
The National AP Equity Colloquium. The College Board hopes to increase the
quality of AP programs in schools primarily serving students from underrepresented
backgrounds with the National AP Equity Colloquium. The National AP Equity
Colloquium is an annual event held to increase the participation of teachers of color in
the AP program, in addition to discuss teaching strategies, academic supports,
recruitment procedures, and constraints to the implementation of a high-quality AP
program. Further, colloquium participants speak about ways to increase college access to
students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds (National AP Equity
Colloquium, 2009). The National AP Equity Colloquium is emblematic of College Board
devotion to access.
College Board Supports. The College Board provides information to educators,
students and parents on a variety of issues including AP curriculum and testing,
standardized tests, college applications and college funding. For educators, the College
Board develops a number of trainings related to AP curriculum, issues in education, as
well as techniques to facilitate the success of students new to AP. Also, the College
Board has Vertical Team trainings for teachers of students in grades six through nine.
The idea behind the Vertical Team is to have AP teachers collaborate with teachers
28

teaching high school freshmen and middle school students so students will attain the
skills and strategies necessary for future AP coursework. In addition, the College Board’s
Access and Diversity Collaborative Seminars support collaboration with the
Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program.
3
The College Board also
funds research on college access, determinants of student outcomes, test-results,
performance of students with disabilities, and the performance of students from differing
racial, ethnic and economic backgrounds (The College Board, 2009). The aforementioned
College Board policies and programs support schools and districts in their effort to
provide more student access to AP in order to become college ready.
Contextual Differences
The major limitation to publications suggesting the College Board’s commitment
to equity and diversity in the AP program has to do the extent to which schools choose to
implement such policies. College Board data from 2003 shows that over half of college
bound seniors (individuals taking the SAT I) coming from underrepresented, first
generation college, low-performing schools and low-income families had not taken any
honors or AP courses (cited in Geiser and Santelices, 2004). Comparisons across schools
reveal that some AP programs have school wide recruitment requirements such as
academic preparation, grades or teacher recommendation. In addition, AP programs at
schools have varying policies regarding dropouts and AP exam taking. Comparisons of
classrooms demonstrate varying instructional expectations and participation requirements
like summer assignments. In contrast, AP classes and schools may also possess

3
The AVID program targets students with “B,” “C,” or “D” grade averages who want to go to college. The
program focuses on college readiness by giving students access to study-skills and social supports.
29

personalized learning environments and provide students with academic and social
supports. School and classroom differences provide the impetus for studying the AP
program at one school.
School Reform. Allowing students to take college-level coursework is one way
administrators and district leaders seek to improve academic preparation of students from
disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds. Bragg, Kim and Rubin (2005)
describe the programs implemented most often to improve college access of students
from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds. All fifty states offer AP courses
in order to facilitate better outcomes for low-income minority students (Bragg, Kim &
Rubin). Martinez and Klopott (2005) illustrate the policies and programs that have a
positive influence on student test scores, attendance rates, dropout rates, college
acceptance and college persistence. They contend that successful reform efforts must
engender rigorous curriculum and high expectations, personalized learning, academic and
social supports, and alignment of secondary and postsecondary education. Since College
Board requires AP programs to engender rigorous curriculum and alignment of secondary
and postsecondary education (About AP, 2009, Martinez & Klopott), school
administrators encourage participating in the AP program as part of school wide reform
to improve student outcomes. The AP program is widely used to increase college
readiness and is touted for giving students access to rigorous curricula.
School Differences. Scholars comment on the inequities in the AP program from
school to school. While the College Board requires AP programs to engender rigorous
curriculum and alignment of secondary and postsecondary education (About AP, 2009,
30

Martinez & Klopott), some schools do not provide challenging experiences for students
and some schools limit access to AP courses (cited in Milewski & Gillie, 2002; cited in
Oakes, 1992). Many students from low-income African American and Latino
backgrounds attend schools, often in urban areas, that do not offer or have limited
offerings of honors and AP courses (cited in Burton et. al., 2002; cited in Geiser &
Santelices, 2004; Oakes, 1992; 1985, 2005; Perna, 2005; Solórzano & Ornelas, 2002).
Frequently, urban schools have low enrollment in AP courses compared to their
suburban counterparts. Students in urban areas tend to have less access to high-quality
AP courses.
Many low-income minority students do not take AP or college preparatory
courses because they attend schools that are underperforming. Schools with a lower APIs
have fewer AP and honors course offerings. Almost ninety percent of students attending
schools in the lowest API quintile came from underrepresented and disadvantaged
backgrounds (cited in Geiser and Santelices, 2004). Because students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds attend schools with a low API, they
cannot take as many AP courses and do not always have AP courses representing the
most rigorous curriculum.
According to the research, inequities result from differences results from
academic preparation. District and school policies often limit students from
underrepresented backgrounds without academic experience from taking AP courses
(cited in Milewski & Gillie, 2002; cited in Oakes, 1992; cited in Paek et. al., 2010). Some
suggest that only the most academically prepared students from underrepresented and
31

disadvantaged backgrounds are able to take AP courses (Bragg, Kim and Rubin, 2005;
Martinez & Klopott, 2005).Adelman (2006) argues that AP course-taking has a
significant influence on a student’s college readiness, yet the academic experiences
leading to the honors or AP course must be evaluated. In order to take AP, students at
some schools are required to have teacher recommendations, fulfill course prerequisites,
and complete summer assignments. Students coming from low-income minority
backgrounds seem to lack access to advanced coursework because of limited academic
experience either due to ineffective teachers or limited course offerings.
Classroom Differences. Within schools, students get uneven access to AP
coursework because AP teachers provide varying levels of instruction and do not allow
all students to take their courses. Some teach students basic skills in order to mitigate
academic experiences that do not support high-level curriculum and others embed the
teaching of skills into the rigorous curriculum provided by the College Board (Burton et.
al., 2002). More specifically, students explain differences in quality of teachers across
classrooms (Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). For example, some teachers cover AP
curriculum with depth and complexity. Moreover, schools having large AP programs
have an underrepresentation of students from low-income minority backgrounds
participating in AP coursework (Solórzano & Ornelas, 2002). Solórzano and Ornelas
identify the processes and structures supporting AP inequality at one site as schools
within schools. AP classrooms engender varying levels of curriculum and participation.
Classrooms without prerequisites, either previous coursework or summer assignments,
support the participation of all students in AP. Because of the disparities in AP programs,
32

scholars explaining the positive outcomes associated with AP coursework often
misrepresent the positive effects of taking AP coursework.
AP Teachers
The College Board commissions two important studies on the characteristics of
AP teachers, in general, and AP teachers having success with students from
underrepresented backgrounds. Milewski and Gillie (2002) survey teachers’ perspectives
regarding AP programs, resources, students and performance and Burton and others
(2002) describe the impact of teachers on student choices to take AP examinations and
student performance on examinations. Another more recent study examines of the
practices of AP teachers (Paek, Braun, Ponte, Trapani & Powers, 2010). The purpose of
Milewski and Gillie’s research is to discover the characteristics of AP teachers and
describes teachers’ resources, needs and perceptions of the AP program. They base their
findings on a survey of 32, 209 AP teachers. Milewski and Gillie question teachers about
their classrooms, backgrounds, professional development, technology and important
issues for AP teachers. Burton and others study the opportunities AP teachers afford
minority students. The authors choose Mexican, Puerto Rican and African American
students because there are large numbers of the aforementioned groups taking AP
courses. In addition, they measure AP English Literature and AP Calculus because they
are widely taken courses. Burton and others utilize focus groups, interviews and
multivariate regression analysis. They identify enrollment, teaching, and independent
factors as important to minority student success in AP coursework. Furthermore, Paek
and others (2010) survey 1,874 AP Biology teachers about training, school context,
33

classroom context, instructional and assessment practices, content coverage, exam-
specific instructional and assessment practices, and additional data. The authors describe
teacher practices, teacher characteristics and relate these to student exam scores. Scholars
describe data important to understanding AP teachers and classrooms.
Teacher Background. Little research exists on AP teachers coming from
underrepresented backgrounds because many AP teachers identify themselves as white.
Few AP teachers come from African American, Asian American and Latino descents
(Burton et. al., 2002; Milewski & Gillie, 2002; Paek et. al., 2010). Milewski and Gillie do
not survey any teachers identifying themselves as African American, Asian American or
Latino in their survey of AP teachers because there were so few teachers from
underrepresented backgrounds teaching AP.
4
Since one may argue that students coming
from underrepresented backgrounds may better connect with teachers from their
respective ethnic group, low-income minority students may have few AP teacher role-
models from their identified ethnic group.
Teacher Resources. In general, AP teachers hold higher degree in their disciplines
and have many years of teaching experience. Results about teacher backgrounds
demonstrate that AP teachers often have masters degrees in their subjects of study and
many will retire in the next fifteen years (Milewski & Gille, 2002). For example, the
majority of AP Biology teachers in one study has more than ten years of teaching
experience and has more education than the average high school teachers (Paek et. al.,
2010). Thus, many AP teachers have a moderate amount of teaching experience.

4
Milewski and Gillie (2002) identify the following ethnicities: African American/black, Asian or Native
Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander and White/Caucasian.
34

However, in classrooms where more than half of the students came from minority
backgrounds, teacher had fewer years of teaching experience (Milewski & Gille, 2002).
AP teachers have many years of teaching experience and have education in their fields of
study.
The College Board, school districts and schools give AP teachers the opportunity
to attend numerous professional development activities. The College Board offers
multiple trainings throughout the year to provide AP educators with content knowledge,
pedagogical advice and learn about new disciplinary developments. Districts and schools
sometimes provide monies for professional development registration and living expenses
during conferences. Although many AP teachers have been to trainings, the majority of
AP teachers want access to more professional development. In particular, teachers with
students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds want more training
(Burton et. al., 2002; Milewski & Gille, 2002). Teachers in classrooms with a majority of
students receiving free lunch and from African American backgrounds explain a need for
“example syllabi and/or calendars of what to present, when” (Milewski & Gille, 2002,
pp. 14-15). Nevertheless, Burton and others (2002) find no relationship between teacher
experience and professional development with student success or exam grade in AP
courses. Moreover, the important issues of concern to AP teachers include: understanding
current trends in their discipline, finding new teaching strategies, getting students ready
for state tests, lacking family involvement and attending professional development
(Milewski & Gillie). While research suggests that the amount of AP training teachers
35

have is unrelated to student performance on AP exams, AP teachers desire to participate
in additional professional development.
AP Class Characteristics. AP classes tend to have fewer students and are more
likely to include academically prepared students from traditionally represented
backgrounds. While some AP courses have open enrollment wherein any student could
take a course, most AP courses have requirements for entry. AP teachers sometimes
require that students take prerequisite courses, get signatures from previous teachers, earn
minimum grades in all courses or specific courses and complete summer assignments. In
addition, teacher responses on surveys regarding AP classroom characteristics determine
that most AP classes have smaller class sizes (Milewski & Gillie, 2002; Paek et. al.,
2010) and students studying English as a Second language and students from minority
and low income backgrounds are underrepresented in AP classes. Further, teachers report
that most students take AP exams when taking the AP course (Milewski & Gillie, 2002.
AP program policies support that classrooms with fewer, more academically prepared
students who are willing to take the AP exam.
Instructional Methods and AP Student Success. Researchers describe successful
teaching methods and strategies found in the AP program. Studies link teacher
expectations to student performance on AP exams (Burton et. al., 2002; Paek et. al.,
2010). Burton and others ask successful AP teachers of minority students

to participate in
the study, while Paek and others describe the success of AP Biology teachers. In both
studies, teachers were deemed successful when students earned higher than predicted
scores on their AP exams. Burton and others (2002) predict AP English Literature and
36

AP Calculus exam scores from the Preliminary Scholastic Achievement Test (PSAT)
question data from African American and Latino students throughout the United States.
The researchers identify grades, exam taking and exam scores as important measures
correlated with minority student success. While the authors find no relationship between
successful teaching and grades, they do find a relationship between successful teaching
and high exam taking percentages. Paek and others (2010) have similar results when
relating AP teacher practices and characteristics to the performance of AP Biology
students’ success on the AP exam. They find that teachers with a high percentage of
students taking the exam also have higher rates of success with AP biology students.
Moreover, more class meetings and increased coverage of AP Biology content has a
relationship to student achievement of passing AP exam scores. The teachers having
students earning higher than predicted scores on AP exams also have a high rate of
students choosing to take the AP exams.
Research findings demonstrate disagreement about how AP teachers should
approach students coming from underrepresented backgrounds. Focus group data reveals
that teachers find no difference between teaching students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds and teaching other students. According to the AP teachers in
one study, good teaching is good teaching (Burton et. al., 2002). In contrast, when
researchers discuss the appropriateness of AP instructional methods for gifted students
(Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008) and for gifted low-income minority students
(Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007), scholars suggest that AP teachers need to
consider culturally relevant, differentiated pedagogy to meet the needs of all students. AP
37

teachers must use a variety of instructional methods to support a growingly diverse group
of AP students.
AP Students
Studies of AP students are sparse. Two studies of the relative success of gifted AP
students (Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008) and gifted AP students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan,
2007) come from the same data set. The original research is based upon interviews or
observations, “within 23 selected schools, [of] approximately 200 teachers, 300 students,
25 building-level administrators/coordinators, and eight program coordinators”
(Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, p. 201). The authors use a grounded theory approach to
understand how well AP and International Baccalaureate (IB) programs meet the needs of
gifted students. Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis and Callahan (2007) limit their analysis to the
interview and observation data of 43 teachers, 75 students, nine administrators, and four
counselors from two schools with large majorities of students coming underrepresented
and disadvantaged backgrounds. The findings from both studies conclude that student
access to quality curriculum through AP and IB course taking is dependent upon the
student’s resources and beliefs, teacher expectations and curriculum, and school and
district policies.
Although the majority of AP students identify themselves as White, AP program
demographics are changing. In the last decade more African American, Latino and Low-
income students are participating in the AP program (Annual AP Report to the Nation,
2005; The 6th Annual AP Report to the Nation, 2010). In fact, the federal government
38

allocates funds for increasing the participants of students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds by subsidizing AP exam fees providing other supports
(Klopfenstein, 2010). However, most AP students identify themselves as White and
Asian and are academically prepared. Because AP students are also academically
prepared, many assume that AP students are identified as gifted (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis
& Callahan, 2007; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). While AP demographics are
changing, AP students come from a relatively homogeneous group of traditionally
represented, academically prepared students.
Student Attitudes about AP
Studies of student perspectives about the AP program expose reasons students
take AP courses and what students think about course quality. Students take AP classes
not because of interest, but because the courses look good on transcripts, help them get
into college and represent the best classes at the school. In general, students think that
many AP teachers are more knowledgeable and experienced than non-AP teachers.
Although some students like that the courses are challenging, some student perspectives
on AP courses reveal that the courses are too easy and they said that it is their
responsibility to meet the needs of the AP program rather than the program meeting their
needs. Moreover, students do not like that the courses are time consuming and test-driven
(Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). AP students find AP courses to be challenging and
important to college access.
Many groups of students do not feel that AP course curriculum meets their needs.
Students agree that AP is a “one-size-fits all” approach wherein teachers do not often
39

modify curriculum to meet the needs of students. Students identifying themselves as
academically underprepared for AP courses find that AP courses do not meet their needs.
Further, students from underrepresented backgrounds said that they did not fit into AP
courses, but felt driven to participate for future benefits. When teachers take an approach
to learning that is “one-size-fits-all,” student failure is blamed on the student by both
teacher and student. Findings suggest that AP students often work to meet the
expectations of AP teachers regardless of supports offered. Accordingly, student success
in AP is best supported when teachers hold high expectations for all students and provide
students with academic and social supports like mentoring and study sessions (Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). Because the AP
program must meet the needs of a diverse group of students including individuals who
envision themselves as both academically prepared and ill-prepared to take AP
coursework, teachers need to modify instruction to meet the needs of all learners. AP
programs with social and cultural supports give students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds support in advanced classes.
Studying the AP Program in Context
Many scholars studying the AP program make the case for studying AP course-
taking in context. Burton and others (2002) admit that student backgrounds and school
differences influence student success. Similarly, Oakes (1989) argues that studies must
consider the school context since schooling processes are so particular. She suggests that
schools engender differences in resources such as personnel, materials and facilities, as
well as offer student with varying instructional experiences. More specifically, students
40

coming from varying socioeconomic backgrounds have differing experiences and thus
achieve varying outcomes. For Oakes, school contexts emphasize student and faculty
access to knowledge, teaching conditions and press for achievement and thus need
special attention in research. Additionally, Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis and Callahan (2007)
conceptualize a model for understanding student participation in AP programs including
district, school, teacher and student-level participants. They create a conceptual model
based upon four levels: the teacher-student level, building level, coordinator level and
superintendent level (see figure, p.193). Because schools and even classrooms
demonstrate an underrepresentation of African American, Latino and low-income
students in AP courses, it is important to study the AP program at one school in a case-
study.
Conceptual Model for Student Success
The model for understanding student success proposed by Perna and Thomas
(2008) is the lens through which I analyze the results of this case-study. The purpose of
this model is decreasing outcome gaps between students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds with their peers. The authors develop the model by reviewing
research from psychology, economics, sociology and education. They review articles
published in top research journals that focus on the best predictors of student success.
Perna and Thomas adopt a model that encompasses the relative contributions of
economics, psychology, sociology, as well as education. The model for understanding
student success considers the methodological and theoretical emphases of previous
41

research on student success. Perna and Thomas’ (2008) model includes four layers of
context, the internal, family, school, as well as the social, economic and policy layer.
Internal, Family, School and Policy Contexts
Perna and Thomas’ (2008) model explains how student’s beliefs and attitudes,
family and peers, school and policies affect student success. Largely influenced by
psychological theories, the internal context maps how and why students behave the way
they do. The internal context includes student background, resources, feelings and
attitudes, as well as behavior. The second layer of the model is the family context, which
draws upon economics, sociology, psychology and education studies of student success.
The topics discussed within this layer include parent’s job, willingness to pay for college,
ability to mentor, strength of relationship with student, racial and economic background
as well as involvement in student’s life. Institutional agents, teachers, community
members, teacher and counselor attitudes and behaviors also engender the student’s
family context. While also based on all four disciplines studied, the school context relies
on sociological understandings of the ways school administrators and faculty facilitate
student success. The school context also includes psychological perspectives regarding
participant feelings and experiences as lenses through which a program is evaluated.
Finally, Perna and Thomas (2008) illustrate the importance of social and economic
circumstances, as well as policies implemented to better understand student success. The
social, economic and policy context is the fourth layer of Perna and Thomas’ model.
Demographic characteristics of schools and local communities often influence the
resources allocated for programs. Further, community resources impact student
42

opportunities and constraints. The policy context is most important in understanding the
ways in which differing AP programs are implemented and may affect the perceptions of
students, parents, teachers and the community. Figure 2.1 illustrates the model with
definitions. By bridging multiple layers of context, scholars develop better
understandings of student success.
________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2.1
Conceptual Model for Student Success
Internal Context (Layer One) - Student Background, Resources,
Feelings, Attitudes, and Behavior.
Family Context (Layer Two) - Student’s Racial and Economic
Background; Parent Involvement in Schooling; Student Relationships
with Teachers, Counselors and Principals; Teacher and Counselor
Attitudes and Behaviors.
School Context (Layer Three) - Administrator, Counselor and Teacher
Expectations and Behaviors
Policy Context (Layer Four) - District and School Policies

Note. This model is adapted from “Theoretical Perspectives on Student Success: Understanding the
Contributions of the Disciplines,” p. 30. I add definitions and take out arrows demonstrating directionality.
While I know that each context affects student attitudes and behaviors and thus student success, I assume
that student attitude and behaviors interact with various contexts. I include the parts of each layer that I
study.

Capital Theory
Rather than solely rely on a conceptual model, I use capital theory to verify
relationships that I test empirically with survey and interview data. . The difference
between a theoretical perspective and conceptual model is that the theory helps to explain
43

which variables are chosen, whereas a model helps to explain how these variables are
related (Perna & Thomas, 2008). To understand AP student, teacher and leader resources,
I explore stakeholder perceptions regarding resources.
Habitus. Students have the ability to understand and make judgments based upon
their life experiences. How a student feels about college, taking AP coursework and their
school environment influences the ways in which AP programs prepare students for the
university. Bourdieu (1977) defines habitus as the package of values, attitudes and
experiences of an individual. What is important here is that individuals cannot
conceptualize what is not in their environment. Perna (2005) illustrates Bourdieu’s
habitus in the context of her work on rigorous academic preparation. She suggests that
students choosing to take rigorous coursework are also individuals who aspire to attend
college. On the one hand, students choosing to take AP coursework have accumulated
information about academics and college entrance from parents, peers, teachers and
counselors. Students choosing to take AP coursework already possess positive beliefs
about college-going when associating AP courses with college-level courses. On the
other hand, students recruited into AP courses, who would not otherwise choose to take
an AP course, may hold differing attitudes or beliefs regarding college. Understanding
how a student learns about taking AP coursework and why a student chooses to enroll
in an AP class is significant to understanding access to rigorous coursework.
Human and Social Capital. Human capital and social capital are resources
important to student success in school. Human capital, the acquiring of knowledge and
skills, is part of a student’s cognitive processes. Social capital is the making of
44

relationships important to accessing important resources like information about college.
Scholars have differing ways of defining the accumulation of social capital (Coleman,
1999, 1987; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Dika & Singh, 2002). Coleman (1999, 1987) defines
social capital within the context of two intellectual perspectives. First, the individual
makes decisions which are guided by “social norms, rules and obligations” (p.13) and
second, the individual makes decisions that benefit herself personally. Social capital is
an asset and can be used to achieve an end within certain social contexts. Unlike human
capital, social capital involves the acquiring of relationships necessary to act.
Social capital helps to explain why individuals with seemingly equal amounts of
physical capital and human capital act in differing ways. For Coleman (1999, 1987),
access to social capital encourages the development of human capital. In other words,
relationships with peers, family and communities facilitate an individual’s capacity to
negotiate social structures, like jobs, schools, and politics. These relationships, often
called social networks provide individuals with systems of support to maneuver social
structures. Coleman explains social capital for students as defined by their parents’
level of human capital and the extent to which their relationships with families are
closed and intergenerational. According to this view, close relationships with educated
parents lead to a student’s increased level of social capital and therefore improved
human capital.
Social capital is a resource students need in order to choose to take an AP course
and gain by taking an AP course. Dika and Singh (2002) find quantitative and
qualitative evidence supporting the correlation between educational attainment and
45

achievement according to Coleman’s framework of social capital, but the authors
criticize lacking and overall vague definitions of social capital. Stanton-Salazar (1997)
problematizes the directionality of the relationship between social capital and
educational outcomes. Stanton-Salazar, like Coleman (1999, 1987), highlight the notion
that increases in social capital lead to increases in educational attainment. However,
Stanton-Salazar argues as one’s educational attainment develops so does their social
capital. A student’s social capital influences their educational attainment and one’s
educational achievement affects one’s social capital.
Cultural Capital. Scholars describe student attainment of social capital in
relation to cultural capital and reproduction theory. Cultural capital is the resource
relating to values, beliefs and norms of a culture. Stanton-Salazar (1997) contextualizes
his analysis within the constructs of differing forms of cultural capital or race, class and
gender. Cultural labels become an indication of the individual’s inherited position in
society, as well as, her skills and talents. The cultural capital of students from
disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds is deemed by many as lacking. In
others words, some scholars and institutional agents believe that students from
disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds are less capable and less willing to
access the material resources and human capital possessed by more dominant groups.
Schools claiming equal opportunities for all students have a more covert means of
establishing social order because public institutions have a bias towards those holding
dominant forms of cultural capital (Bourdieu & Passerson, 1990). Schools reproduce
46

social inequalities when they do not give all students access to dominant forms of
cultural capital.
Network Analytic Approach. When a school system in the United States
emphasizes an individualistic system based on hard-work and merit, students from
differing socioeconomic backgrounds will be affected in differing ways. Rather than
describe student ability to access school opportunities as solely influenced by the
family’s human capital, Stanton-Salazar (1997) maintains that when a family’s culture
matches that of the school, this cultural capital acts as a means of admission to
opportunities. For students from dominant backgrounds, Stanton-Salazar uses the
metaphor of a freeway insofar as the student’s social or cultural capital helps her to
quickly maneuver the school’s social structure. Relationships with family, teachers,
counselors and friends are essential to cultivating one’s social capital.
School reform efforts have the goal of giving students from disadvantaged and
underrepresented backgrounds the cultural capital necessary to attend and persist in
college. When the cultural capital of the student does not mirror the school, program or
class, institutional agents like teachers, counselors and peers, must act to provide
students from underrepresented backgrounds with resources necessary to achieve
academically. In other words, students coming from marginalized backgrounds utilize
social capital to mediate their limited experience with the culture of the school,
program or even class. Students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds
taking AP coursework with limited experience taking rigorous coursework must
develop relationships with parents or community members who have had college
47

access, peers having high levels of efficacy to perform academically, as well as with
encouraging teachers, counselors and other institutional agents. Stanton-Salazar (1997)
identifies the following as examples of institutional support that provide opportunities to
underrepresented students: instrumental knowledge distribution, network development,
advocacy, role-modeling, emotional and moral support, and evaluative feedback, advice
and guidance. With these institutional supports, students gain human, social and cultural
resources that may lead them to university access and therefore economic stability.
When students do not gain the human or social capital necessary to move out of one’s
social group, school outcomes among students parallel the inequalities between
subgroups in society (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Because AP programs at some high
schools provide students with the aforementioned supports, students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds have greater access to rigorous
coursework and become college ready.

48

__________________________________________________________________
Figure 2.2
Conceptual Model for Student Success as Related to Capital Theory
Internal Context (Layer One) - This context contains student’s
habitus, cultural capital, social capital and human capital.
Family Context (Layer Two) - This context affects student’s cultural,
human and social capital.
School Context (Layer Three) - This context affects a student’s social and
cultural capital.
Policy Context (Layer Four) - This context affects a student’s social and cultural
capital.

Note. This model is adapted from “Theoretical Perspectives on Student Success: Understanding the
Contributions of the Disciplines,” p. 30. See figure 2.1 for a complete explanation of modifications.

Case Study
The following case-study describes the extent to which one school in a large
southern California city aims to provide students with opportunities in their AP program.
Because AP program supports vary from school to school and AP classes vary, I focus on
the success of students in one AP program located in an urban area. Since teachers,
counselors, and administrators influence students to varying degrees, I present this
research within the multiple layers of Perna and Thomas’ (2008) conceptual model for
student success.
Within each layer of context lay resources enabling students to choose to take AP
coursework, better participate in AP coursework and have more knowledge about
49

college. Within the internal context, this research identifies student’s habitus as an
important indicator of student success in the AP program. Students with positive beliefs
about their abilities and attributes may not only choose to take more rigorous coursework,
but will also have success in their AP class. The success of students in the AP program is
reliant on student values and perceptions, teacher and family supports, as well as school
and district policies. In addition, within the internal context, I evaluate the ways student
resources like human and cultural capital influence educational outcomes. In the family,
school and policy contexts social capital is analyzed in relation to peer, teacher, school
and district supports offered to AP students and teachers. I focus on how teachers, the
school, and the school district facilitates the development of students’ human capital,
cultural capital and social capital related to college readiness and student success in the
AP program.
In the following chapter, I explain how I conduct a case-study of one local school.
In chapter four, I explore the attitudes of students, teachers, counselors and district
leaders in one Advanced Placement program to better understand how leaders implement
policies of open access and increased participation in the AP. I ask about the resources,
attitudes and activities of student, staff, teacher, and principal participants in this AP
program. I analyze teacher, school leader and district leader perspectives on open access,
support for AP program participants and the relative importance of exam-taking for all
students. Through the use of qualitative and quantitative data gathered about the
individual, teacher, school and district policies, I expect to demonstrate complexities of
student experience in one urban AP program.
50

Chapter Three
The following case study describes the AP program at College-Going High
School (CGHS). CGHS opened in 2005 with sophomore and freshman classes and by
2007 students from grades nine through twelve attend the school. CGHS is part of Urban-
Like Unified School District (ULUSD) located in one of the most densely populated
counties in Southern California. CGHS is located in an average-sized city, population
340,000. During the 2008-2009 school years, ULUSD enrolled 57,439 students. Over 80
percent of ULUSD students come from Hispanic backgrounds and over 90 percent of
students qualify for free and reduced lunch. Students in the district also came from the
following ethnic backgrounds: .1 percent American Indian, 2.7 percent Asian, .2 percent
Pacific Islander, .2 percent Filipino, .6 percent African American, and 3.1 percent White.
Fifty-six percent of the students attending ULUSD are learning to speak English.
ULUSD has an open enrollment policy where students from all parts of district
choose to attend CGHS through a lottery. While CGHS administrators and counselors do
not give priority to students who are academically prepared or athletically talented, they
have a strict discipline code. According to the principal, one percent of students CGHS
are asked to transfer to other schools in the district due to non compliance with
attendance and dress codes or poor academic performance every year. Twenty-seven
students were not invited to come back to CGHS in 2008. CGHS is a title one school and
qualifies for federal funding to help ensure support for students who are at-risk of failing
or living in poverty.
51

Most of the students attending CGHS come from Hispanic or Latino backgrounds
and from homes in economic need. During the 2008-2009 school year, CGHS enrolled
2449 students. Fifty-eight percent of the student population at CGHS qualifies for free
and reduced lunch. Students came from the following ethnic backgrounds: .2 percent
American Indian, 9.5 percent Asian, .2 percent Pacific Islander, .7 percent Filipino, 82.2
percent Hispanic, 2 percent African American, and 5.2 percent White. Almost eight
percent of the students attending CGHS are learning to speak English and 69.7 percent of
students have been in programs to learn English and are classified as Fluent-English
Proficient. One quarter of students participate in gifted and talented education (GATE)
and ten percent of students participate in the Advancement via Individual Determination
(AVID) program.
5

Teachers at CGHS have teaching credentials and come from diverse backgrounds.
According to 2008-2009 school year data, there were 88 teachers on campus. Eighty-six
teachers held full credentials in their subject area and there was one district intern.
Eighty-three of the teachers at CGHS teach core academic subjects including math,
science, social science and English. The ethnic makeup of the teaching staff is as follows:
10.3 percent Asian, 1.1 percent Pacific Islander, 1.1 percent Filipino, 25.3 percent

5
The AVID program targets students with “B,” “C,” or “D” grade averages who want to go to college. The
program focuses on college readiness by giving students access to study-skills and social supports (AVID
Intro, n.d.).

52

Hispanic, 3.4 percent African American, and 56.3 percent White. CGHS has six
counselors and five administrators.
6

CGHS is attractive to parents and students because the school is widely
recognized as a distinguished school. High stakes test-score data from 2008 demonstrates
a high Adequate Performance Index (API) of 786. Though many subgroups did not meet
API growth from 2007, CGHS averages are above the state averages and Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP) data shows adequate participation and proficiency rates among all
ethnic, language and economics subgroups. In December of 2009, US News and World
Report identified CGHS as a part of the top three percent of nationally ranked high
schools.
Students taking at least one AP course come from diverse backgrounds and make
up over one third of students at CGHS. Of the thirty-seven AP courses, CGHS offers
fifteen. In the school year 2007-2008, 1032 students were taking at least one AP course.
Those taking AP courses came from the following ethnic backgrounds: 70.8 percent
Hispanic, 19 percent Asian, 7.2 percent White, 1.8 percent Black, 1 percent Filipino, and
1 percent Pacific Islander. Asian and White students are over represented in AP classes
and Black and Hispanic students are underrepresented when comparing the proportion of
students in the school to student participating in the AP program. Because data represent
students taking at least one AP course, ethnic gaps in AP participation may be
underestimated considering that some students take more than one AP course.

6
All data collected on CGHS and ULUSD was taken from the California Department of Education and was
not cited to keep the school and district anonymous.
53

Research Questions
To study the AP program at CGHS, I will answer the following questions: How is
the AP program currently being implemented in one urban school? What are student,
teacher, counselor and district leader attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources
available to support AP course quality, and AP exam taking? Through the eyes of a
district leader, principals and AP teachers I explain district, school and classroom
contexts in one AP program. Students’ perspectives further illuminate AP coursework
expectations, instruction and access.
Case-Study Approach
Rather than compare the differences in AP programs across schools, I have
chosen the case-study approach to illustrate how student attitudes, teacher expectations,
as well as school and distinct leader attitudes relate at CGHS. The case-study approach
facilitates in-depth research to understand complexities of phenomena (Creswell, 2007).
The differences in AP classrooms, AP students and AP teachers demonstrates the
importance of context in understanding whether an AP program will facilitate student
success. Since district and school policies are interpreted differently across teachers,
counselors and leaders, some programs give students opportunities for success and some
programs limit students’ opportunities for success when taking AP coursework. By
studying one program, scholars may explore the attitudes shared by students, teachers and
leaders in one AP program, as well as the ways in which these stakeholder groups
disagree.

54

Qualitative Methods
This case-study relies on heavily on qualitative methods to describe one AP
program in the voices of AP participants. Three components of this study are qualitative.
I conduct student focus-groups and interviews, as well as classroom observations.
Observations of AP classes facilitate an account of AP environment. Similarities among
students’ attitudes about AP program policies and resources elucidate AP culture. By
asking students open-ended questions, students explain how and why they choose to
participate in AP courses, how and why they decide to take AP exams and how and why
the AP program supports their needs. Qualitative methods facilitate an understanding of
the culture of one AP program.
Summary of Relevant Qualitative Studies
This study is based upon the assumption that classroom, school and district
contexts influence the culture and implementation of the AP program. The following
studies illustrate the importance of context. The first study, Urban High School Students
and the Challenge of Access is a collection of narratives based on the experiences of five
students attending Ezperanza High School located in Los Angeles Unified School
District. The purpose of the study is to depict the multiple avenues bringing students to
college by placing student experience in a cultural context. The authors write cultural
biographies by observing and participating in the lives of Lily, Trinity, Juan, Mushutu
and Jenny at school and in their communities. How Lily, Trinity, Juan, Mushutu and
Jenny apply to college, access information about college and gain academic preparation
55

are important points for observation; their unit of analysis is the college-going process.
Moreover the authors study how experiences outside of school influence the college-
going process. School and community demographic data portray the environments in
which students live and go to school (Tierney & Colyar, 2006). Many contexts influence
student experience.
In another study, researchers’ findings support the idea that student success is
affected by teachers, principals and district policy. The authors question the extent to
which teachers in high-poverty urban schools support gifted students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds in AP and International Baccalaureate
(IB) contexts. They ask: “Are the curricula and the instructional strategies of AP and IB
typically flexible enough to accommodate the differing readiness levels, cultural
backgrounds, learning styles, and aptitudes of all talented students, and do they
adequately prepare the students for the assessments and subsequent college work?”
(Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007, p. 182). Their research methodology is a
grounded theory approach whereby the authors collect data repetitively in order to
originate a theory. The universe consists of three urban high schools including: one
school with AP and IB programs and two schools with AP programs. The researchers
visit each school twice and engage in ninety minute observations of teachers to assess
instructional approaches, teacher-student interactions, instructional resources uses and the
degree of challenge or rigor in classes. They also interview teachers and students in focus
groups. They find that student perspectives, classroom differences, and policy differences
affect the relative success of AP students (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007).
56

Research points to the importance of studying multiple layers of context influencing
student success in AP courses.
Conceptual Framework and Method
In order to explore the extent to which one AP program facilitates student success
and therefore college readiness, I apply Perna and Thomas’ (2008) conceptual model for
student success. Internal, family, school, and social, economic and policy contexts
influence student success. The internal context involves the attitudes, behaviors and
values of students (Perna & Thomas, 2008). In order to better understand student values
about AP courses, student attitudes regarding college-going, and supports provided to
students by the AP program, I ask students to participate in focus groups and interviews.
The family context includes parents, teachers, peers and any other individuals
close to students’ lives (Perna & Thomas, 2008). I focus on peers, teachers and
counselors. Although many family and community members influence student success, I
collect data about family participation from students, as well as school and district
administrators rather than asking significant others themselves. I make this decision to
limit the scope of the participants involved in the study. In order to gather information on
AP student interactions with peers, I conduct focus groups by grade level and observe AP
classes. I illustrate AP courses environment and teacher-student interactions by engaging
in several hours of AP classroom observation. I describe the perspectives and interactions
of peers, teachers and counselors in the family context.
In order to illustrate the school, I interview AP leaders and analyze AP policy
documents. I describe the attitudes of counselors and principals within the school context.
57

The school context illustrates the school and district policies affecting student success
(Perna & Thomas, 2008). For this case-study, I ask the college counselor, principals and a
district leader to explain the policies regarding the recruitment of AP students and
teachers, in addition to the supports given to AP students and teachers. Further, leaders
portray the recent trends in the AP program.
7
To depict trends in AP enrollment, exam-
taking and exam pass rates, I analyze school and district data. I corroborate this data with
the impressions of counselors, the principal and the AP district leader regarding trends in
the AP program.
To understand the policy context affecting student success in one urban AP
program, I also examine AP data and recent trends in the enrollment and success of
students from underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds at CGHS. The social,
economic and policy contexts include the demographic and political factors influencing
student success (Perna & Thomas, 2008). For this reason, I review documents sent from
the College Board to the district and school, in addition to documents about the AP
program at CGHS. By expressing the attitudes of students, teachers and school and
district leaders in the context of AP enrollment and exam-taking data, I describe one
urban AP program.

7
See appendix D for the administrator interview.
58

__________________________________________________________________
Figure 3.1
Conceptual Model for Student Success as Related to Research Methods
Internal Context (Layer One) - Focus-Groups and Interviews
Family Context (Layer Two) - Focus-Groups and Classroom
Observations
School Context (Layer Three) - Leader and Teacher Surveys.
Policy Context (Layer Four) - Document Analysis and Leader Surveys.

Note. This model is adapted from “Theoretical Perspectives on Student Success: Understanding the
Contributions of the Disciplines,” p. 30. See figure 2.1 for a complete explanation of modifications.

Participant Recruitment
Because I am interested in describing one AP program in-depth, I use intensity
sampling to choose AP student participants. Intensity sampling is a method for choosing
informants with the most information about a phenomenon (Patton, 2002). I choose
fourteen AP students, having much information about the school’s AP program to take
part in focus groups, four to six from each grade level. In order to recruit students, I
communicate with the college counselor and AP teachers via email to get
recommendations of students who have much information about the AP program. The
college counselor and AP teachers ask for student volunteers. After conducting grade-
level focus groups, I ask sixteen students, five or six students from each grade level to
59

participate in in-depth interviews. To better describe varying levels of student success, I
employ criterion sampling to choose informants. The college counselor and AP teachers
identify participants who were specifically recruited to take AP, regardless of their
academic experience or test scores. Moreover, I recognize extreme or deviant cases by
asking counselors and teachers to identify students having especially challenging or
positive experiences while taking AP coursework.
AP teachers and leaders are chosen to participate in this case-study. Student
participants recommend information rich AP teacher participants and classes for
observation. Students choose AP teachers that demonstrate teaching strategies,
interactions with students or classroom environments typical to AP classes. When
choosing counselors and administrator to interview, I also use intensity sampling. I gain
important information about the AP program by interviewing AP teachers of courses
observed, counselors with key information, and one principal and curriculum leader in
charge of policies related to recruiting traditionally underrepresented students into the AP
program.
Participants
Thirty AP students from CGHS participate in interviews. Sixteen AP students,
six seniors, five juniors and five sophomores, participate in interviews. Further, fourteen
AP students, six seniors, four juniors and four sophomores, participate in group
interviews. Thirty AP students participate in group and individual interviews. Nine of the
students are sophomores, nine are juniors and twelve are seniors. There are fifteen male
and fifteen female student participants. Fourteen students, seven students from each
60

gender, participate in group interviews. Six seniors, four juniors and four sophomores
make up group interviewees. Sixteen students, eight students from each gender,
participate in individual interviews. Four of the sophomore individual interview
participants are fifteen years old and one student is fourteen. Three of the sophomore
respondents are male and two female. Four of the junior participants are sixteen years old
and one is seventeen. Four female and one male junior choose to participate in individual
interviews. Of the twelfth grade AP students, four are seventeen years old and two are
eighteen years old. There are two female and four male senior interviewees.
I survey nine AP teachers and AP program leaders. I survey and observe five
teachers for this case study. All five teacher participants teach in the humanities, two
teaching in the social sciences and three teaching English. Four leaders at CGHS and in
ULUSD respond to surveys. Participants include the principal of CGHS, assistant
principal responsible for making decisions about the AP program, counselor who is the
coordinator of all college-bound programs and testing, in addition to the district’s AP
leader. In all, there are 39 participants in this case-study.
Document Review Guide
One important component of this case-study relies on the collection of documents.
I obtain documents about the AP program from participants. Documents about the AP
program, college preparation and other school programs supporting college readiness will
be acquired. In order to ensure the accuracy of document analysis and collection, I create
a document review guide.
8
For each document collected, I list the name, type, date,

8
See appendix F for the document review guide.
61

author, audience, main idea and implications of the document. The document review
guide establishes the information to be collected about each document in order to make it
easier to streamline the analysis process.
Focus Group, Interview and Survey Instruments
In choosing focus group, interview and survey instruments, I consider both
academic and social supports offered by the AP program. Since student perspectives are
important to this case-study, I employ an open-ended interview instrument with some
structured questions regarding student supports and resources.
9
I interview students about
their resources in questions one through five. To explore the academic experiences of
students, I ask students to list the number and type of AP courses taken, the number of
exams taken and scores on prospective exams. I also ask students to compare their AP
and non-AP classroom experiences and the extent to which they like their AP classroom
experiences. Further, in the standardized portion of the instrument I question students
about ways they are recruited into AP and the extent to which AP exam-taking is
stressed. Perna and Thomas (2008) describe college readiness in relation to two
indicators, educational aspirations and academic preparation. To measure educational
aspirations, students are asked about where they plan to study or what they plan to do in
future. They are also asked about the ways in which AP course work has prepared them
for the university.

9
See appendix B for student interview guide.
62

Focus-group questions are also open-ended.
10
These questions highlight student
perspectives regarding school success, the AP program and overall school supports.
Although focus-group questions regarding comparisons between AP and non-AP classes
mirror student interview questions, I ask more general questions to get a sense of the
culture of the AP program. Because the focus-group is conducted with a group, student
answers to the questions may be similar. Students will be asked about why they choose to
take AP and what happens if a student is unsuccessful taking AP. To get at the family
context or how family, teachers and peers are involved in the success of AP students, I
ask students about the personal relationships most important to their success. To illustrate
how the school context supports student success, I question students about how the
school communicates with families and students. Students illuminate their perspectives
on AP policy by explaining the relationship between AP course-taking and college.
Teacher, counselor, administrator and district leader participants answer survey
questions. The survey is adapted from interview questionnaires given to principals and
teachers in Burton, Whitman, Yepes-Baraya, Cline and Kim (2002) study on Minority
Student Success: The Role of Teachers in Advanced Placement Program Courses. The
authors use the answers to the survey questions to do correlation and regression analysis
with student indicators of success. I adapt the questionnaires to include questions specific
to teacher, counselor and leader attitudes about the relationship between AP course-

10
See appendix A for focus group guide.

63

taking and college success.
11
Also, I delete questions asking teachers and counselors
about demographic data about their school as I will collect this data separately. Questions
fall into two main categories: descriptive data about the participant and questions about
the AP program. AP program questions explore the recruitment of teachers, recruitment
of students, supports for teachers, support for students, and finally the relative importance
of taking AP courses. Teacher answer questions regarding specific classroom strategies,
instructional supports, social supports and academic supports. For instance, teachers are
asked if they encourage students to participate in study groups and tutoring. Surveys take
anywhere from forty-five minutes to one and half hours. Teachers and administrators will
have the ability to turn in surveys electronically or through the mail.
Observation Protocol
By observing classrooms, I trace the interactions between students and teachers,
as well as between students and their peers. I study the social supports by noting the
nature of student interaction in the AP classroom. Also, by recording and assessing
instructional activities providing for scaffolding and modeling, I locate academic
supports. I develop a protocol with culturally relevant pedagogy in mind.
12
The culturally
relevant classroom is one wherein content and pedagogical strategies like group-work
and student-teacher interaction are altered to activate the prior knowledge and cultural
norms of the students in the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Moreover, Ladson-
Billings (1995) stress academic success and cultural competence, as well as, a critical

11
See appendix C for the teacher interview guide. See interview questions 56 through 60 on the teacher
interview and 30 through 34 on the administrator interview.

12
See appendix E for the observation protocol.
64

consciousness. Getting academic and social support is important to all students, yet,
having a critical consciousness or the ability to see inequities in classes providing
students with rigorous curriculum is significant for students coming from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds. Observations are guided by a protocol
highlighting interactions of students with teachers, students with peers and teacher
instruction.
Data Analysis
Looking at multiple levels of data (student, teacher and administrator) facilitates
analyses of multiple and intersecting level data. After focus groups and interviews are
conducted and transcribed, participant answers are coded thematically. When analyzing
data, I stress commonalities and differences among the perspectives of key stake holders.
On the one hand, this case-study describes the culture of one AP program. Culture is
assessed through shared attitudes of students, teachers and administrators. On the other
hand, I explore the ways in which AP program policies increase access to college.
Because teachers, students and administrators have differing goals and perspectives,
variance in attitudes about the AP program is expected.
Traditional researchers naturally compare data across cases and make inferences
about the causes and consequences of phenomena, as well as the relationships between
phenomena (Patton, 2002). First, I compare answers within each set of questions among
similar stakeholders. For instance, teachers’ answers will be compared with answers of
other teachers. Next, I compare answers of stakeholder groups, like teachers answers to
student answers. I then describe similarities among all stakeholder groups as evidence of
65

the culture of the AP program. Then, I make inferences about why teachers,
administrators and teachers having differing opinions in some question areas. Finally, I
infer what participant responses mean for the AP program. For instance, if principals
think AP policies originate in the district and district leaders believe that AP policy
originates at the school, there may be some cause for clarification. The following case-
study has important policy implications for the case school, as well as, similar urban
schools.
Trustworthiness of Data
To assess the trustworthiness of a study, scholars identify four criteria for
judgment including: credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.
Credibility has to do with the extent to which the author reports information that
represents participants’ perspectives and experiences. In order to ensure accuracy, I
record focus-group discussions and interview data both electronically and in field notes.
Transferability deals with generalizability or the ability to apply conclusions from one
study to another (Schwandt, 2007). Because generalizability is a limitation of case-study
research, I discuss transferability in the limitations section of this chapter.
Dependability and confirmability are important criteria regarding the
trustworthiness of data presented. Dependable data has a clear and specific process of
gathering and reporting. To guarantee dependability, I explain how data is collected and
analyzed. All interview, focus group and observation instruments are listed in appendices.
Further, all data will be reported in chapter four. Finally, conformability requires the
author to make inferences based on data only, not subjective claims (Schwandt, 2007).
66

All conclusions will be verified by participant quotes or documented information. By
looking at the AP program and its connection to college-going from multiple
perspectives, information about the AP program can be validated. Moreover, I use
quantitative data such as AP participation numbers and AP exam taking numbers to
validate claims made by study participants about the AP program and its ability to
prepare students for college.
The data collected is this case-study is also trustworthy, because I take
precautions to protect respondents. Each student interview is conducted on campus, after
school and lasts anywhere from twenty to ninety minutes. Because student participants
are considered vulnerable populations, I ask all participants and parents to sign consent
forms. At the time of the focus group and interviews, students are identified in transcripts
by pseudonym. All other participants also identified by pseudonym in electronic notes so
views of individuals cannot be traced. In general, the results of this case-study are
trustworthy.
Limitations of Study
Because I conduct a case-study, the conclusions made about one urban AP
program may not be generalizable to other AP programs. Because this is a case-study, I
pay close attention to AP program context and do not expect the circumstances of this AP
program to mirror other AP program environments. In other words, the intersecting
contexts affecting student success are particular to specific classroom, school, district and
social environments. Overall, 39 people participate in this study including thirty students,
four leaders and five teachers. While thirty respondents is a generally acceptable number
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for qualitative research reliability, the findings of this case-study are not meant to be
generalizable. Furthermore, there is selection bias because only history and English
teachers choose to participate and many of the students participating are likely to be the
most involved in their studies. The findings from this study will have policy and practice
implications for the school and district studied. Even more, policymakers interested in
improving access to and the success of AP student can use the results of this study to
understand the multiple and intersecting contexts supporting and inhibiting student
success. Scholars in the future should realize the importance of school-contexts when
studying student programs and subsequent student success.
Furthermore, I do not study the attitudes of AP students’ parents, family and
community members because many people influence student information and
perspectives and it is not feasible to include all influential community members.
Significant others are not interviewed because they are not easily accessed for interviews
and their influence varies from student to student. While it is valid to attribute the success
of AP students to school agents like teachers and counselors, as well as significant others,
I do not describe the ways parents, family and community members support students.
Moreover, data collected in this research is largely self-reported and only
accounts for respondent attitudes and outcome at the current time. Although self-reported
data explores important perceptions about how AP policy is implemented or how well a
student feels that she is prepared for college, it does not explain whether students with
positive attitudes about AP pass AP exams, earn good grades in AP courses or get into
college. With this in mind, I present AP participation data, grades and exam pass rates in
68

the aggregate. While aggregate school outcomes can be significant to understanding the
overall success of an AP program, this data does not explain the trajectory of student
experience. Longitudinal data must be collected to better decipher the extent to which AP
participation improves academic outcomes related to college-going. This case-study
presents a snapshot of one AP program.
Researcher Bias
Another major concern in research is bias. For many, participation within a field
of study or a specific culture may preclude individuals from reporting data in an objective
way. Arguably, experience and specific knowledge about an organization and its culture
can cause researchers to see what they have not collected as data. Prior experience
provides access to information about how organizations work and their language
facilitates the research process. Scholars with prior experience in an organization often
obtain information and talk to people that outside researchers could not. I have been AP
teacher for six years. For this reason, I am an insider and have the ability to discuss
important issues about AP with leaders and teachers. I know the language, expectations
and norms of teachers teaching within the program. To avoid bias about program
implementation, I conduct research at a school in a district different from my own. I also
take copious field notes and differentiate between observation and impressions. Being a
teacher in the AP program allows me to make deep and significant conclusions about
another school’s AP program.

69

Significance
Despite the limitations of case-study research, descriptions of the culture of one
AP program inform policymaker decisions about increasing access to rigorous
coursework. This study’s findings inform scholars as to the extent to which the
interdisciplinary model for student success has explanatory power. Additionally, the
extent to which this AP program facilitates a college-going culture will be especially
significant to those concerned with college-access. The ways in which this urban school
and district supports and recruits AP students and teachers is also important to school
leaders interested improving the outcomes of students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds.
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Chapter Four
The Advanced Placement (AP) program administrators and teachers at College-
Going High School (CGHS) provide AP students with college-level curricula. AP
program leaders institute policies regarding student identification, teacher identification,
teacher training, resources offered, as well as AP exam-taking policies. AP teachers
develop curricula in line with College Board standards and offer supports to facilitate
student understanding of course content. AP students acquire AP course content and
skills to complete assessments and be able to take the AP exam given in May.
In this chapter I answer the following: How is the AP program currently being
implemented in one urban school? What are student, teacher, counselor and district leader
attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources available to support AP course
quality, and AP exam taking? I answer the first question by collecting exam data and
policy-related documents. I analyze College Board released AP course participation and
exam data, as well as the CGHS AP contract and general pamphlets about CGHS. In
addition, students, teachers and leaders discuss AP program policies and their
implementation. I answer the second question with survey and interview data. I report
data collected within the contexts of Perna and Thomas’ (2008) conceptual lens for
understanding student success. I describe the AP program’s policy, school, family and
internal contexts by comparing AP policy data with student, teacher and leader
perceptions.

71

Student Resources
Students participating in AP courses aspire to go to college, have experience
taking AP courses by their senior year and come from various socio-economic
backgrounds. Three sophomores identify themselves at Latino and two as Asian. Of the
sophomore participants, two students do not qualify for free lunch and three qualify for
free lunch. Two of the sophomore students say that their parents are high school
graduates and two of the students’ parents have some college education. Of junior
participants, three students identify themselves as Latino, one student identifies herself as
Black and one student identifies herself as Asian. Four of the five junior interviewees
qualify for free lunch. Two students have parents holding college degrees, one student’s
parents have some college, one student’s parents are high school graduates and another
student’s parents do not have high school diplomas of eleventh grade participants. All six
of the senior participants identify themselves as Latino and four seniors qualify for free
lunch. Three of the seniors’ parents hold some college education, while two of the
seniors’ parents have high school educations and one senior’s parents are not high school
graduates. On the one hand, AP student participants qualify for free lunch and have
parents who have not completed their college education. On the other hand, the
overwhelming majority of AP students aspire to attend a four-year college and by senior
year have taken previous AP course. See table 4.1 for student aspirations and experience.
There is no relationship between student ethnic background and parent education with the
number of AP courses students choose to take. Students in the CGHS AP program come
from a variety of cultural backgrounds and hold aspirations to go to college.
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_______________________________________________________________________
Table 4.1
Student Aspirations and Experience
Pseudonyms Grade College Aspirations Past AP Coursework
and Exam Score
Current AP
Coursework
Jose 12 4-yr public college Biology-2
English Language-3
World History-2

Calculus
French
Macroeconomics
U.S. Government
Angel 12 4-yr public college Chemistry- 5
English Language-5
World History-4

Calculus
English Literature
French
Macroeconomics
U.S. Government
Victor 12 4-yr public college English Language-1
Environmental
Science- 4
U.S. History- 4
World History-2
English Literature
Macroeconomics
Psychology
U.S. Government
Maria 12 4-yr public college None Spanish
Language
Reynaldo 12 Community
College
4-yr public college
4-yr private college
English Language-2
Spanish Language-5
World History-2

Macroeconomics
Psychology
U.S. Government

Christina 12 4-yr public college
4-yr private college
English Language-2 Macroeconomics
Physics
U.S. Government
Imani 11 4-yr public college None Biology
English Language
U. S. History
Claudia 11 4-yr private college World History-1 English Language
Physics
Spanish
Kelly 11 4-yr public college None Spanish
Oscar 11 4-yr public college None Spanish
Helen 11 4-yr public college
4-yr private college
World History-2

English Language
Physics
Vince 10 4-yr public college World History
Javier 10 4-yr private college World History
Alicia 10 4-yr private college World History
Sonia 10 4-yr public college World History
Eugene 10 Community college World History
73

Teacher Resources
The AP teachers participating in this case study hold differing levels of teaching
experience, yet they come from similar backgrounds and have similar amounts of
academic resources. Of the teacher participants four are female and one male. All of the
AP teachers identified themselves as White. Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith teach AP Literature
and Composition and have been teaching six to ten years and three to five years
respectively. Mr. Smitheran, AP American Government teacher and Mrs. Nagel, AP
World History teacher have between eleven and twenty-four years of experience. Ms.
Moeck, AP English Language and Composition teacher has over 25 years of teaching
experience. All of the teachers hold undergraduate degrees in their subject and four of the
five have master’s degrees in the field of education. Mrs. Hill is currently working on her
master’s degree in education. AP teachers at CGHS have academic experiences in their
content area as well as in pedagogy.
Teacher Resources. In order to prepare for AP teaching, the teacher participants
attend College Board institutes, acquire resources from their school and district and pay
out-of-pocket for instructional materials. Within the last two to four years, all of the
teacher respondents went to an AP institute. AP institutes are seminars or workshops
which include content and skills that help AP teachers prepare their students for the AP
exam (The College Board, 2009). Most of the teachers say that they attend workshops
every two to three years and within that time period teachers participated in a summer
institute. While three of five teachers claim that the school no longer offers release time
or support to pay for summer institutes, one teacher believes that this support still exists
74

and another teacher states that the school only pays the fee. That being said, four of five
of teachers agreed that most of their instructional material needs for the AP classroom are
being met and only two of the teachers pay out-of-pocket for materials monthly. All of
the teachers have classrooms equip with LCD projectors, which project computer
generated presentations and materials. And, four of the teachers have Elmo projectors
that can take any hard copy image and project a scan of the image to the wall. AP
teachers at CGHS have experiences and material that facilitate AP instruction.
In addition to academic and material resources, the AP teachers at CGHS have
access to a wealth of human resources. One of the most important characteristics of the
AP program at CGHS is teacher collaboration and instructional planning. All of the
teacher participants cite AP teacher peers as important supports for their planning and
instruction. Teachers also work with other teacher peers and curriculum leaders. Teachers
also utilize College Board resources on the internet in order to collaborate with teachers
nationally and access content area support. All use email and three of the teachers
subscribed to the list serve in their prospective subject areas. All of the teachers
participate in team planning and teaching. Most of the AP teacher participants say that
they are given preparation time for their AP courses as part of their preparation for other
courses. Mrs. Nagel comments that all of her preparation for her AP section is done after
school with her AP partner teacher. Overall, AP teachers value their collaboration time
and now feel well-prepared or very well-prepared to teach their subjects and to teach AP.
CGHS AP teachers have some confidence in their abilities to teach AP and
believe in the importance of AP coursework to student success. When asked about their
75

confidence about the ability to teach skills important for AP coursework, the teachers are
at least somewhat confident about their abilities. Regarding communicating to students
with a variety of backgrounds and skills, the teachers feel at least somewhat confident.
They are also somewhat confident about their ability to use of a variety of teaching
methods to teach AP. Regardless, teacher participants say that AP courses are either very
good or excellent at engaging student interest, improving student’s verbal skills,
improving student’s writing skills, and improving student’s reading skills. All of the
teachers agree that AP coursework do an excellent job at preparing students for college.
In all, AP teachers at CGHS have moderate confidence in their teaching abilities.
________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.2
Teacher Resources
Pseudonym Race Course Taught Degree Years of
Experience
Ms. Moeck White English
Language
M. A.
Education
Greater Than 25
Years
Mrs. Hill White English
Literature
B.A. English 6-10 Years
Ms. Smith White English
Literature
M. A.
Education
3-5 Years
Mr. Smitheran White Government M. A.
Education
11-24 Years
Mrs. Nagel White World History M. A.
Education
11-24 Years

Leader Resources
The leader respondents come from similar backgrounds and hold a range of
experience in education. Of the four leaders, three are female and one is male. Three of
the leaders identify themselves as White and one identifies herself as Latina. Leader
76

experience ranges from one to twenty-four years in their current positions. Mrs.
Harcharic has been the leader of the Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) program
between eleven and twenty-four years. She has a master’s degree and at least eleven
years of teaching experience. Currently, she heads the AP program and Advancement via
Individual Determination (AVID) program
13
in ULUSD. Dr. Stark has been the principal
of CGHS for two years or less. She has at least six years of teaching experience and has
her doctorate in education. Mr. Thomas is the assistant principal at CGHS and develops
of AP policy. He has eleven to twenty-four years of experience teaching and a master’s
degree. Mr. Thomas has been assistant principal between three and five years. Ms.
Martinez is the college counselor and leads all programs having to do with university
participation. She coordinates AP testing, college workshops and college recruitment.
She has a master’s degree and has been in her current position between six and ten years.
All of the leader participants have experience and education important to their positions.
________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.3
Leader Resources
Pseudonym Race Position Degree Years of
Experience
in Position
Years of
Experience
Teaching
Mrs.
Harcharic
White GATE/AP
District Leader
M. A.
Education
11-25 Years 11-25 Years
Dr. Stark White CGHS
Principal
Doctor of
Education
2 or Less
Years
6-10 Years
Mr. Thomas White Assistant
Principal
M. A.
Education
3-5 Years 11-25 Years
Ms. Martinez Latina College
Counselor
M. A.
Education
6-10 Years 0 Years

13
The AVID program targets students with “B,” “C,” or “D” grade averages who want to go to college.
The program focuses on college readiness by giving students access to study-skills and social supports
(AVID Intro, n.d.).
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Scope of the AP Program
CGHS’s AP program is relatively new and shows growth in AP participation. The
AP program originates in the school year 2005-2006. In the first year of the program,
students take 80 exams in World History and Spanish Language. In 2006-2007, 398 AP
students at CGHS take exams 559 exams in Chemistry, English Composition and
Literature, Spanish Language, United States History and World History. Six hundred and
sixty eight students participate in CGHS’s AP program in 2007-2008. They take 1181
exams in the previously mentioned courses, in addition to, Biology, Calculus,
Macroeconomics, English Literature and Composition, Environmental Science, French
Language, American Government, Psychology and Spanish Literature. Seven hundred
and thirty-three students take AP courses in 2008-2009. In 2008-2009, the AP program
leaders add Art Studio, Music Theory, Physics B and Statistics and students take 1476
exams. This year, 2009-2010, students will take 1486 exams. However, students are not
taking Music Theory or Statistics this year and the participation in English Literature and
Composition decreases from 148 to 51 and Environmental Science 110 to 79. See tables
4.4 and 4.5 for the number of student participant and sections of courses offered at
CGHS. Since the origin of the AP program at CGHS in 2005, there has been more
participation in AP.

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________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.4
Number of Students Participating in the AP Program at CGHS
Course 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Art Studio 0 0 0 16 7
Biology 0 0 64 45 82
Calculus 0 0 47 76 81
Chemistry 0 30 23 21 27
Economics 0 0 33 133 167
English Language 0 126 220 214 200
English Literature 0 0 92 148 51
Environmental Science 0 0 55 110 79
French Language 0 0 13 21 22
Government 0 0 27 133 167
Music Theory 0 0 0 25 0
Physics B 0 0 0 71 114
Psychology 0 0 161 45 86
Spanish Language 5 54 160 127 172
Spanish Literature 0 0 30 45 30
Statistics 0 0 0 49 0
U.S. History 0 117 80 61 57
World History 75 232 180 136 144
Total 80 559 1181 1476 1486
Table 4.5
Number of AP Program Sections at CGHS
Course 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010
Art Studio 0 1 1
Biology 2 2 2
Calculus 2 2 3
Chemistry 1 1 1
Economics 1 2 2
English Language 6 6 5
English Literature 3 4 2
Environmental Science 2 3 2
French Language 1 1 1
Government 1 2 2
Music Theory 0 1 0
Physics B 0 2 3
Psychology 4 1 2
Spanish Language 4 3 5
Statistics 0 2 0
U.S. History 3 2 2
World History 6 4 4
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In accordance with participation data, AP leaders and teachers perceive growth in
the AP program within the last three years. The leaders agree that the number of student
inquiries and the number of student participants in the AP program has increased in the
past three years. With the exception of Mr. Thomas, leaders contend that the number of
inquiries and participants students from underrepresented backgrounds has also increased
in the past three years. Three of the leaders, describe no change in the number of dropouts
among all students and students from underrepresented backgrounds. Teacher
participants also describe an increase in the numbers of students interested and say that
there is no change in the number of AP drop-outs. This is because CGHS school policy
requires that students stay in the course for the full year. Mr. Smitheran, Mrs. Nagel and
Ms. Moeck cite increases in the numbers of students signing up for AP courses.
Considering recent decreases in enrollment for AP Literature and Composition, Mrs. Hill
and Ms. Smith note decreases in AP participation in relationship to the course they teach.
Teachers describe the same trends in AP program for students coming from
underrepresented backgrounds. AP leaders and teachers agree that numbers of students
inquiring about AP coursework increased in the past three years. AP leader and teacher
perceptions about growth in the program match enrollment data.
Selection and Training of AP Teachers
There is disagreement regarding the selection and training of AP teachers.
Leaders consider teacher interest, academic background and training when deciding who
should teach AP courses. According to teachers, principals and the department chair
select individuals to teach AP based on interest and schedule availability. In contrast to
80

teacher perceptions, all the AP leaders define attendance at College Board training as an
important consideration in the selection of AP teachers. Three of the four leaders believe
attendance at a training to be required. Three leader respondents identify teacher interest
and degree in one’s AP subject as routinely involved in the selection of AP teachers.
However, leaders disagreed as to whether these considerations are requirements when
selecting AP teachers. The teachers say that they learn about AP course offerings, skills
necessary to take AP coursework and students who are likely to have success in AP
courses through AP teacher’s peers, teacher peers and principals. Like AP students,
teachers learn about the AP program, through word of mouth. While at least two leaders
believe that teachers receive workshop fees, workshop expenses, and released time, AP
teachers did not think that monies for AP workshops are still available. Since teacher and
leader perceptions regarding the recruitment of AP teachers differ, CGHS policy
regarding the recruitment of AP teachers is not codified.
Access to AP Coursework
Gaining Information About AP. AP students, teachers and leaders explain the
many ways students learn about the AP program at CGHS. Group interview participants
reason that CGHS students find out about the program from teachers, counselors, peers
and assemblies. According to teachers, students find out about AP courses through AP
teacher presentations to their own courses and to others’ courses, as well as AP program
assemblies. Similar to student and teacher perspectives, the leaders believe that students
learn about the AP program from teachers, counselors, school announcements and
assemblies. Three of the four leaders also consider peers to be important sources of
81

information about AP program information. Three of the teachers and CGHS leaders
believe that there are no school wide efforts to increase awareness of the AP program
among students coming from underrepresented backgrounds because most of the students
at CGHS come from low-income minority backgrounds. Nevertheless, Mrs. Harcharic,
leader of the district’s AP program, believes that the district tries to communicate with
parents of students coming from underrepresented backgrounds. She says,
Our district has endeavored to build its AP program and provide all students to
take challenging curriculum with an ‘open access’ policy. Students who
demonstrate a strong interest and commit to the hard work AP takes are
encouraged to enroll in AP courses. While the test is important, we realize that the
experience and exposure is invaluable to student success in past secondary
schooling.
She also mentions the use of fee waivers for AP tests as a way to recruit students from
economically disadvantaged households. Mrs. Harcharic contends brochures, registration
bulletin, handouts, fee waiver forms, translated-parent communications, AP potential and
the AVID program are ways that the district facilitates access to the AP program. While
the district leader highlights special efforts to make all students aware of AP program
offerings, school leaders and teachers mention no specific policies. Three leaders explain
that parents learn about AP program activities through parent nights and counselors.
CGHS AP teachers and leaders think that they provide students with multiple
opportunities to access information about the AP program.
Why Students Choose to Take AP. Students at CGHS want to enroll in AP
coursework because they think that the work is more challenging and like college
coursework. According to one tenth-grade group interview participant, students taking
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AP courses get the “opportunity to get ahead. It looks good on your college
resume…You will know what you’re expecting in college and understand what you’re
going to have to confront in college.” The sophomores believe that taking an AP class
will help them know what to expect in college. Similarly, junior and senior student
participants contend that taking AP will prepare them for college because AP teacher
expectations are higher and work is more challenging. One senior group interviewee says,
Honestly, I’ve talked to many graduated people from here and they’ve all said
the same thing…that AP lit helps, that AP psychology helps. Aside from that,
[people say] that college is so easy compared to bloody senior year.

Seniors mention college-course credit as an incentive to take AP. AP students choose to
take AP courses to give them a challenge and help them become college ready.
Preparation and Identification for AP Coursework. The AP leader and teacher
respondents agree that CGHS’s AP program is open access. In other words, any student
willing to take an AP course can enroll. AP students participating in this case-study do
not necessarily envision the program as open access. However, many of the AP students
list previous coursework and recommendation as prerequisites. AP teachers and leaders
describe academic preparation as indicators of AP student success, rather than as
requirements for entrance.
Although many AP students believe that students need academic experience prior
to taking an AP course, some contend that anyone can sign up for an AP course. Tenth
grade focus-group participants express the idea that students can sign up for AP courses
with counselors after signing a contract. Sophomore group-interview participants suggest
that teachers
83

[encouraged] a lot of us to take it as an advantage to getting into college. They tell
us this AP class will give us an edge on our college applications because it shows
we put in that extra effort and we didn’t settle for an easier class that we’ll
probably get an A in because most of us have been in honors last year.
While three of the five tenth-grade student interviewees believe that there is no specific
preparation for AP coursework, one student says that one must take specific coursework
and another student states that teachers prepare students for the work involved in AP.
According to two sophomore AP students, counselors identify students ready for
coursework. Another student contends that the AP coordinator selects students to
participate and the remaining two sophomores said that students self-select. Sophomore
students disagree as to whether students choose to take AP or if students have to have
specific academic preparation in order to become identified.
Junior AP student participants share perspectives on identification for AP
coursework, yet juniors hold various opinions about AP course preparation. Eleventh-
grade focus group participants suggest that peers, teachers and counselors communicate
to students about AP coursework. Two of the AP eleventh grade interviewees think that
there is no specific preparation for AP coursework, yet three of juniors consider honors,
college-preparatory or subject-matter course work necessary preparation for taking AP
coursework. Three of the juniors think that the counselor identifies students to take AP
and two students claim that teachers or another adult must offer recommendations for
students entering AP. Although AP students make claims that students need
recommendations from teachers and counselors, junior focus-group participants argue
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that any students with decent grades can sign up for AP. Juniors believe that there are
requirements for those choosing to take AP.
AP senior interviewees also have varying perspectives about AP identification
and preparation. According to senior focus-group participants, students sign up for AP
classes with their counselors regardless of academic experience or grades. Two
individually interviewed seniors insist that no specific preparation is required to take AP
coursework, while four seniors maintain that students take a specified course sequence in
order to take an AP course. Counselors, teachers, AP teachers, school administrators or
student themselves identify AP course participants according to seniors individually
interviewed. The majority of AP senior respondents think that any student can take AP.
According to CGHS AP teachers and leaders, there are no formal methods of
recruiting and identifying students to take AP. Although CGHS school leaders and
teachers define the AP program as open access, they identify potential AP students with
grades, student interest and teacher recommendation. The history-social science teachers,
Mr. Smitheran and Mrs. Nagel, say that there is no special preparation required for
students taking AP; however English teachers, Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith say that students
need to complete a summer assignment. Ms. Moeck mentions a student contract and
teacher presentation. In the same vein, leaders disagree on the ways that the school
identifies students for AP. On the one hand, three leaders say that there is no formal
practice, policy or strategy used to prepare students at CGHS to take AP. On the other
hand, Dr. Stark, CGHS principal, identifies summer reading and honors or college-
preparatory coursework as important factors in identifying potential AP students. AP
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leaders share this sentiment. While academic preparation is an important indicator of
student potential in an AP class, there is disagreement as to how students get into an AP
course. Ms. Martinez, college counselor, believes that there is no policy regarding the
selection of AP students into AP and Dr. Stark comments that some students are
counseled out of taking AP because of lacking experience. Mr. Thomas, assistant
principal, argues, “we have an open door policy for AP. Counselors will advise [students]
if [AP is] not appropriate, but students are allowed to take that chance and go for it. The
experience in AP outweighs the grade sometimes.” Students need not take special
coursework or gain teacher recommendation in order to qualify to take AP coursework.
Increasing Participation of Students from Underrepresented Backgrounds.
Because CGHS has a majority minority population, many AP leaders and teachers see all
AP program efforts as directed towards students from underrepresented backgrounds. At
CGHS, there is also no specific policy for preparing or identifying students from
underrepresented backgrounds to take AP coursework. Three of the teachers believe that
there are no school wide efforts to increase the number of students coming from
underrepresented backgrounds recruited into the AP program. Nevertheless, two teachers
say that the school endeavors to make the AP program more inclusive because all school
wide efforts support students coming from underrepresented background because CGHS
has a the majority minority population. CGHS leaders and teachers believe that the
school makes no special effort to inform students from underrepresented backgrounds
about the AP program.

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AP Coursework
CGHS AP students describe the differences in AP and non-AP courses in terms of
workload, depth and complexity and teacher expectations. Of the fourteen individual
interviewees, twelve students comment that AP course workloads are heavier than
homework and class work in non-AP courses. The majority of AP students interviewed
put in two times to five times as much homework time for AP courses than for non-AP
courses. For example, the majority of the sophomores say that the difference between AP
and non-AP courses is more work. A few sophomores cite in-depth material and higher
expectations. Junior interviewees also cite more work. Additionally, junior AP students
explain that course material is challenging, fast-paced and time-consuming. Oscar, an
eleventh grader taking his first AP class, says “I noticed that you have to try a lot harder
in AP classes.” Similarly, senior interviewees define higher expectations and more-
challenging course material as a significant part of AP course.
Sophomores, junior and senior focus-group participants concur about in-depth and
complex material coverage and greater amounts of homework in AP courses, in addition
to cultural differences in AP courses. Christina, a senior taking three AP courses,
describes AP courses as different from non-AP class because of
the whole entire environment. The people are different. They are more willing to
try because they know they have to. And, the teachers expect a lot more from you
as well. They don’t expect you to just turn in something that’s not complete or not
give your all for it. They expect you to try your best because you obviously took
this class for a reason.
Seniors group interviewees also suggest that AP teachers treat AP students in ways that
are more adult inasmuch as AP teachers cover “more mature” and “depressing content.”
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Junior focus-group participants discuss the passion and interest of AP teachers and
seniors highlight fewer interruptions and personal relationships. According to
sophomore-group interviewees, students are expected to come into class with prior
knowledge about the lesson and be ready to work. The students claim that there are “no
breaks.” Both tenth and eleventh grade students contend that AP students must teach
themselves the material prior to coming to class. Similarly, twelfth grade students claim
that AP teachers
think that you have to do everything by yourself. They make you super
independent. That’s what AP classes do. That’s what teachers expect from you,
they expect you to be independent already when you come into the class.
In regard to tests, student focus-group participants reveal that AP assessments are similar
in format to non-AP course quizzes and tests, yet AP teachers test students more
frequently and material on tests is more detailed and complex. While AP students
mention that AP and non-AP coursework have similar material, assigned tasks and
teachers, AP course-taking is a different from other high school coursework.
AP Instruction. AP teacher participants use a variety of instructional strategies,
assessments and interventions to support their students. Teachers cover the AP content
required by the College Board over the course of thirty weeks in five hours per week. AP
teacher participants interact with students in discussion and make connections to
students’ lives at least once or twice weekly. Most teachers do so daily. They also make
an effort to engage in interdisciplinary connections once or twice weekly. The AP
teachers also make an effort to assess students. Further, they give students in-class essays
at least once monthly and all of the AP English teachers give their students take-home
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essays monthly. All of the teachers give their students multiple-choice exams at least
twice monthly. In addition, the AP English teachers use portfolio assessments. Four of
the AP teachers assess in-class participation daily. While all of the AP teachers give
students grades and written and oral feedback, the relative amount of feedback varies.
Four of the AP teachers give some oral feedback daily and all of the teachers give written
feedback at least once or twice monthly. Commonly, the AP teachers communicate with
parents through formal mid-term grades and parent-teacher conferences initiated by the
student or parent. Four of the teachers make phone calls home and use report cards to
connect to AP student families. CGHS AP teachers use a variety of instructional
strategies to meet the needs of their students.
AP teacher respondents prepare their students for success in their AP course and
on the AP exam with tutoring and practice. All of the teachers offer one-on-one and
group tutoring. Many encourage tutoring by another teacher on campus and peer tutoring.
All of the teachers prepare students for the AP exam with use of sample questions and
practice exams. Ms. Smith, AP English teacher explains,
Because students have unique approaches to the course and vary sets of strengths
and weaknesses, it is difficult to provide a “one-size-fits-all” strategy to help all
students persist or succeed; however, many students have limited access to
resources at home, so the most effective strategy we use is to provide access to
one-on-one assistance and tutoring either after school or via e- mail. We also
provide students with activities early in the year to make up for some cultural
knowledge deficits (e.g., a review of common mythological and Biblical
allusions), to review basic writing skills, to build vocabulary, and to revise writing
assignments after receiving teacher feedback. Students often have to be reminded
that this is a skills-based course; thus, they will grow over the course of the year
and grades will improve; this sometimes helps with discouragement and
motivation issues.

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When asked about how teachers support students from underrepresented backgrounds, a
few of the teachers explain that they try to relate the AP curriculum to the lives of
students. The teachers also offer individualized instruction with one-on-one tutoring. AP
English teachers, Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith describe their efforts to review basic skills and
vocabulary, as well as significant textual references to students with “cultural knowledge
deficits.” AP teachers endeavor to support all students.
AP World History. The AP World History course is one of the newest courses to
be developed by the College Board. The number of participants taking the course has
increased steadily since the course’s development in 2001. AP World History is one of
the top ten most taken AP exams (The 6
th
Annual Report to the Nation, 2010). The course
covers world history from beginning to present and focuses on historiography and themes
of continuity and change. The College Board enumerates the following themes to be
discussed: “interaction between humans and the environment,” “development and
interaction of culture,” “state-building, expansion, and conflict,” “creation, expansion,
and interaction of economic systems,” and “development and transformation of social
structures” (World History: Course Description, 2010, pp.10-11). In 2009, 143,426
students took the AP World History exam nationally and 50.5 percent of students taking
the course achieved AP success by earning a passing score of a three or better. One
hundred and thirty-five students took the AP World History exam in 2009 at CGHS.
Forty-nine students or 37.7 percent of students taking the exam achieved AP success.
Five students earned fives, eleven students earned fours and thirty five students earned
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threes on the exam. The AP World History pass rate at CGHS is less than the national
average.
AP World History at CGHS is taught by two teachers, who plan a variety of
assessments for student learning. There are four sections of AP World History taught at
CGHS. Mrs. Nagel teaches one of the four sections. She and her partner teacher plan the
course curriculum together and meet after school to collaborate. Assessments in the AP
World History course often include: study cards, timelines, graphic organizers, document
analysis, writing assessments and multiple-choice exams. Students have either a chapter
or unit exam each week, in addition to several quizzes. The course is assessment driven.
Mrs. Nagel is observed six times in both her sophomore AP World History course
and her College Preparatory (CP) World History course. Mrs. Nagel’s room is organized
and structured. Students sit in rows facing the front of the room and she has a weekly
agenda posted on the wall. She also posts student work on one-side of the room. For the
most part, student interaction occurs following direct instruction. Students in both the AP
and CP courses talk before class and during transitions. Student discussions are often
about work to be completed. Although some of the students talk about information
unrelated to World History, students are engaged with the work at hand. However, the
discourse seems to be focused on the task rather than the content being covered.
Instructional activities and teacher-student interactions are also structured in Mrs.
Nagel’s course. Everyday Mrs. Nagel presents World History content with readings,
video or primary source documents. Students are given clear directions, repeatedly and
Mrs. Nagel models what students should produce. Interactions between student and
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teacher are relaxed, yet focused on the task to be completed. Mrs. Nagel directs students
to behave by putting their feet on the floor, backs to their chairs and eyes on the task at
hand. While AP and CP content and tasks are different in Mrs. Nagel’s class, she presents
instruction in line with behavioral theories of pedagogy. Mrs. Nagel presents content and
students produce.
AP English Language and Composition. The AP English Language and
Composition (AP Language) exam is third most widely taken AP exam in the nation (The
6
th
Annual Report to the Nation, 2010). Students are asked to analyze and respond to
various expository texts. The course focuses on text structures, as well as the rhetoric and
tone of a variety of contemporary literary texts (English: Course Description, 2010).
Nationwide, 337,441 students took the AP Language in 2009. Fifty-nine point seven
percent of students taking the exam achieved AP success with passing scores of a three or
better nationwide (Student Grade Distributions, 2009). At CGHS, 213 students took the
AP Language exam and 64 students or 30.1 percent of students achieved AP success.
Eight students earned fives, fourteen earned fours and forty-two students earned threes.
AP success rates at CGHS are lower than nationally achieved success rates.
Ms. Moeck and one other educator teach the AP English Language at CGHS. This
year, 2010, there are five sections of this course available at CGHS. Ms. Moeck teaches
two sections and her partner teaches three sections. All students at CGHS take the AP
Language course during the eleventh grade in lieu of California’s state mandated
American Literature course. Students taking AP language discuss and respond to various
expository texts daily. Ms. Moeck also offers online student-teacher collaboration and
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retakes for writing assessments. Most assessments are modeled after AP exam questions
and include responses to poems and literature.
The environment of Ms. Moeck’s AP language class is dynamic and related to
the material to be covered in class. Over the course of six observations desks change
formation and tasks varied from day to day. Students work in both pairs and groups. Two
of the six days, Ms. Moeck offered students writing assessments. One day students
worked in literature circles, whereby groups of students reading the same book discuss
that book. Another day, Ms. Moeck offers students a direct instruction lesson with a
power-point based interactive lecture and for the remainder of observations students work
in groups to answer questions about pieces of literature. Ms. Moeck offers a variety of
instructional methods to engage AP students.
Students interact with peers and Ms. Moeck in the AP language course. Students
discuss pieces of literature daily. They answer high-level questions about text and are
asked to make inferences. Generally, students answer questions and Ms. Moeck asks for
an explanation with evidence. As a result, her classroom supports varying levels of
student preparation. Students work in groups to puzzle through literary questions and she
allows students to direct the curriculum. Much of the peer interaction in this classroom is
focused on academics and teacher-student interaction has emphasis on both tasks and
content. Ms. Moeck’s AP language course supports AP students by providing them rich-
high level content with peer and teacher support.
AP English Literature and Composition. Next to AP United States History, AP
English Literature and Composition is the most widely taken AP exam (The 6
th
Annual
93

Report to the Nation, 2010). In 2009, 332,352 students took the AP exam and of those
194,885 achieved AP success. That is, 58.6 percent of students nationwide earned a three,
four or five on the exam nationwide (Student Grade Distributions, 2009). Students taking
AP English Literature and Composition (AP Literature) expect to read and analyze texts
important to the canon of British Literature. Students focus on literary tone, style and
devices (English: Course Description, 2010). At CGHS, one hundred and forty-four
students took the AP English Literature exam in 2009. Fifty-one students or 35.4 percent
of students earned passing scores of three or better. Thirty-two students earned threes,
fourteen students earned fours, and five students earned fives. This percentage is below
the national average.
This year, two teachers, Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith teach AP literature at CGHS.
There are two sections offered and both Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith participate in this case-
study. I watch both Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith teach six times. I watch both teachers teach
AP literature, as well as sophomore English. Both Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith have different
levels of expectations with their senior AP students and their sophomore English
students. In general, the teachers expect higher levels of analysis and more work from
their AP students. Moreover, their behavioral expectations are more relaxed in the senior
AP courses than with sophomore students.
Because Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith create lessons together, their instructional
materials and methods are close to identical. Student discourse is highly-structured and
academic. Both Mrs. Hill and Ms. Smith keep a neat, structured classroom and post the
agenda daily. Common assignments include in-class timed writings with AP prompts,
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outside writing assignments, vocabulary practice, independent reading and reading from
the AP Literature textbook. In the AP classroom, teachers use power point to instruct
students daily. During most observations of the AP Literature course, Mrs. Hill and Ms.
Smith teach a poetry unit. Students read and discuss poetry with teacher guidance. The
teachers contextualize each poem in a mini-lesson on a new topic. Students have the
opportunity to share and corroborate their answers to questions about each poem before
sharing with the class. Students talk with neighbors about their answers rather than share
in groups of three or more. Instruction is implemented with neighbor sharing. The AP
literature teachers engage in routinized instruction where students are taught in mini-
lessons and discuss content for practice.
AP Government and Politics-United States. Nationwide, 189,998 students take the
AP United States Government and Politics (Government) course. This is the fifth largest
AP course taken (The 6
th
Annual Report to the Nation, 2010). Fifty-five percent of those
taking the AP exam in AP Government earned a three or better on the AP exam in 2009
(Student Grade Distributions, 2009). Students taking AP Government learn about the
foundations of American Government, political behavior and institutions, as well as
public policy and civil rights. Student must be able to respond to statistics and articles
about US political participation and behavior (Government and Politics: Course
Description, 2010). One hundred and thirty students took the AP Government exam at
CGHS in 2009. Eighteen students or 13.8 percent of students taking the exam earned a
three, four or five on the exam. Fourteen of those students earned threes, three earned
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fours and one student earned a five. Student performance on the AP exam at CGHS is
well below the national average.
Mr. Smitheran is the only AP Government teacher. Though CGHS data on the
number of sections of AP says that CGHS offers only two sections of AP Government,
Mr. Smitheran teaches four sections because the course is a semester long course. Like
the other AP teachers observed, Mr. Smitheran has a well-organized room and posts an
agenda daily. Students sit in rows along both sides of the room facing the middle of the
room.
The AP Government course at CGHS is structured around multiple AP
assessments and daily assessments. Mr. Smitheran starts each lesson with an article or
document analysis. I watch both AP and CP Government courses over six visits and find
this pattern to be true only in the AP course. Mr. Smitheran instructs his CP students with
a focus on vocabulary and group work, whereas AP students are expected to answer
questions about current events and data without teacher-student interaction and less peer
interaction. Students often work in pairs to discuss course content. The majority of
student discussion is focused on course content. Teacher-student interaction is didactic
inasmuch as Mr. Smitheran asks a question and students answer either with a show of a
hand or are called upon without warning. Daily power-point lectures are also interactive
and cover a small amount of material that students later apply and connect to current
events or free response questions. Mr. Smitheran has a friendly rapport with students.
Like AP Literature teachers, Mr. Smitheran’s classroom has a predictable routine of
instruction and student discussion.
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AP Exam Taking
AP students, teachers and leaders know that all students take the AP exam after
completing an AP course. When students at CGHS sign up for the AP class, they sign a
contract saying that they will take the AP exam. All the CGHS AP leaders and teachers
describe this policy. The ULUSD leader, Mrs. Harcharic, explains an expectation to take
the AP exam, but does not underline the AP Contract. For the most part, AP student
interviewees agree that all students take the AP exam. While three of the sophomore
participants believe that all of the students take the exam, one student argues that students
get to choose to take the exam and another student says that teachers encourage only
students who will earn a three or better. Four of the five juniors interviewed believe that
all CGHS AP students take the exam. The senior participants agree that all AP students
take the examination. While the AP district leader describes a policy wherein students are
expected to take the AP exam, CGHS leaders and students believe that all AP students
take the AP exam.
Though all AP students take AP exams, not all students pass exams with a score
of three or better. The College Board data about the excellence and equity of a school’s
AP program reveals that in 2008, forty percent of the graduating seniors had taken and
passed at least one AP exam in high school. Thirty-seven percent of graduating seniors
had taken and passed at least one AP exam over the course of high school, in 2009. See
table 4.4 for these numbers disaggregated by grade-level. In 2008, 56 of the 668 earned
the status of an AP scholar. AP Scholars earn score of three or better on at least three or
more exams. Of the 733 students tested in 2009, 85 students were named AP scholars.
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While CGHS program administrators celebrate scores of three, four or five on AP exams,
a small group of students earn passing scores on AP exams.
________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.6
College-Going High School AP Participation and Success
Year Students Percent of Student Participants with AP
Success and Grade- Level
Percent of Students
with AP Success
2007-2008 668 8.3%-10
th
23.8%-11
th
23.6%-12th 39.5%
2008-2009 733 10.8%-10
th
22%-11
th
20.2%-12th 37.3%

Student Success
Though AP leaders and teachers mention student interest as indicator of AP
student success, there is little consensus on other factors affecting student performance in
AP courses. The teachers identify the following informally-used indicators of potential
student success in AP as grades, writing samples and teacher recommendation.
According to four of the AP teachers, student interest is one of the two most important
factors leading to student success in an AP course. Four of the five teacher respondents
note no difference in the identification factors leading to the success of all students taking
students coming from underrepresented backgrounds. Mrs. Hill, AP literature teacher,
contends that “as the program is open-access, students are not evaluated prior to entering
the program; however, anecdotally [the following] factors are indicators to us of a
student’s prior potential for success.” All of the leader respondents define teacher
recommendation, grades and student interest to be significant indicators of prospective
AP student success. Many also identify previous coursework taken as important to AP
student achievement. CGHS and district leaders agree student interest is one of the two
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most important factors facilitating student performance in an AP course. According to
leader respondents there is no difference between the factors influencing all students’
success in AP and students coming from underrepresented backgrounds. Leaders and
teachers list many variables influencing student success in the AP program.
Rather than basing success in the AP program on pass rates on AP exams,
students believe that success in the AP program at CGHS relates to performance in AP
courses and persistence in AP course work. In general, focus-group respondents define
success in terms of doing one’s best, getting good grades, and participating in school
activities. Sophomore group interview participants name paying attention, trying hard and
“[knowing] what your will learn that day in class before you come to class” as evidence
of success in AP program. In group interviews, juniors and seniors mention grades in
classes and on assignments as indicators of success in AP classes. Few of the students
identify AP exam scores as a significant indicator of student success. Of the sixteen
interview participants, only one of the students believes that she is not successful.
According to AP students in this study, students who do not pass an AP course do not
earn credit and must

retake the class.

Student participants are successful because they feel
like they keep up with the work and understand material especially in their AP courses.
Many of the students mention their “A” and “B” grades as evidence of success. Though
students say that they earn good grades in their AP classes and on exams, they “still go in
to get help.” Overall, AP students in CGHS’s program think that they are successful and
that exam scores are not as important as grades in an AP course.

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Student Persistence
When CGHS AP students need assistance in their AP classes, they access
tutoring, attend review sessions, communicate with teachers online and put in more effort
to study. Sophomore group interview participants say that teachers are available after
school and offer Tuesday reviews. They complete homework packets in order to review
for upcoming exams and the AP exam. Junior and senior AP students seek tutoring and
online sources for extra help. Like sophomore participants, they attend study sessions for
review. Junior group interview participants reveal the importance of practice tests.
Seniors also mention the importance of students trying to help themselves by working on
better time-management. At one time, the senior group-interview respondents created an
AP club. When asked about the AP club students explain
Every morning before a test we’d go into our World History teacher’s class
and study for the quiz. We had quizzes online that we could print out and study
and vocabulary. So we’d go over the questions and answer them, that was
fun...They have study sessions and tutoring…When it gets time for the AP exams
they have after school mandatory sessions or a weekend session where you take
practice tests and go over them.
A few of the students individually interviewed, say that one-on-one tutoring is important
to their success in AP courses. There are many activities supporting the success of AP
students.
AP students at CGHS describe the importance of teachers and peers to their
success in AP course. When asked about family participation, students suggest that
parents and families encourage students to work-hard and do-well. Eugene, tenth grader,
mentions his brother’s help on homework because he had taken AP World History
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previously. The majority of student participants say that their parents are uninvolved in
their studies. Parents are relatively laissez faire in their approach to their students’
coursework. Moreover, a few of the senior students claim that their family has a hard
time understanding how much effort students put into their coursework. The students say
that their families want them to be able to participate in family events. Moreover, tenth,
eleventh and twelfth grade group interview participants get moral and academic support
from their friends. A few of the juniors interviewed think that their relationships with
their peers are most helpful to their success. Juniors in group and individual interviews
assert that their teachers facilitate their success. Both junior and senior AP student
interview groups maintain that they must rise to the occasion to complete achieve success
in AP. Students from all grade-levels argue that to achieve success in high school, one
must study, read and take notes. All of the seniors interviewed individually highlight the
importance of working on one’s own to achieve success. While parents, teachers and
peers support AP students at CGHS, self-motivation and work ethic help students
succeed in AP courses.
Importance of AP Course-Taking
Though students at CGHS contend that AP content and assignments offer them
challenges in the short-run, they reason that AP participation gives them opportunities
over time. Three tenth-grade individual interview participants express the challenges in
terms of more to learn and more reading and writing. Sophomore Javier cites deeper
analysis and tenth grader Alicia describes acquisition of organization and writing skills as
challenging. Eleventh and twelfth grade interview participants say time-management,
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workload, detail of assignments, length of assignments, course pace and the overall
difficulty of AP coursework provides them with challenges. AP students believe AP
coursework to be challenging.
AP students reveal the opportunities offered by AP course-taking in regard to
access to skills necessary for college-level material, experience taking college-level
courses, and college credit. Tenth-grade AP students discuss the importance of AP
course-taking because students acquire of reading and writing skills or prepare for
college. One of the sophomore interview participants, Vince says that AP gives him the
opportunity to “to know more about the world.” The eleventh and twelfth grade
individual interview responses focus on college readiness. AP courses give students an
idea of what college will be like according to three of the juniors interviewed. Two
juniors and two seniors communicate the importance of AP course-taking in the context
of college credits since many college offer students credit with a score of a three or better
on the AP exam. At least three students, two juniors and a senior, mention the
significance of AP course taking as a way to become more competitive in the college
admissions process. Two of the seniors refer to AP participation as an opportunity to
explore a field that one may wish to major in. Senior AP student Christina argues,
You could challenge yourself, not only in school but in other things outside of
school. If you’ve already taken the challenge, you can take other things on.
[AP] helps you to realize that things are possible because when people hear
AP they think oh, that’s so hard, and you’re crazy for taking it. It’s really just
helping you outside of school as well.
Although AP students find AP coursework to be challenging, they believe that they will
be more ready for the college experience.
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Overall, AP students think that AP course participation prepares them for college.
Four of five sophomore interviewees consider AP study habits and time-management
skills as preparation for college, while tenth-grade AP student Alicia says that the
experience in the class supports university participation. Similarly, junior AP students
cite their capacity to engage in hard work, apply skills and reach the expectations of AP
teachers to prepare for college. Seniors also explain the skills attained in AP courses such
as, analytical skills and study habits. Three of the seniors argue that AP coursework give
students an opportunity college will be like. Two of senior interview participants
maintain that AP teachers’ high expectations facilitate college readiness. In group
interviews, students reason that AP course work is similar to college course work and as a
result their reading and writing capacity improves. In all, students insist that there is a
relationship between AP course taking and their readiness for the university.
The teachers rank AP course-taking with very high importance because students
participate in college-level work and students gain confidence in their abilities to tackle
rigorous material. The teachers also perceive AP course-taking as either highly important
or with very high importance in the areas of increasing student interest in the subject,
student chances to gain college admission and student confidence in the subject area.
According AP World History teacher, Mrs. Nagel, participation in AP coursework
“demonstrates students’ commitment to challenging curriculum and willingness to work
to high standards.” Teacher comments reflect strong beliefs that AP course-taking
facilitates college entrance and persistence for all students. According to Ms. Moeck,
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Surviving several AP courses is a good predictor for those who would persist and
finish a college degree. Being able to handle the stress and expectation load of
several AP courses mirror the college experience in some ways, a student who is
taking four AP courses as well as two non-AP classes is really taking much more
than the typical four to five class load at a college. If they can manage their time
and study habits while in high school, college becomes that much more ‘easy’ to
manage.
Importantly, the teachers disagree as to whether earning a score of a three, four or five on
an AP test is significant. Although teachers explain that both the work required and the
skills necessary to AP courses help prepare students for college, they do not all believe
that success on the AP exam is important to college access.
Leaders share perceptions regarding trends in the AP program at CGHS and in the
district and agree to a large degree on the value of the AP participation. All CGHS and
district leaders reason that AP course taking is either highly important or of very high
importance to student experience in college-level work and student confidence in college.
The leaders maintain that AP participation is either highly important or of very high
importance to college persistence and college access among all students and students
coming from underrepresented backgrounds. The leaders emphasize the significance of
taking rigorous coursework as well as increased awareness about college. Leaders
mention student exposure to critical thinking and analytical skills in AP courses. Dr.
Stark, CGHS principal, comments,
The rigor is higher, obviously, but the more important link is having a student
immersed in a classroom with other students who are thinking and working at the
highest levels of Bloom’s on a regular basis. The stimulation in an AP classroom
makes students hungry for more of that level of collegiality. For the majority of
our population (Latino, African, American, low-income), the experience opens
them to a world that they may not otherwise know exists. They believe that
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college is attainable and possible, and their success in an AP course tells them,
‘I’m smart enough to do this’
Moreover, leaders argue that CGHS students participating in AP will be more
competitive in college admissions. Nevertheless, AP leaders differ in their perspectives
on AP exam performance. One leader ranked AP exam scores as of low importance, two
leaders ranked exam scores as medium importance and one leader ranked AP exam
scores as of high importance. In all, AP leaders value participation in AP course taking
over AP exam scores. Although CGHS and district leaders value the AP program for
facilitating college-level experiences, they disagree about the importance of earning a
passing score on the AP exam. In general, AP leaders believe that AP course-taking is
important for college preparation.
AP leaders, teachers and students believe that AP course-taking is important to
improving student college readiness and for some, college outcomes. Specifically they
argue that taking AP classes is very important to giving students access to college-level
coursework, college admissions and more confidence to succeed in college. Leaders and
teachers agree that it is highly important for students from all backgrounds to take AP
coursework in terms of college entrance and persistence. They also agree that taking the
exam regardless of expected score is important. While some leaders and teachers place a
low value on AP exam scores, others thought earning a passing scores on the AP exam is
important. Students talk about the AP exam in terms of college credit, yet few students
mention the importance of earning a three or better of the AP exam. Though participants
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believe in the importance of AP course-taking, they do not agree on the importance of AP
exam scores.
Reform of AP Program
AP student participants offer many suggestions for changes to the AP program at
CGHS. Three sophomores, three juniors, one senior either do not know what to change
in the AP program or say that CGHS’ AP program does not need reform. One sophomore
and one junior think that students need a preview of what the work will be like in AP.
One sophomore explains the need for more practice tests. Likewise, eleventh grader,
Helen suggests the need for more time to practice AP skills and master AP concepts.
Senior responses are that AP teachers need to encourage students to do better in AP and
take more responsibility for their work. Christina a senior says that teachers must offer
more tutoring. Another student comments that courses should be more challenging.
Though some students explain that changes could be made to the AP program, many of
the AP students at CGHS do not explain why the AP program needs reform.
While few of the teachers discuss changes they want to make to the CGHS AP
program, teachers’ comments reveal some cynicism about the AP program regarding
lacking resources and AP policies. Ms. Smith and Mrs. Hill, AP Literature teachers, say
that necessary changes to CGHS’s AP program cannot happen given the open access
policy. They argue that many of the students are not prepared for the level of rigor of an
AP course and they must teach students basic skills that are not included in the AP
curriculum. Ms. Smith and Mrs. Hill would like to differentiate between students who are
not prepared and those are prepared for AP coursework. In addition to changes in access
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to the AP program, a few of the teachers say that CGHS should provide money for
classroom resources and College Board institute registration fees. Also, others’ comments
include the need for more collaboration and preparation time, as well as time and money
for AP study sessions. Ms. Moeck, AP Language teacher, believes that
providing prior experiences, in the form a vertical teaming, is the best way to
improve effectiveness. While we are beginning to see this in English, much of the
vertical team is focused on English Literature rather than English Language,
primarily because the content of the Language class is out the comfort area of
many English teachers. Hopefully, the more we work together, the better this
connection becomes, for both teachers and students.

Mrs. Nagel suggests more communication with parents about AP in a forum such as a
parent seminar. With more resources, the teachers argue that they could better reach the
needs of all students.
Although principals, Stark and Thomas, believe CGHS’s AP program to be doing
an exceptional job, Ms. Martinez, college counselor, and Mrs. Harcharic, AP district
leader, make recommendations to improve the program. Ms. Martinez believes that the
AP program needs to “[offer] some sort of AP summer institute for students taking AP
courses for their first time to teach students how to read, take notes, write and prepare for
AP curriculum.” She thinks that a parent info session [would help] parents understand the
level of commitment and amount of work involved with taking an AP course. Similarly,
Mrs. Harcharic urges the development of website for Spanish speaking parents to better
communicate with more parents. In addition, Mrs. Harcharic emphasizes the need to
improve AP teaching. She argues that AP teachers need more professional development
on culturally responsive teaching and differentiation. She believes that AP teachers will
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only meet the needs of all AP students with instruction that takes into account the varying
academic preparation and cultural backgrounds of AP students. AP students, teachers and
leader emphasize communication and resources as areas for reform of AP program.
Summary of Data
AP program policy encompasses avenues for program publicity, recruitment of
students and teachers, AP curriculum standards, course retention and exam taking.
Although leaders agree that the CGHS principal establishes policy in the AP program, AP
teachers, district leaders, the school, school practices, other administrators and counselor
influence AP policies. All the leaders agree that counselors have some influence over the
selection of students participating in the AP program. At CGHS, AP teachers are
recruited by AP leaders with teacher training and academic preparation in mind. In
contrast, any student with an interest in taking an AP course can sign up for said course
without regard for academic preparation. Students taking AP courses sign a contract
explaining the rigor of coursework. The contract also includes CGHS policies regarding
AP persistence and AP exam-taking. At CGHS, once a student has signed up for a course
they must complete the course and take the exam in May. Overall, students find their
participation in AP as successful.
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Chapter Five
Since the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in
1965 and its subsequent reauthorization in 2001 as No Child Left Behind (NCLB),
politicians, administrators, counselors and educators have sought to diminish the
achievement gap in public schools. The achievement gap refers to the disparity between
the academic achievement of social and economic subgroups in the United States
(Stecher, Hamilton and Gonzalez, 2003). Kao and Thompson’s (2003) recent overview of
Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational Achievement and Attainment addresses
the disproportionate outcomes among groups in high school completion, grade point
average, national test score data, college acceptance, college completion, as well as desire
to participate in the university. Over the last three decades gaps in performance decrease,
yet substantial inequalities remain between students identifying themselves as Asian and
White and students identifying themselves as African American, Native American, and
Latino (Kao & Thompson, 2003). Moreover, Haveman and Smeeding (2006) report
growing disparity in the college access and persistence of students from disadvantaged or
low-income backgrounds when compared to students from traditionally advantaged
backgrounds. District and school leaders implement numerous special programs to
increase the educational attainment of students coming from disadvantaged and
underrepresented backgrounds (Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002). The Advanced Placement
(AP) program is an example of a program used by school districts and principals across
the United States encourage student participation in to increase college access (Bragg,
Kim & Rubin, 2005). I answer the following questions: How is the AP program currently
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being implemented in one urban school? What are student, teacher, counselor and district
leader attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources available to support for AP
course quality, and AP exam taking?
Opportunities and Constraints: Key Findings
The extent to which schools will be successful in increasing college readiness
through AP course-taking relies on the ways in which schools present students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds with constraints and opportunities.
Constraints are the rules, norms and practices that restrict a student’s life chances or a
student’s accumulation of social and cultural capital. For students from
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds an opportunity is one that facilitates
the acquisition of material, social or human resources necessary to overcome
constraints. In other words, opportunities offer students with human, social and cultural
capital. A student’s life chances are connected to educational attainment and the ability
to gain employment to maintain a quality standard of living (O’Connor, 2002). Since
college entrance depends upon college readiness through academic preparation (Perna,
2005), AP course taking is often related to increased college admissions. Because
policies, schools, families and student perceptions influence student access to
opportunities in CGHS’s AP program, I explain findings in the context of Perna and
Thomas’s conceptual model for student success.
Opportunities and Constraints in the AP Program at CGHS: Policy Context.
Urban-Like Unified School District (ULUSD) policies regarding recruitment,
communication, and retention lay within the policy context. Data collected about the
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ULUSD AP program reflect educators and policymakers recent commitment to
educational equity. College Board policies to increase diversity in the AP program and
school reform efforts to increase college readiness parallel ULUSD’s policy of open
access to AP. Students taking AP courses in ULUSD do not need to take previous
honors courses, to take requisite courses, or have high grades. In addition, many of the
AP students qualify for free and reduced lunch they receive fee-waivers for AP exam
fees. According to the ULUSD AP leader, the district
Opportunities and Constraints in the AP Program at CGHS: School Context.
The school context includes policies and practices of AP leaders and teachers at College-
Going High School (CGHS). In general, the school promotes student participation in AP
coursework. Since the AP programs in ULUSD are open access, there is a high rate of
student participation in the AP program at CGHS. This is a departure from most AP
programs requiring students to take previous coursework or get recommendations from
teachers (Milewski & Gillie, 2002; Oakes, 1992). CGHS’s AP program is anomalous to
other AP programs because of the AP contract. All students taking AP sign an AP
contract. This contract requires all AP students to commit to staying in the AP course
all year and to take the AP exam. For this reason, students understand the commitment
involved in taking an AP course. In addition, student must have this document signed
by parents, thus also communicating the significance of AP course-taking to families.
Requiring students to sign an AP contract gives students and families the opportunity to
learn about the rigor of the course, while enforcing the importance of the AP exam.
When students sign the AP contract they commit to not dropping the course and taking
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the AP exam. While AP students at CGHS sign a contract explaining their commitment
to the course, students at many schools choose to drop an AP course when they find the
coursework too difficult. Also many students choose not to take the AP exam at the end
of the year (The 6th Annual AP Report to the Nation, 2010). Furthermore, the AP
program at CGHS supports a college-going culture. AP teachers and leaders at CGHS
value the AP program as a college preparation program and frame the importance of AP
course-taking that way. At CGHS, all students are encouraged to take AP in order to
prepare for college-level work.
Although CGHS policies offer students the opportunity to take AP, policies are
not clearly communicated to AP students and the community. District policies are not
translated in writing to the school and may inadvertently discriminate against some
students. The main form of communication with students about the AP is the AP contract.
For this reason, students learn about AP after already choosing to participate in the
program. Recruitment and identification of AP students is informal. AP students rely on
word of mouth to get information about the program before entering. Few students report
learning about the program through formal means like counselor visits and assembly.
According to Ms. Martinez, it is difficult to communicate to students the expectations of
AP courses. Students want to take AP courses regardless of their skills because their
friends or family took an AP course. Without more communication about AP
coursework, CGHS places constraints on students not knowing about the possibility of
taking AP coursework and students wanting to take AP coursework without realistic
expectations of AP rigor. AP students coming from Latino backgrounds are
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underrepresented when compared to their Asian counterparts (The 6th Annual AP Report
to the Nation, 2010), possibly for the aforementioned reasons. There is a need for a
written policy about the recruitment and identification of student participants in the AP
program.
Opportunities and Constraints in the AP Program at CGHS: Family Context.
This case-study focusing on the relationships and interactions students have with
teachers, parents and their peers. While students cite peers as important supporters, AP
teachers are more important to students’ success in an AP course. For this reason, the
family context includes findings about AP teacher perceptions and practices, as well as
teacher background. AP teachers come from traditionally represented backgrounds
(Burton et. al., 2002; Milewski & Gillie, 2002) and have higher education in their
disciplinary area, as well as training in AP pedagogy (Milewski & Gille, 2002). In
addition, AP teachers offer students a challenging curricular experience. AP teachers at
CGHS report lecturing, giving multiple-choice exams and covering concepts found on the
AP exam like AP teachers previously studied (Paek et. al., 2010). AP teachers offer
students opportunities through academic supports. AP students take advantage of one-on-
one tutoring, study sessions, email communication, and multiple opportunities to take AP
practice tests. In addition, teacher collaboration and training is one of the most important
aspects of the AP program at CGHS. AP teachers describe how working in teams enables
them to be better educators and offer students more support. AP programs give students
opportunities when students are given supports to better understand AP curricula. AP
teachers at CGHS facilitate student success.
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Unfortunately, teacher perceptions about open access and exam performance
vary. Some AP courses are less difficult than others at a single school site (Burton et. al.,
2002; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). In addition, some teachers do not support open
access, this may inhibit student participation and support. Because student academic
preparation varies, some the AP teachers at CGHS decrease the amount of content
covered and admit to teaching basic skills rather than teach college-level curriculum
offered by the College Board. Part of this choice could be due to CGHS policy that
students cannot drop AP courses. Student contracts require students to take the AP course
for the entire year and take the AP examination at the year. Students earning a low grade
in an AP course must mitigate their grade by retaking the course. AP teachers choosing
to decrease the level of rigor in AP courses and AP students lacking information or
preparation may constrain the success of some AP students. AP teacher methods vary
and students describe differences in course quality.
AP program participants at CGHS believe that AP participation results in college-
preparation, however these assumptions are unrelated to exam performance. Some
scholars find no correlation between number of AP or honors courses taken and college
outcomes; rather it is AP exam scores that have a correlation with higher university GPA
and college persistence (Geiser & Santelices, 2004; Morgan & Maneckshana, 2000).
While AP course taking is important to leaders and AP teachers, value of test
performance varies. Exam scores are not important to AP students and many AP teachers
and leaders. This is evidenced by AP exam scores at CGHS. Pass-rates for the teachers
observed are below forty percent. Average national pass rates in courses range from forty
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to seventy percent (Student Grade Distributions, 2009). CGHS pass rates are low. If
ULUSD and CGHS leaders are serious about preparing students for college they must
evaluate the excellence of the AP program in terms of participation and AP exams scores.
Opportunities and Constraints in the AP Program at CGHS: Internal Context.
The internal context includes student backgrounds, attitudes and perceptions.
Participants in the AP program value college-access and believe that they have success at
school. Only one of the student participants feels that they are unsuccessful. Attitudes
about AP course taking reflect previous research. AP students take AP courses in order to
prepare for college and better compete in college admissions. Further, students believe
that AP participation gives them the skills and content, the human capital, necessary for
college participation. Because many AP program participants value college, the AP
program gives students the cultural and social capital to facilitate college entrance. AP
students believe AP coursework to be challenging. Some focus-group participants
comment that that AP coursework would be more difficult than college coursework. They
also believe it to be their responsibility to meet the expectations of teachers. In other
words, AP students do not think that it is the responsibility of AP teachers to meet their
needs (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008).
CGHS student attitudes support their success in the AP program.
Constraints Provided by AP Programs. The existence of AP courses at a school
often serves to demonstrate the quality of a school’s instruction (Geiser & Santelices,
2004; cited in Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007). To reduce the possibility of a
negative assessment of the school’s AP program from college admissions’ committees,
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some parents, administrators and teachers push for strict requirements for students
entering AP courses (Milewski & Gillie, 2002). For example, there are schools and
specific teachers who require that students wishing to take AP coursework complete
summer assignments, have taken specific course requirements, get recommendations
from previous teachers or meet minimum standardized test scores (Oakes, 1992; Oakes,
1985, 2005). In this way, schools withhold human and social capital from students by
preventing them from taking AP courses with peers and educators that possess
knowledge important to college admissions. Many students, often students coming
underrepresented and disadvantaged backgrounds, are left out of or discouraged from
taking AP coursework.
Because of these disparities in the AP program, teachers, counselors, and
administrators with cultural biases think that students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged backgrounds do not have the intellectual capacities, values, and supportive
families to sustain academic achievement (Landsman, 2004; cited in Oakes, 1985, 2005).
Coupled with the pressures of high stakes testing, such racist attitudes of administrators,
counselors, and educators promulgate secondary school tracking along ethnic lines
(Ferguson, Clark & Stewart, 2002; Oakes, 1992; Oakes, 1985, 2005; Ogbu & Simmons,
1998). The aforementioned constraints to student access to AP coursework reproduce
societal inequities in the AP program.
Another significant constraint schools and specifically AP programs place on
students from African American and Latino backgrounds is lacking representation of
African American and Latino AP teachers. While the authors point to evidence that AP
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teachers from African American descent tended to teach courses with higher populations
of African American students, few AP teachers come from African American, Asian
American and Latino descent (Burton et. al., 2002; Milewski & Gillie, 2002). Teachers
and counselors, especially those from African American and Latino backgrounds, acting
as institutional agents, can encourage students to take and persist in rigorous coursework.
Although the College Board focuses on recruiting teachers from underrepresented
backgrounds, high school principals and district leaders must take an active role to recruit
AP teachers from communities of color.
When AP teachers do not act as institutional agents to provide students with the
human or social capital necessary for college competitiveness, they place constraints on
students. Teachers of AP courses sometimes do not require their students to take
associated AP exams and do not present college-level curriculum (Burton et. al., 2002;
cited in Geiser & Santelices, 2004; Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). Schools
are often judged as having a lacking AP program when teachers do not acquaint students
with high-level curriculum. When teachers do not give students access to the AP
coursework, they may be limiting student access to the human capital necessary for
college-level coursework. Rather than enhancing student knowledge, skills and cultural
awareness of college level curriculum, increasing student human and cultural capital,
teachers sometimes choose to teach students from underrepresented backgrounds basic
skills rather than rich, rigorous curriculum.
Another constraint the AP program places on students is cost. Students must pay
to take exams associated with AP courses in order to qualify for college credit. In 2010
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the fee for an AP exam is 86 dollars. The College Board gives an eight dollar rebate for
each test to pay for administration costs and a twenty-two dollar rebate for students
qualifying as low-income. With College Board subsidies, students from disadvantaged
backgrounds pay fifty-six dollars for each exam (Federal & State AP Exam Fee
Assistance, 2010). Students also get other state and school funded subsidies. While
paying for an AP test equates to paying less money than paying for a college-course at a
four-year university (cited in Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007) or at some
community colleges, students do not want to pay the fee to take AP exams. In the short
run, said fees are steep, especially when taking more than one AP exam. Any student
qualifying for a reduced price or free lunch at a school qualifies for an AP exam fee-
reduction of twenty-two dollars from the College Board. Students coming from families
making less than 185 percent of the nationally defined poverty level also can receive the
fee-reduction. Many districts offer students from disadvantaged backgrounds fee-waiver
because states pay for the remaining costs of exams after the College Board contribution
(Federal & State AP Exam Fee Assistance, 2009). However, students are not always
given the information needed to obtain fee-reductions or fee-waivers (College-Bound
Black Students, 1998). Thus, students are denied opportunities that would help them be
more competitive in college admissions. These constraints limit the access of all students
from specific high school campuses to college admission.
Opportunities Provided by AP Programs. AP courses are intended to be college-
level courses offered to students at the high school. When provided with rigorous
curriculum like AP, students gain important human and cultural capital related to
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course content, literacy development and study strategies (cited in Kyburg, Hertberg-
Davis & Callahan, 2007). Students taking AP courses often score higher on
standardized tests evaluating school performance and standardized tests necessary for
college entrance (Burton et. al., 2002). Likewise, the University of California also offers
grade bonus points for students taking AP courses and earning A, B or C grades (Geiser
& Santelices, 2004). In this way, students taking AP coursework are given the
opportunity to increase their grade point average in relation to the number of AP courses
taken. When college allow students to count passing AP exam scores for courses taken,
students take fewer college classes saving them time and money (cited in Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2007). Students taking AP courses have an advantage in the
college admissions process.
By merely taking quality AP coursework, students gain information important to
high school achievement and college entrance (cited in Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis &
Callahan, 2007). With this opportunity, students from underrepresented and
disadvantaged are exposed to knowledge instrumental to college admissions (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Even more, students have the prospect to make relationships with peers
and educators knowledgeable in the systems to be maneuvered in college admissions
(Burton et. al., 2002). Network development enables AP students from underrepresented
backgrounds to gain access to important institutional resources important to academic
success (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). To diminish disparities in human capital, cultural
capital and social capital, schools offer study sessions and tutoring programs developed
to assist underrepresented students in their endeavor to succeed in advanced
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coursework and get into college (Burton et. al., 2002). In doing so, schools provide
students with opportunities to gain moral and academic support significant to
maintaining student efficacy. In addition, many some schools provide students with
pre-AP courses, summer programs to help prepare students for AP coursework and
study sessions to help students with curriculum (Oakes, 1985, 2005). Schools with
bridging programs like these help students by modeling studying, reading and test-
taking strategies necessary to have success in AP level coursework. AP programs have
the capacity to act as college preparation programs.
Implications for Practice
Recommendation 1: Increase Communication. Schools interested in increasing
access to AP, must communicate to students and the community about the importance of
AP course taking. Schools interested in increasing student success in AP, must
communicate to students and the community about the expectations AP teachers and the
rigor of AP curricula. Some CGHS leaders, teachers and students indicate a need for
workshops and pamphlets explaining the benefits of the AP program. It seems that
communication is the number one need to improve the number of student participants in
the AP program at CGHS.
Recommendation 2: Improve Academic Preparation. ULUSD and CGHS need to
increase the academic preparation of students entering the AP program. Data from this
study does not show the extent to which AP students participate in an academic track.
However, a few of the AP students indicate that they wish that they were more prepared
for the AP experience and observations of non-AP courses demonstrate disparity in the
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types of skills taught. Additionally, AP teachers describe the need to more vertical
teaming or collaboration with teachers of students that they will teach in the future. AP
leaders and teachers at CGHS should consider a summer bridge whereby students can
take part of an AP course during the summer. Students will get an idea of AP content and
expectations. Also, CGHS and ULUSD should implement a Pre-AP program wherein
students learn content and skills applicable to AP courses during middle school and the
lower grades. The implementation of Pre-AP may also have the positive side-effect of
more collaboration of AP teachers with non-AP teachers.
Recommendation 3: Equity Scorecard. AP leaders, teachers and students must
examine the importance of AP exam scores. Excellence must be another component of a
solid AP program. Schools should use the Equity Scorecard. In order to properly gauge
AP program equity and excellence, schools must assess AP enrollment, AP retention, AP
exam taking, AP exam grades and AP course grades. Leaders identify student
opportunities and constraints to social capital with an equity scorecard. The equity
scorecard (Bensimon, Hao, & Bustillos, in press), first identified as the diversity
scorecard (Bensimon, 2004), highlights data on four dimensions of student outcomes,
including: access, retention, excellence and institutional receptivity (Bensimon, 2004).
Although CGHS and other schools get data from the College Board annually, much of
this data is not made public.
On the access dimension, schools disaggregate how many students from differing
subgroups are enrolled in AP courses. To provide evidence for the retention dimension of
the equity scorecard, schools disaggregate the number of students completing AP courses
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by taking AP tests and staying over the course of the school year. Within the excellence
perspective of the equity scorecard, schools detail the numbers of students from ethnic
subgroups earning passing course grades, exam grades and AP scholar awards. The three
awards include: AP scholar, “granted to students who receive grades of 3 or higher on
three or more AP Exams,” AP scholar with honors, “granted to students who receive an
average grade of at least 3.25 on all AP Exams taken, and grades of 3 or higher on four or
more of these exams,” and an AP scholar with distinction, “granted to students who
receive an average grade of at least 3.5 on all AP Exams taken, and grades of 3 or higher
on five or more of these exams” (AP Scholar, 2007). Finally, the AP equity scorecard
includes information about the training of AP teachers and counselors in their respective
disciplines and the ethnic makeup of these groups as part of the receptivity perspective.
In addition, schools use the Academic Equity Index (AEI) as part of the equity
scorecard to better assess the changes in opportunities and constraints to social capital.
The AEI is made up of the number of students in a specific subgroup divided by the total
number of students. This number is then divided by the total number of students from a
specific subgroup, divided by the total number of students in that subgroup. Basically,
this is way to compare proportions. An AEI of one characterizes an equitable outcome.
Any score below one represents underrepresentation. And, any score above one signifies
overrepresentation in the outcome (Bensimon, Hao, & Bustillos, in press). Constraints
exist when the AEI on a certain dimension is below one and opportunities exist when the
AEI on a certain dimension is one. If schools and districts are interested in increasing
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opportunities for students coming from underrepresented backgrounds, they must use a
tool like the equity scorecard with Academic Equity Indices to measure student success.
Implications for Research
Recommendation 1: Measure the Impact of AP Teaching. AP teachers implement
AP curriculum differently and hence have differing outcomes with students. Researchers
need to seek out AP teachers who successfully implement differentiation strategies and
culturally relevant pedagogy. The observations of teachers in this study illuminate few
examples of teachers using differentiation strategies or applications of culturally relevant
pedagogy. The exception is that teachers at CGHS do build supportive relationships with
students. While this study describes the teaching strategies of five teachers, without a
study of non-AP teachers or an evaluation of the multiple variables affecting teacher
effectiveness it is difficult to illuminate best practices of AP teachers. There is a need to
study best practices among AP teachers who have success with their students either in
terms of AP exam scores or improvement of other academic outcomes.
Recommendation 2: Study College Student Perspectives. Numerous studies link
AP course-taking and AP exams scores to college disciplinary choices, grades and
persistence (Geiser & Santelices, 2004; Morgan and Klaric, 2007; Morgan &
Maneckshana, 2000; Morgan & Ramist, 1998). AP teachers, leaders and students at
CGHS confirm the importance of AP course-taking in relation to college outcomes.
However, there is no qualitative research on the attitudes of students at the college who
took AP and those who did not. Students at the university need to be questioned about
their perspectives on AP participation and exam-taking. In other words, do university
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students believe that they are prepared by honors and AP courses at the high school? By
studying college-student perspectives, scholars may better understand how to prepare
students for college.
Recommendation 3: Assess the Extent of Student Tracking. While student
placement in a college-track is no longer acceptable on many secondary campuses,
tracking exists because of differences in academic skills in mathematics and literacy. The
disparity in content and skill instruction between AP and college preparatory courses at
CGHS is apparent among AP teachers observed. If courses taken prior to AP coursework
emphasize basic literacy skills and AP coursework highlights analytical skills, students
may find themselves underprepared. Scholars need to evaluate the disparity between
courses taught in middle school and high school that are taken prior to AP and college
coursework. It is probable that students do not have opportunities to develop skills prior
to AP courses, outside of courses specifically targeting students labeled gifted.
Conclusion
Critics of the AP program can not discount the merits of participation in rigorous
courses. Findings from Sadler’s (2010) recent critique of the AP program, discounts
claims “that [AP students] graduate college earlier, that they switch college majors less
often, and that they are better prepared for college” (p. 265). Key findings from this study
of AP math and science courses demonstrate evidence showing that participation in AP
courses is not as important as AP exam performance to college outcomes. In addition, the
authors contend that students have differing experiences in AP. Evidence from this case-
study does not demonstrate the causal connection between AP course-taking and college
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participation or performance. However, CGHS’s open access policy and AP contract
makes a compelling case for studying programs in context because a few schools support
said policies. Individuals skeptical of the merits of the AP program must consider the
differences in the quality of schools and AP teachers. Researchers must study student
success in relation to a number of intersecting factors which include policy, school,
family and internal contexts.
School administrators work to improve the participation and persistence of
students from disadvantaged and underrepresented backgrounds in college by facilitating
student entry into courses aligned with college curriculum, restructuring schools to
provide students with smaller learning environments, as well as by providing social
supports for students (Martinez & Klopott, 2005). Since less than one-fifth of students in
the United States take AP courses and pass AP exams (The 6th Annual AP Report to the
Nation, 2010), the College Board needs to emphasize greater supports for students,
teachers and schools. AP school and district leaders also must support both student
participation and excellence in AP coursework by increasing community access to
information about AP coursework, student access to academic preparation and teacher
access to professional development to improve their instruction to better meet the needs
of all students.

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Appendix A: Student Focus-Group Guide
1. What defines success in high school? How confident are you that you will be
successful in high school?

2. What defines success in AP classes? How confident are you that you will be
successful in your AP classes?

3. Why would students want to take an AP class?
4. What is different about teacher expectations in AP classes and non-AP classes?
5. What is different about teacher lessons in AP classes and non-AP classes?
6. What is different about tests in AP classes and non-AP classes?
7. What kinds of help do students get in AP classes to help them succeed?
8. Which types of activities (study sessions, tutoring or summer bridge) have
helped you the most do well in your AP classes?

9. What happens if AP students earn a failing grade?
10. What relationships are most important to your success in AP?
11. How much is your family involved in your school decisions?
12. How has the school tried to communicate with your family about the AP
program? Community about the AP program?

13. How do students find out about the AP program?
14. How do students get into AP classes?
15. How do students get information about college?
16. How important is it for you to go to college? Why?
17. Does AP prepare students for college? In what ways?

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Appendix B: Student Interview Guide
Background, Education and Resources

1. What is your age? (Circle One)
a. 15
b. 16
c. 17
d. 18

2. What is your gender? (Circle One)
a. Male
b. Female

3. Which best describes you? (Circle One)
a. American Indian or Alaskan Native
b. Asian or Pacific Islander
c. Black/African American
d. Latino
e. White
f. Other: ___________

4. Do you qualify for free or reduced fee lunch? (Circle One)
a. Yes
b. No

5. What is your parent’s highest level of education? (Circle One)
a. Not a high school graduate
b. High school graduate
c. Some college
d. College graduate
e. Post graduate degree
f. I don’t know

6. What practices or strategies are used at your school to prepare prospective
students to succeed in AP? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No specific preparation
b. Students complete a specified course sequence in a given subject matter
c. Student complete an honors course (s)
d. Students attend preparatory summer workshop or course
e. Other (specify): ______________

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7. Who is routinely involved in selecting students for AP courses? (Circle all that
apply.)
a. AP teacher
b. Other teacher
c. Principal
d. Other school administrator
e. Guidance counselor
f. Other (specify): ______________

8. Which of the following best describes your school’s practice regarding students
taking the AP examination? (Circle one.)
a. The teacher/school encourages students likely to get a three or higher to
take the exam
b. The student decides whether to take the exam
c. All students taking AP course take the exam
d. Other (specify): ______________

9. Which of the following do you plan to attend or apply to? (Circle all that apply.)
a. Community College
b. 4-year College- Public
c. 4-year College- Private
d. Join the Military
e. Vocational or Other Apprenticeship
f. Not sure

Interview Portion

10. How did you find out about the AP program?

11. Why did you decide to take AP?

12. Number of AP classes taken prior to this year:

13. Number of AP classes taking this year:

14. Which AP classes have you taken? Are you taking?

15. Which AP exam have you taken? What were your scores on these exams?

16. What are the differences between AP and non-AP courses?

17. What are the similarities between AP and non-AP courses?
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18. How much time do you expect to spend on assignments outside of your non- AP
classes per week?

19. How much time do you expect to spend on assignments outside of your AP
classes per week?

20. In what ways does AP coursework provide you with challenges?

21. In what ways does AP coursework provide you with opportunities?

22. Do you think you are successful in your AP classes? Why? Why not?

23. What has helped you achieve success in your AP classes?

24. What kinds of changes could the AP program make to help students get into and
have success in college?

25. In what ways has AP coursework prepared you for college participation?
136

Appendix C: Teacher Survey

Background, Education and Resources

1. What is your gender? (Circle One)
a. Male
b. Female

2. Which best describes you? (Circle One)
a. American Indian or Alaskan Native
b. Asian or Pacific Islander
c. Black/African American
d. Latino
e. White
f. Other: ___________

3. Counting this year, how many years in total (including part-time) have you taught
secondary (science, math, social science or English)? (Circle One)
a. 2 years or less
b. 3-5 years
c. 6-10 years
d. 11-24 years
e. 25 years or more

4. Counting this year, how many years in total (including part-time) have you taught
Advanced Placement (science, math, social science or English)? (Circle One)
a. 2 years or less
b. 3-5 years
c. 6-10 years
d. 11-24 years
e. 25 years or more

5. What type of teaching certificate or credential do you hold? (Circle One)
a. Permanent certificate
b. Advanced professional certificate
c. Temporary, provisional, or emergency state certificate
d. I do not have a certificate in teaching
e. Other (Specify): ______________

137

6. What is the highest academic degree you hold? (Circle One)
a. Bachelor’s degree
b. Master’s degree
c. Educational specialist or professional diploma based on at least one year’s
work passed master’s degree
d. Doctorate

7. When was your most recent degree awarded? (Circle One)
a. Within the last year
b. 2-4 years ago
c. 5-10 years ago
d. 11-20 years ago
e. 21 years ago or more

8. What were your undergraduate major and minor fields? __________________

9. What were your graduate fields of study? __________________

10. How often do you attend AP workshops? (Circle One)
a. Once or twice a year
b. Every two or three years
c. Every four or five years
d. Infrequently (every six or more years)
e. I have never attended an AP workshop

11. How often do you attend AP summer institutes? (Circle One)
a. Once or twice a year
b. Every two or three years
c. Every four or five years
d. Infrequently (every six or more years)
e. I have never attended an AP institute

12. When did you last attend an AP summer institutes? (Circle One)
a. Within the last year
b. 2-4 years ago
c. 5 years ago or more
d. I have never attended an AP summer institute

138

13. What type of support is provided for you to participate in the following? (Circle
all that apply)
AP Workshops and Institutes
a. None
b. Release time
c. Fee for workshop
d. Expenses for workshop
e. Other (specify): ______________

14. Which of the statements is true about the extent to which your school provides
you with the instructional materials and other resources you need to teach your
AP class (as)? (Circle One)
a. I get all the resources that I need
b. I get most of the resources that I need.
c. I get some of the resources that I need.
d. I don’t get any of the resources that I need.

15. How often do you incur out-of-pocket costs for instructional materials and other
resources for your AP class(es)? (Circle One).
a. Weekly
b. Monthly
c. Three or four times each year.
d. Once or twice each year.
e. Hardly ever or never.

16. Which of the following resource people do you find useful to your in teaching
your AP classes? (Circle all that apply.)
a. Other AP teacher (s)
b. Other teacher (s)
c. Department chair
d. Principal
e. District curriculum specialist
f. Other (Specify): ___________________
g. None

139

17. Which, if any, of the following technology do you use in school to prepare to
teach your AP class (as)? (Circle all that apply.)
a. I do not have access to a computer.
b. I don to have access to a computer in school.
c. Email.
d. AP list serves
e. Chat rooms
f. Internet/ Worldwide Web
g. Other (Specify): ___________________
h. None

18. How many school hours per week do you currently have designated as in-school
preparation for your AP classes? (Circle one)
a. None
b. Preparation time for AP class(es) part of overall preparation time
c. Less than I hour
d. 1-2 hours
e. 3-4 hours
f. 5 hours or more

19. How many additional hours do you currently spend outside of school on
preparation for your AP class (es) per week? (Circle one)
a. None
b. Less than I hour
c. 1-2 hours
d. 3-4 hours
e. 5 hours or more

20. Are you involved in team teaching in your AP course (s)? (Circle one)
a. No
b. Yes

21. Are you involved in joint preparation time with another teacher teaching AP in
your course? (Circle one)
a. No
b. Yes

140

Subject-Specific Preparation

22. What type of support is provided for teachers to participate in non-AP workshops
or seminars?
a. None
b. Released time
c. Fee for workshop or seminar
d. Expenses for workshop or seminar
e. Other (Specify): ______________

23. How prepared did you feel when you first started to teach AP courses?
Knowledge of the Subject
a. Very well prepared
b. Well prepared
c. Somewhat prepared
d. Not prepared
Knowledge of the AP Program
a. Very well prepared
b. Well prepared
c. Somewhat prepared
d. Not prepared

24. How prepared do you now feel to teach your AP course?
Knowledge of the Subject
a. Very well prepared
b. Well prepared
c. Somewhat prepared
d. Not prepared
Knowledge of the AP Program
a. Very well prepared
b. Well prepared
c. Somewhat prepared
d. Not prepared

25. How closely aligned do you feel the AP curriculum provided by the AP program
is with the curriculum standards used in your state?
a. Not aligned
b. Somewhat aligned
c. Closely aligned
d. Very closely aligned
e. There are no formal curriculum standards

141

Instructional Information

26. How many hours of instructional time do you have to present the complete AP
curriculum for your course? ________ hours per week_______ weeks

27. On average, how much time do you expect students in each class to spend on
assignments outside of the classroom per week? ________

28. In your AP class, how often do you do each of the following? (Choose one:
Never, Once or Twice a Month, Once or Twice per Week, and Daily. Write your
response next to each letter.)
a. Promote student interaction and discussion using inquiry-based techniques
b. Use students’ interests and background experiences to make connections
to your subject
c. Develop students’ ability to make connections between your subject and
other disciplines
d. Use the results of classroom assessments to inform instructional decisions

29. How often do you use each of the following to assess students’ progress in your
AP class? (Choose one: Never, Once or Twice a Month, Once or Twice per
Week, and Daily. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. In-class essay exams
b. Take-home essay exams
c. Individual or group projects or presentations
d. Portfolio collections of each student’s work
e. Multiple choice tests
f. In-class participation in discussion

30. How often do you provide each of the following types of feedback to students?
(Choose one: Never, Once or Twice a Month, Once or Twice per Week, and
Daily. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Letter grade
b. Written comments
c. Verbal comments
d. Other (specify):___________________________

142

31. How do you communicate students’ progress to parents? (circle all that apply)
a. Formal mid-term progress report
b. Report card
c. Parent-teacher conference initiated by teacher
d. Parent-teacher conference initiated by parent (or student)
e. Written note
f. Phone call
g. Other (specify):___________________________

32. How confident do you feel about each of the following? (Choose one: Relatively
little or no confidence, Somewhat Confident, Very Confident. Write your
response next to each letter.)
a. Teaching your AP course skills
b. Communicating your AP course skills to students with different levels of
academic preparation
c. Using a wide variety of course-related instructional methods
d. Using course-related technology

33. In your opinion, how effective was your AP course in doing each of the
following? (Choose one: Poor, Fair, Good, Very Good and Excellent. Write your
response next to each letter.)
a. Increasing students’ general interest and motivation
b. Increasing students’ verbal skills
c. Increasing students’ writing skills
d. Improving students’ reading skills
e. Improving students’ analytical skills
f. Preparing students for a college course
g. Increasing students’ confidence

Policies and Practices

34. Which of the following are considered when recruiting new AP teachers?
a. Teacher interest
b. Teacher’s schedule availability
c. Degree in the subject are
d. Experience in the subject are
e. Other (specify):___________________

143

35. Who was involved in your selection to teach AP?
a. Principal decisions
b. Teacher initiated
c. Department Chair recommended
d. Another teacher recommended
e. Other (specify): _________________

36. Indicate which, if any, of the following policies, practices or strategies are used at
your school to prepare prospective students to succeed in AP? (Circle all that
apply.)
a. No specific preparation
b. Students complete a specified course sequence in a given subject matter
c. Student complete an honors course (s)
d. Students attend preparatory summer workshop or course
e. Other (specify): ______________

37. How are teachers in your school made aware of AP course offering and
requirements? (Circle all that apply.)
a. AP teacher(s)
b. Other teacher(s)
c. Principal
d. Formal in-service
e. Other (specify): ______________

38. About which of the following do you communicate with other teachers teaching
9
th
, 10th, and 11
th
grade students? (Circle all that apply.)
a. AP program offerings
b. Student skills necessary for AP program/courses
c. Identifying promising students for AP courses
d. Identifying promising students from African American, Latino and low-
income backgrounds for AP course
e. None of the Above

39. How do you make students aware of the AP course offerings? (Circle all that
apply.)
a. Speak with students in my classes
b. Speak with students in other classes
c. Speak about the AP program as part of a student assembly
d. Speak about the AP program as part of a parents’ back-to-school
night/assembly
e. Mailings/Newsletter to students
f. Mailings/Newsletters to parents
g. Other (Specify): __________________________
144

40. Are there any special efforts you use to make students from African American,
Latino and low-income backgrounds aware of AP course offerings and
requirements?
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________

41. Are there any special efforts you use to attract or recruit students from African
American, Latino and low-income backgrounds?
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________

42. In your experience, which of the following are the major factors that consistently
help you identify students who will succeed your AP course?
a. Grades
b. Teacher recommendations
c. PSAT scores
d. Other standardized test scores
e. Student interest
f. Parent interest
g. Previous courses taken
h. Special honors course taken
i. Writing sample
j. Interview
k. Other (specify): ______________

43. Specify two factors listed above that you consider most important. (Circle two of
letters)
a b c d e f g h i j k

145

44. In your experience, which of the following are the major factors that consistently
help you identify students from African American, Latino and low-income
backgrounds who will succeed your AP course?
a. Grades
b. Teacher recommendations
c. PSAT scores
d. Other standardized test scores
e. Student interest
f. Parent interest
g. Previous courses taken
h. Special honors course taken
i. Writing sample
j. Interview
k. Other (specify): ______________

45. Specify two factors listed above that you consider most important. (Circle two of
letters)
a b c d e f g h i j k

46. Do you use any special methods to select students from African American, Latino
and low-income backgrounds for your AP course (s)? (circle one)
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________

47. What have been the trends over the last three years with regard to students in
general in your AP course? (Choose one: Increase, Not Change, or Decrease for
each letter below. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Number of student inquiries about AP courses
b. Number of students enrolling in AP
c. Number of students dropping out of AP courses

48. What have been the trends over the last three years with regard to students from
African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds in general in your AP
course? (Choose one: Increase, Not Change, or Decrease for each letter below.
Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Number of student inquiries about AP courses
b. Number of students enrolling in AP
c. Number of students dropping out of AP courses

146

49. What, if any, academic support outside of class do you offer students taking your
AP course? (circle all that apply)
a. None outside of the class time
b. One-to-one tutoring by AP teacher
c. Group tutoring by AP teacher
d. Tutoring by another teacher
e. Peer Tutoring
f. Student study groups
g. Other (specify): ______________

50. What is done in your class to prepare students for the AP examination? (circle all
that apply)
a. Preparation time during regular course work
b. Complete coursework one to two months early and use the remained of the
time to prepare students for the exam
c. Use sample AP exam questions throughout the school year.
d. Administer one or more practice tests before the exam date
e. Other (specify): ______________

51. Describe any particularly effective strategies you use to motivate students from
African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds in your AP classes.

52. Describe any intervention strategies you have found particularly effective in
helping students from African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds
persist in your AP class (es).

53. Describe any intervention strategies you have found particularly effective in
helping students from African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds
succeed in your AP class (es).

54. Which best describes your practice regarding students taking the AP examination?
(circle one)
a. I encourage those student I fell likely to get a three or higher to take the
exam.
b. I leave the decision to the student.
c. All students in the class take the AP examination.
d. Other (specify): ______________

147

55. How important is each of the following student outcomes in terms of your goals
for students taking your AP class (es)? (Choose one: Very Low, Low, Moderate,
High, and Very High. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Student earns score of 3 or better on the AP examination
b. Student experiences college-level work
c. Student builds confidence in subject area
d. Student becomes more interested in subject area
e. Student’s chances of college admission are improved
f. Student gains confidence that they can success in college
g. Other (specify): ______________

56. How important is AP course-taking to college entrance? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

57. How important is AP course-taking to college persistence? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

58. How important is AP course-taking to college entrance for students from African
American, Latino and low-income backgrounds? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

148

59. How important is AP course-taking to college persistence for students from
African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

60. In what ways does AP course-taking support college access? Please describe:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

61. Describe any changes you would like to see in your school’s policies or practices
regarding AP that you feel would improve your effectiveness in teaching students
from African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds.

62. Additional Comments:
149

Appendix D: Administrator Survey

Background, Education and Resources

1. What is your gender? (Circle One)
a. Male
b. Female

2. Which best describes you? (Circle One)
a. American Indian or Alaskan Native
b. Asian or Pacific Islander
c. Black/African American
d. Latino
e. White
f. Other: ___________

3. Counting this year, how many years in total (including part-time) have you held your
current administrative position? (Circle One)
a. 2 years or less
b. 3-5 years
c. 6-10 years
d. 11-24 years
e. 25 years or more

4. Counting this year, how many years in total (including part-time) did you teach
secondary (science, math, social science or English)? (Circle One)
a. 2 years or less
b. 3-5 years
c. 6-10 years
d. 11-24 years
e. 25 years or more

5. What is the highest academic degree you hold? (Circle One)
a. Bachelor’s degree
b. Master’s degree
c. Educational specialist or professional diploma based on at least one year’s
work passed master’s degree
d. Doctorate

150

6. When was your most recent degree awarded? (Circle One)
a. Within the last year
b. 2-4 years ago
c. 5-10 years ago
d. 11-20 years ago
e. 21 years ago or more

Advanced Placement Program

7. In what year was the AP program initiated at your school (district)? ___________

8. Which of the following are considered when recruiting new AP teachers? (Circle all
that apply.)
a. Teacher interest
b. Teacher’s schedule availability
c. Degree in the subject area
d. Experience in the subject area
e. Other (Specify): _______________________

9. What are the requirements at your school (district) for teachers who teach AP
courses? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No special requirements
b. Attendance at AP training workshop/institute
c. Bachelor’s degree in the subject area
d. Master/s degree in the subject area
e. Recent post degree courses in the subject area
f. Experience teaching the subject are
g. Teaching ability
h. Other (specify):_______________________

10. How do you recruit new AP teachers? ___________________________

11. What type of support is provided for teachers who teach AP? (Circle all that apply)
AP Workshops and Institutes
a. None
b. Released time
c. Fee for workshop
d. Expenses for workshop
e. Other (specify): ______________

151

12. Indicate which, if any, of the following policies, practices or strategies are used at
your school to prepare prospective students to succeed in AP? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No specific preparation
b. Students complete a specified course sequence in a given subject matter
c. Student complete an honors course (s)
d. Students attend preparatory summer workshop or course
e. Other (specify): ______________

13. Students primarily are made aware of AP course offerings and requirements by which
of the following? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No specific provision
b. Teacher
c. Counselor
d. Parent
e. Other students
f. General announcement/assembly
g. Other (specify): ______________

14. Are there specific efforts to make students from African American, Latino and low-
income backgrounds aware of the AP course offerings and requirements? (Circle
One.)
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________

15. Parents primarily are made aware of AP course offerings and requirements by which
of the following? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No specific provision
b. Teacher
c. Counselor
d. Student
e. Other parents
f. Mailing/newsletter
g. Parent nights/back-to-school-nights
h. Other (specify): ______________

16. Are special efforts made to make parents of students from African American, Latino
and low-income backgrounds aware of the AP course offerings and requirements?
(Circle One.)
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________
152

17. Are special efforts made to recruit students from African American, Latino and low-
income backgrounds to take AP courses? (Circle One.)
a. No
b. Yes (Briefly describe):
____________________________________________________________

18. In your school (district), which of the following are the major factors that consistently
help to identify students who will succeed in AP? (Circle all that apply.)
a. Grades
b. Teacher recommendations
c. PSAT scores
d. Other standardized test scores
e. Student interest
f. Parent interest
g. Previous courses taken
h. Special honors course taken
i. Writing sample
j. Interview
k. Other (specify): ______________

19. Specify two of the factors listed above that you consider most important. (Circle two
of the letters below.)
a b c d e f g h i j k

20. In your school (district), which of the following are the major factors that consistently
help to identify students from African American, Latino and low-income
backgrounds who will succeed in AP? (Circle all that apply.)
a. Grades
b. Teacher recommendations
c. PSAT scores
d. Other standardized test scores
e. Student interest
f. Parent interest
g. Previous courses taken
h. Special honors course taken
i. Writing sample
j. Interview
k. Other (specify): ______________

21. Specify two of the factors listed above that you consider most important. (Circle two
of the letters below.)
a b c d e f g h i j k
153

22. Who or what is involved in establishing policy (or practice) for selecting students for
AP courses? (Circle all that apply.)
a. No specific policy
b. AP teacher
c. Principal
d. Other school administrator
e. Guidance Counselor
f. District policy
g. School policy
h. School practice
i. Other (specify): ______________

23. Who or what is involved in establishing policy (or practice) for selecting students
from African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds for AP courses? (Circle
all that apply.)
a. No specific policy
b. AP teacher
c. Principal
d. Other school administrator
e. Guidance Counselor
f. District policy
g. School policy
h. School practice
i. Other (specify): ______________

24. Who is routinely involved in selecting students for AP courses? (Circle all that
apply.)
a. AP teacher
b. Other teacher
c. Principal
d. Other school administrator
e. Guidance counselor
f. Other (specify): ______________

25. Which of the following best describes your school’s (district) practice regarding
students taking the AP examination? (Circle one.)
a. The teacher/school encourages students likely to get a three or higher to
take the exam
b. The student decides whether to take the exam
c. All students taking AP course take the exam
d. Other (specify): ______________

154

26. What have been the trends in your school (district) over the last three years with
regard to students in general in AP courses? (Choose one: Increase, Not Change, or
Decrease for each letter below. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Number of student inquiries about AP courses
b. Number of students enrolling in AP
c. Number of students dropping out of AP courses

27. What have been the trends in your school (district) over the last three years with
regard to students from African American, Latino and low-income backgrounds in
general in AP courses? (Choose one: Increase, Not Change, or Decrease for each
letter below. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Number of student inquiries about AP courses
b. Number of students enrolling in AP
c. Number of students dropping out of AP courses

28. How important is each of the following student outcomes in terms of your school’s
goals for students taking AP course? (Choose one: Very Low, Low, Moderate, High,
and Very High. Write your response next to each letter.)
a. Student earns score of 3 or better on the AP examination
b. Student experiences college-level work
c. Student builds confidence in subject area
d. Student becomes more interested in subject area
e. Student’s chances of college admission are improved
f. Student gains confidence that they can success in college
g. Other (specify): ______________

29. Does the school/district/state pay exam fees to support students taking the AP exam?
(Circle One.)
a. No
b. Yes school/district/state pays for all student taking the exam
c. Yes school/district/state pays for low-income students taking the exam
d. Other (specify): ______________

30. How important is AP course-taking to college entrance? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

155

31. How important is AP course-taking to college persistence? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

32. How important is AP course-taking to college entrance for students from African
American, Latino and low-income backgrounds? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

33. How important is AP course-taking to college persistence for students from African
American, Latino and low-income backgrounds? (Circle One.)
a. Very Low
b. Low
c. Moderate
d. High
e. Very High

Please describe why:
________________________________________________________

34. In what ways does AP course-taking support college access? Please describe:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

35. How can the AP program better support college access for students from
underrepresented backgrounds? Please describe:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Additional Comments:
156

Appendix E: Observation Protocol

1. Instructional Activities

Observed Activities Reflection
2. Teacher and Student Interactions

3. Student and Peer Interactions

4. Classroom Environment

157

Appendix F: Document Review Guide

1. Name of Document

2. Type of Document

3. Date of Document

4. Author of Document

5. Audience of Document

6. Main Idea of Document

7. Implications of Document

Abstract (if available)

Abstract While Advanced Placement (AP) programs have been traditionally targeted toward academically prepared students, some secondary administrators make AP courses accessible to all students in order to support college readiness. The purpose of the present study is to explore how the AP program is being implemented in an urban school where many students have the opportunity to take AP courses, regardless of academic experience. I address the following questions: How is the AP program currently being implemented in one urban school? What are student, teacher, counselor and district leader attitudes about access to AP coursework, resources available to support AP course quality, and AP exam taking? I demonstrate student, teacher and administrator experiences through surveys, interviews and observations. This data allows for a multi-level analysis in one AP program. Findings from this study demonstrate a commitment to student participation in AP coursework. The AP program at the case-study school is open access whereby students may take AP classes regardless of academic preparation and AP participation is substantial. AP teachers offer students a challenging curricular experience and give students academic supports such as one-on-one tutoring, study sessions and opportunities to take AP practice tests. The AP program facilitates student success at one urban high school.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Manos, Marika Elizabeth (author)

Core Title The advanced placement program: a case study of one urban high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/27/2010

Defense Date 05/06/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advanced placement,college access,college preparation,college readiness,OAI-PMH Harvest,rigorous coursework,Urban Education

Place Name California (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Venegas, Kristan M. (committee chair), Melguizo, Tatiana (committee member), Riconscente, Michelle (committee member)

Creator Email mmanos@lbusd.k12.ca.us,mmanos@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3159

Unique identifier UC1236191

Identifier etd-Manos-3756 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-354227 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3159 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Manos-3756.pdf

Dmrecord 354227

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Manos, Marika Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu