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A revival of primary healing hypotheses: A comparison of traditional healing approaches of Arabs and American Indians
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A revival of primary healing hypotheses: A comparison of traditional healing approaches of Arabs and American Indians
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Content
A REVIVAL OF PRIMARY HEALING HYPOTHESES:
A COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL HEALING APPROACHES OF ARABS AND
AMERICAN INDIANS
by
Asma Sadek El-Magboub
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
(PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES)
May 2011
Copyright 2011 Asma Sadek El-Magboub
ii
Table of Contents
List of Tables iii
List of Figures iv
Abstract v
Introduction 1
Chapter One: Sources of Traditional Arab Medicine 3
Religion 3
Heritage and Tradition
7
Chapter Two: Types of Treatment 14
Spiritual Approaches 14
Physical Approaches 16
By Natural Products
25
Chapter Three: American Indian Traditional Medicine (Chumash),
Similarities and Differences
38
Chapter Four: Placebo/Nocebo Effects 46
Conclusion 48
Bibliography 49
iii
List of Tables
Table 1: Description of medicinal plants and their uses in the Libyan traditional
medicine 29
Table 2: Description of some medicinal plants and their uses in American Indian
traditional medicine 45
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1: First step of wet cupping or Alhijamah. 18
Figure 2: The congestion and redness of the skin after first removal of cups. 19
Figure 3: The bleeding from the incisions. 20
Figure 4: The application of a layer of honey over the point of cupping. 21
v
Abstract
When medicine is unable to cure, and the end becomes imminent, or when the patient is
tired of the side effects associated with chronic use of drugs, the search for alternative
and new ways of healing is begun. Coincidentally, sometimes the alternative is the origin,
as is the case for traditional Arab medicine. In this thesis, I present the sources and
elements of traditional Arab medicine; I browsed through the charming treasures of the
East, seeking wisdom as well as old and new ways of healing. I found that Arabic
medicine is a career combining both elements of science and philosophy based on
religion and traditions, and includes a diversity of healing approaches: spiritual, physical,
and using natural products. These approaches were discussed with emphasis on wet
cupping (Alhijamah), a practice that is undergoing a revival nowadays in Arab countries.
Then I compare Arabic healing approaches with American Indian healing approaches. In
addition, tables of medicinal plants and their traditional uses are included.
1
Introduction
In Arab countries, incorporation of traditional medicine along with Western medicine
varies greatly among individuals depending on educational and cultural backgrounds. In
some cases, terminally ill patients such as cancer patients, turn to alternative medicine
only after they find that Western medicine is no longer effective. On the other hand,
patients with chronic diseases (hypertension, diabetes, asthma, multiple sclerosis) tend to
rely on a combination of both Western and non-Western approaches to treatment with
varying emphasis on each. Moreover, most acute cases seek remedies only via Western
medicine, while a minority will add some spirituality to the treatment according to their
beliefs.
The use of Western medicine was only recently introduced into the Arab world within the
past century. It was a replacement of a great deal of the-then traditional medical practices
that waned away or were simply forgotten over the past four centuries of decline of
civilization in the Middle East. In more recent years, however, there has become a
renewed interest, with much enthusiasm, to revive the old medicinal approaches. Of these
old approaches, people practice various local, Islamic or even as far as Asian medicine,
with local medicine varying greatly even between neighbouring localities.
2
The work presented here in this thesis is supported by old Arabic publication texts. I
further relied on recently published books for the uses of some plants in traditional
Libyan medicine. I also used available published work as well as referenced the work of
practitioners in the field.
3
Chapter One: Sources of Traditional Arab Medicine
Religion
In Arab countries, the main religion is Islam, practiced by the vast majority of the
population, with the exception of a minority that may follow other monotheistic faiths,
mainly Christianity and Judaism. According to authentic Islamic texts, several remedies
have been mentioned in direct or indirect ways. For instance, the use of dates (Phoenix
dactylifera) has been explicitly instructed to aid in labor and thus is widely used among
Arab women, This fruit is recommended in the Qur‟an, the main part of the Muslim
scripture (from the meanings of Qur‟an- Marium:25). On the other hand many other
remedies exist that have not been explicitly described. This has led to various
interpretations by physicians depending on the extent of their knowledge at the time.
Of the most significant contributions to this field is the book entitled “Al-Teb Annabawi”
[1] which was authored around the fourteenth century A.D. This book is considered a
religious medical reference which has been extensively relied on for practice and research
in the Arab world. This book is a refined collection of medical advice attributed to the
Prophet Muhammad as part of holy Islamic scripture called “tradition‟‟ or “hadeeth”.
This book contains many important guidelines, which may seem simple and self-evident
today but are in fact the result of a fusion of medical knowledge that was taken from
either an Islamic legacy or common knowledge at that time. I find that this book remains
4
heavily used and is the starting point for many practicing and investigating alternative
medicine or what many like to believe is actually original medicine. Below are the
guidelines described in this book.
Islamic scholars categorize diseases as of the heart or of the body. Diseases of the heart
are those that are related to the mind and soul and are classified as doubt and suspicion
diseases and lust diseases. These diseases of the heart are traditionally cured via spiritual
treatment. Religions have their own ways to administer this treatment. In Islam, it‟s
rendered by strengthening of faith in Allah and fixing one‟s thoughts about this life and
the life-after. Fixing one‟s thoughts about life yields to improving one‟s conduct and
driving off all suspicious thoughts that corrupt his/her confidence in his/her good
conduct.
There are three main rules to treat and prevent diseases of the body. The first two are
maintaining one‟s health and strength and avoiding harm. The third one being getting rid
of bodily waste materials and all else which when suppressed leads to harmful effects.
Suppression of the following causes illness: excessive blood quantity, semen, urine, stool,
gas, vomit, sneeze, sleep, hunger and thirst [1].
Treatment of bodily disease is either instinctual such as quenching thirst, or requires
medical expertise. As for the latter, Islamic scholars adopted the ancient medical
philosophy that stated that the body is a mixture of hot and cold and wet and dry as the
basis for new Islamic treatments. Health of the body exists in one of three states, normal,
abnormal, and intermediate. For health to move between normal and abnormal states it
must pass through the intermediate state. The normal state is when the body mixture is
5
balanced, which is now referred to as homeostasis. When the mixture of the body
deviates from the balanced state in a harmful way, the body becomes ill. This illness is of
eight types, four simple and four complex as follows: cold, hot, wet, dry, cold wet, cold
dry, hot wet, and hot dry. If the deviation in the body mixture is not harmful, it is not
considered an illness. When the body mixture deviates from the normal state, it does so
either by increasing, decreasing, association, dissociation, etc in shape or function [1].
A treating physician needs to counter the illness with its opposite. If the underlying cause
of the illness is known, then attention must be paid first to the cause, then to the illness
and finally to the treatment options. In cases where treatment with diet is possible, one
must start there before considering medicating. Simple medications should always take
precedence over complex ones. Physicians should be careful not to be too eager to
prescribe medication, since a medication that is poorly matched to the illness is harmful
to health. In general, diet consisting of simple non complex food, which describes the
diets of Bedouin people for instance, requires similar non complex medicines. On the
other hand, city dwellers whose diets tend to be complex require similarly non singular
medicines [1].
In Arab countries, people have a deep belief as a fundamental part of Islamic faith that
“Allah” has created all illnesses, and for all illnesses He has created a cure, with the
exception of aging for which there is no cure. They also believe that knowledge of these
cures may still be undiscovered. For example, they strongly believe that currently
incurable diseases such as HIV AIDS, cancer, etc do indeed have cures although science
has yet to uncover them. This strongly held belief encourages physicians and patients
6
alike to strive for finding these cures. These cures should be qualitatively and
quantitatively compatible with the disease; otherwise, the cure is either inadequate or
harmful in itself [1].
A widely accepted rule follows from the belief that
“a Man does not overfill a container to worse effect than his stomach. Let suffice
the sons of Adam a few mouthfuls to sustain them. Should temptation be too
strong for a person, let him make one-third for food, one-third for drink and one
third for his breathing”
[At-Termithi (2380)].
Man is created from clay and his body is constituted from dirt, water and air. Continually
over filling the stomach is harmful to the heart and body. Most diseases are caused by a
harmful increase of a substance in the body that interferes with its normal functions. This
applies to the introduction of food to the body before completing digestion of previous
meals, the consumption in excess of what the body needs, consumption of food of little
nutritional value that is slow to digest, or excessive consumption of various complex
foods. Such actions are the root of many chronic and acute illnesses. Following from that
the best benefit derived from food is when the diet is balanced in quality and quantity
rather than excessive eating [1].
7
Heritage and Traditions
This includes what the Arabs were passed down from their ancestors, the legacy that was
transmitted across time, generation after generation, and reached the current era. Before
talking about the current folk medicine that is practiced in Arab countries, first, I should
describe the ancestral medicine craft among the Arabs in past ages, to take a glimpse at
the legacy that has been passed down through time to the Arabs in the present covenant.
It is known that medicine in Arab countries flourished with the prosperity of the Arab
Islamic civilization in the Arab world, from the seventh century to the seventeenth
century A.D., which is known as the golden age of Islam. During this period, Muslim
princes, scientists, philosophers, artists, poets and laborers together formed a unique
culture which directly and indirectly affected communities on all continents [2] However,
many important participants in Islamic civilization were not only Muslims, several
Christian and Jewish scholars are still remembered in the traditional texts. Others from non
monotheistic faiths had their own significant share of the Pan-Islamic civilization.
The scientific brilliance of the Arab nation was born on the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th
century A.D., since the Prophet Muhammad called people to the religion of Islam. One of
the results of this religion was the unifying of Arab tribes and purification of their hearts
and improvement of their souls. The Islamic state was established in 622 A.D. by the
immigration of the Prophet and Muslims from Mecca to Medina. During the century after
his death (632 A.D.), the area of the new Arab-Islamic Empire increased to include a
8
large area of the globe, Central Asia and to India and across North Africa to southern
Europe in 711 A.D., resulting in an Islamic world order throughout the following
millennium. Furthermore, Arabs and Muslims converted southern Spain to a center of a
thriving civilization, so-called Al-Andalus or Andalusia. Arabs had demonstrated a
passion for knowledge which led to the birth of a long lasting world civilization.
However, several achievements of the golden age of Islam were based on the old
knowledge of ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Jews, Romans, Indians and Chinese.
These legacies and sciences were translated, examined and revised. Then, scientists and
researchers at that time built on them, and added what they discovered and invented. This
led to an extraordinary growth in all divisions of science, and made contributions of vital
significance to science, medicine, technology, philosophy and art [2, 3].
One of the most famous aspects of the Islamic civilization was Islamic medicine, which
was described as a thousand years ahead of its time. Medicine was a career of science and
philosophy that was based upon culture and religion [3,4]. First, hospitals or Bimaristans
were luxurious, well-organized and well-equipped. All people were served free of charge
without any bias or prejudice to their religion, color, age, sex or social status [4]. The first
hospital was built in Damascus in 706 A.D., and the salient one was placed in Baghdad in
982 A.D. [5]. In these hospitals there were huge libraries that contained up-to-date books.
Patients‟ records were kept in the hospitals. There were inpatient and outpatient
departments. Moreover, there were mobile hospitals that provided services to remote
areas, prisons and battle fields. In addition to receiving treatment, patients were given a
9
sum of money when they were discharged, as an insurance and social solidarity, in order
to support them financially during their convalescence [4].
Medical education also took place in these hospitals, and was systematically and
seriously implemented. Candidates for medical study first received basic preparation in
anatomy, Alchemy, medicinal herbs, pharmacology, toxicology and the use of antidotes.
These students then received full clinical training within small groups led by experienced
physicians, for ward rounds, reviews, lectures and discussions. In addition, therapeutics,
pathology and diagnosis and judgment were taught. Medical students were taught to
examine and check six major signs and symptoms: patients' responses, the location and
nature of pain, excreta, effluvia and swelling of the body. Furthermore, the feel and color
of the skin whether dry, moist, flabby, cool or hot would be noted as well. In addition,
students would check yellowness of the eyes for jaundice and the ability of a patient to
bend his back as a sign of lung disease. The curriculum was usually internal medicine
though some students would specialize in surgery, orthopedics or ophthalmology. Many
surgical procedures such as amputation, excision of hemorrhoids and varicose veins and
cataracts were known and commonly performed as well as the practice and teaching of
psychotherapy. Even obstetrics was practiced by midwives. In Baghdad in 931 A.D., the
chief physician, Sinan ibn Thabit bin Qurrah had been ordered from Khalif Al-Muqtadir
to examine all doctors upon the death of a patient resulting from a physician's error. In
that year, over 860 doctors were examined in Baghdad alone. Since then, licensing
examinations became mandatory and were administered in many different districts.
10
Moreover, earlier in the days of Al-Mamun and Al-Mutasim, the famous Arab Muslim
Khalifs, pharmacists were required to pass exams to be licensed for work as well [4].
Within Islamic civilization, pharmacology became an independent discipline and was
differentiated from alchemy and medicine. The first pharmacies were established in 754
A.D. [3]. During those times, scholars developed modern techniques, such as,
crystallization, distillation and calcinations. They introduced new drugs such as, senna,
camphor, mercury, opium, etc. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that many current
chemical and pharmaceutical terms were derived from Arabic, for instance: drug, alcohol,
alkali, cotton, elixir, syrup, etc [3,4].
Many scholars became famous in Arab medicine due to their achievements and
discoveries, such as: Yuhanna ibn Massuwauh (777-857) and his student Hunayn bin
Ishaq Al–Ibadi (809-874), Al Tabbari (838-870), Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya
Ar-Razi (Rhazes) (846-930), Az-Zahrawi (Abulcasis, Alzahravius or Bucasis) (930-
1013), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037), Ibn Al Haitham (960-1040), Ibn-Zuhr
(Avenzoar) (1093-1162) and Ibn Al Nafees (1213-1288), among many others [3,6,7,8].
These scholars possessed great wisdom, for instance, Ar-Razi, who in order to identify
the most hygienic area to build a hospital in Baghdad, hung fresh pieces of meat in
different places of the city and looked for the one that decomposed the slowest [4].
Fortunately, Arab scholars left many important books, such as: “Al-Quanun” (Canon of
Medicine) which was the masterpiece of Ibn Sina. This book contains more than one
million words, and covers topics in physiology, pathology and hygiene, and has been
11
translated into Latin and Hebrew [3,4,7]. “Al-Hawi” (The Comprehensive) is another
famous book which is a medical encyclopedia consisting of 30 volumes, written by Ar-
Razi, which has also been translated into many languages [3,7]. These two books serve as
brief examples of the many other books such as: “Al-Tasrif” in surgery by Az-Zahrawi
[4], “Al-Masail” in pharmacology by Hunayn [4] and “Poisons and their Antidotes” by
Abu Musa Jabir ben Hayyan, the well-known Arab alchemist, which describes poisons
from a pharmacological aspect [7]. Furthermore, Daoud Al Antaki is an Arab physician
who lived in the 14
th
century and published a book called “Tazkarat‟ which summarizes
medicinal herbs [7,9]. Finally, it is important to mention that Ishaq bin Ali Al Rahwi
(854-931) was the first to describe a peer-review process in his book called “Ethics of the
Physician”. Al Rahwi stated that the performance of each physician should be tracked via
a local council of physicians. This council should examine physician‟s notes that he made
about patients, as a part of his duties, after any patient dies or is cured, in accordance to
established standards, following which a physician can be sued for mal-practicing of
medicine [10].
This is the legacy of the Arabs. However, the widespread spirit of pacifist life made
Islamic lands open and relatively easy targets for invaders whose aim was mainly to take
advantage of the then-wide spread affluence. This led to the collapse of the sophisticated
economic system and of these hospitals, as well as research and education facilities in
other disciplines, due to the lack of supporting funds and destruction of endowments
eventually leading to the decline of Islamic civilization. Former Arab medicine gradually
disappeared and became nearly extinct eventually being replaced by Western medicine.
12
Although, as recently as the last century, some Islamic science and medicine was still
practiced and accepted in Arab countries, there were only a very few Western hospitals.
Patients then were treated by traditional healers, so-called "wise men". Moreover, in
every village there was one or more traditional physicians, herbalists, traditional
ophthalmologists, traditional orthopedics, Hajjams, who treat with cupping, as well as
spiritual healers. There was not a hospital for obstetrics, since midwives used to do their
jobs in patient‟s homes. Midwives played a vital role in society, where they educated
women and gave them important knowledge about how to take care of themselves and
their babies. In addition, they were involved in marriage arrangements. An example of a
notable practice in traditional medicine is the use of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-
graecum) in orthopedic fractures. Also, the old theories of the hot and cold, male and
female were known to them. But, because of the decreased number of students of this
science, Arab traditional medicine died and became nearly extinct with the death of most
of its practitioners. Now, those healers are very rare, and mostly elderly. They learned
from other therapists, relatives or others, and studied hard what survived of the authentic
Arabic books that were mentioned above, such as Tazkarat, Al-Quanun and Al-Hawi. In
addition, women acquired this knowledge from their mothers as a kind of domestic skill,
so as to be able to care for themselves, their children and family, for example, treating
wounds, fever, diarrhea, constipation, worms and so on [ Hajjah Khadijah, Ali Al Rabti,
personal communication].
Even though herbalists who are qualified and experienced are the minority, now in Arab
countries, there are many others who have prospered from trading herbal medicine but
13
without appropriate knowledge [7]. It is regrettable that old cities in Arab countries, for
example: the Old City of Tripoli, Libya, that used to be a place of practicing traditional
medicine, have become centers for shops selling medicinal and non medicinal herbs
according to customers‟ requests.
14
Chapter Two: Types of Treatment
Spiritual Approaches
This type of treatment depends on the personal belief system. Given the diversity of
beliefs in the Arab world, a variety of spiritual treatments existed of which I mention the
following:
First, a method practiced by all believers and Muslims, which is the enforcement of the
heart by making it rely on Allah the Creator of all things, to trust in Him and turn to Him.
Also, by giving charity and praying, repenting and seeking forgiveness, and treating all
creatures, such as human beings, animals, etc, with extreme kindness. Moreover, by
helping the needy and bringing relief to the distressed, in order to gain good deeds and
become blessed by Allah. Each person should entirely trust in Allah, by making the heart
remain connected to Allah and rely on Him and be confident in Him, along with the
search for ordinary solutions. For example: in case of illness, each patient must turn to
Allah along with the search for a treatment. When the heart is connected to Allah the
Almighty, the Lord of the universe, the Creator of the disease and medicine, and the
mastermind of nature who administers it in the way that He wills, the patient becomes
stronger and this helps with resistance to the disease and oppression. Patients further
believe that those whose hearts are not connected to Allah will not gain these benefits [1].
15
It is stated in the Qur'an repeatedly, that whoever turns away from Allah he shall surely
lead a depressed, strained and miserable life (from the meanings of Qur‟an-TaHa:124). It
is also known that believers do not get depressed, whatever the pressure surrounding
them, because their hearts are connected to Allah and feel safe. Furthermore, practicing
this method of therapy is not limited nor restricted to one without the others. One
principle of Islam states that: people are all equal; there is no difference between an Arab
or non-Arab, black or white, except in faithfulness and good deeds. Where the most
honorable persons in Allah‟s view are those who are most pious (from the meanings of
Qur‟an- Hujurat:13) . It is important to mention that correct faith in Allah and proper
good deeds go hand in hand in Islam by which man seeks the pleasure of Allah. This is
practiced in healing as well as any activity in daily life. It is also not permissible for one
to attribute purity to his/her soul (from the meanings of Qur‟an- Najm:32); Only Allah
can know the righteous believers. This type of treatment has been repeatedly practiced,
and has shown to be an influence in healing which is beyond a doctors' knowledge [1].
There are also other approaches of spiritual treatments practiced by some Arabs
according to their beliefs. These approaches have something in common, which is that
they often require a spiritual intermediary, or a person who leads the treatment process,
possessing particular specifications and special skills. Examples for such approaches
include the Sufis‟ rituals, such as the whirling dervishes. In addition, a few practice black
magic and sorcery. However, several Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, greatly
discourage this last practice and even impose the death penalty as a sentence for its
practice.
16
Physical Approaches
This type of treatment includes all therapies that are accomplished via physical
interventions. Examples are phlebotomy, cauterization and cupping. These techniques are
ancient medical procedures practiced by the Chinese, Egyptian pharaohs and other
cultures, as depicted in their writings (11,12). Olden day Arabs learned this practice
likely from neighboring cultures (11,12) and it was later validated by Islam as the best
form of treatment [1]. Such techniques were mentioned in authentic Islamic texts, in
which the healing effects were described to be due to three things: the incision of the
cupper, drinking of honey, and cauterizing with fire. However, cauterizing with fire is not
preferred [Saheeh al-Bukhaaree (5681), Saheeh Sunan ibn Maajah (3491)]. The benefits
of honey will be discussed later. It is worth mentioning that the words “incision of
cupper” refers to both the acts of phlebotomy and cupping.
First, Phlebotomy or bloodletting (Alfasd), which is a process of making an incision in a
large vein and letting a quantity of blood gush out. According to Ibn Sina, this method
was used either in case of excessive blood in the body or in case of abnormal blood
quality or both. Phlebotomy can be performed at different sites depending on the disease
that the patient suffers from. For example, arm veins when incised, may help in the
treatment of diseases related to the liver, spleen and lung or head and neck. Nevertheless,
phlebotomy is no longer practiced today due to its replacement by medicines. However
donating blood is a process that resembles phlebotomy (11).
Second, cupping or Alhijamah. Alhijamah in the Arabic language simply means to suck.
It is practiced as a craft [11], and is known among people to involve the sucking of blood
17
from the superficial layers of the skin, at specific points depending on the type of illness.
Alhijamah remained very prevalent until people learned newer western approaches to
medicine and relied on them, leading to a near loss of this craft [12]. But now, there is a
strong move towards reviving this craft in Arab countries [12]
such as Egypt, Libya, Gulf
countries, etc. Further, a growing number of people in these countries are now eager to
see Alhijamah become a standard medical procedure. For that, this technique will be
described in detail.
There are many kinds of Alhijamah, first the kind that is done using blood sucking
leaches. The second one is called dry cupping, which is an ancient Chinese practice, and
does not involve removal of any blood from the body. It is done using cups directly on
the skin at certain points along energy lines [11,14]. The third kind is wet cupping
which
is the main focus of my discussion. However, phlebotomy is also considered a kind of
Alhijamah [11].
Wet cupping involves the use of cups designed to pool and collect bad blood from
underneath the skin. This sucking effect is achieved either by the use of a vacuum
connected to the cups, or by burning a small piece of cotton or an equivalent, placed
inside the cup directly onto the skin, to create negative pressure (Figure 1). The cups are
left in place until sufficient erythema appears on the skin (Figure 2), at which point the
cups are removed and small longitudinal incisions in the skin are made at the points of
redness. The length, depth and number of these incisions vary with each patient. The cups
are then replaced over the incisions, vacuumed and allowed to suck the blood out at
18
a slow rate; until no more blood is released or enough has been collected [11] (Figure 3).
Finally, the points of cupping are cleaned and covered by honey and suitable dressings
(Figure 4). I have been told that the complete blood count (CBC) test performed on this
blood, collected by cupping, shows results that differ from that of ordinary venous blood
[Dr. Abdunnaser El-Magboub, personal communication].
Figure (1): First step of wet cupping or Alhijamah which is placing the cups over the
points of cupping by creating negative pressure inside each cup. Here the negative
pressure is created by burning pieces of paper inside the cups. The bottom two cups are
located over AlKahel points, the area located between the shoulders on both sides of the
spine.
19
Figure (2): The congestion and redness of the skin after first removal of cups, where
the longitudinal incisions will be made. After this step, cups are replaced again over the
same points, vacuumed and allowed to suck blood and plasma.
It is widely accepted that the benefit derived from Alhijamah is due to the blood released
being bad blood containing bad substances which are the cause of current or future
diseases [12]. There are many theories about what these bad substances may be, but the
main one, is that these are aging blood cells that can no longer carry out their normal
function [12]. Another theory may be that this release of blood removes blocks within the
lymphatic circulation [13]. Following from the notion that illnesses can be described as
“hot” or “cold”, the benefit from Alhijamah can only be seen when it is used to treat
“hot” illnesses because the removal of blood causes cooling of the total body mixture [1].
20
Figure (3): The bleeding from the incisions. This picture was taken after removal of the
cups for the second time, so the bleeding in this picture occurred as a result of negative
pressure inside the cups that sucks blood and plasma out at a slow rate.
The most important area for wet cupping is known as AlKahel [15], which is the area
located between the shoulders on both sides of the spine (see Figure 1). It is such because
it is hypothesized to be a point of slowly circulating blood in which aging cells and
impurities concentrate [15]. The various points for wet cupping used are known by
experience. Generally, these points fall along energy lines, similarly to acupuncture
points, and around lymphatic nodes, blood vessels and nerves [11].
21
Figure (4): The application of a layer of honey over the point of cupping.
Wet cupping is preferred during the spring time especially on the 17
th
, 19
th
or 21
st
days of
the lunar months during that season [1,15]. This has been explained to be because the
effect of the phases of the moon on the liquid in the body resembles its effect on the
earth‟s water (tide) [13].
There are known precautions and contraindications for Alhijamah. In general, the patient
should avoid showering and sexual intercourse before and after Alhijamah to sustain
strength [11]. Further, the patient should relax for a day following Alhijamah, to avoid
22
disturbing the energy balance, and to eat easily digested food such fruits, vegetables and
carbohydrates while completely avoiding milk and all other dairy products [11, 15].
Nowadays, in different places in the world, many clinical trials have been conducted to
study the use and effectiveness of different types of cupping in the treatment of pain. For
instance,
- Farhadi et. al. (2009) in Iran, where wet cupping for 20 min. for three days was
used in 98 patients suffering from non specific low back pain for 4 weeks or more
[16].
- Michalsen et. al. (2007) in Germany, where wet cupping for 10 min once was
applied in 52 patients suffering from brachialgia paraesthetica nocturna [17].
- Hong et. al. (2006) in China, where dry moving cupping was used for 11 days in
70 patients suffering from non specific low back pain for 1 week to 3.1 years [18].
- Huang et. al. (2006) in China, where dry cupping once a day for 3 days was
applied in a sample of 60 patients suffering from cancer for 5-17 months [19].
- Ludtke et. al. (2006) in Germany, where wet cupping for 10 min once was applied
in 20 patients suffering from brachialgia paraesthetica nocturna [20].
- Zhang et. al. (1997) in China, where wet cupping once a day for 6 days then once
every other day for three times was used to treat 45 patients suffering from acute
trigeminal neuralgia for 6 days to 4 years [21].
23
- Xu et. al. (2004) in China, where wet cupping for 15 min once a day for 7 days
was used to treat 80 patients suffering from herpes zoster for 1-3 days [22].
In the previous seven trials, control groups received the usual care using analgesics such
as opioids or NSAIDs, heat pads, psychological care and/or music therapy. However, an
anti viral therapy was used for the control group in the last trial (Xu et. al. (2004) in
China). The rate of response had been calculated as well as pain. The latter was measured
using several techniques such as a visual analogue scale among others. In all previous
trials, the response rates were higher and pain measurements were lower in cupping
groups than in control groups [23]. All these trials suggested that cupping is a successful
pain therapy with promising effects on other illnesses [24]. However, many of these trials
and reference materials are either of insufficient quantity or quality to establish the
effectiveness of cupping [23]. Therefore, more clinical trials are needed to study the
effectiveness of cupping in the treatment of different medical conditions [23,24].
Finally, I present cauterization or Alkaii. In the old days, Arabs would turn to
cauterization as a last resort. This means that cauterization is absolutely not
recommended if other ways of treatment are available and can be used. Therefore, it is
highly recommended, by religion and by tradition, to keep cauterization as a last choice
of treatment [1, 11]. Arabs practiced this technique in the past, and even now the
Bedouin and desert dwellers still use cauterization as a form of treatment. Cauterization is
done by using iron bars of different end shapes depending on the suitability of the various
shapes for each case. The bars are put directly in an open flame until they are red hot,
24
then they are placed on the skin while applying light pressure for a period of one second
or so. The points of cauterization are decided depending on the pathological condition,
such as cauterizing the position between the pinky and ring finger to treat jaundice or the
bottom of the foot for rheumatism. These happen to be the same points identified in
Chinese medicine as energy paths and reflective areas [11]. In addition, cauterization can
be used to treat sciatica. Ar-Razi in his book Al-Hawi mentioned another type
cauterization, which is achieved by placing a piece of wool soaked in oil on a place of
pain, then burning a piece of mountain goat stool until it becomes a cinder and placing it
over the wool and leaving it until the patient feels the heat and the pain calms.
Unfortunately, inexperienced practitioners as well as ignorance have gone beyond the
reasonable limits of cauterization causing tragic consequences [11].
In the past, the main use of cauterization was to control bleeding and hemorrhage caused
either by injury or by phlebotomy [11]. Az-Zahrawi, the famous surgeon, used
cauterization by iron to control bleeding during surgery [4]. Controlling bleeding during
surgery is still a reason to use cauterization these days where electrical cauterization is
used. Electrical cauterization or cold cauterization is used now in the treatment of warts
as well [11]. Furthermore, Ibn Sina used cauterization in the surgical treatment of cancer;
where he stated that tumors should be excised boldly and widely, and all blood vessels
that supply the tumor should be removed as well, and if it is not enough, so the affected
area must be cauterized [4]. In my opinion, the technology of targeted hyperthermia using
metal nanoparticles, for instance gold nanoparticles, directed at treating cancer
noninvasively [25] is just an innovative and advanced form of cauterization.
25
By Natural Products
Arabs have used a wide range of natural products in treatment. In traditional Arab
medicine, doctors and healers over the centuries have used medicinal plants, honey and
animals in the treatment of diseases. In addition, the water of Zamzam has been used by
Muslim-Arabs to seek blessing as well as in spiritual and physical therapy.
The water of Zamzam is named after the well it comes from, known as the well of
Zamzam. This well was dug in Mecca by an angel “Gabriel” 4000 years ago as stated in
Muslim history. It happened during the days of the prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), when his
wife Hajar and their little son Ismail (Ishmael) had been left alone in the desert area of
Mecca. Since then, this well has not drained. In addition, many local and international
investigations have been carried out on Zamzam water that have revealed that this water
is beneficial, potable, and its main source is naturally pure and germ-free. Furthermore,
Zamzam water contains higher percentages of all inorganic elements, such as calcium,
potassium, sodium, magnesium, chloride, fluoride, bicarbonate, nitrate and sulfate, when
compared to tap water [26]. This could be the reason that drinking this water leads to a
feeling beyond satiety.
Moreover, honey is another natural product that Arabs frequently used as a therapeutic
agent. Honey has been mentioned explicitly in the Qur‟an to possesses healing powers
(from the meanings of Qur‟an- Nahl:69). In old Arabic texts, such as Al-Quanun [27],
Tazkarat [9] and Al-Teb Annabawi [1], honey was mentioned as a natural product of
multiple uses; it cleans different organs in the body such as liver, stomach, intestine,
kidney, bladder and blood vessels. In addition, honey is useful in case of cough, sputum
26
and cold, where it is described as a “hot” remedy that counters “cold” diseases. It works
as an antiseptic and diuretic, and is good for treating animal bites. Honey is also known to
kill lice and nits. It is good for vision, for hair care and tooth and gum care. Also, it is
nutritious and acts as a preservative for food, meat or even corpses [1,9,27]. Furthermore,
it is safe and has few side effects. In addition to previous usages of honey, people
nowadays use honey for facial and skin care, to help in wound and burn healing and in
minimizing scars.
Unfortunately, good resources for the use of animals in treatment could not be found.
However, it is known that there is a specific kind of reptile indigenous to Mizda/Libya
called spiny tailed lizards (Uromastyx acanthinura) or Ad-Dab. This reptile is used
extensively by people in Libya to treat cancer by cooking its meat and feeding it to cancer
patients.
Finally, medical plants are heavily used in Arab households, be it local or imported
normal flora. These uses come from inherited traditions or from religious scriptures.
Plants mentioned in religious sources are used in a similar fashion across all Arab
countries, such as the use of pomegranate (Punica granatum) for treating peptic ulcers.
While on the other hand, of the plants used by inherited traditions, their applications
greatly vary by location. The uses of these traditional plants are many and beyond the
scope of detailed mention. Therefore, I will limit discussion to those plants used only in
Libya.
27
Uses of medical plants in Libya fall into two categories. The first kind, such as orange
flower water and vinegar soaked socks for fever reduction, is widely known and practiced
by everyone. While the second kind, requires visiting specialized herbal medicine stores,
such as the use of Helichrysum stoechas (L) Moench or Phagnalon rupestre L for the
treatment of renal pain.
Many of these medicinal plants have other non-medical uses in households such as
spices, hot drinks, hair dyes or perfuming plants. Further, a single plant may have several
different therapeutic uses based on the part of the plant used, the way of preparation or
the route of administration. As an example, pomegranate peels may be used for peptic
ulcers while the fruit may be used for its beneficial properties for the liver and gall
bladder. Further, Linum usitatissimum L. can be used to prepare: a paste of seed powder
and hot water for treating skin inflammation, an ointment prepared of seed oil and egg
whites for treating burns, and a mixture of seed powder with honey and lemon for
treating cases of chronic kidney stones. Lastly, boiled mint can be used as an antiseptic
gargle for the mouth and throat, or can be drunk for calming and relieving abdominal
pain.
Some medicinal plants, beyond their medical and household uses, are also considered
important for magic and witchcraft such as, Ferula assa-foetida L., Styrax benzoin
Dryander, and Crocus sativus L. (saffron) [28,29]. Sometimes, a plant‟s magical and
witchcraft uses are considered to be its main uses, greatly overshadowing any of its other
uses.
28
The medicinal use of black cumin seeds (Nigella sativa L), known as the seed of blessing,
is considered very controversial because of its mention in religious texts encouraging its
use as a cure for all diseases except death [1]. In our times, it has become widely
researched with many articles describing its many benefits. A quick search of the term
“Nigella sativa” entered in pubmed or “effects of Nigella sativa” entered in google
scholar search engines retrieves more than 300 and about 4,000 hits respectively for the
beneficial effects of Nigella sativa.
Table (1) lists a description and the medical uses of several medical plants as mentioned
in Libyan traditional medicine books [28, 29]. It is important to note that for some of
these plants there may be different uses in other Arab countries. Note that the active
constituents of Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench and Phagnalon rupestre L. were
mentioned as unknown in Libyan traditional medicine books.
29
Table (1): Description of medicinal plants and their uses in the Libyan traditional medicine
[28,29].
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Allium cepa L. Fresh fruit Sulfur
compounds
Vitamine C
Gluconine
Removal of the
accumulated dead
skin on the toes,
treatment of hair
loss and cataracts.
It is used as
antihypertensive,
hypoglycemic,
digestive, gas
reliever,
Anthelmintic,
cough suppressant
and to treat inner
hemorrhoids.
E. Onion
C. Basal- لصب
S. Allium sativum Fruit
(bulb)
Sulfur
compounds
Vitamins -
Gluconin
Antiseptics –
Hormones
Topical analgesic
for tooth ache and
outer ear pain.
Antidandruff. For
wounds, sores and
for chronic
suppuration of the
gum.
Strengthen the
immune system
and fortify the
body. For that it‟s
recommended for
diabetic patients.
Antihypertensive,
good for
constipation and
diarrhea, as
anthelmintic and
used for acute
influenza.
E. Garlic
C. Thoum- موث
Note: excessive
consumption
hurts vision and
stomach
mucous
membrane
S. Amygdalus
communis L.
var. amara DC.
Seeds Oils – Proteins
– Vitamin E –
Amygdalin
Prunasin
- As diuretic,
expectorant, cough
suppressant
especially for
whooping cough,
and to prevent
heart palpitations.
E. Bitter Almond
C. Lawz Mur- صول
شه
S. Anethum
graveolens
Seeds Volatile oil
consists of :
Carvone,
Limonene&
Phellandrede
Gargling, eye
lotion and toner.
It is used in cases
of indigestion,
stomachache, gas
relief and to
increase beast
milk.
E. Dill
C. Shebt, Shabt-
لا تبش
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
30
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Artemisia
absinthium
Leaves
and
flowers
Volatile oil
consists of
Thujone
- To induce
contractions and
cramps of the uterus
to expel a dead
fetus.
E. Absinth
wormwood
C. Shajarat Omna
Mariam –
نيشه اٌهأ ةشجش
Note: very
toxic plant
S. Artemisia
campestris
Leaves Volatile oil –
Alcohols
Flavones
glycosides
- In simple fractures
and bruises, as
analgesic, good for
muscle pain due to
colds and for
scorpion bites.
E. Field sagewort
C. Al-Shaal- لاعشلا
S. Artemisia
herba-alba
Asso
Leaves
Flowers
Santonin - Anthelmintic and
anti-parasitic.
E. White
wormwood
C. Al-Shieh- خيشلا
Note: very
toxic plant
S. Artemisia
judaica L.
Leaves
Flowers
Santonin
Volatile oils
- As toner,
hypoglycemic agent,
cold remedy and as
anthelmintic for
circular worms.
E. Wormwood
C. Shieh Iraqy- خيش
يلاشع
S. Chamomilla
pubescens
(Desf.) Alavi &
Jafri
Flowers Azulen –
Anthamedine
Anthamic-
Matrican
To treat eczema,
wounds, sores
and nail
inflammations.
It is used as
analgesic for
infected eye and
for gargling.
To relieve all kinds
of pain and spasm of
GIT, UT and uterus.
As a decongestant,
and as a calming
agent in case of
insomnia.
E. Chamomile
C. Flaia- تيلف
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
31
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Cinnamomum
zeylanicum Nees
Bark Cinnamaldehy
de, cinnamic
acid,
carbohydrates
- Activate blood
circulation, causes
uterine contraction
recommended for
postpartum, uterus
infection and in
cases of delayed
menstruation.
E. Cinnamon
C. Kerfa- تفشل
Note:
contraindicate in
pregnancy.
Cinnamon is a
vasodilator, so,
excessive
consumption
may leads to
internal
hemorrhage.
S. Crocus sativus
L.
Threads (
red-
colored
stigmas)
Picrocrocin
glycoside
To treat muscle
spasm due to
colds. And to treat
weak muscle.
-
E. Saffron
C. Zafaran- ىاشفعص
S. Datura sp. Leaves
and
Flowers
Hyoscine,
Hyoscyamine,
Atropine,
Meteloidine,
Scobolamine
- Smoked as a
cigarette for
asthma,
hemorrhage and
motion sickness. As
local anesthesia
during labor.
E. -
C. Faddah- ةذف
Note: very toxic
plant
S. Ephedra
altissima Desf
All green
parts
Ephedrine
Pseudo
Ephedrine
- As a bronchodilator
used in treatment of
bronchial Asthma. E. Ephedra
C. Alnda- ةذٌلع
S. Ferula assa-
foetida L.
Gum and
seeds that
adhered
Volatile oil
with
bronchodilator
effect
Ferulic acid
ester
- As bronchodilator
and as anti-
psychotic. E. Asafetida
C. Wshag- كشو
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
32
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Ficus carica L. Fruits Antiseptic,
emollients,
Protase,
Lipase,
Distase
For wounds and
sores.
For constipation,
especially in
children and elderly
patients.
E. Fig
C. Teen, Karmous-
سوهشك ،ييت
S. Helichrysum
stoechas (L.)
Moench
All green
parts and
flowers
hydroxyisopente
n-
acetophenone,
triterpenoids,
steroids [30,31]
and
antimicrobial
compounds [32]
- For kidney stone and
to relieve pain
caused by urinary
tract diseases. E. -
C. Oshbat Al
Aranib- تبشع
بًاسلأا
S. Hibiscus
sabdariffa L.
Flowers Tartaric acid,
Maleic acid,
Calcium
oxalate,
Vitamin C,
Tannin.
- Antihypertensive
agent, laxative,
diuretic, and source
of vitamin C.
E. Hibiscus
C. Karkadahe-
هيذكشك
S. Iris germanica
L.
Leaves
and roots
Carpic acid,
benzoic acid,
myristic acid,
iridin.
- As a diuretic and
laxative, to increase
breast milk, induce
vomiting, and as a
cold remedy.
E. Iris
C. Kaab Taib- بعك
بيطلا
S. Lawsonia
inermis L.
Leaves Lawsone,
Resins,
Hannatanin,
Alpha & Beta
Ionone
For skin allergy,
nail and toe
infections and for
wound healing.
For stomach
inflammations.
E. Henna
C. Henna- تٌد ،ءاٌد
S. Linum
usitatissimum L.
Dry seeds Oil and Gel
substance
For skin
inflammations that
come with pus,
boils, sores and
flakes.
For burns.
Good for dry cough,
to relief pain of
peptic and duodenal
ulcers, gallstones
and kidney stones,
and for urinary tract
infections.
E. Flax
C. Ketania- تيًاتك
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
33
Table (1) (Continued)
Names Used Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Mentha
piperita L.
Leaves
(before
flowering
in spring)
and parts of
green stems
Menthol,
Carvone,
Limonene,
Phellenderene,
Pinen and
others
To treat skin
inflammation. As
mouth wash.
To relieve colic,
gas, stomachache
and uterus and
menstrual pain.
Tonic.
E. Peppermint
C. Nanaa- عاٌعً
Note:
contraindicated
in case of
vomiting.
Causes dry
mouth.
S. Nigella sativa
L.
Seeds Nigellone Migraine. Good for heart and
liver.
Gas relief. E. Black cumin
seeds
C. Habat Al
Barakah- تبد
تكشبلا
Kamoun
Aswad- ىووك
دوسأ
S. Olea europaea
L.
Fruits, Oil
and leaves
that fall
spontan-
eously
Carotene Gargling for
gingivitis and
other oral
inflammations,
eye inflammation,
for eczema and in
case of skeletal
muscle contraction
due to seizures.
For constipation,
and gallstones.
E. Olive
C. Zytoon- ىوتيص
S. Papaver
somniferm
Fresh Fruit Morphine,
Papaverine,
Narceine,
Narcotine,
Thebaine
- Hypnotic.
E. Opium poppy
C. Khashkhash –
شاخشخ
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
34
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Petroselinum
sativum Hoffm
Root
Leaves
Fruit
Vitamin B
Volatile oil
consists of:
Apiole &
Apilin
Facial lotion
especially for
freckles, and for
sprains.
For menstrual pain,
stomachache,
edema, and for
breast
inflammation due
to accumulation of
milk.
E. Parsley
C. Baqdonis,
Madnoos-
سوًذعه ،سًوذمب
Note: excessive
consumption
impedes blood
circulation
S. Phagnalon
rupestre L.
Whole
plant
Phenolic
compound and
acetophenone
picein [33]
- For kidney stones
and to relieve pain
caused by urinary
tract diseases.
E. Phagnalon
C. Oshbat Al
Arnab- تبشع
بًسلأا
S. Punica
granatum
Fruits Vitamins A,
B, C,
carbohydrates,
Protein, lipids,
organic acids,
and Citric acid
- For liver, and treats
gall bladder
inflammation. E. Pomegranate
C. Romman- ىاهس peels Tannin,
Pelletiarine
- Healing of peptic
ulcer, acute
diarrhea,
anthelmintic and as
toner for the
stomach.
S. Rhus tripartita Bark (in
spring)
- - For peptic ulcer,
and as appetizer, to
gain weight.
E. Sumac
C. Sumac قاوس
Al-Jedary-
يساذجلا
S. Rosa sp. Leaves,
Seeds,
flowers
right
before
opening,
Petals
Geraniol,
Camphor,
Tannin
- Has refreshing and
sedating effect,
used in psychiatric
patients. Also used
to treat diarrhea
and urinary tract
infections.
E. Rose
C. Ward- دسو
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
35
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Rosmarinus
officinalis L.
Flowers
and leaves
(at
morning)
Terpenes,
Borneol,
Cineol
Facial cleaner, to
treat allergic eyes
(spring allergy),
and as a gargle.
For rheumatic
arthritis,
strengthening the
stomach, digestive,
nerve stimulant.
Good for menstrual
pain and
irregularity, and for
inflamed gall
bladder.
E. Rosemary
C. Kleel- ليلك
S. Salvia
officinalis L.
Whole
plant
Tannin,
Terpene
hydroxide
- For dizziness,
irritability and
anxiety.
Cold remedy.
Diuretic.
E. Sage
C. Tefah Eshahi-
يهاشلا حافت
S. Solanum
melongena
Fruits and
Leaves
Rich of
Nutrition,
emollient
substance
Fruits are used as
compresses to
relief tonsillitis.
Leaves are used
for simple burns
and as compresses
for external
hemorrhoids.
-
E. Eggplant
C. Bathinjan-
ىاجًراب
S. Solanum
nigrum
Fruits and
Leaves
Solssonine,
Solatine,
Solanidine,
Solamargine,
Demissine
For skin diseases. As laxative, and for
liver diseases.
E. Black
nightshade
C. Enab Atheeb-
بيزلا بٌع
S. Solanum
tuberosum L.
Tubers Full of
nutrition,
vitamin B & C
First and second
degree burns.
Toner, especially
for diabetic patients
and in cases of
colds or renal
deposits.
E. Potato
C. Batata, Batates-
سطاطب ،اطاطب
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
36
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Styrax benzoin
Dryander
Resin
secretions
Benzoic acid,
Balsamic acid,
Cinnamic acid
For toothache, as
antiseptic for
burns.
For cough, as
expectorant,
diuretic and toner.
Has a spiritual and
psychiatric uses.
E. Gum benzoin/
Gum Benjamin
C. Jawi- يواج
S. Syzygium
aromaticum
(L.) Merr.&
Perry
Dry buds Eugenol,
Sesquiterpenes
( Alpa & Beta
Cariophyllins),
alcohols &
ketones
Analgesic for
toothache,
antidandruff.
Intestinal
antiseptic, gas
reliever.
E. Clove
C. Gronful- لفًشل
S. Thymus
capitatus (L.)
Hoffm. & Link
Leaves
and
flowers
Thymol,
Carvacrol,
Resine, Tannin
As gargling for
sore throat,
gingivitis.
For gastro-
intestinal
infections, lung
infection, toner for
heart and stomach.
For stomach ache,
and as
anthelmintic.
E. Thyme
C. Zatar- شتعص
S. Trigonella
foenum-
graecum L.
Dry seeds Protein,
Carbohydrates,
Lipid, Calcium,
Iron and
Phosphor salts,
Vitamin C &
D, Saponin,
Choline and
Trigonelline
To treat boils and
different skin
inflammations and
cracked feet.
As appetizer, to
gain weight, help
wound healing in
diabetic patients, to
treat stomach
infections,
constipation and
hemorrhoids, and
as a gargle for
tonsillitis and TB to
remove sputum.
E. Fenugreek
C. Helba- تبلد
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
37
Table (1) (Continued)
Names
Used
Parts
Active
Constituents
Main Use(s)
External Use(s) Internal Use(s)
S. Urtica urens L. Whole
plant
before
flowering
Toxic
substance,
Sekeretin, Iron,
Chlorophyll, K,
Ca, Na, vitamin
A & B
For hemorrhages,
inflamed wounds,
and for hair loss.
For Rheumatism,
Rheumatic arthritis,
Anemia, and
children‟s diarrhea.
As diuretic. To
treat hemorrhoids,
uterine
hemorrhage,
internal
hemorrhage and
TB. To purify
blood.
E. Dwarf
nettle/annual
nettle
C. Horraig- كيشد
S. Zingiber
officinale Rosc.
Root Camphene,
linalol, resin,
starch ,
gingerol
- For cough and cold,
as expectorant,
laxative, toner, gas
reliever, anti-
emetic, and for
anemia.
E. Ginger
C. Zanjabel- ليبجًص
S. Ziziphus lotus
Defs.
Fruits,
Bark
Emodin,
Flavon.
- Chronic
constipation,
laxative for
children and
pregnant women,
and patients with
hemorrhoids.
E. -
C. Sidr- سذس
S.: Scientific Name, E.: English Name, C.: Common Name (in Libya).
38
Chapter Three: American Indian Traditional Medicine
(Chumash), Similarities and Differences
Medicine among American Indians is a valuable and quite diverse legacy that comprises
numerous distinctive approaches. It is a profession that combines beliefs and knowledge
of plants, but one in which the spiritual and social aspects greatly dominate over the
scientific aspect [34]. Nevertheless, due to critical social situations of American Indians,
this legacy has remained in the shadow. Recently, as a result of the liberation of Indian
Americans and their debut to express themselves, American Indian traditional medicine
has started to spread throughout the world [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
Astonishingly, by reflection on American Indian approaches, they seem to have a logical
line with modern science. However, the delayed discovery of this tradition has led to a
postponement in its approval process. California Indian traditional medicine or
“Chumash” includes all of those brilliant names in the current practice of alternative
medicine worldwide, such as, aroma therapy, massage therapy, stone therapy, energy
therapy, etc.
Healing power for American Indians is a sacred gift that some individuals are born with,
moreover, this gift is found only in certain families. Gifted individuals are usually
identified early at a young age, thus ensuring that veteran healers from within the family
can provide guidance for them. The medical education system is more advanced in some
39
tribes, for instance, Chumash and Yokuts, where young healers spend a year in a school
where healing approaches are taught. After that, each young healer spends about seven
years as a trainee to a well known healer, until he shows an adequate maturity and
wisdom in using the healing gift [35].
American Indian traditional medicine is based on many principles, firstly on the principle
of addressing the soul before the body, where the soul is the foundation, while the body is
the bowl of this spirit. In other words, when symptoms appear in the body, this means
that the spirit is sick. It is therefore believed that the spirit should be addressed first which
will lead to healing of the body or at least to help to do so [Cecilia Garcia, personal
communication]. The framework of this principle is similar for Chumash and Arabic
medicine; however, beliefs radically differ between them. I have referred previously to
the philosophy of the relationship of the soul and body and the role of spirituality in the
treatment and acceleration of healing in Arabic medicine. In general, a Chumash healer
rejects dealing with the human body in an absolute technical manner and ignoring the
soul, as in the case with Western medicine [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
The second principle is the philosophy of intrinsic energy. Chumash healers believe that
there is an intrinsic energy in everything, so healers must exploit this energy during the
healing process. However, the quality and quantity of this energy varies among things,
such as: living bodies, dead organs, ocean stones, etc. For instance, dead organs that
contained souls at a past time, such as deer antlers and legs, contain higher energy than
metals do. Moreover, the healer him/her self has an intrinsic energy that he/she should
40
use to treat patients. In addition, the moon has energy as well, and lunar energy plays a
role in Chumash practice [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
Thirdly, Chumash healers use medicinal plants in the treatment of patients. Chumash
people use a wide range of plants to treat their patients, see examples in table (2).
Combinations of plants are used as well. Typically, Salvia apiana (white sage) is added
to most plant preparations, due to the Chumash people‟s belief in its spiritual effects [34].
It is worth mentioning that Chumash do not use honey as they do not have bees. Instead
they use sugar balls as sweetener. Even after the introduction of honey to Indian
Americans, they continue to use sugar balls instead, claiming that honey is not
compatible with their plants [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication]. This is considered
an important difference between Arab traditional medicine and Chumash, where honey
has a key role in Arab traditional medicine.
Massage therapy of the Chumash is the sum of all the principles mentioned above.
Consequently, one massage session usually takes a long period of time and cannot be
done in a hurry. The Chumash massage table is covered by a sheet over which many
aromatic medicinal plants are placed, such as: black sage, datura, white sage, sagebrush,
mugwort, California bay, California everlasting and cedar [Cecilia Garcia, personal
communication]. However, most of these herbs contain “thujone”, the principal active
ingredient that causes hallucinations and convulsions [35] see table (2). These herbs are
then covered by a soft and loose sheet or blanket that allows the aromatic smells to
41
emanate through. In addition, animal fur, for example fox fur or rabbit fur, is used as a
head pillow [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
Once the massage table is prepared the Chumash healer starts the massage session by
assessing the patient‟s personality and preparing the patient‟s spirituality. Assessing the
patient‟s personality and psychology is important for the healer and helps the latter to
optimize massage table organization. For instance, if the patient seems to have a lot of
fear, it is better to put white sage under the head side in order to calm the patient and to
regulate respiration, and black sage, the muscle relaxant, nearer to the patient‟s legs and
feet. Also, rabbit fur is the best pillow choice for such patients. As the session begins, the
patient inhales vapors arising from boiling of some medicinal plants in a pot, and puts
his/her feet in this warm herbal tea, in another pot. Then the patient lays on his/her back
on the massage table, where the healer sits near the patient‟s head to read prayers, and
blow on and massage the patient‟s head in order to calm the patient and take him/her to a
state of not thinking [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
Aroma therapy plays an important role in these previous steps, as it is also believed that
aroma activates the patient‟s memory. During the session, the patient will remember a
distinctive odor, for instance rosemary; in this case the healer suggests that the patient‟s
body is in need of rosemary and will call for it [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication].
Then the healer starts massaging the patient‟s body by hands and fingers, deer antlers and
legs, stones, etc, depending on his/her skills and philosophy of energy. It is worth noting
that for the patient‟s back, massage is performed at four main points, which are, the top
42
and bottom points of the back and the two points of “Alkahel” [Cecilia Garcia, personal
communication]. These are the same points that Arabs use for cupping, and Chinese use
for cupping and acupuncture. Therefore, these points can be called the universal points.
However, for massage, the healer applies positive pressure on these points [Cecilia
Garcia, personal communication], while for cupping, a negative pressure is applied on
these points and this is the difference. Moreover, the explorations of American Indian
tribes‟ monuments have shown different instruments that were likely used for cupping,
for example: convex bottom cups and sucking horns [36]. In addition, some tribes used
blood sucking leaches [Cecilia Garcia, personal communication], which is a kind of
cupping as has been previously mentioned.
American Indians have practiced treatment by cauterization too, where plants such as
corn husk and mugwort were in use, see table (2). Among American Indian traditional
medicine techniques, snake bites were used in therapy as well [Cecilia Garcia, personal
communication].
Therefore, several common practices between traditional Arab medicine and American
Indian traditional medicine have been found. In my view, the mentioned similarities
could be attributed to three mains reasons:
1- Some medical practices seem to be taken from a single source. This leads me to
believe that these practices are very old since the time when all human beings
were in one place, which is Africa according to the theory of evolution.
Nevertheless this belief is genuine for the followers of monotheistic faith
43
religions, as stated in Qur‟an and Bible that all human beings came from the
descendants of Adam.
2- Since healers in all cultures must possess clear minds and precise observation, we
find that ancient healers actually succeeded in the discovery of the real therapeutic
properties of plants as has been proven now after active substances of such plants
were extracted and their therapeutic effects were reported. Examples of these
plants are Datura plants. The species of Datura have been mainly used to treat
asthma in both traditional Arab medicine (table 1) and traditional American
Indian medicine (table 2). Now we know that Datura plants mainly contain
scopolamine, hyoscyamine and atropine, the natural alkaloids which are classified
as muscarinic receptor antagonists. These antimuscarinic agents affect almost all
systems in the body. It has been proven that atropine-like drugs block M
3
muscarinic receptor subtype that present in the smooth muscles of the airways
leading to block the bronchoconstriction effect of parasympathetic activity. In
addition, atropine-like drugs inhibit secretions of exocrine glands in the mouth,
nose, pharynx and bronchi, which leads to dry the mucus membrane of the
respiratory system. The above mentioned effects are the basis for using similar
compounds in the treatment of asthma [37].
3- The possibility of convergence of these different cultures, either directly or
indirectly at some point in time. It has been mentioned that Arabs after Islamic
civilization worked on the old sciences known to them, which included Chinese
science. In addition, Arabs likely learned cupping from the Chinese. On the other
44
hand, some studies claimed that there was convergence between Chinese
civilization and American Indians, either directly or indirectly [34]. This idea is
confirmed by the presence of a greater similarity between Arab and Chinese
medicine more than between Arab and American Indian medicine. Furthermore,
Polynesians may play a role for cultural convergence between American Indians
and Arabs through Africa, where dancing celebration rituals of American Indians
is very similar to those of African people, which later have been practiced by
some Arabs especially in Africa in a ritual called Zarr.
45
Table (2): Description of some medicinal plants and their uses in American Indian traditional
medicine [35].
Names Active Constituents Main Use(s)
S. Artemisia California Artecalin. Spiritual uses, tooth ache, wound
poultice, colds, asthma, arthritis,
bronchitis.
C. California sagebrush,
khapshikh
S. Artemisia douglasiana Cineole, camphor,
linalool, monoterpenoids.
Sesquiterpene lactones:
vulgarin, psilostachynin.
Thujone.
Tooth ache, menopause,
hotflashes, dysmenorrheal,
premenstrual syndrome, spiritual
uses.
Measles, poison oak rash,
urinary tract diseases, asthma,
arthritis, ear ache, colds,
dysentery.
C. Mugwort, molush
S. Artemisia tridentata Coumarins: 7-
methylesculin, esculin,
umbelliferone. Flavonoids:
luteolin, axillarin,
eupafolin monoterpenes,
sesquiterpene lactone:
artevasin.
Colds, stomach ache, chafing,
disinfectant wash, poultice. C. Big sagebrush, mountain
sagebrush
S. Datura wrightii Scopolamine,
hyoscyamine, atropine.
Asthma, nasal congestion,
anesthetic, spiritual uses, bruises,
skin irritation, stomach ache,
fever, aromatherapy.
C. California jimson weed,
thorn apple, toloache,
momoy
S. Gnaphalium california Flavonoids, diterpenes. Analgesic, hot and cold poultice,
for colds, gastrointestinal
diseases.
C. California everlasting
S. Salvia apiana Cineole (eucalyptol),
monoterpenoids,
diterpenoids: salvinorin.
Miltirone, thujone.
Sore throat, colds, flus, stomach
ache, tooth ache, asthma,
difficult menstruation, wounds
antiseptic, as strengthening
agent. As deodorant, shampoo to
control head lice. Spiritual uses.
C. White sage, we‟wey
S. Salvia mellitera Aethiopianone, ursolic
acid, thujone.
Pain, arthritic limbs, flavoring
foods, colic, coughs, sore
throats, ear aches.
C. Black sage
S. Umbellularia california Cineole, thujone,
umbellulone, sabinene,
flavonoids.
Toothache, diarrhea, dysentery,
aromatherapy, arthritis, colds,
sores, menstrual cramps, food
flavor.
C. California bay, California
laurel, pepperwood,
psha‟n
S.: Scientific Name, C.: Common Name
46
Chapter Four: Placebo/Nocebo Effects
Placebo/Nocebo effects are the psychological effects that surround any therapeutic
process, and affects treatment outcomes [38]. Placebo refers to positive effects, while
nocebo refers to negative effects [39]. The mechanism of action of placebos is still under
investigation, however, there is growing evidence that placebo effects are achieved by
activation of different neurologic systems which are important in the release endogenous
opioids that produce analgesia [40,41]. The dopamine system as well as the endogenous
opioid system are considered important players in this context [39,40,41]. In addition,
there is a study which revealed that the placebo effect is accompanied by inhibition of
beta adrenergic effects on the heart [42]. Furthermore, the serotonin system shows a
relationship with the placebo effect especially by affecting stress and mood [43]. Finally,
different studies have shown strong evidence of the involvement of beneficial immune
responses in placebo effects [39].
In addition, placebo/nocebo effects are influenced by mood, personality, the extent of
involvement of the patient in treatment processes, and expectancy [39]. Expectancy is a
key player in placebo/nocebo effects. In other words, treatments most likely succeed
when patients expect and hope for success and vice versa [39]. This emphasizes the idea
of addressing the soul and psychology of patients before dealing with their bodies.
47
Previously, a diversity of healing hypotheses and approaches that include spiritual,
physical, and other natural remedies have been mentioned. The spiritual approach is the
one that works on the factors that affect placebo/nocebo effects, for instance: hope,
expectancy, mood and personality, which make the spiritual approach of treatment
significant. On the other hand, physical approaches previously mentioned such as
cupping, cauterization and massage therapy should be subjected to further studies in
order to prove their efficacy. However, the effectiveness of using different natural
products in treatment has been the subject of countless studies, where the efficacy of
many of these products have been proven while others are still under investigation.
48
Conclusion
Arabic medicine is a career combining both elements of science and philosophy based on
religion and traditions, and includes a diversity of healing approaches: spiritual, physical,
and using natural products. Here I conclude that traditional Arab medicine is the link
between ancient medicine which is based on theories, beliefs and spirituality, and modern
medicine which is based on scientific evidence from laboratory experiments and clinical
trials.
Nevertheless, my discussion of different philosophies of treatment approaches of Arabs
and American Indians does not require the reader to accept them, but aims to give readers
the opportunity to know these different approaches and to think about them. Thus, I offer
these new kinds of therapies that are not currently used in the prevailing Western
medicine for the reader‟s consideration.
49
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
When medicine is unable to cure, and the end becomes imminent, or when the patient is tired of the side effects associated with chronic use of drugs, the search for alternative and new ways of healing is begun. Coincidentally, sometimes the alternative is the origin, as is the case for traditional Arab medicine. In this thesis, I present the sources and elements of traditional Arab medicine
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A revival of primary healing hypotheses: A comparison of traditional healing approaches of Arabs and American Indians
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