The potential applications of natural fiber reinforced bio-polymers (NFRbP's) in architecture

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THE POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF
NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED BIO‐POLYMER (NFRbP)
COMPOSITES IN ARCHITECTURE

by

James Byron Cleveland

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE

May 2008

Copyright 2008 James Byron Cleveland
ii
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to contributing members whom supported this research either
financially or academically. Professors: T. Spiegelhalter, G.G. Schierle, J. Dombrowa
and M. Schiler from USC, L. Drzal, from Michigan State University, J.G. Vaughan, from
Mississippi State University each provided significant feedback. Without their support
this research may never have taken shape.
The author is particularly gracious to the team from Creative Pultrusions, Inc. D.
Crawford, J. Mostoller and D. Troutman were integral in understanding the
properties of composites and the pultrusion thereof. It may have come in the 11
th

hour, but the material was eventually fabricated and tested because of the
commitment and dedication of the CPI team. Special thanks to S. Carter with Ashland
Chemical for providing significant information and the timely delivery of the resin
when seemingly all was lost.
Particular thanks to M. Willer from Inhale Solutions for the financial support during a
students’ time of hardship. Last but not least, without the support and
encouragement of friends and family some days would be near impossible to get out
of bed and get to work. Thanks mom, dad, Lauren and Danielle… with much love.
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... viii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... x
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
1.1. The Problem ................................................................................................. 3
1.2. The Product .................................................................................................. 7
1.3. The Objective ............................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Precedent Research ................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3: The Research Process ................................................................................. 15
3.1. Establish a Material Baseline: Steel ............................................................ 15
3.2. Understanding Composite Materials: Fiber Reinforced Polymers ................ 18
3.3. Renewable Composite Materials: Natural Fiber Reinforced bio‐Polymers .... 21
3.4. Assess the results ....................................................................................... 22
3.5. Create a Website ........................................................................................ 25
Chapter 4: Understanding Structural Steel .................................................................. 26
4.1. Elements of Steel ....................................................................................... 26
4.2. Fabrication Methods .................................................................................. 30
4.3. Steel World Production/ Raw Material Extraction .................................... 31
4.4. Forming Methods ....................................................................................... 37
4.5. Major Steel Markets ................................................................................... 39
4.6. Life Cycle Analysis ...................................................................................... 41
4.7. Material Strength (ASTM) .......................................................................... 49
4.8. Limitations .................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 5: Understanding composite materials .......................................................... 53
5.1. Constituents of Composites ....................................................................... 53
5.2. Fabrication Methods .................................................................................. 62
5.3. World Creation ........................................................................................... 64
5.4. Major Composite Markets ......................................................................... 68
5.5. Life Cycle Analysis ...................................................................................... 70
5.6. Material Strength (ASTM) .......................................................................... 74
iv
5.7. Limitations .................................................................................................. 75
Chapter 6: Attributes of renewable Composites ......................................................... 77
6.1. Elements of NFRbP’s .................................................................................. 77
6.2. World Element Extraction/ Creation .......................................................... 84
6.3. Fabrication Methods .................................................................................. 88
6.4. Major Bio‐composite Markets ................................................................... 89
6.5. Life Cycle Analysis ...................................................................................... 90
6.6. Material Strength (ASTM) .......................................................................... 92
6.7. Limitations .................................................................................................. 93
6.8. Pultrude an NFRbP Section ........................................................................ 96
Chapter 7: Materials Assessment .............................................................................. 100
7.1. Practical Inabilities of the Materials ........................................................ 101
7.2. Resins ....................................................................................................... 103
7.3. Fibers ........................................................................................................ 103
7.4. Material Strength Matrix (ASTM) ............................................................. 105
7.5. Life Cycle Analysis .................................................................................... 107
Chapter 8: Conclusion ................................................................................................ 114
8.1. Are Renewable Composites Appropriate for Architecture? .................... 114
8.2. In what uses are NFRbP materials most appropriate? ............................ 115
8.3. Areas for Future Research ........................................................................ 117
Epilogue .................................................................................................................. 121
Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 128
v
List of Tables
Table 1: Steelmaking Pollution Control ........................................................................ 17
Table 2: Steelmaking Theoretical Minimum Energy Use and CO
2
Emissions ............... 18
Table 3: Composite FRP Materials and Reactions ........................................................ 20
Table 4: World Steel Constituent Raw Material Extraction ......................................... 27
Table 5: U.S. Steel Constituent Material Consumption ................................................ 28
Table 6: Top Iron Ore Mining Countries, 2001‐2005 .................................................... 32
Table 7: Chinese Iron Ore Use Forecast, 2004 ............................................................. 33
Table 8: U.S. Scrap Metal Price Forces ......................................................................... 36
Table 9: Effects of Rising Steel Prices on U.S. Market .................................................. 37
Table 10: U.S. Steel Consumption by Market, 1998 ..................................................... 40
Table 11: U.S. Steel Industry, 1998 ............................................................................... 40
Table 12: Steelmaking Energy Intensity by Process, 1998 ........................................... 45
Table 13: U.S. Steel Industry Energy Intensity Trends, 1978‐1998 .............................. 46
Table 14: U.S. Steel Industry Energy Use by Fuel Type, 1984‐1998 ............................. 47
Table 15: U.S. Steelmaking Emissions by Process, 1998 .............................................. 49
Table 16 A572 ASD Steel Section Property Assessment .............................................. 51
Table 17: A572 ASD Steel Section Column Values ....................................................... 51
Table 18: A572 ASD Steel Section Beam Values ........................................................... 51
Table 19: Steel Section Profile Analysis ........................................................................ 52
Table 20: Composite Resin Criteria .............................................................................. 53
vi
Table 21: Resin System and Fabrication Method Matrix ............................................. 56
Table 22: Composite Resin Properties ......................................................................... 57
Table 23: Pultrusion Resin System "Recipes" ............................................................... 57
Table 24: Polyester Resin Classes ................................................................................. 58
Table 25: Polyester Additives ....................................................................................... 59
Table 26: Composite Fiber Properties .......................................................................... 60
Table 27: Glass Bundle Weights ................................................................................... 61
Table 28: European Composite Production by Method, 2004 ..................................... 64
Table 29: World Carbon Fiber Production, 1999‐2009 ................................................ 68
Table 30: CPI Composite Application Markets ............................................................. 69
Table 31: Composite FRP LCA Strategy ........................................................................ 70
Table 32: Pultrusion Exergy Study ................................................................................ 71
Table 33: Composite Emission Reduction Strategies ................................................... 72
Table 34: Epoxy Emission Health Risks ......................................................................... 73
Table 35: Simulated ASD Composite Section Property Assessment ............................ 76
Table 36: Simulated ASD Composite Section Column Values ...................................... 76
Table 37: Simulated ASD Composite Section Beam Values ......................................... 76
Table 38: Proposed USDA Content Levels .................................................................... 78
Table 39: Renewable Thermoset Matrices ................................................................... 78
Table 40: Commercially Available Biobased Resin Properties ..................................... 80
Table 41: SoyMatrix Published Benefits ....................................................................... 81
Table 42: Bast Fiber Environmental Features .............................................................. 81
vii
Table 43: Natrual Fiber Classes and Alternatives ......................................................... 82
Table 44: Natural Fiber Properties ............................................................................... 83
Table 45: Potential Bio‐Composite Markets ................................................................ 90
Table 46: NFRbP LCA Strategy ...................................................................................... 91
Table 47: NFRbP Carbon Sequestration Graph ............................................................ 94
Table 48: NFRbP Crude Oil Reduction .......................................................................... 94
Table 49: NFRbP Carbon Sequestration and Crude Oil Reduction ............................... 94
Table 50: Simulated ASD, Composite NFRbP Property Estimation .............................. 95
Table 51: Composite NFRbP Estimated Column Values ............................................... 95
Table 52: Composite NFRbP Estimated Beam Values .................................................. 95
Table 53: NFRbP Analysis Strategy ............................................................................... 99
Table 54: Composite Resin Property Assessment ...................................................... 103
Table 55: Composite Fiber Property Assessment....................................................... 104
Table 56: Material Property Assessment ................................................................... 105
Table 57: Future NFRbP to FRP Assessment Strategy ................................................ 109
Table 58: Steel Emissions Baseline Assessment ......................................................... 112
Table 59: CPI Bio‐Resin Construction Specifications .................................................. 125
Table 60: CPI Bio‐Resin ASTM Summary .................................................................... 127


viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: NFRbP Logo by Author, 2007 ........................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Biblically Illustrative Timeline of the World .................................................... 5
Figure 3: Composite FRP Stress/ Strain Relationship ................................................... 19
Figure 4: FRP Composite Cross‐Section ........................................................................ 20
Figure 5: Materials Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions ..................................... 24
Figure 6: U.S. Raw Steel Production by Method, 1984‐1999 ....................................... 31
Figure 7: Blast Furnace Production Output, 2000‐2004............................................... 32
Figure 8: World Production of Raw Steel, 1998 ........................................................... 34
Figure 9: U.S. Imports, Exports and Net Shipment of Steel, 1979‐1999 ...................... 35
Figure 10: Electric Arc Furnace Steel Production, 2002‐2004 ...................................... 35
Figure 11: Composite Deformation Curve .................................................................... 54
Figure 12: Fiber and Resin Strain Relationship ............................................................. 54
Figure 13: World Composite Production by Continent, 2004 ...................................... 65
Figure 14: U.S. Composites Production Impact, 1998‐2004 ........................................ 65
Figure 15: U.S. Composite Shipments by Market, 2005 ............................................... 66
Figure 16: U.S. Composite Production, 1996‐2005 ...................................................... 66
Figure 17: Trends and Forecast in Carbon Fiber Shipments ........................................ 67
Figure 18: Bast Fiber Cross‐Section .............................................................................. 81
Figure 19: Bast Fiber Market Uses ................................................................................ 84
Figure 20: U.S. Land Use ............................................................................................... 85
ix
Figure 21: Corn Use Lifecycle ....................................................................................... 86
Figure 22: Soy Use Lifecycle ......................................................................................... 87
Figure 23: Nature Influenced Composite Form ............................................................ 98
Figure 24: Composite Fiber Elastic and Specific Modulus Assessment ...................... 104
Figure 25: Material Property Assessment Chart ........................................................ 106
Figure 26: Material Elastic Modulus to Density Assessment ..................................... 107
Figure 27: Materials Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions Assessment ............. 111
Figure 29: CPI Bio‐Resin Sheet Construction Diagram ............................................... 123
x
Abstract
With growing environmental consciousness and the use of petroleum based products
in the production of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites arises an increased
opportunity to use renewable bio‐based polymers and fibers towards the fabrication
of Natural Fiber Reinforced bio‐Polymers (NFRbP). Towards this, theoretical
estimates of the tensile, flexural and compressive properties of NFRbP sections were
made using varied published properties and comparatively assessed versus a steel
baseline.
From the publicized documentation of professional associations, and the research of
both Commercial and Academic leaders, this study presents a comparative analysis of
strength properties and life‐cycle benefits of both green and petroleum based
pultruded composite sections over typical construction methods.
Figure 1: N NFRbP Logo by y Author, 2007 7
1

2
Chapter 1: Introduction
What's the use of a fine house if you haven't got a tolerable planet to put
it on?
‐Henry David Thoreau
In this environmentally superficial age of now, the world balances somewhere
between the technological fantasies of a Jules Verne and the sarcastic trials of a Mark
Twain story with a 21
st
century twist. The media tabloids cite stories of wealthy
superstars wearing clothes of woven hemp, driving hybrid fuel efficient cars, and
adopting forlorn children from third world countries. While hardly qualifying as Nobel
laureate gestures, what better can they do?
Is it merely a choice of lifestyle? Or is it the demands the world economy places on us
that subject us to these “rules”? This thesis will not be a socio‐economic study in
international culture and economics, but an assessment of an alternative
architectural material which could help bring this planets demising equilibrium due to
over‐excavation of resources, back into balance.
The ideas of the author have become synonymous with the influence of teachers
past, the writings of such leaders in the field of sustainability as Paul Hawken,
forward thinking entrepreneurs as Ray C. Anderson, and parents whose primary
interests may not have been water saving techniques in organic farming, but to think
logically, work hard, see the world and be responsible for ones actions. These
positive influences have effects on a young persons’ psyche which hopefully reminds
3
them to do the little things: like turn off a light before leaving the house, take shorter
showers, use rechargeable batteries, or to explore alternative structural materials as
related to the fields of architecture and construction.
In the following chapters this research shall explore the hypothesis: Innovation in
composite material technology can provide comparably strong and more sustainable
architectural materials while reducing the consumption of non‐renewable resources.
These renewable composite materials were comparatively assessed to determine the
feasibility of use in the industries of architecture and construction. Specifically, it was
ascertained: in what applications are these renewable materials most appropriate.
Initially, these materials are guaranteed to be perceived prohibitively expensive,
without ethical concern for the long‐term benefit. However, the pursuit is the
balance between human necessities: water, food, fuel and light; and economic
welfare.
Much of our current environmental policy seeks a “balance” between the
needs of business and the needs of the environment, common sense says
there is only one critical balance and one set of needs: the dynamic, ever‐
changing interplay of the forces of life.
1

1.1. The Problem
Presumably, scholars and practitioners alike in the fields of architecture &
construction strive to construct places which enhance the lives of those who use

1
P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.3
4
them, without detriment to the ecology in which the “place” is built. However,
Robert Burns aptly put it, “The best laid plans of mice and men go oft awry”. With the
expansion of man across the planet have arisen the consequences of doing so,
namely the exploitation of natural material resources, and the damaging shift of our
climate. To understand the crux of the problems, one must understand the timeline
of the planet. As paraphrased from David Brower, former Executive Director of the
Sierra Club, this timeline puts us, our history as a species, our agricultural revolution,
our industrial revolution into perspective compressing all of geologic time, from the
initial formation of Earth 4.5 billion years ago right up to now, into the six days of
biblical creation, (remember, God rested on the 7
th
day.)
Using that compressed timescale (one day = 750,000,000 years), Earth is
formed out of solar nebula at midnight, the beginning of the first day…
There is no life until Tuesday morning, about 8:00 AM, the prokaryote
bacteria… About Tuesday noon the blue‐green algae begin to create the
oil deposits.
Thursday morning, after midnight, photosynthesis gets going in high gear.
Oxygen begins to accumulate in the atmosphere and the protective
ozone shield begins to develop and life begins to flourish and evolve into
more diverse and complex forms.
By Saturday morning‐ the sixth day, there’s enough oxygen in the
atmosphere and sufficient ozone in the stratosphere for amphibians to
come onto land, and land vegetation begins to form coal deposits.
Around 4 o’clock Saturday afternoon the giant reptiles appear. They hang
around for nearly six hours. (That would be really long for a species.) Just
a few minutes after they are gone, just after 10:00 PM Saturday night,
the primates appear. Australopithecus, the first species to branch from
the primates, show up in Africa at 11:53 PM. Homo sapiens sapiens
arrives at 11:59:54, arriving the last six seconds at the end of a long week,
that’s how long we’ve been here.
5
A third of a second to midnight: Buddha. A quarter of a second to
midnight: Jesus of Nazareth. One‐fortieth of a second to midnight, the
industrial revolution ushers the age of technology, one‐eightieth of a
second to go, we discover oil and the carbon blow‐out accelerates. If this
time line were one mile long, the industrial revolution would occupy the
last 0.003 inch! One human lifetime 0.001 inch.
2

Figure 2: Biblically Illustrative Timeline of the World
3

2
R. Anderson, A Mid‐Course Correction, p.51‐53
3
Image by author, based on David Brower timeline model, 2008
6
sus∙tain∙a∙ble: meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
4

This loosely defined term, describes everything from window and shade selection for
a single family home, to resource consumption and the creation of energy by the
world population. However, the concept is not a new one. But having recently
reemerged as the token “green” word du jour, scholars have brought back into focus
the desperate situation of the planet. Particularly important are the unequal
distribution of resources and the overindulgence of resources by “industrialized”
powers. The inability of lesser nations to support themselves, is noted by Paul
Hawken from The Ecology of Commerce:
The cornucopia of resources that are being extracted, mined, and
harvested is so poorly distributed that 20% of the earth’s people are
chronically hungry or starving. The top quintile in developed countries,
about 1.1 billion people currently metabolize 82.7% of the world’s
resources, leaving the balance of 17.3% for the remaining 4.5 billion.
(p.xii)
This is relative because the primary structural material, not by volume but by
significance for developed countries within contemporary construction, is steel. The
market price for steel follows the fluctuating construction market, but is relatively
low priced. However, the availability of steel is dependent upon the purse of the
highest bidder. Steel, unfortunately, is cheap enough that those in the industry with
deep pockets need not be financially concerned with recycling, so unknown amounts

4
United Nations: General Assembly, 42/187 Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development, 11 December 1987, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42‐187.htm
7
of materials are being relocated to landfills and dumps. The concern thus becomes
the availability of non‐renewable raw materials to create steel (iron, tin etc), further
diminishing steel manufacturing productivity and increasing market rates. Recycling
would seemingly be a relative fix, but construction growth rates would quickly
deplete world raw iron yields and outgrow existing constructed steel resources. Yet
beyond these factors, the difficulty lies in international policy regulating the recycling
of all manufactured metal, and the cost of a factory capable of salvaging dumped
steel would likely price underdeveloped countries out of the equation.
… the way our economy is organized today, businesspeople are right:
Doing the right thing might indeed put them out of business.
5

How then do underdeveloped nations competitively build without being overrun by
private individuals in expansive nations? And in response to growing environmental
concerns, how can entrepreneurial developers cost‐effectively construct without
debilitating raw material stores and not hampering their ability to do business while
contributing to the global economy? One solution: Renewable Composite materials.
1.2. The Product
In a restorative economy, viability is determined by the ability to
integrate with or replicate cyclical systems, in its means of production
and distribution.
6

5
P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.9.
6
P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.11
8
From the successful implementation of composite materials in the Aerospace,
Nautical and Automobile industries has emerged the use of structural composite
forms in the fields of architecture & construction. By addressing these professions’
need for new high strength structural materials while reducing the demand of Steel
material resources in the world, synthetic composite structural materials have been
developed making better use of fewer oil based products. Other benefits include a
high strength‐to‐ weight ratio, the potential to exceed physical properties of steel,
high quality control, and being synthetic are more readily manufactured & recycled.
Composite Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) structural profiles are being manufactured
for several business sectors requiring the benefits of corrosion resistance and light‐
weight high strength. These structural sections are designed using the model of the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Allowable Stress Design (ASD): Steel
Construction Manual. It should be noted that composite materials as an industry, is
rapidly growing, and that its use in structural infrastructure consumes over 20% of
total national composite shipments, but this is a small percentage when compared to
typical construction methods.
With growing international environmental consciousness and bills such as: United
States Executive Order 13101, ‘Greening the Government through Waste Prevention,
Recycling and Federal Acquisition,’ promotes increased opportunity to use renewable
bio‐based polymers and fibers towards the fabrication of Natural Fiber Reinforced
bio‐Polymers (NFRbP). These bio‐based composites currently exhibit lesser strength
9
qualities with increased renewable volume fraction compared to the petroleum
based product. Rapidly renewable plant‐derived materials are presently being heavily
researched because of the potential low cost material resource for triglyceride oils,
which can be polymerized to form elastomeric networks capable of replacing
petrochemical resins. Among the renewable triglyceride sources, soybean oil is
receiving increased attention because of its availability for production in large
volumes.
1.3. The Objective
Business has three basic issues to face (in order to convert to a
restorative economy): what it takes, what it makes, and what it wastes.
7

The goal of this study is to summarize the strength and life‐cycle properties of FRP &
NFRbP composites using the research and development documentation of both
Commercial and Academic leaders, as well as professional associations, like the
American Composites Manufacturing Association (ACMA). This summary will then be
comparatively assessed using the extensively documented mechanical and life‐cycle
properties of steel as a model baseline. Additionally, an NFRbP section, matching the
exact geometric proportions of a petrochemical composite FRP section, will be made
and tested for tensile, flexural and compressive properties to validate the researched
results.

7
P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.12)
10
This assessment will then be compiled into a website making the information public
with the intent to promote this renewable structural material source and for lack of a
better analogy, stretch that planetary timeline an extra inch or two.
11
2. Chapter 2: Precedent Research
This report was assembled primarily upon the data of composite research
departments at institutions such as Michigan State University, the University of
Mississippi and the University of Missouri‐Rolla. Additionally, the development of the
FRP manufacturer, Creative Pultrusion, Inc., and the input of Chemical companies
like: Ashland, Bayer, Huntsman and Reichold, were all individually instrumental in the
understanding of this complex material. Composite technology is a subject of intense
world‐wide research with many international scholars making an impact, of whom
some knowledge was derived in this assessment. The American composite
community must reach out internationally to acquire natural materials in the
formation of NFRbP’s from suppliers deemed illegal to be located in the Unites
States, of which Bast Fibers, LLC. was helpful in attaining.
Moreover, there are numerous public and private agencies dedicated to the research
and proliferation of composite materials, key groups are the: American Composites
Manufacturing Association (ACMA), JEC Composites, European Council on Composite
Materials (ECCM), and the American Society of Composites (ASC)
It is understood then that the fabrication of composites and bio‐composites is big
business, and studies from Nov. 2002 indicate:
Natural and wood fiber plastic composites (WPC) have continued their
phenomenal growth in 2002. Preliminary estimates from a new market
study being undertaken by Principia Partners, indicate that demand for
these products in North America and Western Europe combined, will
12
reach nearly 1.3 billion pounds valued at roughly $900 million. This
represents a growth of almost 20% from 2001 levels, a startling increase
in this economic climate.
Even though these raw materials are typically virgin, their fabricated
parts are still less expensive than those made from metal or traditional
fiberglass reinforced plastics. The specific benefits to automotive
manufacturers are as follows:
‐ Natural fibers are about half the price of fiberglass used in composites
‐ Natural fibers are typically 30% lighter in weight than fiberglass
‐ Natural fiber composites are more easily recycled
‐ Natural fibers are easier to handle in production than fiberglass
8

More recent studies have shown:
Demand for these materials will grow to $1 billion by 2007, in the
combined North American and European market, driven by growth in
automotive applications and building materials
9
.
The composites department chair at Michigan State University, L.T. Drzal, is quite
familiar with these trends indicated by his departments 7+ years of continued
research, and over 100 publications all funded by various U.S. agencies. Drzal et al,
have written:
The use of reinforced thermoset composites is being led by automakers
who have nearly doubled their use in the last decade, with expectations
for growth of ~50% through 2004. In 2002, Reinforced Plastics demand
was 3.7 billion pounds, with the construction industry accounting for
~32%; Reinforced plastics demand in the US is projected to grow 2.5

8
$900 Million Market for Natural and Wood Fiber Plastic Composites in North America and Europe,
11/21/02, http://www.jeccomposites.com/composites‐news/845/900‐million‐market.html

9
Wood fiber and natural fiber composites examined in new studies, 2/17/03
http://www.compositesworld.com/ct/issues/2003/February/17
13
percent annually to over four billion pounds in 2007, valued at $6.5
billion.
10

The verbal account of Professor J. G. Vaughan from the University of Mississippi,
Composites Materials Research Group (CMRG), states that pultrusion, which will be
covered in depth later, is optimal for FRP manufacturing based on many factors. In
the CMRG’s testing of bio‐polymers in pultrusion, soy‐based polyals were substituted
for petro‐based polyals in forming polyurethane composites on a one‐to‐one basis,
thus suggesting similar physical properties of the polyal materials while using less
petroleum based resources in its fabrication.
Ensuing studies from researchers at the University of Missouri‐Rolla have proven that
pultruded, glass‐fiber reinforced, soyate resin composites have exhibited comparable
strength qualities to commercially available pure petroleum based resin composites.
Using “natural” additives to enhance an epoxidized soyate curing agent they
progressively replaced up to 30% of the total thermoset resin volume with bio‐based
polymers and generally found that increasing bio‐content provided a subtly less
tensile material with great flexural properties.
However, it hasn’t been all roses within the industry. With all the growth projections
and potential for composites, the material only makes up a fraction of the greater
international Construction Infrastructure. There has been an apprehension in the

10
L.T. Drzal, A. K. Mohanty, R. Burgueño and M. Misra, Biobased Structural Composite Materials for
Housing and Infrastructure Applications: Opportunities and Challenges, p.4
14
construction industry to the widespread use of structural FRP’s as primary framing
members resulting from the lack of information, construction standards and
presumably an impression of high‐cost without apparent benefit. To remedy the lack
of design and construction standards, prior to 2007 the ACMA has begun a 3 year
development process of a unifying composite standard. Presumably, the “unifying”
standard will be formatted similarly to the AISD ASC or the Load & Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) manual to accommodate use by engineers and eliminate the confusion
of the Uniform Building Code/ International Building Code (UFC/ IFC) conflict.
15
3. Chapter 3: The Research Process
‐Reduce absolute consumption of energy and natural resources‐ in
material terms, make things last twice as long with half the resources.
‐Honor market principles‐ we just can’t ask people to pay more to save
the planet. They won’t in some cases‐ and can’t in others.
‐Be fun and engaging, and strive for an aesthetic outcome‐ humans take
the shape of their culture… Good design can release humankind from its
neurotic relationship to absurd acts of destruction, and aim it toward a
destiny that is far more “realistic” and enduring.
Our human destiny is inextricably linked to the action of all other living
things.
11

In order to comprehend the synergy of structure and sustainability within these
composite materials, one must establish a baseline in order to compare against, in
this case steel. From this assessment a feasibility study will be made and then a case
for petroleum based and renewable bio‐based composite FRP’s can then be
concluded. This data will then be compiled into a website for access by students,
architects, contractors and composite material developers.
3.1. Establish a Material Baseline:
Steel
Steel, in the modern sense (a quick de‐briefing):
…is made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many
purposes.

Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts
for 90% of steel production. Carbon and other elements act as a

11
(Paraphrased from Paul Hawkens’ design solutions for the world, The Ecology of Commerce, pp.
p.xiv‐xvi)
16
hardening agent, varying the amount of alloying elements in the steel
controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of
the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made
harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. High strength low
alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements,
typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest
price increase. Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements in amounts
of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into
various grades by standards organizations. For example, the American
Iron and Steel Institute has a series of grades defining many types of steel
ranging from standard carbon steel to HSLA and stainless steel. The
American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of
standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly
used structural steel in the United States.
Blast furnaces have been used for two millennia to produce pig iron, a
crucial step in the steel production process, from iron ore by combining
fuel, charcoal, and air. Modern methods use coke instead of charcoal,
which has proven to be a great deal more efficient and is credited with
contributing to the Industrial Revolution. Once the iron is refined,
converters are used to create steel from the iron. During the late 19th
and early 20th century there were many widely used methods such as
the Bessemer process and the Siemens‐Martin process. However, basic
oxygen steelmaking, in which pure oxygen is fed to the furnace to limit
impurities, has generally replaced these older systems. Electric arc
furnaces are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create
new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they
use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are
thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap
electricity.
12

Early steel production is documented back to Africa as early as 1400 BC, and was
used for weaponry in the early centuries AD, but came into primary construction use

12
Steel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel
17
in the 17
th
century. Even in contemporary times, production methods are
documented to “increase output using fewer resources”, at a growing rate.
… new process technologies have increased yields from around 70% in
the early 1970s to more than 90% today. Yields may be pushed still
higher as even newer technologies come on line.
… because of the adoption of new technologies, the amount of energy
required to produce a ton of steel has decreased by 45% since the mid
1970s. However, the capital to invest in new technologies is increasingly
limited, especially as the costs of environmental control continue to rise…
in all, the discharge of air and water pollutants has been reduced by more
than 90% (AISI 1999). In spite of these achievements, environmental
issues will continue to be the focus of policy debates, legislation, and
regulation in the future.
13

Nonetheless, it is important to understand that however environmental the
intentions of the steel industry may be, the negative impact, specifically the
carbon footprint of production is still an issue.

13
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies, pp.1‐2

14
Table by Author, paraphrased from Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S.
Iron and Steel Industry, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies, pp.1‐2
The steel industry's investment in pollution control technology has contributed to minimizing its
impact on the environment. Some of the major accomplishments over the past 25 years are:
9 Over 95% of the water used in producing and processing steel is now being recycled.
9 Discharge of air and water pollutants has been reduced by more than 90% over the past 20 years.
9 Solid waste production (excluding slag) at a typical mill has been reduced by more than 80%.
9 Many hazardous wastes once generated by the industry are now being recycled or recovered for
reuse.
9 Steel has an overall recycling rate of about 68%, higher than other materials.
Table 1: Steelmaking Pollution Control
14
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19
separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished structure, i.e. straw
reinforced mud‐brick adobe and pre/post‐tensioned steel reinforced concrete. In
composite FRP’s, the two primary categories of constituents are the matrix and
reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement
materials by maintaining their relative positions and the reinforcement package
impart its special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix.
Additionally, there are surface veils, matrix additives and many combinations of
reinforcement packages available which affect the strength, durability and cost of the
FRP. The following figure and table show the desired relative relationship between
resin and reinforcement and a simplified explanatory matrix respectively.

Figure 3: Composite FRP Stress/ Strain Relationship
16

16
Image from Gurit “Guide to Composites”, p.2,
http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp?section=000100010037§ionTitle=Data+Sheet+and+Brochu
re+Downloads
20

Figure 4: FRP Composite Cross‐Section
17

Composite FRP constituent Resists/affectsprimarily
Matrix:
Resins & Additives* Æ Compression forces & adhesion
Reinforcement Package:
Fiber or Roving
Matting= Random oriented fiber cloth
Fabric= Woven fiber cloth
Æ Longitudinal tensile forces
Æ Transverse or shear forces
Æ Multidirectional or impact forces
*Additives:
curing agents & surface veils Æ Hardness, color & fire, chemical or H
2
0
Of the benefits for composite FRP’s over structural steel, the high strength to weight
ratio and resistance to moisture and toxic environments are the most significant. The
mechanical and environmental qualities of the matrix types, resin systems,
reinforcement fibers and agents in composite FRP’s will be covered in depth in
chapter 5.

17
Image from Creative Pultrusions, Pultex Global Design Manual, 2000
18
Table by Author, paraphrased from Gurit “Guide to Composites”,
http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp?section=000100010037§ionTitle=Data+Sheet+and+Brochu
re+Downloads
Table 3: Composite FRP Materials and Reactions
18

21
3.3. Renewable Composite Materials:
Natural Fiber Reinforced Biopolymers
What is the logic of extracting diminishing resources in order to create
capital to finance more consumption and demand on those same
diminishing resources? (P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.5)
Given the diminishing nature of the worlds’ fossil fuel predicament, a seemingly
natural progression from petroleum based polymer composites is the use of
vegetable oils. Without delving too far into the topic of natural oil polyols and
unsaturated vegetable polymers, it is commonly understood that in plastics
vegetable oils are being researched to become completely interchangeable with
petroleum based polymers. Furthermore staple crops with high sugar content are
being hybridized and processed into ethanols and polyethelenes using crop rotation
to achieve maximum vegetative food and energy stores, which spawns studies
relative to the topic of “fuel energy balance”. The reader should accept that in the
not‐too‐distant future one strong potential to meet the world demand for fossil fuel
material and energy resources will be met with crops such as sugarcane, corn,
soybeans and canola.
There are many methods for achieving a greater percentage of renewable materials
within structural plastics, currently however it is not possible to achieve a
competitive, long‐life, 100% plant based renewable composite material. The main
obstacles remain to be the depreciative strength and persistence of water absorption
22
with increased renewable content. These qualities will be further discussed in
chapter 7.
3.4. Assess the results
Today, businesspeople readily concede the abuses of the early days of
this (industrial) Revolution, but hey do not wholly and genuinely
acknowledge the more threatening abuses perpetuated by the current
practices. (P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce, p.7)
Current trends have placed greater value on “green” strategies that, while perceptive
to the demands of a “healthy” planet, come at a premium. The cost‐effectiveness of
alternative composite infrastructure is adversely met because of market uncertainty.
Competitive marketing will almost certainly force steel manufacturers and
proponents to begin advertising the assets of steel vs. composite counterparts, most
significantly 1000’s of years and millions of built precedents.
Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern
production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no
cheaper alternative existed, particularly… where a hard, sharp edge was
needed.
19

This daft statement quoted from Wikipedia is a reminder that all materials
and technologies go through a period of growing pains. In financial terms it’s
the function of “supply and demand” and to those within the construction
industry it’s relative to the concept “economy of scale”. Simply put, this

19
Steel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel
23
means if one buys a million “gadgets” from a “gadget” manufacturer, which is
a lot, the bulk price would presumably drop the per unit wholesale cost. Now
if thousands of individual’s bought millions of “gadgets” over a period of
years, then one would expect the “gadget” manufacturer to drop the
wholesale unit cost over time, thus further dropping the end user unit retail
cost. The ultimate goal being, the cost eventually approaches the cost of the
materials used and the embodied energy, which defines the minimum cost
achievable, per unit delivered. Again, these are simply the principles of supply
and demand, the hard part is always selling those first million “gadgets”.
The concept in part is what impacts the market for composite FRP materials,
petroleum or renewable based, in the world today. The steel industry, similar
to oil, went through a period of stunted growth early in its history, then with
increased reserves, breakthroughs in the manufacturing process and a
healthy economy became the lifeblood of the construction industry. Now,
world steel demand and decreasing supply has increased prices waiting for
the next revolutionary material to emerge.
Architects and engineers alike are undoubtedly familiar with the following Energy
Consumption graphic by renowned timber engineer, Julius Natterer. More significant,
to some, than the cost assessment of composite and steel structural sections are
their respective environmental impacts. This number scale is the basis for how these
materials will be contrasted. It is suspected that petroleum based composite
24
materials will be closer to the zero baseline because of more effective use of those
diminishing petroleum resources, and renewable bio‐composites, like wood timber,
will be to the left of the baseline reflecting negative energy use and carbon dioxide
sequestration in production. This assessment will be studied at length in chapter 8.
20

20
Image from J. Natterer, Energy Criteria for Timber Structures, EPFL, 1992
Figure 5: Materials Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions
25
3.5. Create a Website
“Create a website”. This section will attempt to answer the question: What’s the
purpose of publishing a materials study which may never be read by the people who
should? In this computer driven Information Age there is no better way to reach the
masses than a website dedicated to ones scholarly exploits.
This website is focused towards informing architectural students and practitioners,
structural & materials engineers and most importantly, composites manufacturers
not already inclined towards renewables. Traditionally architects and engineers are
well‐informed groups, however experience has shown that post education
information comes from the hands of sales representatives pushing a product or
advertisements in popular design magazines. While however valuable this
commercial product and information may be, the data is subjectively biased.
It’s true that sometimes one becomes so enveloped in their own research that the
data gathered becomes synonymous with truth, regardless of fact. This website and
data will be presented in an objective manner for the benefit of those interested in
discerning the values of composites vs. the long standing precedent of steel
construction materials.
This graphic synopsis of the authors’ research will be hosted by Creative Pultrusions,
Inc. and the downloadable (.PDF) presentation is located at the link with the authors
name at the following URL: http://www.creativepultrusions.com/new.html .
26
4. Chapter 4: Understanding Structural Steel
The following data is an objective look into current steel manufacturing practices and
mechanical properties, to be later assessed in chapter 7. This is a collection of
research from public and government institutions, which should be noted
encompasses two plus decades of compiled figures.
4.1. Elements of Steel
In recap, steel as excerpted from Wikipedia:
…is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between 0.2
and 1.7 or 2.04% by weight, depending on grade. Carbon is the most cost‐
effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements
are used such as manganese, vanadium, tungsten, (nickel and
chromium)... (which) act as hardening agent(s)… varying the amount of
alloying elements in the steel controls qualities such as the hardness,
ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased
carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also
more brittle. High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually <
2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide
additional strength for a modest price increase.
21

Currently there are more than 3,000 catalogued grades of steel available,
not counting custom grades for specific users (AISI 2000)
22
.
The American Industrial revolution led to a period of prosperity heavily dependent
upon the industries of coal, oil and steel which were indirectly responsible for the
mass transportation networks veined across the country. At that point in history the

21
Steel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel

22
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
United State
iron and ste
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24

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25

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28
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U.S.
29
burning coal is the world’s largest method of producing electricity, and per unit of
electricity is considerably more environmentally destructive than all other methods.)
However, these numbers do not provide the embodied energy necessary to extract
the raw materials, which is an argument to calculate in it of itself.
In relative terms, the Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel
Industry study by Energetics Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy, provides a
material number to the energy use in production of the constituent elements of steel
by the process used to produce it. All‐in‐all, an integrated mill using the Basic Oxygen
Furnace method (BOF), dependent on forming technique uses between 15‐18 million
Btu’s of electricity per ton of steel product, of which 10.7 million Btu’s is for
Ironmaking. The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) uses from 7‐10 million Btu’s of electricity
per ton steel on top of that dependent upon many variables. The EAF process
essentially re‐melts or “recycles” previously casted metal products. To contrast, in
what is considered to be an environmentally unfriendly building prior to the 2006
expansion, the ~50,000 S.F. University of Southern California school of Architecture
building, used roughly 181,000 Btu’s per square foot, or 9.03 billion Btu’s annually.
The methodology used to come to these condensed numbers and further
descriptions of processing methods will follow. (See Section 4.6.3)

30
4.2. Fabrication Methods
The industry consists of two types of facilities ‐‐ integrated (ore‐based)
and electric arc furnace (mainly scrap‐based). Both types produce molten
steel that is subsequently cast and formed into steel products, but the
methods used to produce this steel differ.
An integrated steel mill produces molten iron (also known as hot metal)
in blast furnaces using a form of coal known as coke. This iron is used as a
charge to produce steel in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF). BOFs are
typically used for high‐tonnage production of carbon steels.
An electric arc furnace steel producer, also known as a mini‐mill,
produces steel from steel scrap and other iron‐bearing materials. Electric
arc furnace (EAF) facilities may be built wherever electricity and scrap are
reasonably priced and there is a local market for the steel product.
EAFs produce carbon steels, as well as low‐tonnage alloy and specialty
steels. EAF steel producers typically have lower capacity than integrated
mills and narrower product lines, although some newer mills are
producing commercial‐quality flat‐rolled products.
The typical output of an EAF facility is about one million tons of steel per
year, compared to an average of about three million tons per year for an
integrated mill. As of 1999, 46% of U.S. raw steel was produced in electric
arc furnaces (AISI 2000).
26

The important distinction to understand between BOF and EAF production methods,
is that an integrated mill using a basic oxygen furnace uses the coal substitute coke to
super heat the iron ore, and then the alloying additives are introduced prior to
forming the molten metal in any of the numerous techniques. Electric arc furnaces
use electricity to “…reprocess scrap metal to create new steel… (and) can also be

26
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
used for con
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27
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29

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32

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33

(Table by author from study by D.
Menzie et al., U.S. Geological Survey,
China’s Growing Appetite for Minerals,
2004,.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1374/ )

While the United States, for many reasons, does not competitively press towards the
mining & production or iron ore and pig iron, a substantial portion of the worlds steel
product is still being manufactured in the United States. This is the result of local
demand and the increased availability of scrap metal for EAF manufacturing.
Iron Ore in China—Driving Forces
9 Consuming more than 400 million metric tons
9 China has low‐grade domestic ores (average 32% Fe
content), with high levels of impurities
9 Imports more than one‐half of Fe needs from Major
import sources—Australia and Brazil. Primarily
Australia because of low shipping costs.
9 Plan to increase ownership in overseas joint‐venture
mines—from 12% to 50%
Table 7: Chinese Iron Ore Use Forecast, 2004
34

Figure 8: World Production of Raw Steel, 1998 (%)
30

The United States (other countries are also guilty of this practice) currently exports
vast quantities of iron ore, scrap metal and finished steel to other countries, primarily
China, and in return buys back large quantities of these same materials for local
improvements. If one had the resources to model the embodied energy of foreign
trade practices, for example, of one ton of steel that originates in Brazil via China and
then the United States, the previously quoted 1,682x10
12
Btu number estimated by
Energetics would be considerably larger. Perhaps practices like this are indications
attributing to the diminishing value of the U.S. dollar.

30
Table from Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies


31
Table from E
Department o

32
Table from s
2004. http://p
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Energetics, Inc
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pubs.usgs.gov/
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32

U.S. Iron and S
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31

Steel Industry,
etite for Miner
35

U.S.
rals,
36

(Table by Author from study by D.
Menzie et al., U.S. Geological Survey,
China’s Growing Appetite for Minerals,
2004,.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1374/ )
The table “Scrap Prices in the
United States” describes the
rising price of scrap metal and
illustrates the larger impact the
steel industry places on the global economy. The table reiterates the previous point
of exporting and then re‐importing similar building materials for the construction
market. In a free market economy, manufacturing costs may behoove
American/foreign industrialists to ship raw materials to nations with reduced labor
costs, and then re‐import the finished product for insertion into the economy. While
enterprising, there is a certain holistic ecological neglect which takes advantage of
the lesser to the benefit of the greater. 20 years ago, China, including Hong Kong and
Taiwan were in this example, considered the “lesser”. There seems to have become a
redistribution of economic power, in part due to the United States indirect
investment in China’s economy. As seen in table “Effects of Rising Prices to U.S. Steel
Mills”, Chinese entrepreneurs have subsequently inserted their presence into the
United States steel market and the issue of ecological negligence is still apparent.

Scrap Prices in the United States
9 Scrap prices increased until February 2004 owing to
increased global steel production & China’s great
demand for scrap
9 United States is major supplier of scrap to China
(causing shortage in United States)
9 Increasing shipping costs (owing to shortage of bulk
ocean carriers)
9 Global shortage of scrap
9 Weaker U.S. dollar
Table 8: U.S. Scrap Metal Price Forces
37
(Table by Author from study by D.
Menzie et al., U.S. Geological Survey,
China’s Growing Appetite for Minerals,
2004,.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1374/ )

4.4. Forming Methods
The forming method, also known as metalworking or steel‐working is the technique
used to shape the steel from either: liquid, billet or sheet into a finished product.
• Forming is a collection of processes wherein the metal is rearranged into
a specified geometry (shape) by:
o heating until molten, poured into a mold, and cooled,
o heating until the metal becomes plastically deformable by application
of mechanical force,
o by the simple application of mechanical force.
Casting is an example of achieving a specific form by pouring molten
metal into a mold and allowing it to cool. Hot forging is an example of
moving heated metal into a specific form by deforming it with tools such
as hammers or hydraulic presses while the material is at forging
temperature
33

The emboldened second method describes the process most commonly used in
structural steel fabrication.

33
Metalworking, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_forming
Effects of Rising Prices to U.S. Steel Mills
9 Georgetown Steel in South Carolina closed its
900,000‐short‐ton‐per‐year mini‐mill and went into
bankruptcy; blamed increasingly high cost of raw
materials
9 Nucor Steel:
o Bought idled American Iron Reduction DRI plant in
Convent, LA
o Became major partner with Rio Tinto, Shougang
Corp. and others to open an 800,000 ton/yr mill in
Western Australia to produce pig iron
o Reported 61% decline in net income during 2003
despite a 30% increase in sales
9 U.S. Steel reported a second‐quarter profit as a result
of global price increases
Table 9: Effects of Rising Steel Prices on U.S. Market
38
4.4.1. Cold Rolling
Cold rolling is a metal working process in which metal is deformed by
passing it through rollers at a temperature below its re‐crystallization
temperature. Cold rolling increases the yield strength and hardness of a
metal by introducing defects into the metal's crystal structure. These
defects prevent further slip and can reduce the grain size of the metal.
34

4.4.2. Hot Rolling
The metallurgical process of Hot rolling, used mainly to produce sheet
metal or simple cross sections from billets describes the method of when
industrial metal is passed or deformed between a set of work rolls and
the temperature of the metal is generally above its re‐crystallization
temperature. Hot rolling permits large deformations of the metal to be
achieved with a low number of rolling cycles.
Because the metal is worked before crystal structures have formed, this
process does not itself affect its micro‐structural properties. Hot rolling is
primarily concerned with manipulating material shape and geometry
rather than mechanical properties. This is achieved by heating a
component or material to its upper critical temperature and then
applying controlled load which forms the material to a desired
specification or size.
35

4.4.3. Extrusion
Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create long objects of a
fixed cross‐sectional profile. A material, often in the form of a billet, (a
prefabricated rectangular or round cross section of determined length) is
pushed and/or drawn through a die of the desired profile shape.
Extrusion may be continuous (producing indefinitely long material) or
semi‐continuous (producing many short pieces). Some materials are hot
drawn while others may be cold drawn.
The feedstock may be forced through the die by various methods. A
single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram,

34
Cold Rolling, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_rolling

35
Hot Rolling, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_rolling
39
driven by hydraulic pressure (for steel alloys and titanium alloys for
example), oil pressure (for aluminum), or in other specialized processes
such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many
simultaneous streams of material.
36

4.5. Major Steel Markets
The major markets for steel and all metal products in the United States and similarly
internationally are reflected in the following table “Shipments of U.S. Steel Mill
Products by Market Classification ‐1998”.

36
Extrusion, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion

37
Table from E
Department o

38
Table from E
Department o
Tab

Energetics, Inc
of Energy, Offic
Energetics, Inc
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Table 11:

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Environmental
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Environmental
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38
l Profile of the
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, 1998
37

U.S. Iron and S
U.S. Iron and S
Steel Industry,
Steel Industry,
40

U.S.
U.S.
41
The Department of Commerce estimate(d) that in 1999, $695.7 billion
will be spent in the United States on construction projects. Construction
accounts for 12% of the gross national product and 9% of the gross
domestic product.
39

Based off these estimates, the following table “Snapshot of the U.S. Iron and Steel
Industry‐ 1999” reflects that of the estimated $695.7 billion worth of construction,
$35.6 billion, or roughly 5% of that market is occupied by the steel industry. With
inflation and increased market, more contemporary figures probably raise that
construction budget an additional 10%, concurrently increasing the steel national and
international market share.
According to Engineering News‐Record Magazine, the world spent about
$ 3.22 trillion on construction in 1998. Given estimates by such groups as
the International Monetary Fund that the total gross domestic products
of nations around the world is in the neighborhood of $32 trillion, that
means that construction accounts for 10%of the world's economy.
4.6. Life Cycle Analysis
After foreign competition, the biggest challenge facing the industry today
is compliance with environmental regulations. The Clean Air Act and the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act have had significant impacts on
the industry. Since 1970, the industry has invested more than $5 billion in
air pollution control systems, much of it for particulate control. In a
typical year, 15% of the industry's capital investments go to
environmental projects (Darnall 1994). Over 95% of the water used for
steel production and processing is now recycled; in all, the discharge of
air and water pollutants has been reduced by more than 90% (AISI 1999).

39
The Largest Industry: How large is the worldwide construction market?,
http://et.wcu.edu/ET‐CC_CM‐gen‐info.htm
42
In spite of these achievements, environmental issues will continue to be
the focus of policy debates, legislation, and regulation in the future.
40

4.6.1. Non‐renewable Resources
Unlike research and speculation of world fossil fuel stores, currently there isn’t a
definitive estimation of remaining iron ore supplies in the world. It therefore
becomes a precarious debate regarding the future of the ferrous metals global
industry.
4.6.2. Recyclability
The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years, in
large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper
to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the
production process to form 'new' steel. Steel does not lose any of its
inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has
drastically reduced energy and material requirements than refinement
from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy
consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power
eighteen million homes for one year. Recycling one ton of steel saves
1,100 kilograms of iron ore, 630 kilograms of coal, and 55 kilograms of
limestone. 76 million tons of steel were recycled in 2005.
In recent years, about three quarters of the steel produced annually has
been recycled. However, the numbers are much higher for certain types
of products. For example, in both 2004 and 2005, 97.5% of structural
steel beams and plates were recycled. Indeed, structural steel typically
contains around 95% recycled steel content, whereas lighter gauge, flat
rolled steel contains about 30% reused material.
Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions,
there is often very little waste produced during construction, and any
waste that is produced may be recycled.

40
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
43
Global demand for steel continues to grow, and though there are large
amounts of steel existing, much of it is actively in use. As such, recycled
steel must be augmented by some first‐use metal, derived from raw
materials. Commonly recycled steel products include cans, automobiles,
appliances, and debris from demolished buildings. A typical appliance is
about 65% steel by weight and automobiles are about 66% steel and iron.
While some recycling takes place through the integrated steel mills and
the basic oxygen process, most of the recycled steel is melted electrically
using an electric arc furnace (for production of low‐carbon steel).
41

As previously stated, the EAF process which research suggests provides ~46% of the
international steel supply, is essentially the re‐melting portion of the metal recycling
process. This is not a perfect process, as quality diminishes over time because the
reduction process cannot remove impurities that exist within the metal members.
Impurities refers to the “recipe” of the original forged metal, and unless all sections
to be re‐melted are of the same original “batch”, carbon content, fluxes and alloys
vary, and therefore create a less exact recycled compound.
4.6.3. Energy Use in Production
In steel metallurgy, there isn’t a law of diminishing returns at the chemical level, but
there are the obvious perceived benefits to recycling. However, this can become a
“sticky” subject when interpreted from a life cycle analysis perspective. The steel
industry is concurrently processing new iron ore and reprocessing existing stores into
“new” steel at a phenomenal rate, which if continued indefinitely at increasing rates

41
Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
44
using the same systems that are in place today, the world will eventually run out of
metals. Fact. However, from an ecological perspective when assessing the relative
harm current production methods place on the environment, which is the truly more
harmful method?
The following table “Typical Energy Intensity of U.S. Integrated and EAF‐Based
Steelmaking Processes‐ 1998” breaks down the energy requirements of all processes
related to the production of steel in the unit million Btu’s per ton using “Electric
Power”, and “Other Energy” (presumably coal) to determine a “Total”. Immediately
the numbers that jump out are: Coke‐making (3.35), Iron‐making (10.73), Hot Dip
Galvanneal (4.25) and EAF Steelmaking (5.25). In comparison to EAF, BOF
Steelmaking (0.88) is quite low in its energy intensity, yet it’s the lead‐up work of
Coke‐making & Iron‐making which make the process so energy intensive, but
necessary. Hot Dip Galvanneal represents the protective galvanizing & annealing
process which are essential in protecting and priming the surface of the steel. All
steel when left exposed requires some form of protective treatment, be it stainless,
galvanizing or electroplated, and therefore is not representative of any specific
steelmaking method.
At a quick glance, making steel is very inefficient energy wise, and although
arguments are made to the tune of: recycling just one ton of steel saves enough
electricity to power 400 houses for a year, really needs to be looked at with some
perspective. It is true that recycling saves energy compared to making steel from
scratch, but
equation is
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47
warming is worldwide the burning of coal which is recognized as the cheapest but
dirtiest source of energy.
One look at the following table “U.S. Steel Energy Used by Fuel Type, 1984‐98” and it
is apparent how dependent upon coal the steel industry is. Coke, which is a
compacted coal like substance lacking the sulfurous compounds, when burned is able
to reach higher temperatures, but unlike coal is not available in huge stores.
However, coal can be baked in an airtight oven to remove the water, sulfur, coal gas
& tar which cause coal to smoke when burnt, releasing emissions, and upon doing so
is considered a cleaner burning more powerful alternative fuel source for furnaces.
However, the process defeats the gains in terms of embodied energy and emissions
control, but being a necessary ingredient in iron ore smelting must be produced if not
mined.

Table 14: U.S. Steel Industry Energy Use by Fuel Type, 1984‐1998
Table from Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
48
As previously conjectured, the steelmaking process itself, separated from iron, coke
or energy production, is a dirty business. The following table “Estimated Combustion‐
Related Emissions by Major Process in U.S. Steelmaking‐ 1998”, illustrates the
discharge of emissions in 1000 ton units during one year of material production.
Those emissions are Sulfur Monoxide (SOx), Nitric Oxide (NOx), Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Particulate matter, and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) which are all major
greenhouse gases or matter along with producing smog.
The common terminology describing the amount of emissions a material or process
makes, is the carbon footprint, which specifically extracts the amount of carbon
atoms produced in the process; the more, the “dirtier”. Looking at Ironmaking, 59.8
million tons of CO
2
were produced in one year, which using universal calculations
reduces to roughly 16.3 million tons of carbon produced, contributing heavily to
global warming.
49

Table 15: U.S. Steelmaking Emissions by Process, 1998
43

4.7. Material Strength (ASTM)
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into
various grades by standards organizations. For example, the American
Iron and Steel Institute has a series of grades defining many types of steel
ranging from standard carbon steel to HSLA and stainless steel. The
American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of
standards, which define (strength of) alloys such as A36 steel, the most
commonly used structural steel in the United States.
44

ASTM A36 is the all‐purpose carbon grade steel widely used in building
and bridge construction. ASTM A529 structural carbon steel, ASTM A572
high‐strength, low‐alloy structural steel, ASTM A242 and A588
atmospheric corrosion‐resistant highstrength low‐alloy structural steel,
ASTM A514 quenched and tempered alloy structural steel plate and

43
Table from Energetics, Inc., Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
44
Steel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel
50
ASTM A852 quenched and tempered low‐alloy structural steel plate may
each have certain advantages over ASTM A36 structural carbon steel,
depending on the application.
They are frequently used in tension members, beams in continuous and
composite construction where deflections can be minimized, and
columns having low slenderness ratios. The reduction of dead load, and
associated savings in shipping costs, can be significant. However, higher
strength steels are not to be used indiscriminately.
45

In 1989 thru the 90’s, at the time the ASD 9
th
Edition of the was written A36 grade
steel was the most common in production. The ASTM “A36” was initially indicative of
the yield strength of the steel, being 36 ksi, however the other grades of steel, A529,
A572 etc, do not designate 572 ksi and therefore should not be relied upon as a
measure of steel strength. Currently, in 2008, A572 high strength steel is the most
commonly produced, and in some markets has become more cost effective because
of the supply. For purposes of this research A572 steel will be assessed.

45
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Allowable Steel Design (ASD), 9
th
Edition, 1989, p.1‐3)
Table 16 A572 ASD Steel Section Property Assessment
(
I
E
(Tables by auth
Institute of Ste
Edition)
hor, extracted
eel Constructio

from: America
on (AISC), ASD,
51
an
9
th

Table 18: A572 ASD Steel Section Beam Values
Table17:A572ASDSteelSectionColumnValues
52
The previous three tables are compiled data from the ASD regarding common steel
section sizes:
These sizes were selected because they are
commonly used, and have whole numbered
dimensions which mach the members
nominal designation. The selected
information provides the most commonly
used properties of steel sections in structural
engineering, and shall provide a basis for
comparison throughout this research.
4.8. Limitations
The limitations of the material are inherently dependent upon the strength of grade
selected and the creativity of the designer in its use. However; creative genius
typically comes with a high price tag in regards to special treatment of materials. The
usual deterrents when using steel are: damaging or corrosive environments, freight
in relation to weight, the formal aesthetic of the surroundings, availability and cost. A
recent development in sustainable design being, are the materials found locally
which becomes problematic in determining both manufacturing and mining origins.
There are undoubtedly other issues which would deem steel less effective in the built
environment, a question thus arises, less effective than what?
Steel Sections analyzed
Wide Flanges; W (Columns or Beams):
o W12x79
o W10x60
Standard Beams; S (Beams)
o S12x50
o S8x23
Tubular Shapes; TS (Primarily Columns
or special trusses)
o TS6x6
o TS4x4
1” Round bar or rod
Table 19: Steel Section Profile Analysis
(Tablebyauthor)
53
5. Chapter 5: Understanding composite materials
The following is a look into current composite building and manufacturing practices
and mechanical properties, to be further assessed in chapter 7. This is a collection of
research from public institutions, primarily coming from the commercial
manufacturer, Creative Pultrusions, Inc.
5.1. Constituents of Composites
5.1.1. Resin Systems
The constituents within composite materials can be as varied as the materials
engineer is creative. Dependent upon the end material use, manufacturing methods
and mechanical properties will vary pertaining to the desired results. The following
data depicts what attributes are necessary of resin systems for use in a composite
materials.

46
Table from Gurit “Guide to Composites”, p.8
http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp?section=000100010037§ionTitle=Data+Sheet+and+Brochu
re+Downloads
Composite Resin Criteria
1. Good mechanical properties
2. Good adhesive properties
3. Good toughness properties
4. Good resistance to environmental
degradation
Table 20: Composite Resin Criteria
46

54
‐Mechanical Properties of the
Resin System
The figure shows the stress /
strain curve for an 'ideal' resin
system. The curve for this resin
shows high ultimate strength,
high stiffness (indicated by the
initial gradient) and a high
strain to failure. This means
that the resin is initially stiff but
at the same time will not suffer
from brittle failure.
Figure 11: Composite Deformation Curve
47

It should also be noted that when a composite is loaded in tension, for
the full mechanical properties of the fiber component to be achieved, the
resin must be able to deform to at least the same extent as the fiber. The
figure below gives the strain to failure for E‐glass, S‐glass, aramid and
high‐strength grade carbon fibers on their own (i.e. not in a composite
form). Here it can be seen that, for example, the S‐glass fiber, with an
elongation to break of 5.3%, will require a resin with an elongation to
break of at least this value to achieve maximum tensile properties.

Figure 12: Fiber and Resin Strain Relationship
48

47
Image from Gurit “Guide to Composites”, p.8 http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp
55
‐Adhesive Properties of the Resin System
High adhesion between resin and reinforcement fibers is necessary for
any resin system. This will ensure that the loads are transferred
efficiently and will prevent cracking or fiber / resin debonding when
stressed.
‐Toughness Properties of the Resin System
Toughness is a measure of a material's resistance to crack propagation,
but in a composite this can be hard to measure accurately. However, the
stress / strain curve of the resin system on its own provides some
indication of the material's toughness. Generally the more deformation
the resin will accept before failure the tougher and more crack‐resistant
the material will be. Conversely, a resin system with a low strain to failure
will tend to create a brittle composite, which cracks easily. It is important
to match this property to the elongation of the fiber reinforcement.
‐Environmental Properties of the Resin System
Good resistance to the environment, water and other aggressive
substances, together with an ability to withstand constant stress cycling,
are properties essential to any resin system. These properties are
particularly important for use in a marine environment.
49

The resins that are used in fiber reinforced composites at the molecular level are
referred to as 'polymers', which is commonly misinterpreted as plastics. The
relationship is all plastics are polymers, but not all polymers are plastic.
All polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are
composed of long chain‐like molecules consisting of many simple
repeating units. Polymer (resins) can be classified under two types,

48
Image from Gurit “Guide to Composites”, p.9 http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp

49
Paraphrased from Gurit “Guide to Composites”, pp 8‐10, taken from
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp?sequence=7
56
'thermoplastic' and 'thermosetting', according to the effect of heat on
their properties.
Although there are many different types of resin in use in the composite industry, the
majority of structural parts are made with three main types, namely
polyester/vinylester, polyurethane and epoxy. Polyesters and vinylesters aren’t
identical, but their chemical make‐ups are the most similar, and therefore combined
in this research. Generally speaking, a vinylester provides better durability and
chemical resistance with similar strength properties for an increased price. The
following table provides a breakdown of the primary composite production methods,
resin systems and matrix types.
Type or method Benefit/Result
Matrix Type:
Thermosets
Thermoplastics
Thermoset Resin Systems:
Epoxy Resin
Polyurethane Resin
Polyester/ Vinylester Resin
Fabrication Method:
Pultrusion
Compression/ Injection Molding
Sheet Molding (SMC)
Æ Increased stiffness & long life
Æ Relatively soft, malleable & recyclable

Æ Best impact & environment resistance
Æ Highest stiffness
Æ Lowest priced, good all‐around performance

Æ Fast, cost effective & consistent
Æ Mass producing intricate shapes
Æ Strong sheet or stamped applications
Table 21: Resin System and Fabrication Method Matrix (Table by author)
5.1.1.1. Thermosets
Thermosetting materials, or 'thermosets', are formed from a chemical
reaction where the resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non‐
reversible chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible product. Resins
such as polyester and epoxy cure by mechanisms that do not produce any
volatile by products and thus are much easier to process. Once cured,
thermosets will not become liquid again if heated, although above a
certain temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly.
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functional groups with another monomer containing at least two alcohol
groups in the presence of a catalyst.
52

5.1.1.1.1. Polyester Resins
Polyester resins, being the most widely used for structural applications will be the
primary focus of this research.
(Table by author, exerpted from L.T. Drzal et al,
Biobased Structural Composite materials for Housing
and Infrastructure Applications: Opportunities and
Challenges)

Polyester resins are widely used, particularly the “unsaturated” type
capable of cure from a liquid to a solid under a variety of conditions. A
range of polyesters is made from different glycols (polyethylene glycol,
ethylene glycol, etc.), acids (malaeic, anhydride), and monomers, all
having various properties. Orthophthalic polyester is the standard
economic resin commonly used, and it yields highly rigid products with
low heat resistance.
53

Unsaturated polyester resin is a thermoset, capable of being cured from a
liquid or solid state when subject to the right conditions. An unsaturated
polyester differs from a saturated polyester which cannot be cured in this
way. It is usual, however, to refer to unsaturated polyester resins as
‘polyester resins’, or simply as ‘polyesters’.
In chemistry the reaction of a base with an acid produces a salt. Similarly,
in organic chemistry the reaction of an alcohol with an organic acid
produces an ester and water. By using special alcohols, such as a glycol, in
a reaction with di‐basic acids, a polyester and water will be produced.

52
Polyurethane, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane

53
D. Houston et al, Natural‐Fiber‐Reinforced Polymer Composites in Automotive Applications
Polyester Resin Classifications
orthophthalic resins (ortho’s)
isophthalic resins (iso’s)
bisphenol‐A‐fumarates
chlorendics, and
vinyl ester
Table 24: Polyester Resin Classes
59
This reaction, together with the addition of compounds such as saturated
di‐basic acids and cross‐linking monomers, forms the basic process of
polyester manufacture. As a result there is a whole range of polyesters
made from different acids, glycols and monomers, all having varying
properties.
There are two principle types of polyester resin used as standard
laminating systems in the composites industry. Orthophthalic polyester
resin is the standard economic resin used by many people. Isophthalic
polyester resin is now becoming the preferred material in industries such
as marine where its superior water resistance is desirable.
Most polyester resins are viscous, pale coloured liquids consisting of a
solution of a polyester in a monomer which is usually styrene. The
addition of styrene in amounts of up to 50% helps to make the resin
easier to handle by reducing its viscosity. The styrene also performs the
vital function of enabling the resin to cure from a liquid to a solid by
‘cross‐linking’ the molecular chains of the polyester, without the
evolution of any by‐products. These resins can therefore be moulded
without the use of pressure and are called ‘contact’ or ‘low pressure’
resins. Polyester resins have a limited storage life as they will set or ‘gel’
on their own over a long period of time. Often small quantities of
inhibitor are added during the resin manufacture to slow this gelling
action.
54

(Table by author, paraphrased from Gurit)



54
Gurit “Guide to Composites”,
http://www.gurit.com/downloads.asp?section=000100010037§ionTitle=Data+Sheet+and+Brochu
re+Downloads )

Polyester Resin Additives
Catalyst
Accelerator
Additives: Thixotropic
Pigment
Filler
Chemical/fire resistance
Table 25: Polyester Additives
5
Ther
hard
melt
desi
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(whi
fiber
5.1
Fiber genera
longitudinal
are made of
composites
automotive
this has yet

55
Paraphrased
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56
Table by aut
Composites”
5.1.1.2. T
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55

Fibers
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Table 26: C

Guide to Comp
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Composite Fib
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56

ns and Gurit “G
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61
The relatively recent development of carbon fibers in automotive, aerospace and
nautical FRP’s has brought composites into prominence in society. Carbon fiber
fabrics like Kevlar, are generally known as the strongest commercial material
available, which give composites almost unlimited potential, but as seen in the
previous table comes at a high cost. For this reason E‐Glass is the most typically used
fiber available, and has greater strength for the price. The following table depicts the
nomenclature and weights which are relative to strength in longitudinal glass fiber
reinforcements. A “bundle” is a spool of fiber which has been twisted similar to the
yarn of a knitter, but in glass fibers that grouping of fibers is called a roving. The
weight of the roving is measured in how many individual threads make up the
grouping, thus more threads makes for a “heavier” bundle. The table “Glass Fiber
Bundle Properties” illustrates that there are 3 predominant bundle weights, which
are measured in length of a roving equal to one pound. However, it is important to
know that more threads in a roving does not always mean a stronger end composite.
Reinforcements need to be carefully designed to optimize resin to fiber ratios and as
in concrete construction, ensure a minimum coverage of reinforcement by the
matrix.
(Table by author, as conferred by J. Mostoller of
Creative Pultrusions, Inc.)


Glass Fiber Bundle Properties
Glass fiber bundles weigh 50 lbs, and
typical weights are:
62 yard/lb yield
113 yard/lb yield (most common)
250 yard/lb yield
Table 27: Glass Bundle Weights
62
5.2. Fabrication Methods
There are many methods of thermoset fiber reinforced polyester fabrication which
are outlined as follows.
5.2.1. Injection/ Resin Transfer Molding
Injection molding is a manufacturing technique for making parts from
both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials in production.
Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a mold , which is the
inverse of the product's shape. (M)olds are made from either steel or
aluminium, and precision‐machined to form the features of the desired
part. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of
parts, from the smallest component to entire body panels of cars.
Injection molding is the most common method of production, with some
commonly made items including bottle caps and outdoor furniture.
57

5.2.2. Compression Molding/ Sheet Molding
Compound (SMC)
Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding
material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold
cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is
applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, and heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The
process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in
the form of granules, putty‐like masses, or preforms. Compression
molding is a high‐volume, high‐pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high‐strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite
thermoplastics can also be compression molded with unidirectional
tapes, woven fabrics, randomly orientated fiber mat or chopped strand.
The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold large, fairly
intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods
compared with other molding like transfer molding and injection
molding, moreover it gives little waste on material provides advantage on
expensive compounds. Yet, compression molding often provides least

57
Injection Molding, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_molding
63
product consistency, difficult to control flash and it is not suitable for
some types of parts. Compression molding produces fewer knit lines and
less fiber‐length degradation than injection molding.
58

Sheet molding compound or (SMC) is the composite equivalent to sheet metal
stamping as is done for vehicle body panels. The thin sheet composite material can
be heated, fit into a mold and compressed or stamped into place.
5.2.3. Pultrusion
In pultrusion:
Fibers are pulled from a creel through a resin bath and then on through a
heated die. The die completes the impregnation of the fiber, controls the
resin content and cures the material into its final shape as it passes
through the die. This cured profile is then automatically cut to length.
Fabrics may also be introduced into the die to provide fiber direction
other than at 0°
59
.
Pultrusion is the fastest and the most cost‐effective composite
manufacturing processes, and is well suited to high volume production
for structural applications. Pultrusion technology also improves
composite properties compared to other methods because the fibers are
under tension as the resin cures and are tightly bonded to each other
60
.
Extrusion‐ the inverse of pultrusion. A resin is pushed through a heated metal die
with the reinforcement, but because of the beneficial properties of pultrusion,
extrusion is generally less desirable.

58
Compression Molding, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_moulding

59
Adapted from Gurit, Guide to Composites”, taken from
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp?sequence=8

60
K. Chandrashekhara et al, Manufacturing and mechanical properties of soy‐based composites using
pultrusion, 2003
64
5.3. World Creation
The following table “Europe” is an illustration depicting the production of thermoset
reinforced composites by method in Europe from 2002‐ 2005.

Table 28: European Composite Production by Method, 2004
61

The European composites market represents a typical model of the world production
and the global production methods will be considered uniform for this research. The
following graph illustrates the production of composites globally by continent, and
the European market plainly represents over a third of the world production share.

61
Table from ACMA, Composites Industry Statistics
65

Figure 13: World Composite Production by Continent, 2004
62

The United States produces the lions’ share of North America’s estimated 40% global
production of composites, which is evident in the following graphic.

Figure 14: U.S. Composites Production Impact, 1998‐2004
If the same analysis is applied as previously done for steel, “The Department of
Commerce estimate(d) that in 1999, $695.7 billion will be spent in the United States
on construction projects. Construction accounts for 12% of the gross national
product and 9% of the gross domestic product.” Deducing from the following tables,
in 1999 the United States produced roughly 3.75 billion lbs of composites shipments
and from that, around 46% was construction related goods. Therefore roughly 1.725

62
Table’s from ACMA, Composites Industry Statistics)
66
billion lbs of composite construction materials worth an estimated $6.75 billion
makes up roughly 1% of the national GDP.

Figure 15: U.S. Composite Shipments by Market, 2005
63

Figure 16: U.S. Composite Production, 1996‐2005

63
Table’s from ACMA, Composites Industry Statistics
67
5.3.1. Fibers Production
The matrix and reinforcement are equally important in composite FRP production,
yet the primary tensile strength properties are directly attributable to the
reinforcement package. Several reinforcement material options have been previously
discussed however; no material receives more attention than carbon fiber
technology. The development of carbon fibers and fabrics by pioneer material
engineers has led designers into a new era of high strength, low weight, minimalistic
design. The following graphic “Trends and Forecast in Carbon Fiber Shipment” shows
the material is invaluable in virtually every commercial market sector, and with
increased production and decreased price is expected to become a greater influence
in construction endeavors.

Figure 17: Trends and Forecast in Carbon Fiber Shipments (unknown source)
68
Japan and the United States have competitively led the development of carbon fibers
internationally as evidenced by their combined 73% market share.

Table 29: World Carbon Fiber Production, 1999‐2009
64

5.4. Major Composite Markets
As of 2006, the epoxy industry amounts to more than US$5 billion in
North America and about US$15 billion world‐wide. The Chinese market
has been growing rapidly and the market size is more than 30% of the
total world‐wide market. It is made up of approximately 50–100
manufacturers of basic or commodity epoxy resins and hardeners of
which the three largest are Hexion (formerly Resolution Performance
Products, formerly Shell Development Company; whose epoxy
tradename is "Epon"), The Dow Chemical Company (tradename "D.E.R."),
and Huntsman Corporation's Advanced Materials business unit (formerly
Vantico, formerly Ciba Specialty Chemical; tradename "Araldite").
The applications for epoxy‐based materials are extensive and include
coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon
fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and
other thermosetting resins are also used for glass‐reinforced plastic). The
chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations
allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of
properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion,

64
Table from ACMA, Composites Industry Statistics
69
chemical and heat resistance, good‐to‐excellent mechanical properties
and very good electrical insulating properties.
65

Composite materials as a group offer a wide variety of material uses within the
construction industry. While epoxy, polyester and polyurethane all offer structural
FRP applications, epoxies are the most versatile on the whole because of their
excellent strength, insulation and durability properties. Urethanes offer superior
stiffness than ester systems, are used as adhesives and are also useful in
waterproofing treatments of wood, but are mainly used as thermally insulating
foams. Polyesters primary use outside of FRP’s are as fabrics because of the materials
increased elasticity and heat resistance which both enhance the composites physical
properties.
Composite materials, regardless of resin or fiber systems are used universally
because of their durability, corrosion resistance and light weight to strength ratio.
The list of served markets is extensive, but
the following table represents the primary
applications which require the environmental
or chemical corrosion resistance, and benefits
of low weight and high strength.
(Table by D. Troutman of Creative Pultrusions, Inc.)

65
Epoxy, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy
Pultruded Composite Applications
Chemical and Petrochemical facilities
• Utility infrastructure
• Construction
• Manufacturing and Industrial facilities
• Recreation
• Food and beverage services
• Marine environments
• Military and Aeronautic applications
• Power generation
• Transportation
Water and waste water treatment
Table 30: CPI Composite Application Markets
70
5.5. Life Cycle Analysis
Determining the embodied energy or factoring the life cycle analysis (LCA) becomes
an ominous task because this information needs to come from the manufacturers. In
fact the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has researched simulated economic
studies, provided emissions controls through Maximum Achievable Control
Technology (MACT) and provided grants to research embodied energy models and
emissions of composite materials, but hasn’t done an LCA itself. The tasks for a
successful study would require a researcher to:

Suggested future steps analyzing FRP’s:
Provide electric and natural gas sub‐meters separating the manufacturing facility from the rest of
the business entities operations.
In the example of pultrusion, each pultrusion machine would then be required to be individually
sub‐metered, and monitored for use.
A unique blend of a resin system would need to be specified, and then reduced to its constituent
elements in parts by weight.
The reinforcement package would also need to be defined specifically by fraction volume content.
The fabricated material from a given day would need to be logged, and from the utility bills could
be deduced an average energy cost per unit of FRP material made.
If done over a period of weeks, the mean production value would provide better accuracy.

Further, the chemical supplier/ manufacturer would need to:
o Provide the original supply point for all the raw materials in each chemical part.
o Analyze the natural gas and electricity used in the distillation of chemical parts.

Finally, the end user could create an analysis of all shipping energy costs from raw material to
installation, to complete a thorough embodied energy study.
Table 31: Composite FRP LCA Strategy(Table by author)
In a study co
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versus a pul
thermodyna
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ability to do
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embodied e


66
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66
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72
5.5.1. Emissions
Control of emissions is also important during manufacturing of thermoset
composites, particularly in open‐mold processes such as hand lay‐up,
spray‐up, gel coat applications, and filament winding. In such processes,
the materials of choice are unsaturated polyester resins consisting of a
solution of a low‐molecular weight polyester in volatile reactive
monomers (usually styrene), which not only act as diluent but also
participate in the curing (hardening) reaction. Volatile cleaning solvents
such as acetone are also used. Evaporation of styrene during the raw
material application process and during the curing period is the main
source of VOC emissions. Of all the production methods, the spray‐up
process has the highest potential for VOC emissions as a result of
creation of a large surface area of exposed resin by atomization, followed
by hand lay‐up. Moderate emissions are generated in filament winding
and pultrusion operations and are much lower in various other closed‐
mold processes.
67

(Table by author from S. Patel et al,
Environmental Issues in Polymer Processing: A
Review on Volatile Emissions and
Material/Energy Recovery Options, 2000,
p.36)
Styrene is classified as a
possible human carcinogen by
the International Agency for
Research on Cancer. The U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) does not have a
cancer classification for

67
S. Patel et al, Environmental Issues in Polymer Processing: A Review on Volatile Emissions and
Material/Energy Recovery Options, 2000, p.36

Strategies to reduce emissions include, for
example:
1. Replacing solvents with emulsifiers for hand
and tool cleaning, which usually represents the
largest consumption of acetone; advantages of
emulsifiers including virtually no air emissions,
biodegradability, and non‐flammability
2. Changing resin formulation (e.g., a resin with
36% styrene content was found to have 60–
70% reduction in emission levels compared
with conventional resin with 42% styrene)
Table 33: Composite Emission Reduction Strategies
73
styrene, but is evaluating its potential carcinogenicity. The EPA has
described styrene as "a suspected carcinogen" and "a suspected toxin to
the gastrointestinal, kidney, and respiratory systems, among others.
68

(Table by author from, Epoxy,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy )
As exemplified in the table “Health
risks of Thermoset Epoxy Resins”,
which represents a typical list of
human side‐effects from synthetic
polymer resins, emissions control is
the largest ecologic factor in the
production of FRP composites. The list of VOC’s released in the production of plastics
vary dependent upon constituents within the mixture, temperature levels the resin
mixtures are heated to and the relative concern of the manufacturer. As previously
mentioned in analysis of the work by D. Srinivasagupta et al, the Environmental
Protection Agency restricts emissions from composites manufacturing processes.
The EPA’s maximum allowable control technology (MACT) standard
requires:
• at least 60 weight % reduction in HAP emissions in all pultrusion
processes that are below the 100 tons/year HAP emission threshold,
• and a 95 weight % reduction for new pultrusion processes that are
above this threshold.

68
Styrene, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrene
Health risks of Thermoset Epoxy Resins
The primary risk associated with epoxy use is
sensitization to the hardener, which, over time,
can induce an allergic reaction.
Both epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A are
suspected endocrine disruptors.
According to some reports Bisphenol A is linked
to the following effects in humans:
o estrogenic activity;
o alteration of male reproductive organs;
o early puberty induction;
o shortened duration of breast feeding;
o pancreatic cancer
Table 34: Epoxy Emission Health Risks
74
However, the injected pultrusion process with closed backflow drip collection is
recognized as an option to modify conventional pultrusion to achieve this 60%
reduction
69
, and therefore drastically decrease the damaging effects of composite
pultrusions.
5.5.2. Non‐renewable Resources
From the natural environment arrives the inspiration for many of humanity’s greatest
discoveries. Styrene, if not a great discovery is significantly important in the
production of plastics, was initially extracted from the styrax genus of plants and
trees. This naturally occurring substance similar to the rubber of a rubber tree or
natural forms of polyester occurring in the protective cutin of plant cuticles are
directly responsible for the development of their respective synthetic parts. It is
unclear if these polymers are capable of being extracted in mass from their
namesake plants, or what the ecological effects of doing so would be, but these
materials have been synthetically replicated from petrochemical sources, and for
better or worse are integral in the production of composite FRP’s.
5.6. Material Strength (ASTM)
Because of the cost to strength benefit basis and availability of published
information, thermoset, e‐glass reinforced, polyester resin FRP’s were studied for

69
D. Srinivasagupta, Ecologically & Economically Conscious Design of Injected Pultrusion Process via
Multi‐objective Optimization, 2003
75
mechanical and physical characteristics. To provide a comparable look into vinylester
and polyurethane sections, a cost and mechanical properties example was provided
for each. The urethane section is not manufactured by Creative Pultrusions currently,
and is merely an estimate based off of performance data provided from Creative and
other sources.
5.7. Limitations
The limitations in FRP composite design are the materials current lacking of shear
and compressive resisting capacity, the low melting point of the resin system and the
availability of standardized product information to designers and engineers.
Table35:SimulatedASDCompositeSectionPropertyAssessment
(
P
2
(Tables by auth
Pultrusions, Pu
2000)
hor, extracted
ultrusion Globa

from: Creative
al Design Manu
Table 37: Simulated ASD Composite Section Beam Values
Table36:SimulatedASDCompositeSection
76
e
ual,
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Table36:SimulatedASDCompositeSection
77
6. Chapter 6: Attributes of renewable Composites
The National Academy of Engineering agrees, and has concluded, that the
overall thermodynamic efficiency of our American Economy is about
2.5%. (in relation to production efficiency, of product to waste) Europe
and Asia are not much better. The western economy is a waste machine
producing (over) 97% waste.
70

Composite NFRbP’s unlike non‐renewable based FRP’s and steel are a subject of
limited published data, but a high level of interest. Every year thousands of
professionals, students and professional students write reports on the current “state
of the industry”, and that renewable composites present a potential breakthrough in
structural material sciences. While this is the general consensus on the material, the
performance limitations are a key setback.
6.1. Elements of NFRbP’s
NFRbP’s, like petrochemically derived FRP’s are consistent with the requisite matrix
and reinforcement constituents. For all intents and purposes, they are the same
thing, only NFRbP’s have a percentage of natural fiber and renewable based polymer
resins within. In an effort to instigate a movement towards renewable content
products, the USDA has established a minimum specification for bio‐based materials
to be considered “Bio‐based” as seen in the following table

70
R. Anderson, A Mid Course Correction, p.73
78

Table 38: Proposed USDA Content Levels
71

6.1.1. Resin Systems
There are numerous methods of attaining a bio‐based resin, and many raw materials
with which these resins can be derived.
On the thermoset side, polyals made from plant oils can be formulated
with curative and organic reactions to make crosslinkable thermoset
matrices. Soy bean oil is the largest potential source that has been
demonstrated as being convertible to polyals (70 million metric tons/year
in USA) and low price (0.1 US $/kg or ~$100/ton). These biobased
materials can be used by themselves or in combination with petroleum
based chemicals to produce thermoset matrices.
(Table by author from L. Drzal, Biobased
Structural Composite materials for Housing
and Infrastructure Applications:
Opportunities and Challenges)



71
Table by L. Drzal, Biobased Structural Composite materials for Housing and Infrastructure
Applications: Opportunities and Challenges
Biobased Thermoset Matrices from Renewable &
Petroleum resources
Biobased polyurethane (from vegetable oil based
polyal and fossil fuel derived isocyanates)
Biobased epoxy (from combination/ blend of
epoxidized vegetable oil and fossil fuel derived
epoxy)
Table 39: Renewable Thermoset Matrices
79
The alternative inexpensive soyate resins will lower the composite
material cost without limiting the mechanical properties of the final
products. (Additionally) the lubricity of soybean oil significantly reduces
the pull force.
72

This passage illustrates that to formulate a polymer from a plant derived oil, is
potentially more cost efficient than the petrochemical alternative. A major factor in
the production speed of resins is the lubricity or workability of the resin, which is
improved with soy based polymers without additional lubricants.
Polyurethanes based on renewable resources can be prepared by
reacting a polyol made from a plant oil and an isocyanate. Among the
possible renewable resources useful to make a polyol, soybean oil is of
particular interest because of its abundance Soybean phosphate ester
polyol (SOPEP). This polyol is made by acid hydrolysis of epoxidized
soybean oil. Polyurethane thermosets can be prepared from SOPEP and
polymeric methylene diphenyl isocyanate (pMDI).
73

An argument can be made that polyurethane systems contain a greater content of
renewable materials than unsaturated ester alternatives. Epoxidized systems
additionally warrant development attention for the systems respective qualities, but
regardless of resin type, the system has to work.

72
K. Chandrashekhara et al, Manufacturing and mechanical properties of soy‐based composites using
pultrusion

73
L. Drzal et al, Novel soy oil based polyurethane composites: Fabrication and dynamic mechanical
properties evaluation, 2004)
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74

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(Table by Urethane Soy System, Soyol
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Urethane Soy System’s SoyMatrix urethane product while exhibiting better strength
and renewable content (published 50% weight per unit) requires specially tuned
injection equipment in the pultrusion process while the Envirez product is more in
tune with current commercial production methods, therefore more viable.
6.1.2. Natural Fibers
Natural Bast Fibers are strong, cellulosic fibers obtained from the phloem
or outer bark of jute, kenaf, flax and hemp plants. They are annually
renewable crops, growing in 90 to 100 days. The fiber is around the
outside of the plant and comprises one‐third of the weight.

Figure 18: Bast Fiber Cross‐Section
(Table by author, data and image from Bast
Fibers website, What are Bast Fibers?,
http://bastfibersllc.com/whatarebastfibers.
html)
SoyMatrixpolyurethane system advantages over
conventional ester based systems
• Enhanced weight to strength ratio, potentially
resulting in thinner cross‐sections in part design
• Faster processing line speed, and consequently
higher production rate
• No VOC emissions (specifically styrene), which
provides cleaner and healthier work environments
Table 41: SoyMatrix Published Benefits
Bast Fibers are annually renewable fiber crops with
many environment‐friendly features.
Jute plants absorb 6 metric tons/acre of carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) from the atmosphere and release
4.5 metric tons/acre of oxygen (O
2
) into the
atmosphere during the 100 day growing cycle.
Almost no energy is used in growing and
processing Jute and Kenaf fibers. The seed is
sown by hand; then the plants are cut, retted
and stripped by hand.
Bast fiber plants are resistant to pests and
diseases and no fertilizer is used as the roots and
leaves are plowed back into the ground. They
play a vital role in increasing the fertility of the
soil.
Natural fibers are 100% biodegradable and/or
recyclable.
Table 42: Bast Fiber Environmental Features
Adva
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Figure 19: Bast Fiber Market Uses
79

6.2. World Element Extraction/ Creation
In 1996 a “strategic vision” workshop initiated by The National Corn Growers
Association was conducted consolidating efforts from: U.S. agricultural, forestry and
chemical communities, with contributions from diverse American companies,
nonprofit groups, trade associations and academic institutions. This study looked at
many aspects of the fore‐mentioned topic of plant based food and energy resources
in the United States specifically. The researchers in the study estimate that of the
available plant product in the world (the impact of deforestation wasn’t discussed),
only 7% was used towards some food or energy use. Some scholars would debate the

79
Image from Bast Fibers website, What are Bast Fibers?,
http://bastfibersllc.com/whatarebastfibers.html
85
impact of using 100% of the worlds’ uncivilized arable lands toward agriculture, but
there exists a safe balance far greater than 7% but less than 100%.

Figure 20: U.S. Land Use
80

The above image verified by the USDA suggests that less than 25% of the soil in the
Unites States is used for agricultural purposes. Again, without suggesting further
destruction of forested area the potential exists for greater output of vegetative
resources with the intent of replacing fossil fuel energy sources and non‐vegetable
food sources.
The United States fuel ethanol industry is based largely on maize.
According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of October 30, 2007,
131 grain ethanol bio‐refineries in the United States have the capacity to
produce 7.0 billion gallons of ethanol per year. An additional 72
construction projects underway can add 6.4 billion gallons of new
capacity. Over time, it is believed that a material portion of the ~150

80
Graphic from The National Corn Growers Association, “The Technology Roadmap for Plant/Crop‐
Based Renewable Resources 2020”, p.5
86
billion gallon per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with
fuel ethanol.
81

This passage and the following images reinforce the notion that growing renewable
resources can provide a boost to the economy, begin to supplant fossil fuel energy
resources, provide food and material resources while subsequently cleaning of the
environment.

Figure 21: Corn Use Lifecycle
82

81
Ethanol, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol

82
Image from The National Corn Growers Association, “The Technology Roadmap for Plant/Crop‐
Based Renewable Resources 2020”, p.32
87

Figure 22: Soy Use Lifecycle
83

It is common knowledge that the United States annually harvests surplus food and
material stores, some of which is traded, sold or donated to whomever is in need,
and some goes to waste. Current research into agricultural practices suggest that
American farmers over exert fields which are then treated with natural and synthetic
fertilizers for further production. The author is no expert in agricultural sciences, but
a recently learned concept of companion planting in conjunction with crop rotation
seemingly helps to solve this issue. Without offending the readers sensibilities, a brief
explanation will be provided. Companion planting employs multiple plants species in
symbioses to the benefit of each species, and crop rotation refers to progressively

83
Image from The National Corn Growers Association, “The Technology Roadmap for Plant/Crop‐
Based Renewable Resources 2020”, p.33
88
changing the crop species on a plot of land to both follow seasonal growing and to
re‐enrich the soil of nutrients the previous plant species may have depleted.
A historically successful companion planting relationship used by Native Americans
paired corn (maize), with pole beans and squash. The corn provided a trellis for the
bean to climb, while the bean reinserted nitrogen into the soil helping the corn and
squash grow, and the squash provided ground cover to keep soil moist and was a
deterrent to pests. Quite simply soy, being a legume assists in what is termed
nitrogen fixing, and corn being a starch depletes the soil of nitrogen. The two species
are almost perfectly matched as potential companion plants, or at least rotating
pairs. Perhaps this “technology” is utilized more than the author is aware, but
research doesn’t confirm this notion.
6.3. Fabrication Methods
As in petrochemical composite FRP’s, bio‐composites are fabricated using the same
methods. There are little intricacies that differ in the process like production speeds
and drying times due to material viscosity but the conventions are consistent.
• Pultrusion‐ research suggests only utilized at the university level
• Compression Molding‐ predominant fabrication method
• Injection Molding‐ developing use for complex shaped products
Compression molding is the featured method used by automotive and farming
equipment manufacturers for interior and exterior body panels. John Deere and
BMW are two of the major innovative corporations using renewable composites at a
89
scale which make global impacts. However, pultrusion with all its previously
mentioned benefits is almost entirely unused for NFRbP’s outside of educational
institutions by the commercial sector. This is resulting from two primary limiting
factors which are the materials tendency to absorb water and the relative low
mechanical properties. These are the primary areas of research in renewable
composites development and will be discussed further in a later section.
6.4. Major Bio‐composite Markets
Although this fast growing composites industry consumes over 20% of total
nationwide composite shipments, composite materials represent only a very small
percentage of the entire civil infrastructure market.
84
The reader recalls the
previously deduced 1.725 billion lbs of composite construction materials worth an
estimated $6.75 billion or roughly 1% of the national GDP. 20% of that equates to
1/5
th
of a percent national GDP is anticipated to be renewable composite, or roughly
345 million pounds.
A new market study by Principia Partners (Exton, Pa., U.S.A.) has determined that
“natural and wood fiber reinforced composites are the fastest‐growing segment in
the overall composites industry. Demand for these materials will grow to $1 billion by

84
K. Chandrashekhara et al, Manufacturing and mechanical properties of soy‐based composites using
pultrusion, 2003
90
2007, in the combined North American and European market, driven by growth in
automotive applications and building materials.”
85

The primary markets for renewable composite materials as previsouly mentioned,
but bears repeating are as follows:
(Table by author, data from Principia Partners,
http://www.compositesworld.com/ct/issues/2003/Febr
uary/17, 2003)

The intent of this research is to provide an introduction into the architectural
industry infrastructure, demonstrating the material potential for NFRbP to provide
more than just architectural finish products. Because of the lack of available tested
data, it became apparent that producing a pultruded section was necessary to
provide the resultant data. This task has proven difficult particularly at the university
level because of the lack of funding to provide the required pressure to pull the
fabricators into action.
6.5. Life Cycle Analysis
European Union legislation implemented in 2006 has expedited recent
natural‐fiber‐reinforced plastic automotive insertion; by 2006, 80% of a
vehicle must be reused or recycled and by 2015 it must be 85%. Japan

85
Principia Partners, http://www.compositesworld.com/ct/issues/2003/February/17, 2003
Major Bio‐composite Markets
Aerospace
Automotive
Architectural Interior Finish Products
Farming Equipment
Table 45: Potential Bio‐Composite Markets
91
requires 88% of a vehicle to be recovered (which includes incineration of
some components) by 2005, rising to 95% by 2015.
The energy consumption to produce a flax‐fiber mat (9.55 MJ/kg),
including cultivation, harvesting, and fiber separation, amounts to
approximately 17% of the energy to produce a glass‐fiber mat (54.7
MJ/kg).
86

It is expected that all plant fiber sources reflect similar energy use trends. With no
existing LCA precedent of bio‐composite FRP’s the tasks for a successful study,
similarly to petrochemical FRP’s, would require a researcher to:

86
D. Houston et al, Natural‐Fiber‐Reinforced Polymer Composites in Automotive Applications
• Provide electric and natural gas sub‐meters to the pultrusion, machine, and monitor for use.
• A unique blend of a resin system would need to be specified, and then reduced to its constituent
elements in parts by weight.
• The reinforcement package would also need to be defined specifically by fraction volume content.
• The fabricated material from a given day would need to be logged, and from the utility bills could
be deduced an average energy cost per unit of FRP material made.
• If done over a period of weeks, the mean production value would provide better accuracy.

• Further, the chemical supplier/ manufacturer would need to:
o Provide the original supply point for all the raw materials in each chemical part.
o Analyze the natural gas and electricity used in the distillation of chemical parts.

• Finally, the end user could create an analysis of all shipping energy costs from raw material to
installation, to complete a thorough embodied energy study.
Table 46: NFRbP LCA Strategy(Table by author)
92
6.5.1. Emissions
The effects of plant based renewable materials in composites are not expected to
eliminate or even reduce material processing energy requirements, but to reduce the
dependence on and emissions thereof of the toxic components. The VOC’s caused by
the processing and incorporation of styrene and propylene glycol are the most
harmful by‐products of the composite process. Greenhouse causing gases and carbon
dioxide are the indirect result of manufacturing composites, but comparatively it is
difficult to determine which of all of these emissions are the most detrimental
ecologically. However, rapidly renewable plant resources and proper closed loop
manufacturing techniques help to counter the effects of all of these greenhouse
gases which are the most significant benefit of NFRbP’s.
The following “Life Cycle Analysis”, “Crude Oild Reduction” and “Carbon
Sequestration” tables outline the benefits of the Envirez 1807 and SoyMatrix
products including reduction of propylene glycol use and carbon sequestration.
6.6. Material Strength (ASTM)
Admittedly, this is the most disappointing section of this. However, given the
experience the author has gained in this process, objective analyses was provided
attempting to estimate the values a structural engineer would deem relevant in a
design problem. The tables, on the following page titled “Materials Property
93
Assessment”, “Columns” and “Beams” hypothesize these values based on the AISC,
ASD design manual.
6.7. Limitations
The limitations in NFRbP composites are the lack of tested and proven data, low
melting point and the natural fibers tendency to absorb water, causing de‐lamination
of the reinforcement from the matrix.

Table49:NFRbPCarbonSequestrationandCrudeOilReduction

(Tab
Soyo
Env
Table 47: NFRbP Carbon Sequestration Graph Table 48: NFRbP Crude Oil Reduction
bles and graph
ol SoyMatrix, w
virez 1807, 200
s by author, ex
www.soyol.com,
6, www.omnit
xtracted from:
,; OmniTech In
techintl.com)
94

ntl.,
Table50:SimulatedASD,CompositeNFRbPPropertyEstimation

(Tab bles and graphs by author, 20

007)
95

Table 52: Composite NFRbP Estimated Beam Values
Table51:CompositeNFRbPEstimatedColumnValues
96
6.8. Pultrude an NFRbP Section
The development strategy was to pultrude the highest bio‐based content section
available, matching the precise geometry of commonly used steel and composite
section counterparts.
Creative Pultrusions Inc (CPI) was contacted very early in the process as a potential
fabricator to produce this natural fiber reinforced bio‐polymer. There was immediate
consensus that the idea warranted further research, primarily because the material
has strong marketability towards eco‐conscious designers and the current trend of
the global market is strongly pushing towards “green” design. The drawback from the
manufacturers’ perspective was the downtime of the machine and labor needed in a
busy enterprise necessary to fabricate the material. After further urging the team
agreed to conditionally support the venture pending the donation of the necessary
materials, introduction to viable commercial markets and that team engineer’s
support the pultruded section would have mechanical properties that could support
the CPI business plan.
Bast Fibers, LLC is a commercial natural fiber supplier importing varied fibers from
around the world and preparing the fibers into forms specified by clients. For this
project, the design team from CPI suggested pultruding the Envirez 1807 resin with e‐
glass rovings and fabric reinforcements, and specified a woven jute matt created by
Bast Fibers. This blend was predicted to produce the highest content renewable
material with greatest strength for the best price from the available products and
97
technologies. The matting, while the least significant component to composite tensile
strength characteristics, along with the resin provide the highest fraction content by
weight and volume of the overall section, and thus increase the overall renewable
content.
The eventual conclusion, proposed by the author, is to create a 100% natural/
renewable composite section and understand the mechanical properties, and
financial and ecological life cycle thereof. Current research and development strives
to replicate natural structure systems, but does not implicate 100% natural products
as a realistic strategy in doing so. Research by automotive manufacturers has pushed
the envelope of classical composite material construction towards renewables to
counter the environmental impacts of the vehicles. However, while progressing the
industry as a whole, this doesn’t directly influence architectural construction
materials.
Following a typical bottom‐up development process of “bionics”,
Professor Thomas Speck of the University of Freiburg, Germany, plant
biomechanics group—developed a compound material that is said to
combine very high stiffness with excellent damping qualities.
“Typically, nature has only very few materials available,” the scientist
explained. “Yet, in structure and design, nature always optimizes on a
number of levels at the same time, which results in plants with quite
outstanding mechanical properties.”
When looking for a new lightweight material with high stiffness, it was
Giant Reed (Arundo donax) and Scouring Rush (Equisetum hyemale) that
grabbed the experts’ attention. “The stalks of Giant Reed simply never
break, whatever the wind strength. Scouring Rush, on the other hand,
achieves a high strength with a minimum of material weight,” Speck said.
98
Analyzing the stalk designs, the bionics group came up with six different
elements of structural optimization. Gradients in the material transition
from lignified, very stiff fibers to the more flexible substrate were one
important observation.
(Image from aei‐online.org, material innovations,
Bionics delivers new material option, 2007, p. 56)

Figure 23: Nature Influenced Composite Form
Together with the German Institute for Textile and Process Technology
(ITV) at Denkendorf, the bionics experts transferred the findings into a
hollow fiber manufactured by a modified pultrusion braiding process. The
resulting technical plant stem is braided from several hundred fibers in a
precisely defined 3‐D pattern, and the fibers are embedded in expanded
polyurethane foam. The resulting structure is not only very stiff and very
light, it also shows advantageous failure. In contrast to existing fiber‐
reinforced materials that have step transitions between brittle but strong
fibers embedded in a softer substrate, the Technical Plant Stem is not
prone to delamination. Instead, the mode of failure is a continuous
process that only gradually lowers the load‐bearing capability of the
material.
87

As referenced in this passage, plant influenced and plant derived composite materials
are currently only experimental in nature, and therefore protected proprietary
information. The goal of this research was to advance knowledge with tested results,
and bring to light within the architectural community the current status and areas for
use and even improvement of this material. An unfortunate by‐product of errant

87
Image and text from R. Gehm, www.aei‐online.org, Material Innovations, Bionics delivers new
material option, 2007, p. 56
99
judgment by the author in this project, specifically over‐reliance on outside
assistance, was that the material wasn’t made even though there were positive
strides towards the intended accomplishment. Thusly, the known properties of this
material remain uncertain. The expectation of the author, was a collaborative effort
with CPI to fabricate, test, and provide market literature analyzing this research. The
often repeated reality is that even with the best intentions business needs will always
take precedence.
For the next adventurous material researchers foray into Natural Fiber Reinforced
bio‐Polymers development, the following are the intended steps and suggestions for
streamlining the process based off of this experience.
Suggested future steps analyzing NFRbP’s:
Find multiple fabricators (the author suggests using pultrusion)
o Understand the pultrusion machine, know the specific system
requirements, ie. injection pressure for synchronization with suppliers
o Attempt a hand lay‐up fabrication technique as a fail safe
Literally make the material by, almost like paper mache
Know your suppliers
Determine the material physical properties using ASTM methods 638, 695,
790, 792, 953 & 3039.
o Test the Pultruded Section for:
Tension
Compression
Flexural Bending
Shear
o Comparison of the Researched v. Tested Results
Does this Comparison lead to any conclusions
Table 53: NFRbP Analysis Strategy(Table by author)
100
7. Chapter 7: Materials Assessment
While the intent of this research is not to discourage the use of steel as a building
material, it is clear to see the potential benefit of a renewable composite in the stead
of steel. There was much time devoted towards the understanding of steel as a
building material, because in contrast to composites, renewable or otherwise, there
is a plethora of information available to analyze. It could be inferred that much of the
data provided regarding the recyclability of, the increase in manufacturing efficacy
over time or the mechanical capacity of steel would provide an argument in favor of
the use of steel. Quite to the contrary, this provides a stepping stone arguing that
time and practice improves cost and quality in all products. It is the authors’ opinion
that in this instance choosing between the three material alternatives, one cannot
determine objectively without a thorough knowledge of the options.
“Know thy self, know thy enemy…” Sun Tzu’s Art of War, 500 BC.
This quote is speaking of battle planning and not to a materials’ worth, but it
provides a segue to reiterate the perceived benefits of renewable composites.
Removing economics from the equation, in an “apples to apples” conversation it
would be naïve to argue against a rapidly renewable material which reduces
emissions and sequesters carbon “from cradle to grave” and provides equal
performance to a mined resource. However, economics will always be significant and
can’t be neglected, and renewable composite materials currently do not perform
comparably, a question shall be posed:
101
Given that at this time steel has superior mechanical performance, is readily
available‐ therefore cost effective, is recyclable and provides piece‐of‐mind to the end
user, does the world need a material alternative to augment construction? This is a
tough question, especially the “piece‐of‐mind” issue. If this argument was restated
thinking holistically long term, it might be phrased:
Given the 3400+/‐ year history of the alloy steel, it has been the scientific
development in the last 50+ years of modern times which have progressed steel from
expensive and “dirty”, to “lifeblood of the construction industry and a stimulus of the
world economy”. With increased funding into performance based research and
development of renewable composites, is there a viable argument against
renewables supplementing current construction practices?
7.1. Practical Inabilities of the Materials
To reiterate, the limitations of these or any materials are truly dependent upon the
creativity of the user, however. The usual deterrents when using steel are: damaging
or corrosive environments, weight, availability and cost. The problems with FRP
composite materials are the lack of shear and compressive capacity, the low melting
point of the resin system and the availability of standardized product information to
designers and engineers. Likewise with NFRbP composites the lack of tested and
proven data, low melting point and the lack of UL approval for structural applications
are the focal setbacks.
102
The primary reason for the lack of positive testing is the natural fibers tendency to
absorb water, causing de‐lamination of the reinforcement from the matrix. There are
many treatments used for synthetic fibers, and this process is known as wetting.
Wetting is the molecular bond between liquid and solid, and a proper wetout of
composite FRP’s typically involves a synthetic bonding agent, used in the pultrusion
resin injection process. These agents can be a blend of several silicates with each
having corrosive emissions which need to be carefully controlled.
With natural fibers these agents differ because of the chemical make‐up of the fiber
itself. Technological breakthroughs in the lack of these bonding agents in tandem
with additives to reduce the absorptivity and swelling of natural fibers will lead to
increased use of natural fibers and are the primary research focus of bio‐based
composites. Current fiber treatments include a process known as retting, which is
generally a natural drying and treatment of the fibers preparing them for delivery.
The treatments vary from allowing the fibers to dry outdoors naturally, or soaking of
the fibers in water to saturate the material then dry the material in an oven to
chemical treatments of the fiber. Of course there is a moral argument that the
emissions of the chemical treating agents augment the positive impact of the
renewable composites. A materials development universally increases with
prolonged use and prominence within an industry.
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105

7.4. Material Strength Matrix (ASTM)
The following table and graphic “ASTM Material Property Assessment” illustrate the
relative values of the primary force resisting attributes of 8 different materials
researched in this project. These values were all proven after using multiple
standardized ASTM procedures, except for the “Composite NFRbP” column in green
which is only an estimation. This represents the hypothesized performance of the
material originally intended to be produced. While this judgment is far from flattering
to the potential of the material, the point of this research is to justify in what
structural applications will this composite be most appropriate? It is much easier to
defend and improve upon an argument which underestimates a value than to
deconstruct an overvalued assessment.

Table 56: Material Property Assessment
(Table by author, from multiple sources)
106

Figure 25: Material Property Assessment Chart
(Graph by author, from multiple sources)
One of the most significant properties of a structural material is its elastic modulus,
which is a measure of stiffness. The higher a materials E‐modulus, the greater the
materials stiffness. An important comparison oft not made is the relationship of
stiffness to density. One of the most significant benefits of composite materials are
its relative stiffness to weight ratio, which is reflective of density or specific strength,
and can be seen in the following table “Elastic Modulus to Density Comparison”. An
E‐modulus value of (0) as with “Envirez 1807” does not represent zero stiffness but
that this study has not been performed and there are no available results.
107

Figure 26: Material Elastic Modulus to Density Assessment
(Graph by author, from multiple sources)
With creative optimization of components by the designer and improved
technologies in the bonding of natural fibers, it is apparent that composites
incorporating combined reinforcement systems and veils could potentially
outperform the steel baseline.
7.5. Life Cycle Analysis
The LCA cost assessment of steel, and composite materials present the most difficult
portion of this research. This analogy suggest an “apples to apples” relationship
which in this equation was a task originally taken on by the author but has proven far
from attainable. In material fabrication there are series of studies or methods which
could be utilized to ascertain the analysis. The authors’ mindset was to extract from
108
the composite manufacturer information which would prove to be mutually
beneficial in the name of good science. These expectations were unfortunately
unmet and proved to be too costly a study for a business to take on once already
established. A newly established business or a research group with the proper
backing and structure would be optimal for a more thorough composites evaluation.
From this assessment a more definitive conclusion can be reached than a purely
hypothetical analysis. The steps to do such an evaluation are included in the table
titled Future NFRbP to FRP Assessment Strategy on the next page.

109
Material Assessment Strategy
1. Select two commercially available thermoset matrix formulas
1.1.1. renewable based
1.1.2. petrochemical base
1.2. Establish the chemical constituents of each
1.2.1. Where are these components created?
1.2.2. What are these components created from?
1.2.2.1. Organics/ Inorganincs?
1.2.2.2. Petroleum
1.2.3. Where is it imported from?
2. Select an existing composite FRP section
2.1. Locate the Material Suppliers
2.2. Life Cycle Analysis
2.2.1. Energy Use in Production
2.2.2. Non‐renewable Resources
2.2.3. Emissions
2.3. Material Strength (ASTM)
2.3.1. Tension
2.3.2. Compression
2.3.3. Flexural Bending
2.3.4. Shear
3. Fabricate the fiber reinforced bio‐polymer composite
3.1. Establish the Fabrication Method
3.1.1. Pultrusion?
3.2. Pultrude a NFRbP Section
3.3. Locate the Material Suppliers
3.4. Life Cycle Analysis
3.4.1. Energy Use in Production
3.4.2. Non‐renewable Resources
3.4.3. Emissions
3.5. Material Strength (ASTM)
3.5.1. Test the Pultruded Section
3.5.1.1. Tension
3.5.1.2. Compression
3.5.1.3. Flexural Bending
3.5.1.4. Shear
4. Compare the two composite materials
4.1. Life Cycle Analysis Matrix
4.1.1. Energy Use in Production
4.1.2. Emissions
4.2. Unit Petroleum per Unit Material
4.3. Recyclability
4.3.1. Energy Use in Recycling
4.3.2. Emissions from Recycling
4.4. Material Strength (ASTM)
4.5. How do the strength characteristics match up
Table 57: Future NFRbP to FRP Assessment Strategy (Table by author)
110
7.5.1. Energy Use in Production
Energy use in production, is the primary component to understanding a materials
embodied energy. The following chart is an example drawn from the Julius Natterer:
Energy Criteria of Timber Structures, which reflects the authors hypothesized analysis
on the performance of NFRbP composites. The method utilized to determine the
graphic of this chart was: energy use and carbon dioxide impact by the material
selected to span a pre‐determined distance. This distance generally requires each
material to be a certain depth, and therefore weight, and this weight of material is
used to determine an ecological impact. Based on the authors hypothesized strength
and density predictions, and from the published carbon sequestration number by
Ashland chemical for the Envirez 1807 product, a NFRbP section depth of roughly 8‐
10 times that of a steel section (including safety factors) would be required to span a
comparable depth of a high strength steel section. These numbers are not definite,
but provide an estimation for the purpose of discussion.
If an NFRbP section was fabricated, and did exhibit properties similar to those
proposed by the author from extensive research, that section would have a weight to
span ratio similar to that of concrete. This undoubtedly distracts from the argument
in favor for use of renewable composites, but supports the notion that increased
rapidly renewable plant material increases the carbon sequestration of that section,
and still performs comparably better than the steel counterpart. This number,
however, favors increased use of timber products but NFRbP’s incorporate rapidly
111
renewable materials and can be mass‐produced without contributing to
deforestation, and make better long‐term sense.

Figure 27: Materials Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions Assessment
88

88
Graphic by author, derived from J. Naterrer, Energy Criteria for Timber Structures, EPFL, 1992
7.5
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89
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113
manufacturer in addition to the EPA, USGS and the department of Commerce. All of
these agencies could incorporate their specific expertise from element extraction, to
emissions and market value to come to a thorough assessment and conclusion to the
viability of structural NFRbP use in construction.
114
8. Chapter 8: Conclusion
To summarize, this research explored the hypothesis: Innovation in composite
material technology can provide comparably strong and more sustainable structural
materials while reducing the consumption of non‐renewable resources. From this
assessment, the goal of the author is to determine for what applications are these
renewable composites most appropriate, based off of knowledge of current practices
and perceived characteristics of the material.
8.1. Are Renewable Composites Appropriate for
Architecture?
At this point, given the inability of the author to fabricate and test the theory of
purported physical properties, a definitive conclusion cannot be ascertained. Given
the trends of the automotive market and non‐structural architectural applications,
coupled with global growing environmental concerns one thing is certain, renewable
composites will continue to be researched and improved upon by both scholarly and
commercial developers all over the world. The growing global market, and increased
funding suggests there is substantial evidence of growing consciousness towards
sustainability even in unorthodox applications.
The most aggravating aspect to this research project is that a little bit of funding,
probably only $10,000 would have meant the difference between action and inaction
from the manufacturer. An engineered composite utilizing either the Envirez 1807 or
SoyMatrix products with glass or carbon fiber rovings and fabric, with a bast fiber
115
matting could have performed exceptionally given the published data on the
products. If not, the study could have reported the inaccuracies of these commercial
publications, and begun to further understanding by actually building a structure and
testing with physical trials.
8.2. In what uses are NFRbP materials most appropriate?
The point to this research was an applied understanding and not theoretical hearsay,
but given the circumstances and a hypothetical performance evaluation, the
potential applications for renewable composites are numerous. Supplementing the
pre‐established benefits of petrochemical composites, NFRbP’s improve upon the
carbon footprint of a structure directly and indirectly via transportation and electrical
generation costs.
The estimated 800‐1000% increase in depth of NFRbP sections over steel
counterparts is an issue which at first glance instills a sense of doubt to the use of this
material for structural applications. However, the given properties present an
opportunity to determine in what specific applications can the material be used?
High rise structures may not be a prospect for use, but there are countless
applications previously built from steel or petrochemical FRP’s which have potentially
been over designed because of the lack of options. Some opportunities which can
take advantage of the prescribed properties, are:
116
High tension and flexure, low shear applications‐
Short and long span anticlastic tent structures which incorporate fabric membranes
over composite ribs or composite cables utilizing the tensile capacity of the
reinforcing fibers in lieu of steel cables would be an opportunity. Additionally the
fabric protects the NFRbP composite from potential photo‐degradation or water
absorption and the lightweight nature of the composite allows the structure to flex
more freely without overstressing the seams at connection points.
Low live load occupancies‐
Current performance would prohibit the construction of occupiable spaces supported
by renewable composites because of life safety issues, however, architecture as
sculpture and interior gardens are becoming prominent means of interior design.
Canopies incorporated into indoor atriums or solariums supported by lightweight
renewable composite materials would reduce primary building structural demands.
Further, conventions varying from architectural to electronics and video games are
being held all over the world daily in large interior exhibition spaces. Vendors spend
millions of dollars annually building display booths advertising their product which
are traditionally built of thin steel bars or wood stick framing. There is a huge
potential, particularly to “green” construction causes, to use renewable composite
materials which could be used indefinitely, and being lightweight would be easier
and cheaper to transport and build with.
117
Truss Systems‐
Quite frequently temporary shading exhibits are created with space frame systems
which neither require large compressive or shear performance which is the strengths
of composites. Additionally, long span cable truss systems could incorporate
“composite” blends of steel and renewables as the tensile members.
Curtain wall systems‐
Building upon the potential for long‐span structures, large curtainwall storefronts
could be an ideal opportunity for renewable composites. The large deflections and
low thermal expansion in direct sunlight are areas where composites could even
outperform steel and aluminum.
8.3. Areas for Future Research
As the previous sections assessment cannot be substantiated by any physical
evidence, there is certainly work still to be done. The issue isn’t whether or not bio‐
polymer resins can in fact be blended with natural fiber reinforcements to create a
composite, the question becomes: What are the requisite performance criteria of
pultruded natural fiber reinforced bio‐polymer to be commercially viable? When
fabricated, if these criteria are met does the material exhibit sustainable qualities
which warrant the hype published by the referenced research and author J.
Cleveland?
118
Additional work which spawns from the precedent gathered in this research should
focus on the chemical aspects of the materials development. The primary issues are:
water absorptivity of natural fibers, the treatments and engineering of those natural
fibers, the required depths of NFRbP composites to be competitive and the low
melting point of the resin matrix . While the questions posed and the researched
gathered are significant in the development of background knowledge on the
subject, the materials science training was the link missing in the authors’ analysis.
The decision to ascertain potential applications based on performance evaluation of
the material, was a derivative of the authors’ initial objective. Materials science
research necessitates an objective, which in this case was originally Translucent
Structural FRP’s. This is highly subjective and based off of the authors’ whim that
translucent structure is a desirable commodity. The personal ability to chemically
engineer translucent FRP’s or the interest of those chemists capable thereof were
completely unobtainable, which drove the research towards the direction of
sustainability which is holistically satisfying. In playing the role of architect,
entrepreneur and sustainability engineer, a translucent, naturally based composite
material is the ultimate synergy between design and environmental synthesis in
composite design.
As previously entertained future success of NFRbP composites is dependent upon
research improving bonding between natural fibers and the resin matrix. One
potential avenue is Self‐healing or epoxidized polymers, of which the characteristic
119
trait is extreme bonding and the ability to resist impact, simplistically due to epoxy’s
“stickiness”. If an engineered polymer could incorporate the “sticky” properties of
epoxy, stiffness of polyurethanes and renewable content of unsaturated bio‐polymer
esters, the potential would be infinite.
A potential solution to the water absorptivity of natural fibers and plant based resin
systems, is to preemptively treat the pultruded composite FRP with a urethane or
ester system sealant, which can again be bio‐based. Once the completed composite
is manufactured, dip the end portion into a polymer bath and then bake the unit to
seal the product. This treatment is similar to the way a wine bottler protects their
product. The sealer effectively saturates and protects the fiber, and potentially
provides better wet‐out for the matrix to adhere to the fiber. The sealed composite
section can then be primed and painted to protect from water damage. The easiest
way to eliminate water problems is to control the absorptive quality of the material.
Similarly to petrochemical FRP’s, bio‐composites have the similar problem of a low
melting point with the additional problem of moisture resistance. Perhaps the
answers are similar to the treatments available to FRP composites for UV protection
and flamespread, which are surfacing veils. Perhaps there are no immediate
resolutions to the problems at hand, save for better decision making by the designers
to use bio‐composite materials only in applications, such as those provided in this
research, which are effective alternatives to traditional materials.
120
There is a naïve certainty in life protecting us as adolescents like being cradled in a
mothers’ womb. As a result of numerous factors certainty degrades over time to
question, and all too often evolves to doubt. Skepticism innately cannot be a
roadblock in the scientific process, and must give way to this childhood enthusiasm
which is indispensable to invention. The once indefatigable certainty that plant based
composite materials were the answer to global warming, carbon netralization and a
replacement to non‐renewable building materials has been massaged to
acknowledge the room for growth and human desire for prosperity. There are those
who stand to lose from the development of new NFRbP materials as there are those
who stand to gain. But, the inconvenient truth to the matter is the perilous fate of the
world is dependent upon a sudden and compulsory change in the way humanity does
business, uses resources and how we live our lives.
If we do not change our direction, we are likely to end up where we are
headed.
‐Chinese Proverb
121
Epilogue
The adage: better late than never, has never rung more true. This research project
which started in August of 07’, started to take form in September after visiting
Creative Pultrusions, Inc. in Alum Bank, PA. and meeting with J. Mostoller and D.
Troutman to discuss pultruding a NFRbP product. It took until March 6
th
, 08’ to
receive that long awaited phone call with the words: the material will be produced
tomorrow. A one minute phone call following more than 6 months of research,
writing and waiting was the most satisfying climax that could ever be delivered.
Like any project, certain discretions were taken, and allowances made. For instance:
the published intent of this project was to make the “most” renewable or plant‐
based composite possible based on a 0‐100 percentile basis, and then assess the
mechanical and ecological strengths versus a petrochemical composite and steel
baseline. Given the found researched precedents, a largely renewable composite, ie.
more than 50%, is currently non‐plausible. Thus, a commercially available bio‐based
resin was with a reinforcement package that offers the best strength to renewable
content ratio with available resources that could be pultruded by CPI with available
machinery and time constraints, was selected. Time constraints refers to the lack of
time available for the author to conduct multiple tests, and man hours donated by
CPI to set‐up, fabricate, clean‐up and test the given material. This material was
intended to be the previously stated composite (Chapter 6.8), which was the Envirez
1807 resin system, with e‐glass rovings and fabric, and jute matting. The matting,
122
which was engineered by Bast Fibers, LLC, after 3 months of waiting ended up not
being consistent with specifications needed for pultrusion, and as explained by CPI
engineers, “pulled apart like cotton balls”.
Come late February it was too late to keep waiting, it was then decided that this
thesis needed to be based off of sound estimations derived from precedent research.
Research and first hand experience suggested it was the natural fibers, and not the
bio‐resin that were the problem factors in the NFRbP equation. The rovings in typical
composite construction resist the forces while the resins maintain the form. While
neither resin nor reinforcement is more significant than the other, a sound composite
construction (like in reinforced concrete) maintains reinforcement and matrix which
act in unison, expanding, straining and contracting in tandem under forced loads or
environmental factors.
This brings the research to the March 6
th
date. CPI came to the conclusion that the
natural fiber matting couldn’t be used and that a composite will be pultruded using a
blended Envirez 1807 with standard ester system resin and standard e‐glass
reinforcement. Additionally there is an uncertain risk to trying a new resin, and CPI
wasn’t willing to potentially damage an expensive structural section die, so a ¼”x12”
sheet die was used and 18” of material was pultruded. The construction of that part
can be seen in the figure titled Bio‐Resin Sheet Construction Diagram. The diagram
depicts (5) solid lines of: the outside faces of the composite construction (12 1/4" CN
2001 or Equiv.), (3) internal layers of e‐glass fabric (12” E‐TTXM 2308 Fabric), and (2)
layers of (13
bundles are
.

The Envirez
“Renewable
ethanol and
typical com
46% of an e
12.7% are fi
wasn’t desig
current este

90
Graphic by C
Fiber Reinforc
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usions, D. Trou
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on center.
ublished by A
Unsaturated
and 75% pet
ested by Ash
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atrix, but to
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o‐Resin Sheet
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Ashland Che
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be blended
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Construction D
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90

e report
ains 12%
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123
er
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124
The following table CPI Bio‐Resin Construction Specifications demonstrates a typical
manufacturer specification. This table show that the pultrusion was designed by CPI
on February 28, 2008 (2 28 08), and they will produce (2) 12”x18”x1/4” thk. gray
sheets, that will incorporate in parts per pound: (80) parts petro‐resin, (20) parts
envirez, (5) parts styrene and release agents , with additional parts of resin catalysts.
This constitutes (105) parts per pound specifically related to the resin system, and of
that 19% is the Envirez product, with the given 25% renewable content thereof,
makes just under 5% of the total resin system plant based.
The number 5% doesn’t sound all that impressive at first, but when applied to the
entire composites industry, 5% of 345 million pounds is 17.25 million pounds of
renewable carbon sequestering plant products. If a soy based resin system can
demonstrate comparable mechanical performance and be substituted for a 100%
petrochemical derived formula, it can be deduced from our table (Chapter 6.7),
NFRbP Carbon Sequestration and Crude Oil Reduction, that 17.25 million pounds of
renewable material will sequester 15.73 million pounds of CO2 and reduce oil
consumption by 9.14 million barrels in the production of composites.
125

Table 59: CPI Bio‐Resin Construction Specifications
91

In order to conduct universal mechanical performance simulations the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) established standards which are constantly
being updated to include new materials and testing methods. For every batch of
pultrusions produced, CPI conducts standard ASTM tests for shear, compression,
tension, bending, impact and water absorptivity to insure quality control of all
shipments. These criteria have been deemed the most significant in terms of

91
Graphic by Creative Pultrusions, D. Troutman for J. Cleveland: The potential application of Natural
Fiber Reinforced bio‐Polymer (NFRbP) Composites in Architecture, 2008
126
composites performance, and the respective ASTM tests and properties are shown in
the following table CPI Bio‐Resin ASTM Summary. This table was created and the
materials were tested by D. Crawford on March 17
th
for the explicit use by the author
for this evaluation.
In the summary report, the table column “DCPD” represents the typical CPI polyester
system with e‐glass reinforcements while the “Enivrez” column simulates the bio‐
resin with e‐glass reinforcements. What should be immediately noticable is that the
average performance of the “green” system is within 5% of the performance for
tensile and compressive tests, and exceeds the performance of standard polyester in
shear and stiffness which are the apparent weaknesses of traditional composites.
This performance summary exceeds the estimations proposed in the paper primarily
due to the lack of natural fiber reinforcement. However, the strength of the bio‐resin
exceeds the precedented mechanical properties and even demonstrates
improvement of the standard polyester resin system. With further study the bio‐resin
performance is almost certain to improve, which in tandem with the environmental
impact can be an immediate alternative to thermoset composite construction. There
is conclusive evidence that bio‐resins support the authors hypothesis that renewable
plant based resins can perform comparably and further research into natural fibers
will undoubtedly set new precedents in composite design.

92
Table by Cre
Reinforced Bio

eative Pultrusio
o‐Polymer (NFR
Table 60: CP

ons, D. Crawfo
RbP) Composite
PI Bio‐Resin AS
ord for J. Clevel
es in Architectu
STM Summary
land: The poten
ure, 2008
y
92

ntial applicatio

on of Natural F
127
Fiber
128
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract With growing environmental consciousness and the use of petroleum based products in the production of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites arises an increased opportunity to use renewable bio-based polymers and fibers towards the fabrication of Natural Fiber Reinforced bio-Polymers (NFRbP). Towards this, theoretical estimates of the tensile, flexural and compressive properties of NFRbP sections were made using varied published properties and comparatively assessed versus a steel baseline.

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