Beyond Michael Phelps: How can USA swimming promote the sport in the post-Phelps era?

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Content BEYOND MICHAEL PHELPS: HOW CAN USA SWIMMING PROMOTE THE SPORT IN THE POST-PHELPS ERA? by Daniel Lee A Professional Project Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS) May 2011 Copyright 2011 Daniel Lee ii Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their assistance in making this thesis possible: Jay Wang, for serving as my thesis chairman; Jonathan Kotler and Dan Durbin, for serving as my other two thesis board members; Jennifer Floto and Jerry Swerling for offering their insight; for Sports Illustrated‟s Kelli Anderson, The New York Times‟ Karen Crouse, Olympic gold medalists Libby Trickett, Rowdy Gaines and Mel Stewart, USA Swimming‟s Jamie Olsen, and sports agent David Arluck for agreeing to answer questions or sit down for interviews for this project; USA Swimming‟s Karen Linhart, for helping to arrange some of the interviews and arranging for me to serve as a media relations assistant at the ConocoPhillips National Swimming Championships and the Mutual of Omaha Pan Pacific Championships in August 2010; my parents, for making graduate school financially possible; and God, who makes all things possible. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgments ii List of Tables iv List of Figures v Abbreviations vi Abstract vii Introduction: Beijing Glory 1 Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Swimming 5 Early Origins 5 American Swimming Stars are Born at the Olympics 7 Spitz: Swimming‟s First Megastar 9 The Cold War, the Olympics and Steroids 12 Boycott Hamstrings the Olympics, Development of Stars 14 Organizational Changes in American Swimming 16 From Amateurism to Professionalism 19 The Phelps Phenomenon 26 Chapter 2: Strategic Planning Model 45 Statement of the Problem/Opportunity 45 Research 47 Situation (SWOTS) Analysis 47 Communications Goals 60 Objectives 61 Key Audiences 62 Key Messages 65 Strategies 67 Tactics 75 Timeline 83 Budget 84 Evaluation 85 Conclusion 86 iv Bibliography 87 Appendix 96 v List of Tables Table 1: A Comparative Look at Olympic Swimming Programs in 1898 and 2008 7 Table 2: Mark Spitz‟s Performance at the 1972 Olympics 11 Table 3: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2003 FINA World Championships 28 Table 4: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2004 Olympics 31 Table 5: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2007 FINA World Championships 33 Table 6: A Comparison of Olympic Schedules with Evening and Morning Finals 36 Table 7: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2008 Olympics 39 Table 8: Current Grand Prix/National Championship Meet Format 76 Table 9: Alternative Swim Meet Format 78 vi List of Figures Figure 1: Average Age, U.S. Olympic Swimming Team 24 Figure 2: USA Swimming Membership, 1986-2009 41 Figure 3: USA Swimming 2009 Membership by Age and Gender 54 vii Abbreviations AAU — Amateur Athletic Union Back — Often an abbreviation for “backstroke” Breast — Often an abbreviation for “breaststroke” Fly — Often an abbreviation for “butterfly” Free — Often an abbreviation for “freestyle” FR — Sometimes used as an abbreviation for freestyle relay IM — individual medley IOC — International Olympic Committee MR — Sometimes used as an abbreviation for medley relay NCAA — National Collegiate Athletic Association NGB — National Governing Body USOC — United State Olympic Committee WADA — World Anti-Doping Agency viii Abstract Michael Phelps has become the greatest star in swimming history after winning eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, breaking the 36-year-old record of seven that Mark Spitz held. His performance brought unprecedented attention to the sport, with millions watching on TV around the world. It created a surge in membership in USA Swimming. But Phelps has said he plans to retire after the 2012 Olympics in London. What will happen with the sport then? How can USA Swimming continue to draw participants and spectators without its most famous star? This thesis examines the evolution and developments in the sport that helped produce Phelps; it also analyzes swimming currently and makes suggestions on how USA Swimming can better promote itself. 1 INTRODUCTION: Beijing Glory In ancient Greek mythology, the hero Hercules completed seven mighty tasks. At the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, American swimmer Michael Phelps went one better, winning eight gold medals. His accomplishment broke the 36-year-old record of seven victories set by Mark Spitz, which many had thought would never be surpassed. Phelps also set — or helped set — seven world records in the process. As he descended from the medal podium for the final time, Phelps walked up to the stands to greet his mother and sisters and share his triumphal moment with them. Dozens of TV cameraman and photographers flocked around them, jockeying for a better angles as the “Water Cube” aquatics venue resounded with the applause and cheers from thousands of spectators. The hoopla surrounding Phelps had begun more than four years previously, when he won four gold and two silver medals and set four world records at the 2003 FINA World Championships in Barcelona. Some began to compare Phelps — who was just 18 then — with Spitz. Swimwear manufacturer Speedo offered the swimmer a $1 million bonus if he equaled or surpassed Spitz‟s seven gold medals at the Olympics in Athens the following year. 1 Phelps wound up winning “only” six gold and two bronze medals, but the seed was planted. Speedo kept its offer on the table with an eye on the 2008 Olympics, and Phelps‟ quest for eight gold medals became one of the major storylines headed into Beijing. The hype surrounding Phelps‟ quest was so great that it drew spectators from outside the 1 McMullen, Paul. “Solo Dive for History: Mission Impossible?” Baltimore Sun 23 June 2004.Baltimore Sun. 23 June 2004. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/olympics/bal-sp.golds23jun23,0,7966880.story>. 2 normally insular swimming world: President Bush witnessed Phelps win his first gold medal, while Kobe Bryant and other U.S. Olympic Basketball Team members also came to watch Phelps compete at the Water Cube. In the weeks following his Beijing performance, Phelps was lauded and feted as a champion. Speedo awarded him the $1 million bonus for his feat, which Phelps promptly donated to a foundation he created to teach children water safety and promote youth swimming. 2 He also recreated Mark Spitz‟s iconic bare-chested pose with his medals on the cover of Sports Illustrated. It was the sixth time he had appeared on the front of the venerable magazine. Phelps appeared a seventh time when Sports Illustrated chose him as its 2008 Sportsman of the Year. 3 He was the first swimmer to win the honor since the magazine introduced the award in 1954, taking his place alongside Arnold Palmer, Jack Nicklaus, Joe Montana, Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordan, Wayne Gretzky, Tiger Woods and other sporting greats. The Associated Press also named him its Male Athlete of the Year in 2008 and chose his eight-gold-medal feat as the Top Sports Story of the Year. 4 It wasn‟t just honors: Phelps also hosted “Saturday Night Live” and appeared in commercials for AT&T, Visa and Subway. Phelps has said that he wanted to raise swimming‟s profile and make it more than a once-every-four-years sport in the public eye. Although it‟s doubtful whether he has 2 Walker, Childs. “Phelps to Donate $1M Bonus.” The Baltimore Sun 3 Sept. 2008. Baltimore Sun. 3 Sept. 2008. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.baltimoresun.com/services/newspaper/bal-sp.phelpsbonus03sep03,0,3557724.story>. 3 Shipnuck, Alan. “Michael Phelps.” Sports Illustrated 8 Dec. 2008. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1149362/index.htm>. 4 Newberry, Paul. “Phelps Named AP's Top Athlete of 2008.” NBCSports.MSNBC.com. Associated Press, 23 Dec. 2008. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/28356049/>. 3 succeeded in making it more than an Olympic sport in the public mind, Phelps definitely has become the biggest and most widely recognized star competitive swimming has ever had. No one has ever drawn as much international attention to swimming before as he has. But in interviews, Phelps has said that he has not envisioned competing past the age of 30. 5 He will turn 27 in 2012, likely making the London Olympics his last venture onto swimming‟s greatest stage. Regardless of when he retires, his departure will deprive USA Swimming — the sport‟s national governing body — of its most recognized figure. What will USA Swimming do when Phelps that happens? Insiders say the organization has not planned or even discussed that eventuality yet. 6 Although USA Swimming has seen new stars replace older ones, it may not have one who is Phelps‟ equal. How does USA Swimming leverage the attention Phelps has brought so it can face a future without him? It should develop plans to promote public awareness of and participation in swimming. USA Swimming will need this after Phelps retires and leaves the spotlight. Although USA Swimming membership has generally grown in the year following an Olympics, it historically has declined in other years when the sport is out of the public eye. And how should USA Swimming focus its efforts? Should it focus on promoting swimming as a participatory sport? Should it promote it as a spectator sport and highlight 5 Harris, Beth. "Phelps Is a Fish Out of Water at Winter Olympics." Associated Press [New York City, New York] 19 Feb. 2010. U.S. Olympic Committee. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.teamusa.org/news/2010/02/19/phelps- is-a-fish-out-of-water-at-winter-olympics/32812>. 6 Personal interview with Jamie Fabos Olsen 4 its stars and their personalities? Or should it try and expand its audiences by promoting it as a recreational sport done for fitness and fun? This thesis will attempt to provide some answers. It will first take an extensive examination at swimming‟s history and how the sport has evolved and changed over the years to create a star like Phelps. The second part will include an analysis and recommendations, employing the strategic public relations planning model. 5 CHAPTER 1: Historical Overview of Swimming Early Origins Long before there were international competitions like the Olympics, swimming was valued both as a form of recreation and a practical skill. Ancient artwork and writings like the Bible show that many civilizations knew some form of swimming, ranging from the Egyptians in 2000 B.C. to the Minoans, the Assyrians. Many historic figures knew how to swim, including Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Greek philosopher Plato reportedly considered a man who didn‟t know how to swim to be uneducated. Medieval European knights were required to know how to swim. Although the ancient Greeks valued swimming as a skill like Plato, they did not include it in the original Olympics, the earliest recorded competition of which was held in 776 B.C. The Japanese are believed to be the first civilization that made swimming a competitive sport by 36 B.C. But it was the British, whose navy ruled the seas, who became the first modern civilization to make swimming a competitive sport. They held competitions and built indoor pools. They created the Amateur Swimming Association of Great Britain in 1880, which included 300 member clubs. The British, however, knew only the breaststroke and the sidestroke. Native Americans and Pacific Islanders had developed an early version of the crawl stroke — the fastest form of swimming, now known as the freestyle — centuries before the Europeans. The British did not begin to adopt this stroke until the end of the 19 th Century. 6 Simultaneously, another development was taking place in Europe that would expand the sport‟s popularity: in 1892, Baron Pierre de Coubertin of France proposed reviving the Olympic Games. De Coubertin believed that athletics developed character and self-respect. As a result of de Coubertin‟s efforts, the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896. Swimming was part of those first modern Olympics, with men competing in four different individual events. All four races were held in the Bay of Zea. The longest race was the 1,200-meter swim; a boat took the competitors the required distance from shore, and the participants had to swim back to land. The program gradually expanded over the years. Freestyle and breaststroke were the first competitive events. Backstroke and relays were added at St. Louis in 1904. Other early events that were later discontinued included an obstacle race, underwater swimming and a plunge for distance. Women began competing at the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. Butterfly was added in Melbourne in 1956. The 10-kilometer open water swimming race was the most recent addition to the Olympic swimming program in 2008. Today, the program includes 34 individual and relay events for men and women. 7 Table 1: A Comparative Look at Olympic Swimming Programs in 1896 and 2008. (Sources: 2008 U.S. Olympic Swim Team Media Guide, Olympic.org) SWIMMING EVENTS 1896 Olympics 2008 Olympics Men's 100-meter freestyle Men's and women's 50-meter freestyle Men's 400-meter freestyle Men's and women's 100-meter freestyle Men's 1,200-meter freestyle Men's and women's 200-meter freestyle 100-meter freestyle for sailors Men's and women's 400-meter freestyle Women's 800-meter freestyle Men's 1,500-meter freestyle Men's and women's 100-meter backstroke Men's and women's 200-meter backstroke Men's and women's 100-meter breaststroke Men's and women's 200-meter breaststroke Men's and women's 100-meter butterfly Men's and women's 200-meter butterfly Men's and women's 200-meter individual medley Men's and women's 400-meter individual medley Men's and women's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Men's and women's 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay Men's and women's 4 x 100-meter medley relay Men's and women's 10-kilometer open water swim American Swimming Stars Are Born at the Olympics It took awhile for the United States team to experience any success in Olympic competition. Charles Daniels and William Dickey were the first Americans to win individual gold. They won the 400-meter freestyle and the plunge for distance, respectively, at the 1904 Olympics in St. Louis. 8 In the years that followed, the United States had a number of great swimming stars. They include:  Duke Kahanamoku, native Hawaiian who won the 100-meter freestyle at the 1912 and 1920 Olympics, becoming the first in a long line of American sprint champions. He also made the 1932 Olympic water polo team and helped popularize surfing.  Johnny Weissmuller was the next great American sprint swimmer. He won five gold medals during the 1924 and 1928 Olympics. Weissmuller became the first swimming star to parlay his Olympic success into a show business career, playing Tarzan in 16 movies.  Buster Crabbe won gold in the 400-meter freestyle at the 1932 Games. Paramount Pictures signed him as an actor shortly afterward. Crabbe acted in more than 100 movies during his career. Like Weissmuller, he also played Tarzan.  Esther Williams became a national swimming champion in 1939. She was aiming for the 1940 Olympics, but those Games were canceled with the start of the Second World War. Instead, she went on to appear in nearly 30 movies, many of which featured her aquatic skills in what would develop years later into the Olympic sport of synchronized swimming. All three swimmer/actors — Weissmuller, Crabbe, and Williams — were inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame. 9  Don Schollander became the first swimmer to win four gold medals in a single Olympics, triumphing in two individual events and two relays at the 1964 Tokyo games. He was named the Associated Press‟s U.S. and World Athlete of the Year, easily beating out pro football star Johnny Unitas. He also won the Amateur Athletic Union‟s Sullivan Award as America‟s top amateur athlete. But unlike his predecessors, Schollander did not turn his Olympic success into a show business career. Instead, he continued to swim competitively, taking home an individual silver medal and a relay gold medal at the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City.  Donna deVarona earned gold in the 400-meter individual medley in Tokyo and a relay in 1964. With her glamorous looks, she appeared on the covers of such publications as Sports Illustrated, The Saturday Evening Post and Life magazine. DeVarona also appeared in swimsuit ads, became a sports broadcaster for ABC, and made the rounds as a public speaker.  Debbie Meyer was the first swimmer to win three individual gold medals at one Olympics in 1968. For her performance, she received the Sullivan Award. She was just 16. Like Schollander, Meyer chose to continue competing rather than cash in on her Olympic success. Spitz: Swimming’s First Megastar But none of these stars accomplished what Mark Spitz did. Spitz was a talented swimmer and rising star with the Santa Clara Swim Club. At the age of 18, he qualified for the 1968 U.S. Olympic Team in six events, leading some to predict that Spitz would 10 win six gold medals and surpass Schollander‟s accomplishments. But he earned one silver and one bronze medal in individual events and two relay gold medals. Adding to the disappointment were the difficult relationships Spitz had with some of his teammates, who reportedly thought he was conceited and arrogant. Following the Olympics, Spitz enrolled at Indiana University, where he swam for Hall of Fame Coach James “Doc” Counsilman. Spitz helped Indiana win four consecutive NCAA championships in men‟s swimming and earned the 1971 Sullivan Award. He approached the 1972 Olympics in Munich with four individual world records already under his belt and was favored to win seven gold medals, including relays. With just two days left in the swimming competition, Spitz had won five gold medals — each in world record time. But Spitz felt nervous enough about swimming the 100-meter freestyle against arch-rival and fellow American Jerry Heidenreich that he briefly considered dropping out of the event to keep his gold-medal sweep intact. Spitz ultimately decided to swim the event and won it in world record time, beating Heidenreich by more than four-tenths of a second. Spitz added his seventh and final gold medal in the 4 x 100-meter medley relay, also in world record time. 11 Table 2: Mark Spitz‟s Performance at the 1972 Olympics Event Time Result 100-meter freestyle 51.22 WR Gold 200-meter freestyle 1:52.78 WR Gold 100-meter butterfly 54.27 WR Gold 200-meter butterfly 2:00.70 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay 3:26.42 WR Gold 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay 7:35.78 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter medley relay 3:48.16 WR Gold But the mustachioed swimming star‟s exploits were overshadowed by the tragic events that followed at the Munich Games. Palestinian terrorists killed two Israeli athletes and held nine others hostage in the Olympic Village. Fearing for Spitz‟s safety because he was Jewish, U.S. authorities immediately flew the swimming star home. The terrorists were either killed or captured, but not before they killed nine Israeli athletes they held hostage. Despite the tragedy, Spitz was able to cash in on his Olympic success. He was photographed in an iconic pose in a swimming suit and his seven gold medals that was sold as a poster. He endorsed Schick razors and Arena swimwear and a swimming pool manufacturer. By one account, his endorsement contracts were worth up to $5 million at that time. 7 He appeared on TV with Bob Hope, Bill Cosby and Sonny and Cher. Spitz also worked as an Olympic swimming commentator for ABC Sports. 7 Kirshenbaum, Jerry. “On Your Mark, Get Set, Sell.” Sports Illustrated 14 May 1973. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1087354/index.htm>. 12 The Cold War, the Olympics and Steroids By the 1970s, swimming and the Olympic began to change amid Cold War and political tensions. Athletic success at the Olympic became a means for some countries to score propaganda victories to validate their political systems. In particular, Eastern Bloc countries began to centralize their training programs under their governments, unlike in the West, which relied on private athletic clubs and collegiate programs to develop athletes. Although the United States and Australia had dominated international swimming, the East Germans emerged as a new power in women‟s swimming. Starting with the 1973 FINA World Championships in Belgrade, the East German women began to dominate the sport. The East Germans won eight of the 11 individual events on the women‟s side at the meet. At the Munich Olympics the year before, they had won only three silver medals and one bronze medal. The East Germans‟ dominance reached its peak at the 1976 Olympics in Montreal, where they won 11 out of 13 women‟s events. Their success was a difficult blow to 19-year-old American swimmer Shirley Babashoff, who was a favorite to win four individual gold medals and held the world record in the 800-meter freestyle. Babashoff did not win any of her individual events and her only gold came in a relay event. But some had their suspicions about the East Germans‟ surprising success. They noted that the East German women were all very muscular and had very deep voices and wondered if they were taking illegal steroids. When asked about the women‟s voices, one 13 East German coach retorted, “We came here to swim, not to sing.” 8 Some swimmers recalled hearing the East German swimmers‟ deep voices in locker room and mistaking them for men. Babashoff was the one swimming star who voiced her suspicions publicly. “It was too obvious for me not to say something,” she recalled later. “Even before Montreal, I said I didn‟t feel comfortable in the changing room with, uh, people that big, that hairy, that baritone.” 9 But none of the East Germans tested positive. Some of the press criticized her for being a poor loser and dubbed her “surly Shirley.” In their last Olympic appearance at the 1988 Seoul Games, the East German women dominated the swimming competition. They won nine out of the 14 events. Kristin Otto won gold medals in four individual events and two relays. The difference in performance between the East German women and the Americans was readily apparent in the relays: the East German team finished more than four seconds ahead of the second- place Americans in the medley relay, and more than three-and-a-half seconds ahead of the third-place American team in the freestyle relay. Janet Evans was the only American to win any event, taking home three individual gold medals. Only after the Berlin Wall fell and East and West Germany were reunited did the truth come out: 20 former East German coaches admitted that they had given steroids to some of their swimmers during the 1970s and 1980s. The illicit use of performance- enhancing drugs in swimming, track and field, and cycling remained an issue throughout 8 Kirshenbaum, Jerry. “Theirs Was A Midas Stroke.” Sports Illustrated 2 Aug. 1976. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1091375/index.htm>. 9 Moore, Kenny. “Babashoff and Ender.” Sports Illustrated 13 July 1992. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1003984/index.htm>. 14 the 1990s and eventually led the Olympic movement and countries around the world to create the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999. Swimmers now are not only subject to mandatory testing at competitions, but also to random, unannounced tests throughout the year. Nevertheless, the damage was done: nothing was done to change the results of past Olympics or make amends to swimmers like Babashoff. “We took a lot of heat from the media and public when the East Germans dominated a U.S. team that was expected to clean up in the medal count,” 1976 U.S. Olympic women‟s swimming Coach Jack Nelson said after steroid use was revealed. “Our women‟s team was the greatest team in the history of swimming up to 1976. Instead, all people talked about was how we lost.” 10 American swimming lost a chance to promote itself and its stars and recruit future stars. Boycott Hamstrings the Olympics, Development of U.S. Stars Another development during the 1970s was the introduction of Olympic boycotts. The Olympics already had become a platform for making political statements, most notably when two black U.S. athletes exhibited the “black power” salute on the medal stands in Mexico City in 1968. But the boycotts offered countries another way to make political statements. In 1980, the United States led a boycott of the Olympics in Moscow, in protest over the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan the previous year. Only 80 nations participated in the Moscow Games, the fewest since 1956. Sixty-seven nations decided not to send 10 Robb, Sharon. “Ex-U.S. Coach Wants E. German '76 Medals.” The Sun Sentinel [Fort Lauderdale, Fla.] 19 Jan. 1992. SunSentinel.com. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1992-01-19/news/9201040208_1_medals-gold-east-germans>. 15 teams to the Olympics. Some nations, like Great Britain and Australia, supported the boycott, but allowed their athletes to decide whether to compete. U.S. athletes had no such opportunity, and many were dismayed by President Jimmy Carter‟s decision to boycott the Games. A whole generation of American swimmers — many of whom were favored to win gold — lost a chance to compete in the Olympics in their physical prime. They included world-record holders Bill Barrett, Mike Bruner, Ambrose “Rowdy” Gaines IV, Linda Jezek, Kim Linehan, Mary T. Meagher, Jesse Vassallo, and Cynthia “Sippy” Woodhead. Like Babashoff, Woodhead was favored to win multiple medals in the freestyle. The boycott deprived American swimming of an opportunity to showcase its stars on the sport‟s grandest stage and generate public interest. “We‟ll never know how much talent we didn‟t get because we weren‟t on TV for 200 hours from Moscow,” 1984 U.S. Olympic swimming coach Don Gambril said. “When Mark Spitz won his medals in 1972, and was on TV so much of the time despite the limited coverage in effect then, hundreds of parents wrote and called for information on how to get their kids involved in swimming. We didn‟t get that in 1980.” 11 In retaliation, the Soviets refused to attend the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. Only thirteen nations joined them, mostly from the Eastern Bloc, but they represented 58 percent of the medals won during the 1976 Olympics. The East Germans were among those boycotting the Games, depriving the swimming competition of some of its brightest — if possibly steroid-enhanced — stars. 11 Fachet, Robert. “U.S. Swimmers Hoping to Do More With Less; The L.A. Olympics; The Road to 1984.” The Washington Post 17 May 1983, Final ed., Sports sec.: D1. Print. 16 As a result, the United States dominated the swimming competition. The men won 10 of 15 events, while the women were victorious in 11 of 14 events. Among the stars that emerged was “Rowdy” Gaines, who won three gold medals. Gaines was among the oldest swimmers competing at 25, which was long past the age that athletes would normally retire from the sport. But he had missed out on Moscow and had continued to compete for a chance to go to Los Angeles. For other veterans, Los Angeles was bittersweet. Woodhead finished second in the 200-meter freestyle — an event in which she held the world record — finishing behind fellow American Mary Wayte. Organizational Changes in American Swimming Swimming changed in further ways in the United States during the 1970s. For years, amateur sports in the United States had suffered from poor organization and staffing and jurisdictional squabbling between such organizations as the Amateur Athletic Union and the National Collegiate Athletic Association. The infighting was so bad, that the NCAA withdrew from participating in the U.S. Olympic Committee in 1972, because of perceptions that the AAU dominated the USOC at a time when colleges were producing most U.S. Olympic athletes. At the time, the AAU served as the national governing body for eight Olympic sports: track and field, swimming, boxing, luge, bobsledding, weightlifting, judo and wrestling. A President‟s Commission on Olympic Sports was created to identify solutions. Among the commissioners was Olympic swimming gold medalist Donna deVarona. After nearly two years of work, the commission produced a 631-page report that recommended a number of changes, including restructuring the USOC and giving it more 17 power. In addition, the success of other nations like East Germany at the expense of American athletes at the 1976 Olympics created more impetus for reforms. U.S. athletic officials and legislators realized that change was needed for American athletes to remain competitive internationally. In 1978, the U.S. Congress passed the federal Amateur Sports Act that encapsulated a number of reforms. Signed into law by President Jimmy Carter, the law gave the USOC the “exclusive jurisdiction … over (A) all matters pertaining to United States participation in the Olympic Games” including coordination and development of amateur athletic programs. 12 It also allocated $16 million in federal funding to reorganize the USOC, create sports medicine programs and establish national training centers. The law also required national governing bodies to be autonomous in overseeing their sports. It further established criteria for becoming an NGB for a sport: athletes must make up 20 percent of an NGB‟s membership. The law also gave the USOC the power to review those criteria. As a result, the AAU ceased to serve as the national governing body for swimming and the other Olympic sports. Instead, its individual sports committees were spun off and became autonomous organizations. The nonprofit U.S. Swimming Inc. was established in 1980 to govern swimming. As an NGB, U.S. Swimming — renamed USA Swimming in 1998 — establishes rules for the sport and the creation of swim clubs; provides training for coaches and meet officials; selects teams for international competitions, including the Olympics; and 12 United States. Congress. Ted Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act. 1978. U.S. Olympic Committee. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://assets.teamusa.org/assets/documents/attached_file/filename/37887/TedStevens.pdf>. 18 promotes the sport. Currently, it has more than 320,000 members and an annual budget of about $30 million. It also has attracted a number of high-profile corporate sponsors, including a number of Fortune 500 companies. ConocoPhillips has supported the sport for more than 30 years. Other sponsors include swimwear manufacturer Speedo; AT&T; BMW of North America LLC; CeRave moisturizers and cleansers; Marriott International Inc.; Mutual of Omaha; Myrtha Pools; watchmaker Omega; and VISA. USA Swimming has defined its mission as providing services to its stakeholders — swimmers, coaches, officials, sponsors and affiliated organizations — improving the sport and achieving excellence. It has identified three core objectives:  Building the Base — USA Swimming seeks to expand its membership and share the sport with more and more people, showing them that swimming can be a healthy activity for their entire lives;  Promoting the Sport — USA Swimming believes that seeking publicity for the sport will encourage more people to join its ranks;  Achieving Competitive Success — the United States has occupied the position as the most successful nation in swimming throughout Olympic history. USA Swimming seeks to maintain that position. American society is inspired when U.S. swimmers succeed, it argues. 13 Essentially, this is USA Swimming‟s business goal. Ultimately, USA Swimming‟s vision is to inspire and enable its members to achieve success both in swimming and in life. 13 USA Swimming. “USA Swimming - Mission & Vision.” USA Swimming. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1412&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en>. 19 From Amateurism to Professionalism The governance of American swimming wasn‟t the only way swimming has changed during the last 30 years: the sport became increasingly “professionalized” as amateur sports rules were relaxed or discarded. From the very start, the modern Olympic movement disdained professional athletes. De Coubertin, the founder, felt that it was unfair for professional athletes to compete against part-time amateurs. Avery Brundage, the autocratic American who served as International Olympic Committee president from 1952-72, once said, “An amateur does not rely on sports for his livelihood. The devotion of the true amateur athlete is the same devotion that makes an artist starve in his garret rather than commercialize his work.” 14 Western athletes, like American swimmers, generally began competing at the international level in their teens. They could continue training under scholarship in college. But once they graduated and their scholarships expired, they generally had to retire from the sport. Practically speaking, this meant that athletes could compete in two Olympics at most. The rules prohibited them from being paid for competing or endorsing products or services. If they accepted such monies, they would lose their eligibility to compete. Swimmers like Mark Spitz therefore gave up their eligibility to cash in on Olympic success. Yet there were those who thought that attitude was outdated, particularly in light of the Eastern Bloc countries whose subsidies allowed their athletes to continue to train 14 Johnson, William Oscar. “Goodbye, Olive Wreaths; Hello, Riches and Reality.” Sports Illustrated 9 Feb. 1987. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. 20 full time. Dick Pound, an IOC member from Canada, pointed out that state-sponsored athletes had won a disproportionate amount of medals during the 1972 and 1976 Olympics. “There was no question in our minds that state athletes were pros … Professionalism has been anathema to the spirit of the Olympics for many decades, but we realized that we had a reached a point where it was less a problem of professionals than it was a question of fair play,” he said. 15 As Don Schollander, who served as an athletic representative on the USOC, said, “The only sensible thing is to open the Olympics to everyone.” 16 But it took more than 15 years after Brundage retired as IOC president before change occurred. Under President Juan Antonio Samaranch, the IOC made several important decisions during the 1980s. These included:  Licensing the Olympic rings for merchandising and marketing purposes;  Splitting the Winter and Summer Olympics into alternating two-year cycles, increasing the potential revenue that the IOC could receive from TV networks that bid for broadcasting rights;  Allowing the international sports federations the power to determine who was eligible to compete, paving the way for professional athletes to participate in the Olympics. 15 Ibid. 16 Johnson, William. “Defender of the Faith.” Sports Illustrated 24 July 1972. Sports Illustrated. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1086340/index.htm>. 21 On this last point, Pound said, “We do not want a better quality of athletes competing in a world championship than those competing in the Olympics. Professional or amateur — we want the best.” 17 This measure was adopted despite the objections of Eastern Bloc nations, whose representatives said it would bring professional sports‟ negative influences to the Olympics. (Even if the Eastern Bloc had succeeded then, it seems likely the IOC would have allowed professionals to compete after the fall of Communism and the steroid revelations.) This change allowed USA Basketball to form the “Dream Team” composed mainly of professionals from the National Basketball Association to win the gold medal at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. In swimming, however, money was hard to come by initially, despite the liberalization of rules. American swimming star Matt Biondi, who won seven medals — including five gold — at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, was among the first to benefit from the new rules. He did an “I‟m going to Disneyland!” commercial and endorsed Macy‟s, Coca-Cola, IBM and Arena swimwear. Biondi also did speaking engagements and personal appearances. He earned about $200,000 annually from his activities. 18 Biondi and American sprinting rival Tom Jager also competed in about a dozen match races over two years for prize money. They also raced for even larger cash prizes against Mark Spitz, who made a brief and unsuccessful comeback at the age of 41. The endorsement income and prize money were placed into trust funds that the swimmers 17 “Goodbye, Olive Wreaths.” 18 Barnes, Simon. “Grown-Ups Happy Taking a Dip in the Cash Pool.” The Times [London] 24 July 1992, Sport sec. Print. 22 could only tap for living expenses while they competed. But they allowed Biondi and Jager to compete in a third consecutive Olympics in 1992. But Biondi and Jager were among the few to benefit then, because they were Olympic veterans who achieved success and gained name recognition in the glamorous sprinting events. They also had used up their collegiate eligibility. Other swimmers didn‟t get such endorsement offers unless they had achieved competitive success, and college swimmers who accepted endorsements forfeited their NCAA eligibility. “Professionals” like Biondi and Jager clashed with U.S. Swimming officials over scheduling. They said U.S. Swimming did not make allowances for swimmers who had to make a living through promotional appearances. In one instance, U.S. Swimming did not allow Biondi to compete with the national team because he had missed a previously required meet and denied him an exemption. In another instance, swimmers missed a chance to compete and win prizes at a meet, because they were required to attend a National Team function. Biondi, in particular, felt that swimming‟s monetary awards paled in comparison to tennis and track and field, which also were Olympic sports. Gradually, U.S. Swimming introduced other financial incentives. It began giving stipends to swimmers who continued to train and compete after exhausting their collegiate eligibility. Currently, USA Swimming offers a $1,750 monthly stipend. 19 To qualify, a swimmer had to be among the six fastest Americans in each Olympic event. In addition, it also offered incentive bonuses for medaling at the Olympics or other major 19 USA Swimming. Performance Funding. USA Swimming. USASwimming.org. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.usaswimming.org/_Rainbow/Documents/ac605be9-010f-4acb-bbcd- 624f90c65bc3/performance%20funding.pdf>. 23 meets. For example, an American swimmer who won a gold medal at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships could earn a $15,000 bonus. 20 Other incentives were offered for setting world records. U.S. Swimming also experimented with a National Resident Team program, in which selected post-collegiate swimmers trained together under a single coach based in Colorado Springs. Swimmers also began to hire agents to represent them in business dealings. North Carolina-based Premier Management Group represented as many as 30 American swimmers and eight coaches prior to the 2004 Olympics in Athens. The management agency helped negotiate product endorsements, swim clinics and speaking engagements on behalf of the swimmers. About half of the swimmers were making more than $100,000 annually. 21 But the money was not spread evenly among other swimmers. Some only made about $30,000 a year, even though they were ranked in the Top 10 internationally in their event. 22 Product endorsements, swim clinics, speaking engagements and financial incentives mean that swimmers could have much longer careers. “Before it was like they would come and go every four years, and they were sort of these fleeting images,” one observer said. “Now, at least, you have people who are swimming at a high level for a decade, and at least they‟re around long enough for people to become familiar with 20 Ibid. 21 Lee, Dan. “The New Wave of Old Pros.” The Press-Enterprise [Riverside, Calif.] 9 July 2004, Sports sec.: C1+. Print. 22 Sappenfield, Mark, and Jay Weiner. “Increased Professionalism Keeps Swimmers in the Pool.”Christian Science Monitor [Boston] 13 Aug. 2008, Olympics sec.: 25. Print. 24 them.” 23 This was especially true for sprinters, who don‟t need as much training as other swimmers. (Sprinter Dara Torres competed in her fifth Olympic Games at the age of 41 in 2008.) Indeed, the average age of U.S. Olympic swimmers has increased over the years. In 1976, the average male swimmer was 19.8 years old; in 2008, it was 23.8 years old. The average female was 17.7 years old in 1976; but that figure was 22.3 in 2008. Figure 1: Average Age, U.S. Olympic Swimming Team (Source: USA Swimming Olympic Media Guides, 1976-2008) Still, it‟s not easy for swimmers. As one agent noted, athletes have to hustle to make a living off their swimming success. “That said, do you know how hard it is to make a million dollars a year? To do that, your appeal has to go beyond the traditional 23 Personal interview with Karen Crouse. 0 5 10 15 20 25 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 Age Olympic Teams Average Age, U.S. Olympic Swim Team Male Female 25 sponsors,” he said. 24 Few if any have that appeal. Moreover, swimmers have to strike quickly, because the industry forgets them quickly, the agent said. Many swimmers don‟t consider themselves professionals like other athletes. Although the few megastars like Phelps do well financially, the rewards pale compared to other sports. “For today‟s athletes, specifically Michael, swimming is a job. He is the Lebron James of swimming, except that he‟s making one-hundredth of the money,” another observer said. 25 Not everyone was happy with the developments. Two-time Olympic swimmer Betsy Mitchell lamented the professionalization of swimming. “Over the last three Olympiads, the increase in participation of professional athletes in the Olympic Games had devalued the meaning I experienced and expect from the Olympic movement … In the most naïve sense, the professional is motivated primarily by money, the amateur by love,” she wrote. 26 Four-time Olympian Jill Sterkel expressed concern when Anita Nall turned pro at 15, making her ineligible to compete collegiately. “When I look back on my college career, I know I wouldn‟t it trade it for anything,” Sterkel said. “When Anita 24 McMullen, Paul. "For Most, Water Far From Green." The Baltimore Sun 30 Oct. 2003. The Baltimore Sun. 30 Oct. 2003. Web. 28 Mar. 2011. <http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2003-10-30/sports/0310300034_1_swimming-2004- olympics-phelps>. 25 Ibid 26 Mitchell, Betsy. “Olympic Games' Discarded Ideals Must Be Restored.” USA Today [McLean, Va.] 4 Feb. 1999, Final ed., Bonus sec.: 3E. Print. 26 made her decision, there was a definite concern about what was happening to the sport. We hope it‟s not a trend.” 27 Currently, USA Swimming offers a wide array of additional benefits to swimmers. The financial package has expanded to include tuition reimbursement for collegiate swimmers and reimbursement for travel expenses. The organization also offers health insurance coverage, post-competition career placement services, and performance support services, including sports medicine and psychology, video analysis, and access to Olympic Training Centers. The Phelps Phenomenon In many ways, Michael Phelps was both a product and beneficiary of this star- making system. Phelps was the third child of a police officer father and schoolteacher mother in the Baltimore suburbs. His two older sisters, Hilary and Whitney swam. Whitney was one of the favorites to make the U.S. Olympic Team in the 200-meter butterfly in 1996. But a back injury kept her from qualifying for the team. Phelps joined his sisters in swimming for the North Baltimore Aquatic Club. The sport helped Phelps, who had Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. He quickly became a star age group swimmer. Bob Bowman, Phelps‟ coach, quickly recognized Phelps‟ talent. In 1997, when Phelps was just 12, Bowman told Michael‟s now-divorced parents that the young swimmer would qualify for the U.S. Olympic Trials in 2000, make the Olympic Team in 2004, chase world records by 2008 and continue swimming until 2012. Phelps surpassed those expectations. 27 Nakamura, David. “Trial by Water: Nall Taking Different Career Path; Towson Swimmer Will Bypass NCAA Competition.” The Washington Post 5 Apr. 1994, Capital ed., Sports sec.: C6. Print. 27 At the tender age of 15, Phelps made the 2000 U.S. Olympic Team in the 200- meter butterfly. He was the youngest American male to qualify for the Olympics since 1932. He finished in fifth place, as American teammate and world-record holder Tom Malchow won. But less than a year later, Phelps broke Malchow‟s record. In 2002, he showed his versatility by breaking the world record in the 400-meter individual medley. The 400 IM is considered the “decathlon” of swimming, because it requires proficiency in all four competitive strokes. He added the 200 IM world record in 2003. He became the youngest male ever to turn “pro” in swimming. 28 Phelps qualified for the 2003 FINA World Championships in Barcelona in six events. Some observers were already saying he was better than Australia‟s Ian Thorpe, who had won three gold medals at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. Thorpe was also the world-record holder in the 200 and 400-meter freestyles. Former Australian coach Don Talbot scoffed at the comparisons between Phelps and Thorpe, saying it was “absolute nonsense.” 29 But such comments only motivated Phelps. In Barcelona, he proved that he was as at least as good — if not better than — Thorpe. Phelps won three individual events and set four world records in the process. He also took gold in a relay and silvers in a relay and another individual event. For his efforts, Phelps won the 2003 Sullivan Award. 28 Rosewater, Amy. “Not Quite Making a Splash; Phelps, 17, Keeps Low Profile as One of the World's Best Swimmers.” The Washington Post 3 Sept. 2002, Final ed., Sports sec.: D1. Print. 29 Cazeneuve, Brian. “World Beater.” Sports Illustrated 4 Aug. 2003. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1029263/index.htm>. 28 Table 3: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2003 FINA World Championships Event Time Result 100-meter butterfly 51.10 (51.47p WR) Silver 200-meter butterfly 1:54.35 (1:53.93p WR) Gold 200-meter individual medley 1:56.04 WR Gold 400-meter individual medley 4:09.09 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter medley relay 3:34.80p Gold 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay 7:10.26 Silver As the 2004 Olympics in Athens approached, the hype about Phelps began to build, fueled by the increasing evidence of his talent and versatility. Early that year, Phelps posted the second-fastest time ever in the 200-meter backstroke and another fast time in the 100-meter freestyle that put him into consideration for the U.S. 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay team. The latter was essential if he wanted to surpass Spitz in the Olympics. He also expressed his interest in entering the 200-meter freestyle at the Olympics and facing off against Australia‟s Thorpe. With his versatility, Phelps could have conceivably entered in as many as six individual events and three relays at the Olympics, creating the possibility that he could challenge Spitz‟s record seven gold medals. Adding to the buzz, Speedo offered Phelps a $1 million bonus if he matched or surpassed Spitz. Speedo was one of Phelps‟ sponsors, the swimmer having decided to forego his collegiate eligibility and become “professional.” Phelps was featured 29 prominently in the lead up to Athens, making the cover of Sports Illustrated and being featured in ads for NBC and sponsors such as Argent Mortgage and AT&T Wireless. Not everyone was convinced about Phelps‟ ability to match Spitz‟s accomplishments. In the 32 years since Munich, no Olympian had equaled Spitz. Vitaly Scherbo won six gold medals in gymnastics for the Unified Team of former Soviet Republics at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. East German swimmer Kristin Otto had one six gold medals at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, and she probably would have tied Spitz if the women had three relay events as the men did then. (Some have regarded her achievements with suspicion, given the performance-enhancing drug revelations that followed. But Otto denied taking steroids knowingly.) American swimmer Matt Biondi swam seven events in 1988, but came away with five gold, one silver and one bronze. From a swimming perspective, Phelps had a number of obstacles that Spitz did not:  Swimmers in the modern era are far more specialized than during Spitz‟s era, concentrating on only one or two events generally. And some of these swimmers trained in the United States at college programs. For example, Biondi swam seven events in Seoul, but he lost the 100-meter butterfly — an event he was favored to win — when Anthony Nesty of Suriname and the University of Florida out-touched him by a hundredth of a second.  Phelps had to swim semi-finals for almost all his events, something that Spitz did not have to worry about. Some of these semi-finals would take place on the same evening as finals in other events. This would require 30 Phelps to go through an intricate ballet of racing, warming down, getting drug tested, participating in a medal ceremony and then preparing to race again — all within about 30 to 45 minutes;  In Spitz‟s era, the Americans were virtually assured of winning the relays. From 1960 through 1988, the American men never lost a relay at an Olympics that they attended. But in Phelps‟ era, that superiority had eroded. The Unified Team (former Soviet Republics) and the Swedes had beaten them in the 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay in Barcelona in 1992. Thorpe and the Australians had taken two of the three relay events at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney;  Handling the pressure, expectations and all the media attention. Many Olympians have wilted under the pressure and the expectations of trying to win one gold medal. Phelps was gunning for eight with the entire world watching. Thorpe himself thought Phelps could not equal Spitz. “I‟ve said for a long time that I don‟t think anyone will ever win seven gold medals at the Olympics again. I stand by that,” Thorpe said before the Athens Games. “I think Michael will swim extremely well, but I don‟t think he will achieve that.” 30 In Athens, Phelps got off to a great start winning the 400-meter individual medley in world record time. But his quest was quickly derailed when his U.S. team finished third in the 4 x 100-meter free relay behind South Africa and the Netherlands. The team 30 Lee, Dan. “Mission Possible? Best Swimmer of His Generation Sets His Goals Extremely High.” The Press- Enterprise [Riverside, Calif.] 7 July 2004, Sports sec.: C1+. Print. 31 was never in contention for the gold, suffering from a poor leadoff leg from Ian Crocker who was recovering from an illness. Phelps also fell short in the 200-meter freestyle, taking the bronze medal behind Thorpe and Dutchman Pieter van den Hoogenband. Some observers, like Spitz, questioned why Phelps would swim an event in which he was not favored. Phelps responded that he wanted to swim against the best, and Thorpe held the world record. But Phelps found gold in every other event. He even out-touched Crocker to win the 100-meter butterfly. This meant that Phelps could swim the butterfly leg for the U.S. team in the 4 x 100-meter medley relay final. But Phelps magnanimously gave up his spot to Crocker. He had already swum on the relay during the preliminaries, guaranteeing him whatever medal the team won during the finals. Crocker and the relay team wound up winning the relay in world record time, giving Phelps his fifth and final gold medal in the Athens games. Table 4: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2004 Olympics Event Time Result 200-meter freestyle 1:45.32 Bronze 100-meter butterfly 51.25 Gold 200-meter butterfly 1:54.04 Gold 200-meter individual medley 1:57.14 Gold 400-meter individual medley 4:08.26 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay 3:14.62 Bronze 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay 7:07.33 Gold 4 x 100-meter medley relay 3:35.10p Gold* 32 Although Phelps failed to match Spitz‟s record, he became a household name in the United States after the Olympics with his eight medals. He headlined the month-long Disney “Swim with the Stars” tour with Crocker and 2000 gold medalist Lenny Krayzelburg that visited 15 cities around the nation. Some believed that Phelps‟ best days were ahead of him, because male swimmers often improve and perform at high levels into their late 20s, barring injury. Even before the 2004 U.S. Olympic Trials, former Olympian Rowdy Gaines said, “This is just going to be a steppingstone for him. Can you imagine what he‟s going to be like in 2008?” 31 Speedo agreed with that assessment, keeping the $1 million bonus in play for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. “He‟s the single most important endorser of our brand of all time … If you are a marketer, Michael Phelps is a dream come true,” Speedo marketing Vice President Craig Brommers said. 32 Phelps was worth “$50 million in global PR” to Speedo, he said. 33 But that November, Phelps‟ image suffered a blow when he was arrested in Maryland for driving while intoxicated. Bowman, his coach, and fans were upset. Phelps quickly apologized at a number of public appearances, saying, “Getting in a car with anything to drink is wrong, dangerous and unacceptable.” 34 31 “Mission Possible?” 32 Ruane, Michael E. “A Change of Focus; “If You Are a Marketer, Michael Phelps Is a Dream Come True.”“ The Washington Post 25 Aug. 2004, Final ed., Sports sec.: D7. Print. 33 Thomaselli, Rich. “Despite Jitters, Sponsors of Phelps & Co. Reap Rewards; Speedo Puts Value of Global PR at $50 Mil.” Advertising Age [New York City, New York] 30 Aug. 2004: 8. 34 Rich, Eric, and Michael E. Ruane. “Olympian Phelps Charged with Drunken Driving.” The Washington Post 9 Nov. 2004, Final ed., Metro sec.: B1. Print. 33 The post-Olympic period brought other changes. Bowman accepted the job coaching the University of Michigan men‟s swimming team. Although he was ineligible for collegiate competition, Phelps decided to move to Ann Arbor to train under Bowman. He bought a townhouse and learned how to live independently. His training also began to change as Bowman added weightlifting to Phelps‟ regimen. The work paid off at the 2007 FINA World Championships in Melbourne. He won seven gold medals, winning five individual events. Only a false start by Crocker in the preliminaries of the 4 x 100-meter medley relay denied Phelps an eighth gold medal. Phelps also set five world records, breaking Thorpe‟s mark in the 200-meter freestyle. Even other world record holders were in awe of Phelps. “He is just superhuman. We won‟t see anything like this again,” Australian distance freestyle star Grant Hackett said. 35 Table 5: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2007 FINA World Championships Event Time Result 200-meter freestyle 1:43.86 WR Gold 100-meter butterfly 50.77 Gold 200-meter butterfly 1:52.09 WR Gold 200-meter individual medley 1:54.98 WR Gold 400-meter individual medley 4:06.22 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay 3:12.72 Meet Record Gold 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay 7:03.24 WR Gold 35 Cazeneuve, Brian. “Mind Boggling.” Sports Illustrated 9 Apr. 2007. Sports Illustrated Vault. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1108536/index.htm>. 34 Speedo had kept the $1 million bonus on the table for Phelps in Beijing, but the swimwear company added to the hype by introducing the LZR bodysuit in 2008. In the past, competitive swimwear materials had evolved from cotton suits to nylon and then Lycra. Men‟s designs had shifted from briefs to knee-length “jammers” during the 1990s to full-length bodysuits by the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. The LZR, however, revolutionized competitive swimwear. It was designed with NASA‟s assistance. It was made to reduce drag and compress swimmers‟ muscles, delaying the onset of fatigue. The fabric included polyurethane panels to make it repel water. Swimmers wearing LZR suits set 38 out of 42 world records established in the five months between the its introduction and the start of the 2008 U.S. Olympic trials — an unprecedented avalanche of records. 36 That led critics to label the new suits as the equivalent of “technical doping.” Others said the LZR‟s exorbitant cost — retailing at $550 a piece — made for an unlevel playing field, because few could afford the suits. Speedo made the suits available for anyone to use free of charge at major meets, but that placed some swimmers in a quandary: they had signed endorsement deals with other manufacturers and were contractually bound to wear their sponsors‟ suits. Yet they felt they risked failing to reach their Olympic goals if they didn‟t wear the LZR. In some cases, the swimwear companies relented and allowed the swimmers. The LZR eventually forced Speedo‟s competitors to manufacture other suits made out of plastic and polyurethane that some claimed enhanced swimmers‟ buoyancy. In the 36 Robertson, Linda. “Waves of Controversy; High-Tech Suits - 'Drugs On a Hanger' - Rewriting History.” The Miami Herald 29 June 2008, sec. D: 13. Print. 35 year after the Beijing Olympics, swimmers would consider the LZR to be obsolete, replaced by superior bodysuits manufactured by Jaked, Blueseventy and Arena. FINA ultimately instituted new rules in 2010, prohibiting full bodysuits and restricting swimwear materials to textiles only. But that was after Beijing. For the 2008 Olympics, Phelps would have the best suit money could buy, one that could conceivably give him an advantage over his competitors. Adding to the hype, NBC had made an unprecedented request to the IOC in 2006: the network asked that officials change the Beijing Olympic swimming and gymnastics schedule so that the network could broadcast the finals live in prime time in the East Coast of the United States. That meant swimmers would have to compete in morning finals, instead of the traditional evening finals. Observers outside the United States noted that the change would allow the network to televise Phelps‟ performances live. “It was the biggest brainstorm in the history of our sport to be able to do that … because I think to have that drama live on television for eight straight nights — you couldn‟t match that if it was taped,” one USA Swimming insider said. 37 But Australian swimming officials and European and Asian nations criticized the request, saying athletes performed better in the evening and that their television networks would have to broadcast the events at less- than-ideal times in their countries. Nevertheless, the IOC decided to grant NBC‟s request, perhaps mindful that the network had paid $3.5 billion to broadcast five Olympics from 2000 in Sydney through Beijing. 37 Personal interview with Rowdy Gaines. 36 Table 6: A Comparison of Olympic Schedules with Evening and Morning Finals (For a typical individual event) Traditional Schedule 2008 Schedule Day 1 A.M. Preliminary Heats Day 1 P.M. Semi-Final Heats Preliminary Heats Day 2 A.M. Semi-Final Heats Day 2 P.M. Finals Day 3 A.M. Finals Entering Beijing, Phelps was no shoo-in for eight gold medals. Although Australia‟s Ian Thorpe had retired, others posed potential threats:  400-meter individual medley — Fellow American Ryan Lochte and Hungarian Lazlo Cseh, who had taken the bronze medal in this event in Athens, were the biggest hurdles. Some observers felt that Lochte had as much talent as Phelps. If there were no Michael Phelps, Lochte would be in Phelps‟ position as the best all-around swimmer in the world;  100-meter butterfly — Fellow American Ian Crocker, who held the world record in this event, and Milorad Cavic, a Serbian by way of Tustin, Calif., and the University of California at Berkeley, posed the strongest challenges to Phelps.  200-meter individual medley — Lochte, who won the silver medal in this event in Athens, and Cseh also would compete in this event; 37  4 x 100-meter freestyle relay — This was a field that was full of challengers. The South Africans returned their gold-medal team from 2004, and the Australians had rising sprint star Eamon Sullivan. But it was the French who had 100-meter world record holder Alain Bernard and three other supremely talented sprinters. As in Athens, Phelps began his Beijing Olympics by winning the 400-meter individual medley in world-record time. After swimming a semi-final heat in the 200- meter freestyle the next day, he joined Garrett Weber-Gale, Cullen Jones and Jason Lezak for the finals of the 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay. It was a race for the ages. Phelps led off the relay. Although he set an American record for 100 meters, it was not enough to give the U.S. team the lead, because Australia‟s Eamon Sullivan shattered the 100-meter world record. Weber-Gale took the lead from the Australians on the second leg, but the French moved into second place. On the third leg, Frenchman Fred Bousquet overtook Jones to give his team the lead. It looked like Phelps‟ hopes for a gold medal were over, with Alain Bernard anchoring the French team. At the last turn, Bernard was eight-tenths of a second ahead of the American anchor, Lezak — an eternity in swimming. But Bernard had gone out too fast on his first 50 meters. Lezak overtook the Frenchman and out-touched him at the wall by eight-hundredths of a second, giving the American team the gold medal and world record. Photos and TV footage of an exultant Phelps screaming — every tendon and vein bulging from his neck — led newspaper and Internet sports sections and NBC Olympic highlights afterward. 38 Phelps won his next three individual events — the 200-meter freestyle, the 200- meter butterfly and the 200-meter individual medley — also in world-record time. The victory in the 200 butterfly came despite having his goggles fill with water. Phelps was unable to see where he was in the pool, so he relied on his familiarity with his stroke count to tell where he was. He also helped the American team set another world record in easily winning the 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay. Next was the 100-meter butterfly. Phelps qualified second for the final behind Cavic, who admitted that he hoped to upset the American star. And in the final, it looked like it could happen. Cavic was known for getting out quickly; he was first at the 50- meter mark in 23.42 seconds. Phelps, who was never known for starting quickly, was next to last at 24.04 seconds. But, true to form, Phelps began to close the gap during the final 50 meters. Still, it looked like Cavic was going to finish first in a major upset. But Cavic glided into the wall, while Phelps took another stroke and beat the Serbian to the touch-pads by a hundredth of a second — the slimmest margin between victory and defeat. Phelps erupted in celebration, slamming the water with his fist. Meanwhile, his mother, Debbie Phelps, who had stood for the entire race and believed that her son had finished second, sank back down into her seat in the Water Cube in shock over Michael‟s dramatic, come-from-behind victory. The Serbian delegation filed a protest over the results. But slow-motion TV replays both overhead and underwater confirmed the result that Phelps had touched first before Cavic. The delegation later withdrew its protest, and Phelps had tied Spitz‟s record. 39 Phelps‟ final race was more like a coronation. The United States had never lost the 4 x 100 meter medley relay in Olympic competition, and it did not do so now. Although the American team was in third when Phelps entered the water for the butterfly leg, he quickly regained the lead. The U.S. team won the gold medal in world-record time, giving Phelps his eighth gold medal and breaking Spitz‟s mark. The victory also gave him the most medals won by a single athlete in Olympic history. Table 7: Michael Phelps‟ Performance at the 2008 Olympic Games Event Time Result 200-meter freestyle 1:42.96 WR Gold 100-meter butterfly 50.58 OR Gold 200-meter butterfly 1:52.03 WR Gold 200-meter individual medley 1:54.23 WR Gold 400-meter individual medley 4:03.84 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay 3:08.24 WR Gold 4 x 200-meter freestyle relay 6:58.56 WR Gold 4 x 100-meter medley relay 3:29.34 WR Gold Phelps had become a household name. His historic eighth gold medal drew a TV audience of 39.9 million viewers, NBC‟s largest Saturday night audience in 18 years, according to Nielsen Media Research estimates. 38 Official Olympic statistics were more modest: 30.6 million viewers, or just two million fewer than those who watched the tape- 38 Carter, Bill, and Richard Sandomir. “A Surprise Winner at the Olympic Games in Beijing: NBC.”The New York Times 18 Aug. 2008, Late - Final ed., sec. C: 1. Print. 40 delayed coverage of the opening ceremonies. 39 President Bush himself had watched Phelps win the 400 IM, while Kobe Bryant and LeBron James watched him win the 200 butterfly. The stars were watching swimmer‟s greatest star. Phelps‟s “Q score” — a likeability rating developed by the marketing research firm Q Scores Co. — after Athens had reached 19 percent, but after Beijing, it reached 29 percent. 40 Subsequently, NBC decided to broadcast the 2009 FINA World Championships in Rome, the 2010 Pan Pacific Championships, and the 2010 and 2011 USA Swimming National Championships — all events that featured or are expected to feature Phelps. In a change, the network did not charge USA Swimming for the $1 million cost of air time, as it had in the past. 41 “Michael has dramatically changed our sport over the last five or six years, and, you know, he‟s really become our Tiger Woods, our Roger Federer in many ways,” one person said. 42 USA Swimming-affiliated clubs also showed an 11.3 percent increase in annual membership in the year after Phelps‟ Beijing run, reaching the highest in at least 23 years. Some Florida clubs reported enrollment increasing after the Olympics and tripling in one instance. One Tampa-area coach reported talking with numerous parents. “They all mention Michael Phelps,” he said. “That name seems to have really resonated, especially 39 International Olympic Committee. Marketing Report - Beijing 2008. Rep. Lausanne, Switzerland. Print. 40 Coutts, Matthew. “Marketing Michael; Olympian Michael Phelps Was Quick Off the Mark in Selling Himself.” The National Post [Don Mills, Ontario, Canada] 27 Oct. 2008, National ed.: A3. Print. 41 Olsen interview 42 Gaines interview 41 with the young boys.” 43 USA Swimming saw an increase in males signing up: typically, females make up about 60 percent of the membership, but that has shrunk somewhat to 57 percent. “Obviously, we have no way of knowing (why), but it‟s been speculated that Michael Phelps has made swimming cool by becoming a superstar,” one official said. 44 Figure 2: USA Swimming Membership, 1986-2009 (Source: USA Swimming) A flood of awards, plaudits and endorsement deals followed for Phelps. The awards included AP Male Athlete of the Year, AP Top Sports Story of the Year, and Sports Illustrated 2008 Sportsman of the Year. Phelps also appeared on “Saturday Night Live” and participated as an opponent on basketball star Shaquille O‟Neal‟s “Shaq vs.” reality TV series. 43 Tomalin, Terry. “It's the Phelps Effect.” St. Petersburg Times 7 Sept. 2008, Sports sec.: 1C. Print. 44 Olsen interview - 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Members Year USA Swimming Total Membership, 1986- 2009 Total Membership 42 In addition to the $1 million Speedo bonus — which he used to start a foundation to promote youth swimming and water safety — Phelps continued to endorse products, including AT&T and Subway. Some experts estimated that the Olympic star could secure endorsement deals that could earn him $50 million to $100 million over a lifetime. “He's good-looking, healthy, vital, pure. It's sort of a cliché of what America is about,” one marketing expert was quoted as saying. “In that sense, he represents a gold mine to marketers ... this guy kind of comes out of the blue and sort of says, when we were an innocent land, and things were simpler and less complex — this is the image America had. Beyond being an athlete, he conveys the possibility that America can be that kind of place again.” 45 However, other experts said Phelps‟ shelf life as an Olympian was limited. Olympians quickly become yesterday‟s story as the public and marketers move onto the next star of the moment as the professional sports seasons start, they said. “It's a world built around exposure,” one said. “And his exposure will not come for free after the Games are over.” 46 For Phelps to sustain his marketing success, he would have to maintain a high profile, such as participating in reality TV or conducting promotional tours, experts said. For his part, Phelps said he was not motivated by money. “I swim because I love it, and I don‟t want it to be an every-four-year sport. I want to raise the profile of 45 Dale, Daniel. “Phelps Plunges into $50 Million Endorsement Pool; U.S. Swimming Sensation Is a Marketer's Dream, Yet as with Olympians Past, It Won't Stick.” Toronto Star 17 Aug. 2008, sec. A: 1. Print. 46 Ibid 43 swimming,” he said. 47 Although it remains to be seen if swimming will ever become more than an every-four-year sport, Phelps had evidence that he had indeed raised its profile: Baltimore Ravens fans had watched him race on a big-screen TV at the football stadium; the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox also showed one of his races during their games; and Bruce Springsteen dedicated a “Born in the U.S.A” performance to Phelps after he won his seventh medal. 48 Phelps‟ image suffered another blow when photos surfaced on the Internet in January 2009 inhaling from a marijuana pipe at student party at the University of South Carolina. USA Swimming reprimanded Phelps and suspended him for three months from competition. The suspension also cost him his monthly stipend. In addition, Kellogg‟s brand cereals dropped its sponsorship deal with Phelps. The swimmer accepted the punishment and apologized, calling his actions “inappropriate.” 49 Competitively, Phelps faced new challenges. In 2009, he claimed one world record — the 100-meter butterfly mark that had eluded him for six years — but lost his 200-meter freestyle record to a virtually unknown German swimmer wearing one of the new bodysuits. In 2010, his longtime American rival Ryan Lochte beat him in both individual medley events at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships and nearly broke 47 Kaufman, Michelle. “Iconic Figure: Michael Phelps has received thousands of text messages, a call from President Bush and a shout-out from Bruce Springsteen. Next up: Multimillion-dollar endorsement deals.” Miami Herald. 19 August 2008. D, 6. 48 Ibid. 49 Macur, Juliet. “Photograph Costs Phelps 3 Months and a Sponsor.” The New York Times 6 Feb. 2009, Late - Final ed., sec. B: 9. Print. 44 one of Phelps‟ world records. Phelps admitted that he wasn‟t in the best of shape and would have to get back to training. But it was unclear what events his competitive program would include or whether he would continue to compete beyond the 2012 Olympics in London, when he will be 27. “I told myself I will not swim over the age of 30, and I will not swim over the age of 30,” he said. 50 50 Harris, Beth. “Phelps Is a Fish Out of Water at Winter Olympics.” Associated Press [New York City, New York] 19 Feb. 2010. U.S. Olympic Committee. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.teamusa.org/news/2010/02/19/phelps-is-a-fish- out-of-water-at-winter-olympics/32812>. 45 CHAPTER 2: Strategic Planning Model Until now, this thesis has explored how swimming as a sport evolved and changed to produce a mega-star like Phelps. It will now move on to explore what USA Swimming can and should do to promote the sport when Phelps retires. It assumes that he retires following the 2012 Olympics in London and focuses on efforts leading up to the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. This section employs the strategic public relations planning model utilized at the USC Annenberg School for Communications & Journalism. This section will focus particularly on the situation analysis, key audiences and messages, communications goals and objectives. It will briefly explore the timeline, budget and evaluation sections of the planning model. Statement of the Problem/Opportunity Michael Phelps has become the biggest and most recognized swimmer in the history of the sport. He has earned hundreds of thousands — if not millions — of dollars in endorsements as result of his Olympic accomplishments. Yet what will become of the sport when he retires? “It scares me to death when he‟s going to retire, because I think he‟s going to be missed in many, many ways, obviously from a strength standpoint and an exposure standpoint,” one observer said. 51 Some USA Swimming insiders are hoping that he continues on until 2016, noting that some of his contemporaries, like Ryan Lochte, plan on doing so. “I would do anything and everything to bow down to Michael and keep him involved in the sport, 51 Gaines interview 46 keep him swimming: give him whatever he wants to keep him swimming another four years … Money, I don‟t know. His own meet. A piece of the action. Whatever it would take.” 52 But his retirement is inevitable. How will USA Swimming fill the void created by losing the biggest star it has ever had? Another insider says USA Swimming has not had exactly any discussions about what to do. “I know we‟re always looking for ways to better promote the sport and build the base of swimming. But we haven‟t really talked about what happens when Michael‟s gone,” she said. 53 Others have noted that swimming is cyclical: a new star is produced nearly every Olympics, from Duke Kahanamoku, Johnny Weissmuller and Buster Crabbe to Don Schollander, Mark Spitz and Matt Biondi. Currently, Stanford-bound David Nolan is considered the top rising star after setting three national high school records in March 2011. 54 But not every star is of the same magnitude as Phelps in drawing attention to the sport. Stars like him come along once in a generation; they are dependent on physical talent, personality, and — as history has shown with drug scandals, boycotts and foreign rivals — timing. Are there things that USA Swimming can do to promote the sport while Phelps is still competing? Are there things that it can do to promote the sport in the 52 Ibid 53 Olsen interview 54 Tuscano, John. "PIAA Swimming: Hershey's Run at the 2011 Championships May Never Be Seen Again - PennLive.com." Pennsylvania High School Sports - PennLive.com. 20 Mar. 2011. Web. 28 Mar. 2011. <http://highschoolsports.pennlive.com/news/article/-635875768927760001/piaa-swimming-hersheys-run-at-the-2011- championships-may-never-be-seen-again/>. 47 absence of a megastar like Phelps? If so, USA Swimming can then lay the groundwork to capitalize when the next megastar emerges. Research Toward that end, I have conducted in-person interviews with five people who are involved in some way with the sport of swimming, including Sports Illustrated and New York Times reporters, two former Olympic gold medalists, and USA Swimming‟s communications director. All the interviews took place in August, during either the USA Swimming National Championships or the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. I also conducted an e-mail interview with a former Australian Olympian I met at the Pan Pacific Championships to get an outside perspective on USA Swimming. I also conducted a phone interview with an agent who represents a number of swimmers. In terms of secondary research, I reviewed periodical articles regarding the Olympics, swimming, Michael Phelps and amateur sports. I also obtained information from the International Swimming Hall of Fame, USA Swimming, the U.S. Olympic Committee, and the International Olympic Committee. Situation (SWOTS) Analysis Strengths There are a number of strengths that swimming has in terms of attracting viewers and participants. They include:  USA Swimming bills itself as a very fun activity for families, a place for children to learn how to set goals, practice sportsmanship, make friends 48 and get fit. Many siblings join the swim team together, and it becomes a social activity for the entire family.  USA Swimming oversees one of the most popular sports to watch on TV during the Summer Olympics because of America‟s long history of success. But there are conflicting views about where it ranks. Although they were prohibited from sharing NBC ratings numbers, USA Swimming insiders said the swimming events were second only to gymnastics in popularity. (Figure skating tops both when all Olympic sports are considered.) However, a 2008 USA Today/Gallup Poll found swimming handily beating out track and field and gymnastics as the most popular Olympic sport. 55  USA Swimming always gets a boost in membership in the year following an Olympics. Since 1988, the organization has seen a year-round membership increase of at least 3.8 percent the year after an Olympics. That figure reached double digits twice: in 1993 and 2009. 56  USA Swimming has a built-in audience, with more than 300,000 active members. But that does not include previous generations, a former Olympian said. “I have 26,000 people right here,” he said, holding up a 55 Gallup. Swimming Tops Track as Public's Favorite Olympic Event. Gallup.com. USA Today/Gallup, 7 Aug. 2008. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.gallup.com/poll/109321/Swimming-Tops-Track-Publics-Favorite-Olympic- Event.aspx>. 56 “USA Swimming. “2009 Membership Demographics.” USASwimming.org. USA Swimming. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. <http://usaswimming.org/_Rainbow/Documents/64612691-fb1b-4bde-9d99-81e605725eb0/Statistics- 2009.pdf>. 49 cell phone. “Half of them are 35 to 40. We have a shared experience … so we‟re loyal to it, and we know it. It‟s so precise it‟s like a language. We can speak to each other in grunts and huffs.” 57 In addition, some estimate there are as many as 4 million additional recreational swimmers nationwide. 58  USA Swimming‟s athletes generally have a very wholesome image. Sports fans were more suspicious of athletes in weightlifting, cycling and track and field taking performance-enhancing drugs than they were of swimmers, according to one poll. 59 Swimming also doesn‟t have judging scandals as in gymnastics, figure skating or diving. “Swimming has a really clean image. And you don‟t associate (it), for the most part, (with) the disappointing trends in the sport,” one observer said. 60  USA Swimming has athletes that are great representatives. “We have personable, well-spoken, interesting human beings who are great ambassadors for our sport,” one official said. 61 Although the sport has a 57 Personal interview with Mel Stewart 58 Olsen interview 59 Gallup. Sports Fans Not Suspicious of Steroid Use for Record Breakers. Gallup.com. USA Today/Gallup, 8 Aug. 2008. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.gallup.com/poll/109372/Sports-Fans-Suspicious-Steroid-Use-Record- Breakers.aspx>. 60 Personal interview with Kelli Anderson 61 Olsen Interview 50 country-club image, one former Olympian said, “I think that for the most part our sport is very similar to the average blue-collar worker: there‟s not a lot of money in our sport. Most of these kids out there don‟t make any money. They do it because they love to swim. Some make a lot of money, but most don‟t.” 62  USA Swimming has athletes who are extraordinarily fit and attractive. There is an element of sex appeal that helps make the sport popular. For example, Speedo often uses swimmers it sponsors in marketing catalogs and other promotions. (You can always tell who the real swimmers are, because the female models don‟t have such broad shoulders.) In addition, a few Olympic swimmers like Amanda Beard and Haley Cope have posed for men‟s magazines, including Playboy. But male swimmers also have drawn women to the sport: “It began with Phelps, but it really became (Ryan) Lochte. Lochte really has this following, and it‟s teenagers and college-age girls and (women) up to 30. It‟s gotten bigger. They come to meets, and they scream.” 63 Perhaps as a result, teens favored swimming as their favorite Olympic sport, according to another poll. 64 62 Gaines Interview 63 Stewart interview 64 Harris Interactive. Youth Center of Excellence. Marketers Betting on 2008 Summer Olympics May Benefit From Targeting Teens' Favorite Olympic Sports.HarrisInteractive.com. 6 Aug. 2008. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/PressReleases/tabid/446/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1506/ArticleI d/215/Default.aspx>. 51 Weaknesses Despite its many strengths, USA Swimming has its weaknesses.  It suffers from a low profile. The National Team is in the global spotlight really only once every four years at the Olympics. “A good percentage of the people out there don‟t know there‟s swimming in the other three years … we don‟t have a hometown,” and official said. “We don‟t have an arena where we have season ticket holders. It makes it difficult to stay relevant.” 65 Until Phelps came along, other international competitions were rarely broadcast on TV in the United States. 65 Olsen interview 52  It holds National Championships, but the focus is more on individual stars, rather than teams. Some elite swimmers don‟t even swim on relays; others skip the championships altogether unless they are used to qualify for international competitions. U.S. swimming‟s strength used to lie in its clubs, when overall team membership was about 500,000 swimmers. But that number dropped below 200,000 during the mid-1980s, for reasons that are not fully clear. 66 Colleges replaced clubs as elite training centers. But USA Swimming‟s membership numbers have rebounded above 300,000 in the last decade. 67 Clubs also have regained some prominence again as professionalism was introduced and swimmers skipped college. In addition, the U.S. Olympic Committee designated at least three clubs as elite “Professional and Post-Graduate Training Centers.” 66 Smith, Beverley. “U.S. Swimmers Foundering: Coach.” The Globe and Mail [Toronto, Canada] 5 Nov. 1985. Print. 67 2009 Membership Demographics 53  USA Swimming is formed primarily of middle- to upper-middle class members who are primarily white. Therefore, it does not have broad socio-economic appeal. Nearly six out of 10 African American and Latino children don‟t know how to swim, nearly twice as many as white children, according to the USA Swimming Foundation‟s “Make a Splash” program. 68 African American children drown at nearly double the rate for white children.  It is difficult for USA Swimming to retain membership. Statistics show that participation in swimming peaks at the age of 12. To become an elite international swimmer requires a great commitment of time and energy. Kids these days aren‟t necessarily willing to make that commitment: training can be long and monotonous. “I think swimming more and more has become if you want to be a swimmer, you have to give up the other sports — if you want to be good at it,” one observer said. 69 Some coaches and swimmers believe that training is unnecessarily long and leads to athlete burnout. 70 68 USA Swimming Foundation. “Make a Splash.” USA Swimming Foundation. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://swimfoundation.org/page.aspx?pid=264>. 69 Anderson interview 70 Silver, Michael. Golden Girl: How Natalie Coughlin Fought Back, Challenged Conventional Wisdom, and Became America's Olympic Champion. New York City: Rodale, 2006. Print. 54 Figure 3: USA Swimming 2009 Membership by Age and Gender (Source: USA Swimming)  USA Swimming‟s membership is largest in the Sun Belt, meaning that it does not have broad geographic support or appeal. This is likely because many do not believe the colder climate supports swimming — which would require indoor pools for year-round training — despite the fact that Phelps has trained in Michigan and Maryland. - 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 8 & Under 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19+ Members Ages 2009 USA Swimming Membership By Age Female Male Total 55  USA Swimming is a large organization that covers toddlers who are learning to swim all the way up to professionals. In contrast, baseball is covered by multiple organizations, from Little League, Babe Ruth, American Legion, Pony League, and high school all the way up to Major League Baseball and the NCAA. The National Team makes up a tiny fraction of total USA Swimming membership. “We‟re much more Pop Warner than NFL,” one official said. 71 71 Olsen interview 56  Some believe USA Swimming is complacent about its situation. “There‟s this conceit that, „Swimming is fine, and we‟ve got the best swimmers in the world, and there‟s nothing wrong with this,‟” one observer said. “But, really, the sport isn‟t as big here as it could be.” 72 Others see it as resistant to change and slow to experiment with new and different things, particularly as it related to event production. One observer, who requested anonymity, said USA Swimming failed to capitalize on the successful production of the 2008 Olympic Trials in Omaha and expand it to other meets. This observer attributed this reluctance to powerful, old guard coaches: “They just do the same thing over and over … and if you do anything different, they go and say, „Wait a minute. This has been working for us. Why are we changing now?‟ Change is very difficult, it‟s very hard. Any move to change will probably take place outside of the official lines.” 72 Crouse interview 57  There isn‟t always coordination or communication between USA Swimming, swimmers, their agents, coaches or sponsors in terms of how best to promote the sport and sharing ideas. At times, they have conflicting agendas. The coach wants the swimmer to train, the agent may want the swimmer to do a photo shoot or TV commercial, while USA Swimming may want to promote a meet. “I think a lot of these swimmers are so tightly managed, and the reason is so that they can swim their best,” one long-time observer said. “But, again, I think there is a responsibility to promote the sport always. You can‟t ever stop promoting the sport. And I don‟t think that‟s a priority for most of these athletes.” 73 In addition, it‟s not always possible for USA Swimming to gain cooperation from its possible corporate partners. “Speedo is never going to cooperate with (swimwear competitor) TYR,” one agent said. 74 73 Ibid 74 Personal interview with David Arluck 58  USA Swimming doesn‟t have colorful rivalries like other sports. “There‟s not a white-hate, black-hat personality in there. You know, Michael (Phelps) and Ryan (Lochte) are good friends. (But) we really need them to hate each other, you know?” one swimming insider said, chuckling. 75 Another observer said USA Swimming needs to promote its personalities better. “Because I challenge anyone to spend five minutes with Ryan Lochte and not want to go see him swim and become a big fan of his. He‟s very charismatic. Every time I write about Ryan Lochte, there are all these responses from readers who just think he — they‟re enamored of him. But how many people outside, you know, the readers of those stories and rabid sports fans can tell you who Ryan Lochte is?” 76 Opportunities  Fitness centers often offer swimming pools for exercise, increasing the number of people who might be interested in swimming as a spectator sport, not merely as participants. (I will expand on this and the next two points in the strategy section.)  In addition, people learn to swim or exercise at the American Red Cross, YMCAs or Masters‟ programs. These could create viewers and fans of the sport and — among the children — potential recruits. 75 Gaines interview 76 Crouse interview 59  The popularity of triathlon and water polo also offers opportunities to expand the number of swimming fans.  Technology, in the form of social media and mobile devices, might offer an enhanced experience at swimming meets. It also might allow people to get to know the athletes better. In addition, improving technology might over new camera angles to increase spectators‟ TV viewing experience. Threats  Outside activities compete for young people‟s attention and interest, especially in teens. For some, it‟s an economic decision. For example, it‟s easier to get a basketball and learn how to play at a local gym or park. Skateboarding doesn‟t require as much time, money or commitment. Others might want a more social activity than swimming, which, by its very nature, requires large periods of time in the pool without interaction.  Many colleges have dropped swimming in recent years, because of financial reasons and Title IX, a federal law that requires them to spend money equally on athletic programs for men and women. Because football is the most expensive sport, most colleges offer fewer sports on the men‟s side. For example, UCLA dropped men‟s swimming years ago, despite being in a region where swimming is popular. Among Pac-10 schools, only Arizona, Arizona State, California, Stanford and USC offer men‟s swimming. If this trend continues, it would deprive USA Swimming of an important training and development resource. “You need those 18, 19, 20 60 21 year olds swimming because those basically make up our Olympic team,” an official said. 77  Changes in the media industry have affected coverage of the sport. In the 1970s and early 1980s, both ABC Wide World of Sports and Sports Illustrated would cover annual events like U.S. Swimming or AAU National Championships and the NCAA Swimming Championships. Today, swimming is rarely carried on such major networks, except for Olympics (or when NBC wants to feature someone like Michael Phelps). Sports Illustrated has reduced its swimming coverage. Cable TV and the Internet have offered more specialized channels and platforms that cover swimming, but they do not attract a broader audience as in earlier days. Communications Goals The communication goals are pretty straightforward:  USA Swimming should seek to increase its membership, and, therefore, its base of athletes and potential spectators and ambassadors for the sport. This already is one of its goals, but as I will show later in this paper, I propose to do this in different ways.  As part of the goal of increasing its membership, USA Swimming also should seek to increase its diversity. This would expand and broaden the organization‟s base and make the sport more attractive to groups that USA Swimming traditionally has not drawn from, specifically among African 77 Olsen interview 61 Americans and Latinos It is difficult to get an accurate read on the ethnic makeup of USA Swimming‟s membership, given that more than 44 percent of its year-round athletes declined to identify their ethnicity in 2009. Of those who did report their ethnicity, African Americans form slightly more than 2 percent, Latinos nearly 5.3 percent, and Asians nearly 8.3 percent.  Increase the viewership of and attendance at national/international meets. Objectives  USA Swimming should aim to increase its membership in the post- Olympic year of 2017 by 10 percent. That is less than the 2009 post- Beijing increase, but still achievable, given that membership underwent a double-digit increase in 1993, post Barcelona.  USA Swimming should seek to increase its minority membership by 15 percent in the same time period.  Typically, USA Swimming holds a “Grand Prix” series of swim meets every year. They are held around the country and include the Santa Clara International Invitational and the Janet Evans Invitational at the University of Southern California. Elite swimmers use these competitions as tune ups for the major international competition that summer. These are especially critical in an Olympic year. USA Swimming should seek to increase attendance at these competitions leading up the Olympic Trials in 2016 by 62 10 percent. The organization can establish a baseline from attendance at these competitions in prior Olympic years.  USA Swimming should seek to increase attendance and viewership of the 2016 Olympic Trials by 10 percent. It can establish a baseline from attendance and viewership at prior Olympic Trials. Key Audiences There are a number of key audiences that USA Swimming will want to reach in this campaign: 1. Parents are a target audience, because they help USA Swimming reach its ultimate audience: children. They are the ones who sign their children up for lessons and for the swim team. They pay the membership fees and drive them to swim practices and competitions. They also are the ones who volunteer to run teams and competitions. Minority parents are the ones who should be most concerned about their children accidentally drowning, because they don‟t know how to swim. USA Swimming should pay particular attention to the regions where the Grand Prix meets are held: Minneapolis; Austin, Texas; Columbus, Mo.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Ann Arbor, Mich.; Charlotte, N.C.; and Santa Clara, Calif. These meets are when the star athletes are visible and accessible. They can make a big impression on children and inspire future stars. 2. Children (6 to 12): These are the children who first become involved in swimming, either through lessons or joining a team. If swimming is fun 63 enough, they will continue in the sport. These represent a key target audience of potential members for USA Swimming. 3. Male Teens: This the age group where USA Swimming starts to lose its membership the most. USA Swimming should spend some time researching why, but it is possible that multiple factors are at work. At this age, swimmers may pursue other interests. Teens, especially males, may not perceive swimming as “cool.” Factors behind this attitude may include the long monotonous training they may have to endure and not having a strong team that creates a social network. They also are more likely to use social media. Getting fit and looking good are likely important considerations for this audience. Thus, USA Swimming must focus on retaining teenaged males who are already in the sport. This is a key target audience and ultimate user segment. 4. Women, ages 20-30: This is a group that has become very interested in such male swimmers as Phelps and Ryan Lochte. These women are probably upper middle class, probably college educated (or on the college track) and have some connection or familiarity with swimming. This is a secondary, community audience — one that is less likely to become a swimming participant as much as a spectator. This could have the secondary effect of drawing more men to the sport as well. It could make the sport cool. 5. Middle-aged adults looking to get fit: These also are a secondary audience. These people may not have any personal experience as children with USA 64 Swimming, but they swim with masters‟ programs or at the local community pool or fitness club, because swimming is a low-impact exercise. They probably tend to be college educated and upper middle class, given that they can afford swimming‟s expense. They are more likely to watch swimming on TV during the Olympics because of that. If they have children, they may sign them up for swimming lessons or the swim team. They are another “community” audience that offers potential spectators and fans. 6. Athletes in related sports: People who are interested in water polo, triathlon (and its associated sports, cycling and running), diving and synchronized swimming are natural secondary audiences for swimming. USA Swimming should try to induce these athletes to participate or follow swimming. Associated with water polo also would help retain teenaged males, especially if they feel swimming could help them keep in shape for water polo. Water polo also would give swimmers a mental break from grueling swimming training. These are potential USA Swimming members. 7. Swimming fans and fans of other sports: swimming fans are USA Swimming‟s core audience. These include current or former swimmers. Phelps also showed that it is possible for swimming to attract spectators from other sports. Even sports stars like Kobe Bryant came to watch Phelps. Swimming can get these fans if it can promote the personalities and rivalries in the sport and improve the production values of the competition. 65 8. Sports, Entertainment and Fitness/Health Media: These are the channels that help USA Swimming promote the sport. Sports media will cover the sport, because it is popular during the Olympics. But they will devote even more if the personalities and rivalries are compelling. Entertainment media can help promote the personalities in the sport. Fitness media can also give people a greater appreciation for the work required to become an Olympic champion, but also give more practical pointers for less skilled swimmers. Key Messages This plan could easily identify specific messages for each of the key audiences. But for simplicity‟s sake, this section will include only a few general messages for all age groups. In addition, it will include several messages for specific audience groups. General Messages  Joining a swim team is a great way for children to have fun, make friends, set and achieve goals and learn sportsmanship.  By joining the local swim club, you join USA Swimming and become part of America‟s Swim Team. You‟re part of the same team as America‟s Olympic swimmers. (USA Swimming currently uses this as a message to connect club swimmers with its Olympic stars.)  Swimming is a great exercise that you can do for your entire life. It can help you stay fit and look good. 66 Specific Messages  (Parents, especially minorities) Swimming is a critical skill for your children to learn and to prevent drowning. Drowning is the second-leading cause of accidental death for children ages 1 to 14, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. African-American children ages 5 to 14 drown at more than three times the rate of white children in the same age group.  (Parents, Male Teens) Swimming is a gateway into other sports, like diving, water polo, triathlon modern pentathlon and synchronized swimming.  (Male teens, Women 20-30, Sports Fans) Swimmers are among the most physically fit and attractive athletes in sports, who look good wearing swimwear during competition and training.  (Media, Sports Fans) America‟s elite swimmers are also interesting people outside the pool. They‟ve got different interests and colorful personalities. 67 Strategies Event Strategy Swimming competitions are not the most viewer or spectator-friendly events in sports. “Swimming is very difficult — in its present format — to watch … There are a lot of events, a lot of strokes, not all are fast,” an observer said. 78 USA Swimming needs to make the Grand Prix Series, the National Championships and the Olympic Trials better events. Although there almost always are concession stands, swimming equipment and souvenir vendors, and autograph sessions outside the pool area, the actual pool competition can go rather slowly. There are delays, periods of inactivity, between events, as different heats are contested and awards are presented. In contrast, professional sports have scoreboard displays, videos, cheerleaders, live music and contests to help keep spectators entertained between the action. USA Swimming has experimented with this at recent meets, hiring an Australian events company called Great Big Events to keep people entertained, tossing t-shirts into the crowd, doing interviews broadcast on the scoreboard TVs. 79 In addition, meet organizers did show videos, including a commercial for the “Make a Splash” program. Musicians and cheerleaders also were invited to perform on different days. There were a few contests for spectators with mobile 78 Arluck interview 79 Olsen interview 68 phones. USA Swimming and meet organizers should expand upon these efforts, especially with the increasing use of wireless devices and social media. The goal should be to make the event as high-energy, interactive, exciting and entertaining as possible. USA Swimming must consider changing the meet format to make things more interesting. Currently, an event at a national meet will have bonus finals, consolation finals and then the championship finals. This format gives elite swimmers more time to recover if they are swimming more than one event a day. It also gives up-and-coming swimmers another chance to swim after the preliminaries. But it taxes the patience and attention span of those who go to the meets just to see the stars. USA Swimming should consider different formats that would make the meet more entertaining and exciting — that keep spectators‟ attention. To make the TV viewing experience better, USA Swimming should consider investing in and experimenting with new technology that would allow innovative camera angles to cover races. Track and field became much more visually captivating when NBC introduced the trackside camera that ran at the same pace as the track athletes. As one USA Swimming insider said, “The sport is only as exciting as how tight I am on you … You can‟t appreciate swimming unless you‟re right at the water line, and you‟re seeing someone come right at 69 you, or you‟re moving with them. 80 Perhaps some small cameras could catch swimming races at water level in each lane and from the side. In addition, USA Swimming should consider expanding its efforts to publicize its meets. “We do very, very little traditional advertising. We‟re a nonprofit,” an official said. “We‟re a nonprofit. We just don‟t have the budget to buy full-page ads and that kind of thing.” 81 Currently, local meet organizers from the host club are responsible for publicizing the meet. For example, the Irvine Novaquatics swim club served as hosts for last year‟s USA Swimming ConocoPhillips National Championships and the Mutual of Omaha Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. Among the promotional measures it took was to hang banners from the streetlight poles on the street outside the aquatic center. USA Swimming itself relied on the news media covering the competition to promote the event. But as one outsider observed, the meet appeared to draw mainly people who were either competing or knew someone personally who was competing. The event drew few, if any, people from outside the swimming community. Host clubs admittedly have limited funding and public relations expertise, but they should consider ways of reaching outside the swimming community and inviting people to watch America‟s best swimmers compete. For example, the observer pointed out, meet organizers could have arranged for Michael Phelps to throw out the first 80 Stewart interview 81 Olsen interview 70 pitch at a Los Angeles Dodgers game as a way of telling Southern Californians that the best swimmer in history would compete in Irvine. 82 USA Swimming also must carefully consider where it chooses to hold its meets, such as Olympic Trials. Although Michael Phelps and many Olympians were competing in Irvine last summer, the swim meets did not appear to draw many Southern Californians from outside the swimming community. Swimming is “not a huge draw as a spectator sport. Like soccer, lots of families are involved in it. But that doesn‟t seem to translate into huge spectator numbers who aren‟t related to the swimmers somehow,” a long-time observer said. 83 Although Southern California is an ideal climate for swimming, it may not be an ideal location for swimming meets: there are just too many activities that they have to compete against for spectator interest and media coverage, another observer said. 84 A Midwestern location like those in the Grand Prix Series may draw more outsiders, because there are fewer activities competing for people‟s time and media coverage. 82 Crouse interview 83 Anderson interview 84 Crouse interview 71 Athlete Strategy USA Swimming, agents and coaches need to find ways to promote their swimmers‟ personalities, which is essential in marketing and endorsements. They need to recognize that each swimmer is different. For example, Olympian Amanda Beard posed in Playboy. Not every female swimmer would feel comfortable doing that, and such a pictorial can sometimes draw criticism. Another Olympian, Natalie Coughlin, enjoys cooking and fine wine, something she demonstrated on the NBC “Today” show during the Olympics. (She also competed on “Dancing with the Stars.”) What if she participated in a reality TV cooking show, perhaps as a judge? The important thing is finding something that swimmers enjoy doing and identifying promotional or endorsement opportunities that could go along with it. Perhaps they could blog about it. Another possible option is creating a reality TV show. This would allow swimmers to show their personalities, demonstrate just how hard they train, and go behind the scenes on a particular rivalry. This would generate more fans of the sport. Grand Prix Strategy USA Swimming has a “Grand Prix” series, and it offers $20,000 to the swimmer — male or female — who wins the most events during the series. USA Swimming should focus its efforts on promoting these events. As previously noted, most of the elite swimmers participate in these meets, so there isn‟t much of a scheduling conflict. USA Swimming and agents should create opportunities 72 for their athletes to reach out to audiences outside the swimming community in the regions where these competitions are held. For example, what if Michael Phelps and Cullen Jones — one of the swimming‟s few African American stars — took part of a day before (or after) the Santa Clara International Invitational to give minority kids from the poverty-stricken neighborhood of East Palo Alto a swimming lesson? Or what if they raced for fun against local swimmers who were given handicaps or head starts? These could generate headlines, enhance the stars‟ appeal, and possibly inspire some children to participate in swimming. Create a Match-Race Sprint Series Swimming hasn‟t really had high-profile match races since Biondi and Jager faced off. There is talk about forming an athletes‟ league, according to one swimming insider. This league or swimmers‟ agents should consider creating a very exclusive racing event or circuit. It should get back to the basics: the general public can understand 50-meter sprints. It should include the biggest names in swimming, people like Ryan Lochte and Michael Phelps, perhaps some international stars like Australia‟s Eamon Sullivan, France‟s Alain Bernard and Brazil‟s Cesar Cielo. It could take place during the winter, outside the traditional swimming season, and it should offer sizeable cash prizes. With such big names, perhaps organizers could convince NBC to show these races live before Sunday Night Football. This would help NBC promote the Olympics and ensure that it gets on TV. Alternatively, swimming could link it with other sports involving speed. Imagine if these match sprint races were held on the same weekend and 73 TV network and in the same region as the Indianapolis 500, the Daytona 500 or one of the Triple Crown horse races? People can relate to speed — and they would get speed. Clinic/Water Safety Strategy Olympic swimmers have long conducted tours where they have conducted swimming clinics. Typically, they have visited swimming clubs, taught a lesson, swam with or against children and then signed autographs and posed for photos. These sessions can be arranged by agents and underwritten by a sponsor. But swimmers should consider expanding their clinics from beyond the traditional swimming club to other audiences that may be equally receptive to the sport. For example, there are many masters‟ swimming teams, fitness clubs and triathlon teams that might be interested in learning from and meeting Olympic swimmers at a clinic. This would promote the sport and its athletes, and gain potential fans and participants. In addition, USA Swimming could expand the “Make a Splash” program that reaches out to minority children and teaches them how to swim and avoid drowning. USA Swimming could expand the clinic campaign to include the YMCA, American Red Cross and Boy Scouts. Again, this would promote the sport and its athletes, and gain potential fans and participants, especially among minority communities that USA Swimming should target. 74 Retired Olympic Star Strategy Even though Olympic stars retire, they can still serve as an ambassador for the sport. Aaron Peirsol swam in three Olympics and won five gold medals and two silvers, but he recently retired. He could fill this role. Phelps already has said he plans to remain involved in swimming even after he retires. He has bought a pool and established a foundation to promote water safety and swimming. Although he won‟t have the same cachet as if he were competing, he is still a recognizable figure who could help promote USA Swimming and the sport. Phelps could continue to hold clinics and do public speaking engagements for the sport. He could have a role in TV and online productions. USA Swimming should find a role for Phelps and Peirsol to help continue promoting the sport. Although people outside the sport may forget some of their accomplishments, retired stars could help retain people within the sport, especially teen males who could relate with Phelps and Peirsol. Granted, there are limitations. “When Mark Spitz shows up at a meet, it‟s great. We love it, but it‟s not the same as when you‟re in the pool,” an observer said. 85 85 Gaines interview 75 Tactics Pre-meet Promotion USA Swimming and the swim clubs hosting the Grand Prix meets and National Championships should include public appearances in promoting competitions. For example, the Santa Clara Swim Club hosts the Santa Clara International Grand Prix. An international star like Michael Phelps could make and appearance with one of the Santa Club team‟s stars, like Courtney Monsees, at a Silicon Valley business association, a chamber of commerce meeting, or throw out the first pitch at a San Francisco Giants baseball game. Their appearance would serve to announce to sports fans outside swimming that America‟s best swimmers are competing in town. They can see the best swimmer in history in Phelps, while also supporting local stars like Monsees, as she pursues Olympic dreams. Again, this would expand swimming‟s appeal outside its own, insular community. Format Changes USA Swimming should consider making changes to the meet format, so that the event is more exciting and holds people‟s interest longer, especially those who are new to the sport. The organization holds the Grand Prix series of meets, which include monthly competitions at various locations from January through June. Typically, finals are held in the evening session for the eight fastest qualifiers in each event. However, these sessions include consolation and bonus 76 finals in each event, allowing other swimmers another chance to race. These are held before the final in each event. Table 8: Current Grand Prix/National Championship Meet Format Women's 200-meter free bonus final Women's 200-meter free consolation final Women's 200-meter free final Men's 200-meter free bonus final Men's 200-meter free consolation final Men's 200-meter free final Women's 100-meter breast bonus final Women's 100-meter breast consolation final Women's 100-meter breast final Men's 100-meter breast bonus final Men's 100-meter breast consolation final Men's 100-meter breast final Women's 100-meter butterfly bonus final Women's 100-meter butterfly consolation final Women's 100-meter butterfly final Men's 100-meter butterfly bonus final Men's 100-meter butterfly consolation final Men's 100-meter butterfly final Women's 400-meter individual medley bonus final Women's 400-meter individual medley consolation final Women's 400-meter individual medley final Men's 400-meter individual medley bonus final Men's 400-meter individual medley consolation final Men's 400-meter individual medley final Women's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 1 Women's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 2 Men's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 1 Men's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 2 77 This makes spectators wait to see the fastest swimmers, generally the Olympic- caliber competitors. The event might be more exciting if the finals for each event were held first, and the consolation and bonus finals were held afterward. “So it‟s like you make it a big show … (it) goes from race, to race, to race,” one observer said. 86 Since this public relations plan begins in 2013, there is time to experiment with different formats before the next Olympics in 2016 and see what works the best. 86 Stewart interview 78 Table 9: Alternative Swim Meet Format Women's 200-meter free final Men's 200-meter free final Women's 100-meter breast final Men's 100-meter breast final Women's 100-meter butterfly final Men's 100-meter butterfly final Women's 400-meter individual medley final Men's 400-meter individual medley final Women's 200-meter free bonus final Women's 200-meter free consolation final Men's 200-meter free bonus final Men's 200-meter free consolation final Women's 100-meter breast bonus final Women's 100-meter breast consolation final Men's 100-meter breast bonus final Men's 100-meter breast consolation final Women's 100-meter butterfly bonus final Women's 100-meter butterfly consolation final Men's 100-meter butterfly bonus final Men's 100-meter butterfly consolation final Women's 400-meter individual medley bonus final Women's 400-meter individual medley consolation final Men's 400-meter individual medley bonus final Men's 400-meter individual medley consolation final Women's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 1 Women's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 2 Men's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 1 Men's 4 x 100-meter freestyle relay Heat 2 In-meet Entertainment Swimming is an event that happens in fits and starts. There are interludes between events, when competitors finish and get out of the pool. The winners are 79 sometimes interviewed live on deck by a network TV reporter. There are medal ceremonies for the finalists. Then the next heat emerges from the ready room and parades out onto the deck. The swimmers are introduced, and then step up on the blocks. There needs to be some sort of entertainment to keep spectators‟ attention between events. Football and basketball have live bands and cheerleaders. USA Swimming should hire live musical groups to perform in between events or comedians/emcees to entertain the crowd and keep their attention. These groups could include celebrity entertainers like George Lopez and Jimmy Fallon or local performers, both of whom could draw additional spectators from outside the swimming community to the meets. Texting and Social Media Contests Social media is becoming an increasingly popular way to engage fans, especially with the proliferation of mobile/wireless devices. It also is a way to keep them entertained and occupied during sporting events. Frequently, professional sports events have some sort of contest involving texting. USA Swimming already uses it to a limited extent at national competitions. It should increase the usage, employing trivia and photo contests. Meet organizers also should invite fans to upload photos onto USA Swimming‟s Facebook page. This would help make swimming meets more entertaining and fun and keep spectators engaged. 80 Improving Camera Angle/Technology Camera angles are important part of any TV or video broadcast. USA Swimming should seek to create new cameras to provide unique perspectives for TV and online viewers, making swimming a more interesting sport to watch. For example, swimming officials could help develop cameras that run the length of the pool at water level, giving viewers‟ the swimmers perspective. Other cameras could be fitted into the electronic touch-pads at the end of each lane, giving the view of the swimmer coming into the wall. If cameras were light and small enough, swimmers could wear them, giving TV and video viewers another unique angle. Create a reality TV show starring Ryan Lochte By 2013, Ryan Lochte could replace Michael Phelps as the most successful and popular American swimmer, especially if Phelps retires as expected after the London Olympics. He also is, by most accounts, a very charismatic figure to whom women are attracted. USA Swimming or Lochte‟s agent should seek to create a reality TV show that gives sports fans (and women) a chance to get to know him. This would also show just how hard Olympic- caliber swimmers train and how fit they are. And it could create some insight into swimming rivalries. Ideally, a network like ESPN or NBC (since NBC has carried the Olympics) would broadcast this reality show. Shooting would begin in 2015, just after the FINA World Championships concludes and as training for the 2016 81 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro begins in earnest. This would have the potential of expanding swimming‟s appeal beyond the sport. Pitching Stories USA Swimming should begin pitching stories about its swimmers and rising stars and the major international competition for that year. For example, Missy Franklin is a rising star this season. She is just 15, but she won three events within 30 minutes at the Austin Grand Prix meet in January. Franklin also recorded a 59.75 in the 100-meter backstroke, an unheard of time for someone her age this early in the season. Agents should pitch stories promoting their swimmers and their personalities. In addition, USA Swimming should pitch its swimmers for stories in fitness TV and print publications. This would show how hard they work and how fit they are. They can show various exercises and drills they use in training, including dry land programs. The best time to pitch these stories is for publication and broadcast at the end of the year, when people begin think about New Year‟s resolutions and getting in shape after the holidays. Matched-Race Sprints Swimming needs an event that shows the glamorous side of the sport and its rivalries. Fifty-meter sprints are the most glamorous and easily understood of all the sport‟s events. Therefore, USA Swimming should create a sprinting event/circuit that educates America about its swimming stars. Only a select few would compete in a match-race format. In the ideal situation, NBC Sports could 82 show these races at halftime of Sunday Night Football, assuming NBC continues to hold the broadcast rights for the Olympics and Sunday Night Football. Alternatively, USA Swimming could sponsor an event held in conjunction with the Indianapolis 500, the Daytona 500 or a Triple Crown horse race. With the aid of sponsors, the event could offer prize money to the winner. Water Safety/Swimming Clinics USA Swimming needs to cast itself and its stars as the swimming experts. To that end, it should support water safety and swimming instruction clinics. It should extend its “Make a Splash” program to teach minority children how to swim and prevent drowning; it should include Olympians in this outreach role. It should form partnerships with the YMCA and the American Red Cross, where Olympians and National Team members put on swimming clinics for children. This would help increase the fan base and add potential new USA Swimming members. 24 Hour Fitness is a U.S. Olympic sponsor that has swimming pools at many of its gyms. Many people swim at these gyms, but aren‟t the most skilled or knowledgeable about working out. Most have never participated in a swimming team. If an Olympic or National Team swimmer held clinics at 24 Hour Fitness, it could increase the fitness club‟s membership and USA Swimming‟s fan base. USA Swimming should also seek support from related sports organization involved in triathlon, water polo, synchronized swimming and diving. Swimming has traditional served as a gateway to these other sports. USA Swimming could host joint clinics or camps where current or former Olympians teach children how 83 to improve swimming skills, as well as learn water polo, synchronized swimming and diving. This would give children a chance to experiment and see which sports they like, while also improving their swimming skill. It also might increase the chances that children — especially teens — stay with swimming, or at least remain fans. Triathlon is another sport where USA Swimming could expand its fan base. Many triathletes come from running and bicycling backgrounds, and they don‟t necessarily have the swimming skill or training experience. USA Swimming‟s distance and open-water swimming stars could hold clinics for them on how to improve their form and training. This would expand swimming‟s fan base. Timeline This plan is based on the four-year period leading up to the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. The National Team competes in one major international competition each year during the summer. Here are the competitions in the four-year cycle leading to the 2016 Olympics: 2013 — FINA World Championships 2014 — Pan Pacific Championships 2015 — FINA World Championships 2016 — Olympics 84 USA Swimming has an annual Grand Prix series of meets around the country that lead up to the major international competition of the year. Typically, National Team members use these meets as part of their training preparation for the international competition. Most of the athlete promotion and event changes strategies would center on this time frame. The schedule is generally as follows:  January: Austin (Texas) Grand Prix  February: Missouri Grand Prix  March: Indianapolis Grand Prix  April: Michigan Grand Prix  May: Charlotte Ultraswim Grand Prix  June: Santa Clara International Grand Prix. The swimming clinic strategy would take place primarily in the summer, with the exception of the 24 Hour Fitness partnership. That would take place at the end and beginning of the calendar year to take advantage of people pursuing New Year‟s resolutions to get fit. The reality TV tactic would not take place until the latter half of 2015 and continue on into the following Olympic year. Budget The most expensive parts of this plan are the reality TV show and creating the new racing/sprinting circuit. Both are expected to cost in the hundreds of thousands of dollars, which would require corporate sponsors. Most of the event change strategies won‟t cost much money. However, the text/social-media contests would require prize donations from sponsors. In addition, the 85 camera angles/technology would require USA Swimming to invest money — perhaps in the tens of thousands of dollar — to hire expertise and experiment. The swimming clinic strategies would require some funding. The other organizations that partner with USA Swimming could help pick up the cost. USA Swimming could reduce some of its costs by having its swimmers lead clinics within the region where they train. For example, Olympians Caroline Burckle, Katie Hoff and Kate Ziegler, all train at the Fullerton Aquatics Sports Team. They could hold clinics at various locations throughout Southern California without major disruptions to their training schedule or incurring excessive expenses. Evaluation This plan will take place over a four-year timeframe. The most important statistics will come in 2016 and 2017. These are attendance at and TV viewership of the U.S. Olympic Trials; TV viewership Olympic swimming events; number and quality of social media mentions; and post-Olympic membership growth at USA Swimming, especially growth in minority membership. USA Swimming can use the 2012 Olympic year as the base measurement. It also can take interim measurements in the preceding years (2013- 15), in terms of membership increases as a result of the clinic program, and attendance/viewership of swimming events like the Grand Prix and Nationals. Based on measurements in this interim period, USA Swimming can make adjustments as needed to this strategic plan. 86 CONCLUSION USA Swimming is experiencing a golden age with its most popular athlete ever in Michael Phelps. But all good things inevitably come to an end, and Phelps will retire from the sport some day. Although history indicates that another star will emerge, USA Swimming cannot count on someone of Phelps‟ caliber appearing immediately. A physical talent like a Spitz or Phelps comes once in a generation, and even then athletes need personality and good timing to become stars. USA Swimming should plan for Phelps‟ eventual departure and develop strategies to promote the sport in the absence of a megastar. This would also position the organization to take advantage of the promotional opportunities when the next megastar does emerge. USA Swimming is doing some good things to promote the sport currently, such as the “Make a Splash” program to prevent drowning; improving the fan experience at major competitions; and creating the “America‟s Swim Team” marketing/branding effort that connects age group swimmers with Olympic stars. But it could do more. USA Swimming needs to take a strategic approach, looking at its strengths and weaknesses. It needs to define its goals and develop a plan to reach them. It also needs to take some risks and try new and different approaches. 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This interview took place in August 2010 at the USA Swimming National Championships in Irvine, Calif.  David Arluck is the founder and president of Arluck Promotions, a sports marketing company that represents athletes. He has represented more than 20 current and former Olympic swimmers and swimming coaches, including Matt Biondi, Mel Stewart, Jenny Thompson and Gary Hall Jr. This interview took place by telephone on Oct. 7, 2010.  Karen Crouse is a sports reporter for The New York Times, where she has covered swimming and professional football. Previously, she worked for The Palm Beach Post, The Los Angeles Daily News and Swimming World magazine. She is a graduate of the University of Southern California. One of her teammates was Teri McKeever, who is now the women‟s swimming coach at the University of California and the 2012 U.S. Olympic women‟s swimming coach. This interview took place in August 2010 at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine, Calif.  Rowdy Gaines was a triple gold medalist in swimming at the 1984 Olympics. He also was a former world and American record holder in the 100-meter and 200- meter freestyles and a member of the 1980 U.S. Olympic Team. He was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1995. Gaines serves as color commentator for NBC/Universal Sports‟ swimming coverage and also has worked for USA Swimming. The interview took place on August 2010 at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine, Calif.  Jamie Fabos Olsen is the communications director for USA Swimming. She oversees publications and media relations for the agency, which is the national 97 governing body for the sport. Before joining USA Swimming, she worked in media relations for a number of minor-league hockey teams. The interview took place in August 2010 at the USA Swimming National Championships in Irvine, Calif.  Mel Stewart is a two-time U.S. Olympic swimmer (1988, 1992). He was the 1992 gold medalist and world-record holder in the 200-meter butterfly. Stewart was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 2002. He currently works as a consultant for the USA Swimming Foundation and writes the “Gold Medal Mel” blog. This interview took place August 2010 at the USA Swimming National Championships in Irvine, Calif.  Libby (Lenton) Trickett is a two-time Australian Olympic swimmer (2004, 2008). She won three gold, one silver and two bronze medals in her career. She retired after the Beijing Games, only to announce a comeback in 2010. This interview took place by email, with Trickett responding on Sept. 14, 2010.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Michael Phelps has become the greatest star in swimming history after winning eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, breaking the 36-year-old record of seven that Mark Spitz held. His performance brought unprecedented attention to the sport, with millions watching on TV around the world. It created a surge in membership in USA Swimming. But Phelps has said he plans to retire after the 2012 Olympics in London. What will happen with the sport then? How can USA Swimming continue to draw participants and spectators without its most famous star? This thesis examines the evolution and developments in the sport that helped produce Phelps

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lee, Daniel (author)

Core Title Beyond Michael Phelps: How can USA swimming promote the sport in the post-Phelps era?

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/04/2011

Defense Date 05/04/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Communications,Michael Phelps,OAI-PMH Harvest,Olympics,Public Relations,Sports,Swimming,USA Swimming

Place Name USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Wang, Jay (Jian) (committee chair), Durbin, Daniel (committee member), Kotler, Jonathan (committee member)

Creator Email dlee1019@gmail.com,lee92@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3904

Unique identifier UC1220841

Identifier etd-Lee-4555 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-471199 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3904 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Lee-4555.pdf

Dmrecord 471199

Document Type Thesis

Rights Lee, Daniel

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu