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Exploring the effects of media on the self-concepts and achievement of African American high school students

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Exploring the effects of media on the self-concepts and achievement of African American high school students

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EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA ON THE SELF-CONCEPTS AND
ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRICAN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

by
Jaclyn D. Conner

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2007

Copyright 2007 Jaclyn D. Conner
ii
Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Dexter Conner, who supported
me through the process and sincerely believes in the betterment of media content and
is committed to presenting quality characters on the big and small screen. I also
dedicate this dissertation to my grandparents for exposing me to great things at a
young age and allowing me to dream big.
iii
Acknowledgements
First I must give honor and thanks to Jesus Christ, my Lord and Savior for
the strength and discipline to make it to this point in my life and career.
This project would not have been completed without the outstanding support
of my husband, Dexter Conner, who encouraged me every day through the years of
research and would check on me as I stared at the computer screen for hours; and my
parents, grandparents, brother, sister-in law, nephew, cousins, all of my in-laws,
other family members, and especially my Grandmama, Jeanette Graham, and
Granddaddy, Charles B. Graham, who were a tremendous help to me during my data
collection process in Memphis, Tennessee. I also must thank my classmates, friends,
co-workers, and supervisors for allowing me to laugh, vent, take time off work, and
breathe in order to get this study completed.
I also must acknowledge my chair, Dr. Michael Genzuk, for all of his
guidance and advice, and my committee members, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores and Dr.
Dennis Hocevar. They both provided outstanding input and strengthened the study
with their feedback and direction. I must also thank Dr. Joel Colbert, Dr. Ray Baca,
and the entire faculty at the Rossier School of Education for their direction and
support. In addition to my committee and the faculty, I sincerely appreciated the
outstanding principals and teachers who willingly allowed me to come into their
schools and classrooms to collect the data.
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose of the Study 5
The Importance of the Study 7
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions 8
Definitions 9
Theoretical Framework 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
Media Theories 14
Media and Their Effects 25
Research to Explore 53
Chapter 3: Methodology 57
Purpose of Study 57
Sample and Population 59
Data Collection Procedures 62
Data Analysis Procedures 63
Limitations and Delimitations 65
Ethical Considerations 66
Summary of Methodology 67
v
Chapter 4: Results 68
Television Viewing Habits 68
Television Viewing and Self-Concepts 74
Television Viewing and Achievement 78
Summary of Results 83
Chapter 5: Discussion 85
Implications 87
Limitations and Recommendations 89
Future Research 90
Conclusion 91
References 92
Appendices 99
Appendix A: Sample Letter to Principals 99
Appendix B: Parental Consent Form 100
Appendix C: Survey 103

vi
List of Tables

Table 3.1: Piers-Harris 2 Reliability Statistics 65
Table 3.2: Television Viewing Habits Reliability Statistics 65
Table 4.1: Prime Time Television Viewing Frequency 71
Table 4.2: Self-concept and Television Viewing Correlations 75
Table 4.3: Self-concept and Television Viewing for Six or More Hours a Week 77
Table 4.4: Achievement – GPA and Grades 78
Table 4.5: Grade Point Average (GPA) and Television Viewing Correlations 80
Table 4.6: GPA and Television Viewing for Six or More Hours a Week 82

vii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Shrum’s (2002) Cultivation Analysis Model

Figure 3.1: Correlation Analysis and One-way Analysis of Variance

17

64

viii
Abstract
Television is a medium that transmits messages to mass audiences daily.
African American adolescents view more television than any other demographic
group. Historically a disparity in educational achievement has existed among
African American students and White students, but there are few studies that have
examined the impact of television on this disparity.
This study explores the amount of television that is viewed by African
American adolescents and its relation to their academic achievement and self-
concept. The purpose of the study is to determine whether a significant correlation
exists between television viewing and academic success of African American high
school students and their self-concept. The results compare the variables of gender,
socio-economic status, and mainstream viewing versus minority-oriented viewing in
the correlation findings.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Media has a strong impact on the minds of those who choose to consume it.
This pertains to a majority of Americans, who are now viewing television in
enormous amounts compared to ever before (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit,
n.d.; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002; Nielsen Media
Research, 2005b). The average American physically consumes over four hours of
television per day (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit, n.d.; Gerbner et al., 2002;
Kubey, 2004; Nielsen Media Research, 2005b) and the television is technically on,
watched or not, for over 7.5 hours a day (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit,
n.d.; Gerbner et al., 2002; Nielsen Media Research, 2005b). Television methods
bombard our youth who spend more time watching television than actual hours
learning in school (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit, n.d.; Gerbner, Gross,
Morgan, & Signorielli, 1986; Stroman, 1991).
Television is an extremely potent medium that sends messages to the masses.
Some viewers adopt these messages, others reject them (Fujioka, 1999), or store
them in memory and refer to them when reality presents the opportunity for their use
(Shrum, 2002). This single medium, which often consists of only five major
networks for non-cable owners, can create a modified reality and cultural acceptable
norms for society at large (Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002). Americans
rely on television to inform them of world, national, and local events, provide
updates on pop-culture’s expectations and latest trends, confirm or introduce
accepted behaviors and ideologies, and present entertainment on a daily basis. For
2
many Americans, television constructs realities and truths about others and about
themselves. People tend to value and measure themselves against the norms of the
small screen (Gerbner et al., 1986). What is fascinating about this medium is that it
has become ubiquitous in our daily routines; it lives in almost two rooms in every
household and portrays to us how to live and function (Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-
Ewoldsen, & Dillman Carpentier, 2002). The focus of this study is to analyze
educational effects of television on Americans, specifically, African American youth
morals, philosophies, and acceptable behaviors.
Adolescents and Television
Adolescents, in general, rely on television as a source of entertainment and as
a tool for explaining social behavior in what maturing young people deem as
uncomfortable and unfamiliar situations. Television, music, magazines are all media
that mold our youth and communicate answers to questions that some adolescents
feel awkward discussing with older adults (Signorielli, 1997). The methods in which
television characters solve problems, handle dating situations, and interact with
friends explain to adolescents how to maneuver such situations. When an adolescent
is comparing himself or herself to fictional and non-fictional characters, who are
typically glamorized in some fashion, expectations of reality can become warped and
misconstrued. With African American youth, this is even more of a concern because
of the handicapping obstacles they already face as minorities in America (Fordham,
1988; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).

3
African American Adolescents and Television
African American youth are the primary consumers of television, watching
more television than White adolescents (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit,
n.d.; Ward, 2004; Ward, Hansbrough, & Walker, 2005). Television shows easily
influence these African American youth, who watch and rely on television to
validate their understanding of the world, their peers, and themselves (Ward, 2004).
The Black characters that television portrays appear primarily on situation comedies
and crime shows (Greenberg, Mastro, & Brand, 2002; UCLA, 2002). In addition,
the depictions of these characters prove to be stereotypical in nature and perpetuate
negative views of African Americans (Mastro & Greenberg, 2000). The amount of
television options may be bountiful in regards to channels and shows; however, the
contents of the messages are not varied and most television viewers select from a
miniscule variety of options (Gerbner et al., 1986).
In the U.S. in the year 2000, less than 20% of the characters on television
were African American and most of them played blue collar, comedic, stereotypical
roles (Greenberg et al., 2002; UCLA, 2002). The scarcity of successful, traditional,
religious characters for African American actors to portray cannot offset the
criminal, sacrilegious, unsuccessful characters who dominate Black roles. African
American youth internalize and adopt such negative imagery because these messages
often confirm other negative social messages. African American youth frequently
view music videos and sports shows, genres of entertainment which often demean
women and glorify a lifestyle that is generally unattainable by most Americans
4
(Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005). With limited role models on television and
messages of inferiority spread throughout the African American community, there
exists a concern about how television is affecting the minds of African American
youth.
Other Factors
Television is not the only factor molding the minds of African American
youth. Parental goals, socioeconomic status, community role models, and educators
all participate in the shaping of African American youth (Arroyo, & Zigler, 1995;
Conner, 2005; Viadero & Johnston, 2000). However, authorities frequently blame
television as the source of adolescent insecurities and failures in school (Hansen &
Hansen, 2000). African American students are not reaching the same academic
levels of success as their White counterparts (US Census Bureau, 2004b). Studies
attribute the disparity to socioeconomic status, single parenting, and education status
of the parent, yet television’s role in this disparity is unclear.
Statement of the Problem
Despite efforts to close the achievement gap between African American
students and White students, the disparity in academic performance still exists
(Viadero & Johnston, 2000). Given the fact that African American students watch
an enormous amount of television (Facts and Figures About Our TV Habit, n.d.;
Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005), significant studies have yet to determine how much
(if at all) television is contributing to the achievement gap (Ball, Palmer, &
Millward, 1986). Other factors, such as lack of parental involvement or
5
socioeconomic challenges are contributions to the gap (Conner, 2005; Viadero &
Johnston, 2000); however, the impact of television in relation to these factors has not
been determined (Stroman, 1991).
Another factor that may relate to the achievement gap is that African
American students are being led to believe that academic achievement does not
automatically lead to success (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995), especially the type of success
demonstrated on television. These hindrances may influence the beliefs of African
American students and could affect their performance in the classroom.
In order to reduce the achievement gap for African American students, it
appears that understanding the correlations between television viewing and student
achievement would be beneficial.
Purpose of the Study
This study explores the amount of television that is viewed by African
American adolescents and its relation to their academic achievement. The purpose
of the study is to learn whether a correlation exists between television and academic
success of African American high school students and what factors influence the
correlation. The research questions explored are:
1. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the self-concepts
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11th grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
6
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and self-concept?
2. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the achievement
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11th grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and achievement?
The study incorporates a quantitative study that includes a survey collecting
demographic information about race, gender, socioeconomic levels, academic
achievement, selection of television shows and the amount of television viewed and
study measuring levels of self-concept. The hypotheses to the research questions
are:
1. Television viewing is negatively correlated to self-concepts.
a. There is a greater statistical significance for females than males.
b. There is a greater statistical significance for low socio-economic
status students than middle to high socio-economic status students.
7
c. The viewing of minority-oriented media is positively correlated to
self-concepts.
2. Television viewing is negatively correlated to achievement.
a. There is a greater statistical significance for males than females.
b. There is a greater statistical significance for low socio-economic
status students than middle to high socio-economic status students.
c. The viewing of minority-oriented media is negatively correlated to
achievement.
The Importance of the Study
This study is important for the body of research that addresses the
educational needs of African American students. It is not merely of theoretical
interest; if a model could be constructed that explained television’s impact on
African American high school students, it may be possible to construct strategies to
assist this traditionally at risk population. Little is known about the impact of media
on minority youth (Ward, 2004) and few studies of television focus on African
American children and adolescents directly (Stroman, 1991). The results of this
study inform parents, educators, policymakers, and television show creators about
the impact of television on African American youth.
Parents and others could benefit from understanding how certain television
shows affect their children’s thoughts and self-concepts and how it relates to their
schoolwork. Educators could be informed so that they can understand the concepts
students are being exposed to and adjust teaching styles and curricula to address the
8
needs of the students. Policymakers could be made aware of the study’s results so
that school policies and federal regulations can protect our students, if there is a
negative relationship between television and school achievement. Finally, television
show creators must be knowledgeable of how shows and storylines impact youth and
society as a whole.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
The anticipated limitations in the study were finding students and parents
who would complete the survey and self-concept measurement. Some parents may
be reluctant to allow their children to participate in fear of being measured or
evaluated. The consent forms explained the nature of the study and the minimal
risks; however, some parents chose to not allow their children to partake.
Delimitations in the study were the sample size and selection of the sample.
A purposeful sample was used, which included African American 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11th
graders. Ninth, tenth, and eleventh graders were selected due to their developing
minds and growing maturity level and age. The sample was from students in the
southern state of Tennessee. A southern state was selected since the majority of
African Americans live in the south (McKinnon, 2002), and time did not permit the
collection of data in other southern states or other states in America.
The assumptions were that 30% of the targeted population of students would
participate in the survey.
9
Definitions
Fictive kinship – “a kinship-like connection between and among persons in a society,
not related by blood or marriage, who have maintained essential reciprocal social or
economic relationships.” (Fordham, 1988, p. 56)
Impression Management - Impression management is used by minorities to manage
one’s behavior in the presences of others that are not a part of the group (Richeson &
Pollydor, 2002, p. 263)
Mainstreaming - “Mainstreaming represents the theoretical elaboration and empirical
verification of our assertion that television cultivates common perspectives.”
(Gerbner et al., 1986, p. 31)
Racelessness – “the desired and eventual outcome of developing a raceless persona,
and is either a conscious or unconscious effort on the part of such students to
disaffiliate themselves from the fictive-kinship system described above.” (Fordham,
1988, p. 57)
Theoretical Framework
There are various theories that relate to the impact of media on the viewers
who consume smaller amounts of television to those who consume a heavier amount
of television. These theories explain the diverse ways in which television may
influence a viewer and his or her behavior as a result of consumption. The purpose
of this section is to present the Cultivation Theory, which serves as the theoretical
framework of the argument, and other theories, the Drench Hypothesis and Social
Cognitive and Social Identity theory, which either compliment or counter the
10
cultivation theory (Berkowitz & Rogers, 1986; Fujioka, 1999; Gerbner et al., 1986;
Gerbner et al., 2002; Greenberg, 1988; Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Potter, 1986;
Shrum, 2002; Ward, 2004).
Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli (1986) developed the cultivation
theory through their research of the impact of television and the consequences
related to the consumption of messages that are viewed over long periods of time.
Others have contributed to the theory through their research (Berkowitz & Rogers,
1986; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Shrum, 2002; Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002;
Ward, 2004) and critics (Greenberg, 1988; Potter, 1986) have challenged the theory,
which has led to the acknowledgement that cultivation depends upon the mental state
of the consumer as well as other external factors.
In relation to the cultivation theory, the drench hypothesis claims that
individual messages may have more of an impact versus messages that are repeated
constantly and one performance could influence a person more (Greenberg, 1988;
Mastro & Greenberg, 2000). According to the drench hypothesis, a viewer of
television consumes messages actively and not passively; the viewer is responsible
for what is consumed since the consumption relies on the psychological state of the
viewer (Greenberg, 1988; Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Potter, 1986). This method of
consumption may occur; however, Oliver (2002) and Shrum (2002) argue that there
are limited messages presented via television, which restricts the variations of
messages that are portrayed and most people watch television passively and are not
conscientious of the messages being consumed.
11
Greenberg (1988) and Gerbner et al. (1986) concur that the state of mind of
the television consumer contributes to the extent to which a person cultivates
messages. Researchers of social cognitive theory in relation to television viewing
also conclude that the mind of the television viewer determines how messages are
processed (Cortes, 2005; Fujioka, 1999; Oliver, 2002; Shrum, 2002). The self-
concept or perception of oneself affects how a person feels about oneself, especially
in relation to others (Byrne, 1984) and the medium of television presents social
norms and cultural behaviors that may be assumed by viewers as the model of
acceptable behavior. Also, it must be acknowledged that there are other influential
factors other than television (such as parenting, socioeconomic status, role models,
and parental educational views) that persuade the psyche of individuals and affect
self-perceptions (Conner, 2005; Viadero & Johnston, 2000; Ward, 2004).
The cognitive and behavioral effects of television have been criticized since
the conception of television (Stroman, 1991). Television has a powerful impact on
American society and the minds and self-concepts of our youth. This paper explores
the effects of media through the principles of cultivation analysis, including the
influential factors mentioned that determine the extent of cultivation.
This study has both applied and theoretical implications. The applied
implications are the benefits to parents, educators, and policymakers, as well as
creators of television content. Few studies have analyzed this group of viewers. The
theoretical implications are the lack of accounting for the factors on the effects of
television on African American youth. Collectively, the importance of this
12
information is rooted in the need for further understanding in the academic disparity
that exists between African American students and majority students. The findings
of the study contribute to the limited body of knowledge about the television viewing
habits of African American students in relation to their achievement and self-
concepts.

13
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter provides a review of the literature as it pertains to media’s
impact on viewers and various media theories explaining the extent and nature of the
impact. This chapter is organized in three main sections: media theories, media and
their effects, and research to explore. The media theories section discusses the
theoretical explanation of how media influences the minds of viewers. The media
and their effects section explains the varieties of effects on minorities, African
Americans, adolescents, males versus females, and lower-class versus middle-higher
class citizens. Lastly, the research to explore section states the specific research
questions this study will investigate in relation to the literature reviewed.
Media has an impeccable impact on individuals’ perceptions of themselves,
society as a whole, and the methods in which individuals are taught to interact with
each other. People evaluate themselves and alter and pattern their identity off of the
messages that are presented via the small screen (Schwarz, 2005). In American
society, the land of “the melting pot,” there are various cultures, behaviors, religions,
philosophies, and protocols for interacting socially within our society and many of
these manners are adopted by some based on the fact that the interaction has been
depicted on television. The epics on television, be they fictional or non-fictional,
become translated into the minds of viewers (Cortes, 2005, Gerbner et al., 1986;
Gerbner et al., 2002; Ward, 2004), especially young, “heavy viewers” (Sternheimer,
14
1998; Stroman, 1991); and often messages are consumed independent of the fact that
the presented information may or may not be credible (Cortes, 2005; Gerbner et al.,
1986).
Passive, non-critical viewers are often impressionable and their perceptions
of reality can become warped from the messages that are broadcasted to the masses.
Popular culture is often created and developed through common messages that are
prevalent in a plethora of shows (Gerbner et al., 1986). These themes of projected
acceptable forms of behavior are overwhelmingly showcased across networks, day
after day, hour after hour and embraced by the masses (Sternheimer, 1998). This
implementation of a popular message and mode of living is evident in all genres of
television, including prime time, news (Sternheimer, 1998), soap operas, sitcoms,
dramas, and made for television movies. Such modes of behavior define the
American culture and become the societal, acceptable norm (Gerbner et al., 1986).
Unfortunately, these modes of behavior are often times unattainable for the majority.
Media Theories
As introduced in the conceptual framework, many theories explore the impact
of media on consumers. This section will explain what the theories reveal about
consumers of television and the various ways in which television could influence
viewers based on the amount of consumption and other factors.
15
Cultivation Theory
The cultivation theory was developed in the sixties when American television
consisted of three major networks, NBC, CBS, and ABC (Gerbner et al., 1986).
Although there are currently more channels and networks to consider when selecting
a television show to view, Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli (1986) argued
that there is not a great amount of diversity of content; therefore, the messages have
not developed, expanded, or diversified significantly. Cultivation theory explores
the consequences of television and the impact of messages that are portrayed and
consumed over extended periods (Berkowitz & Rogers, 1986; Gerbner et al., 1986;
Gerbner et al., 2002; Ward, 2004). The original concept of the theory stated the
assumption to be that individuals who spend more time viewing television and
popular messages tend to cultivate the normalized themes and embody them in their
daily lives (Gerbner et al., 1986). After criticism by other scholars (Greenberg,
1988; Potter, 1986), the theory has been clarified to emphasize the point that the
amount of cultivation is dependent upon the psychological state of the television
consumer (Gerbner et al., 2002). Gerbner, Gross, Morgan Signorielli, and Shanahan
(2002) stated the theory as the following:
We use the concept of ‘cultivation’ to describe the independent contributions
television viewing makes to viewer conceptions of social reality. The most
general hypothesis of cultivation analysis is that those who spend more time
‘living’ in the world of television are more likely to see the ‘real world’ in
terms of the images, values, portrayals, and ideologies that emerge through
the lens of television. (p. 47)

16
Although Gerbner et al. (1986) stated “cultivation should not be confused with
reinforcement,” (p. 24) for amplification, Gerbner et al. (2002) explained that the
theory focuses solely on the influence of television on the developed perceptions of a
viewer’s reality and construction of social behavior. Other scholars have confirmed
and validated cultivation theory through empirical research (Berkowitz & Rogers,
1986; Fujioka, 1999; Shrum, 2002; Ward, 2004). Berkowitz & Rogers (1986)
concluded that frequent viewers cultivate “at least a short lived belief” (p. 66) that
information presented via television and consistently on television is perceived as
normal and prevalent in society. Shrum (2002) also conducted a study which
confirmed the hypothesis and verified that accessibility to media channels affected
the cultivation experience. The cultivation effect had a stronger effect when viewers
were not critical of the messages being portrayed (Shrum, 2002). This process of
“heuristic processing” versus “systematic processing” describes the minds
acceptance of information as the rule (heuristic processing) versus the minds ability
to decode information (systematic processing). Therefore, it is vital to emphasize
Shrum’s (2002) finding in relation to the cultivation theory since cognitive
processing of information is emphasized as an essential factor to the extent of
cultivation that will occur (see Figure 2.1).
17
Figure 2.1 Shrum’s (2002) Cultivation Analysis Model
Mass Media
Heavy TV
Light TV
Memory
Search
Direct Experience
Word of Mouth
Motivation
to
Process
Source
Prime
Present
Heuristic
Processing
Systematic
Processing
Source
Discount
No Cultivation
Effect
Cultivation
Effect
Ability to
Process
{
Cultivation Judgment
Required
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Shrum’s (2002) altered flow diagram of the heuristic processing model of television effects (p. 87).

18

The extent of cultivation is labeled the “cultivation differential” (Gerbner et
al., 2002, p. 47) and this difference is predicated on whether the television consumer
is a heavy viewer or light viewer; this analysis is evaluated among similar
demographic subgroups (Gerbner et al., 2002). When Gerbner et al. (2002) applied
this analysis to all television viewers, factors such as availability to channels and
diversity of channels were considered.
Despite the numerous genres of television, there are common threads of
messages that are present throughout an enormous array of shows (Gerbner et al.,
2002). Therefore, cultivation theory is not genre specific, but pertinent to all genres.
By cultivating messages and patterns of behavior that are viewed as socially sound,
although often fictitious, real world expectations become miscomprehended,
especially by heavy viewers (Berkowitz & Rogers, 1986; Gerbner et al, 1986,
Gerbner et al., 2002, Ward, 2004).
Mainstreaming.
Gerbner et al. (1986, 2002) included the concept of mainstreaming in the
explanation of the cultivation process; mainstreaming is the push of popular,
common messages that are absorbed by the viewer. These messages can be
detrimental to heavy viewers, who may deny other factors that would, according to
the drench hypothesis (which will be discussed later), alter the processing of the
message (Gerbner et al., 2002). Since cultivation is non-unidirectional, cultivation
occurs in relation to the position of the viewer and the position of the mainstream
19
message (Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002). Hence, an “interaction” must
occur; all power is not given to one entity (Gerbner et al., 2002).
Studies have indicated strong correlations between self-esteem and the
amount of consumption of television content. Ward (2000) conducted a quantitative
study of 156 African American high school students who were attending a summer
program that addressed the following questions:
o Are heavier exposure to and connection with mainstream programs
and characters negatively associated with self-esteem and racial self-
esteem? Do these associations vary by media genre?
o Are heavier exposure to and connection with Black-oriented programs
and Black characters positively associated with self-esteem and racial
self-esteem?
o To what extent does religiosity buffer negative (or positive) media
influences concerning self-esteem and racial self-esteem? (p. 287)
The study indicated that there was a correlation between self-esteem and television
viewing; however, the strength of this correlation is dependent upon the identity and
state of mind of the consumer (Ward, 2000). In addition, the type of media content
or as Ward (2000) stated “media diets,” have a tremendous influence on how a
viewer relates and digests the content that is rendered. The emphasis of media
content and the type of media that is viewed leads to the counter hypothesis to
cultivation analysis, which is the drench hypothesis.
20
Drench Hypothesis
The drench hypothesis is critical of the cultivation theory in that it proclaims
that the significance of characters has a greater impact than the frequency in which
certain characters are viewed (Greenberg, 1988). Greenberg (1988) criticized the
cultivation hypothesis indicating that it has limited empirical support, “demeans” the
capabilities of TV viewers, and should not imply that all television portrayals will
influence viewers in the same manner. According to the drench hypothesis, certain
television portrayals may have a greater impact on a viewer than repetitive messages
that are exhibited throughout a range of shows (Greenberg, 1988, Mastro &
Greenberg, 2000; Ward, 2004). Ward (2004) explained that “this notion emphasizes
the power of individual performances to affect viewers” (p. 286). This inferred that
the cultivation theory (Gerbner et al., 1986) is not applicable or could be void if an
exceptional performance is delivered that overshadows common messages that may
pervert popular culture. Mastro and Greenberg (2000) claimed that strong characters
could create a firm basis for judging and viewing others and present acceptable
societal behaviors.
The gaps between the cultivation analysis and drench hypothesis are
collapsed by including more factors that affect the processing of projected media
information, which include the amount of television viewing and the content of what
is viewed in relation to the individual who is viewing the content, the different types
of programs available for viewing, the connection of the television content with the
viewer’s perceived reality, the degree to which the viewer believes the television
21
content, and the ability to cognitively process what is presented (Dines & Humez,
1995; Gerbner et al., 2002; Greenberg et al., 2002; Mastro & Greenberg, 2000;
Oliver, 2002; Potter, 1986).
Gerbner et al. (1986) and Gerbner et al. (2002) did acknowledge that other
elements can alter and even “neutralize” the content that is being cultivated and
television viewers are able to selectively choose programs; however, Gerbner et al.
(1986) stated:
Most viewers watch by the clock and either do not know what they will
watch when they turn on the set or follow established routines rather than
choose each program as they would choose a book, a movie, or an article. (p.
19)

Other scholars disagreed with the drench hypothesis indicating that television does
not provide exposure to a vast amount of concept variety that allows for “multiple
interpretations” (Oliver, 2002, p. 517) and many viewers consume television absent-
mindedly, hence, cultivation will occur (Shrum, 2002). Cortes (2005) emphasized
the power of repetition and this repetition is often inaccurate and there are few media
messages accessible to balance the mainstream concepts that are presented.
The cognitive processing of information is crucial in the discussion of how
one cultivates information. The extent of cultivation and even the confirmation of
the drench hypothesis are both reliant on the manner in which a television viewer
interprets the messages being portrayed.
22
Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Concept
Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory suggests that individuals assess
their encounters, beliefs, and perceptions in relation to other, sometimes dominant,
beliefs and external factors and often measure themselves against such defined
standards, which results in their construction of beliefs that ultimately influence their
behavior. Social cognitive theory in relation to television viewing concludes that
“vicarious learning via television takes place through a series of cognitive processes
including attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation” (Fujioka, 1999, p.
56). The mental state of the television viewer (expectations, memory, attitude,
motivation, interpretation, relation to content) determines the extent to which
information is processed and stored (Cortes, 2005; Fujioka, 1999; Oliver, 2002;
Shrum, 2002). This processing of information then relates to the viewers’ self-
concept, which involves their thoughts and personal opinion about their abilities
(Byrnes, 1984; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Byrnes (1984) describes
self-concept as “our perception of ourselves; in specific terms, it is our attitudes,
feelings and knowledge about our abilities, skills, appearance, and social
acceptability” (p. 429) and states that these views are a result of our social
environment and directly affect our behavior. Depending on our perceptions and
current state of self-concept, the impact of television ranges across the spectrum.
Expectations and Interpretations.
Based on the individual’s mind frame, current experiences and expectations,
a viewer may easily accept or reject the message portrayed via the mass media
23
(Cortes, 2005). Oliver (2002) found that individuals responded with passionate
emotion to television portrayals according to their cognitive point of reference. If
television viewers associated with on-screen characters and validated themselves
based on such characters, viewers modeled behavior of characters and accepted the
behavior as appropriate (Duke, 2000). When media messages disagree with the
beliefs of the television viewer, cognitive dissonance may occur (Oliver, 2002).
Oliver (2002) stated cognitive dissonance is the act of rejecting information that is
contrary to preconceived expectations. According to the concept, this would occur
more frequently for groups and individuals who are misrepresented on television.
Memory.
Memory is constructed and utilized naively when influenced by media
perceptions (Shrum, 2002). The method in which media perceptions are stored
determines the information that will later be retrieved by media viewers, especially
heavy media viewers (Gerbner et al., 1986; Oliver, 2002; Shrum, 2002).
Unfortunately, Shrum’s (2002) study found that people failed to consult all relevant
knowledge before making judgments about situations and circumstances; media
viewers occasionally relied on what was consumed via the media to construct
judgments of others.
24
Motivation.
Shrum (2002) discovered that students who were encouraged to analyze,
critique, and evaluate television content were able to process presented information
systematically versus accepting pop-cultural messages as the societal rule of
behavior.
Relation to Content.
Fujioka (1999) revealed that messages portrayed through television
influenced the perceptions of viewers significantly when the viewer had little to no
direct contact to the information, concept or people portrayed. With the under-
representation and the misrepresentation of females, minorities, homosexuals, and
religious affiliates, this limited content provided through television portrayals leads
to false evaluations and stereotypes of groups (Richeson & Pollydor, 2002).
Priming
Priming analysis is applied to determine the immediate and later impact of
media or alteration of behavior or judgment of the media consumer based on the
stimulus of the television content (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2002). The concept of
priming illustrates the power in the message and how subconsciously media viewers
are affected by prevailing content. Priming studies indicate that stereotypes and
perceptions can be specifically primed, generated, planted, or prepared cognitively,
by certain television shows that portray individuals in stereotypic styles (Roskos-
Ewoldsen et al., 2002). Interestingly, Shrum (2002) found that the act of cultivation
25
was diminished when priming took place, which indicated that priming provoked
specific behavior and responses instead of allowing the content to be processed and
refined.
Media and Their Effects
Media are tools used to deliver messages through the use of sound, imagery,
print and sometimes touch and smell. Media in all forms have various effects on the
recipients of the content. Cortes (2005) explained that mass media represent the
messages that are dispersed to the whole (masses) and typically accepted as the
standard message that establishes a norm for a group, sometimes intentionally.
These powerful mechanisms for distributing messages define societal values, beliefs,
standards of behavior, judgment of others, expectations, and ideas of how to interact
with others (Cortes, 2005; Gerbner et al., 2002; Griffin, 2005). These ever-present,
potent, persuasive tools are able to shape and construct thoughts and attitudes as well
as strengthen brewing beliefs that could be counterproductive to society as a whole
(Gerbner et al., 2002; Griffin, 2005; Schwarz, 2005). Cortes (2005) suggested that
mass media is often entertaining and viewed by the naïve as light hearted and
innocent. However, these tools influence cultural ideals and should be handled with
care. This discussion will focus on the effects that the medium of television has on
viewers through its use of sound and imagery.
Television as Our Foundation
Television viewing has increased tremendously over the years with American
viewers watching four to eight hours of television per day (Facts and Figures About
26
Our TV Habit, n.d.; Kubey, 2004; Nielsen Media Research, 2005). Television
becomes more than a source of entertainment, but a foundation for the understanding
and comprehension of society (Cortes, 2005; Gerbner et al., 2002; Ward,
Hansbrough, Walker, 2005). Adolescents and children consume many hours of
television and these impressionable minds are plagued with imagery that begins to
define their reality (Duke, 2000; Sternheimer, 1998; Stroman, 1991; van den Broek,
2001). Although children and adolescents are the primary consumers of television,
television is “produced by adults, for adults, about adults” (Dennis, 2004, p. 202).
However, media affects children and adolescents differently than it affects adults
(Stroman, 1991). Children especially are thought of as innocent viewers, not capable
of fully processing the information from the small-screen tube; yet this capability of
processing varies by age and gender and should not be underestimated by adults
(Sternheimer, 1998). The content is driven by an age group that is much more
developed and mature for all persons of all ages, color, and creed to endure.
There are varying perspectives as to how we process information that is
relayed to us via the small-screen tube; however, one notion that is agreed upon is
that television is an effective medium (Berkowitz & Rogers, 1986; Cortes, 2005;
Dines & Humez, 1995; Duke, 2000; Fujioka, 1999; Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et
al., 2002, Greenberg, 1988; Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Oliver, 2002; Potter, 1986;
Richeson & Pollydor, 2002; Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2002; Shrum, 2002;
Sternheimer, 1998). Berkowitz and Rogers (1986) found that when viewers watch
violent shows, cultivation takes place for at least a short period of time where the
27
viewer assumes such violent behavior occurs frequently in society. In their study
that examined the impact portrayals of Blacks in comedic television shows may have
on Black perceivers, Richeson and Pollydor (2002) found that Black students were
more anxious when Black characters acted “countersterotypically” in the presence of
Whites versus when Black characters acted stereotypically in the presence of Whites
and that Black students preferred watching shows with only Black characters and
became uncomfortable when Whites were present on-screen. Many researchers hold
the viewer accountable for what information is processed and the extent to which
messages are consumed (Dines & Humez, 1995; Greenberg, 1988; Greenberg et al.,
2002; Oliver, 2002). Greenberg (1988) and Greenberg, Mastro, and Brand (2002)
studied the drench hypothesis and the impact of media on minorities and discovered
that minorities appear in more crime shows and situational comedies than other
shows; however, they found that one strong character or portrayal could have more
of an impact on the viewer than the constant viewing of minorities in stereotypical
shows. Positive images of Blacks could “supersede or overwhelm” (Greenberg,
1988, p. 98) the other portrayals of Blacks based on the mind of the viewer. Viewers
were occasionally credited with having the power to be selective in their viewing and
consume relevant, useful information (Oliver, 2002). Oliver (2002) found that
choices in viewing particular shows was “a reflection of the extent to which the
viewer perceives the message as useful in achieving goals, as informative, or as
consistent with or confirming of attitudes or beliefs” (p. 513). Other research stated
that the extent of television’s influence relates to how much television is viewed
28
indicating a clear distinction between heavy viewers and light viewers of television
and whether or not a person has assistance in interpreting the message (Gerbner et
al., 1986). For example, Gerbner et al. (1986) learned that when parents were
concerned with and aware of their adolescents’ viewing of television, even heavy
viewers of television had less of a perception that the images on television depicted
or constructed their reality.
Television’s Story: True or False
American television misrepresents the community that it projects messages to
constantly. According to U.S. Census Bureau’s (2004a, 2004b) statistics regarding
income, race, occupations, and educational attainment, there is a great discrepancy
between the true makeup of American society and the characters depicted on
television (Holtzman, 2004). Television broadcasts stories, fictional and non-
fictional, that promote the standard of popular culture, while failing to present the
entire picture of the societal injustices and complexities that exist for the majority
(Holtzman, 2004; Schwarz, 2005; Stroman, 1991). For example, when analyzing
television characters in comparison with the real makeup of the U.S., Holtzman
(2004) found that majority of television characters were depicted as being middle to
upper class, when in reality more than 56% of the U.S. population in 2004 earned
less than $50,000. When stories are constantly rendered indicating that these are the
norms and manners in which the majority live and operate, the content of the
message alters the social perception of the majority (Mastro & Greenberg, 2000).
These falsities influence behavior and judgment, which could lead to positive or
29
negative reactions (Gerbner et al., 1986; Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2002; Stroman,
1991). These reactions and effects can potentially be more profound, and perhaps
detrimental, when direct contact is not accessible to confirm or contradict the media
messages (Fujioka, 1999).
Mainstream versus Minority Media
Media affects different groups in different manners and within the mass
projection of stories that define culture through the medium of television, there are
mainstream forms and minority-oriented forms. The mainstream messages of
television were and continue to be constrained, which is ironic given the U.S.
message of “unrestricted” interests (Gerbner et al., 1986). These mainstream and
minority-oriented forms influence those who choose to watch them and the content
of the media oriented forms influence the minority and the majority in contrasting
ways. It was not until the late seventies and early eighties that more minorities were
visible on the small screen (Greenberg et al., 2002). African Americans, at the time,
consisted of the largest minority group in the U.S.; however, their existence on
television was minimal (Greenberg et al., 2002). Mainstream content over the years
has negligible presence of minorities and, many have argued, that mainstream
content of the first decade of the twenty-first century still fails to depict minority
characters in non-stereotypical manners in majority of mainstream shows (Fujioka,
1999; Greenberg et al., 2002; Means Coleman, 2003; Stroman, 1991; UCLA, 2002;
Ward, 2004). In addition to television shows created for entertainment, minorities
are absent from commercials and news programs as well, and when they are present
30
in commercials, they are seen in advertisements promoting alcoholic beverages, the
selling of automobiles, or purchasing electronics (Greenberg et al., 2002).
Greenberg et al. (2002) also found that on the news, when a crime was mentioned
and involved a minority, the name and image of the minority was more likely to be
displayed versus when a White person was discussed as the criminal, the name was
often omitted or an image was not shown. With the negative perceptions presented
via the mainstream media, it could be assumed that minority-oriented media would
present minorities in a more positive light. However, researchers varied on the
consensus as to whether this is occurring or not (Fujioka, 1999; Greenberg et al.,
2002; Means Coleman, 2003; Stroman, 1991; UCLA, 2002).
Minority media is oriented for minority viewers and typically has a cast of
almost all minorities. These shows were created to provide an outlet for minority
stories to be showcased on television and also meet the demand of minority viewers,
who consume more television than White viewers (Ward, 2004). Over the years,
African Americans have become more present on the small screen (Signorielli,
1997). Greenberg et al.’s (2002) finding that only 20% of characters on television
were African American is even more significant when considered with UCLA’s
(2000) study that these types of shows have been relegated to specific genres and
networks. The majority of minorities, especially African American characters, in
recent years, were found in situational comedies and crime shows (Greenberg, 1988;
Richeson & Pollydor, 2002; UCLA, 2002). African Americans and Latinos were
found to be overrepresented in these genres, while other minorities, Asian Americans
31
and Native Americans, were found in less than 3% of television shows (Greenberg et
al., 2002; UCLA, 2002). African Americans on these shows were portrayed as poor,
incapable of being successful, buffoonish, incompetent, and having blue collar status
(Means Coleman, 2003; Stroman, 1991). Over time, these roles and depictions have
changed, showing characters with economic growth and higher status (Fujioka,
1999; Means Coleman, 2003; Stroman, 1991), such as the renowned Cosby Show,
which illustrated the Huxtable family, an affluent African American family where
the husband was a doctor and the wife and mother of five children was a lawyer.
African Americans on-screen that are successful are also portrayed as attractive,
talented, and determined, representing a complete package of success, both mentally
and physically (Fujioka, 1999). As society continues to change and grow, transitions
of mainstream media could include more minority content. O’Connor, Brooks-Gunn
& Graber (2000) stated that African American entertainment, especially with the
influence of hip-hop and rap, have transitioned into the “mainstream” and there is no
longer a division for this genre being seen as minority-oriented.
Minority-oriented television, some argued, has become a crippling medium
for the people it was intended to promote and provide an insight into their culture
and societal norms (Means Coleman, 2003; Richeson & Pollydor, 2002; UCLA,
2002). The mainstreaming of minority-oriented shows depicts perceptions that are
adopted by the masses and cultivation of these portrayals occurs (Gerbner et al.,
1986). These characters, although now being portrayed as having more financial
status and opportunities, are still presented as stereotypical characters, unable to
32
handle complete success, such as staying married and maintaining a traditional
household (Richeson & Pollydor, 2002). In addition to more current programming,
shows from the eighties and nineties are still in syndication and have comical,
stereotypical characters that have become iconic over the years, such as J.J. Evans
from Good Times, Will from Fresh Prince of Bel Air, Moesha from Moesha
(Greenberg et al., 2002). A majority of Black sitcoms, have characters in situational
comedies that are either single parents, divorced couples, a family struggling with
the issue of teenage pregnancy, or challenged with instable income compared to
majority of mainstream programming that has White characters that are married
couples with children in financially stabled homes (Greenberg, 1986; Nielsen Media
Research, 2005; Richeson & Pollydor, 2002). Although the presence of minorities
and African Americans in particular in television have increased over the years, the
debate continues as to whether the increase exposure is positive or negative given the
content of the stories portrayed and the effects these messages have on the majority
and the minority.
Studies showed that African Americans watch more minority-oriented shows
than mainstream television shows and have stronger relation to the characters
(Greenberg, 1986, Greenberg et al., 2002; Nielsen Media Research, 2005; Richeson
& Pollydor, 2002; Ward, 2004). Research has also declared that minorities are
seeking cable outlets, which have minority-oriented networks that provide content
targeted programming (Nielsen Media Research, n.d.). The responses to African
Americans’ viewing of these shows varied depending on the perspective of the
33
viewer. Ward (2004) conducted a study of African American students’ viewing of
minority-oriented programs and found students watched these shows frequently and
identified strongly with popular adult characters. These students’ connection with
these characters was associated with their high self-esteem ratings as well. Ward’s
(2004) findings supported the cultivation analysis in that the viewing was frequent
and supplements the drench hypothesis in that the content was significant for the
students to be impacted by. However, other research maintained that frequent
viewing of the current minority-oriented shows was not positive for viewers,
especially young, heavy viewers, and only reinforced “ghettoized” views of African
Americans (Richeson & Pollydor, 2002; UCLA, 2002).
According to cultivation theory (Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002;
Shrum, 2002) and the drench hypothesis (Greenberg, 1988; Mastro & Greenberg,
2000; Potter, 1986), these portrayals of minorities and African Americans in
particular will be interpreted in various ways depending upon the viewers frame of
reference and their active processing of the information, which leads to the
discussion of media literacy and the act of analyzing the messages that are shared to
the masses.
Media Literacy
Mass media is powerful and influential to consumers (Cortes, 2005). Media
is everywhere and difficult to avoid since it consists of the televisions we view, the
newspapers we read, the billboards hanging in the air on our streets; the ubiquitous
messages of our society come in all forms and everyone is susceptible to the message
34
if there is not a critical analysis of what is being presented. Media literacy is defined
at the National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy as “the ability to access,
analyze, and produce information for specific outcomes (Aufderheide, 1992, p. v).
Others define media literacy in a similar fashion adding that effective media literacy
allows for the ability to decode information and communicate via numerous methods
or forms (Dennis, 2004; Kubey, 2004; Sternheimer, 1998). By being media literate,
one is able to acknowledge the ways in which the media is promoting messages and
how media constructs philosophy, values, beliefs, and thought (Cortes, 2005;
Holtzman, 2004).
There are many facets to the media and it should be seen as a “cultural
product” (Dines & Humez, 1995, p. 1). Dines and Humez (1995) explained that in
order to comprehend the message, it is vital to understand the context that the
messaged is developed in and recognize the political and socioeconomic agendas that
could be within or behind the message. In media, especially the medium of
television with its mainstreaming capacity, there are often underlying codes and
languages that must be deciphered to truly understand the message and its intent
(Dines & Humez, 1995; Kubey, 2004; Schwarz, 2005). Dines and Humez (1995)
and Schwarz (2005) both concurred that knowing who and what is behind the
message is important to grasping the purpose and desired impact of the message.
Media Literacy: A New Concept?
Most Americans are not analyzing, evaluating, decoding, or critiquing the
mainstream messages of the media simply because our school systems fail to teach
35
students to do so (Holtzman, 2004; Kubey, 2004). The production of media is a
booming business in the U.S. and the U.S. produces the most media in the world (via
television, film, and music); yet the idea of critiquing and analyzing this information
is quite foreign to typical Americans (Schwarz, 2005). Media has played a
significant role in the construction of American culture and the mindsets of many.
However, most Americans were not taught to question what they see and hear on
television (Kubey, 2004). Content on television is often accepted as the norm,
especially by heavy viewers, according to cultivation theory (Gerbner et al., 1986;
Gerbner et al., 2002).
Maturing adults begin to question society and utilize their citizen rights once
they are of voting age, but most schools do not have courses that instruct students on
how to make valid decisions, question propaganda, analyze the larger picture and
relationships between the media origins and the messages, and how to consult facts
to deduct strong conclusions about what is occurring in society (Cortes, 2005; Dines
& Humez, 1995; Rogow, 2004; Schwarz, 2005). Many scholars have suggested and
pleaded with schools and educational organizations and affiliations to incorporate
media literacy programs into the standard curriculum (Holtzman, 2004; Rogow,
2004). This idea has been met with opposition and reluctance by some who fail to
understand that media literacy is more than putting educational programs on
television and also those who fear that students will question forms of authority, such
as institutions, if taught to critically analyze and evaluate all things at an early age
(Holtzman, 2004; Rogow, 2004; Sternheimer, 1998).
36
Media literacy not prevalent in schools or in homes
With the usage rates of television being extremely high for young people
(Facts and Figures About Our TV Habits, n.d.; Nielsen Media Research, 2005;
Greenberg et al., 2002), there is a lack of extensive explanation as to why media
literacy is not more prevalent in our school system. Critical awareness and the
ability to analyze information is a skill set that is taught in most English classes and
civics or social studies courses, but this skill set is not taught in relation to the mass
media forms of television, film, or music, the primary methods in which the majority
receive information (Kubey, 2004).
According to Kubey’s (2004) findings, media education in the United States
was failing behind other major countries. Proponents of media literacy stressed the
necessity of media literacy in the U.S. curriculum (Alvermann, 2004; Kubey, 2004;
Rogow, 2004; Sternheimer, 1998) and have made some emergence into some of the
U.S. school systems (Sternheimer, 1998). This critical thought development should
occur at a younger age and students need assistance in evaluating messages and
deducting decisions (Alvermann, 2004; Rogow, 2004; Sternheimer, 1998). Students
themselves have inquired about and have opted to pursue media literacy programs
(Considine, 2004). Research indicated that adults can also assist educators in the
process of encouraging and teaching young people how to evaluate messages being
presented in the media.
At an early age, studies confirmed that children are capable of processing
information and storing to memory concepts presented on television (Gerbner et al.,
37
1986; Ball et al., 1986; Stroman, 1991). When teaching children to be active
engagers of media, it is stated that this process is harmonious with the learning styles
typically encouraged at school (Ball et al., 1986). As students grow older and
become adolescents, parental involvement in the shaping of thoughts, beliefs, and
attitudes was essential for minimizing the impact of mass media messages (Gerbner
et al., 1986). The irony in parents educating their youth about media literacy is that
the majority of adults are not media literate themselves (Dennis, 2004). In the world
of media literacy, children and youth have been the target audience and adults have
been left to fend for themselves (Dennis, 2004). Parents, in addition to educators,
could consider the impact of media on our youth since studies have confirmed that
media and the use of television have an impression on the psyche of everyone if the
viewer is not critical of what he or she consumes.
Media Impact in Relation to Achievement
There are numerous factors independent of television and the educational
system itself (such as parenting, socioeconomic status, role models, parental
educational views) that influence the educational achievement of students (Conner,
2005; Viadero & Johnston, 2000). Such external stimuli are capable of altering the
perceptions of children and adolescents when constructing their self-identity and
self-esteem (Conner, 2005; Ward, 2004). Stroman (1991) suggested that television
has the capacity to construct the views of children and adolescents and adjust their
ideologies about the world and their place in it.
38
As mentioned in the social cognitive theory and self-concept section, an
individual’s self-concept determines how a person perceives oneself and values
oneself in relation to others (Bandura, 1986; Byrne, 1986; Pajares, 1996; Pajares &
Schunk, 2001). Pajares (1996) and Pajares & Schunk (2001) have conducted
extensive research as to how self-concepts relate to achievement and have found that
students with high levels of self-concept have a tendency to feel positive about
achieving in school. But how does the media relate to the development of self-
concept? In addition, if there is a relation, how does the media related self-concept
relate to achievement? Pajares & Schunk (2001) found that minority students tend to
have positive levels of self-concept. But does heavy television viewing affect this
self-concept? The goal of this research examines the external factor of television and
how it relates to self-concepts and achievement.
The effects of heavy television viewing in relation to academic achievement
continue to be researched and the amount of research available is sparse (Ball et al.,
1986). The U.S. Department of Education (1994) stated that extensive television
viewing (10 or more hours per week) had a negative affect on the academic
attainment of young people. Other organizations campaign for “TV-Turnoff Day,” a
day where students refrain from watching television in the home, which would result
perhaps in more time dedicated to homework and other developmental activities
(Viadero & Johnston, 2000). The amount of television viewing has been found to be
a concern of parents and educators due to the fact that other social activities and
traditional learning exercises are not being conducted while watching television
39
(Stroman, 1991). The research, however, is not definitive in explaining how
television viewing directly affects the achievement of students (Ball et al., 1986) and
there is no convincing evidence that television viewing outweighs other external
factors, such as socioeconomic status or parenting (Stroman, 1991). Interestingly
Ball, Palmer, and Millward (1986) discovered that children who spent more time
watching television professed having higher IQs. This was especially evident when
parents watched television with their children and encouraged learning. This
television influence became counterproductive after the age of 11 and had the
reverse effect on adolescents. High school students in Ball et al.’s (1986) study who
watched more amounts of television performed less in school compared to students
who watched a light amount of television.
Stroman (1991) stated that children and adolescents, regardless of how much
television is viewed, need a standard for viewing and a foundational understanding
of how to view television because television will be the educator if parents and other
external factors are not accessible to balance the messages of the medium. The
messages of television may influence how students feel about themselves and either
hinder or promote their self-concept or self-efficacy in the classroom. The effects of
media on minority students, in particular, need to be researched more due to the fact
that the academic disparities between minorities and students of the majority have
not decreased substantially in the last few years (Viadero & Johnston, 2000).
McKinnon’s (2003) population report, conducted with the US Census Bureau,
revealed that 21.5% of Black men and 21.1% of Black women age 25 and over in
40
2002 had less than a high school degree compared to 11% of White males and
females. These subgroups of African American students generally rely on television
to provide them the window to a world they may feel they will never see with their
own eyes (Stroman, 1991). Hence, more research is vital to understand how such
messages influence our youth in the classroom and their aptitude for success.
How Media Affects Minorities
Media affects the self-identity and self-concepts of all persons who consume
and cultivate the messages portrayed (Fujioka, 1999; Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et
al., 2002; Greenberg, 1988; Potter, 1986). However, media portrayals of ethnic
minorities affect the psyche of the majority and the minority as well by perpetuating
stereotypes and, in rare cases, extinguishing stereotypes (Mastro & Greenberg,
2000). The representation of minorities is quite miniscule on the small screen, which
limits the range of roles and presents a skewed view of minorities (Greenberg, 1988;
Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Signorielli, 1997). By watching television shows,
minorities are influenced by the assumed perceptions that are displayed (Roskos-
Ewoldsen et al., 2002). Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-Ewoldsen, and Dillman
Carpentier (2002) argued that media can instigate these stereotypes; unfortunately,
these stereotypes become adopted by society as a whole.

41
Stereotyping on television persuades and influences how the majority view
the minority and how minorities value themselves (Fujioka, 1999; Greenberg, 1986;
Greenberg et al., 2002). In reality, there are poor, unwed, less educated minorities
(Dennis, 2004); yet the majority of the depictions of minorities do not have to mimic
this mold. African Americans and Latinos are especially affected by their viewing of
television due to the amounts of consumption (Greenberg et al., 2002; Viadero &
Johnston, 2000). This constant exposure to negative images could alter the self-
confidence of minority viewers (Fujioka, 1999).
Minorities are generally portrayed as lower class citizens and are rarely seen
interacting with Whites since most minority actors appear on minority-oriented
programs, with minority casts (Greenberg, 1988). Various genres of minority-
oriented television shows support stereotypes and fail to combat the racial depictions
of the media (The Role of Black Comedy in Supporting Stereotypes of Black
Intellectual Inferiority, 2003). Regrettably, studies have shown that some White
viewers are unaware of the racial biases and lack of minority portrayals and images
in media (Duke, 2000), which could indicate that White viewers assume the
portrayals to be accurate and reflect reality.
Media Effects on African Americans
The African American population is 12% of the American populace (US
Census Bureau, 2004a) and consists of the heaviest television viewers (Facts and
Figures About Our TV Habit, n.d.; Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005). In 2000, African
Americans composed 16% of the major/minor roles on television and were
42
illustrated as being more provocative and less aggressive than other characters
(Mastro & Greenberg, 2000). African Americans are interactive with television
cognitively and digest, respond to, and remember the portrayals that are presented
(Greenberg, 1986; Ward, 2004). Research indicated that media affected African
Americans differently based on age and other socioeconomic factors (Greenberg,
1986; Stroman, 1991; Ward, 2004). The effect media has on African American
children and adolescents, which will be discussed in detail later, suggests that
adolescents and children may react both negatively and positively to the media
depending upon other factors (such as parental involvement) (Ward, 2004). African
American adults respond to media based on their perceptions of reality and their
personal experiences (Greenberg, 1986; Ward, 2004). Ward (2004) explained that
some notions from the media are accepted and some are rejected depending on an
individual’s level of social consciousness and other external factors that contradict
negative portrayals. Greenberg (1998) supported Ward’s (2004) findings by
indicating that positive images of Blacks can overcome the negative images and have
a greater effect, which relates to the drench hypothesis. The media impacts differ by
individual and there are some commonalities that exist for the race as a whole.
Dines and Humez (1995) acknowledged that the cultural development of
African Americans on television is constructed and regulated by a White-owned
industry that relies on marketing research versus significant research about the race
and culture. For example, McKinnon (2003) found in a 2002 demographic study that
“nearly one-half of all Black families were married-couple families” (p.3); yet
43
television predominately depicts the typical structure of African American families
to consist of single parents and out of wedlock children (Hirst, 2005). Religious
influence is quite prevalent in the households of African Americans (Ward, 2004)
and a standard of familial values has been passed down over the generations. Due to
slavery and the plight of African American people, the cultural structures of African
Americans are different from the cultural structure of White Americans (Hirst,
2005). Therefore, societal dynamics, such as success and love, are measured and
demonstrated in different methods and styles.
Success of African Americans on television, in the context of academic or
career achievement, has often been misconstrued as “acting White” or becoming less
connected with the African American community (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Means
Coleman, 2003). Means Coleman (2003) found that few shows depicted African
Americans being involved with the Black community as a whole and still able to be
successful under the guidelines of American standards of corporate success. Very
few shows indicated that African Americans could achieve such levels of
accomplishment on their own and still remain associated with the culture (Means
Coleman, 2003). Television propels this notion and studies have found that
achieving academic students feel that they must incorporate “European American
culture” and values in order to assure their achievement in school (Arroyo & Zigler,
1995). This act of adopting mainstream culture that is presented on television in
order to achieve academically and in a corporate environment is termed as having a
“raceless” attitude, which encompasses the denial of your own race and the
44
presentation of no race (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; Fordham, 1988; Richeson &
Pollydor, 2002). Fordham (1988) confirmed that this act of raceless behavior
counters the African American culture, which practices fictive kinship – the act of
connecting with the culture and being associated with the one’s community.
Self image of African Americans has been studied by scholars and the
historical implications of the social concepts behind the self image of African
Americans are outside of the scope of this research; however, television and media in
general, have a tremendous impact on the ways in which African Americans view
their physical features and self-identities; typically, the African American who has
more White-like features is considered more attractive than the African American
with more Negroid features (Means Coleman, 2003). Unfortunately, this type of
discrimination may be introduced by the medium, but then perpetuated in the culture
by other African Americans; yet this discrimination could affect the confidence of
African Americans who are consuming hours and hours of television and comparing
themselves to idealist characters. Means Coleman (2003) found that occasionally
African American television viewers would deny and reject the images on television
since the character portrayals do not look like majority of African Americans or like
the individual viewer; this act corresponded to Oliver’s (2002) explanation of
cognitive dissonance. Yet, for some African Americans, they may not be able to
separate idealistic media portrayals from how they value themselves, especially if
they are not adults.
45
Media Effects on Adolescents
The minds of children and adolescents are being molded daily by interactions
with parents, teachers, peers, family members and, also, the television (Signorielli,
1997). Ward, Hansbrough, and Walker (2005) stated, “television, without a doubt,
has become a prominent force in the socialization of American adolescents” (p. 161).
Students spend close to 2,000 hours each year with media (Kubey, 2004) and
viewing habits and television show choices change as a youth matures and grows
older (Ward, 2004). More time is spent watching music videos and stations like
Music Television (MTV) and Black Entertainment Television (BET), which
frequently depict adult situations and vicarious circumstances (Ward, 2004; Ward et
al., 2005). The impact of television on young people varies depending upon
numerous factors, including the selections of shows, parental involvement, and
current mental state of the viewer (O’Connor, Brooks-Gunn, & Graber, 2000;
Signorielli, 1997; Stroman, 1991; Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005).
By the time a child reaches adolescence, the pressures from peers and parents
become more socially demanding, as well as the pressures from the media to
succumb to certain molds and the adoption of behaviors (Signorielli, 1997; Ward,
2004). Adolescents use television as a guide for relationships, acceptable behaviors,
and a means for creating perceptions of other people (O’Connor et al., 2000; Ward,
2004). Parents have a tremendous responsibility in monitoring how much television
is consumed and what shows are consumed. Parental media selections can influence
children and adolescents and transmit certain behaviors (O’Connor et al., 2000).
46
Stroman (1991) contended that parents should watch TV with their children and
point out the applicability of what is shown.
In Hansen and Hansen’s (2000) study of song lyrics and music videos in relation
to adolescents, the results indicated that young people do not comprehend the
explicitness of the content that is being viewed or heard via media. Yet, other
research stated that this content influenced the self-concepts and self-identities of
adolescents (Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005). Hansen and Hansen (2000) agreed that
the “thematic content of music videos ‘primes’ viewers cognitive schemas,
influencing subsequent impressions and social judgments in highly predictable
ways” (p. 161), which could cause viewers to be unaware of the cognitive processing
and mental acceptance that could be occurring subconsciously. Ward et al., (2005)
agreed that the content of music videos is processed and implanted in the minds of
adolescents; however, the variance of impact depends on the level of active choice to
view the music videos. Interestingly, African American adolescents consume a
tremendous amount of music videos and television in general (Ward et al., 2005).
Media Effects on African American High School Students
African American students are repeatedly exposed to portrayals of African
Americans on television (Fujioka, 1999) and some of the portrayals are positive and
some are negative. The concern of this constant viewing is that African American
adolescents will adopt the messages that are rendered by the mass media and espouse
images due to the fact that they are accepting of television as a tool for learning
about themselves and society at large (Fujioka, 1999; Stroman, 1991; Ward, 2004).
47
Stroman’s (1991) concern was that Black children watch a tremendous amount of
television, which gave reason to believe that television’s socializing affected Blacks
more. Other studies found and confirmed that television influenced African
American adolescents more so than Caucasian adolescents and that African
Americans adolescents tend to gravitate to the television for understanding and
learning behavior (Gerson, 1968; Greenberg, 1986; Ward, 2004).
Few studies explained why this impact existed and the consequences of the
impact (Stroman, 1991; Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005), but research has confirmed
that African American adolescents consume more television than any other group,
independent of socioeconomic differences (Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005).
Stroman’s (1991) research concluded that television viewing can influence African
American youth’s social learning and cognitive development in relation to self-
esteem; Ward (2004) found that media did not consistently affect the self-esteem of
African American youth, and, as a matter of fact, African American youth
maintained higher self-esteem than Caucasian students. The underlying issue in
relation to the effect television shows had on African Americans was the type of
shows students were choosing to view, or as Ward (2004) used the phrase, what are
their “media diets.” When African American students watched more television
programs that misrepresented African Americans, failed to showcase African
Americans in leading roles, or objectified African Americans, there was a correlation
in lower self-esteem; the viewing of shows with predominately White male
characters, music videos and sports had high correlations of low performance self-
48
esteem (Ward, 2004). Ward (2004) found that when students watched shows with
strong African American characters of quality, these students maintained a higher
self-esteem level.
As mentioned in the discussion of African Americans being portrayed as
disconnected to their race and culture when being successful, African American
youth struggled to maintain their affiliation with their race while achieving in school
(Fordham, 1988). Fordham (1988) stated that some African American students
striving to perform well in school would lessen their association with the African
American community, while others would uphold their affiliation despite the notion
of being successful meant minimizing the African American race and culture.
Television’s depiction of traditional success and, unfortunately, negative
reinforcement in the Black community, causes high achievement to be viewed as
“acting White” by some African American students (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986;
Viadero, & Johnston, 2000), which causes some achieving students to adopt raceless
attitudes (Fordham, 1988; Richeson & Pollydor, 2002), as stated before.
In Richeson & Pollydor’s (2002) study on Black students’ response to watching
television clips of African Americans conducting stereotypical behavior and counter-
stereotypical behavior, students were more uncomfortable and anxious when Blacks
were in the presence of Whites and when Blacks were acting counter-stereotypically
in the presence of Whites. The term “impression management” was how Richeson
& Pollydor (2002) and others (Fordham, 1988) described the behavior of African
Americans attempting to maintain their behavior in the presence of non-African
49
Americans. These television clips had an impact on the psychological state of the
African American students and could reflect what sometimes occurs in the classroom
when students are faced with stereotype threats, the pressure of performing well in
spite of the fact that you have been stereotyped to fail (Steele & Arronson, 1998),
while performing in school. Some students ignore impression management and
embrace the media images of African Americans, whether positive or negative.
The impact of music videos, entertainers, and sports figures has plagued the
minds of African American adolescents (Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2005). These
popular celebrities are idolized by youth, who try to live vicariously through the
depictions on television in hopes of achieving these levels of success. In contrast,
some adolescents consider themselves to be insufficient and unable to attain these
pop-cultural goals (Ward, 2004). Ward (2004) found that greater involvement in
religious organizations and strong foundations in the households and daily lives of
students served as a buffer for students who still maintained high consumption levels
of watching videos and sports shows. Interestingly, studies have shown that the
impact of media varies some degree by gender. For example, Ward (2004) learned
that African American male students had high performance self-esteem, and high
self-esteem in general, when they associated with popular African American male
characters on television. Hence, there is a need to explore the differences between
male and female perceptions of media in a deeper context.
50
Effects of Media on Males versus Females
Traditionally males have dominated the big screen and small screen and have
a balance of authoritative, dramatic, and comical roles. Women are vastly
underrepresented in television (Greenberg, 1998) despite their existence in the
American population (US Census Bureau, 2004b) and are shown in domestic,
objectified roles (Hansen & Hansen, 2000; Signorielli, 1997). Women are more
likely to be shown on television in gender stereotyped roles more so than men
(Hansen & Hansen, 2000) and less than 30% of women are shown working outside
of the home (Signorielli, 1997). Signorielli (1997) found in an ethnographic scan of
television that women were shown using flirtatious tactics to gain success and were
more concerned with romance and relationships than careers.
Impact on Females
Females are more inclined to measuring and evaluating their self-image more
so than males (Griffin, 2005). Students spend a great deal of time watching
television and music videos; and Ward’s (2004) study discovered that African
American adolescent females watched videos more their male counterparts. These
videos usually display men in powerful positions and women flaunting themselves
around men in distasteful outfits. These videos are displayed on MTV and BET and
videos on BET portrayed women as “sexual objects” more than other music video
stations (Hansen & Hansen, 2000). Fifty-seven percent of women in music videos
are seen partially clothed (Signorielli, 1997) and there is great focus and emphasis on
physical beauty, not brains or personality (Hansen & Hansen, 2000). The
51
importance of physical appearances bombards the minds of female adolescents, with
the rotation of music videos and commercials. The majority (56%) of commercial
product appeals were to beauty versus success (Signorielli, 1997). These images, in
the minds of adolescent females, are the standards of how to look and behave and
how to expect men to treat them in return (Ward et al., 2005). Signorielli (1997)
learned that there are affirmative images of females on television who are
independent, smart, successful women; yet, the selected shows chosen by most
female adolescents present women in stereotypical behaviors, which taints and often
surpasses the positive portrayals.
African American Females versus Other Females
The degree of media impact on females varies based on race and
socioeconomic factors and, unfortunately, most adolescent girls of all races and
socioeconomic backgrounds seem ill equipped to critically analyze images (Duke,
2000). For example, Duke (2000) found that African American girls were
uninterested in the image portrayals of women in certain magazines since they
contradicted African American standards of beauty and success; however, White
girls were more susceptible to the images portrayed. Generally, African American
female adolescents measured their self image off Black celebrities and entertainers
and valued personality and attitude as well as physical features (Duke, 2000).
African American female youth tend to prefer entertainers of their own race
(O’Connor et al., 2000; Duke, 2000) and also valued themselves based off of
positive reinforcement from family members and peers (Duke, 2000). Duke (2000)
52
found that African American girls have higher self-esteem than White girls, which
sounds positive; however, Fordham’s (1988) research indicated that African
American girls in the school context were not able to openly maintain their levels of
fictive kinship. This could indicate that African American girls were still affected by
the pressures of image and stereotypical messages, but only professed the effect
when in a multiracial environment. In this case, studies showed that African
American females were able to relate positively to the African American female
characters on television and felt better about themselves (Duke, 2000; O’Connor et
al., 2000); but this notion, in some results appeared to be false in the presence of
non-members of the race (Arroyo, & Zigler, 1995; Fujioka, 1999; Fordham, 1988;
Richeson, & Pollydor, 2002). Studies indicated that African American adolescents
are affected differently by the media depending upon external factors and situational
factors.
Media Effects on Middle-Higher Class versus Lower Class
Socioeconomic status is an external factor, and in some cases a situational
factor, that manipulates the effects of media. American television depicts the middle
class as the normal status of Americans (Gerbner et al., 1986; Holtzman, 2004). For
majority of African American adolescents, this economic status is not viewed as
realistic due to the poverty rate of African American adolescents being three times
higher than for Whites (McKinnon, 2003). Individuals interpret and digest media
portrayals differently based on their economic status, even if they are of the same
race (O’Connor et al., 2000) and African American young people of all
53
socioeconomic levels are watching more television than their other racial
counterparts (Ward et al., 2005). Fortunately, the economic status for African
Americans has changed over the decades and more Blacks are gaining middle to
upper class status and moving out of inner cities, which affords more interracial
interactions (McKinnon, 2003; Means Coleman, 2003; O’Connor et al., 2000).
O’Connor, Brooks-Gunn, and Graber (2000) stated that “for Black girls living at or
below the poverty line, Black television shows were more popular than White ones.
Black girls living above the poverty line, White and no-race shows were more
popular than Black television shows” (p. 14). More research is needed to determine
the variance in television effects of adolescents of the same race from differing
socioeconomic backgrounds and more research is needed to learn how the media
affects African American high school students, which leads to purpose of this study.
Research to Explore
African American high school students are heavy television viewers (Facts
and Figures About Our TV Habit, n.d.; Greenberg et al., 2002; Stroman, 1991;
Viadero & Johnston, 2000; Ward, 2004); in addition to this fact, studies have shown
that African Americans are performing less in school behind their White counterparts
across all socioeconomic levels (Viadero, & Johnston, 2000). We know that
television has an impact on students in general, but how does television impact
African American high school students in relation to their achievement and does this
impact vary based on the types of shows being viewed and does it vary based on
socioeconomic status?
54
The review of the literature indicates that heavy television viewers cultivate
messages and establish social norms and behaviors based on what is viewed, but
external factors can also influence the extent to which these messages are cultivated
(Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002; Greenberg, 1988; Mastro & Greenberg,
2000; Potter, 1986; Shrum, 2002; Ward, 2004). A viewer’s perception of reality and
a viewer’s mindset is a crucial factor in determining the amount of impact television
messages have on a person’s psyche and behavior. Cultivation theory (Gerbner et
al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002; Shrum, 2002) and the drench hypothesis (Greenberg,
1988; Potter, 1986; Shrum, 2002) are theoretical frameworks for analyzing
televisions influence and how it relates to individuals and external stimuli.
Media has various effects on different groups. The mass media provides
mainstream messages for the masses to consume; yet for minorities, and African
Americans in particular, there are few representations of these individuals on
television (Greenberg, 2002). Studies indicated that minorities enjoyed watching
minority-oriented television shows and related positively to the characters
(Greenberg, 1986, Greenberg et al., 2002; Nielsen Media Research, 2005; Richeson
& Pollydor, 2002; Ward, 2004); yet, the research presented differing sides as to
whether or not these minority-oriented shows were positive since the majority of the
portrayals were in situational comedies and sometimes demeaning roles (Means
Coleman, 2003; Richeson & Pollydor, 2002; UCLA, 2002).
55
Kubey (2004) and Schwarz (2005) mentioned that media literacy and the act
of analyzing and critiquing messages in the media was not prevalent in the actions of
most viewers, which could cause inappropriate messages to be fostered in the minds
of viewers. In addition to media literacy lacking in the school systems, there was not
an enormous amount of research on media and its impact on achievement (Ball et al.,
1986). Stroman (1991) indicated that television is a powerful tool and had potential
to shape the minds of viewers, especially adolescent students; hence, the need for
additional research.
Media has the potential to impact all viewers and minority viewers in
particular due to the stereotypical portrayals that are displayed to the masses and
adopted and believed by some (Mastro & Greenberg, 2000). The perpetuations of
negative images can be detrimental to viewers and alter the self-concepts of viewers.
Television is a powerful tool in the socialization of African American adolescents
(Signorielli, 1997; Stroman, 1991; Ward et al., 2005), who are watching tremendous
amounts of television (Kubey, 2004). Studies indicated that television shaped the
behaviors of African American students and that African American students looked
to the television to identify social norms (Gerson, 1968; Greenberg, 1986; Ward,
2004).
The portrayals on television can be powerful and can alter the self-concepts
of viewers. Measurements of self-concepts and social cognition theory analyze the
ways in which people feel about themselves and how it relates to various domains
(Byrnes, 1984; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). By measuring the amounts
56
of television viewed, the types of shows viewed, and other external stimuli that
influence, mold, and alter self-concepts and behaviors, perhaps there is a significant
relationship between television viewing, self-concepts, and achievement for African
American adolescents.
The following research questions were explored in this study:
1. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the self-concepts
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and self-concept?
2. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the achievement
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and achievement?
57
Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter describes the purpose of the study and the methodology that is
used to conduct the study. The sampling population is identified and the data
collection and analysis procedures are explained. Finally, the limitations,
delimitations, and ethical considerations are presented.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this quantitative study is to explore the relationships between
television viewing, self-concept, and achievement through the theoretical framework
of Cultivation Theory (Gerbner et al., 1986; Gerbner et al., 2002; Greenberg, 1988;
Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Potter, 1986; Shrum, 2002; Ward, 2004) and the notion
of self-concept (Byrnes, 1984; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Using
Gerbner et al.’s (2002) description of cultivation theory, after responding to
criticisms and alternative theories, such as the drench hypothesis (Greenberg, 1988;
Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Potter, 1986), the theory indicates that television
viewing cultivates messages in the minds of viewers, heavier viewing leads to more
cultivation, and the extent of cultivation is predicated on the current state of mind of
the viewer. Self-concepts are the perceptions individuals have about themselves that
are generated from their encounters with many factors in their environment (Byrnes,
1984; Dowson, Barker, & McInerney, 2003; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001),
which could include television. The questions that were researched are:
58
1. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the self-concepts
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and self-concept?
2. Is there a correlation between television viewing and the achievement
of 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students?
a. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship of females versus males?
b. If there is a correlation, is there a difference in the significance
of the relationship by socio-economic status (SES)?
c. Is there a correlation between the viewing of minority-oriented
media and achievement?
The hypotheses to the research questions are:
1. Television viewing is negatively correlated to self-concepts.
a. There is a greater statistical significance for females than males.
b. There is a greater statistical significance for low socio-economic
status students than middle to high socio-economic status students.
59
c. The viewing of minority-oriented media is positively correlated to
self-concepts.
2. Television viewing is negatively correlated to achievement.
a. There is a greater statistical significance for males than females.
b. There is a greater statistical significance for low socio-economic
status students than middle to high socio-economic status students.
c. The viewing of minority-oriented media is negatively correlated to
achievement.
This study compared the independent variables of television viewing, such as the
amount of television watched and the types of television watched, to the dependent
variables of self-concept and achievement, while controlling for race, gender, family
types, and socio-economic status.
Based on Creswell’s (2003) rationale for quantitative studies, the survey
method was chosen in order to collect a large amount of data quickly, to minimize
economic costs, which includes traveling to location of sample and time spent at
location, and to afford the controlling of variables, such as socio-economic status,
gender, family types, and race. The survey was distributed to students at four
schools in the Memphis City School District in Memphis, Tennessee and this
approach minimized time spent at each school.
Sample and Population
According to McKinnon’s (2003) report on the Black population of the
United States, 55% of African Americans live in the southern states and a majority of
60
Blacks live in major cities. Therefore, the city of Memphis, Tennessee was selected
since it is a major city in a southern state and it has the 21
st
largest school district
(Memphis City Schools, 2006a) in the United States; in addition to size and regional
location, 86% of the student population is African American (Memphis City Schools,
2006b).
The purposeful sample (Patton, 2002) included 165, 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade,
African American, high school students coming from four Memphis City Schools.
The descriptions of the schools are based on the State of Tennessee’s 2005 Report
Card (2005) and, for protection of the participants, the schools were labeled as
School A, School B, School C, and School D. School A had a student population of
790 students and 99.7% of the students were African American; 57.5% were
economically disadvantaged and the graduation rate (calculated as the rate of
students graduating on-time) was 48.2%. School B had a student population of
1,560 students and 99.8% of the students were African American; 88.6% were
economically disadvantaged and the graduation rate was 56.4%. School C had a
student population of 1,368 students and 99.1% of the students were African
American; 71.6% were economically disadvantaged and the graduation rate was
54.5%. Finally, School D had a student population of 2,065 students and 41.1%
were African American; 26.0% were economically disadvantaged and the graduation
rate was 85.0%. The four schools were selected to include a sample that had diverse
participants based on socio-economic status and met the criteria of being African
American students in a southern metropolitan school. Schools A, B, and C have
61
similar demographics, which include a high percentage of students with low socio-
economic status. To enhance the probability of a high response rate, multiple
schools with high percentages of economically disadvantage students were chosen.
The 165 students consisted of 21 ninth graders, 77 tenth graders, 65 eleventh
graders, with 2 students not declaring status. Out of these students, there were 64
males and 100 females, with 1 student not declaring status. Approximately 68% of
the students were on the free lunch program, indicating that most of the students
were considered to have lower socio-economic status. Family types varied with
55.8% of students living in single parent households and 28.5% of the students’
parents were currently married.
Ninth, tenth, and eleventh graders were selected since they are at a crucial
year in their high school career in regards to achievement. During the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh grade, students must complete portions of the Tennessee
Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) (Tennessee Department of Education,
2006) and will have the option to complete the ACT or PSAT. In addition to
achievement, this adolescent population is at a significant stage in their identity
development (Santrock, 2006).
In order to obtain access to the school sites, individual letters (Appendix A)
were submitted to the school principals to seek permission for conducting the study
at each school. The district had to approve the study as well.
62
Data Collection Procedures
The data needed to explore the mentioned research questions was gathered
during the Fall of 2006 at Schools A, B, C, and D in the Memphis City Schools
District based on the schedule provided by the principals and select group of teachers
of each school. Prior to collecting data, 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
grade students at schools
A, B, C, and D were given permission forms and consent forms that had to be signed
by student and parent in order to participate in the study (Appendix B). Once the
forms were completed and collected, paper-based surveys were administered to the
compliant 9
th
, 10
th
and 11
th
grade students during the school period allotted by the
principals and teachers of each school.
The quantitative study collected data through one compiled survey (Appendix
C) that included a self-concept measurement (Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept
Scale, 2
nd
Edition) and a television viewing measurement. The Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale, 2
nd
Edition (PHCSCS-2), which contains 60 items
that measure global self-concept as well as academic self-concept and other
constructs, was used to measure general self-concept and academic self-concept.
This frequently used (Strein, 1995) self-report presents questions that return a “yes”
or “no” response and took 10-15 minutes to complete.
For measuring aspects of television viewing, a survey (see Appendix C) was
used that modified questions from the Children’s Television-Viewing Habits
Questionnaire (Owens, Maxim, McGuinn, Nobile, Msall, & Alario, 1999), which has
23 items that retrospectively measure television viewing habits and Ward’s (2004)
63
survey used to collect viewing habits of African American high school students,
which includes items that address a list of network comedies and dramas from the
major networks (NBC, ABC, CBS, FOX, CW (formally UPN and WB)) and two
cable channels, BET and MTV. To enhance validity, these two surveys were
modified instead of creating an original survey. This survey collected demographic
information relating to gender, race, socio-economic status, and family type. The
completed survey had 38 items consisting of 36 closed-ended questions and 2 open-
ended questions that took 15-20 minutes to complete.
Data Analysis Procedures
Upon completion of the surveys, the data was stored and recorded in the
Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS). SPSS was used to conduct the
statistical analyses and the significance levels were set at p ≤ .05.
A correlation analysis and one-way analysis of variance was performed to
incorporate Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Howell, 2004) in order to measure the
relationships between the independent variables of television viewing that included
type of show/genre, time spent viewing television, and minority-oriented versus
majority oriented shows to the dependent variables of self-concept and achievement.
These relationships were compared while controlling for gender, race,
socioeconomic status (SES), family type and family size. See Figure 3.1 for the
graphical representation of the variables.
64

In addition to the correlation analysis and an analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey-
post hoc test was administered to determine the significance in multiple
comparisons.
To account for validity and reliability, PHCSCS-2 has validity scales that
recognize inconsistencies in responses to items. Such bad items were removed from
this portion of the compiled survey. The alpha coefficients are represented in Table
3.1.

65
Table 3.1

Piers-Harris 2 Reliability Statistics

Age group (Alpha)
Self-Concept Scale 13-14 15-16 17-18
Total Self-Concept .91 .93 .89
Academic Self-Concept .82 .82 .72
Note. Adapted from "Piers-Harris 2," by E. V. Piers & D. S. Herzberg,
2005, Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services, p.50.

For the background information and television viewing habits component of the
compiled survey, the outcome spaces for each of the 36 close-ended items have been
defined and coded to assist in the recording of the data. Using Cronbach’s Alpha as
shown in Table 3.2, reliability was measured to account for internal consistency.
Table 3.2

Television Viewing Habits Reliability
Statistics
Genre Questions
Cronbach's
Alpha
Talk shows .591
Dramas .929
Comedies .889
Reality TV .960
News Programs .706
Sports .785
Music Videos .927
Limitations and Delimitations
According to the research design, there were some limitations to the
study that must be mentioned. The purposeful sample of students was not a random
sample. Students were selected from the ninth, tenth and eleventh grades of specific
66
schools and additional limitations surfaced due to selection bias. Another limitation
was that the data was collected via self-report. This method of data collection relies
on the behavioral state of the respondent whose responses may be affected due to the
environment, current social state of respondent, anxiety towards responding, or other
external factors. These limitations were considered when analyzing the results of the
data.
The principal investigator also imposed delimitations to the study. The
purposeful sample was limited to the students who were available to participate on
the given days the principal investigator had access to the school. Due to traveling
constraints, the data was collected on certain days, which restricted the number of
days data could be gathered.
Ethical Considerations
The study was reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) before participants were contacted to
ensure that the study was conducted ethically and protected the participants. Letters
were sent to the principals of the schools and approval from the principals and the
district was received before any student was contacted. Upon approval, permission
forms were sent to all parents and students who had to sign consent forms before
starting the survey. All surveys were anonymous and participants were not
identifiable. The data will be stored for five years in the home of the principal
investigator; after which the documents will be shredded. The risk to the students
was minimal; however, potential impacts on the students were the emotional effects
67
that could come from self-reflection and the emotional thought of being compared to
others or habits being monitored.
Summary of Methodology
The final report of the research provides a detailed description of the findings
and includes tables displaying the significance of correlation between the variables
mentioned. The data indicates if the level of significance (p ≤ .05) occurred and if
the findings were significant. To verify that the interpretation of the data was
accurate, the principal investigator consulted with experienced analysts and
statisticians to ensure the data was interpreted appropriately.
68
Chapter 4: Results
This chapter presents the research findings from the study conducted with
165 African American students in grades ninth, tenth, and eleventh from four schools
in the Memphis City School District. The data were analyzed using correlation
analysis, the analysis of variance, and the Tukey-post hoc test for multiple
comparisons. The data will indicate whether or not a correlation exists between
television viewing and achievement, measured by grade point average, and self-
concept, including total self-concept and intellectual and school self-concept, labeled
as academic self-concept. The analysis of the data uses the conceptual framework of
the cultivation theory (Gerbner et al., 1986, 2002), which states that messages
presented by television have a stronger effect on those viewers who consume
messages more frequently. This notion is also supported by Ward (2004) who stated
that African American adolescents seem to be impacted more by television due to the
fact that their consumption habits are higher than other demographic subgroups.
Therefore, the viewing habits of heavy viewers will be analyzed as well as the
analysis of all viewers.
Television Viewing Habits
Television was watched frequently by the sample with 58.8% of the students
watching four hours or more television each day during Monday through Friday.
Most television watching occurred immediately after school and in the evenings.
Fifty-eight percent of the students had three or more televisions in their homes and
69
50.3% of the students usually watched television alone. Even though 68% of the
students were on the free lunch program, 84.2% of the students had cable, satellite
TV, or the Dish Network and 89.1% of the students had a television in their room.
Television was watched primarily for entertainment (50.3%) and in many cases out
of boredom (31.4%); very few turned on the small screen for educational purposes
(12.8%).
On average, the genre of shows watched most frequently were comedies,
with 32.7% watching six hours or more each week and music videos, with 50.3%
watching six hours or more each week. When analyzing all male and female
viewers, scale ranging from (0) Never watched this season to (4) almost every day,
males watched sports (M = 2.1579; p = .000) significantly more than females (M =
.6573). For the genres of talk shows, dramas, reality TV, news, and music videos,
females watched significantly more and the genre of comedy did not have a
statistical difference. Females also watched minority-oriented shows (M = 2.15; p =
.005) significantly more than males (M = 1.72). Students in the free lunch program
watched talk shows (p = .041), dramas (p = .047), comedies (p = .006), reality TV (p
= .050), and music videos (p = .012) significantly more than students not in the
program. In addition, students in the free lunch program watched significantly (M =
2.11; p = .024) more minority-oriented shows than non-free lunch program students
(M = 1.76). Students whose parents were never married watched talk shows
significantly (M = 1.001; p = .020) more than students whose parents were (M =
.6639) divorced, separated or widowed.
70
In order to capture the viewing habits of heavy viewers, the shows watched
most frequently were summed by genre and analyzed. For heavy viewers of genres,
males watched sports shows significantly (M = 36.549; p = .000) more than females
(M = 6.80), which was consistent with Ward’s (2004) study; females watched talk
shows (M = 10.52; p = .014) and reality TV shows (M = 21.85; p = .011)
significantly more than males (M = 5.000 and M = 12.87 respectively). Females also
watched minority-oriented shows (M = 37.33; p = .009) more than males (M =
25.95). There was not a significant difference in the typical genre viewing habits of
heavy viewing students in the free lunch program versus students not in the program;
there was also no significant variance for viewing minority-oriented shows. Also,
students whose parents had college degrees watched significantly (M = 30.68; p =
.048) more sports programs than students whose parents had an Associates degree or
some college (M = 14.17). For students who were raised by their mother and
extended family, there was significantly more (M = 22.31; p = .014) viewing of
comedies than for students raised by their mother and father (M = 13.03).
When students were asked to list their favorite shows, there was a high
frequency of minority-oriented shows listed, such as 106 and Park, That’s So Raven,
and The Fresh Prince of Bel Air. In addition to favorite shows, there were strong
indications of certain shows being watched more frequently than other shows by the
sample as a whole. Table 4.1 indicates the average viewing rate of frequently
viewed prime time television shows on a scale of (0) Never/Not this season, (1)
71
About once a month, (2) Every other week, (3) Almost every week, and (4) Every
week.
Table 4.1
Prime Time Television Viewing Frequency
Genre/Show N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Talk Shows
Maury Povich 156 2.08 1.687
News
BET's The Student Center 146 1.51 1.699
Sports
Sunday Night Football 151 1.58 1.691
Reality TV
America's Funniest Home Videos 149 1.58 1.42
Keyshia Cole 149 2.26 1.775
DMX: Soul of Man 149 1.68 1.69
College Hill 149 2.52 1.671
The Real World 147 1.81 1.623
Real World/Road Rules Challenge 145 1.53 1.663
Run's House 150 2.29 1.599
Pimp My Ride 150 2.31 1.434
Yo Mamma 148 2.44 1.486
Making the Band 3 146 2.11 1.666
My Super Sweet Sixteen 148 2.27 1.606
Nick Cannon's Wild N' Out 140 2.96 1.349
Room Raiders 148 1.93 1.519
72
Table 4.1 (continued)
Genre/Show N Mean
Std.
Deviation
MADE 1491.821.677
True Life 149 1.64 1.705
Sucker Free 146 1.91 1.623
Comedy
The Simpsons 152 1.82 1.527
American Dad 151 1.58 1.675
Family Guy 152 2.34 1.557
Everybody Hates Chris 150 2.35 1.593
All of Us 149 2.54 1.558
Girlfriends 1442.561.536
America's Next Top Model 150 1.95 1.656
Wayans Brothers 152 2.96 1.342
Jamie Foxx Show 151 3.08 1.283
The Parkers 150 2.75 1.497
Girlfriends - Syndication on BET 148 2.71 1.513
In Living Color 148 2.17 1.651
Comic View 148 2.61 1.615
Music Videos
Rap City Top 10 151 2.64 1.542
Top 25 Countdown 146 2.75 1.499
Hotwyred 1471.591.712
106 & Park 152 3.07 1.372
Access Granted 148 2.84 1.492
73
Table 4.1 (continued)
Genre/Show N Mean
Std.
Deviation
The Black Carpet 148 2.07 1.73
After Dark 15 2.03 1.728
TRL 1481.761.605
MTV2 1482.091.54
Note. The values represent the frequency average of shows watched on a scale
of 0 to 4; 0) Never/Not this season, 1) About once a month, 2) Every other
week, 3) Almost every week, and 4) Every week.

The two most frequently watched shows listed in Table 4.1, The Jamie Foxx Show
and 106 & Park, are both minority-oriented shows with majority of the cast being
African American. The comedy The Jamie Foxx Show, which is presented in
syndication on BET, depicts a cast of African American characters who manage a
Black family owned hotel where the main character, played by Jamie Foxx, is
comical while flirting with his attractive female co-worker and poking fun at his
more traditionally educated male co-worker. The music video show 106 & Park,
also shown on BET, showcases the most popular videos and guest stars in the urban
markets. The show is hosted by an attractive male and female and the studio
audience is occupied by very much engaged minority teenagers. The data presented
above indicates the frequency of viewing among the sample and the next set of
results will explain the relation to achievement and self-concepts.
74
Television Viewing and Self-Concepts
H1: Television viewing is negatively correlated to self-concepts.
Using Piers-Harris 2 self-concept measuring survey, the 165 students
completed the questionnaire and were measured on their total self-concepts and their
academic self-concept. These correlations were determined by comparing the self-
concepts to the viewing habits of specific televisions genres. For all viewers, the
correlations between the total self-concept and television viewing were extremely
low. There was a significant, very small, yet positive correlation (.185), between
total self-concept and average watching of reality TV shows. In relation to academic
self-concept, the significant correlations (with p ≤ 0.05) were also extremely small,
yet positive in the average viewing of the genres of reality TV (.192), news (.197),
and music videos (.189). Table 4.2 lists the findings for all genres. When comparing
genres of shows watched every week, there was a significant correlation (.186),
although small, between academic self-concept and watching news programs.
Interestingly, the other measures of self-concept that attribute to one’s total self-
concept, physical appearance, popularity, and happiness and satisfaction, show
stronger correlations and all correlations were positive. The strongest significant
correlation (.332) was between the self-concept of physical appearance and the
viewing of music videos. The second strongest significant correlation (.255) was
between the self-concept of popularity and the viewing of sports.

75
Table 4.2
Self-concept and Television Viewing Correlations

Average
Talk Show
Viewing
Average
Drama
Viewing
Average
Comedy
Viewing
Average
Reality TV
Viewing
Average
News
Viewing
Average
Sports
Viewing
Average
Music
Video
Viewing
Total Self-Concept -.074 .073 -.054 .185* .120 .119 .178
Intellectual and
School Self-Concept .022 .135 -.066 .192* .197* .065 .189*

Talk
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Dramas
Watched
Every
Week
Comedies
Watched
Every
Week
Reality TV
Watched
Every
Week
News
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Sports
Shows/
Events
Watched
Every
Week
Music
Video
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Total Self-Concept -.036 -.023 -.149 .084 .107 .049 .086
Intellectual and
School Self-Concept .027 .037 -.139 .124 .186* -.003 .118
* p < .05

76

These results proved the hypothesis to be false since the data indicated that there was
not a strong negative correlation between television viewing and self-concepts, both
total self-concept and academic self-concept. Also, the small correlation that was
demonstrated was positive, not negative.
Although the correlation was not strong, the data were further analyzed by
males versus females, low socio-economic status versus middle to higher socio-
economic status, and minority-oriented viewing based on the viewing habits of
heavy viewers who watched genres of programs for six or more hours a week. These
findings are shown in Table 4.3 and they indicate for the genres of television that had
significant correlations, excluding the viewing of news programs which on average
had low viewing frequencies, the self-concepts of heavy viewers of reality TV and
music videos. As revealed in the table, the self-concepts, both total and academic,
did not vary significantly between males and females or between low socio-
economic status students and middle to high socio-economic status students. In
addition to minimal variance, students had average to above average total and
academic self-concepts.
Aside from comparing gender and socio-economic status, there were no
significant correlations between total self-concept (r = .058; p = .471) or academic
self-concept (r = .114; p = .154) to the heavy viewing amounts of minority-oriented
shows. However, when analyzing all viewers of minority-oriented shows, there were
significant, yet small correlations, for total self-concept (r = .166; p = .038) and
academic self-concept (r = .200; p = .012).

77
Table 4.3
Self-concept and Television Viewing for Six or More Hours a Week
Average Reality TV Viewing Average Music Video Viewing

Are you on the free
lunch program Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N
Total Self-Concept Yes 49.23 6.99 28 49.34 6.90 60
No 49.66 5.43 6 49.91 7.81 22
Intellectual and
School Self-Concept Yes 13.39 2.13 28 13.27 1.89 60
No 13.00 2.37 6 13.26 2.46 22

Average Reality TV Viewing Average Music Video Viewing
Gender Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N
Total Self-Concept Male 48.76 5.93 12 50.24 5.84 28
Female 49.59 7.16 22 49.1 7.71 54
Intellectual and
School Self-Concept Male 12.33 2.21 12 13.07 1.70 28
Female 13.86 1.93 22 13.41 2.21 54
Raw self-concept scores shown.
78

Television Viewing and Achievement
H2: Television viewing is negatively correlated to achievement.
The television viewing habits portion of the survey captured demographical
information about each respondent, including information about their achievement in
school. As a whole, students had good grade point averages with majority of the
students earning 3.0 or higher GPA on a 5.0 scale and earning As and Bs in English,
Mathematics, Social Sciences and Science. Some students did not list their GPA and
grades in certain classes. This could be because the student chose to omit the
question, did not know their current GPA or was not taking a subject matter during
the Fall school session. The details of the GPAs and grades are listed in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
Achievement -
GPA and Grades
Percentage
5.0 - 4.0 12.7%
3.99 - 3.0 44.7%
2.99 - 2.0 22.9%
1.99 - 0 4.8%
Missing Data 14.5%
A B C D F Missing Data
English 25.5% 27.9% 14.5% 2.4% 1.2% 28.5%
Mathematics 23.0% 27.3% 12.7% 4.8% 3.0% 29.1%
Social Studies 28.5% 17.0% 7.3% 1.8% 1.2% 44.2%
Science 30.3% 24.8% 10.9% 3.0% 1.8% 29.1%
79

Television viewing in relationship to achievement has been found to have a
negative correlation by other researchers (Ball et al., 1986, US Department of
Education, 1994). When reviewing the viewing habits of all students by genre, the
results (Table 4.5) showed a negative correlation in all genres measured and there
was a significant negative correlation (p ≤ .05) for the genres of comedy (-.200) and
sports (-.205). However, when reviewing the viewing habits by genre of the students
that watched shows every week, which constitutes heavier viewing, there was a
significant negative correlation for the genres of comedy (-.219), sports (-.225) and
music videos (-.223). Although the negative correlations were not found to be very
strong correlations, the hypothesized direction of correlation was found to be true.

80

Table 4.5
Grade Point Average (GPA) and Television Viewing Correlations

Average
Talk Show
Viewing
Average
Drama
Viewing
Average
Comedy
Viewing
Average
Reality TV
Viewing
Average
News
Viewing
Average
Sports
Viewing
Average
Music
Video
Viewing
Grade Point
Average (GPA) -.112 -.086 -.200* -.069 -.096 -.205* -.166

Talk
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Dramas
Watched
Every
Week
Comedies
Watched
Every
Week
Reality TV
Watched
Every
Week
News
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Sports
Shows/
Events
Watched
Every
Week
Music
Video
Shows
Watched
Every
Week
Grade Point
Average (GPA) -.118 -.116 -.219** -.153 -.098 -.225** -.223**
* p < .05
** p < .01

81

As with the correlations of television viewing and self-concepts, the data for
television viewing and achievement was further analyzed by males versus females,
low socio-economic status versus middle to higher socio-economic status, and
minority-oriented shows. The GPAs of heavy viewers of minority-oriented content
were significantly negatively correlated (r = -.189; p = .028) to their viewing habits.
The analysis of gender and socio-economic status also focuses on the heavier
viewers, students who watched six hours or more a week, in the genres with
significant correlations: comedies, sports, and music videos. Table 4.6 shows the
findings, which indicate that there was a greater difference, yet not significant,
between males and females in the genre of sports. Heavy male viewers had a higher
GPA (M = 3.243) than female viewers (M = 3.067). Heavy female viewers had
higher GPAs, but not significantly, than heavy male viewers in the genres of
comedies and music videos. Also in the genre of sports, heavy middle to upper
socio-economic status viewers had significantly higher GPAs (M = 3.533; p = .058)
than heavy low socio-economic status viewers (M = 2.990). Heavy middle to upper
socio-economic status viewers had higher GPAs than lower socio-economic status
viewers in the genres of comedies and music videos; yet the difference was not
significant in these genres.

82
Table 4.6
GPA and Television Viewing for Six or More Hours a Week
Average Comedy Viewing Average Sports Viewing Average Music Video Viewing

Are you on
the free lunch
program Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N
Grade
Point
Average Yes 3.1 .5861 35 2.990 .6488 20 3.040 .6386 57
No 3.362 .5839 13 3.533 .6095 12 3.230 .7378 20

Average Comedy Viewing Average Sports Viewing Average Music Video Viewing
Gender Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N Mean
Std.
Deviation N
Grade
Point
Average Male 3.128 .6095 18 3.243 .7223 23 2.975 .7875 24
Female 3.197 .5887 30 3.067 .5723 9 3.142 .6043 53

83

Summary of Results
The analysis showed that there was not a strong correlation between the
viewing habits of African American 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th
graders and their total self-
concept and academic self-concept. The significant, although small, correlations
were found to be positive correlations in the genres of reality TV, news, and music
videos for average viewers and in the genre of news programming for heavy viewers.
There was not a significant difference in the correlations found in any genre for
males versus females or based on socio-economic status. Yet, for average viewers of
minority-oriented content, there was a small, significant, positive correlation for total
self-concept and academic self-concept.
The analysis also indicated that there was not a strong correlation between
the viewing habits of the sample and their achievement, measured by grade point
average. The significant correlations were found to be negative correlations for
average viewing in the genres of comedies and sports; and significant correlations
were found to be negative correlations for heavy viewers in the genres of comedies,
sports, and music videos. When comparing heavy viewing students by gender, males
had higher achievement scores than females in the genre of sports; otherwise the
grade point averages were not significantly different. The results also indicated that
heavy viewers with low socio-economic status had lower achievement scores than
heavy viewing middle to upper socioeconomic students in the genres of comedies,
videos, and the greatest difference in sports. Negative correlations were also found
84

between GPA and minority-oriented shows, with a significant correlation for heavy
viewers of minority-oriented shows.

85

Chapter 5: Discussion
This study revealed information about the viewing habits of African
American adolescents in relation to their achievement and self-concepts. The study
was conducted due to the fact that there was limited research on the impact of
television on African American adolescents and this population consumes a large
amount of television (Greenberg et al., 2002; Viadero & Johnston, 2000; Ward,
2004) while historically performing less in school compared to other non-minority
students.
Is there a correlation between television viewing and the self concepts of 9
th
,
10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students? The results indicated that there was
not a strong correlation between the viewing habits and self-concepts of the 9
th
, 10
th
,
and 11
th
grade African American adolescents. This was not a complete revelation
since Ward (2004) stated, “Media exposure has not emerged as a consistently
negative correlate of Black children’s self-esteem” (p. 286). These results could
indicate, as some research suggests (O’Connor et al., 2000; Signorielli, 1997; Ward,
2004) that African Americans are able to maintain positive self-concepts despite the
images presented on television and perhaps the viewing of minority-oriented shows
supports positive self-concepts. There are many contributors to self-concept, such as
parental encouragement and approval from peers (Duke, 2000; Ward, 2004), which
could have contributed to the lacking strong correlation with television viewing.
Also, as Pajares and Schunk (2001) stated, minorities tend to have high self-
86

concepts. Another issue that may have contributed to the findings is some of the
shows viewed frequently in the prime time listing were not minority-oriented shows.
Minority viewers tend to relate stronger to characters that are similar to them (Duke,
2000; Ward, 2004) and finding such shows can be challenging since television
viewers have few options and watch what is provided by the networks (Greenberg et
al., 1986, Oliver, 2002).
There were significant positive correlations found in the genres of reality TV
and music videos although the correlations were not strong. Ward (2004) found
similar results with a variance of the correlation between self-esteem and television
viewing based on genre. The assumption in this study was that there would have
been a negative correlation at least for females watching music videos. Even though
African American men are often presented negatively in the media (Hirst, 2005),
other research has shown that music videos have quite a negative impact on female
adolescents (Signorielli, 1997; Ward et al., 2005); yet, studies also show that females
tend to rely more on their in-person female role models to define their image (Duke,
2000).
There were no significant differences when analyzing males versus females
or lower socio-economic students versus middle to upper socio-economic students,
while minority-oriented viewing showed significant positive correlation for average
viewers. As a whole the students watched a lot of television, yet had relatively high
self-concepts.
87

Is there a correlation between television viewing and the achievement of 9
th
,
10
th
, and 11
th
grade African American students? The results indicate that there was a
negative correlation, although not strong, between the viewing habits of the 9
th
, 10
th
,
and 11
th
grade African American adolescents, with comedy, sports, and music video
having the strongest correlations. This finding is supported by the US Department of
Education’s (1994) study where heavy viewing was shown to negatively affect
academic achievement for children and Ball et al.’s (1986) study where heavy
viewing was associated with lower IQ’s for adolescents. There are many other
factors that influence the educational achievement of a student, such as socio-
economic status (Viadero & Johnston, 2000) and the results indicated that lower
socio-economic students varied from middle to upper socio-economic students in the
genres of comedies, sports – significantly, and music videos. Males and females did
not vary significantly from each other, but the strongest variance was for the genre of
sports where males scored higher in their achievement. For those students who
watched minority-oriented shows, there was a significant negative correlation with
their achievement.
Implications
The fact remains that African American adolescents are watching a large
amount of television and parents and educators need to be aware of the impact
certain shows are having on this group. An overwhelming amount of students
watched 106 & Park and The Jamie Foxx Show frequently and parents and educators
88

need to be cognizant of the messages that are being presented on these shows and
how to interpret the messages through multimedia literacy. Since most students
indicated television was watched out of entertainment, perhaps these students were
able to fantasize when watching television and mentally departmentalize their
personal goals and perception of self.
In relation to achievement, which had the strongest of the correlations
analyzed and a negative correlation, parents and educators need to continue to
address the concern of heavy viewers and whether or not continuous viewing is
consuming their time and taking students away from their studies or if viewing
certain programs devalues students’ desire to perform well in school. Majority of
these students were moderate to high performing students; however, Arroyo and
Zigler (1995) commented how some African American students are not valuing
education as much and presume that academics does not necessarily lead to success.
One concern for lower socio-economic students who are heavy viewers of sports and
music videos is that there may exist a form of escapism and fantasy that sports and
entertainment are the only means for altering the current financial status they find
their families in. Parents and educators must expose these heavy viewers to
educational alternatives and other outlets for growth and development. In addition to
exposure, parents and educators, especially proponents of multimedia literacy, must
engage in deeper conversation about viewing media and how it is relating to a
student. For example, if a student is casually discussing watching a sports event on
television, one must delve into the psychological reasons for watching the show and
89

how it influences the adolescent versus discussing the event at the surface level.
Students as well as the influencers around them should become more critical
consumers of the messages presented on television. These programs, perhaps to
some students, are more than just a thirty minute episodes, but could be life altering
moments.
Limitations and Recommendations
A larger sample size would have been preferred since correlations were being
analyzed. The sample size of 165 was approximately 85 less students than the
desired amount. This limitation occurred due to the limited travel time for the
principal investigator, which led to limited access to students. A survey time of at
least two weeks would be recommended in order to visit four schools and have
ample time at each school. Ideally if the study could have been integrated into an
English course in relation to multimedia literacy, perhaps more students would have
completed the survey and would have taken the project more seriously.
Another limitation with the study was selection bias. Many of the students
were either in honors classes, labeled as the “good students,” or were labeled to be in
the class with the “good teachers.” These classes, not selected by the principal
investigator, were primarily chosen by many of the principals since the thought was
that the students in these classes were more disciplined and the teachers were
prepared in their lesson plans and could offer time to conduct the survey in their
classes. Conducting the survey with all teachers and students in the schools would
90

be recommended to have a better representation of the school and the student body.
However, the results were still valuable and provided insight on African American
students that happened to be moderate to high achievers.
Future Research
More research needs to be done on the topic of television viewing habits in
general for all groups, but especially minority adolescents, who are consuming
television in large amounts. Other minority groups should be surveyed, particularly
the Latino population. With Latino networks emerging and more young students
already being bilingual, this would be an important population to explore.
Additional research should be done on low performing African American students.
When conducting this research, majority of the students who participated in the
survey performed fairly well in school; further information needs to be learned about
the low performing African American students who represent the academic disparity
that exists.
Aside from targeted groups, the methods in which traditional television
programs are being distributed are changing with webisodes, downloading
capabilities, on-demand viewing and iPODS. Adolescents will have even more
access to content and will begin to determine what is viewed and when. As the
culture of television viewing evolves, additional studies will need to be conducted to
analyze cultivation theory further.
91

Conclusion
Television is a powerful medium that lives in the homes of many Americans
and entertains and informs the community of what is presumed to be acceptable
norms. Multimedia literacy is essential for all students to interpret the messages that
are portrayed and presented. After reflecting on this project, I think another
interesting study would be to survey other ethnicities on their perceptions of African
Americans to determine how others digest the images presented. Perchance the self-
concepts and achievement scores of African American students are not significantly
affected by television because they know personally that the representations either do
not represent them directly or they are able to differentiate exaggerations from
realities. However, a stronger concern is for the remaining 200 plus million
Americans who may have miniscule interactions with African Americans and only
have the television as their exposure to a very diverse group of people. Perceptions
on television need to be balanced and have an adequate representation of all types of
people that exist in America. Perhaps then the images of all people would be
accurately represented.

92

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99

Appendices
Appendix A: Sample Letter to Principals
Dear Principal Name:

I am a student in the Doctorate of Education program at the University of Southern
California conducting a quantitative study on the impact of television on the self-
concepts and achievement of high school students. This study is for use in my
dissertation and is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree. I am
requesting permission to conduct a survey with your ninth, tenth, and eleventh grade
students.

In this study, I will collect data relating to background information, descriptions of
television viewing habits of students, measure their level of self-concept, and record
their achievement scores (i.e. GPA, ACT, PSAT). The survey process will take 45
minutes to complete. Participation is voluntary and confidential; there will be no
identifiers of the students or the school and participants may withdraw from this
study at any time without consequence. Upon completion of the study, I will share
the findings with you and participants. This study is significant in that it contributes
to an emerging body of knowledge on the impact of television on the achievement of
high school students.

This study is scheduled to take place during the Fall of 2006. If possible, I would
like to survey the entire ninth, tenth and eleventh grade student body during a 45
minute period on one of these dates, November 20-21, 2006; however, I will
accommodate your schedule as best as possible.

I sincerely hope that you are willing to participate in the study. Participation in this
study provides your school the opportunity to contribute to understanding of the
effects of television. If this meets with your approval, please sign the attached
“Research Site Permission Letter,” on school letterhead and return it to me in the
self-addressed stamped envelope. Please do not hesitate to contact me at 818-720-
4428 with additional questions.

Sincerely,

Jaclyn Conner
University of Southern California
Ed.D. Program
100

Appendix B: Parental Consent Form
University of Southern California
University of Southern California, Waite Phillips Hall, Suite 802, Los Angeles, CA
90089

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

Your child is being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Jaclyn
Conner, from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California because your child is in the 9
th
, 10
th
, or 11
th
grade. This study is for use in
Jaclyn Conner’s dissertation and is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree. A total of 250 subjects will be selected from four schools in the Memphis
City School District to participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should read
the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand,
before deciding whether or not to participate.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study is designed to explore the amount of television that is viewed by
African American adolescents and its relation to their academic achievement. The
purpose of the study is to learn whether a relationship exists between television and
academic success of high school students and what factors influence the relationship.
Four schools will be given questionnaires and 250 students will hopefully
participate. All students of all ethnicities are invited to participate in the study.

PROCEDURES
If you allow your child to participate in this study, your child will be asked to
complete a survey. Students who have permission to take the survey must return the
permission slips to the teacher. Principal Investigator will collect the permission slips
upon arrival to the school; the principal investigator will survey the 3 schools on
three different days during the Fall of 2006 (Nov. 17, 20, 21). All 9
th
, 10
th
, and 11
th

grade students who have turned in permission slips will be eligible to take the
survey. The survey will take 45 minutes to complete. Upon completion, students
will turn in survey to folder designated by the principal investigator.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no risks to your child’s participation. Your child may feel a little
uncomfortable with some questions, or your child may feel inconvenienced in
completing the survey questions.

101

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Your child may not directly benefit from his/her participation. It is hoped that the
results of this study will inform parents, educators, policymakers, and television
show creators about the impact of television on youth.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Your child will not receive payment for his/her participation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will not be any information obtained in connection with this study that can be
identified with your child. Only the Principal Investigator and research team will
have access to the data associated with this study. The data will be collected via
survey. Surveys are anonymous. Data will be stored on a computer located in the
home of the Principal Investigator. Only the Principal Investigator and research
team will be able to access the data. Your child’s teachers or school will not be able
to access the data. The data will remain on the computer for five years. After this
time frame, the data will be destroyed. When the results of the research are published
or discussed in conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your
child’s identity.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your child’s participation in this research is VOLUNTARY. He/she does not have
to participate in this research, if they don’t want to. Your child can stop his/her
participation at any time, without consequences. Your child does not have to answer
any questions he/she does not want to answer. (e.g., simply stop answering the
questions, turn in an incomplete survey/questionnaire).

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
Your child may withdraw his/her consent at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty. Your child is not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies
because of his/her participation in this research study. If you have questions
regarding your child’s rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB,
Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall,
Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions about the research, you may contact Jaclyn Conner at
jdconner@gmail.com or 213-740-9323 or address provided above, with any
questions that you might have about this research.

102

SIGNATURE OF PARENT

I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have
been given a chance to ask questions. My questions have been answered to my
satisfaction, and I agree to have our child participate in this study. I have been given
a copy of this form.

Name of Child

Name of Parent

Signature of Parent Date

Date of Preparation: October 24, 2006
UPIRB#: UP-06-00325

USC University Park
Institutional Review Board
Approval Date: 11/8/2006
Expiration Date: 11/7/2007
UP-06-00325
103

Appendix C: Survey

104

105

I. Background Information:
1. Date: _________________

2. Grade Level: ________________

3. Gender: __ Male __ Female (Check one)
4. Grade Point Average (GPA): _________

5. ACT
®
: _____ Score ____ Never Taken ___ Do Not Know

6. Preliminary SAT
®
(PSAT): _____ Score ____ Never Taken ___
Do Not Know
7. Race/Ethnicity:

__ White
__ African American/Black
__ Hispanic/Latino
__ Asian/Pacific Islander
__ American Indian/Alaskan Native
__ Other: ________________________
(specify)

8. Current Grade in the following subjects:

__ English
__ Mathematics
__ Social Studies/History
__ Science
9. Family Type:

__ Two parent
household
__ Single parent
household
__ Other
10. Are your parents:

__ Married
__ Never Married
__ Divorced
__ Separated
__ Widowed
11. Family Size:

__ Two members
__ Three members
__ Four members
__ Five or more members
12. Are you in the free lunch
program:

__ Yes
__ No
13. Mother’s Educational
Attainment:

__ Less than high school
__ High school graduate
__ Some college or associate
degree
__ Bachelor’s degree or more
__ Do not know
14. Father’s Educational Attainment:

__ Less than high school
__ High school graduate
__ Some college or associate degree
__ Bachelor’s degree or more
__ Do not know

15. Who took care of you during the majority
of your childhood years:
__ mother and father
__ mother alone
__ father alone
__ mother and extended family
__ father and extended family
__ mother, father, and extended family
__ extended family only

106
II. Television Viewing
1. How frequently on weekdays (Monday – Friday)
do you watch television:

__ 1 hour or less a day
__ 2-3 hours a day
__ 4-5 hours a day
__ 6 hours or more a day
__ Never
2. On weekdays (Monday – Friday), when do you most often
watch television:

__ Before school
__ After school (4pm – 6pm)
__ Evening (6pm – 11pm)
__ During school
__ Never

3. How frequently on Saturday do you watch
television:

__ 1 hour or less a day
__ 2-3 hours a day
__ 4-5 hours a day
__ 6 hours or more a day
__ Never
4. On Saturday - Sunday, when do you most often watch
television:

__ 8am – 12pm
__ 12pm – 6pm
__ 6pm – 11pm
__ 11pm – 8am
__ Never

5. How frequently on Sunday do you watch
television:

__ 1 hour or less a day
__ 2-3 hours a day
__ 4-5 hours a day
__ 6 hours or more a day
__ Never

6. On Sunday, when do you most often watch television:

__ 8am – 12pm
__ 12pm – 6pm
__ 6pm – 11pm
__ 11pm – 8am
__ Never

7. How many televisions are there in your home:

__ 0 – 1 television
__ 2 – 3 televisions
__ 3 – 5 televisions
__ 5 or more televisions
8. When you watch television, are you usually:

__ Alone
__ With family
__ With friends
__ With family and friends

107
__ Other: ___________________________ (please explain)
9. Do you have cable, satellite TV or dish:

__ Yes __ No
10. Do you have a television in your room:

__ Yes __ No

11. Do you watch television in the morning before
school:

__ Yes __ No

12. Do you watch television for (check all that apply):
__ Entertainment
__ Out of boredom
__ Educational purposes
__ As a reward
__ Other: ___________________________ (please explain)

108
. How many hours a week do you spend watching the following:

A. Soap Operas
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

B. Dramas
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

C. Comedies
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

D. Cartoons
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

E. Sports
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

F. Reality TV
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

G. Music Videos
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

H. Daytime Talk shows (such as Oprah, Dr. Phil, Ellen)
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

I. Late night Talk Shows (such as Jay Leno, David Letterman)
__ 4 hour or less a week __ 4-6 hours a week __ 6-8 hours a week __ 8 hours or more a week __ Never

14. What is your favorite television show? _______________________________________

15. Who is your favorite television character? Character: __________________ on what show ______________

16. Use this scale to rate how you feel about this character: Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

109
Disagree
(0)
(1) (2) (3) Agree
(4)
A. I like what this character is about.
B. I can see myself responding and behaving to situations in
the same way this character does.

C. I would like to have the type of life that this character has.
D. This character is the type of friend I would like to have.
E. This character does things I would like to do or try.
F. I would like to look and dress the way this character does.
G. I can easily relate to this character’s life and problems.
H. This character is the type of person I would like to be.

IIIa. Types of Shows: Popular Talk Shows
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
A few times a
month
(1)
Once a week
(2)
Couple times
a week
(3)
Almost
every day
(4)
Montel
Oprah
Jerry Springer
Jenny Jones
Ricki Lake
Maury Povich

IIIb. Types of Shows: CBS PRIMETIME FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Cold Case
CSI

110
CSI: NY
CSI: Miami
Smith
Jericho
NCIS
The Unit
Without a Trace
Numb3rs
Ghost Whisperer
Criminal Minds
Close to Home
Crimetime Saturday
48 Hour Mystery
Shark

COMEDIES: - - - - -
The Class
How I Met Your Mother
Two and a Half Men
The New Adventures of Old
Christine

REALITY TV: - - - - -
The Amazing Race
Survivor: Cook Islands
NEWS: - - - - -
60 minutes

111
IIIc. Types of Shows: NBC PRIMETIME FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip
Kidnapped
Friday Night Lights
Heroes
Raines
The Black Donnellys
ER
Law & Order: SVU
Law & Order
Law & Order: Criminal Intent
Las Vegas
Drama Series Encores
Crossing Jordan

SPORTS: - - - - -
Sunday Night Football

COMEDIES: - - - - -
30 Rock
20 Good Years
The Singles Table
My Name is Earl
The Office
Andy Barker, P.I.

REALITY TV: - - - - -
America’s Got Talent
The Apprentice

112
The Biggest Loser
Deal or No Deal

NEWS: - - - - -
Dateline Saturday

IIId. Types of Shows: ABC PRIMETIME FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Brothers & Sisters
Men in Trees
The Nine
Six Degrees
Day Break
Traveler
Boston Legal
Lost
Grey’s Anatomy

SPORTS: - - - - -
ABC Sports

COMEDIES: - - - - -
Betty the Ugly
Desperate Housewives
Big Day
Help Me Help You
Knights of Prosperity
Notes from the Underbelly

113
What About Brian
In Case of Emergency

REALITY TV: - - - - -
The Bachelor: Rome
Extreme Makeover: Home Edition
Wife Swap
Dancing with the Stars
America’s Funniest Home Videos
Dancing with the Stars Results

NEWS: - - - - -
20/20

IIIe. Types of Shows: FOX PRIMETIME FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Vanished
Justice
Standoff
Prison Break
House
Bones
The O.C.
COPS
America’s Most Wanted: America
Fights Back

COMEDIES: - - - - -

114
‘Til Death
Happy Hour
The Winner
The Simpsons
American Dad
Family Guy
The War at Home

REALITY TV: - - - - -
Duets
Talk Show with Spike Feresten
Nanny 911
Trading Spouses: Meet Your New
Mommy

IIIf. Types of Shows: CW (Formerly WB & UPN) PRIMETIME FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Runaway
7
th
Heaven
Gilmore Girls
Veronica Mars
One Tree Hill
Smallville
Supernatural
SPORTS: - - - - -
Friday Night Smackdown
COMEDIES: - - - - -
The Game
Everybody Hates Chris

115
All of Us
Girlfriends
REALITY TV: - - - - -
America’s Next Top Model

IIIg. Types of Shows: BET SUMMER/FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
DRAMAS: - - - - -
Soul Food
Blackbuster Movie of the Week

SPORTS: - - - - -
Black College Football

COMEDIES: - - - - -
Wayans Brothers
Jamie Foxx Show
The Parkers
Girlfriends
In Living Color
Comic View

REALITY TV: - - - - -
Keyshia Cole: The Way It Is
DMX: Soul of a Man
College Hill

MUSIC VIDEOS: - - - - -
BET’s Morning Inspiration
Bobby Jones Gospel

116
Video Gospel
Lift Every Voice
Rap City Top 10
Top 25 Countdown
Hotwyred
106 & Park
Access Granted
The Black Carpet
Jazz Special
After Dark

NEWS: - - - - -
Meet the Faith
The Chop Up
The Student Center

IIIh. Types of Shows: MTV SUMMER/FALL 2006
Please indicate how often you
watch the following shows during
this school term:
Never/Not
this season
(0)
About once a
month
(1)
Every other
week
(2)
Almost every
week
(3)
Every week
(4)
REALITY TV: - - - - -
The Real World
Road Rules
Real World/Road Rules
Challenge

Run’s House
Pimp My Ride
Yo Mama
Making the Band 3
My Super Sweet Sixteen
Nick Cannon Presents Wild N’
Out

117
Room Raiders
8
th
and Ocean
MADE
True Life
Cheyenne
Sucker Free
Why Can’t I Be You?
Jamie Kennedy’s Blowin Up
Laguna Beach
The Hills
Fast Inc
Fresh Meat
Final Fu
NEXT

MUSIC VIDEOS: - - - - -
TRL
MTV2

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Television is a medium that transmits messages to mass audiences daily. African American adolescents view more television than any other demographic group. Historically a disparity in educational achievement has existed among African American students and White students, but there are few studies that have examined the impact of television on this disparity.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Conner, Jaclyn D. (author)

Core Title Exploring the effects of media on the self-concepts and achievement of African American high school students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Psychology)

Publication Date 04/05/2007

Defense Date 03/21/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement,Adolescents,African American,multimedia literacy,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-concepts,Television

Language English

Advisor Genzuk, Michael (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email jdconner@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m349

Unique identifier UC1199274

Identifier etd-Conner-20070405 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-323749 (legacy record id),usctheses-m349 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Conner-20070405.pdf

Dmrecord 323749

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Conner, Jaclyn D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu