University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high performing, high poverty urban school

(USC Thesis Other)

Implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high performing, high poverty urban school

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTION: LESSONS FROM HIGH PERFORMING, HIGH POVERTY
URBAN SCHOOL

by
Michael Young Lee

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2008

Copyright 2008 Michael Young Lee

ii
DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Gap Sook Lee, and my father,
Myung Sam Lee for working so hard so they could provide the best education for
their son. I only wish my mother was alive today to witness my greatest
accomplishment. I would also like to thank my younger brother, Tommy Lee, for his
support. Lastly, I would like to thank God for his positive influence on my life.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the guidance I was given by my dissertation
committee, Dr. Rousseau, Dr. Stowe, and Dr. Marsh. I would like to especially
thank Dr. Rousseau for sharing her expertise in writing my dissertation. Her constant
encouragement, high expectations, as well as her constructive feedback throughout
the process helped me become a better researcher and educator for students of color.
I would like to acknowledge the 2005 Cohort and members of my thematic
group for their support throughout the program. I would like to thank Dr. Robert
“Duffy” Clark for his inspiration to complete my doctoral degree. My gratitude and
admiration is also extended to my adopted mother, Dr. Suzie Oh for her leadership as
a successful principal. Lastly, I would also like to acknowledge Ted Fortier Jr. and
Ricardo Yaňez for their friendship and encouragement.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER I...................................................................................................................1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................................ 4
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................... 5
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.............................................................................. 6
ASSUMPTIONS......................................................................................................... 7
LIMITATIONS........................................................................................................... 7
DELIMITATIONS...................................................................................................... 8
DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................... 8
ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION ................................................................... 12

CHAPTER II................................................................................................................13
LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................ 13
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 13
A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SEGREGATION ............................................ 18
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS ...................................... 22
LEADERSHIP SUPPORT.................................................................................. 29
TEACHER SUPPORT........................................................................................ 34
PARENT INVOLVEMENT............................................................................... 38
CALIFORNIA STATE STANDARDS.............................................................. 40
DATA DRIVEN DECISIONS ........................................................................... 43
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT................................................................. 45
DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION.............................................................. 48
OBJECTIVES AND FEEDBACK ..................................................................... 52
CREATING VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS................................................... 53
COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS .......................................................... 54
TIME................................................................................................................... 55
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE ............................................................................ 57

v

CHAPTER III ..............................................................................................................59
METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................... 59
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 59
SAMPLE AND POPULATION................................................................................. 62
DATA COLLECTION.............................................................................................. 64
DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................... 66
ETHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 67
CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER IV ..............................................................................................................69
THE FINDINGS ....................................................................................................... 69
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 69
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS: RESEARCH QUESTION 1 .......................................... 70
Summary of Research Question One.................................................................. 83
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS: RESEARCH QUESTION 2 .......................................... 84
Leadership and School Culture........................................................................... 86
A Culture of Accountability to Gauge School and Student Progress ................. 96
Culture that Involves Parents Support .............................................................. 101
Summary of Findings for Research Question Two........................................... 106
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS: RESEARCH QUESTION 3 ........................................ 108
Professional Development Meetings ................................................................ 109
Grade Level Meetings....................................................................................... 111
Strong Instructional Leadership Team.............................................................. 113
Standard Based Instruction ............................................................................... 121
Summary of Research Question Three ............................................................. 127
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS: RESEARCH QUESTION 4 ........................................ 129
Caring for Students of Color............................................................................. 130
Having High Expectations of Themselves and Their Students ........................ 132
Recognizing and Valuing Student Experiences................................................ 134
Classrooms Connected to Students of Color .................................................... 135
Family Like Classrooms Were Students Learn From Each Other.................... 136
Summary of Research Question Four............................................................... 138

CHAPTER V .............................................................................................................139
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 139
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................... 139
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.......................................................................... 140

vi
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS .................................................................................... 141
Research Question 1. ........................................................................................ 141
Research Question 2. ........................................................................................ 142
Research Question 3. ........................................................................................ 145
Research Question 4. ........................................................................................ 149
CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................... 151
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 154
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH.............................................. 156

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................158

APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................158
APPENDIX A............................................................................................................168
TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCAL .................................................................. 168
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................170
ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW PROTOCAL..................................................... 170
APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................172
CLASSIFIED INTERVIEW PROTOCAL................................................................172
APPENDIX D............................................................................................................174
PARENT INTERVIEW PROTOCAL.................................................................. 174
APPENDIX E ............................................................................................................176
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION PROTOCOL......................................................... 176
APPENDIX F.............................................................................................................178
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL ................................................................................ 178
APPENDIX G............................................................................................................180
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION GUIDING QUESTIONS ...... 180
APPENDIX H............................................................................................................182
LEADERSHIP TEAM OBSERVATION.................................................................. 182

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Pattern of school drop out rate among Hispanic, African American, and
White Students.......................................................................................... 17

Figure 2. Structures and Systems that Support High Student Achievement.............. 23

Figure 3. Student Achievement Differences Affect by Teachers. ............................. 35

Figure 4. Size of Groups ............................................................................................ 55

Figure 5. Overview of the Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High
Performing Schools Study. ...................................................................... 60

Figure 6. Relationship of Data Collection Instruments to Research Questions......... 64

Figure 7. Triangulation of Data Sources.................................................................... 67

Figure 8. Years of Teacher Experience...................................................................... 71

Figure 9. Preston Elementary School’s API growth from 1999-2007....................... 72

Figure 10. Preston Elementary’s API compared to California’s average API and
the district’s average API from 1999 to 2007........................................... 73

Figure 11. API Growth by Student Group - Three-Year Comparison This figure
displays by student group the actual API changes for the past three
years, and the most recent API score........................................................ 74

Figure 12. Percentage of Grade 2 -5 students who scored in the proficient and
advanced proficient range on the English Language Arts section of the
California Standards Test (2003 to 2007)................................................ 75

Figure 13. Percentage of proficient to advanced proficient (English Language
Arts) second grade students from 2003 as they grew to fifth grade in
2006........................................................................................................... 76

Figure 14. Percentage of proficient to advanced proficient (English Language
Arts) second grade students from 2004 as they grew to fifth grade in
2007........................................................................................................... 77

Figure 15 Percentage of Latino and African American students who scored in the
proficient and advanced proficient range on the English Language Arts
and Math sections. (2006-2007 CST). ...................................................... 78

viii
Figure 16. Percentage of English Learners Reclassified from 2002-2003 to 2006-
2007........................................................................................................... 79

Figure 17. Number of suspensions and expulsions for the past three years. ............. 80

Figure 18. Student Attendance from the school years 2002-2003 to 2006-2007. ...... 80

Figure 19. Comparison of Preston Elementary school’s student attendance rate
(2002-2007) to two neighboring schools (School A & School B).
Numbers on the Y-axis represent percentage of student attendance. ....... 81

Figure 20. Comparison of Preston’s API to two other neighboring schools
(School A & School B)............................................................................. 83

Figure 21. School level factors that impact student achievement by Togneri (2003)
and Marzano (2003).................................................................................. 85

Figure 22. Principal’s Classroom Visitation and Observation Sheet......................... 90

Figure 23. Kudos section of the weekly bulletin ....................................................... 93

Figure 24. Teacher reflection sheet given after each professional development
meeting...................................................................................................... 94

Figure 25. Parent and Community Involvement Section from the Single Plan for
Student Achievement.............................................................................. 104

Figure 26. Comprehension Action Plan for Third Grade classes created by the
literacy coach. ......................................................................................... 114

Figure 27. Exploration/Inquiry plan ........................................................................ 115

Figure 28. Compare and contrast chart of the Nashua River’s Environment .......... 120

Figure 29. An example of one African American inventor displayed in a fifth
grade classroom. ..................................................................................... 136

ix
ABSTRACT

Too many students of color have not been achieving in schools as well as they
could for far too long (Gay, 2000). All African American and Latino students can
experience high academic achievement; however, they have been denied an equal
education.
Students of color living in high poverty areas face serious challenges within
the educational system. Many schools in high poverty areas experience issues such
as, high drop out rates, lack of language proficiency for second language learners,
instruction from the least experienced teachers, and lack of resources and space.
Despite these challenges some schools in high poverty areas have been successful in
meeting the needs of students of color.
This study examined a high performing elementary school located in a high
poverty urban area, and the structures and systems implemented to achieve success
for students of color. A qualitative study approach was used to conduct an in-depth
study of the high performing school. The study explored four research questions to
determine the factors that lead to the schools’ success. The four research questions
included:
1. What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?

x
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
This study found that high performing schools in high poverty areas
implemented certain structures and systems to support high student achievement. In
addition, the school’s structures and systems focused around the sociocultural theory
where adults and students learned through guided participation and social interaction.
More importantly, the educators also implemented culturally relevant practices such
as having expectations, caring for their students, and valuing their students’
experiences. The success of the school demonstrates that schools in high poverty
urban areas can achieve high academic success for students of color.

1
CHAPTER I
Overview of the Study
Introduction
Many students living in low socio-economic areas face serious challenges
within the educational system. Issues such as, high drop out rates, lack of language
proficiency for second language learners, instruction from the least experienced
teachers, and lack of resources and space have a great impact on access to education.
Considering these complications, it is not surprising that many school systems around
the country are not prepared to address the needs of an increasingly culturally
pluralistic student population (Martinez, DeGarmo, & Eddy, 2004).
Schools with issues of poverty and language differences have challenged
many educators and impacted student success. This has lead to the reduction of
public support of public education and intense scrutiny of academic quality by public
officials. With increased accountability, American schools and the people who work
in them are being asked to do something new – to engage in systematic, continuous
improvement in the quality of the educational experience of students and to subject
themselves to the discipline of measuring their success by the metric of the students’
academic performance (Elmore, 2002).
Researchers and scholars have attempted to discover the causes of
disproportionately high rates of suspensions and drop out rates, especially among
students of color. Researcher, Ogbu, suggested that Latino and African American

2
students faced academic difficultly due to their involuntary immigration to the United
States.
The origins of these academic challenges can be traced back in history where
Latino and African Americans were confronted with segregation. Historically,
segregation began with Africans as slaves. Even hundreds of years later, African
Americans still struggled as they fought for equality in education; this was evident in
cases such as the Murray v. Maryland and Brown v. Board of Education. Brown v.
Board of Education was the basis for a number of initiatives and strategies to improve
the educational opportunities of people of color (Reynaldo, 1994). While the quality
of African American education slowly improved, Brown became a major force for
improving education for all students of color.
Included in the struggle for equality in education were Latinos as they also
fought against racism and segregation. As the Mexican population increased in the
Southwest, Anglo Americans responded by demanding residential and school
segregation (San Miguel, Guadalupe, & Valencia, 1998).
Problems continued when the school board of the Lemon Grove School
District in San Diego, California decided to build separate schools for Mexican
American children. While the district claimed that the new additions were due to
overcrowded schools, Mexican American parents formed a group known as the
Comité de Vecinos de Lemon Grove (The Lemon Grove Neighborhood Committee).
As a result, in 1931, the court found that the district did not have the right to separate
the Mexican American students.

3
More than a decade later, in 1998, California’s Proposition 227 ended native
language instruction. Proposition 227 directed schools to organize structured
immersion programs to help second language learners. However, these students of
color continued to fail. Many students of color who attended these schools were not
just ethnically segregated, but also linguistically isolated.
While there has been some progress for students of color, studies have
reported that schools are becoming more segregated than before. Civil rights
enforcement by national and state governments has been almost nonexistent since the
Reagan administration (Reynaldo, 1994).
With so many students falling behind in schools, President George W. Bush
signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001. The NCLB benefited many
schools by requiring districts to hire only “highly qualified” teachers, mandatory
annual testing in language arts, math and science, schools were required to teach state
standards, and schools in low-socioeconomic areas received additional funding. In
short, NCLB held schools accountable of all students, including students of color and
English learners.
The State Testing and Reporting (STAR) program created the California
Achievement Test (CAT-6) and California Standards Test (CST) for students in
grades 2-11 to hold schools accountable. Unfortunately, these assessment reports
only showed the great disparities among students of color and White students.
This problem is even more serious due to the fact that the school drop out rate
for students of Latino origin totaled 30%, compared to 13% for African Americans,

4
and only 8% for Whites in 1994 (Hispanic Dropout Project, 1996). Still today, there
are disproportionately high rates of drop outs, suspensions, and expulsions among
students of color. Although there has been great movement to achieve equal
education, it is clear that the needs of these students have not been met.
It is important for high poverty schools to identify the structures and systems
needed to meet the needs of students of color. Too many students of color have not
been achieving in school as well as they should (and can) for far too long (Gay,
2000). Marzano (2004), reported that certain factors are necessary for schools to
have a significant impact on student achievement.
It is essential for high poverty schools to implement effective factors while
focusing on the sociocultural theory of learning for adults and children to raise the
academic achievement of students of color. Lastly, schools need to practice culturally
relevant pedagogy so teachers can use cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames
of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning
encounters more relevant and effective for students of color (Gay, 2000).
Statement of the Problem
No challenge has been more daunting than that of improving the academic
achievement for students of color (Ladson-Billings, 1994). African American and
Latino students have been denied an equal education and are academically behind
when compared to White students. Many urban schools with students of color have
struggled based on historical influences and societal and educational influences.

5
Unfortunately, only a few schools of student of color have been identified as
high performing. The problem is that this success is not widespread, and other high
poverty schools do not know how these structures and systems work or how to
replicate them in their own schools. Virtually every student can do something well.
Even if their capabilities are not directly translated to classroom learning, they still
can be used by teachers as points of reference and motivational devices to evoke
student interest and involvement in academic affairs (Gay, 2000).
Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of the study is to explain the role of structures and
systems in high performing high poverty schools among students of color. Many
students living in low socio-economic areas face many everyday challenges. The
problem is even more serious due to additional factors including but not limited to
high drop our rates, language issues for second language learners, inexperienced
teachers, and lack of resources and space. Given this context, it is not surprising that
many school systems around the country are not prepared to address the needs of an
increasingly culturally pluralistic student population (Martinez, DeGarmo, & Eddy,
2004). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to describe how high performing high
poverty schools used structures and systems to improve the academic achievement
and lives of students of color.

6
According to many researchers there were several critical factors which
continued to affect a school’s success. The study also explored four research
questions:
1. What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to contribute
to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support school-
wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Significance of the Study

The results of the study will benefit teachers and administrators working in
poor urban schools with students of color. For classroom teachers, the study presents
an opportunity to examine their own teacher pedagogy used to meet the needs of
students of color in high poverty schools. The study can contribute to teachers’
understanding of how to successfully teach children who live in poverty and lack
many resources. Thus, teachers will be able to produce higher outcomes from their
students.
For administrators, the study will offer a better understanding of how
structures and systems provide students of color in high poverty schools access to
learn and what needs to be in place to maximize learning. In addition, they will be

7
able to create an environment that provides proper training and support for teachers
and students.
Assumptions
For many years test results have shown that students of color have fallen short
when compared to White and Asian students. For students of color, these results are
a prediction of the future for a large number of school populations today.
Many schools have participated in multiple rounds of educations reform.
More specifically, high achieving high poverty schools have structures and systems of
change that support classroom instruction to support students of color. New evidence
proves that schools can have academic growth over time when students of color have
access to effective teaching pedagogy, student motivation and self-efficacy, and a
positive school culture that focused on instruction with professional development and
instructional support.
Limitations
The results of the study are limited by the sampling of data. The study is
limited to Academic Performance Index (API), high percentage of Free and Reduced
Meals of at least 70%, and schools with students of color. The API is based on the
schools California Standards Test, 6
th
edition in Language Arts, Math, and Science
(5
th
grade only). Due to the small sampling of high performing and high poverty
schools, the study will categorize a school with an API of 750 and higher as a high
achieving school.

8
Delimitations
This will be a qualitative case study of one elementary school within Los
Angeles County. The school was determined using the following criteria:
1. At least 60% of the school population is students of color.
2. At least 70% of the student population is on a Free or Reduced Meal Plan.
3. The school has consistently shown growth in its Academic Performance Index
(API) during the past 5 years.
The API data was provided by the California Department of Education.
Lastly, the findings and results of the study may not apply to other schools, especially
schools with different student enrollment.
Definitions

Academic performance index (API): The Base API summarizes school LEA,
and/or the state performance on the spring 2006 Standardized Testing and Reporting
(STAR) Program and 2006 California High School Exit Examination (CAHSEE).
The API is measured on a scale of 200 to 1000.

Annual Yearly Progress (AYP): Under the accountability provisions in the No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, all public school campuses, school districts, and the
state are evaluated for Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). Districts, campuses, and the
state are required to meet AYP criteria on three measures: Reading/Language Arts,
Mathematics, and either Graduation Rate (for high schools and districts) or
Attendance Rate (for elementary and middle/junior high schools).

9
California Achievement Test, Sixth Edition (CAT-6): The California
Achievement Test, Sixth Edition (CAT/6), a norm-referenced test, has been
administered to district students in Grades 3 and 7 since the spring of 2005 as part of
the state's Standardized Testing and Reporting Data (STAR) system. Through 2004,
the CAT/6 was administered to students in Grades 2-11.
California Standards: Content standards were designed to encourage the
highest achievement of every student, by defining the knowledge, concepts, and skills
that students should acquire at each grade level.
California Standards Test (CST): California Standards Tests (CSTs) are a
major component of the STAR program. CSTs are developed by California educators
and test developers specifically for California. They measure progress toward
California's state-adopted academic content standards, which describe what students
should know and be able to do in each grade and subject tested.
English Language Learners (ELL): English language learners, also known as
English Learner (EL).
English Learners (EL): English Learner (EL) students (formerly known as

Limited-English-Proficient or LEP)

English Learner Support Guide (ELSG): The English Learner Support Guide
provides additional support for students acquiring English. The guide enables
teachers to make the core Open Court reading lessons as comprehensible as possible
for students learning English, while also providing opportunities for oral and written
responses.

10
Free or Reduced Meal- Counts of children enrolled in the Free or Reduced
Price Meal Programs. This is a federal program administered by the US Department
of Agriculture. Program participation is by application and is based on the income of
the child's parent or guardian.
Hispanics: Of or relating to a Spanish-speaking people or culture. A U.S.
citizen

or resident of Latin-American or Spanish descent.

Latino: A person of Hispanic, especially Latin-American, descent, often one
living in the United States
Limited English Proficient (LEP): Students who do not speak English as their
primary language and who have a limited ability to read, speak, write, or understand
English can be limited English proficient, or "LEP." These individuals may be
entitled language assistance with respect to a particular type or service, benefit, or
encounter.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The law that helps schools improve by
focusing accountability for results, freedom for states and communities, proven
education methods, and choices for parents. President Bush signed the NCLB Act on
January 8, 2002.
Open Court Reading (OCR): Open Court Reading program is an elementary
reading program for Grades K-5. It focuses on instruction in the areas of decoding,
comprehension, inquiry and investigation, and writing. The program also includes
spelling, vocabulary, grammar, usage, and mechanics, penmanship, listening, and
speaking.

11

Redesignated Fluent English Proficient (RFEP): English Learner (EL)
students enrolled in a structured English class. EL students redesignated as Fluent
English Proficient (RFEP).
School Accountability Report Card (SARC): California public schools
annually provide information about themselves to the community allowing the public
to evaluate and compare schools for student achievement, environment, resources and
demographics.
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE): SDAIE or
Sheltered English as it often still referred to in various parts of the United States was
originally established as an accepted transitional step for students learning English as
their second language. It allows students to move forward in academic courses such
as mathematics and science while at the same time learning English through the
contextual clues provided by the course of study.
Stanford Achievement Test, Ninth Edition (SAT-9): Stanford Achievement
Test, Ninth Edition (SAT-9), published by Harcourt Educational Measurement, offers
tests in a number of subject areas including reading, mathematics, language, science
and social studies, among others. These are packaged into a comprehensive battery
of tests. The SAT-9 is a norm-referenced test; that is, the score results are
standardized so they can be easily compared. Now replaced by the CAT-6.
State Testing and Reporting Program (STAR): The 2006 California
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program test results for schools,

12
counties, districts, and the state are available at this site. Test results are reported for
the four components of the STAR Program:
• California Standards Tests (CSTs)
• California Alternate Performance Assessment (CAPA)
• California Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey (CAT/6 Survey) - grades
3 and 7 only.
Structures: Institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by
federal state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official
structure of schools; not subject to change at the local school site.
Systems: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel,
students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions,
missions, and goals are met.
Organization of Dissertation
Chapter One provides an overview and guide to the study. Chapter Two will
analyze the literature involved in supporting high performing students in the
classroom, at the school site, and at home. Chapter Three will examine the
methodology implemented in the study, including the assembly of the data and
analysis of the data. Chapter Four will offer new findings and an investigation of the
research. Finally, Chapter Five will conclude the research with a summarization of
the study and present recommendations and implications for teachers, administrators,
and researchers.

13
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Introduction

Too many students of color have not been achieving in school as well as they
can for far too long (Gay, 2000). Despite repeated reform efforts, many of these
institutions are not performing much better than they did before (Lashway, 2003).
Currently, educators and researchers have increased school reform efforts to improve
student achievement at all grade levels.
America instituted reform to improve the nation’s public education system in
the 1960s, following the successful launch of the Russian satellite, Sputnik I; however
the reform effort failed to study effective teaching and the structures and systems
needed to sustain high levels of instruction and student learning. Mainly, the
National Science Foundation (NSF) was concerned about the lack of high school
students entering the science fields. During the 1980s the National Commission on
Excellence in Education presented a report, A Nation at Risk. The purpose of the
report was to improve classroom instruction across the nation. The Commission
made the following recommendations: stronger graduation requirements in areas of
English, mathematics, science, social studies, and computer science; increased
student learning time; and higher standards.
Frequently, efforts directed at reforming American schools and teachers with
the goal of improving student achievement has engendered controversy. Schools are
now criticized for not being places where all students have equal opportunities to

14
learn. At the K-12 level, schools are pressured to place a high priority on teacher
qualifications and the improvement of student scores on standardized tests
(Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004). Carlisle and Rice (2002) cited that American 11
th

graders now place close to the bottom on international comparisons of reading
achievement, behind students from a number of developing countries. Furthermore,
the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey revealed that more than 20% of adults in the
U.S. read at or below a fifth grade level. Department of Education’s National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES). It was clear that these adults fell behind at the
elementary school level.
In response to poor student achievement, the United States Department of
Education adopted English-Language Arts Content Standards on November 14, 1997.
This eventually led to California’s Reading/Language Arts, Math, social studies, and
science standards. The emphasis on the need to improve students’ academic
achievement is the impetus behind changes in instructional and institutional systems--
curriculum and instruction, professional development, assessment and accountability,
school and leadership organization, and parental and community involvement- to be
sure all are aligned to content and performance standards.
Later, the state of California created the Stanford Achievement Test 9
th

Edition (SAT 9), and in 2000, in order to remedy the lack of focus on California
standards, in the SAT 9, the California Standards Test (CST) was created.
Eventually, in 2003, the SAT 9 was replaced by the California Achievement Test 6
th

Edition (CAT 6). The purpose of the CST was to verify if children were in fact

15
learning state standards. The purpose of the CAT 6, today for grades 3 and 7 is to
compare California students with other students at those grade levels across the
nation.
As a result of California Content Standards, schools began using instructional
materials aligned with state standards. In the summer of 2001, a curriculum
committee at the state level developed textbook-criteria for new textbook adoptions.
The purpose was to adopt materials closely aligned to California instructional
standards.
In addition to standards based instruction, the Public Schools Accountability
Act (PSAA) of 1999, forced schools to be accountable for their students’ scores.
Students’ test results in grades 2 through 11 were compared to all schools in the
nation with the target score of 800 is the goal of all schools. The API scale ranged
from 200-1000.
In response to demands to improve student achievement, schools were also
being held accountable under the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) 2001.
Specifically all schools in the nation are expected to perform at the proficient level by
the 2013-2014 school year. It was clear that educators needed to carefully consider
what they wanted to improve and how they would allocate their resources to most
effectively help students. Some of these decisions were not up to educators. They
were determined by legislators and Departments of Education at the state and federal
levels. These institutions created the structures within which educators at the local
levels had to shape their schools’ structures and systems.

16
The purpose of the statute was to build on high quality accountability systems
that states already have in place. Under NCLB, each state created a definition of
"adequate yearly progress" (AYP) to determine the achievement of each school and
district. The AYP was used as a diagnostic tool, intended to highlight where schools
need to show improvement and suggested where they should focus their resources.
The significance of NCLB was that it held all schools accountable for the
achievement of all students, not just the average overall student performance.
Holding schools accountable for the goal that all students' meet state standards,
represents the core of the bipartisan Act's goal of ensuring that no child is left behind
(Paige, 2002).
The NCLB act affected school in four ways. First, it created new standards
and tests for students. Second, all teachers needed to be “highly qualified.” Third, it
helped develop the national “Reading First” program, which focused on grades K-3.
Lastly, schools were held accountable with school report cards, which monitored how
well or poorly schools were performing. Although, the NCLB act was supposed to
help all schools, it only made it more evident that students of color were scoring far
below White students.
Up until about 30 years ago, teaching had not been systematically studied in a
scientific manner (Marzano, Pickering, Pollock, 2001). This has been an ongoing
struggle for many schools, as even the most pedagogically advanced strategies are
ineffective in the hands of educators who believe that ethnic, racial, and linguistic
minority students are at best culturally disadvantaged and in need of fixing, or, at

17
worst, culturally or genetically inferior, and consequently beyond help (Trueba &
Bartolome, 1997). At the elementary level, schools have placed more attention on
teacher instruction to improve student achievement and their scores on standardized
tests.
Much of the new research has focused on new ways to meet the needs of
students of color. This problem of meeting the needs of students of color is even
more serious due to the high school drop out rate for students of Hispanic origin that
totaled 30% and 13% for African Americans, compared to only 8% for Whites in
1994 (Hispanic Dropout Project, 1996). Figure 1 illustrates the pattern of school drop
out rates.

Figure 1. Pattern of school drop out rate among Hispanic, African American, and
White Students.
30
13
8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Hispanic African
American
White
percentage of students
School Drop out rate
(Hispanic Dropout Project, 1996)

18
Adding to the statistics, the National Center for Education Statistics, U.S.
Department of Education reported that 41.3% of Hispanic students will drop out of
high-school.
Researchers, Ogbu and Matute-Bianchi (1986) proposed that the
disproportionately high rates of suspensions and drop out rates among Hispanic and
African American students were due to experiences stemming from their immigration
status to the United States. These researchers hypothesize that students of color face
academic difficulty because their ancestors were not “voluntary immigrants,” rather
became part of the United State through conquest.
While this addresses the issue of students of color in education, it is important
to note that segregation began hundreds of years ago in the United States. The origins
of the present controversy over school desegregation extends deep into the American
past. The foundation of this controversy rests on the relationship between the races
(Stephan, 1980). Therefore, a historical overview of race relations and segregation
and denial of equal education rights will be explored.
A Historical Overview of Segregation
While the history of Hispanic Americans, has been filled with segregation, it
is important to note that segregation of other involuntary immigrants began hundreds
of years ago. Historically segregation began during the 1600’s when Africans arrived
in American as slaves. The history of segregation is important to note due to the
similar beliefs and constructs of race in the structures and systems of many American
institutions, including schools.

19
Furthermore, plantation owners showed little concern for their slaves’
education. Education posed a threat, as physical labor was more important to the
operation of a plantation. As part of an increased repression directed toward Blacks
during the 1800s, the formal education of Blacks became illegal in nearly every slave
state (Weinberg, 1977).
Even though education began to be available to some African Americans in
the 19
th
century, discrimination was common. Among the free African Americans of
the North, education was a privilege enjoyed by only a small minority. Less than 7%
of all free Blacks attended schools in 1860 (DuBois, 1935). Unfortunately, this
pattern of inequality in education has continued to the present day.
Anti-segregation laws were put into effect after the passage of the
Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. In response to the Black Codes, which
prohibited African Americans from voting and holding office, Congress passed the
Civil Rights Act in 1866. Congress made changes to the Constitution the Fourteenth
Amendment in 1868 read:
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any
person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor deny any
person with its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

The need for clear strategies and centralized leadership to fight segregation
was apparent from the fact that, before 1935, school segregation had been challenged
in state courts 44 times and had been upheld in every case (Peterson, 1935). The
battle for equality in education was bolstered by the Murray v. Maryland (1936) case,
where Donald Murray was allowed to attend a non-black law school. This case led to

20
other cases, such as Sipuel v. Oklahoma State Board of Regents, Sweatt v. Painter
(1950), and McLaurin v. Oklahoma Board of Regents of Higher Education (1950).
Adding to the “equal protection in the laws” was the Brown v. Board of Education
(1954).
Within this experience grew a close connection between the plight of Mexican
Americans and African Americans. Thurgood Marshall, an African American
attorney who argued on behalf of the Mendez v. Westminster (1946) case set the legal
approach that enabled the Brown attorneys to win before the Supreme Court.
Fortunately, this case marked the beginning of great progress towards the
desegregation movement in public education.
Paradoxically, although Hispanics were not specifically mentioned in the
“separate but equal legislation” there is ample evidence that they were often treated as
“colored” and were consequently segregated in most social spheres (Valencia,
Menchaca, and Donato, 2002). It is important to note that prior to the Mendez v.
Westminister case Mexican immigrants began experiencing racism in schools during
the 1920’s. As the Mexican population increased in the Southwest, Anglo
Americans responded by demanding residential and school segregation (San Miguel
& Valencia, 1998). Legal struggles among Hispanic Americans continued during the
time of Independent School District v. Salvatierrian (1930, 1931). Mexican parents
claimed that segregation was only mandated for African American students. Thus,
Salvatierra was a landmark case in determining the constitutionality of separating

21
Mexican American children on racial grounds (Valencia, Menchaca, and Donato,
2002).
Problems continued when the school board of the Lemon Grove School
District in San Diego, California decided to build separate schools for Mexican
American children. While the district claimed that the new additions were due to
overcrowded schools, Mexican American parents formed a group known as the
Comité de Vecinos de Lemon Grove (The Lemon Grove Neighborhood Committee).
As a result, in 1931, the court found that the district did not have the right to separate
the Mexican American students.
Even so, other desegregation cases were filed when Mexican American
students were not identified as a minority group. These cases include the Cisneros v.
Corpus Independent School District in Texas (1979) and Keyes v. School District No.
1 (1973, 1975) in Denver, Colorado. In the Cisneros case, the judge ruled that
Mexican Americans were an ethnically identifiable minority group, and thus were
entitled to the protection under the Brown (1954) decision (Valencia, Menchaca, and
Donato, 2002). Moreover, in the Keyes case, the court was again forced to decide
how Mexican American students should be viewed under the law. The final ruling
made schools be responsible to desegregate their schools.
In 1974 the Lau v. Nichols case ruled that the Chinese American Community
in San Francisco, California deserved the right to receive English instruction.
Unfortunately, schools only provided instruction in English, and second language
learners did not receive support in classrooms. Meeting the needs of English learners

22
(EL) became an important concern in bilingual education reform, especially with the
growing immigration population.
The Census Bureau reports major changes in the immigration population in
the United States during the last two decades. The majority of immigrants are now
arriving from Mexico, Central America, South America, and Asia. Hispanic
Americans are expected to reach 40 million by the year 2010. In another 30 years,
white school children in the United States will actually be in the minority. Based on
data by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (1999), these immigrants will
mainly reside in California, New York, Florida, and Texas. As a result, schools will
need to rethink their practices to allow students of color to have access to a high
quality education.
Although African Americans and Hispanic Americans have benefited to a
limited extent they have never experienced their full rights to education as guaranteed
by the Constitution. This history of court cases shows only in part how resistant the
nation has been to granting their full rights. Students of color continue to score lower
when compared to white students. The NAEP (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2000) reports that students of color are about twice as likely as White
students to read well below grade level.
Organizational Structures and Systems
Historically, students of color have wrestled with the problems accessing
quality education and integrated schooling (Ladson-Billings, 2004). The odds are
against high poverty students of color; however some schools seem to exceed these

23

High
student
achievement
California
Standards

1. Data Driven
Assessments

2. Professional
Development

3. Differentiating
Instruction

4. Effective Use of
School
Culture

1. Leadership

2. Teacher
Expectations

3. Culturally
Relevant
Pedagogy

4. Parent
expectations. These schools show consistent yearly gains in student achievement and
produce positive results. In high performing and high poverty schools, administrators
and teachers have structures and systems to ensure that the needs of students of color
are being fulfilled.
To support high student achievement, there are two main clusters. First,
within a positive school culture where students of color have equitable opportunities
to learn, there needs to be systems of leadership, high teacher expectations, culturally
relevant pedagogy, and parent involvement. Second, there are systems that ensure
that all students of color are learning a rigorous curriculum which is represented by
state standards. These systems include data driven assessments, professional
development, differentiating instruction, and time. The structures and systems that
create high student achievement are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Structures and Systems that Support High Student Achievement

24
Students of color who are most traditional in their communication styles and
other aspects of culture and ethnicity are likely to encounter more obstacles to school
achievement than those who think, behave, and express themselves in ways that
approximate school and mainstream cultural norms (Gay, 2000). A teacher’s belief
about students of color has always been a challenge for many poor urban schools. In
high-performing schools, there is a system of distinctive culture present that
overcomes these negative beliefs. This invisible, taken-for-granted flow of beliefs
and assumptions gives meaning to what people say and do. Culture consists of the
stable, underlying social meaning that shapes beliefs and behavior over time (Deal &
Peterson, 1990). More importantly, a school cultures need to support anti-racism and
multicultural ideals.
Having a positive school culture can create high student achievement and
learning for students of color. Cummins (1996) suggests that students are less likely
to fail in school settings where they feel positive about both their own culture and the
majority culture and “are not alienated from their own cultural values.” A school’s
culture can foster schools productivity and improve team communications between
teachers and administrators. Leaders promote inequitable representations of students
of color and express the importance of disregarding stereotypes and concentrating on
how to prepare students of color for school and real life.
High performing schools also understand the importance of culture, based on
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning. Contemporary research supports the

25
sociocultural claim that the relationship between individuals forms a basis for
cognitive and linguistic mastery (Wertsch, 1985).
In an effective school culture, mission and purpose shape definitions of
success (Schein, 1985) – definitions that may vary from school to school. Mission
and purpose can give teachers and parents a clear focus. School culture affects every
part of the enterprise including faculty discussions in the lunch room, to the type of
instruction that is valued, to the way professional development is viewed, and
including the importance of teacher learning. This type of school culture also acts as
social action, where individual and group efforts bring about changes to redress
inequities and injustices in home, school, community, state, national, or global
contexts (Bennet, 2001). Strong, positive, collaborative cultures have powerful effects
on many features of schools (Peterson, 1999).
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development connects a general psychological
perspective on child development with a pedagogical perspective on instruction
(Moll, 1990). Moll (1990) also states that psychological development and instruction
are socially embedded; to understand them one must analyze the surrounding society
and its social relations. To meet the needs of all students, effective instruction
creates the zone of proximal development.
Principles of Vygotsky’s theory are that for any student to achieve full
cognitive development, they require social interaction (Falchikov, 2001). A students’
learning is greatly increased with teacher guidance and peer collaboration. Vygotsky

26
(1978) states his theory is the idea of the ‘zone of proximal development’, which is
defined as:
The distance between the actual development as determined by individual
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers.

The zone of proximal development is a measure of learning potential. It is
important that the zone of proximal development be accorded a central position in the
theory since it implies that the social environment, and the support and assistance it
can offer, is crucial for development (Garton, 1992).
As the zone of proximal development is changing in the classroom, teachers
also need to alter their instruction. Instruction is always geared towards a higher level
of functioning and Vygotsky (1978) argued that “instruction creates a zone of
proximal development”.
When teachers work with students of color they follow Vygotsky’s analysis of
the relationship between learning and development, or the zone of proximal
development. These practices include teachers operating far beyond their functions
as pedagogues (Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Teachers support students of color, by
building on students’ prior knowledge developed in the student’s home and culture,
then teaching new knowledge. Overall positive school culture can improve collegial
and collaborative activities that foster better communication and problem-solving
practices (Little, 1982). In schools with a strong culture, teachers work closely

27
together where they share best practices and help solve challenges in poor urban
schools.
When educators and leaders show strong commitment to their work, others are
motivated for the same cause. Culture builds commitment and identification of staff,
students, and administrators (Schein, 1985). Schools also need strong values, beliefs,
assumptions, and norms. These beliefs include having high expectations for students
of color, changing school disciplinary policies, improving school and community
relations, and classroom climates. Many teachers expect Asian students to always be
studious, high achieving, and obedient students. Conversely, many teachers expect
Latino and African Americans to be low achievers and disciplinary problems
(Osajama, 1991). In high performing schools with a positive school culture, teachers
promote equity and help reverse the problems that many ethnic minorities and low-
income students face in school and ensure that they attain the highest standards of
academic excellence (Bennett, 2001).
Values define a standard of goodness, quality, or excellence that under girds
behavior and decision making, and what people care about (Ott, 1989). Studies of
school reform have recognized that school culture is important for the improvement
of teaching. Leaders need to create and shape the culture in their school. Strong
culture can affect classroom instruction for students of color and eventually student
achievement. Culture fosters school effectiveness and productivity (Newman &
Wehlage, 1995).

28
Successful principals of low-income schools model positive assumptions of
their students. Leaders and teacher share a common vision that all students can be
high-achieving and successful. Children, as well as their native language, need to be
respected and valued. Scheurich (2002) writes about these principals, “It was their
deep love for their children and their passionate commitment to making a difference
for those children that created the model.” Leaders encourage their staff and promote
a common vision of student success. Principals communicate a vision to improve
student achievement through solid instruction and the creation of a supportive
environment. Furthermore, they support teachers to ensure classroom success.
When leaders promote school cultures with teamwork and partnership, there is
greater sense of a learning community. Teachers work closer together to solve
problems and focus on student learning. Moreover, such an environment allows risk-
taking and reinforces learning.
Culture builds commitment and identification for staff, students, and
administrators (Schein, 1985). When teachers are motivated to work with students of
color, they also feel that they are a part of a great purpose. Motivation involves
making connections with teachers and being supportive and understanding. In turn,
teachers feel supported by their principal and are more willing to focus on their
students. To create a positive culture, high performing schools use certain structures
and systems to support students of color including: leadership, high expectations, and
professional development. Culture increases the focus of daily behavior and attention
on that which is important and valued (Deal & Peterson, 1990).

29
Leadership Support

Often students of color are denied a quality education; however leaders of
high performing schools hold their teachers and themselves accountable for
supporting students of color. Too many students of color have not been achieving in
school as well as they should for far too long. The consequences of these
disproportionately high levels of low achievement are long-term and wide reaching,
personal and civic, individual and collective (Gay, 2000).
Effective leaders have a clear vision of where they want their school to be in
the future. To that end, they have clear goals and expectations of their teachers.
Leaders must address the numerous needs of their school. There are several actions
leaders can take to transform their organizations (Jennings & Stahl-Wert, 2003).
Successful leaders empower others, including teachers, to create a great organization.
Michael Fullan (2004) reported that effective schools have administrators who
support teacher leadership.
By supporting teachers, leaders build clarity about what is important to the
school. Shared values help schools address student needs. Schools, like any
organization, function best when the staff has a clear idea about what is important.
The importance of embracing student diversity and improving the students’ own
sense ethnicity. Students’ readiness and comfort with intergroup contact is influenced
buy their sense of ethnic identity (Bennett, 2001). Schools that have been most
successful in addressing and increasing the academic achievement of their students

30
have benefited form a clarity of purpose that is grounded in a shared set of core
values and beliefs (Bamburg, 1994).
Effective leaders also open the lines of communication between teachers,
parents, and students of color. This allows leaders to realize challenges in classrooms
and ways to address solutions. The leadership team continuously identifies and
prioritizes critical learning issues, and once priorities have been set, an effective
leadership team establishes inquiry groups. Inquiry groups analyze the student results
and discuss an action plan. This interaction between teachers and leaders opens
communication with everyone in the school. It also promotes teacher participation
and involvement. Coherence and unity of purpose in the work of the school is
maintained, and school community member have ongoing opportunities to develop
shared perspectives and to learn from one another (Darling-Hammond, 1997).
To ensure change strategies school leaders create a system of coaching and
modeling where administrators and teachers work together to reinforce best practices
(Friedman & Slater, 1994). Developing and sustaining group work assumes that there
is time in the instructional day and teachers and administrators have norms and skills
that are required for productive group work (Elmore, 2002). Schools in high poverty
areas need well-trained instructional experts, to help teachers improve their
instruction. Principals were not expected to lead alone, and teachers were not
expected to work in isolation when serving students of color. By fostering networks
of instructionally proficient principals and teacher leaders (e.g., content specialist,

31
teacher mentors), districts increased their capacity to improve instructional practice
(Togneri & Anderson, 2003).
In effective schools, principals and instructional leaders play a support role by
guiding and fostering classroom teachers. Coaches and administrators create school
cultures that help set the foundation for change to teach students of color. These
leaders support the belief that every student can become high performing. Virtually
every student can do something well. Even if their capabilities are not directly
translatable to classroom learning, they still can be used by teachers as points of
reference and motivational devices to evoke student interest and involvement to
academic affairs (Gay, 2000).
Leaders also create and maintain a sense of trust in the school; use positive
micropolitics to negotiate between managerial, technical, and institutional arena; and
create a professional community and networks for communication with the school
(Murphy & Louis, 1999).
Researchers have studied instructional leadership and noted a strong shared
vision among principals and teachers. Reitzug (1994) constructed a taxonomy of
empowering principal behavior that includes the following: Support, facilitation, and
possibility.
Reitzug also writes that strong leaders also possessed qualities that fostered
professional development, inquiry, risk-taking, and shared leadership with teachers.
Perhaps the most important quality of having strong instructional support is
the ability to conduct conferences that promote reflective conversations. These

32
conversations focus on support the achievement of students of color. School leaders
understand that the key to changing teachers’ behaviors is by being supportive.
Pajak (2001) described and compared the most popular and enduring
approaches – classroom observation and conferencing – for improving classroom
instruction. It is important to note the different methods of classroom observations
and offer feedback.
Effective instructional leaders consistently implement the Developmental Supervision
Model when working with teachers. This practice includes a cycle of preconference,
classroom observation, analysis, and postconference.
During classroom observations these instructional experts were often careful
with their questions and suggestions. In addition, they often kept records based on
checklists, questionnaires, timelines, and rating rubrics. These instructional leaders
discussed other techniques such as asking for teacher’s opinions and being
supportive. Effective teaching is not fostered if teachers’ self-esteem is threatened
by the principal.
With the additional support, teachers are offered regular feedback. At the
same time, their motivation and self-confidence grow. The support structure allows
teachers and instructional leaders to work collaboratively. Leaders and teachers are
open to each others’ suggestions leading to discussion of areas of strength and ideas
for improvement.
Administrators always focus their conversations on how teachers can support students
of color. These included personal caring, mutual aid and assistance, use of cultural

33
anchors and mediators instruction, and creating a sense of community among students
and teachers (Swanson, Mehan, & Hubbard, 1995). This not only builds the teachers’
confidence it also opens the possibilities for future conversations.
Although these leaders promote good intentions for students of color and
teachers are aware of cultural differences, this is not enough. Leaders need to create a
system of effective demonstration lessons can offer teachers different approaches to
instruction. More specifically, teachers need pedagogical knowledge and skills as
well as the courage to dismantle the status quo (Gay, 2000).
Principals and instructional coaches can model lessons as teachers reflect on
their own skills. Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) describes a leadership team’s
role in promoting effective instruction. Teachers not only see the principal as a leader
but as a classroom teacher. Blase and Blase (1998) found that solid efforts by
principals along these lines can produce significant results for teachers’ classroom
performance.
The learning of promoting student learning of African American and Hispanic
students begins with leaders then to teachers. Schools develop significant gains in
student achievement when everyone at the schools site focuses on instruction and
expands their own learning. Studies also show that “student achievement increases
substantially in schools with collaborative work cultures that foster a professional
learning community among teachers and other, focus continuously on improving
instructional practices in light of student performance data, and link to standards and
staff development support” (Fullan, 1998).

34
Teacher Expectations

In addition to leaders, classroom teachers also need to have a system of high
expectations to support a culture for students of color. If teachers expect students to
be high or low achievers, they will act in ways that cause this to happen (Gay, 2000).
Teacher assumptions can greatly influence the learning of students of color.
Successful teachers understand that encouragement and motivation are critical to
improving students' self-image. Caring teachers are recognized by their high
expectations, as well as by their use of success pedagogical practices.
Students of color who are empowered by their school experiences, develop the
ability, confidence, and motivation to succeed academically. They participate
competently in instruction as a result of having developed a confident cultural identity
as appropriate school-based knowledge and interactional structures (Cummins, 1983).
Good and Brophy (1994) collected research on the effects of teacher
expectations. Their findings showed that “many students in most classrooms are not
reaching their potential because their teachers do not expect much from them and are
satisfied with poor or mediocre performance when they could obtain something
better.” Moreover, Valverde and Scribner (2001) note that successful schools
incorporate high expectations into their school vision and establish measurable goals
for all to see.

35
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
An unexpected consequence of desegregation was that African American
students lost the linkage between their home culture and the schooling process
(Madsen & Hollins, 2000). As a result, many schools have participated in multiple
rounds of educations reform. More specifically, high achieving schools have systems
of change that support classroom instruction for students of color. This system
includes prejudice reduction and how structures and teaching practices influence
attitudes and interpersonal relations (Bennett, 2001). New evidence proves that
schools can have tremendous growth over time due to effective teaching pedagogy,
student motivation and self-efficacy, and a school culture that is focused on
instruction with professional development and instructional support.
Overall, teachers have the greatest impact on student learning. Wright, Horn,
and Sanders (1997) note that the most important factor affecting student learning is
the teacher. The study showed that students as much as 53% with an effective
teachers compared to 14% gains with a least effective teacher. Figure 3 shows the
results of student achievement difference affected by teachers.

Figure 3. Student Achievement Differences Affect by Teachers.

14
53
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Percentage of
points in student
achievement
Student achievement gain in 1 year
Least effective teacher
Most effective teacher

36
Effective schools are able to create schools where teachers have high
expectations of students of color. In addition to incorporating California Standards
into daily lessons, teachers need to engage all students by creating a personal, caring
school environment and designing individual programs of study that reflect each
student’s interests and experiences. When a teacher shows respect and
trustworthiness to all students, including students of color, the children will work hard
for that particular teacher, knowing that their effort will produce positive results
(Katz, 1999).
Bennett (2001) focused on teachers who have been successful in low-
socioeconomic areas. She explains that their successful teaching style also known as
“culturally responsive” has enabled them to build better relationships with their
children. Culturally relevant pedagogy focuses on “reversing the underachievement
of students of color (Bennett, 2001).
When teachers have closer interactions with their students, students develop
better self-esteem. With a higher level of self-esteem, students eventually achieve
higher levels of success. Noddings (1992) advocates for caring to become the
bedrock of contemporary education. Teachers of high performing schools were
extremely faithful to their students, and the educators were committed to high levels
of student achievement.
Noguera (1995) acknowledges that these teachers express the sincere desire to
care about their students and to teach. Teachers show their care through respect,
especially respect for children’s home language as being legitimate. This valuing of

37
home language helps students of color to achieve success in school because they are
able to have their own sense of cultural identity. Therefore, students of color are
more willing to participate in school culture.
Teachers show their acceptance of their students' speech through the use of
poems, stories and plays that contain dialect; occasionally building rhythmic speech
patterns and activities into lesson plans; and demonstrate fairness in their treatment of
students. Culturally relevant teaching methods do not suggest they are incapable of
learning (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Rather, they made the students’ culture a point of
affirmation and celebration.
In addition to showing respect to students of color, teachers also used a great
deal of praise, infrequent criticism, and constant reinforcement. These behaviors
allow students of color to feel accepted, instilling in them a desire to excel in all
academic areas. When students are treated as competent, they are likely to
demonstrate competence. Klenfeld (1973) found similar characteristics among the
effective teachers of rural Athabascan Eskimo and Indian students she studied.
Klenfeld described these teachers as “warm demanders.” They created classrooms of
emotional warmth; consistently and clearly demanded high-quality academic
performance spent time establishing positive interpersonal relationships between
themselves and students, and among students; extended their relationships with and
caring for students beyond the classroom.
Furthermore, Tarlow’s (1996) study of caring schools, describes teachers as
being supportive and building relationships. Ladson-Billings (1994) discovered

38
evidence of Tarlow’s caring style during a study of successful teachers of African
American students in poor urban areas. When she asked students what they enjoyed
about school, they consistently responded the “teacher.” The children enjoyed that
their teacher listened to them, and encouraged them in class and after school. In
short, students need to feel a personal connection with their teachers.
Parent Involvement
All students of color are entitled to a quality education; however, many inner
city schools lack parental support and guidance. High performing schools reverse
this belief and use certain systems to recognize, honor, and incorporate the strengths
of families of students of color (Gay, 2000).
Unfortunately, many people may do not realize that parents in low socio
economic areas do in fact care about their children’s education. It is important to
note that African Americans and Hispanics have historically struggled to gain an
equal education. Although they have gained equal access to public education, schools
still need to make certain that students of color receive a high quality education.
High performing schools who serve students of color overcome this challenge
with the support of their parents. Systems at the school site allow teachers and
parents to meet during parent conferences, back to school night, and other school
events. Many research studies reinforce the importance of family and school to
student achievement. These “overlapping spheres of influence” explain the shared
responsibility of home, school, and community for the development and learning of
students (Epstein, 1997).

39
School leaders and teachers communicate with families about ways to support
their children during these events and through monthly school letters. More
importantly, schools accommodate family circumstances and support diversity.
Parents of students of color are accepted at high performing schools and parents
looked as an asset in improving student achievement.
Parents are allowed to volunteer in classroom to support students of color and
hold high expectations. Fan and Chen (2001) conducted a study that involved over
24,000 families. Their study revealed that parent expectations and how they
communicate their expectation to their children are the most important elements.
Student perceptions of parental expectations are also correlated with achievement
(Gigliotti & Brookover, 1975).
White (1982) summarized that home atmosphere had the strongest
relationship with students achievement, even when compared to family income,
parent occupation, or education. Fan and Chen (2001) constructed three important
factors between parents and student achievement. These factors included: (1)
communication about school, (2) parent supervision, and (3) parent expectations.
Parents at the school site communicate these expectations and act as positive role
models for students of color.
Effective parents communicate their interest in their children’s work. This
element of home environment has been described as “the environment and how the
environment can be manipulated to encourage and support children’s academic
learning” (Christenson, Rounds, & Gorney, 1992). Parents of high performing

40
schools repeatedly speak to their children about class assignments. They also foster
and motivate their child about school.
Another important element in parental involvement is asking the parents for
help. High performing schools send home upcoming lessons and ask for suggestions
in improving the activities (Cotton, 1995). As a result, parents enforce best practices
and good study habits in their children.
Reshaping the way school help build strong relationships between schools and
families of color. With the support of families, culturally diverse parents felt they
could communicate better with the school and teachers. High performing schools
often have high attendance in parent training programs. It is also clear that culturally
diverse parents want to take an active role in their children’s education, and will take
part in schools that invite them.
California State Standards

Disparities in classroom opportunities are affected by many different
variables, most have little to do with the intellectual abilities of students (Gay, 2000).
An important ingredient to high levels of achievement for students of color, are state
standards. In addition to schools being culturally sensitive to students of color,
high expectations can be fostered with high standards.
All schools have structures given by the federal government and the state that
require standards-based instruction. High performing schools in particular have
several systems to effectively implement California standards and support students of

41
color, including professional development, differentiating instruction, and effective
use of time.
Leaders of high performing poor urban schools understand that teachers must
be highly qualified and engage a diverse student population in meaningful learning
experiences (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). According to NCLB, all students,
including students of color must meet the same high academic standards as other high
performing children. To promote equity for students of color an aligned curriculum is
necessary in high poverty schools.
Before, schools became accountable for their students’ achievement; there
was little support for teachers. Administrators focused on discipline, budget, and
paperwork. Even more serious was that many districts did not even have a solid
curriculum to guide their instruction. This was especially important for schools in
poor urban areas, where many schools had high teacher turnover rates and
inexperienced teachers.
Today, schools have made the turn for the better. Districts are held more
accountable due to NCLB. Moreover, schools have adopted new standards based
approaches to improving teaching and learning. Standards brought equality among
all students and help guide teacher instruction in poor urban schools.
High performing schools have adopted certain instruction practices to improve
overall student achievement. The most common components are:
• Systemwide curricula and instruction connected to California State
Standards.

42
• An accountability systemwide use of data to drive instruction.
• Culturally Responsive Pedagogy for diverse students.

In the article Beyond Islands of Excellence, the author, Wendy Togneri
(2003) explains that districts need to adopt a systemwide curricula that is connected
to state standards to provide clear expectations for teachers and students. In
particular, California has created a support system for all students in grades
Kindergarten through twelfth grade. Content standards are the basis of core
curriculum and assessments in grades K-12.
California Language Arts standards address reading, writing, speaking, and
listening to build proficiency. Standards provide a blueprint for organizing
instruction so that every child meets or exceeds the language arts content standards
(California Department of Education, 1999).
Teachers of high performing schools understand how to teach standards.
Moreover, they teach all the Language Arts content standards by explicit lessons from
literacy programs like the Open Court Reading program. Like other reading
programs, Open Court Program (2002) helps teach the following concepts:
• The Alphabetic Principle
• Print Awareness
• Phonemic Awareness
• Systematic, explicit phonics
• Comprehension strategies and skills
• Inquiry techniques and strategies

43
• The writing process and writing skills
• Spelling and vocabulary
• Grammar, usage, and mechanics
To support this system, administrators monitor classroom instruction and
provide feedback and support as necessary. During grade level meetings, teachers
and administration review data and discuss if the students’ needs are met.
Teachers with self-confidence and feelings of efficacy in their teaching
abilities have high achievement expectations for students of color. Furthermore, their
teaching behaviors reflect these expectations. (Gay, 2000). One method of holding
high expectations of all students is by analyzing formative and summative
assessments.
Data Driven Instruction

Data has shown that students of color consistently score lower when
compared to White students. Research has shown that the learning achievement of
students of color has been an issue in majority school populations across the United
States. To reverse these trends high performing schools have determined that student
data needs to be in place to support struggling students.
According to Togneri and Anderson (2003), schools districts understand that
certain systems would need to be in place. As a result they have implemented three
elements:
• Schools consistently and systematically collected student data.

44
• Schools developed multimeasure accountability systems to monitor student
progress.
• Schools provided teachers with support in using data.
The results of data provide teachers with information to guide their instruction
and strategically meet the students’ needs. Moreover, data helps schools make better
decisions for their students of color. Schools and districts can better understand what
is happening to diverse groups of students and whether inequities exist in their
schooling (Johnson, 2002). As a result, educators can modify their practices, thus
increasing higher curriculum for all students of color.
Districts including Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), make
decisions based on data to improve instructional practices in the classroom. In
LAUSD, student grades and literacy assessments scores are entered in the Student
Online Assessment Report (SOAR). Such tools allow teachers and principals to get
answers about trends within schools and to determine gaps in learning across certain
groups of students (Togneri, 2003).
More specifically, student data is (1) accessible, (2) disaggregated, and (3)
received by the administrators to the teachers, numerous times through out the school
year. Effective schools raise student achievement by being information driven,
committed to shared leadership and relentless about continuous improvement. They
must reshape the process, norms, and behaviors of teaching and learning (Glickman,
Gordon, and Ross-Gordon, 2004) around aggregating and interpreting shared
information, i.e., data (Picciano, 2006).

45
Professional Development

Learning from new research does not end at the school site. Successful
principals provided teachers with information and encouragement to attend
workshops, seminars and conferences related to instruction (Blase & Blase, 2004).
High-performing schools work carefully to associate professional development with
classroom instruction to support students of color. If low-performing schools are to
realize success in their efforts to foster and sustain improvement in student outcomes,
ways must be found to isolate and understand the kind of planning that matters most,
provide compelling examples of it, and deliberately build the capacity of all schools
to engage in it (Jerald, 2005).
Reforming schools invest heavily in professional developments and do it
effectively. Elmore (2002) writes, deriving professional development from an
analysis of what is needed to improve student learning assumes that the system has
the capacity to capture useful, accurate information about student learning and that
the people in the system have the capacity to apply that information to decisions
about instructional content and professional development. Professional development
must be geared to teachers’ needs and concerns (Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon,
2004). Successful principals offer consistent staff development to help teachers meet
the needs of their children. By meeting the teachers’ needs, professional development
is practical and valued. Leaders also encourage teachers to take risks and try new
strategies.

46
Professional development in schools where students of color are high
performing enables teachers to understand new concepts and strategies to support
students of color. Principals use the professional development system to share
culturally responsive pedagogy with their teachers. Culturally responsive teaching
simultaneously develops, along with academic achievement, social consciousness and
critique, cultural affirmation, competence, and exchange; community building and
personal connections; individual self-worth and abilities; and an ethic of caring (Gay,
2000).
It is important to note that effective professional development meetings in
high performing schools, improves classroom practices and changes teacher beliefs
about students of color. Guskey (1989) argued that practice changes attitudes.
Moreover, teachers must actually try these new practices with the students for whom
they believe the practices are problematical. Thus, once teachers were able to use
certain practices successfully, they also expressed more positive attitudes toward
teaching and increase responsibility for their students’ learning. Not surprisingly,
professional development gives teachers new skills and enhances their capacity to
teach more effectively. Teachers as well as leaders learn how to connect students’
prior knowledge to newly learned knowledge. In fact, teachers learn how to change
structures in their classrooms, by trying new ideas. Furthermore, high performing
schools base their content of professional development on needs that emerged from
data, and implement multiple strategies to foster continuous learning (Togneri &
Anderson, 2003).

47
Because poor urban schools tend to have less experienced teachers,
professional developments experiences help less effective teachers and/or
experienced teachers learn effective pedagogy to help their students. By providing
opportunities to learn effective pedagogy such as differentiating instruction, teachers
are able to meet the needs of students of color. Differentiating instruction specifically
responds to students’ progress on the learning continuum- what they already know
and what they need to learn. It responds to their best ways of learning and allows
them to demonstrate what they’ve learned in ways that capitalize on the strengths and
interests (Heacox, 2002).
Phillips and Glickman (1991) discovered that teachers who work in
stimulating and supportive environments can reach higher stages of development.
Joyce and Showers (2002) have demonstrated that virtually all teachers can learn the
most powerful and complex teaching strategies, provided that staff development is
designed properly.
Professional developments designed around culturally responsive pedagogy
requires teachers to have thorough knowledge about the cultural values of students of
color as well as their learning styles, historical legacies, and achievements of different
ethnic groups (Gay, 2000). In high performing high poverty schools, professional
developments are guided around the belief that all children, regardless of background,
bring to school the cultural knowledge, primary discourses, and accumulated
information that exist in households and neighborhoods, and that are used by

48
members of the community for successfully negotiating everyday life (Moll, Amanti,
& Gonzalez, 1992).
According to Joyce and Showers (2002), they describe four effective models
of effective professional development. These models include practicability,
adaptability, utility, and flexibility. Schools should become places where teachers as
well as students of color can learn.
High performing schools seek out best practices, especially in professional
development where they can enhance teachers’ learning and instruction in meeting
the needs of students of color. In summary, the practice of improvement is largely
about moving whole organizations –teachers, administrators and schools – toward the
culture, structure, norms and processes that support quality professional development
in the service of student learning (Elmore, 2002).
Differentiating Instruction

Researchers argue that in U.S. public schools is founded on European-
American cultural values and language. This Eurocentric orientation creates
inequitable learning conditions for many low-income children of color (Bennett,
2001).
To create greater equity for students of color, high performing school
understand that classroom instruction must be varied to suit to the individual needs of
all children. Teachers learn to differentiate instruction to ensure that students of color
are receiving a high quality education. Educators learn to differentiate lessons by
attending professional development meetings and working closely with instructional

49
leaders. Differentiating instruction is a philosophy that enables teachers to plan
strategically in order to reach the needs of the diverse learners in classrooms today
(Gregory & Chapman, 2002).
A considerable body of research has demonstrated that the extent to which
teachers differentiate- that is, the ways in which they adjust instruction to help
students of color learn information, remember it, and demonstrate that they have
learned it –strongly affects the achievements of their students (Gregory & Chapman,
2002). Reforming schools understand that differentiating instruction does not mean
that students work in small groups only or that there are numerous lesson plans per
child. Instead, it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning based on the
understanding that, because all students are different, classrooms need many options
to facilitate students learning (Heacox, 2002).
According to Friend and Pope (2005) differentiated instruction promotes a
rigorous curriculum for all students of color with varying levels of teacher support,
task expectations, and methods for learning based on the students’ abilities and
interests. As teachers differentiate their instruction, they are providing: (1)
differentiated learning, (2) an environment for student learning, and (3) flexibility
with time.
Teachers provide their students of color with greater variety, thus allowing
challenging experiences. In addition, teachers design activities and lessons
specifically for their students’ needs. Heaxcox (2002) explains that teachers must

50
first get to know their students’ interests, degree of readiness, and learning
preferences.
Facilitators also understand the importance of grouping and organizing their
children of color. In the classroom, children of color not only work individually, but
also work in collaborative groups. Davis (1993) reported that students learn best
when they are actively involved in the process. Regardless of the subject matter,
students of color working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and
retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional formats.
In fact, students are also grouped according to their interest and learning preferences.
This provides students of color with common learning needs as well as time to work
with others. Knowing that peers are relying on you is a powerful motivator for group
work (Kohn, 1986).
An increasing number of research studies in recent years have found
traditional
education practices ineffective for students of color. The studies have identified
educational programs, albeit based on the more "liberal" version of the deficit model,
that work successfully with student populations in poor urban areas. (American
Association of School Administrators, 1987; Carter & Chatfield, 1986 ; Lucas,
Henze, & Donato, 1990; Tikunoff, 1985).
In addition to many common strategies such as teacher expectations,
motivation, leadership, and professional development; students of color need specific
strategies to help them learn state standards. Teachers of high performing schools

51
design curriculum materials that are rich in opportunities for speaking, listening,
reading, and writing in English (Garcia, 1999). To support all students of color,
teachers use several strategies allowing children to build on their prior acknowledge.
Students are encouraged to share their knowledge through journal writing, pair share,
and small groups.
Teachers also understand that children of color need visuals such as pictures
and graphic organizers to help organize their thoughts. Furthermore, lessons are
taught with whole group, small group, and individual settings. Teachers also
supplement their lessons with body language to teach new vocabulary and concepts.
Effective teachers are constantly checking for student understanding.
Educators assess students’ understanding by asking questions. At the end of each
lesson, teachers review their lessons to support student learning. Cummins (1996)
studied how teachers need to establish classroom routines and mark transitions clearly
to signal where students of color are in the lesson. In these ways, students can focus
on comprehension and not on trying to figure out what they are suppose to do next.
In the end, teachers use culturally relevant pedagogy and accept diverse
culture into the classroom. Rolon (2002) reached similar conclusions about teachers
who learn about African American and Hispanic culture, history, and contributions to
the subject area become better scholars and are able to offer more comprehensive
curriculum to all students. Hence, teachers can appreciate diverse cultures and
understand the challenges of learning.

52
Garcia (1999) explains the importance of teachers getting to know students of
color by looking at each one as an individual with personal academic strengths and
learning styles. Children of color can have great success when teachers implement
multiple teaching strategies. Teachers need to use a variety of teaching tools,
including thematic units, lectures, guided practice, cooperative learning groups, and
development of critical thinking skills (Rolon, 2002).
Researchers at Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL)
studied effective strategies for students of color. As a result of their study they came
to the conclusion that the following strategies were most effective in increasing
student achievement:
• Providing students with objectives and feedback
• Creating visual representations
• Cooperative learning groups
Objectives and feedback

Broadly defined, goal setting is the process of establishing a direction for
learning (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Adding to objective, students of
color also need feedback. In fact, feedback seems to work well in so many situations
that it led researcher John Hattie (1992) to make the following comment after
analyzing almost 8,000 studies:
The most powerful single modification that enhances achievement is
feedback.

53
The simplest prescription for improving education must be “dollops of feedback”
(pg.9)

Corrective feedback is necessary for all students of color to experience, so they do not
continue to make the same mistakes. Thornbury (1999) and Brown (2000) state that
if students only get positive messages about their output, they will not make attempts
to restructure their grammar.
Creating Visual Representations

According to Paivio (1969), many psychologist adhere to what has been
known as “dual coding” theory of information storage. This theory proposes that
student knowledge can be represented two different ways, linguistically and
nonlinguistically.
Linguistic knowledge can be actual statements a child remembers, while nonlinguistic
knowledge is expressed as mental pictures or even physical sensations, such as smell,
taste, touch, kinesthetic association, and sound (Richardson, 1983).
Using nonlinguistic strategies helps students of color grasp new knowledge
and makes knowledge understandable. Effective teachers need to use graphic
organizers, pictures and photos, and kinesthetic activities to help students of color.
Graphic organizers includes charts, Venn diagrams, and webs. These
organizers help English learners understand and memorize new information. Schoen
and Schoen (2003) recommend advance organizers, noting that they help students of
color understand key concepts that they will be exposed to in a text. It has even been
shown that explicitly engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic

54
representations stimulates and increases activity in the brain (Gerlic and Jausovec,
1999).
Cooperative Learning Groups

In high performing classrooms, cooperative learning has become one of the
most effective instructional strategies. Educators have found that cooperative
learning can foster class instruction for students of color. First, when students of
color work in small groups, they experience more opportunities to practice their
skills. Small groups “create opportunities for sustained dialogue and substantive
language use” as students use language to accomplish the task at hand (Zehler, 1994).
In fact, cooperative learning groups “demand speech” because each member must
carry out their role if the group as a whole is to succeed (Alanis, 2004).
Because students of color can work in small groups, it is easy to check for
understanding and adjust the levels of speech appropriately – something that a teacher
or student cannot do easily in a whole-class session (Kagan, 1995). Other benefits to
cooperative learning are that they allow students of color to repeatedly learn new
material. Repetition allows the student to move the content they hear from short-term
comprehension to long-term acquisition (Kagan, 1995).
Smaller groups also reduce student anxiety when learning. Small groups
allow students of color to feel supportive, in addition, it allows opportunities for
actual conversation. Specifically, Lou and others (1996) reported the effect sizes (See
Figure 4).

55
Figure 4. Size of Groups

Group Size No. of effect sizes
(ESs)
Ave. ES Percentile Gain
Pairs 13 .15 6
3-4 38 .22 9
5-7 17 -.02 -1

Students of color are less likely to feel self-conscious about being corrected in
a small group setting (Kagan, 1995). Moreover, cooperative groups should rarely be
structured according to the students’ abilities. Kagan (1995) suggests a variety of
group students of color to repeatedly learn new material. To maximize students’
experience, it is a good idea to use a variety of critera, as well as to adhere to the
tenets of cooperative learning, to make the experience successful (Marzano,
Pickering, and Pollock, 2001).
Lastly, teachers are flexible with time for students to differentiate instruction.
Students of color that need intervention are provided with extra time to relearn and
practice newly learned material. At the same time, gifted children are challenged
with advanced lessons. In summary, differentiated instruction challenges students of
color to perform at their highest level.
Time

Although time is not a system, it is a means to implement systems to support
students of color effectively. Teachers need time to teach the all content state
standards within the time frame of a school year. Poor urban schools tend to struggle
with discipline problems and classroom interruptions thus interrupting instructional

56
time. Classroom teachers then estimated that the amount of time necessary to
adequately address the content articulated in these documents was 15,465 hours
(Marzano, Kendall, & Gaddy, 1999).
Making teaching more difficult, teachers are interrupted with phone calls from
the office, assemblies, teacher meetings, and trainings. Estimates of how much class
time is actually devoted to instruction vary widely from a low of 21 percent to a high
of 69 percent (Conant, 1973; Marzano & Riley, 1984; National Education
Commission on Time and Learning, 1994). Clearly, there is not enough time to cover
all the content standards in each grade level.
To help assure teachers are given the time to teach, high performing schools
implement five systems. Marzano (2005), recommends five action steps to
implement a guaranteed and viable curriculum. The five steps include: (1) identify
and communicate the essential standards, (2) ensure enough time is available for
instruction, (3) give students enough time to learn, (4) hold teachers accountable for
teaching specific content material, and (5) allocate most of the instructional day to
instruction.
Although many districts have now extended kindergarten from half day to all
day classes, there is still not enough time for grades 1
st
to 5
th
at the elementary level.
In other words, optimal changes are impractical, if not impossible to implement,
especially given the extreme cost involved in adding even a few days to the length of
a school year (Walberg, 1997). To solve the problem of time, schools have carefully

57
identified key state standards in order to focus available instructional time on key
standards that encompass multiple learning goals.
Time is necessary to teach all the content standards. High performing
classrooms limit time wasted to non-instructional activities such as passing of
materials, taking attendance, and disciplining student of color.
At high performing schools, with systems to support a standards-based
curriculum, not only does the school allocate time for implementing a standards-
based curriculum; it also makes monitoring an important practice. Leaders monitor
their teachers holding them accountable of teaching state standards. Principals
observe classrooms, request lesson plans, and have informal conferences. Monitoring
should not be perceived as an autocratic action, rather as a powerful professional
development tool executed in the spirit of what Blase and Blase (1998) refer to as
“reflective supervision,” in which the administrator poses questions that help teachers
think through their instructional decisions. Time also allows teachers to: (1) teach
for content knowledge, (2) teach for student learning, (3) create a classroom
community conducive to student learning, and (4) display teacher professionalism
(Garcia, 1999).
Summary of Literature
Schools across the nation have become more accountable then ever before.
California schools have concentrated on standards based instruction. Research has
proven that a strong school culture combined with standards based instruction can
help close the achievement gap. In addition, there needs to be certain structures and

58
systems in place to close the achievement gap. These elements also help students of
color living in low-socio economic areas. Therefore, this research needs to be
continued and further analyzed to determine its effectiveness on students of color.
More specifically, how do schools with large number of students of color meet the
needs of all children with instruction?

59
CHAPTER III
Methodology
Introduction
Public schools have yet to demonstrate a sustained effort to provide quality
education for students of color (Ladson-Billings, 1994). As a result, there is an
achievement gap between White students and students of color. A significant
correlation between race and poverty exists, African American and Latinos are three
times more likely to be impoverished than White Americans (Proctor & Dalaker,
2002).
The purpose of the study was to determine the structures and systems that
promoted best classroom practices for students of color at a high performing school in
a low-socio economic urban setting. In this chapter the research methodology will
be explained. In addition, a full description of the school and student population, as
well as the sampling rationale, will be described. The study will examine teacher
factors and instructional strategies and methods at one high performing school with
predominately Latino students. Lastly, the study explored why this school is able to
produce high achieving results when compared to other poor urban schools with
similar student demographics.
The theoretical framework that lead the study proposed that high performing
schools with predominately students of color was influenced by teacher instruction.
The framework included historical influences, societal and educational influences,

60
school site systemic and structural influences, and high academic achievement in high
poverty schools with concentrations of students of color (See Figure 5).

Figure 5. Overview of the Theoretical Framework for High Poverty/High Performing
Schools Study.

There were four research questions guiding this study. These questions
included:
1. What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students of color?

61
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to contribute
to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support school-
wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Using the theoretical framework adopted for each research question, the
research group went through all the questions and identified the ones that were
consistent with the theoretical framework.
Research Methodology
The research study examined a high performing elementary school with
predominately students of color living in a low-income urban area. During the
research a qualitative case study was performed to study the effectiveness of teacher
instruction for students of color. A qualitative study was implemented to develop an
in-depth study of best practices in classrooms. Qualitative findings grew out of three
kinds of data collection: (1) in depth, open-ended interviews; (2) direct observation;
and (3) written documents (Patton, 2002).
In qualitative research, information gleaned from observations, interviews,
and the like must be “trustworthy”; otherwise, any themes that emerge from these
data will not be credible (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To triangulate best practices, the
study involved interviewing the principal, teachers, instructional leaders, classified
staff, and parents. In addition, the researcher observed classroom instruction, staff

62
meetings, and leadership team meetings. Lastly, the researcher analyzed student data
and student work. Triangulation reduced the possibility of chance associations and of
systematic biases prevailing due to a specific method being utilized, thereby allowing
greater confidence in any interpretations made (Fielding, 1995).
Additionally, the qualitative case studies provided an in-depth description of
the context and process studied (Creswell, 1998). The study described systems
inside a high performing high poverty school that supports schoolwide instruction for
high student achievement. The findings of this study have the potential of helping
other schools with predominately student of color. More specifically, it will support
teachers, administrators, parents, and other school site staff when practicing effective
teaching strategies.
The study examined how teachers and administrators overcome many
challenges of a poor urban school to promote high student achievement among
students of color with an emphasis on Latino students. The study will also explain
how the school maintained their high academic achievement and continued to
improve each school year.
Sample and Population
The study examined a high performing elementary school located in Los
Angeles County in California. The school was selected based on its academic growth
during the past five years according to the Academic Performance Index (API). More
specifically, at least 60% of the student population had to be comprised of minority
children and at least 70% of the overall school population needed to be in a Free or

63
Reduced Meal program. Due to the small sample of schools that met the criteria, the
school selected for the study matched every criterion except for the percentage of
student Free or Reduced Meal program. The criterion for selecting the school
created a list of important attributes for the sample based on the purpose of the study
and its theoretical lens (Merriam, 1998).
The school being studied has a current API of 750 and has shown growth of at
least ten points each year. The research did not examine only API scores when
selecting a school, because the API score is limited solely to student scores. The API
does not measure teacher instruction, nor are the scores an accurate measure the
achievement of students of color. Overall, the CAT 6 is a norm referenced test that
compares all students in the nation. Because only 13% of the nation’s student
population is Latino, while in California, 43% of the students are Latino, API scores
alone would not be an accurate measure.
For confidentiality purposes, the school will be named Preston Elementary.
Overall, the school has shown consistent growth in their API, which is currently at
750. The school has consistently met their AYP goals, therefore the school is not in
Program Improvement (PI) status. The school’s student population consisted of
Preston Elementary is a Title 1 school on a traditional school calendar.
The school’s student enrollment had 80% Latino students, 8% African
American, 8% Asian, 2% Pilipino, 1% White, 1/2 % Alaskan, and 1/2 % Pacific
Islander.
Lastly, 86.5% of the students were on free or reduced lunch.

64
Data Collection
The collection of data for each research question occurred on campus through
classrooms observations and interviews with the teachers, administrators, parents, and
classified staff. The remaining data was collected from artifacts. Figure 6 shows the
relationship of the data collected to each research question.
Figure 6. Relationship of Data Collection Instruments to Research Questions

Research Questions
Instruments

Research
Question #1
Trends and
patterns of
students of color
Research
Question
#2:
Structures and
systems
Research
Question #3
Classroom
instruction
Research
Question
#4:
Construct of
race
Administrator Interview X X X
Teacher Interview X X X X
Parent Interview X X
Classified Interview X
Classroom Observation X X X
Professional Development
Observation
X X
Leadership Team
Observation
X X
Documents and Artifacts X X X X

The selection of interview questions was created by a group of researchers
under the leadership of Dr. Rousseau. First, each member created his or her own
questions. Then all members combined and disregarded certain questions. All
included questions required short answers from the interviewee. Questions and
interview protocols were created for all stakeholders, including teachers,
administrators, classified staff, and parents. See appendix A for teacher interview

65
questions, Appendix B for administration interview questions, Appendix C for
classified questions, and Appendix D for parent interview questions.
The focus of the interviews was how schools implemented structures and
systems to support best practices to meet the needs of students of color. The study
was arranged beforehand with the school’s principal, requesting participation in the
study. Four school days were calendared to study the best practices at the school site.
Teachers were asked to participate in the study. Within the group of teachers,
were also included instructional leaders, the school’s literacy coach and English
learner coordinator. In addition, the principal was interviewed on their leadership
practices. Classified staff and parents were also interviewed. The questions focused
how the staff met the needs of the students they served.
Teacher interviews lasted about 20 to 30 minutes and were held during the
teachers’ lunch breaks. In addition, teachers from different grade levels, as well as
different levels of experience, were interviewed. Interviews with the administrator
took place after school and took 30 to 45 minutes. The interviews with school site
leaders focused on their role in supporting teacher instruction. All interviews were
recorded using a tape recorder in addition to note taking. Lastly, all interviews were
also transcribed for accuracy.
Observations of classroom instruction and staff meetings were also conducted
during the study. During classroom visits the researcher wrote notes about the
classroom environment and the social climate. During staff development meetings,

66
observations were made on the discussion topic, how teachers and leaders interacted,
and how all educators planned for their students.
The study also examined documents that provided data about the school.
Merriam (1998) cited that documents analyzed should include those papers that
provided information or insights that were relevant to the research questions. This
data included: 1. School description, 2. API reports, 3. Students by ethnicity, and 4.
Staffing information. Other documents included the School Accountability Report
Card (SARC) and school site assessment results.
It is important to note the limitations of the researcher. Every attempt was
made by the researcher to remain objective. The research data collected was used to
form best practices by teachers, leaders, parents, and school staff. The study
revealed strategies of a high performing school, and the information was used for
similar schools to improve their student achievement.
Data Analysis
After all the data was collected, a summative evaluation was created based on
the interviews, classroom and meeting observations, and artifacts. Richardson (1993)
notes that qualitative analysis and writing involve us not just in making sense of the
world but also in making sense of our relationship to the world and, therefore, in
discovering things about ourselves, even as we discover things about some
phenomenon of interest.
The triangulation of the data shown in Figure 7, described what structures and
systems were found to support students of color. The qualitative study offered rich,

67

Teacher
Administration
Staff and Parent
Interviews

Classroom
and Meeting
Observations

Student work
samples and
data
detailed, and concrete descriptions of people and places – “thick description” – in
such a way that we can understand the phenomenon studied and draw our own
interpretations about meaning and significance (Denzin, 2001).

Figure 7. Triangulation of Data Sources

Ethnical Considerations
All participants were informed that their identities would be strictly
confidential. In addition, consent forms were approved and signed by all participants
before the study.
Due to the fact that the study was conducted at only one school, the names of
all participants were protected. Similarly, all documents, interview transcripts and
notes, interview tapes, were concealed from others.

68
It is also important to note that all the research processes followed the
University of Southern California and the school district’s procedures. Lastly, the
school’s guidelines for ethnical considerations were strictly upheld.
Conclusions
Chapter three provides a description of the methodology used in this
qualitative study. Included in this chapter are the explanations of the theoretical
framework and the requirements for the school selected. Also discussed is a narrative
of how the interview questions and protocols were created. Data collection at the
school site was supported by interviews of all stakeholders, classroom observations,
and artifacts.

69
CHAPTER IV
The Findings
Introduction

Chapter four reports and describes the findings of the school visits and
interviews. Historically, students of color have been have not had equal access to
quality education (Ladson-Billings, 1994). However, some schools seem to exceed
these expectations and beat the odds. These schools show consistent yearly gains in
student achievement and produce positive results. The purpose of this study was to
determine the structures and systems that are perceived to contribute to high academic
achievement in high poverty schools with large concentrations of students of color.
The overall theoretical frameworks of the study were the sociocultural theory of
learning, and the importance of integrated systems to create a systemic approach to
creating schools of high academic performance.
A qualitative methodology was implemented to collect data from Preston
Elementary. Preston was selected for this study based on its current API of 750 and
its growth over the past three years, among a high poverty student body, indicated by
the high percentage of 86.5% recipients of free and reduced lunch. Multiple
resources at the school site provided the data collected. These resources included
interviews of a range of school employees, classroom observations, and artifacts from
the school. The combination of all three resources addressing the same research
questions increased the validity of the data the researcher collected.
The case study was designed to answer the following research questions:

70
1. What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to contribute
to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support school-
wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
The data were collected over a four-day period through interviews and
classroom observations. Thirteen interviews were conducted during the study.
These interviews included interviews with the principal, office manager, six teachers,
literacy coach, English learner coordinator, custodian, and two parents. Observations
included shadowing personnel, observing the staff and classroom instruction, and
attending staff meetings. Artifacts collected during the visit included formative and
summative data, overall school data from the School Accountability Report Card
(SARC), the district web site, and handouts.
Analysis of Findings: Research Question 1
What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students of color?

The first research question asked what are the trends and patterns for student
performance among students of color. A variety of data are needed to understand
how schools function on behalf of student’s growth and development.
With the growing population of diverse students, public schools are now being
challenged to accommodate underserved students. According to the U.S. Department

71
of Education (2001), the academic achievement of Latino and African American
students in the United States has consistently been low when compared to White
students. The educators of Preston Elementary have been able to beat the odds and
establish a pattern of high academic achievement. Preston’s school wide practices
have improved their overall student achievement and academic performance index
score.
The teaching staff is comprised of 28 females and two males. There are 27
permanent teachers and three probationary teachers. Figure 8 shows the teachers’
years of experience.
Figure 8. Years of Teacher Experience.

Teaching Experience
Less than 1 Year 1
1 Year 0
2-5 Years 17
6-10 Years 6
11 or more Years 6
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
Preston Elementary school is a K-5 school in the Accelerated Unified School
District. It is a Title 1 school on a traditional school calendar. The school has a
student population of 512 students. More specifically, 80% of their students came
from a Latino background, while 8% are African American, 8% Asian, 2% Pilipino,
1% White, 1/2 % Alaskan, and 1/2 % Pacific Islander. The school has 275 English
learners, with 250 students being Latino. It is important to note that African
American, Asian, Pilipino, White, Alaskan, and Pacific Islander students were not

72
represented in the API growth by student group due to the small percentage of
students in each of these subgroups.
Preston Elementary School has shown growth of 68 points in their API over
the past three years, and their current API is 750. The school was selected based on
its academic growth during the past three years according to the Academic
Performance Index (API). Figure 9 shows the school’s API growth since 1999.
Eighty six and a half percent of the students were on free or reduced lunch. More
specifically, 372 students were on free lunch and 71 students on reduced lunch.
Figure 9. Preston Elementary School’s API growth from 1999-2007.
439
489
527
613
668
695
682
729
750
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
API
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
School year
Academic
Performace Index
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
The school showed a drop in API scores during the 2004-2005 school year
which temporarily broke their trend of consistent improvement. Since the 2004-2005
school year, Preston’s API scores have shown a steady increase for all students.
During the 2006-2007 school year, the school has earned its highest API of 750.

73
When comparing Preston’s API to California’s average and the district’s
average API, Preston showed the highest gain in points (See Figure 10). Preston’s
API started as only 439 in 1999 and increased to 750 by 2007. This gave Preston a
total of 311 API points increase. The California average totaled only 142 API points
from 1999 to 2007, while the district’s average increased by 223 API points. Overall,
Preston Elementary has a higher 2007 API compared to the district’s average API.
However, the school’s API was 22 points lower than California’s average API.
Figure 10. Preston Elementary’s API compared to California’s average API and the
district’s average API from 1999 to 2007.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
School year
API
CA Elem Avg
LAUSD Elem Avg
Preston Elementary
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)

Figure 11 illustrates the actual API growth by student sub-groups for the past
three years, and API scores from 2005 -2007. Not only did the school show gains in
their overall API, but Latino, socio-economic disadvantaged students, and English

74
Learners also showed an upward trajectory. It is important to note that African
American children were not represented due to the small percentage of students.
Figure 11. API Growth by Student Group - Three-Year Comparison
This figure displays by student group the actual API changes for the past three years,
and the most recent API score.
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
School year
API
All Students
Latino
Socio-eco
disadvantaged
English Learners

(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
Figure 12 shows the percentage of 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students who
scored in the proficient and advanced proficient range on the English Language Arts
section of the California Standards Test from 2003 to 2007.
When reviewing the data, the researcher found that 2
nd
grade showed a 6%
gain since 2003. Third grade showed higher gains of 11% since 2003. Although 2
nd

75
and 3
rd
grades showed growth since 2003, when taking a closer look at 4
th
and 5
th

grade scores, these grade levels have doubled their percentage of students in the
proficient and advanced range.
Figure 12. Percentage of Grade 2 -5 students who scored in the proficient and
advanced proficient range on the English Language Arts section of the California
Standards Test (2003 to 2007).
31
33
24
36
37
14
27
24 24
25
19
24
33
42
46
19
27
20 20
39
0
10
20
30
40
50
Percent of students proficient
& advanced
2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Grade level
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
There are other notable points of comparison when following the same
children over several years. The researcher examined English Language Arts data for
second grade students from 2003 until they became fifth grade students in 2006.
Their scores consistently drop from second grade to third grade and from fourth grade

76
to fifth grade. The only increase in scores for what may be presumed to be the same
set of students occurred from third grade to fourth grade (See Figure 13).

Figure 13. Percentage of proficient to advanced proficient (English Language Arts)
second grade students from 2003 as they grew to fifth grade in 2006.
31
27
33
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2nd
2003
3rd
2004
4th
2005
5th
2006
Grade and school year
Percent proficient and advanced
Students
from 2003
to 2006

Based on the data results from Figure 13, it seems that third grade students
showed the strongest performance in proficiency in comparison to other grade levels.
Moreover, these teachers may also have a stronger understanding of how to make
learning for students of color more relevant and effective (Gay, 2000). To validate
this interpretation, the researcher also examined another group of second graders until
they graduated from fifth grade.

77
The English Language Arts results for 2004 second graders over time are
similar to results for the 2003 second graders. Again scores only increased when
student moved from third grade to fourth grade; grades dropped between other
grades. The decrease in percent proficient and advanced between grades 4 and 5 was
modest (See Figure 14).

Figure 14. Percentage of proficient to advanced proficient (English Language Arts)
second grade students from 2004 as they grew to fifth grade in 2007.

33
24
42
39
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
2nd
2004
3rd
2005
4th
2006
5th
2007
Grade and School year
Percent proficient and advanced
2nd grade
students
from 2004

When the California State Test scores for Preston Elementary were
disaggregated by ethnicity, approximately 35% of Latino students scored in the
proficient and advanced proficient range on the English language arts and 47% in

78
math. African American students showed even higher scores with 40% of the
students in the proficient and advanced proficient range in English language arts and
54% in math (See Figure 15).
The higher scores from the African American students could have been from a couple
of factors. These factors include a small population of African Americans of only 41
students or higher socio-economic levels.
Figure 15 Percentage of Latino and African American students who scored in the
proficient and advanced proficient range on the English Language Arts and Math
sections. (2006-2007 CST).

35
40
47
54
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
English Language
Arts
Math
English Language Arts and Math results
Percent proficient and advanced
Hispanics
African
American
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
Additionally, the schools percentage of reclassified English Learners also
increased from 2005-2006 to 2006-2007. The school has recently shown its largest

79
percentage gain of 10.3% (See Figure 16). The English learner coordinator explained
the sudden increase of reclassified English learners, “Last year all grade levels except
for Kindergarten got trained in the practicum (ELD Practicum). The program has
helped everyone teach our Hispanic students.”
The increase in the percentage of reclassified English learners was consistent
with the school’s API upward trajectory. According to (Jepsen & Alth, 2005), higher
scores on the California Standards Test (CST) have positive relationships with a
school’s reclassification rate. Although the percent reclassified increased
significantly in the 2006-2007 year, it is still a modest number.
Figure 16. Percentage of English Learners Reclassified from 2002-2003 to 2006-
2007
2.30%
0 0
2.70%
13%
0.00%
2.00%
4.00%
6.00%
8.00%
10.00%
12.00%
14.00%
Percent of English Learners
reclassified
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
School year
English Learner
Reclassified
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)

80
English proficiency is important for the success of EL students’ performance
on the California Standardized Tests. Under the federal NCLB Act, testing is
becoming increasingly significant and school’s are accountable for the progress of the
EL in both English proficiency and academic achievement. EL students consistently
have lower test scores than other students on standardized tests, including the
California Standards Test (CST).
The researcher also collected suspension and expulsion data from the school’s
2006 School Accountability Report Card (SARC). The school showed zero
suspensions and expulsions last school year. Figure 17 displays the exact number of
students suspended and number of expulsions during the last three years.

Figure 17. Number of suspensions and expulsions for the past three years.

2005 2006 2007
Number of
suspensions
0 2 0
Number of
expulsions
0 0 0

(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)

In addition to the school’s consistently low suspension and expulsion rate,
Preston Elementary school’s attendance rate has also remained within the 95.55% to
96.59 ranges since the 2002-2003 school year (See Figure 18).
Figure 18. Student Attendance from the school years 2002-2003 to 2006-2007.

81
95.95%
96.59%
96.01%
95.55%
96.20%
95.00%
95.20%
95.40%
95.60%
95.80%
96.00%
96.20%
96.40%
96.60%
Percent of student
attendance
2002-
2003
2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
School year
Actual Attendance Rate
(Accelerated Unified School District, SARC, 2007)
A school attendance rate of 95.55 percent and higher may have helped the
school achieve consistent gains in their API over the years. When Preston’s student
attendance was compared to two other elementary schools within one mile, Preston
Elementary had a higher rate than both schools (See Figure 19).
Figure 19. Comparison of Preston Elementary school’s student attendance rate
(2002-2007) to two neighboring schools (School A & School B). Numbers on the Y-
axis represent percentage of student attendance.

82
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007
School year
Percentage of Student attendance
Preston
School
A
School
B

The researcher also compared Preston Elementary School’s API score to the
API scores of schools A and B. When comparing the two schools to Preston
Elementary, not only did the two other schools have lower percentages of student
attendance, they also had lower API scores (See Figure 20). These data suggest a
correlation between student attendance and overall API scores.

83
Figure 20. Comparison of Preston’s API to two other neighboring schools (School A
& School B).
666
717
750
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
Preston School A School B
API
2007 API scores

Summary of Research Question One

The first research question sought to identify the trends and patterns for
student performance among students of color. Historically, African Americans and
Latinos, as groups, have not been achieving equally with Whites and Asians students.
Merely belaboring the disproportionately poor academic performance of students of
color or blaming their families and social class backgrounds is not helpful in
implementing reforms (Gay, 2000). However, the educators of Preston Elementary
have promoted academic achievement with their students of color that is higher than
schools with similar demographics. Preston Elementary has been able to reverse the

84
trends among students of color and achieve high student academic performance in
schools with similar demographics.

Analysis of Findings: Research Question 2
What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to contribute to
high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color?

Research Question two focused on the organizational structures and systems
that contribute to high student performance. It focused on the theoretical framework
that multiple key school-level factors must work systemically in a coordinated and
integrated system.
Wendy Togneri (2003), reported that successful schools had several basic
factors to support students: (1) improving instruction, (2) decisions based on data, (3)
a vision focused on student learning and instructional improvement, (4) involving
parents and the community, (5) professional development, (6) strong leadership, and
(7) a network of instructional experts. Togneri (2003) discovered the achievement
gap between White students and students of color were nearly eliminated when
schools employed these strategies.
When comparing Togneri’s findings to Robert Marzano’s research, there were
common characteristics. Marzano (2003) identified the following school-level factors
that would have a significant impact on student achievement: (1) Guaranteed and

85
viable curriculum, (2) Challenging goals and effective feedback, (3) Parental
involvement, and (4) Collegiality and professionalism. Figure 21 illustrates how the
two researchers used slightly different terms to describe similar school-level factors.
Figure 21. School level factors that impact student achievement by Togneri (2003)
and Marzano (2003).
Togneri (2003) Marzano (2003)
Improving Instruction: A Systemwide
Approach
Guaranteed and viable curriculum
Decisions Based on Data, Not Instinct
A vision focused on student learning and
instructional improvement
Challenging goals and effective
feedback
Involving parents and the community Parental involvement
Professional development
Strong leadership
Networks of Instructional Experts
Collegiality and professionalism

Although each researcher used different terms, both researchers addressed the
same basic factors. During the visit to Preston Elementary, the researcher noted how
the school showed strong evidence of key factors mentioned by Marzano and
Togneri.
More specifically Preston Elementary practiced several key factors that are
comparable to those put forward by Marzano and Togneri. These factors included:
• Leadership and school culture

86
o Supporting teachers
o Offering suggestions
o Asking questions
o Being Visible
• Developing a culture of accountability to gauge school and student
progress
o Monitoring school progress through CST results
o Monitoring student progress through classroom assessments
• Culture that involves parent support
The researcher also connected these factors to sociocultural practices in which
adult learners participated. The sociocultural perspective suggests that learning not
only takes place in social contexts but also through the actual means of social
interaction (language) to form tools for thinking, problem-solving, and remembering
(Wertsch, 1994). Adult learning took place between the principal and teachers,
teachers with other teachers, and between parents and teachers. In all, the active
engagement between adults supported the sociocultural theories of learning.
Leadership and School Culture
Culture determines how we think, believe, and behave, and these in turn,
affect how we teach and learn (Gay, 2000). Togneri (2003) also identified a strong
school culture as an important system contributing to high student performance.

87
At Preston Elementary, the educators created a culture and a vision focused on
student learning and achievement. The school’s culture was also focused on
instruction that met the needs of students of color.
Scheurich (2002) reported that successful principals of high poverty schools
model high expectations for their students and these expectations play a major role in
creating a school culture of learning. The principal of Preston has committed herself
to making a difference for students of color. She has been the principal for the past
twenty four years. As an administrator she has shaped and created the belief
throughout the school that there should be high expectations for students of color.
Her practices are consistent with Gay’s findings that teachers’ expectations
significantly influence the quality of learning opportunities provided to students of
color.
The following quotes from the staff illustrate the high expectations for
students of color:
The principal explained:
I hold everyone accountable to meet the needs of our students. I try to create
a supportive learning environment for everyone. We have made great
progress, but we still have a long way to go.

The office manager added:
The principal really cares for each child. She walks into all classrooms. She
always meets with teachers and helps whenever she can.

The school custodian agreed:
Everyone at this school is dedicated and they get along. The principal and
teachers are all willing to work with students.

88
A strong culture can build commitment and identification for a school staff
and students (Schein, 1985). The principal used her leadership skills to promote
teamwork among her staff. She also motivated them to have high expectations for
students of color. To support this school culture, the principal frequency visited
rooms and held meetings with teachers after each assessment period. Bennett (2001)
found that teachers of high performing schools promoted equity for students of color.
According to Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005), leadership is considered
to be an important factor in a successful school. Leaders have a clear vision of where
their school needs to be. In addition, leaders must address the numerous needs of
their school.
At Preston Elementary school nearly all the respondents commented on how
their principal had created structures and systems to support students of color.
During the interviews and observations, the researcher noted that the principal
opened the lines of communication between her teachers. The principal established
several leadership themes from Blase and Blase (1998). These themes included
supporting teachers and modeling positive supervisor bahaviors.
Supporting Teachers
According to Blase and Blase (2004) principals who are strong instructional
leaders are also effective at instructional conferences with their teachers. The
principal shared “When I first arrived at this school I needed to change the teachers’
current beliefs of student achievement. As a leader I developed a clear vision and a
well-defined mission statement. Another action was collaborating with my staff and

89
our community members to agree on the type of learning and goals that are
important.”
Before conferencing with teachers, the principal paid close attention to
classroom observations and data analysis. During the observation of classrooms, the
principal and the researcher walked through every classroom. As the principal and
the researcher walked through the rooms, the principal pointed out that teachers
taught with the district’s mandated programs and how children were engaged in the
lessons.
During the classroom visits, the principal and researcher observed a new
second grade teacher teaching a dictation lesson. The teacher read each word,
followed by the statement of a sentence. Then she [teacher] sounded out each sound
as the children wrote the words. The principal noted which lesson was being taught
and how accurately the teacher was delivering the lesson by reviewing back to the
teacher’s edition (See Figure 22). The principal stated that she left notes left for the
teachers to help them reflect on their own practices based on what she observed. In
addition, the principal reviewed the most recent assessment scores and asked specific
children questions about their assignments.

90
Figure 22. Principal’s Classroom Visitation and Observation Sheet
Preston Elementary – Classroom Visitation and Observation
To: Teacher Name Date: 12/5 Time: 8:35
From: Principal
Today I visited your classroom and observed the following:
• Weekly lesson plans
• Curriculum/instruction organized around adopted programs
• Models of student work
• Recognition of accomplishments
• Evidence of classroom management
• Climate that promotes fairness and respect
• Continuous feedback

The principal said she also worked closely with her literacy coach when
supporting teachers. The literacy coach agreed:
As a literacy coach, I have the job of figuring out what teachers need. I need
to be able to quickly figure out if our teachers are implementing the program.
I also have to share my knowledge and experience with my colleagues in an
effective way. This is why grade level meetings help so much. It’s the only
time I get where I can get all the teachers together. I recently gave a demo for
my second grade teachers on blending from the Open Court intervention
teachers’ guide. Then I had the teachers practice together. It’s like having a
small lesson study. Everyone gets a chance to practice with each other.

Pajak (2001) suggested that the most effective methods for improving
classroom instruction are from classroom observations and conferencing. During
teacher conferences and meetings the principal following the conference strategies
found in Blase and Blase (2004): (1) offering suggestions, (2) providing feedback, (3)
asking questions. In a sociocultural framework, teachers and the principal assisted
each other in learning how to support student achievement.

91
Offering Suggestions
The researcher observed the principal giving advice to her teachers and
offering suggestions to improve their instruction. When collaborating and
conferencing with teachers, the principal was careful how she worded her
suggestions. Blase and Blase (2004) reported that teachers viewed a principal’s
suggestions as a valid request and respond accordingly when the suggestions are
purposeful, attainable, and non-threatening. More specifically, teacher’s tended to
accept the principal’s suggestions, when the suggestions matched the students needs
(Acheson & Gall, 2003).
Teacher B stated:
Our principal helped me build my confidence. When I first started teaching I
was so overwhelmed. She always visited my classroom and supported me in
every way. After school she would even help me plan lessons and offer
suggestions.
After the conferences with the principal, teachers often thought about their
own teaching and tried new ideas through self reflections.
Teacher D noted:
I try to take my principal’s recommendations and add it to my own teaching.
She makes us think about how to improve our instruction.

Teacher C added:
I spoke to my principal the other day while we reviewed my assessments. She
showed me how to look for students who still need extra help. I feel like I’m
a better teacher from it.

92
Feedback
Blase and Blase (2004) found that when principals visited classrooms and
gave feedback to teachers, that teachers began to reflect on their teaching practices.
The principal complimented the teacher’s positive qualities when the she visited each
room.
The principal explained how she writes notes every time she visits a classroom.
The principal stated:
I try to be nonevaluative when I write my notes to teachers. I try to write
about the positive qualities I noticed when I was in their room.

Teacher C added:
I love it when she visits my room. I look forward to reading her notes. They
make me feel like she appreciates us.
The teachers reported that the principal built confidence in most of her
teachers. She recognized good performance as well as teachers who still needed extra
support. She knew that the best way to improve teacher results was to ensure that
they felt appreciated. To show her gratitude for her staff, she created a kudos section
in the weekly bulletin. Figure 23 presents how teachers were acknowledged in the
weekly bulletin

93
Figure 23. Kudos section of the weekly bulletin
KUDOS
Kudos goes to our English Learner Coordinator for organizing the Kindergarten ELD
practicum training. Also to be mentioned with her engaging ELD lesson is Teacher 1
for modeling a lesson to her colleagues.

Kudos for to Teacher 2 for a terrific blending lesson reviewing long vowels with her
students.

Kudos goes to Teacher 3 for engaging his students by letting them use manipulatives
during a math lesson.

Asking questions
Blase and Blase (2004) also reported how successful principals ask teachers
for advice.
Teacher A explained:
When I meet with my principal, she will always ask which students are
struggling and how I am meeting their needs. She always makes me think
about what I’m doing and what additional strategies I can use.

Teacher D stated:
My principal just asked me about the ELD Practicum the other week. She
asked if I felt the program was effective and what I learned.

By asking teachers for their opinion, the principal promoted leaders among
her teachers. The researcher noted how the principal used reflection forms after
professional development meetings. Question number four specifically asked the
teachers for their opinions on how to improve the professional development meetings
(See Figure 24).

94
Figure 24. Teacher reflection sheet given after each professional development
meeting.

Preston Elementary School
Professional Development
Teacher Reflection
1. What did you learn today?
2. How will use what you learned in your classroom?
3. What areas do you still need support in?
4. Do you have any suggestions or recommendations?
Being Visible
Blase and Blase (2004) discovered that successful principals in their study
made informal visits, and teachers were accepting towards these visits. The
researcher noted that the principal made many informal classroom visits. Many
teachers respected the principal’s visits and left their doors open.
The principal’s actions ensured high expectations for teaching and learning
while she visited classrooms. During the principal’s visit to classrooms she focused
on instruction and student learning. During many of the classroom visits, the
principal interacted with the children by asking specific questions about the lesson.
The principal visited a third grade class where the classroom teacher was
supporting her children in creating sentences. The principal asked one student to read
her sentence. The teacher worked with small groups of students on rotation basis to
facilitate their construction of sentences. According to Heacox, (2002), when

95
students of color work in small groups, they are able to learn more of what is taught
and remember it longer.
In a fourth grade class, the principal checked bulletin boards, student inquiry
journals, and student portfolios. The principal explained:
Sometimes it’s important to check for other things other than teaching. I also
look at the room environment to see student work and what the class has been
learning.

During recess the principal walked around the playground making sure
children were playing in their appropriate play areas. Afterwards, the principal
walked to the teacher’s lounge and spoke with several teachers. The principal asked,
“How is everyone?” The teachers stated that the students were doing well, and how a
recent professional development training had helped their instruction around fluency.
The teachers discussed some of their struggles and share different ideas. One teacher
stated, “I have a student, and he can’t stay on task.”
Another teacher responded:
What about placing him in front of the room?
The principal added:
What’s the name of the child? I want to stop by later and see how he behaves.
Later that day, the principal and teacher discussed possible solutions, such as setting
reachable goals to encourage the child. The principal also recommended the teacher
to reinforce the child’s confidence level by telling him that he could achieve his
goals.

96
Through sharing different solutions, the teacher was able to modify her
methods in motivating the child. The practices between the principal and teacher
helped the teacher learn from her experience and try different ideas.
A Culture of Accountability to Gauge School and Student Progress

According to Togneri and Anderson (2003), high performing schools have a
culture that embracing accountability. Systems of accountability through data were
found at Preston Elementary and included:
• Schools consistently and systematically collected student data.
• Schools developed an accountability system to monitor student progress.
• Schools provided teachers with support in using data.

The school collected an array of measures, including summative and formative
assessments. Through these assessments, the principal and teachers developed a
culture that embraced accountability.

Monitoring School Progress Through CST Results
Togneri (2003) concluded that high performing schools systemically gathered
data to monitor student performance in order to improve instruction. According to
researchers, high performing schools determined that monitoring student assessments
played an important role in reversing the low performance trends of students of color.
Preston Elementary implemented a system to examine standardized testing
data. Before the school year started, the principal explained how she carefully
reviewed summative test scores from the 2007 California Standards Test. During

97
these meetings educators began to reflect on their teaching practices and learned from
others to learn effective strategies.
The principal stated:
Test scores tell me what we did right and areas where we still need to grow. I
like to have my teachers review school wide data every year. We review data
in each grade level as well as compare the most recent data to earlier years.

The principal also explained how during the first week of school, the
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) were presented to the staff during their
first staff meeting. The goals, standards, and long-term outcomes for students are
important and must be clearly stated (Johnson, 2002). The literacy coach added:
Our data helps us look at how our students are performing. It also guides our
school wide focus and goals.

Teachers were presented the percentage of students in the proficient to
advanced proficient range as well as the percentage of students in the basic, below
basic, and far below basic ranch from the 2007 California Standards Test. The staff
was shown how well students performed in English language arts, math, 4
th
grade
writing, and 5
th
grade science. Moreover, student subgroups were also presented.
Data offer insights that can generate more hopeful possibilities for reversing trend for
students of color (Gay, 2000). According to Johnson (2002) assessments offer
schools a clear understanding of their students’ performances and whether there are
inequities for students.
Once all the data had been presented the staff evaluated their teaching
practices and discussed ways they could improve the achievement of their students.
Teachers divided into their grade levels and discussed and charted their findings. The

98
process of teachers interacting with other educators transformed a group activity into
internalized learning. The teachers stated that their teaching practices improved when
they had the opportunity share teaching strategies and knowledge with one another.
When they completed their findings from the data, each grade level shared their
strategies to improve student achievement for the new school year. Johnson (2002)
noted the importance of creating a “culture of inquiry” that involves analyzing
relevant data and probing perceptions about why things are as they are.
Monitoring student progress through classroom assessments
High performing schools develop accountability systems to monitor student
progress (Johnson, 2002). With the principal’s many years of experience and
knowledge she is able to provide feedback to teachers during conferences regarding
formative assessments. Educators of Preston have implemented several elements of
effective monitoring. In addition to systemically collecting student data and
providing teachers with support, the principal and her teachers have taken action steps
with their assessments to implement challenging goals and feedback (Marzano,
2004).
At Preston Elementary, teachers assessed their students approximately every
six to nine weeks. The English language arts assessments assess students’ fluency,
reading comprehension, checking skills, spelling, vocabulary, and writing. Once the
assessments have been scored, teachers entered the data into an online assessment
data system. The assessment system allowed teachers to see trends with their
children.

99
The researcher observed that the principal and her staff used the results of
their data to guide their instruction and strategically meet the students’ needs.
Interviews with the teachers and principal also showed that there is strong sense of
accountability among the staff. The principal noted, “Student achievement can and
will increase when schools use their data to drive their instruction.”
Since the principal’s first year at the school site, she quickly held each teacher
accountable for their students’ success. The principal stated:
It is so important for teacher to see how their children performed on
assessments. I share their data with each individual teacher and during
professional development meetings.
Recently I shared Open Court data with my 1
st
grade teachers. The data
showed trends that individual teachers wouldn’t normally see. Many students
did not reach benchmark in fluency. By sharing the data with my teachers,
they will see what areas to focus on. They will also reevaluate their strategies
and techniques.

To support teacher’s instruction, a system known as the portfolio of evidence
was created by the principal. The portfolio of evidence allows the principal to meet
with each teacher to review assessment data together.
The principal stated “by having my portfolio of evidence meetings with my
teachers, this shows that I’m serious about student success.”
Gay (2000) reported that data can be used to recognize symptoms, not the
cause, of the problems. Preston educators did not blame assessment scores to
students’ socioeconomic background, lack of motivation or parental involvement.
Instead, they assumed responsibility for meeting their students’ academic needs.
Teacher E explained:

100
After each assessment we meet with our principal. In our meeting we talk
about how the students are doing and our successes. Then we look at students
who aren’t doing well. We also look for trends.

Teacher F acknowledged:
When I sit with her [principal], I have to set goals for my class. I have to set
goals for particular students and explain how I’m going to accomplish this.

The literacy coach stated:
The principal always sets up meetings with me after each assessment period. I
look at the individual class results with my principal. She tells me which teachers to
concentrate on and observe. I also give my feedback and suggestions.
Teacher A added:
After reviewing my assessments I know which children to work with in small
groups. It also gives me a better picture on which students need to work with
each other.

Assessments also set achievement goals for the school as a whole (Marzano,
2004). The researcher observed the principal meeting with her literacy coach and
together they worked on a PowerPoint presentation for an upcoming staff
development.
The literacy coach stated:
Reading fluency is a school-wide focus right now. Although scores are
improving, we still need to support our students with fluency. Our low
fluency scores also affect our comprehension scores.

To address the low fluency scores in first grade, the literacy coach was
observed
preparing sound by sound blending lesson for all first grade teachers. Central to the
school’s success are its school-wide goals. These common goals guide the school's

101
direction, decisions, and unify the school. They are also, of course, central to
improvement and self-assessment, providing a reference upon which school
performance can be judged and acted upon.
In addition to establishing school-wide goals, the vision, goals and objectives,
and improvement plan were regularly renewed at Preston Elementary. As the school
improved, students’ performance around the standards increased and strategies
improved also. As specific needs of the students constantly change, improvement
was treated as a never-ending process.
Overall, the principal promoted high expectations for all her teachers and
students, regardless of background or disability. During each assessment period, the
staff discussed and evaluated strengths and areas of improvement of the school. The
principal explained that she personally took it upon herself to reinforce and clarify
high expectations for students of color during these meetings. If teachers expect
students of color to be high or low achievers, they will act in ways that cause this to
happen (Gay, 2000).
Culture that Involves Parents Support
Parent involvement is a system that has contributed to high student
performance in high-poverty urban schools. High performing schools use certain
systems to recognize, honor, and incorporate the strengths of families of students of
color (Gay, 2000).
Preston Elementary has taken several steps in promoting parent involvement
at the school site. The school has established positive parent involvement by

102
creating effective communication between the school and parents. In addition, the
school has established multiple ways for parents to get involved with supporting their
children. Gay (2000) found that high performing schools with students of color
included and recognized the strengths of their students’ families.
The educators of Preston Elementary understand that their parents do care
about their children’s academic achievement. The school provided numerous parent
meetings through out the school year. Fan and Chen (2001) concluded that
communication about school and parent supervision and expectations played an
important role in student achievement.
It is important to note that school newsletters and flyers were consistently
distributed throughout the school year. Starting with welcome letters from the
teachers at the beginning of each school year, the use of standards and assessment
were clearly explained. Standards were also covered during parent workshops such
as those held by the English learners Advisory Council (ELAC). Parents were also
encouraged to attend district sponsored parent meetings and workshops.
Parents were informed through multiple measures including letters,
communication with office staff and the English learner coordinator, and monthly
English Learner Advisory Council parent workshops. Parents were formally notified
of their child’s academic progress three times per year through Progress Reports and
parent/teacher conferences. Parents were informed through informal phone calls,
notes home, and parent/teacher meetings. The principal added:

103
Our parents are so important to the success of our school. Our school reaches
out to our parents in many ways. I make phone calls to parents and so do our
parent reps. We also have an automated phone service that can call all parents.

These communications were provided in English and Spanish to allow all
parents to ensure that the parents received the information. Marzano (2003)
concluded that all school communications should be issued in the major languages of
the school’s linguistically diverse students. The English learner coordinator stated,
“It is so important that all letters are translated since most of are families speak
Spanish.”
In addition to communicating with parents, the school has established several
ways for parents to be involved with the school by offering parent meetings and
trainings. More specifically the parents of Preston Elementary attended the school’s
School Site Council (SSC) and English Learner Advisory Committee (ELAC)
meetings. Parents were also involved in their children’s learning during open house,
back to school night, and parent conferences.
The parents involved in the School Site Council supported the school in
instructional programs, budget, maintenance, administrative procedures, program
evaluation, student safety, and other important school issues.
Recently, the parents of the School Site Council supported the school with
recommendations and reviewed proposed plans in the school’s Single Plan for student
achievement. In addition, the SSC parents also planned together, asked questions,
and reflected on current practices to improve the needs of students of color.
Parent A stated:

104
I met with our principal this year, and she wanted to have the after-school
program again this year. I want the best for my son and other kids. I think it
is a good idea to have this at our school.

Parents also showed involvement in their children’s achievement by attending
ELAC meetings given by the English learner coordinator. Topics for the ELAC
meetings were listed in the parent and community involvement section of the school’s
Single Plan for Student Achievement (See Figure 25).
The English learner coordinator attributed the school’s growth to their parent
involvement. Parents of high performing schools showed great interest in their
children’s learning. Moreover, Chrisenson, Rounds, and Gorney (1992) reported that
these parents created an environment that motivated and encouraged children.
Figure 25. Parent and Community Involvement Section from the Single Plan for
Student Achievement.

Preston Elementary School
Single Plan for Student Achievement
Component 4

PARENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
3. Training and support:
Critical Findings: Training and support
ELAC parent workshops cover such topics as STAR testing, ELD levels and
portfolios, Performance Assignments, State content standards, and standards-
based assessment. Parents are also encouraged to attend district sponsored parent
meetings and workshops.

The coordinator stated:
We get about 15-20 parents who show up to our ELAC meetings. When we
have parent conferences we get about 75-80%.

105

Principal added:
Our parents are terrific. Many of them work multiple jobs or raise their
family, and they still attend our parent meetings. They know we have high
expectations of our students and they do what they can to help.
The principal also explained during parent conferences and back to school
nights, teachers and parents discussed their children’s progress. During these
meetings teachers learned more about their students’ interests and home life from the
parents. The learning between parents and teachers provided teachers with greater
understanding of meeting the needs of their students.
Teacher C stated:
I met with a parent and she told me that her son’s homework was too easy. I
learned that he wasn’t being challenged.

Parent A added:
I get letters from the school asking me to come to school meetings.
Parent B confirmed:
The school helps every child. We all work good together.
Lastly, parent involvement was especially prevalent during Black history
month and Cinco De Mayo. These were both important in embracing the home and
community cultures in the school. The English learner coordinator stated:
During Cinco De Mayo many of our parents help prepare for this day. They
work with teacher in planning and practicing student performances. In addition,
parents help prepare the Cinco De Mayo lunch for the staff.
The principal added:

106
Black history month is especially important to me. We celebrate the
achievement of African Americans during the month of February. At school,
we also have an African museum. In the museum the children can see a
display of different African masks, instruments, and art. During this month
we also have assemblies to celebrate African Americans people and events.

Overall, Preston Elementary has built a strong relationship between the school
and families. Parents were actively involved with the school and took an active role
in their children’s learning. Parents were involved in the school’s SSC, attend ELAC
meetings, and attended other school related meetings. While the school valued the
roles of their parents, there was pretty much one way communication with the school
teaching parents, not the school learning from or building on parent knowledge. The
researcher saw little evidence of the school seeking knowledge from the parents.
Summary of Findings for Research Question Two

Research question two sought to describe how the organizational structures
and systems at Preston Elementary have contributed to high student performance for
students of color. It also focused on the framework that multiple key school-level
factors must work systemically in a coordinated and integrated system.
Overall, Preston’s structures and systems included multiple key school-level
factors that worked systemically in a coordinated and integrated system. These
structures and systems matched the factors from Marzano (2003) and Togneri (2003)
but in varying degrees. In addition they contributed to a culture that promoted high
student achievement for students of color. The factors included a positive school
culture through leadership, a culture of accountability, and a culture that embraces
parent involvement.

107
It was clear through observations, interviews, and artifacts that the principal
created a strong school culture. She created a culture and a vision focused on student
learning and achievement. More specifically, her leadership played a large role in
creating a culture focused on making a difference for students of color.
The principal also held her teachers accountable through summative and
formative data. Since the beginning of the school year, Preston Elementary carefully
examined data from the California Standards Test. The data gathered helped the
school make decisions on what professional development meetings to present to
teachers. The researcher witnessed the principal, instructional leaders, and some
teachers examine their data. Although all teachers may have stated they recognized
that data had a strong impact on student performance, teachers were not observed
reviewing their assessments.
Lastly, parent involvement contributed to high student performance at Preston
Elementary school. Effective communication with parents established positive parent
involvement during school events and participation in the school’s SSC and ELAC
meetings, open house, back to school night, and parent conferences.
Despite the school’s efforts to work closely with parents, the researcher did
not observe parent participation in the classrooms, nor the inclusion of home cultures
in classrooms. Marzano (2003) indicates that a feature of effective parent and
community involvement is participation in the everyday running of the school. For
example, parent can work in classrooms as instructional aides. This is an area where

108
Preston Elementary may want to rethink how to invite parent volunteers. When
parents participate in classroom, their ideas and presence are valued (Marzano, 2003).
Analysis of Findings: Research Question 3
How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
Research question three focused on the organizational systems and structures
that work together to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning. Consistent with Togneri’s (2003) school factors that
support school-wide effective classroom instruction to promote students learning,
Preston Elementary included the following structures and systems:
• Professional development meetings
• Grade level meetings
• Instructional leaders
• Standards based instruction.
It is important to note that these factors also worked together towards
supporting classroom instruction. In addition, sociocultural practices took place
during staff interactions which provided teachers with opportunities to learn from one
another and gain greater understanding of how to teach students of color. With
teacher trainings from professional development and grade level meetings and
interaction with instructional leaders, teachers were able to effectively teach standards
based lessons.

109
In all, these elements worked together to support school-wide effective classroom
instruction that promoted student learning.
Professional Development Meetings

Blase and Blase (2004) found that principals of high performing schools
provided staff development to support teacher learning. More specifically,
successful schools provided professional development to address the needs of their
students. Marzano (2003) also reported that staff development activities must be
meaningful and useful in terms of impacting student achievement.
Ongoing professional development is a key to success at Preston Elementary
School. The principal collaborated with her instructional leaders to plan and design
professional development meetings for the school year. Topics for the meetings
included student achievement data, grade level feedback (staff-identified needs),
addition of new curricular materials, administrative monitoring, and needs
assessment based on staff member experience are all used to determine professional
development needs.
Although the principal worked closely with other instructional leaders at the
school site, she did not work collaboratively with teachers, which contradicts the
theoretical framework. Thus, the principal’s approach to professional development
was more directive with her teachers.
Professional development was addressed through weekly banked-time staff
development trainings. The literacy coach stated that all teachers attended Open
Court and Harcourt Math trainings through the district and receive additional

110
trainings at the school site. All teachers were required to attend staff development
sessions.
The Assistant Principal, Elementary Instructional Specialist (APEIS) also
designed professional development at Preston Elementary. These meetings
addressed intervention programs which included the following topics: pre-referral
intervention, student success team, accommodations and modifications.
The principal supported professional development to provide staff learning
opportunities that were aligned with the school improvement plan. In addition to
targeted training objectives and programs, the principal infused the school culture
with information that reflected broad issues that strengthen staff relationships and
current school trends.
The interviews showed that the staff of Preston Elementary school was
constantly seeking out best practices, especially through professional development to
enhance teachers’ learning and instruction. The principal and the literacy coach made
it clear that the school’s focus was on fluency with an emphasis on blending,
dictation, and reading decodables in addition to the ELD practicum. The researcher
also observed classrooms teaching literacy with a focus on literacy in the morning
visits in the first and fourth grade classes. These focus areas worked together to
support high student achievement.
The principal added:

After our professional development meetings, I hold my teachers accountable
for the new strategies and skills they learned. My literacy coach and I follow-

111
up with classroom observations immediately. When my teachers see that I’m
coming around to visit, I get higher levels of change with instruction.
Grade Level Meetings

It is well established that collegiality and professional development are critical
in the success of student achievement. Phillips and Glickman (1991) reported that
teachers who work in stimulating and supportive environments can reach higher
stages of development.
To foster collegiality Marzano (2003) noted the importance of engaging
teachers during professional development meetings to provide opportunities for
teacher collaboration. Preston educators were aware of the broad scope of the
sociocultural theory as grade levels allowed teachers to work and plan together.
The smaller size grade level meetings played a key role in building the skill
and knowledge of teachers. Grade level meetings were critical to helping teachers
address and respond to the challenges and complexities of student learning. Students
should be held to high, common standards for academic performance and schools and
the people who work in them should be held accountable for ensuring that students
are able to meet these standards (Elmore, 2002).
During the researchers visit to Preston, he visited a second grade-level
meeting. In the meeting, the literacy coach addressed specific strategies to improve
students’ reading skills. The literacy coach concentrated on strategies to improve
fluency, such as sound-by-sound blending, dictation, and reading decodables.
The literacy coach first opened the meeting with questions and concerns the
teachers had. As the teachers expressed their concerns, their feelings were supported

112
by others who expressed similar issues. Teachers were very open to sharing
information about their students.
A teacher stated:
I’m still new to Open Court and sometimes I feel like I’m not teaching the
program correctly.

The objective for the grade-level meeting was learning to support children as
they read decodables. First, the literacy coach reviewed the routine cards for reading
decodables. Next, teachers were able to pair up with another teacher and practice.
Marzano (2003) describes this as an opportunity for active learning. Teachers were
able to practice with each other several times before teaching the lesson with their
students.
At the end, teachers reflected and offered their feedback.
At the end of the meeting teacher were overall satisfied. A second grade
teacher reflected:

I really like working with my grade level members. I also enjoy hearing how
other teachers are experiencing the challenges like me. It makes me feel human.

Another teacher added:

I needed the practice today. And learning with other teachers was helpful.

The implementation of grade level meetings with positive collegiality has
been an important factor for reform efforts. Grade level meetings are connected to a
specific lesson, teachers are provided with opportunities to practice what they
learned, and the staff is able to effectively communicate with each other.

113
Strong Instructional Leadership Team

According to (Togneri & Anderson, 2003), instructional leadership is an
important way to support school-wide effective instruction of state standards.
Marzano (2003) also pointed out that a leadership team must operate to provide
strong guidance for teachers. An analysis conducted by Friedman and Slater (1994)
showed that effective instructional leaders have certain behaviors. The behaviors
associated with an effective leader include: (1) making classroom observations, (2)
being accessible to discuss ideas, (3) seeking teacher input, and (4) monitoring
implementation of the curriculum.
In addition to having an effective principal, Preston Elementary also has a full
time Literacy Coach and an English Learner Coordinator on their instructional
leadership team. An important role of the leadership team is to promote effective
instruction. The teachers acknowledged that the literacy coach supported their
English language arts instruction. They also talked about her assistance to teachers in
developing strategies to improve student literacy. The literacy coach provided
support and assistance to all teachers in the implementation of the district’s adopted
reading program. In addition, she conducted classroom observation, demonstration
lessons, and provides staff development meetings to ensure that teachers deliver state
standards. The literacy coach also reviewed assessments with the principal and
created action plans to improve teacher instruction (See Figure 27).

114
The literacy coach stated:
I focus on certain grade levels at a time. When I visit the rooms I always
bring my (Open Court) teachers’ edition. This helps me follow the teacher’s
lessons and helps me support them later.

Figure 26. Comprehension Action Plan for Third Grade classes created by the
literacy coach.

Action Plan: Comprehension

Objective: By January 2008, the third grade teachers will cognitively plan from their
Open Court Teacher’s Edition by identifying key ideas; then they will use the
planning to teach comprehension strategies.
Activity Outcome Due Date Responsible
Inform teachers
regarding objectives
• Train teachers
on use of
program
materials to
teacher
comprehension
strategies.

Visit all classrooms
with the principal to
observe instruction of
comprehension
strategies.

Meet with teachers to
discuss observations

3
rd
grade teachers will hear
about coach’s plan
• Teachers understand
what good
comprehension
instruction should
include.
• Teachers know where
and how the Teacher’s
Edition includes strategy
lessons.

Teachers will demonstrate their
understanding of reading
comprehension strategies.

Plan follow-up support with
each teacher.
1/08

2/08

2/08
Coach and
teachers

Coach,
teachers,
and
principal
Coach and
teachers

During classroom visits the literacy coach documented observable evidence.
The notes from the observation served as a resource in identifying appropriate
instructional strategies and methods to improve classroom instruction and students

115
achievement. Some of the literacy coach’s feedback included comments about the
teacher’s objectives of the lesson, procedures when reading words and sentences,
developing oral language, and comprehension strategies.
Teacher B agreed:
Our literacy coach has helped me teach my students. She gives me good
feedback on my teaching.

In addition to observing teachers’ lessons, the literacy coach also assisted
teachers with lesson planning. The researcher collected a chart from a past meeting
between the literacy coach and second grade teacher. The artifact showed how the
literacy coach and second grade teacher planned the exploration/inquiry selection
from a Fossils unit (See Figure 29).
Figure 27. Exploration/Inquiry plan

Selection

Research and Study
Supporting Student
Exploration
Across the
Curriculum

Dinosaur
Fossils
Newspapers and
magazines
Inquiry journal pp.
65-66
Whole group discussion
about fossils-create a
question web
Small group-divide students
into small groups to select
question to explore. P. 59
Science:
Earth’s layers

Social Studies:
Time Line

To improve instruction for English learners, the school has a fulltime English
Learner Coordinator who is responsible for providing English learners with services
and support in learning English, home school communications, and parent education
services.

116
To support student achievement for English learners, the coordinator worked
collaboratively with teachers during ELD trainings focusing on the district’s ELD
practicum curriculum. The trainings included an overview of the practicum, how to
plan lessons, assessment procedures, pacing, and demonstration lessons.
When analyzing the percentage of reclassified English Learners from 2005-
2006 to 2006-2007, the school had shown the largest percentage of reclassified
students. Last year 13% of the English learners were reclassified. During the
previous years, the school showed minimal gains between 0% to 2.7%.
During a leadership team meeting, the principal and literacy coach focused on
fourth grade Open Court data to monitor the number of students scoring at
benchmark. The English Learner Coordinator who reviewed current fourth grade
students’ ELD levels with his principal. While they reviewed the data, they listed
students that were in the strategic and intensive levels. Marzano (2003) reported that
academic achievement in schools where effective feedback was provided showed
higher scores when compared to schools that did not review assessments.
By the end of the meeting the following goals were set:
• Teachers will identify which students need extra support based on Open Court
assessments, informal teacher observations, and ELD portfolios.
• 4
th
grade teachers will teach from the English Learner Support Guide for 30-
40 minutes before the Prepare to Read section.
• The literacy coach will provide and support all 4
th
grade teachers with
planning and demonstration lessons.

117
On a different day, the researcher observed the principal meet with the
school’s English Learner Coordinator. During their meeting the principal and
coordinator discussed how to increase the percentage of redesignated 4th and 5
th

grade Latino students to English Language Development (ELD) 5 level or
redesignated as Fluent English Proficient (RFEP) level.
The current ELD levels of the 4
th
and 5
th
grade students were used to
determine which students needed extra support. Currently, only 39 percent of the 5
th

graders and 28 percent of the 4
th
grade students were in their appropriate ELD level
for their grade level.
During the meeting the principal and English learner coordinator created the
following strategies to increase the percentage of redesignated 4
th
and 5
th
graders that
need to be redesignated.
• English learner coordinator will provide demonstration lessons for 4
th
and 5
th

grade teachers on the ELD practicum.
• Principal will also meet with individual teachers and discuss the progress of
each English learner and examine how their needs are meeting met. In
addition, the principal and coordinator will review ELD assessments at the
end of each unit.
Trainings from instructional leaders supported teachers with new knowledge
and strategies. Furthermore, practice and corrective feedback from the coordinator
helped teachers achieve specific works goals. Through demonstrations lessons by
the English Learner Coordinator, teachers understood how to meet the needs of

118
English learners. In addition, they implemented Specially Designed Academic
Instruction in English (SDAIE) strategies and assessed English learners. SDAIE uses
specifically designed strategies to access content for speakers of other languages.
SDAIE also makes input comprehensible to Limited English Proficient students and it
ensures access to the core curriculum.
The researcher observed the English learner coordinator provide a demonstration
lesson for a 5
th
grade class. Teacher A stated:
Our English learner coordinator supports us when it comes to teaching our
second language learners. He [coordinator] will do demonstration lessons
with the ELD practicum. The kids enjoy the lessons, especially drawing out
the graphic organizers and chants.

The fifth grade lesson supported English learners by:
• Building on students’ prior knowledge, in addition to using graphic organizers
to help English learners.
• Reinforcing concepts and vocabulary, teachers will use visuals, gestures, and
graphic organizers.
• Helping children learn language through clear teacher modeling.
• Providing more opportunities for students to improve fluency.
The coordinator began his lesson by showing the students the following
objectives:
Listening and Speaking
1. Did I listen attentively to the Book Talk-Through?

119
2. Did I contrast the Nashua River’s environment during the time of the
Native Americans and during the time of the settlers?
The coordinator had the students divided into small groups as they previewed
the book, A River Ran Wild. Ladson-Billings (1994) asserted how teachers need to
encourage their students to work closely together. The coordinator asked the students
several questions and validated student responses. To maintain students’ interest in
learning, they are given numerous opportunities to have deep discussions. Not only
do they learn from their peers, they also develop critical thinking skills. The
researcher noticed how all students were actively engaged in the lessons being
presented.
The children were active during class discussions, choral readings, think-pair-shares,
and when the class added key words to the graphic organizer.
Next the coordinator encouraged the students to work together to compare and
contrast different times around the Nashua River’s environment. The process in
which students developed their ideas together validated the students’ efforts. At the
end of the process they had an actual product to represent their work. The
coordinator and children charted a compare and contrast graphic organizer on the
board (See Figure 28).

120

Figure 28. Compare and contrast chart of the Nashua River’s Environment

The coordinator enabled the students to compare similarities and differences
through shared reflections. These are higher order thinking skills into which the
teacher was scaffolding students.
Educators of Preston Elementary ensured that students of color achieved
academic success by providing instruction through the ELD practicum and English
Learner Support Guide. To create greater equity for students of color, Preston school
varied their instruction to ensure that students of color are receiving a high quality
education. Educators learn to teach ELD lessons by attending trainings and working
closely with instructional leaders.
With the knowledge of effective practices and with the support of
instructional leaders, teachers have been able to support classroom instruction. By
During the
time of the
Native
Americans
During the
time of the
settlers
Clear
water
Fresh air
towering
forests

Dirty
water

Dead fish
& animals

factories
&chemicals

river

121
creating networks of instructional leaders, schools and districts have successfully
improved the achievement of their students (Togneri & Anderson, 2003).
Standard Based Instruction

Marzano (2003) considers a “guaranteed and viable curriculum” as one the
most important factors of a successful school. With the combination of standards
based instruction and sociocultural experiences students of color learned to read and
write. In an effort to teach children literacy skills, the school’s Open Court program
has aligned its curriculum to California State standards. Togneri (2003) added that a
systemwide curriculum that connects to state standards provides teachers with clear
expectations and what to teach. In addition, research supports that an aligned
curriculum as a means of equity for students of color
During the school visit, the researcher noticed how many teachers taught state
standards through the district mandated reading program, Open Court. The teachers
recognized that their adopted standards based approach has improved their teaching
and student learning. State standards also provide equity and encouraged high levels
of achievement for students of color.
The principal stated:
Much of our success and high levels of achievement for our students has been
because of Open Court. The program covers all the state standards and our
teachers follow the program carefully.
Literacy coach added:

The Open Court program is great. Our students have the same resources as
other high performing schools.

Teacher B explained:

122

This is my second year and the program has really guided my instruction.
Teacher D added:
The green section of the Open Court program is my favorite. If you look at
the teacher’s edition, the blending and dictation lesson are all there. It saves
me time and it gives me a routine each week.
The standards based reading program is especially important for schools in
high poverty areas, where many schools had high teacher turnover rates and
inexperienced teachers. Open Court is connected to state standards to provide clear
expectations for teachers and students. Moreover, standards increase equity for
students of color in high poverty schools. As mentioned earlier, teachers of high
performing schools understood how to teach standards. The researcher noted how
teachers at Preston Elementary taught state standards to ensure that students of color
reached grade level standards.
Second Grade Class
During the classroom observations the researcher witnessed all teachers
teaching California State standards. The researcher observed a second grade
classroom where the teacher practiced vocabulary strategies with her students. The
lesson was based on the California standard Vocabulary and Concept Development
1.8 Use knowledge of individual words in unknown compound words to predict their
meaning. The standards-based instruction specified how the teacher and her students
were to meet their education goals.

123
On a large sheet of chart paper, the teacher had prewritten sentences from the
story with the vocabulary words underlined.
The teacher wrote the following sentences for her vocabulary lesson:
1. They serve good food at the restaurant.
2. We had guests visiting us for Christmas.
3. I don’t talk to strangers since I do not know him.
4. The children came into the library in a noisy manner and bothered the
people reading books.
5. What is that unusual smell coming from the room! It is very different.
6. I was overjoyed when I went to Disneyland. I was so happy.

During the lesson the teacher reviewed the three types of vocabulary
strategies: apposition, word structure, and context clues. The teacher read each
sentence with her students and had them, think-pair-share possible definitions and
strategies they used. When students interacted with each other, this practice
supported the sociocultural theories of learning.
The teacher read the following sentence and directions to her students:
The children came into the library in a noisy manner and bothered the people
reading books. Please turn to your neighbors and discuss the definition of the
word, manner.

After a minute, the teacher asked her students, “What strategy did you use and

what do you think the definition of manner is? Talk to your partners.”

The teacher enabled her children to connect their prior experiences and
knowledge to the lesson. After students discussed possible definitions with their
partners one student answered, “I used context clues. I think manner means respect.
Another student added, “I think it’s the way people act.”

124
The teacher followed this method for all the sentences and words. The
children understood how different strategies can be effective for learning unknown
words. The strategies used required the students to explain the definition and see how
it was used in a sentence.
Fourth Grade Class
The researcher observed a 4
th
grade where the teacher was preparing her
children to read their anthology. The class was focusing on the Reading standard 1.0
Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary. The word knowledge lesson
taught the students to blend new words while building on the students’ prior
knowledge of phonemic awareness. In addition, the entire class participated in the
whole word blending exercise. The teacher wrote the following words and sentences
on the white board:
Line 1 simple difficult frustrated satisfied
Line 2 English savings wrong language
Line 3 disprove rewrite unacceptable unfortunate

Sentence 1 The workers were frustrated when the power went out.
Sentence 2 Learning the English language can be difficult.
Sentence 3 John had to rewrite his letter.

The teacher read each word and had her children say the sound as she pointed
to each letter. After all the sounds were read, the students read the whole word. The
teacher also encouraged her students to reread words that the children had difficulty
with. The teacher had her students read the sentences multiple times practicing
intonation.

125
The blending lesson supported the children in hearing different sounds put
together to create words. It also provided the students with access and an opportunity
to practice reading words and sentences before reading their anthology. As the
children read from their anthology, many of them were familiar the new words.

Special Education Class
Reading comprehension standards were the focus when the researcher
observed a special education class. The teacher taught his children to use the reading
comprehension strategies of clarifying, summarizing, and predicting. The teacher had
the reading comprehension strategy cards on the front board and explained that good
readers use different strategies to help them understand what they read.
Before reading the short story, the teacher had his children browse the story.
He reminded his children to look at the title and pictures to get an idea of what the
story was about. The teacher asked, “The title of the story is “The Hare and the
Tortoise.” Who can tell us what a hare and a tortoise are?”
One student responded, “A hare is like a rabbit and a tortoise is a turtle.”
The teacher continued to ask more question, “Look at the first picture. What
animals do you see? Where are they? What are they doing?”
As the class read the first three paragraphs, the teacher modeled the reading

comprehension strategy clarifying. The teacher modeled by saying:

Hare and Tortoise were friends. I wonder why Tortoise wanted to have a race.
It says that Tortoise thinks it would be fun. Hare believes that Tortoise is
much too slow to win a race with her. Even though Hare says Tortoise cannot

126
win the race, Tortoise still smiles. I don’t think he thinks it is funny. Maybe
he has a secret plan.

As the class continued to read, the teacher asked addition clarifying questions:
In paragraph six, why does Hare stop during the race? Do you think it is a
wise thing to do? Why or why not?

One student answered, “The rabbit thinks he has time to stop and rest.”
Another student added, “The rabbit is going to lose.”
The teacher asked his students if they could summarize what they read so far.
A student summarized:
The Tortoise wanted to race the Hare. The Hare was winning and wanted to
rest.
The teacher modeling and questioning also helped the children learn reading
comprehension strategies. The teacher had his students constantly monitoring what
they read. They noted the characters, setting, and well as summed up what they read.
The children were also able to make predictions about what they read and whether
their predictions were correct or not.
This lesson addressed California state standards and helped the teacher to
guide his instruction so that it is focused on student learning. Standards help ensure
that students of color have equal opportunities to learn concepts and skills in their
grade level.

127
Summary of Research Question Three
Research question three sought to answer how the organizational structures
and systems implemented supported school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promoted student learning.
To support school-wide classroom instruction, Preston Elementary
implemented several organizational structures and systems from Togneri’s (2003)
school factors that support school-wide effective classroom instruction to promote
students learning. These factors included:
• Professional Development meetings
• Grade level meetings
• Instructional leaders (Literacy coach and English Learner Coordinator)
• Standards based instruction through Open Court

The staff attended professional development and grade level meetings to
improve instruction practices. Successful principals provided teachers with time to
improve their teaching practices during professional development meetings (Blase &
Blase, 2004). Although the principal collaborated with her instruction leaders to plan
and present professional development meetings, the principal’s role in professional
development meetings was more directive with her teachers. The teachers were more
collaborative when the worked among themselves in small groups.
The researcher observed one grade level meeting where teachers supported
each other to improve their instructional practices; however, it is unknown if all grade

128
levels showed the same collaboration between teachers. The smaller size grade level
meetings encouraged teachers to share their ideas and experiences. In addition, the
teachers worked together to practice new strategies together in a non-threatening
environment.
Grade level meetings were critical to helping teachers improve their teaching skills to
support students of color.
Instructional leaders at the school site, the literacy coach and English Learner
Coordinator, provided training and support for teacher learning. With the support of
the instructional leaders and professional development meetings, many teachers were
able to effectively implement standards based instruction from the district mandated
programs, Open Court and the ELD practicum.
The schools’ literacy coach provided support to all teachers in the
implementation of the district’s adopted reading program. In addition, she conducted
classroom observation, demonstration lessons, and provided staff development
meetings to ensure that teachers delivered state standards.
To improve instruction for English learners, the school has a fulltime English
Learner Coordinator who is responsible for providing English learners with services
and support in learning English, home school communications, and parent education
services.
To support student achievement for English learners, the English Learner
Coordinator explained how he worked closely with teachers by offering trainings
focused on the district’s ELD practicum program. Within the trainings, teachers

129
learned how to plan lessons and assessment English learners. The teachers also
observed real life demonstration lessons. As a result, the ELD practicum has enable
the school to support the achievement of English learners.
The teachers of Preston Elementary taught state standards through the Open
Court reading program. Lessons from the language arts program were standards
based and taught students of color to use strategies building from their prior
knowledge. Overall, the lessons helped the teachers to guide their instruction so that
it is focused on student learning. Although the standards helped ensure that students
of color had equal opportunities to learn concepts and skills, two teachers did not
faithfully implement the Open Court program. Although these teachers were not
observing the sequence or content provided by Open Court at the time of the
observation, they could have followed the program more accurately at other times if
the instructional day. It is important to note that in these classrooms the level of
student learning and engagement was lower compared to classes where teachers were
observed teaching Open Court. The researcher noted several children off task
drawing, talking to other students, or day dreaming.
Analysis of Findings: Research Question 4
How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?

Research question four investigated how the construct of race was reflected in
the schools’ structures and systems. Through culturally relevant pedagogy, students
of color were able to maintain cultural competence, and they experienced genuine
academic success and a strong sense of self-esteem (Bennett, 2001). Consistent with

130
the culturally relevant pedagogy described by Gloria Ladson-Billings (1994), Preston
Elementary was able to provide culturally relevant instruction as a means for
improving the academic success for students of color. The broader theoretical
framework on which culturally relevant teaching is based is Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory. This culturally relevant pedagogym according to Ladson-Billings, includes
the following:
• Caring for students of color
• Having high expectations of themselves and their students
• Recognizing and valuing and students’ prior knowledge and
experiences
• Showing a connectedness with students of color
• Creating an environment where students were encouraged to learn
from each other and holding students accountable for their classmates
Caring for Students of Color

In addition to the movement towards equal education through structures and
systems, the staff also took pride in their students’ cultures and identities. Along with
improving student achievement, teachers were committed to helping students of color
maintain identity and connections with their ethnic groups (Gay, 2000).
Throughout the campus, the researcher found the principal and some teachers
were extremely caring towards students of color. Studies found that caring was a
valuable in improving the achievement of students of color.

131
Each morning the principal visited the breakfast tables to make sure students
had their breakfast. She also spent time asking children how they were and how their
families were doing. According to Gay (2000), educators did not limit their
interactions with children only during instructional time. They also showed concern
for the students’ emotional and physical conditions.
The principal responded:
I need to make sure my kids have enough to eat in the morning. Their health
is so important.

In a fifth grade class, the teacher greeted his children in the morning with
openness and receptiveness. Students’ thoughts and feelings were shared during a
community circle activity. The teacher showed genuine care and understanding for
his students as he patiently listened. It was during these times that students engaged
with their teacher about out-of-school experiences. Ladson-Billings (1994)
concluded when children feel their teachers are taking into account of their needs,
they feel genuine concern and acceptance.
The teacher explained:
During our morning community circle I get to know more about my children.
They can share everything and anything. I learned that one of my students
was proud that he won a basketball game last week. Another student told me
she was excited about her new baby sister.

The act of caring was also witnessed in a fourth grade classroom where the
students were creating their own businesses. The students worked in small groups of
three to four children. During the lesson, the children needed to list the items and
activities necessary to run a successful business. As the children discussed and

132
charted their answers, the teacher walked around the room encouraging and
supporting her students. The teacher’s interaction with her students resembled home
interactions akin to the way families interact.
Teacher stated: Think about when you eat at a restaurant. Who is working
there?
Students A answered: Workers.
Teacher replied: What kind of workers?
Student B said: A cook and servers.
Having High Expectations of Themselves and Their Students

Ladson-Billings (1994), describes culturally relevant teachers as professionals
who have high perceptions of themselves and their profession. The researcher
observed how the principal and many teachers attributed well dressed educators to
high student self-esteem at least in part, to well dressed educators. Teachers who
dressed professionally also tend to care about the students they worked with (Foster,
1986).
In caring for their students, the staff also set high expectations for students of
color. According to Ladson-Billings (2004), teachers who practice culturally relevant
strategies demonstrate a belief that all students can succeed. Students of color can be
victimized by low teacher expectations, which are too often based on a teacher's
preconceived notions about lack of potential and low ability of students of a particular
race, rather than on the actual performance of individual student.

133
Preston educators attributed their students’ accomplishments to their
children’s hard work, and the staff understood how low expectations can lower
positive cultural and racial identity in students of color. Furthermore, their teaching
behaviors reflected these expectations. Teachers used a variety of teaching strategies
and held themselves accountable for their students.
In a first grade class, the teacher showed high expectations and at the same
time held each student accountable. The teacher taught a blending lesson and held
every child responsible to blend the words she wrote on the board. She asked
different groups of children to read a different row of words making sure all children
were participating.
In another class, as fourth grade students were reading from their intervention
story. Their teacher asked her children questions. The teacher asked:
In paragraph nine, five more neighbors brought their dogs to day care.
Maggie now has eight dogs and puppies at her day care business. How is she
going to care for eight puppies and dogs? Let’s read on in the story to see if
we can find the answer to our question.

After reading the selection, the teacher had additional questions to hold
students accountable for what they read. The teacher used the following prompts:
What problem did the main character have on her first day of business?
How was her problem solved?
What other stories have you read like this?
What did you learn about business from this selection?

134
If the students could not answer the questions the teacher had the children
reread the selection. Rereading the story allowed the children to practice their
reading comprehension strategies.
In short, the students were able to reach their potential because their teacher
had high expectations and was not satisfied with mediocre performance (Gay, 2000).
The teacher did not let some children remain invisible or unaccountable for the
expectation that was represented in the questions.
Recognizing and Valuing Student Experiences

Ladson-Billings (1994) concluded that teachers need to believe that students
of color come to school with prior knowledge and it needs to be utilized in order to
become high achievers. Preston teachers understood that students of color have
knowledge to share.
In a third grade classroom, the students were introduced to a unit about city
wild life. Without any prior lessons on the topic, the teacher asked her children what
they knew about animals living in the city.
One student responded:
Squirrels live around my house. I see them eating food in the trees. Some
squirrels can fly.
Another student added:
Raccoons look for food in the garbage cans. I saw one at night.

135
In a fifth grade class the students read a story from their astronomy unit. As
the teacher created a KWL chart on the board, his students were asked what they
already knew about astronomy before reading the story. Many students responded.
One student said:
70 percent of the earth is covered in water.
Another student added:
I know the earth has big plates floating over the ocean.
A student answered:
Scientist use telescopes to see the solar system.
The fifth grade teacher responded: My students know so much.
Landon-Billings (1994) reported that teachers need to understand that
teaching is a reciprocal process where everyone including the teacher learns from
each other.
In sum, students of color bring a wealth of knowledge to school. Thus, it is important
for teachers to spend time to discover what their children already know.
Classrooms Connected to Students of Color

Teachers with culturally relevant practices made connections with their
students. In a first grade class the teacher had a bulletin board with the students’
birthdays. The teacher explained:
I have small gifts in a cardboard box. When it’s a student’s birthday we’ll
sing a happy birthday song. After school I’ll give the child a small gift.

136
Ladson-Billings describes this act of kindness as acknowledging student of
color as “real people.” Culturally relevant educators also incorporated their students’
interest with images of African American and Latino heroes in the classroom. In
four classrooms, teachers displayed posters of famous African Americans and Latino
Americans. In a fifth grade class, the teacher displayed ten African American
inventors and a brief summary of their accomplishments. Figure 29 shows an
example of one inventor displayed in the classroom.
Figure 29. An example of one African American inventor displayed in a fifth grade
classroom.

Famous African American Inventors
Elijah McCoy (1843–1929) invented an oil-dripping cup for trains.
Fast Fact: Other inventors tried to copy McCoy's oil-dripping cup. But none of the
other cups worked as well as his, so customers started asking for "the real McCoy."
That's where the expression comes from.

Family Like Classrooms Were Students Learn From Each Other

Adding to culturally relevant practices, teachers believed that students of color
must care for each other and themselves. Culturally relevant teachers help students
work against the norm of competitive individualism (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Perhaps most significant to students of color working in small groups was the
fact that culturally relevant teaching embraced the idea that students of color needed
each other to succeed.

137
In the computer lab, second grade children worked in small groups and
learned how to create a PowerPoint slide show from their fossil lesson. During the
project, the students worked together to produce products, which demonstrated
reasoning, writing, reading, and speaking skills showing effective. In addition, they
produced works to show their understanding of fossils.
They built on this learning by writing inquiry responses to dramatic reading
of selected books from the library, short videos, and retelling of the videos. The
children presented oral reports together and presented clay models of fossils they
created. These activities, encouraged students to analyze, compare and contrast, learn
concepts for abstract thinking. In sum, culturally relevant teaching fosters the kinds
of social interactions in the classroom that support the individual in the group context.
In a fourth grade class, the researcher observed the students partner reading.
As one child read, the other student had to paraphrase what was read. The students
read a few sentences and changed roles. If one student had difficulty sounding out
words, it was the responsibility of the partner to help the reader. They followed this
process until the passage was completely read.
The partner and small group setting encouraged students of color to build
community building practices (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Teachers created a
collaborative environment in which students learned from each other (Bennett, 2001).
Furthermore, teachers have worked hard to make students of color realize their
strengths.

138
Summary of Research Question Four

In summary, the principal and many teachers were highly committed to the
teaching profession. Teachers utilized their students’ knowledge by validating their
experiences and capitalizing on the students’ background; however, this was not seen
in all classrooms. In certain classrooms, teachers worked to meet the students’
academic needs, but not their emotional and social needs. Unfortunately, not all
classrooms had environments that connected to students of color. These classrooms
did not have posters, artifacts, or library books that recognized African Americans
and Latino Americans. Nor did they acknowledge or build on students’ prior
knowledge and experiences.
During some classroom observations, students of color worked independently;
therefore if was unknown if these teachers allowed their children to work in small
groups during other times of the day. Future professional development on culturally
relevant teaching will be necessary to improve teacher-students interactions and
relationships as well as the students’ academic achievement. Ladson-Billings (1994)
has identified cultural strengths of students of color and how teachers need to be
culturally responsive.

139
CHAPTER V
Summary, Selected Findings, Conclusions, and
Recommendations
Introduction
Students of color living in low socio-economic areas face serious challenges
within the educational system. Issues such as high drop out rates, instruction from the
least experienced teachers, and lack of resources and space have a greatly impacted
the education of students of color. Considering these complications, it is not
surprising that many school systems around the country are not prepared to address
the needs of an increasingly culturally pluralistic student population (Martinez,
DeGarmo, & Eddy, 2004).
This study examined Preston Elementary, a high performing school located in
a high poverty urban area, and the structures and systems implemented to achieve
success for students of color.
Purpose of the Study

Despite the challenges facing some schools in high poverty areas, some have
been successful in meeting the needs of students of color. Therefore, the purpose of
the study was to explain how one high performing high poverty schools among
students of color implemented structures and systems to improve student learning.
The study explored four research questions to determine the factors that lead
to the schools’ success. The four research questions included:
1. What are the trends and patterns of student performance among students

140
of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Significance of the Study

No challenge has been more daunting than that of improving the academic
achievement for students of color (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Historically, African
American and Latino students have faced major obstacles in accessing equal
education and are academically behind when compared to White students. The
results of the study will benefit all educators working in high poverty urban schools
with students of color. For classroom teachers, the significance of the study presents
an opportunity to examine their own teacher pedagogy in meeting the needs of
students of color. For school administrators, the study will offer leaders an
understanding of how structures and systems are implemented to provide high
academic achievement for students of color in high poverty areas. Overall, other high
poverty schools will be able to produce higher outcomes from their students.

141
Analysis of Findings
Research Question 1.

Research question one investigated the trends and patterns of student
performance among students of color. Historically, African Americans and Latinos
students have not been performing well when compared to White students. To
reverse these trends, Preston Elementary has implemented structures and systems to
achieve high academic performance for students of color.
Preston school’s current API is 750 and the school has showed consistent
growth since 1999 where the school’s API score was only 439. When taking a closer
examination of the data, African American students showed the highest gain on the
2007 CST results with 40% of the children in the proficient to advanced proficient
range in English language arts and 54% in math. Latino children have also showed
growth with 35% in the proficient to advanced range in English language arts and
47% in mathematics. It is important to note that although African American students
showed higher scores in English Language Arts and Math on the 2007 CST, the
school’s African American population was only 41 students.
Similarly, all grade levels (2-5) showed annual growth on the 2007 CST. It is
important to note that fourth grade more than doubled their percentage of students in
the proficient to advanced proficient range since 2003. Their results grew from 19%
proficient and advance to 46% proficient and advance. Fifth grade nearly doubled
their scores as their scores grew from 20% to 39%. With the success of fourth and

142
fifth grade classes, the percentage of English learners reclassified increased from only
2.7% in 2006 to 13% in 2007.
Other areas of accomplishment included the school’s attendance and
discipline.
Both of these areas remained fairly consistent in the past five years. The student
attendance rate remained in the range of 95.95% to 96.59%. Preston school’s
suspension and expulsion rate since 2005 also showed positive results. The number
of expulsions remained at zero for three years in a row. Furthermore, the number of
suspensions was also at zero except in the year 2006, which only had two students.
Overall, Preston Elementary demonstrated positive educational results through
the structures and systems in place to support students of color. In the remaining
findings, there will be a closer examination of how the educators of Preston
Elementary contributed to high student performance, how they supported school-wide
classroom instruction, and how the construct of race was reflected in the school’s
structures and systems.
Research Question 2.

Research question two investigated the organizational structures and systems
that were perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban
schools with large concentrations of students of color. These structures and systems
included strong culture through leadership, a culture of accountability, and a culture
that involved parents support. These factors worked together to support a school
culture that contribute to high student performance.

143
Leadership, described by Blase and Blase (2004), was implemented by the
principal to support teachers and student achievement. It is important to note that the
principal has been an administrator twenty four years. During her years as the
principal she created a strong culture where everyone had the vision that students of
color could succeed.
The principal was visible through out the school day as she visited classrooms
and walked around the campus. She held every teacher accountable by making
informal classroom visits, reviewing student work and bulletin boards, and analyzing
classroom data. Furthermore, the principal held conferences with teachers offering
suggestions, offering purposeful feedback, and asking teachers for their input.
Although the principal asked for teachers’ feedback, the principal’s overall leadership
style was rather authoritative.
Preston Elementary also had a strong culture that embraced accountability.
The principal used summative STAR data early in the school year to analyze
successes and challenges. The principal made the data accessible to teachers and
presented how students in each grade level performed. Specifically, the data
presented displayed how students and certain subgroups performed in language arts,
mathematics, 4
th
grade writing, 5
th
grade science, and CAPA.
Once the data were presented, teachers in their grade levels discussed what
strategies they implemented and how they could improve their instruction. Although,
the staff reviewed and discussed their data during the beginning of the school year,

144
the researcher did not witness teachers examine summative data to support their
teaching of students of color.
Further, the principal and instructional leaders worked closely with teachers to
guide decision making. The principal held all teachers accountable after each
assessment period by meeting with individual teachers. During the conferences, the
principal and teachers celebrated successes and planned how to increase the
achievement for students who were in the strategic and intensive levels. Although
teachers may have examined their formative data on their own, the researcher did not
see individual teachers linking their assessments to their instruction. It was mainly in
groups and with the principal.
Findings also showed that the school had a culture that welcomed parent
involvement at the school site. Parents attended school events such as back to school
night, conferences, open house, and other functions. Parents were also involved in
school decisions during School Site Council (SSC) meetings. During English Learner
Advisory Committee meetings, parents learned to support their children academically
at home. The researcher was also told that the school had consistent parent
involvement during school events such as open house, back to school night, and
parent conferences.
Despite the importance of parent involvement and school’s efforts to work
closely with parents, the researcher did not observe parent participation in the
classrooms.

145
The parent involvement at Preston Elementary was rather traditional. It did not
demonstrate mutual learning between the school and parents. Instead it was more of
a one-way learning with the school doing all the teaching.
Research Question 3.

Research question three investigated how the organizational structures and
systems are implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning. Professional development and grade level meetings
provided teachers with opportunities to learn collaboratively based on the
sociocultural theory of learning. More specifically, these meetings provided learning
opportunities for teachers by presenting strategies, data, school policies and plans,
collaboration, and reflection opportunities.
Collaborative climates were also noticed by the researcher during grade level
meetings where teachers learned and practiced their teaching strategies. Findings
showed that teachers were offered weekly meetings to promote professional growth.
During one grade level meeting the literacy coach, English learner coordinator, and
principal, helped teachers address the needs of students of color by reviewing data
and planning together. Teachers were able to express their experiences as well as
work collaboratively with others to improve their instruction.
Next, Preston Elementary focused their leadership efforts through the
guidance of their instructional leaders, a fulltime literacy coach and English learner
coordinator.

146
These leaders supported classroom teachers in implementing the district’s curriculum
as well as observed classroom instruction, presented professional development
meetings, worked collaboratively with the staff in analyzing student data, and
modeled lessons for teachers.
To improve instruction for English learners, the school has a fulltime English
learner coordinator. An English learner coordinator was responsible for providing
English learners with services and support in learning English, home school
communications, and parent education services.
While the literacy coach supported teachers with Open Court instruction, the
English learner coordinator guided teachers with the district’s ELD practicum. Both
instructional leaders worked closely with the principal in making decisions based on
data and setting goals. The school’s instructional leaders created a climate of
working collaboratively to ensure the success of students of color.
Lastly, to guide the teachers’ instruction, the educators of Preston Elementary
implemented the Open Court reading program to teach California standards. Because
the reading program was also aligned to state standards, the program provided greater
clarity on how to teach literacy. Marzano (2003) identified a “guaranteed and viable
curriculum” as an important factor of a high achieving school.
Teaching to state standards guided teachers in meeting the needs of students
of color. With the Open Court program to guide their instruction, teachers taught
phonemic awareness, comprehension strategies and skills, spelling, vocabulary, and
writing. In addition, the teachers implemented effective strategies such as think-pair-

147
share, context clues, sound by sound blending, clarifying, and summarizing. In all,
most teachers ensured that students of color experienced standards based lessons to
close the achievement gap. Overall, the standards based instruction along with
teaching strategies were important tools of equity as the federal government and state
required standards-based instruction.
Although all teachers were implementing the district mandated English
Language Arts program, not all teachers faithfully implemented the reading program.
The Open Court program had specific routines and procedures for teachers to follow;
however, some teachers were observed skipping certain processes or omitted them
completely.
An example of this was seen during a phonics and fluency lesson. When teachers
blend new words, the Open Court teacher’s edition instructs teachers to write the
spelling of each sound, and make a blending motion as they read the complete word.
However, many teachers skip this process by writing the complete word without
giving children opportunities to practice sound-by-sound blending. In another class
the teacher did not use vocabulary strategies such as context clues, apposition, and
word structure to help her children discover meanings of unfamiliar words. Instead
the teachers just read the definition of words or had her children find the definitions
in a dictionary. Overall, the researcher did not observe purposeful learning in these
classrooms and many children in these classes were not on task.
It is important to note that these teachers may not have needed additional
training but more motivation to implement the program. The researcher did not see

148
evidence of teachers being recognized for their work. The administration and
instructional leaders will need to find ways to celebrate their teachers’
accomplishments by sharing their successes with them, especially in those instances
where a teacher shows signs of high achievement. Individuals who are motivated by
accomplishments are very involved in their work (Ashby & Krug, 1998).
The level of expertise in the staff is also important. Schools need to provide
in-depth professional development beyond merely carrying out a program. They need
to understand the purpose of the learning experiences provided in Open Court in
order to carry them out effectively. When teachers do not understand the literacy
acquisition, they do not understand the implications for skipping sections of the
program. One way administrators and coaches can overcome this problem is to
engage teachers in lesson study. Lesson study permits teachers to observe and
participate in lessons where they can observe each other.
It is important to note that a one-day workshop is less effective when
compared to more frequent and consistent professional development experiences.
Therefore, the Preston’s professional development and grade level meetings will
include opportunities for teachers to receive inservices in the Open Court guide at
least twice a month. Inservice training will have ongoing consultation and feedback
from the Literacy coach.
Administrators and Literacy coaches should continue to make daily visits to each
classroom and document how teachers are implementing the Open Court program.

149
Overall, these structure and systems supported school-wide effective
classroom instruction that promoted learning for students of color. The professional
development and grade level meetings along with the support from instructional
leaders supported overall standards based instruction. These systems contributed to
the schools’ solid trajectory of academic growth.
Research Question 4.

Research question four investigated how the construct of race was reflected in
the school’s structures and systems. Culturally relevant teaching, described by
Ladson-Billings (1994), was also employed at the school site. The culturally
relevant dimension of the teaching strengthened the student’s access to the standards-
based curriculum. The school aimed at achieving fair and equal educational
opportunities through the following:
• The educators of Preston Elementary had high self esteem of
themselves and high expectations of their students.
• Teachers recognized and valued students’ prior knowledge and
experiences.
• Classroom environments showed a connectedness with students of
color.
• Teachers created an environment where students were encouraged to
learn from each other and hold students accountable for their
classmates.

150
Findings from classroom observations and interviews showed that the
educators of Preston Elementary showed a strong commitment to their profession.
Moreover, the principal and many teachers were dressed professionally.
In addition to teachers having high regards towards the teaching profession,
the educators also had high expectations of students of color. In fact, the staff
believed that all students could be successful in school and in life. Some teachers
were aware of the societal conditions of discrimination and injustice for students of
color and understood how this influenced the school’s academic expectations for their
children (Bennett, 2001).
An important aspect of the culturally relevant practices, was the value the
teachers placed on their children’s prior experiences and belief that they came to
school with knowledge. Teachers saw teaching as “digging knowledge out” of
students. Many educators believed that their children came to school to learn;
however, some teachers also knew that they could learn from their students as well by
asking their students for their input and discovering their knowledge.
Inside some classrooms, room environments showed a connectedness with
students of color. Teachers identified their children’s interest and classrooms
bulletin boards were decorated with heroes that represented the cultures of students of
color. Unfortunately, some classrooms did not have anything on bulletin boards
connected to the lives or culture of students of color. Instead, these bulletin boards
only had monthly calendars, lunch menu, or classroom schedules.

151
Lastly, students were encouraged to learn from one another and be responsible
for their classmates learning. A community of learners was noticed when teachers
encouraged students of color to care, not only for their own work, but also their
classmates’ achievement. In some classrooms children worked independently, and in
others, students were seen working collaboratively in small groups or in pairs. In
short, many students learned to be successful by working with other classmates and
being supportive as well.
Many of the educators of Preston Elementary recognized that their structures
and systems were not enough to increase the achievement of students of color. It is
important to note that these educators implemented culturally relevant pedagogy that
needed to be reflected in the schools structures and systems as well. Properly
implementing culturally relevant pedagogy required a systemic approach. Further,
the staff did not blame the socio-economics of the students or other external factors.
Instead, they focused on factors they had control over.
Conclusions

After analyzing the data collected from the four research questions, the
researcher was able to gather information that the perceived to contribute to the high
student performance of the students in Preston Elementary a high performing school.
Specific structures and systems at the school site were in place to support high student
achievement. The following conclusions and notable accomplishments were based

152
on the research questions supported by the data and literature collected during the
study:
1. Strong leadership from the principal created a strong culture with a vision
focused on student learning and achievement. The principal also held
teachers accountable by meeting with her staff and visiting classrooms. In
addition, the principal supported teachers, promoted professional growth, and
was consistently visible during the school day.
2. The principal also promoted a culture of accountability by monitoring overall
school data and classroom assessments. The principal and staff reviewed their
summative and formative assessments to look for trends and patterns.
3. The principal and instructional leaders provided consistent professional
development to support teacher learning. The principal collaborated with her
instructional leaders when planning and presenting meetings to the staff. The
leader was not totally collaborative with her teachers, but more directive when
it came to the development of professional development meetings.
4. Grade level meetings played an important role in building collegiality and
providing opportunities for teacher learning. The smaller setting of the grade
level meetings allowed teachers to practice newly learned strategies with other
teachers in a risk-free environment. Grade-level meetings were critical in
helping teachers address the needs of their students. It is important to note
that only one grade level meeting was observed, therefore it not known if
other grade level meetings had teachers working closely together.

153
5. The school also recognized the need for parent support. The parents took an
active role by participating in School Site Council, English Advisory
Committee and other school events. The school effectively communicated
with parents through parent letters and flyers although the engagement was
rather traditional and one-way communication.
6. The school recognized the importance of state standards and implemented the
district adopted reading program, Open Court. Many teachers recognized that
the adopted standards-based approach improved their teaching of students of
color and provide equity and encouraged high levels of achievement for
students of color. However, not all teachers faithfully implemented the
reading program.
7. Instructional leaders, a literacy coach and the English Learner Coordinator,
provided instructional support for teachers. These leaders visited classrooms,
met with teachers, and monitored the implementation of instructional
curriculums and assessments.
8. Teachers in certain classrooms practiced culturally relevant pedagogy. These
teachers had high expectations of themselves as well as their students. They
recognized and valued students’ prior knowledge and experiences and made
connections with students of color. They created an environment where
teachers respected students of color, and where children cared for other
students. However, some classroom did not have any type of connection to

154
their students of color and teachers in these rooms did not practice culturally
relevant pedagogy.
Implications and Recommendations
Although Preston Elementary school experienced many successes through the
structures and systems implemented, the school still has many areas of improvement.
Overall, Preston’s structures and systems matched factors of a high achieving school;
however, there are several recommendations necessary for the school to fully
implement the factors to meet the needs of students of color.
1. It was clear trough observations and interviews that the principal created a
strong school culture. Overall, she created a culture and a vision focused on
student learning and achievement. Her leadership played a large role in
creating a culture focused on making a difference for students of color.
2. The principal and instructional leaders worked closely with classroom
teachers to base decisions on student assessment. Still, the researcher did not
observe teachers nor did the teachers state that they individually examine
their students’ data. Future professional development meetings should
include the importance of teachers using classroom level data analysis to
improve student achievement. All teachers need to study state test results
and classroom assessment data to guide their instruction.
3. Parent involvement during the school’s School Site Council and English
Learner Advisory Committee meetings contributed to high student
performance. In addition, parents were involved in their student academic

155
growth by attending open house, back to school, and parent conference;
however the school still needs to find ways to invite parents to support
teachers and students in their classrooms. The school has not embraced
students’ home cultures as an important asset which parents can help
support.
4. Classroom teachers implemented standards based instruction from the
district mandated program, Open Court. However, not all teachers faithfully
taught from their teacher’s edition. The principal along with her
instructional leaders will need to conduct additional trainings during staff
development meetings and classroom demonstrations lessons. They will also
need to hold teachers accountable by visiting classroom more frequently to
ensure that these practices have improved. Lastly, the leadership team may
also need to motivate their teachers to implement the district mandated
literacy program.
5. Although some classrooms teachers showed some aspects of culturally
relevant teaching. Future staff training will be necessary for all teachers to
learn culturally relevant pedagogy and for those who know it to learn it more
deeply. Areas of focus should include: Having high expectations of their
students and the teaching profession, recognizing students background and
knowledge, making classroom connected to students’ home and community
cultures, and encouraging students to support one another.

156
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings and conclusions from the research of this study have yielded
implications for future studies and practical application for other schools. The
following research is necessary to ascertain that the structure and systems
implemented were conclusive to raising student achievement:
1. Other high poverty high performing schools should be studied. More
specifically, research should be conducted to compare and contrast the
structures and systems used in various schools to improve the achievement of
students of color.
2. The researcher noted the trends about the misalignment in the curriculum
from grades two to three and from four to five. Although some
developmental processes are at work, it would be worth examining the data in
other schools to see if there is a similar trend. Furthermore, a deeper analysis
should be conducted to identify possible reasons for these trends.
3. Preston Elementary implemented structures and systems to meet the needs of
students of color. A long term study should be performed to see if the
school’s API continues to grow in an upward trajectory.
4. Future studies should include how other schools with a high level of parent
involvement; found ways to invite parents to support teachers and students in
their classrooms. The study should also include how the school valued their
students’ home cultures as an important asset which parents can help support.

157
5. This study examined a small traditional calendar school with a student
population of only 512 children. Future studies should include larger multi-
track schools.

158
REFERENCES

Acheson, K.A. & Gall, M. D. (2003). Clinical Supervision and Teacher
Development: Preservice and Inservice Applications. Fifth Edition. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ

Alanis, I. (2004). Effective Instruction: Integrating Language and Literacy. In C.
Salina (Ed.), Scholars in the field: The Challenge of migrant education (pp.
211-224). Charleston, WV: Appalachian Regional Education Laboratory.

American Association of School Administrators. (1987). Raising Achievement Among
Minority Students. Arlington, VA: Author.

Ashby, D.E. & Krug S.E. (1998). Thinking Through the Principalship. Larchmont,
NY:
Eye on Education, Inc.

Bamburg, J.D. (1994). Raising Expectations to Improve Student Learning. Illinois:
North Central Regional Educational Library.

Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of Research in Multicultural Education. Review of
Educational Research, 71(2), 171-217.

Blase, J.R., & Blase, J. (1998). Handbook of Instructional Leadership: How Really
Good
Principals Promote Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA, Corwin
Press

Blase, J.R., & Blase, J. (2004). Handbook of Instructional Leadership. How
Successful Principals Promote Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.

Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York:
Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

California Department of Education. (1999). http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ap/

Carlisle, Joanne F. & Rice, Melinda S. (2002). Improving Reading Comprehension,
Research-Based Principles and Practices. York Press, Inc., Timonium

Carter, T.P., & Chatfield, M.L. (1986). Effective Bilingual Schools: Implications for
Policy and Practice. American Journal of Education, 95(1), 200-232.

159
Christenson, S.L., Rounds, T., & Gorney, D. (1992, Fall). Family Factors and
Student Achievement: An Avenue to Increase Students’ Success. School
Psychology Quarterly, 7(3), 178-206.

Cotton. K. (1995). Effective Schooling Practices: A Research Synthesis. School
Improvement Research Series, Portland OR: Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory.

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design; Choosing Among Five
Traditions. London, New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 372 p. +
notes, index.

Cummins, J. (1983). Functional Language Proficiency in Context: Classroom
Participation as an Interactive Process. In W.J. Tikunoff (Ed.),
Compatibility of the SBIS features with other research on instruction for LEP
students (pp. 109-131). San Francisco: Far West Laboratory.

Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse
Society. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). Doing that Matters Most: Investing in Quality
Teaching. New York: National Commission on Teaching and America’s
Future.

Davis, B.G., (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass.

Deal, T.E. & Peterson, K.D. (1990) The Principal’s Role in Shaping School Culture.
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC

Denzin (2001). Qualitative Research as Partial Connection: Bypassing the Power-
Knowledge Nexus. Jensen and Lauritsen Qualitative Research.

Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
(http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/press/highlights.asp).

DuBois, W.E.B. (1935). Black Reconstruction. New York: Russell & Russell

Elmore, R.F. (2002). Bridging the Gap Between Standards and Achievement,
Washington DC, Albert Shanker Institute.

Epstein, (1997). Connecting Home, School, and Community. Springer US

160
Falchikov, N. (2001). Learning Together Peer Tutoring in Higher Education.
Routledge Falmer. New York, NY

Fan, X., & Chen,M. (2001). Parental Involvement and Students’ Academic
Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13(1), 1-22

Fielding. N.G. (1995). Confronting CAQDAS: Choice of Contingency. In R.G.
Burgess, Computing and Qualitative Research. JAI Press. Greenwich, Conn.

Foster, H. Ribbin, (1986). Jivin’ and Playin’ the Dozens (2
nd
ed.) New York:
Ballinger.

Friedkin, N.E., & Slater, M.R. (1994). School leadership and performance: A social
network approach. Sociology of Education, 67, 139-157.

Friend, M. & Hope, K. (2005). Creating Schools in Which All Students Can Succeed
Kappa Delta Pi Record, v41 n2 p56-61

Fullan, M. (2004). Leadership and Sustainability: System thinker in Action. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Fullan, M. (1998). Leadership for the 21
st
Century-Breaking the Bonds of
Dependency. Educational Leadership, 55(7), 6-10.

Garcia, E. (1999). Student Cultural Diversity: Understanding and Meeting the
Challenge. (2
nd
ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Garton, A. (1992). Social Interaction and the Development of Language and
Cognition.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd. East Sussex, U.K.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching. Theory, Research, and Practice.
New York: Teachers College Press.

Gerlic, I., & Jausovec, N. (1999). Multimedia: Differences in Cognitive Processes
Observed with EEG. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47
(3), 5-14.

Gigliotti, R.J., & Brookover, W.B. (1975). The Learning Environment: A Comparison
of High and Low Achieving Elementary Schools. Urban Education, 10, 245-
261

161
Glickman, C.D., S.P. Gordon, and J.M. Ross-Gordon. (2004). Supervision and
Instructional Leadership: A Developmental Approach. 6
th
Ed. Boston:
Pearson-Allyn Bacon Publishers.

Good, T.L., & Brophy, J.E. (1994). Looking in Classrooms (6th ed.). New York:
Harper Collins.

Gregory, G. H., & Chapman, C. (2002). Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One
Size Doesn’t Fit All. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Guskey, T.R. (1989). Attitude and perceptual change in teachers. International
Journal of Educational Research, 13, 439-453.

Hattie, J.A. (1992). Measuring the effects of schooling. Australian Journal of
education, 36(1), 5-13.

Heacox, D. (2002). Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom. Minneapolis,
MN: Free Spirit Publishing.

Hentschke, G. C. (2004). Cracking the Code of Accountability. The magazine of the
USC Rossier School of Education, 17-19.

Hentshke, G.C. and Wohstetter, P. (2004). Cracking the Code of Accountability. USC
Urban Ed. University of Southern California: Rossier School of Education.

Hispanic Dropout Project. (1996). Data Book Washington, DC: United States
Department of Education, Office of the Undersecretary.

Jennings, K. & Stahl-Wert, J. (2003). The Serving Leader: Five powerful Actions that
Will Transform Your Team, Your Business, and Your Community. San
Francisco: Berrett-Kohler.

Jepsen, C. & Alth, S. (2005). English Learner in California Schools. San Francisco:
Public Policy Institute of California.

Jerald, C. (2005). Planning That Matters: Helping Schools Engage in Collaborative,
Strategic Problem Solving. Washington DC: The Center for Comprehensive
School Reform and improvement.

Johnson, R.S. (2002). Using Data to Close Achievement Gap. Thousand Oaks, CA.
Corwin Press, Inc.

162
Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student Achievement Through Staff Development
(3
rd
ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Katz, L. (1999). International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education: Lessons
from My Travels presented at the Annual Conference of the National
Association for the Education of Young Children; Toronto, Canada
Kagan, S. (1995). We can talk: Cooperative learning in the elementary ESL
classroom. (ERIC Document reproduction Service No. ED 382 035).

Kleinfeld, J. (1973). Effects of Nonverbally Communicated Personal Warmth on the
Intelligence Test Performance of Indian and Eskimo Adolescents. Journals of
Social Psychology, 91(1), 149-150.

Kohn, A. (1986). No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The Dreamkeepers: Successful teacher for African
American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lashway, L. (2003). ERIC Digest 169 The Mandate To Help Low-Performing
Schools
http://eric.uoregon.edu/publications/digests/digest169.html

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Little, J.W. “Norms of Collegiality and Experimentation: Workplace Conditions of
School Success.” American Educational Research Journal, 1982, 19(3), 325-
340.

Lou, Y., Abrami, P.C., Spence, J.C., Paulsen, C. Chambers, B., & d Apollonio, S.
(1996). Within Class Grouping: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational
Research, 66(4), 423-458.

Lucas, T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990, August). Promoting the Success of
Hispanic Language-Minority Students: An Exploratory Study of Six High
Schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60(3), 315-340.

Madsen, J.A. & Hollins, E. (2000). African American Teachers’ Role in School
Desegregation. Urban Education, Vol. 35, No. 1, 5-30. SAGE Publications

163
Martinez, C.R., DeGarmo, D.S., & Eddy, J.M. (2004). Promoting Academic Success
Among Latino Youths. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 26 No.
2, May 2004 128-151

Marzano, R.J. (2004). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Marzano, R.J., (2003). What Works In Schools, Translating Research Into Action.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom Instruction that
Works.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, Va

Marzano, R.J., Waters,T., & Mcnuilty, B.A. (2005). School Leadership that Works
From Research to Results. Aurora, CO. Mid-Continent Research for
Education and Learning (McREL).

Merriam, S.B. (1998). Qualitative research and Case Study Applications in
Education. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San Francisco.

Moll, L. (1990). Vygotsky and Education Instructional Implications and Applications
of Sociohistorical Psychology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Moll, L.C., Amanti, D.N., & N. Gonzalez, (1992). Funds of Knowledge: Using a
Qualitative Approach to Connect Homes and Classrooms. Theory Into
Practice, 31, 132-141.

Murphy, J. & Louis, K.S. (1999). Handbook Editors’ Introduction: Notes from the
Handbook Murphy and Louis Educational Administration Quarterly.1999; 35:
472-476

National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). Dropout rates in the United States:
1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational
research and Improvement.

National Education Commission on Time and Learning (1994). Prisoners of time.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Newman, Fred M., and Gary G. Wehlage. (1995). Successful School Restructuring: A
Report to the Public and Educators by the Center on Organization and
Restructuring of Schools. Madison, Wis.Center on Organization and
Restructuring of Schools, University of Wisconsin.

164
Noddings, N. (1992). The Challenge to Care in Schools. New York: Teachers College
Press.

Noguera, A.P. (1995). Preventing and Producing Violence: A
Critical Analysis of Responses to School Violence. Harvard Educational
Review, 65, 189-212.

Ogbu, J.U., & Matute-Bianchi,M.E. (1986). Understanding Sociocultural Factors:
Knowledge, Identity, and School Adjustment. In Beyond language: Social and
Cultural Factors in Schooling Language Minority Students (pp.73-144). Los
Angeles: California Stat University, Evaluation, Dissemination, and
Assessment Center.

Osajima, K. (1993). "The Hidden Injuries of Race," Bearing Dreams, Shaping
Visions. Washington State University Press.

Ott, J.S. (1989). The Organizational Culture Perspective. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.

Pajak, E. (2001). Clinical Supervision in a Standards-Based Environment:
Opportunities
and Challenges. Journal of Teacher Education. 2001; 52: 233-243

Paige, R. (2002, July 24). Key Policy Letters Signed by the Education Secretary or
Deputy Secretary. Elementary and Secondary Education. Retrieved August
23, 2005, from http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/guid/secletter/020724.html

Paivio, A. (1969). Mental Imagery in Associative Learning and Memory.
Psychological review, 76, 241-263.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Peterson, G.T. (1935). The Present Status of the Negro Separate School as Defined by
Court Decisions. Journal of Negro Education, 4, 351-374.

Peterson, K.D. (1999). Shaping School Culture, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Phillips, MD., & Glickman, C.D. (1991). Peer Coaching: Developmental Approach
to Enhance Teacher Thinking. Journals of Staff Development, 12(2), 20-25.

Picciano, A.G. (2006). Data Driven Decision-making for Effective School
Leadership. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson-Merrill Prentice Hall.

165
Proctor, B. D., and Dalaker, J. (2002). Poverty in the United States: 2001.
Washington,
DC: Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce.

Reitzug, U.C., (1994). A Case Study of Empowering Principal Behavior. American
Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31, No. 2, 283-307.

Reynaldo, C.A. (1994). Impact of Brown on the Education of Latinos
Journal of Negro Education.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3626/is_199407/ai_n8731757

Richardson, A. (1983). Imagery: Definitions and Types. In A.A. Sheikh (Ed.),
Imagery: Current theory, research, and application (pp. 3-42). New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Rolon, C.A. (2002). Educating Hispanic Students. Educational Leadership The H.W.
Wilson Company.

San Miguel, Jr., Guadalupe, and Richard R. Valencia. (1998). “From the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood: The Educational Plight and Struggle of
Mexican Americans in the Southwest.” Harvard Educational Review 68 (Fall):
353-412.

Schein, E.H. (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Scheurich, J.J. (2002). Anti Racist Scholarship and advocacy. New York: State
University of New York Press

Schoen, F., & Schoen, A.A. (2003). Action Research in the Classroom. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 35, 16-21.

Stanton-Salazar, R. M. (2001). Manufacturing Hope and Despair: The School and
Kin Support Networks of U.S.-Mexican Youth. New York, NY: Teachers
College Press.

Stephan, W.G. (1980). “A Brief Overview of School Desegregation.” In W.G.
Stephan, and J.R. Feagin. (Ed.), School Desegregation. (pp.3-23.), New York:
Pleum Press

Swanson, M.C., Mehan, H., & Hubbard, L. (1995). The AVID Classroom: Academic
and social support for low-achieving students. Yearbook (National Society for
the Study of Education), v.94th, pt1, 53-69.

166
Tarlow, B. (1996). Caring: A Negotiated Process That Varies. In S. Gordon, P.
Brenner, & N. Noddings (Eds.), Caregiving: Reading in Knowledge, Practice,
Ethics, and Politics (pp.56-82). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.

Tikunoff, W. (1985). Applying Significant Bilingual Instructional Features in the
Classroom. Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education
Limited.

Togneri, W., & Anderson, S.E. (2003). Beyond Islands of Excellence: What districts
can do to improve instruction and achievement in all schools. Washington,
DC: The learning First Alliance and the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

Trueba, E.T. and Bartolome, L. (1997). The Education of Hispanic Students: Is
School
Reform Enough? ERIC Development Team www.eric.ed.gov

U.S. Department of Education (2005). Professional Development Systems
www.ed.gov/admins/lead/speced/toolkit/pd.doc

Valencia, R., Menchaca, M., and Donato, R. (2002). Segregation, Desegregation,
and Integration of Hispanic Students: Old and New Realities. In R. Valencia,
Hispanic School Failure and Success: Past, Present, and Future (2
nd
ed.),
(Ed.),pp.70-109.

Valverde, L.A., & Scribner, K.P. (2001). Hispanic Students: Organizing Schools for
Greater Achievement. National Association of Secondary School Principals.
85 (624) pp.21-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Walberg, H. J. (1997). Uncompetitive American schools: Causes and cures. In
Brooking papers on educational policy. Washington, DC: The Brookings
Institute.

Weinberg, M A (1977). Chance to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wertsch, J. V. (1994). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of the Mind, 5th ed.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

167

White, K.R. (1982). The Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Academic
Achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 91(3), 461-481.

Wright, S.P., Horn, S.P., & Sanders, W.L. (1997). Teacher and Classroom Context
Effect on Student Achievement. Implications for Teacher Evaluation. Journal
of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 11, 57-67.

Zehler, A. (1994, Summer). Working with English Language Learners: Strategies for
Elementary and Middle School Teachers. NCELA Program information guide
Series (No. 19).

168
APPENDIX A
Teacher Interview Protocol

School Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________________

Name of Person Interviewed:
______________________________________________

Position:
________________________________________________________________

Researcher:
_____________________________________________________________

Time Started: _____________ Time Ended: _______________ Total Time:
_________

Introduction:

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve student performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Teacher Interview Questions
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.

169
• (Probe) Has your school encountered any obstacles in
maintaining these structures and systems (practices)? If so,
how did the school overcome them or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things you have done over
the last 3-5 years to improve student performance

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers.
a. For students?
b. Parents
• How do you monitor student progress?
• What assessment tools do you use?

4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-Wide
Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the
school-wide plan for students of color?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how does it impact students?

170
APPENDIX B
Administrator Interview Protocol

School Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________________

Name of Person Interviewed:
______________________________________________

Position:
________________________________________________________________

Researcher:
_____________________________________________________________

Time Started: _____________ Time Ended: _______________ Total Time:
_________

Introduction:

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve student performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Administrator Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.

171
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
structures and systems (practices)? If so, how did the school overcome
them or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance?

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress
b. What assessment tools do you use?

4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-Wide Plan?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how does it impact students
of color?

172
APPENDIX C

Classified Interview Protocol

School Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________________

Name of Person Interviewed:
______________________________________________

Position:
________________________________________________________________

Researcher:
_____________________________________________________________

Time Started: _____________ Time Ended: _______________ Total Time:
_________

Introduction:

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve student performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Classified Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to your high student performance.

173
• Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining
these structures and systems (practices)? If so, how did the
school overcome them or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things you have done over
the last 3-5 years to improve student performance?

2. How would you describe the school climate here?
a. In what ways does the school engage/involve all students and respect
cultural diversity.
b. What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?

3. What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?

4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?

5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?

6. How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?

7. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur, how do the students react to it,
how do teachers react?
b. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data? How so?

8. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impact students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad choice?

174
APPENDIX D
Parent Interview Protocol

School Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________________

Name of Person Interviewed:
______________________________________________

Position:
________________________________________________________________

Researcher:
_____________________________________________________________

Time Started: _____________ Time Ended: _______________ Total Time:
_________

Introduction:

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with the University
of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying systems and
structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools with students of color.
Through the nomination process, your school was identified as a high achieving
urban school. The purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve
high levels of student performance at your school.

The information gathered from this research will be used to spread new knowledge
and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to inspire
educators to improve student performance.

The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?

Parent Interview Questions

1. What is the school doing to help all students succeed?

2. How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?

175
3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?
a. How does the school communicate that?

4. How does the school address the needs of (ethnic sub-group) students?

5. How do you describe a good teacher?

6. What are some of the ways the school lets you know how your child is doing?

7. Describe the school’s discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?

176
APPENDIX E
Classroom Observation Protocol
Date: _______________________________ Grade Level: __________
Teacher Code Letter: ____________
Number of Students: ____________
African American: ________ Hispanic: __________
White American: _________ Other: ____________

Classroom Observation Guide
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4: Are there a range or variety of instructional
practices /strategies used? Are they appropriate for the content and students?
Examples of instructional practices/strategies?
• Cooperative grouping
• Use of time
• Differentiated instruction
• Feedback to students
• Culturally relevant and responsive

Research Question #2: What visuals, symbols and other items are posted in the
classroom?
Examples of items:
• School wide discipline policy
• Images of people of color
• Classroom library
• School vision

Research Question # 2: Physical Class Environment
Example of things to observe:
• Seating arrangement
• Teacher student interaction student
o Discipline
• Student work posted
o Feedback/rubric
o Standard based

177
• Student Engagement

178
APPENDIX F
Observation Protocol
Physical Setting: To allow readers to visualize the setting, the researcher will record
the following observations during each visit:
School grounds
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• School calendar for academic year
• Visual of school goals / mission / vision
• Symbolic representations (drug free zone, anti-violence, college
paraphernalia, culturally relevant items)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
Classroom specific
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• Classroom calendar
• Classroom schedule
• Classroom rules or expectations
• Culturally relevant items
• Location of classroom (bungalow, main building, isolated, included)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
• Classroom spacing (proximity of students’ desks to one another and teacher)

179

Social Climate/Environment: During each visit, the researcher will record elements of
human interactions.
School-wide environment
• Adult-Adult and Adult-student interactions (use of greetings, use of names,
friendliness, smiles, affect)
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age)
Classroom climate
• Structure, order, rigidity of classroom environment; is teacher in control of
class, students out of their seats, loud talking, on task
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity, age,
or teacher assignment)

180
APPENDIX G
Professional Development Observation Guiding Questions
Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4:
• Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?

• Is there engagement among the staff?

• What types of data are being used? How is data used?

• Is professional development is aligned to the vision?

• How are students discussed among teachers and other staff?

• Is the professional development geared toward teaching to standards mastery
or performance?

• Is the professional development practical and adaptable?

• Are the expectations clear for implementation of the professional
development?

• How teachers are held accountable for the professional development
provided?

181

• Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?

182
APPENDIX H
Leadership Team Observation
Leadership Team Questions for Reflections

• To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the school
plan?

• Does the leadership team analyze student achievement data in order to take
informed actions?

• Did (or does) the leadership team discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive
(culturally relevant and responsive) learning environments?

• How are the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership team?

• Structure: Is the meeting for information or systems planning?

183
• Is the meeting operational or instructional focused?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Too many students of color have not been achieving in schools as well as they could for far too long (Gay, 2000). All African American and Latino students can experience high academic achievement

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high performing, high poverty urban schools

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from a high-performing, high poverty urban school

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing high-poverty urban schools

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high-poverty urban schools

PDF

Implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high performing, high poverty ubran schools

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lesson from a high performing high poverty urban elementary school

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high-poverty schools

PDF

School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from a high-performing, high-poverty urban school

PDF

A case study: school-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing, high poverty urban schools

PDF

Organizational systems school leaders implement to facilitate effective classroom instruction in urban schools: a case study

PDF

A study of academic success with students of color: what really matters? Lessons from high-performing, high-poverty urban schools

PDF

Effective factors of high performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

School-wide implementation of systems and structures that lead to increased achievement among students of color: a case study of a high-performing, high-poverty urban school

PDF

Overcoming a legacy of low achievement: systems and structures in a high-performing, high-poverty California elementary school

PDF

Student engagement in high performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

Student engagement in a high-performing urban high school: a case study

PDF

Organizational structures and systems in high-performing, high-poverty urban schools: the construct of race and teacher expectations as mediating factors in student achievement

PDF

Student engagement in high-performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

Co-constructing community, school, university partnerships for urban school transformation: Year two

PDF

A case study to determine what perceived factors, including student engagement, contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school

Asset Metadata

Creator Lee, Michael Young (author)

Core Title Implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high performing, high poverty urban school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/24/2008

Defense Date 05/12/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag high performing,Lee,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Rousseau, Sylvia G. (committee chair), Marsh, David D. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email lee16@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1397

Unique identifier UC1199833

Identifier etd-Lee-20080724 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-199336 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1397 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Lee-20080724.pdf

Dmrecord 199336

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lee, Michael Young

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu