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Globalization of a teacher education program at a comprehensive state university campus: a case study

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Globalization of a teacher education program at a comprehensive state university campus: a case study

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GLOBALIZATION OF A TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM AT A
COMPREHENSIVE STATE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS: A CASE STUDY

by

Aura Felicia Sburlan

_______________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2009

Copyright 2009 Aura Felicia Sburlan
ii
DEDICATION
To ALL the people who thought I would, and I would NOT make it. You all
determined me to work hard and pursue my goals. I love you!
First and foremost, to my very few special people in my life: my parents and
children. To my farther Paun who instilled in me the desire to set high and
challenging goals. To my wonderful loving mother Eugenia, who taught me to be
compassionate, modest, kind and honored to serve others.
To my children Tudor Nicolae and Suzana Elena. You guys are still my
unique and sole great achievement in life and everything else comes next. Mom
loves you.
To my Committee. Without you this dissertation would still have been a
dream in progress. To my Ph.D. Chair Dean Karen Symms Gallagher, Emery Stoops
and Joyce King-Stoops, whose professional guidance, leadership and passion for
globalization and education inspired me to push my limits; To Doctors Mike
Diamond and Anthony Normore whose valuable comments and suggestions helped
throughout the revision and completion process of my dissertation. I consider myself
fortunate for the opportunity of benefiting of your knowledge and professional
nurturing. To Dr. Linda Fischer a patient reader and a marvelous writing advisor.
To my special mentors and friends: Deanna Hasson and Patricia Schmolze.
The quality of my social capital is much more important than its size. Thank you.
iii
To the USC Rossier School of Education. This Program enriched my
personal and professional life. It provided the tools and the confidence to find
solutions to daily issues in US higher education.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
State University of the Future President: Dr. Johnson
Dean Extended Education University, Dr. Finland
Provost/Senior Program Advisor, Dr. Kwan
Program Director, Linda
Program Manager, Anthony
State University of the Future: Assistant Vice Chancellor
USC Rossier School Of Education, Globalization Thematic Group fellow students:
Kathleen-Barbara Knodel
Binh Tran
Bridget LeLoup
Joy Lorenzana
Elizabeth Peterson
USC DSC: Dr. Linda Fischer and Dr .Imelda Jimenez West
USC IRB Liaison: Lisa Galvan
Los Angeles City College Child Development Center
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iv
List of Tables vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Chapter 3: Methodology 55
Chapter 4: Findings 72
Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations 111
References 133
Appendices 141
Appendix A: Summary of Findings on Leadership, Globalization, 141
Change and Indicators of Success and Their Relevance
to the Literature Review
Appendix B: Summary of Findings on Obstacles and Challenges 142
Appendix C: Consent to Participate in Research 143
Appendix D: Recruitment – Phone/Email Dialogue For Senior 147
Leaders/Chancellor
Appendix E: Interview Protocol For University Senior Leaders 148
Appendix F: Data Analysis Spiral Sheet 150
Appendix G: Observation Protocol 152
Appendix H: Document Summary Form 153
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: CSU 23 Campuses, Date of Foundation, Enrollment and Budget 45
2006-2007

Table 2: Reports the Findings from Data Collected and the Study Research 109
Questions
vii
ABSTRACT
Globalization affects all the areas of the world economy, nations, countries,
institutions and people (Armstrong, 2007; Suarez-Orozco, 2004). Meaning of this
complex phenomenon is understood differently by leaders and the people involved in
activities related to global economies. Higher education institutions such as
universities are in the midst of understanding their role and mission at the local,
national and global level (Armstrong, 2007, New Directions for Higher Education).
This study describes how senior leaders at a public, comprehensive, regional
university with a “global outlook”, which is part of a multi-campus state university
system, integrated global initiatives into the university’s teacher education programs
and mission. The study describes in depth the process of implementation of a global
initiative in teacher’s professional development for Chinese educators. In analyzing
the leaders’ role in implementing global initiatives, the study employs two
theoretical frameworks. First, the leadership orientation is analyzed through Bolman
and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership. Second, the study adopted Armstrong’s
(2007) perspective of multinational model to analyze the meaning local university
senior leaders attached to globalization.
The study found a large range of perspectives on understanding how
globalization influences mission, curriculum and partnerships between a US public
university and Chinese higher education institutions on teacher education.
Findings from the study revealed the President’s vision is crucial for the
implementation of innovations related to globalization at a public regional
viii
comprehensive university. Interviews with senior public university leaders confirmed
the fact that local meaning attributed to the complex globalization phenomenon is
not universal. Leaders interpret globalization through an eclectic perspective. The
study found that leaders who have a vision and advocates through speeches, active
participation to local, national and international events, are able to create alliances
with different constituencies, are agents of change able to lead innovation into their
educational institutions.
1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
“Global opportunities and challenges will be multiplying rapidly in
the near future, however, and institutions that have thought seriously
about their mission in a global context will be best prepared to
respond effectively” (Armstrong, 2007, p. 14).

Introduction
Globalization is a profound phenomenon which impacts economies, nations,
states, cultures, and even reaches deeper to the individual level (Scott, 2000). The
university, as a social institution, undergoes changes along with the whole society
under this “process of deep institutional change” (Vaira, 2004, p. 485). According to
Scott (2000), the university changes its goals, mission, and delivery mode, location
of its services, culture, and practices under the impact of globalization. Globalization
also determines how the university will “develop alliances with other institutions in
order to allow a new configuration of knowledge institution to develop” (Scott, 2000,
p.10).
Globalization influences major changes and transformation in higher
education. There is a strong indication in the literature that higher education has the
tendency to borrow market practices in order to implement them in university
practices and policies (Armstrong, 2007; Brody, 2007; Porter & Voinovich, 2000;
Scott, 2000; Spring, 2008; Stromquist, 2000; Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004;
Tierney, 2008; Vaira, 2004). Changes and transformations require strong leaders
who can promote innovations in response to globalization. Universities where
2
leadership has a clear mission in the global context will be better prepared to benefit
from and face challenges influenced by globalization (Armstrong, 2007). This study
examines the senior leadership at a public, comprehensive, regional university with a
global outlook, and how leaders envisioned and implemented innovations in
response to globalization. The study describes how a state public university within a
system with believed limited flexibility (Douglass, 2000) succeeded in adapting
global change, incorporated globalization into its mission and implemented a
distinctive global teacher education program.
Background of the Problem
Impact of Globalization
Armstrong (2007) posits that the current impact of globalization on higher
education institutions in the United States is rather small compared to its impact on
other components of the economy. At least three challenges explain the slow change
process in US universities. The traditional dominance by state and national culture,
standardization of teaching due to the emergence of global research cultures, and
networks that undermine public contribution to their income tend to impact the
change process (Scott, 2000). However, the United States must implement urgent
changes in higher education institutions in order to keep their leading international
role. Mapping the Global Future (2004) Report of the National Intelligence Council,
estimates that China and India will develop at a very dynamic rate which might
challenge the USA’s role as a global leader in the next decade.
3
Despite their different political and socio-economic system of governance,
the United States and China play a leading role in shaping the future. The US and
China share common interests and common responsibilities in the global
environment. “Cooperation between the U.S. and China is essential if there is to be
progress in many areas…. Americans increasingly understand how completely
intertwined the two economies have become and that Chinese cooperation is needed
in many economic issues” (Dube, 2008 as cited in World Journal, Sept. 18).
There is a strong indication that China’s economic expansion is going to
continue. The current trend in China’s economic development indicates that China
will be a strong competitor in the scientific, technological, and economic realms
within the next decade and also it will offer opportunities to US universities to fulfill
China’s educational needs (Mehta & Kou, 2005). The article Trends in Higher
Education July 7, 2007 published by the Society for College and University Planning
cited opinion polls in China as ranking the skills shortages as number one of the
problem discouraging foreign businesses to land investments in China even ahead of
its bureaucracy (scup, 2007, p. 5 citing Asia Times, January 2, 2007). The Chinese
government adopted many higher education reforms to improve the quality of higher
education and the shortages of skills of its workers by funding partnership programs
with foreign universities. This represents a favorable opportunities for US
universities to expand their collaborations with Chinese higher education institutions.
As a consequence, American universities initiated and expanded various
forms of partnerships and collaborations with prestigious Chinese universities. For
4
example the University of Southern California established the APRISE@Rossier
Center which stands for Asia Pacific Rim International Study Experience as a
partnership initiative with Chinese universities for research and exchanges of
students and faculty. USC’s US-China Institute is another global initiative with the
goal to enhance understanding for the 21
st
century’s definitive and multidimensional
relationship through cutting-edge research, innovative graduate and undergraduate
training, and extensive and influential public events and professional development
efforts. (“US-China”, 2007).
In California, other public and private universities established exchange,
study abroad or degree granting programs with prestigious Chinese universities. The
University of California’s (“UCLA- Asia Initiatives”) California State University
Fullerton (“International Programs, Asia”), and California State University
Northridge CSUN (“China Institute”), are some examples of Californian universities
that have already established various forms of partnership.
Public University Mission
American universities have to clarify their global mission in order to take
advantage of the opportunities that globalization provides and also to prevent the
challenges this complex phenomenon may pose (Armstrong, 2007). Public US
universities are traditionally governed and funded by local and state systems. Their
mission is to produce the labor force necessary to the local and national economy. In
the current global context, the universities need to articulate why they want to
globalize and how their mission relates to the characteristic of the students they want
5
to serve. There are two reasons most often cited in order to justify the need for
globalization (Armstrong, 2007).
First, universities want to globalize in order to provide their students with the
necessary skills to compete in a global economy. This goal can be accomplished by
students and faculty exchanges. Twinning arrangements and branch campuses
established abroad can increase the number of international students coming to the
US home campus. Twinning is an arrangement between a local and a foreign
institution for offering abroad the first two years of an undergraduate program. The
local university offers a pre-negotiated and pre-approved curriculum. After the first
two years, the students complete and receive the degree from the source institution.
Another form of modular global education is franchising (Armstrong, 2007). This
new cross-border education agreement allows the foreign institution to deliver the
program. The US institution retains control over the program, curriculum, quality,
assessment, and degree delivery. Armstrong (2007) presents a modular model of
cross-border education which is similar to the manufacturing business model. The
business companies send abroad parts of their production process in search of
favorable conditions and revenue.
The second reason universities may choose to globalize is income generation.
Traditionally, the universities increased the recruitment of international students
when they had enough capacity (Armstrong, 2007). At the national and local level
state support has decreased. Most public universities seek other sources for funding
such as diverse partnerships with foreign universities.
6
Higher Education and Leadership
“Leadership is needed for problems that do not have easy answers.”
(Fullan, 2001, p. 2)

In the global economic environment the essence of current and future trends
is transformation. Change is brought about by internal and external factors in all
dimensions of the global economic system. Local and global changes are influenced
by people who are supported by others and become leaders. “Corporations want
individuals who have leadership ability because they believe these individuals
provide special assets to their organization…. Generally, leadership is a highly
sought after and a highly valued commodity” (Northouse, 2004, p.1).
The literature’s approaches for leadership are dominated by studies on traits,
charisma, skills, style, and behavior theories (Northouse, 2004). The role of senior
leadership in higher education is a relatively new field since business and military
leaders received most attention in research studies (Birnbaum, 1988, p.22). In higher
education the leadership phenomenon is more complex than in other organizations.
Faculty and administration both share some control in making decisions with unclear
degree of contribution (Birnbaum, p.22). “Executive leadership is crucial” for
encouraging innovation (Maier & Weidner, 1975, p. 72). The Chancellor at the
University of Wisconsin Green Bay recommended a special task force in order to
experiment innovation and convey his vision. He delivered speeches at the beginning
of each year and special remarks at the annual state of the university. The Chancellor
made informal comments as initial agenda item of each faculty meeting and
7
discussed with faculty members, made informal remarks before community,
professional, family or student groups leading to the clarification of the university’s
mission and change (Maier & Weidner, 1975).
In the United States, some public universities are part of a University State
System with specific multi campus organizational structure. The senior leadership
team at a public university is under the authority of a Board of Trustees. The
systemic organizational structure makes the leadership more complex in terms of
understanding how the chancellor, the president, and other department chairs at the
university level contribute to the decision and implementation of global change such
as a teacher education program for Chinese teachers.
Implementation of global changes in higher education is an emerging field of
study (Spring, 2008). Globalization phenomenon adds more complexity to the
leadership process. Globalization is not a universal concept that can be brought to a
university and incorporated in its original form. Globalization is “nuanced, based on
differences of language, local areas and type of institutions, policies, governance,
and management” (Marginson &Van der Wende, 2007, p. 4).
Vaira (2004) discussed the actors affecting change in higher education as
global, national and local-organizational. “Localization processes are at work” even
for higher education sectors and institutions (p.486). Higher education is shaped by
macro-institutional processes such as agencies as International Monetary Fund,
World Bank, OECD, European Union etc, national policies and economic needs and
8
local responses to those factors mainly determined by national culture and its
demands ( Marginson, 2002; Vaira, 2004).
The literature addressed the cultural factor as having a significant influence in
implementing change (Maier & Weidner, 1975; Leung et al., 2005; Schachter, 2005).
A review of the international business literature reveals that “ there are very few
instances where culture does not matter at all” (Leung et al., 2005, p.12). Culture is
defined as a stable characteristic relative to values, beliefs, norms, behavioral
patterns of a national group of people. The literature found that national culture
influences all major business activities (Leung et al., 2005, p. 357.) Fallon et al.,
(2001) analyzed what factors attract foreign direct investments to a region, and how
some regions become more attractive than others in implementing change. The
authors identified the ability to be flexible in working practices and to commit to
meeting target as characteristics of an attractive region.
Maier and Weidner (1975) described the characteristic of an environment
conducive to innovation in higher education as embedding actions in institution itself
as well as its image at the local and international level. The design of an innovation
and its orientation depends on the administrative focus and faculty committees and
their actions. Universities have a complex governance system. Therefore it is not
easy to gain consensus of all the groups. Recognizing that obtaining consent is an
ideal, the authors stated that the process of implementing innovation may not be the
result of all the stakeholders’ agreement but it may reflect common ideas of the
university community.
9
“A proper environment for innovation goes far beyond internal organization
and processes. It involves the interface of the university with the rest of the society
both at the point of student entry and the point of student leaving or graduation. It
involves student interest, and participation. It involves professional contacts and
recognition of faculty members nationally and internationally. It involves the role
and image of the university itself. And it involves innumerable “prods and carrots”
within the university.” (Maier & Weidner, 1975, p. 72). The authors described
“prods and carrots” as incentives for implementing innovation such as released-time
appointments for faculty members to attend to innovation in teaching, travel funds
available to travel abroad, special guest lectures or special workshop attendance,
favorable consideration for an early promotion.
The study employed Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership to
analyze the leadership construct at a public regional comprehensive university with a
global outlook. The multiple frames theory is a cognitive approach that will guide
the analysis of leadership perspective on globalization in a specific context. Bolman
and Deal’s research studies were conducted at diverse organizations around the
world. The multi frame model is applicable “to any type of domestic and
international organization” (Stadlander, 2007, p.1). The structural, political, human
resource and symbolic frame will be further presented in Chapter 2.
In chapter 2 will be also discussed Armstrong’s (2007) multi-national mode
and its applicability to higher education.
10
Statement of the Problem
Globalization describes changes at the global economic level affecting
production, consumption, and investments. The effects of globalization are mainly
observed in technology, science, and research. These changes affect all actual
institutions such as universities and also the major categories such as state, culture,
and market (Scott, 2000). At the US public university level, changes in response to
globalization are not obvious and clearly understood due to complexity, local
contextual differences, and interpretation (Birnbaum, 1988; Marginson & van der
Wende, 2007; Vaira, 2004).
In the US public university the senior leadership role is invested in the
president of the university whose authority is delegated by the Board of Trustees.
The Board appoints the Chancellor, Vice Chancellors, and the campus presidents
“with certain delegated responsibilities” (“Board of Trustees”, 2008). The means by
which the president of a public university can incorporate changes influenced by
globalization such as an innovative teacher education program for Chinese teachers
is not clearly understood within a multi campus public university system with a fixed
organizational structure. The president’s stated responsibilities do not clearly outline
the process by which his vision can be translated into a real program. Very few
research studies focus on public university leaders acting within a multi campus state
system to promote global programs.
11
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the implementation
process of a global teacher education program at a US comprehensive, regional,
public university within a multi campus university system. The study used a
qualitative case study approach to understand how the senior leadership team at a
public regional university facilitated the implementation of global change. The
leadership components are the chancellor, at the top of the state system, the president
who is endowed with certain responsibilities, the Dean of the Extended Education
University, the Senior Program Advisor, the Program Director and the Program
Manager of the international program. The study used a case study approach to
produce rich descriptive details about a specific context (Merriam, 1998; Patton,
2002).
The research is driven by the following three research questions:
1. How does the vision of the president of a public regional comprehensive
university lead to the implementation of an innovative, global teacher
education program?
2. What system-level and local campus- level factors influenced the
implementation of a global teacher education program?
3. What indicators or benchmark of success were identified by the president,
and program leadership for this innovative, global program?
12
Importance of the Study
The study made a significant contribution to the current local and state
understanding of the conditions, factors, and participants in the implementation of a
distinctive program with a global focus in a regional comprehensive public
university. Policy makers, presidents, and senior leaders in higher education benefit
from a case study of the implementation process. The dissemination of practical
leadership experience in response to globalization contributes to the expansion of
knowledge of stakeholders at the state and local level.
The study helps the specific campus to reflect on its own experience based on
the data that were collected and interpreted. Documentation of a real life experience
is valuable in that it can serve as a springboard for further decision making to
develop other innovative programs and sustainability of the present program.
Knowledge gained from case study is concrete, specific and contextual.
Limitations
The study employed a case study approach to answer the three research
questions mentioned in the previous section. The data were collected from only one
campus, on a determined senior leadership team and one program. The study’s
bounded unit of analysis limits the potential for generalization. Guba and Lincoln
(1982) proposed to substitute generalization with the concept of “fittingness” which
means the degree to which the context we study matches other contexts where we
intend to apply the findings. According to this perspective, the findings of a case
study will not seem to be applicable to other participants, being more applicable to
13
similar contexts. It can be argued that this potential weakness is also strength
because the end product produces rich, detailed, in-depth knowledge with a potential
to holistically understand the specific program.
The case study was limited to the researcher’s sensitivity and interpretation
(Merriam, 1998). As the researcher was the primary instrument of data collection
and interpretation, her biases, expectations and predispositions needed to be
addressed. The researcher committed to subject herself to a purposeful process of
critical reflection and a probing process of finding other sources of information
specifically those whose conclusions or interpretations contradict her own findings.
Another limitation of the study is based on the people’s ability to recall
information over time. The interviews were used to collect data from the president,
program director, program manager, program senior advisor/provost and the dean.
Nevertheless, detailed and rich accounts of people’s recollections have the potential
to make a valuable contribution to the understanding of the case study.
Delimitations
According to Creswell (1994) delimitation refers to the conditions that
narrow the study in scope. The scope of the study is to analyze a bounded
phenomenon which can be described as a campus, a senior leadership team, and a
program. This delimitation provides the opportunity to analyze the program and its
leadership in depth.
14
Assumptions
The study assumed the president, and program director or other participants
with a leading role in the implementation of the program would agree to be
interviewed and would answer honestly. The study assumed the researcher would be
granted access to review relevant internal and formal data which are free of prior
manipulation.
Definitions
Globalization is the process of transnational movement of capital, goods,
services, and ideas creating borderless nations (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard,
2004).
Leadership frames. The “frames are like a mental map, a set of ideas or
assumptions one carries on his head to understand a particular territory”. (Bolman &
Deal, 2003, p.12). The four leadership frames are: structural, political, human
resources, and symbolic.
Leadership effectiveness is the leader’s ability to use a multiple frame of
reference versus a single frame which is associated with less effective leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Change agents are leaders who can “use the ideas to stimulate thinking and
spur imagination as they develop an approach that fits the local circumstances”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 4).
15
Innovation is an adaptation of an idea, or behavior that is new to the
organization. The innovation can be a new product, service, technology, new
administration practice (Hage, 1999, p. 599).
Hub and spoke model describes the traditional cross border industrial model
where corporations exported and imported materials and products. In higher
education the system is similar to the exchange of students and faculty with no
movement of the source institution abroad.
Multi-national model is Armstrong’s frame work of representing the present
stage of global corporate cross-border that it is assumed to be applicable to higher
education too. According to the model, universities engage currently in forms of
educational partnership with foreign universities similar to the strategy for modular
production parts used by corporations.
Twinning describes an agreement between a source university and a foreign
university by which the students receive the first two years of the education at the
foreign university followed by the last two years in their original home campus. The
degree is delivered by the source campus (Armstrong, 2007).
Franchising is a higher level of connectedness between a source and a
foreign university. The foreign university can deliver the whole program with the
home institution retaining control over the content of the program, curriculum,
assessment, and degree delivery (Armstrong, 2007).
16
Internationalization of education is the incorporation of international
contents, materials, activities and understanding into teaching, research and public
service functions of the university (Hensel, Noel, Hillard-Byers & Ingle, 1990, p. 3).
International program for educators is an international program that is
specifically designed for teachers, instructors, or education administrators, with the
purpose of their professional development or obtaining professional information in
education (Rapoport, 2006, p.11).
Organization of the Study
The paper is organized by convention into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides
the reader with a broad understanding of globalization. Chapter 1 also includes the
background and statement of the problem, the purpose and importance of the study,
the research questions, limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and definitions. In
Chapter 2, the reader finds the literature review relevant to the topics of discussion.
The purpose of the review is to synthesize various forms of materials relevant to the
topic of globalization, leadership, higher education, change, international programs,
and teacher education. The researcher justifies the practical and scholarly
contribution of the review to the understanding of the case study. Chapter 3 discusses
the methodology of the study. The methodology describes the sample and population
of study, the instrumentation, data collection design, and data analysis. In Chapter 4,
the findings are presented in connection to the research questions. The final Chapter
5 summarizes the findings and makes remarks and recommendations for further
research and implications are presented.
17
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of the literature review was to select relevant studies to the
themes of globalization, leadership in higher education, change and teacher
education. The selection of literature was driven by its relevance to higher education.
The quality of the literature reviewed was assessed by using as guide some of the
scoring rubric of Boote and Beile (2005). The rubric directs the researcher to select
literature which meets some of the five criteria: coverage, synthesis, methodology,
significance and rhetoric. The content in was synthesized from a generic to a more
specific topic which is relevant to the research questions.
The first part of the chapter discussed Armstrong’s (2007) theoretical
framework of globalization and how it is related to internationalization and higher
education. (Scott, 2000; Spring, 2008).
The second part of chapter 2 discussed the theme of leadership and higher
education. The presentation is led by introducing Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four
leadership frames of analysis with a focus on presidents at the university level. The
third part of chapter 2 presented the historical context relevant to a public US
university. This section included literature review on a general organizational
program in California education, the California Master Plan and The Higher
Education Act, analyzing the historical state and local factors influencing their
implementation. The final part in chapter 2 discussed studies related to the specific
topic of international teacher education programs at public US universities.
18
Armstrong’s Theoretical Framework and Globalization in Higher Education
Lloyd Armstrong, a former Provost at the University of Southern California,
published an essay paper on globalization under the title Competing in the Global
Higher Education Marketplace (2007). According to Armstrong, higher education
has not changed at the same pace as the global economy in the last decades.
Armstrong’s paper described the global economy as a modular cycle where different
parts of the manufacturing process are distributed to foreign locations. This new
modular system changed the industry dramatically. Assuming that institutions of
higher education viewed as service providers must follow the same changes as the
global economy, Armstrong claimed that the US’s system of higher education lags
behind.
Armstrong posited that the global economy reached an advanced phase of
development in which industrial companies cross borders and establish centers of
production able to manufacture different parts of the product cycle outside their
national borders. This actual stage of the global economy is called the “multi-
national mode” (Armstrong, 2007, p.2). The multi-national mode of the current
global economy is different than the traditional “hub-and-spoke” international
activity. Companies seek raw materials, labor, and favorable policy environments
outside their national borders in order to gain revenues. Under the new advanced
globalization phenomena, companies send abroad parts or even the entire
manufacturing process to a foreign location that can provide the needed modules
with the desired price and quality.
19
Armstrong identified similar practices in higher education which resonate
with the modularization of the business process. Research funded by government in
the field of physics is one example at US universities. There are also new kinds of
partnerships that US universities have established with foreign institutions. One
example is twinning, an agreement in which the first two years of undergraduate
education are offered by a foreign partner and the last two years are completed at the
US institution.
A higher level of modularization is franchising. A US university allows a
foreign partner institution to deliver its program and the US institution maintains the
control of the curriculum, assessment, and degree- granting.
According to Armstrong (2007) there are two specific conditions enabling
US public universities to adopt changes in response to globalization. One condition
is the funding of the public educational system. Since the US public university is
mostly funded by the local and state governments, the present political and economic
context of higher education is changed. State support per student, has been
decreasing both locally and nationally, and public universities must find other
sources of revenue. The second factor influencing the US higher education change is
the legislative system. Several legislative bills have limited the university’s ability to
increase tuition. Armstrong (2007) implies that those two new difficulties may
function as incentives for the US public universities to implement corporate like
modular mode and generate their revenue.
20
Armstrong’s (2007) multi-national theoretical frame was employed to
investigate how a public university, within a state public university system,
developed and implemented an international program in response to globalization.
The first material reviewed that defined globalization in higher education is
Globalization Culture and Education in the New Millennium, by Orozco-Suarez and
Qin Hilliard (2004). The material was chosen for discussion based on its multitudes
of perspectives defining the complex phenomena of globalization. The book is a
collection of essays from well known scholars with established reputation in their
field of expertise. The authors, Orozco-Suarez and Qin-Hilliard (2004), found most
of the definitions too broad and lacking well-defined boundaries and cited that
globalization is sometimes considered to be synonymous with free markets by some,
while others use the term interchangeably with transnationalism or post nationalism,
a proxy for imperialism or neocolonialism or for Americanization, “development” or
“world system theory” (p.9).
Anthropologists such as Watson studied globalization in relation to
transnationalism, cultural hybrids, mass media, immigration and cultural conflicts
Their interpretation of globalization involved expansion of the American
corporations beyond US borders and the creation of a “Coca-colonization” or
McDonalization” as a consequence of the need for finding new consumers and
revenues (Orozco-Suarez, 2004).
Economists interpreted and defined globalization as free trade, financial
markets, and transnational capital flow (Bhagwati, 2002; Burtless, Lawrence, Litan,
21
and Shapiro, 1998; Feldstein 2002; Stiglitz, 2002; and Rodrik, 1997; as cited in
Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004, p.10). There are similarities between the
economic perspective and Armstrong’s framework of globalization in terms of
movement of services, crossing borders, expanding beyond the national borders in
search of consumers and revenues. However there is a group of economists that
signal the significance of local factors in analyzing the globalization.
Dani Rodrik (2002), a Harvard economist, argued that free markets are not
“enough” and that local factors may be more important in implementing global
change. He believed that neither geography nor trade can generate successful
economies over time but rather “institutions that generate market-oriented incentives,
protect property rights and enable stability” (as cited in Suarez-Orozco & Qin-
Hilliard, 2004, p. 29). It may be inferred from Rodrik’s perspective that local
institutional factors such as policies, regulations, cultural characteristics, and local
leaders are crucial in promoting changes influenced by globalization. Vaira (2004)
wrote that globalization as “a process of deep institutional change” (p. 485)
influences changes at three levels in higher education: global, national and local,
making the local to adapt or to interpret to the global according to its national and
cultural demands and needs. Local interpretation of the global pressure for change is
mentioned also as a factor in shaping globalization by Marginson (2002).
James Watson, a Harvard social anthropologist studied globalization and its
consequences on Asian societies for cultural practices and changing youth practices.
In studying different aspects influenced by globalization such as clothing, food,
22
music, internet technology, sports, and television Watson posited that local factors
act as mediators between globalization and the local culture by creating local
meaning to events or experiences coming from the outside. Watson exemplifies the
film Titanic being very popular in China in 1997 because the viewers associated the
tragedy of the film with their experience during the Chinese cultural revolution (as
cited in Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004).
Unifying the different perspectives on globalization, most scholars perceived
these phenomena “as a set of processes that tend to de-territorialize important
economic, social, and cultural practices from their traditional boundaries in nation-
states” (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004, p. 14). Globalization produces changes
that are shaped by four factors:(1) Post national forms of production and distribution
of goods and services; (2) information and media technology; (3) increasing
worldwide migration; and (4) cultural transformations and exchanges in both sending
and receiving countries. (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004, p.14). It is foreseen
under the current globalization trend that this situation is going to become obsolete.
The most prevalent characteristics the research found in defining
globalization are movement and change. Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist
and scholar in education, examined how education changed over time. Education
changed from religious to secular and also due to more complex factors such as
globalization. Traditionally schools are tied to local systems. They have the mission
to educate the local workforce with little concern for global forces. Gardner foresaw
that globalization was going to challenge education. This challenge consists of the
23
“tensions between the glacial pace of institutional change in ministries of education
and schools and the rapid social, economic, and cultural transformations taking place
around them” (cited in Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004,[Electronic version],p.
23). The idea of school changing at a slower pace then the economy resonates with
Armstrong’s perspective on globalization as well. Armstrong (2007) stated in his
essay paper that US universities are lagging behind the corporate changes he
described in his multi-national model. Armstrong believed that the slow pace of
change in the educational system acts as a barrier to implementing innovations
needed in response to globalization. Gardner makes recommendations for the
precollegiate level of education to incorporate content aimed to provide students with
skills for a global economy such as: “(1) understanding the global system; (2)
thinking analytically and creatively within the disciplines; (3) tackling problems of
interdisciplinary nature; (4) acquiring knowledge of other cultures and traditions
which should be both an end in itself, and a means of interacting civilly and
productively with individuals from different cultural backgrounds both within one’ s
own society and across the planet; (5) having knowledge and respect for one’s own
cultural traditions; (6) fostering hybrid or blended identities; (7) fostering tolerance
and appreciation across racial, linguistic, national, and cultural boundaries” (cited in
Suarez-Orozco & Quin-Hilliard,2004 p. 24) .Although Gardner’s recommendations
are meant to be applied at the precollegiate level in order to help students develop the
abilities, skills, and knowledge necessary in a global economy, all of these
recommendations can be adopted in higher education as well.
24
Suarez-Orozco and Qin-Hilliard’s’ (2004) volume on globalization brought
together a broad collection of views and perspectives on defining this phenomenon
from an economic, political, cultural or technological perspective. However, there
are other views in the literature defining globalization in relation to
internationalization.
Scott’s (2000) article Globalization and Higher Education identified the
differences and similarities between two concepts - internationalization and
globalization – which are used interchangeably in the literature. He discussed the
future of the university system in the era of fundamental societal and global change.
Scott (2000) wrote that movement is the common attribute that characterizes both
concepts. The difference between the two concepts upon the movement criteria
consist mostly on scale then essence. Internationalization entails diplomacy,
exchanges, international agencies, existence of the great powers, while globalization
depicts the era of the internet, mass tourism and global popular cultures. Scott (2000)
compared internationalization and globalization based on order, relationship and
ability to change. Scott’s assessment based on these criteria is that the two concepts
are opposing phenomena. Scott posited that during internationalization the higher
education is characterized by recruitment of students, exchanges of staff, partnership
between universities in different countries all of those activities being dominated by
strategic relationship.
Globalization depicts a more unstable world with also increased collaboration
between different block powers and a dynamic, changeable outlook, compared to the
25
static and stable concept of internationalization. Scott’s analysis concluded that
globalization can not be regarded as a higher form of internationalization. For our
purpose of analyzing higher education, the article presented the perspective that
recruitment of students from other countries, exchanges of students and staff,
partnership between universities are practices that have been identified in the past, as
a movement criteria, they would intensify during globalization era and would be
more dynamic.
Spring (2008) defined the new field of globalization and higher education, as
a field in making which is different from the traditional field of comparative
educational. Spring believed that a wide variety of disciplines tend to be
interdisciplinary with its own developing academic language. Spring foresaw
researchers in the field of globalization and education being the future specialists
who are educated in the doctoral programs devoted to these topics. Historically,
according to Spring (2008) the term globalization originated in 1980s, being related
to global economics. The term was later applied to other contexts including
education. Spring’s definition of globalization involves the “study of worldwide
discourses, processes, and institutions affecting local educational practices and
policies” (Spring, 2008, p.330). Spring wrote that the field of globalization is new,
an idea that resonates also with Armstrong (2007). Spring (2008) indicated that
higher education in the context of globalization is perceived through at least four
theoretical perspectives: world culture, systems, postcolonial and culturalist. These
factors are important in understanding the future of higher education and
26
globalization. Spring’s (2008) article was important for practitioners by strongly
articulating the need for more research in higher education and globalization.
Although Spring (2008) mentioned world wide discourses, processes and institutions
affecting local educational practices and policies, it does not lead to a representation
of how globalization affects local US universities. By contrast, Armstrong’s (2007)
definition of globalization in higher education is explicit, with a clear description of
its potential forms similar to the corporate modularization. Armstrong (2007) offered
a framework that can explain how a US university can develop partnerships across
border and how it integrates globalization into its programs.
The Leadership in Higher Education
Bolman and Deal (2003) consolidated major schools of thought into four
perspectives which they chose to label as “frames” using the same term as Goffman
(1974). The four leadership frames are: structural, human resource, symbolic, and
political. A frame is a “set of ideas or assumptions” that helps the leader to
understand and draw meanings in a given context (p.12). Frames can be modified
along the way but they give us a starting point to learn a concept, articulate
expectations, communicate a vision so others can learn to shift perspective when
needed. The four frames have been drawn from social sciences, sociology,
psychology, political science, anthropology, and mentorship of managers and
organizational practice. The authors used social science research to identify ideas
that work in practice. McDonald in India, Citibank, NASA, Harvard and US
Congress are examples of organizations analyzed by using the four leadership frames
27
(Stadtlander, 2007).The compilation of their work led to the formation of the four
frames which are actually used by academics and practitioners to better understand
their organizations. The frames are applicable to any kind of organization, including
higher education in US and abroad.
The functions of the four frames are to assist the initiation of the process of
understanding the issue and to provide tools for solving and accomplishing the task.
The structural orientation describes a leader who focuses on structure,
schedules, design of the units, subunits, conformity to rules, goals, roles, adherence
to accepted standards, orders, policies, technology, and environment that shape the
decision process and activities. The leader with a structural perspective is concerned
with how to use the technology, facilities, and environment. As a metaphor, this is
the “factory or machine”.
The human resource orientation or the “family like metaphor” describes a
leader who focuses on understanding people, their strengths, needs, skills, motifs,
desires, fears, and relationships. The leader works to align organizational and human
needs, problems and issues in interpersonal term, build teams, collaboration and
encouraging an open communication.
The political frame (metaphor: “the jungle”) describes how the leader can
meet the challenges of competing interests, resolve conflict among groups and
organizational and external politics, deal with power and build networks of
relationships. A leader with a political orientation develops an agenda conducive to
28
creating alliances and bringing in support for his vision, projects, programs, and
activities.
The symbolic frame (metaphors: “carnival, theater or temple”) relates to
issues of faith and meaning. It places rituals, ceremonies, events, stories, heroes and
traditions at the heart of the organizational style. A leader with a symbolic
orientation inspires people to develop pride in the organization and its development,
becomes a symbol of the organization itself and built cultural spirit.
A considerable body of studies identified that leaders who have a holistic
perspective about people, power, structure, and symbols are effective agents of
change in their organizations. Bensimon (1989) defined a frame as “a distinctive
cognitive lens that helps the managers of an organization or the president of a college
determine what is important and what can be safely ignored” (p.108). The frames
also enlighten the leader at to what questions to ask, what information to collect, how
problems are defined, and what courses of action should be taken. Bensimon
concluded that frames influence what leaders see and do (p.108). Bensimon (1989)
studied the presidents’ leadership styles by applying Bolman and Deal’s four frames
of leadership.
A longitudinal study of transformational change by Daniel Duke (2008), The
Little School System That Could, reported on the transformation of a school system,
Manassas Park City School (MPCS) over a period of ten years. MPCS was a low
performing school district, less desirable to work for that benefited from a new
superintendent and new changes within ten years.
29
The study employed Bolman and Deal’s (1993) four frames of leadership to
analyze the transformational systemic process of change at MPCS. The research
posed two questions: 1) what happened in the school during 1995 to 2005 that might
account for a transformational change? and 2) how changes were accomplished? The
data were collected from interviews with individuals who were in schools between
1995 to 2005. The superintendent, a school board chair, central office personnel, city
officials, school administrators and consulting architects were interviewed. The
participants were asked to make comments on structure, operations, funding,
personnel and programs, and also to discuss changes in organizational culture, school
commitments and relationships.
The second source of data were documents such as school board minutes,
newspaper articles, school improvement plans, accreditation reports, finance records,
documents produced by the central office and an dissertation on the early history of
the school system was also reviewed. Other documents such as planning senior
administrative retreats and schools design workshops and professional developments
were also analyzed.
The organizational historians employed a critical incident strategic approach
to discuss change over time which means selecting also specific particular events to
analyze. The data were collected and compared from various sources using the
process of triangulation in order to craft the narrative explaining the transformational
systemic change. Duke’s (2008) research on transformational systemic change leaves
us with at least four lessons out of eight that can be applied to a study that has a
30
focus on global change: “1) School system change benefits from local adaptation; 2)
Change needs a broad based community support; 3) Transformation starts at the top;
4) Transforming a school system can transform a community “(p.143-157). The first
lesson from MPSC was illustrated by the practice of asking teachers and people in
school about implementing reforms to local circumstances and involving all the
constituents to participate in the decision making. Teachers, parents and students
were part of the prior and post reform implementation process.
The second lesson, the necessity of based broad community support is
evidence of a political perspective of building partnership with the taxpayers and
giving to the community members the opportunity to become “actors” in the change
process (p.153). The superintendent and his senior leadership team adopted an
attitude that community was regarded more than a context for change. Faculty and
students found ways to give back to the Manassas Park by charity and public service.
The third lesson, transformation starts at the top raises the question what
qualities of leadership and what actions made the systemic transformational change
possible. Duke (2008) emphasizes the superintendent’s visionary ability as one his
qualities to promote change, which made him to “keep an eye on the horizon and the
other eye on the ground” (p. 155). Paraphrasing Duke’s description, we may infer
that a leader must think globally, but act locally as a learned lesson from this study.
Finally, lesson four, transforming a school system can transform a
community indicates that there is a reciprocal influence between the school and the
community. A school or a university influences the economy of the city, region and
31
state and also the community affects the development of the university by its
commitment and support. Creating partnerships with businesses, volunteering in the
community, building new facilities, are all examples on how education and
structural, economical and political context are interconnected.
The literature review addressed further a more specific leadership topic on
higher education by discussing presidents’ characteristics and leadership styles.
Bensimon (1989) using the theoretical frame of Bolman and Deal (1984) explored in
her study the extent to which college and university presidents incorporated single
and multiple frames in their construct of good leadership. The study explored
academic and governance patterns in higher educations by using the structural or
bureaucratic frame, human resource or collegial frame, symbolic, and political
perspectives. Bensimon (1989) wrote that frames reflect how institutions function in
some ways, at some times, in some parts of all colleges and universities. In the
study, the researcher interviewed 32 college and university presidents who
participated in the Institutional Leadership project (ILP), a five year long study
conducted by the National Center for Postsecondary Governance and Finance. Data
were interpreted from the total transcripts and the presidents’ responses when asked
for their definitions of good presidential leadership. Bensimon (1989) found that
presidents employed mostly a single or paired-frame orientation rather than a multi-
frame view. A four-frame orientation is not very common and few individuals may
have the flexibility to employ it. The study found that community college presidents
were more likely to have a single-frame orientation than presidents of universities.
32
Community college presidents may view the system as “closed with little
flexibility because the decision making is more centralized and presidents have more
control over transactions than the faculty with external influence” (Bensimon, 1989
p.119). In terms of their years in office, results from this study stressed that new
presidents (1-3 years) in office tend to operate with a single frame orientation. A
multi-frame orientation has been assessed in presidents that have more than five
years of experience or new incoming presidents with previous records of leadership
at other colleges. The study made it possible to infer that based on their experience,
knowing their roles and responsibilities, the veteran presidents are more likely to
employ multi-frames. Bartunek, Gordon and Weathersby’s study (1983) supported
the intuitive expectation that more experienced leaders are able to handle more
complex tasks (as cited in Bensimon, 1989). Another study done by Tetlock (1983)
found that even the rhetoric of national presidential candidates and their policy
statements became more elaborated after being in office than before being elected (as
cited in Bensimon,1989).
The next article discussed how college presidents and other leaders differ in
their conceptions and personal theories about their role and organizational life
(Neumann & Bensimon, 1990). The sample of 32 presidents was used to explore
how presidents made sense, interpreted what they did, and how they considered their
personal theories the ”tacit knowing” (p.679) and assumptions they brought to the
leadership process. The study intended to discover how the presidents set goals,
construct agendas, communicate and interact, transmit values, and evaluate their
33
effectiveness. The purposefully selected sample included presidents from institutions
of higher education in the US representing 8 universities public and private;
Carnegie category, research/doctoral granting; 8 state colleges and 8 community
colleges differing in superstructure (system/non system) and governance
(bargaining/non bargaining) and 8 independent colleges divided by programs (liberal
arts/ comprehensive) and sponsorship (religious/non religious). The sample was
diverse in its location (nationally distributed), size, and setting (rural, urban and
suburban). The sample included four new presidents with less than three years in
office and four veteran presidents with more than five years in office within each
category. Minority and women presidents were overrepresented. Data were
collected between1986-1987 by three-day visits to each participating campus.
Presidents were interviewed for three hours and other participants for sixty nine
minutes each. Based on the data collected, Neumann and Bensimon (1990) created a
four type classification of presidents based on their target attention, mode of action
and relatedness to institution.
The four types of presidents: A, B, C and D have been linked also to
institutions with different degrees of financial stability. The type A and B reflect
relatively untroubled institutions in terms of finance and faculty morale. Type A
presidents direct their attention to the external world, want to make a contribution to
the state, country, humanity in general, to the economy, visualize their institution as
a participant in an increasingly interdependent world. (p.686). Type A president acts
as the “ambassador to the outside world”. As a mode of action, a type A president is
34
“the initiator, is a risk-taker rather than a maintainer, thinks more about the future
than the present”. A type B president leads also a stable institution, is internally
oriented, and sees himself as a “cheerleader”, “coach” or “mentor” (p.687).
Type A and B presidents take clear initiative. Type C and D presidents are
more likely related with organization with financial trouble or experienced it. Their
mode of action is more reactive than initiating and they are more distant in their
relationship with their institutions. This study was important because it revealed how
presidents who visualize their roles in different ways influence the context and also
the context might influence the leaders’ ability to perform. The study was applicable
to the data analysis of the interviews by interpreting the leader’s role and his or her
action orientation based on the four types of patterns described in the study.
The last article in this section examined university presidents’ strategic style
(Neumann & Neumann, 2000). The study was conducted in 1989 and included a
sample of 350 institutions and 279 presidents of private liberal arts colleges
participated. The study used a questionnaire to answer questions related to their
cognitive style to actual management practices with an emphasis on presidents’
strategic leadership style. Visioning, focusing and implementing are the three
transformational abilities found to be associated with a leader who sees the
organization’s future, can move the organization to adopt the new vision and carry
out the various goals and plans (p.1). The study used an instrument to assess each
skill by using a group of four items. A five-point scale measured each item ranging
from 1 (very low) to 5 (very strong). The study concluded that presidents without
35
either visioning or focusing abilities may lead their institutions through non-
productive paths, although implementing skills may mitigate the final outcome (p.4).
The study was applicable to the data analysis of the case study by identifying
leader’s ability to vision, focus and implement global changes into the university.
Heimovics et al., (1993) applied Bolman’s and Deal’s (1991) version of the
four leadership frame to analyzing effective leadership within a nonprofit
organization. The authors developed a list of observable behaviors related to the four
leadership frames.
Observable behaviors related to a structural frame orientation are
reorganizing internal staff functions, developing planning process, emphasizing
objectives, goals, and/or mission. A leader with a human resource perspective may
display skills on participation and involvement, listening, helping, engaging others in
participation, emphasizing upon collaboration, consensus and team building, quality
of work life effort.
Political observable behaviors according to Heimovics et al., (1993) are the
ability to negotiate, built alliances and networking with key players in the
environment, dealing with disputes about the allocation of resources. Working on a
vision, agency identity, influencing the culture of the institution, using self as a
symbol, discussion of symbolic importance of practices, rituals, or artifacts are
examples of an effective leaders’ observable actions with a symbolic perspective
(Heimovics, et al., 1993, p.422)
36
First part of Chapter 2 reviewed literature on globalization, its definition from
multiple perspectives and Armstrong’s (2007) multi national framework. The second
part discussed studies on leadership and Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of
leadership. The last part of literature review presented the organizational context of
education in California by discussing California Master Plan, the Donahoe Higher
Education Act and California State University System (CSU) as an example of a US
public university multi campus system.
The Organizational Context of Education in California
California Master Plan (Donahoe Higher Education Act 1960)
Douglass (2000) in his book The California Idea and American Higher
Education, 1850-1960 Master Plan, analyzed the most comprehensive US higher
educational initiative, its factors and personalities. Historically, after 1930, all the
states in the United Stated struggled with economic, social and educational issues;
but it was California which initiated a plan with profound educational implications
for the state and national higher education. California initiative can be traced back to
the time of the Progressive Era. Between 1900 and 1920, a group of intellectuals
initiated a reform movement that promised to build a “modern” and efficient system
of education as a significant mechanism of change of the California society, called
the Progressives (Douglass, 2000, p.81). Inspired by the Progressives, the
policymakers developed a tiered organizational structure which included a
geographic network of colleges and universities and a multi campus state university.
37
The educational change in California was informed by two major reports.
During 1930-1940 two reports on education revealed the problems and challenges of
California’s entire public education. One report focused on elementary school to
junior college and was directed by George Strayer, Professor emeritus of education
at Teachers College, Columbia University, assisted by faculty at Stanford and the
University of California. The report addressed the state reform on financing the
public education and the creation of school districts. The report proposed the
reorganization of the State Department of Education and to appoint the State
Superintendent of Public Instruction and to elect the State Board of Education. The
tax reform bills in the mid 1930s shifted the financing from state to local
government. The state aid was not discontinued but it was no longer a major source
of school financing. The school financing as being linked to the local property taxes,
declined in property values during the Great Depression (1920-1930), coupled with
the increase in school age population, and led to discrepancies in the quality of
schools between communities.
As a consequence of Strayer’s Report, California legislation introduced to
voters the Finance Equalization Law of 1945 which increased the state finding for
local schools. Three forms of aid have been introduced: basic aid; equalization aid
for those districts where property values declined bellow a prescribed amount and a
different allocation for districts with higher levels of property values. State provided
nearly half of the school financing. Despite the three financing forms, the Strayer’s
38
Report acknowledged that the discrepancies still remained among the school
districts.
The second report studied the future development of the California higher
education system and was sponsored by the Postwar Planning Commission. Walter
Crosby Eells, a Stanford Professor addressed the future of the state’s junior colleges
(Douglass, 2000). To assess the need for higher education in California a new survey
committee was created under Strayer’s coordination. John Aubrey Douglass, the
same name as the author of the book, became one of the three members: Strayer,
Douglass and Monroe E. Deutsch (Douglass, 2000). The Strayer’s Report: “A
Survey of the Needs of California in Higher Education” was accomplished from May
to December, 1947. The study analyzed the functions of the three segments of the
public education, future enrollment growth, the need for new progress and new
locations. The program was recognized for its innovative vision throughout the
nation and the world. In May 2008, when the researcher joined a USC international
study tour to China, she learned that Chinese researchers currently study the
California Master Plan in search for solutions to their actual educational needs
brought by globalization.
Based on Strayer’s Report, the regents and the State Board of Education
approved the recommendations to expand educational opportunities particularly at
the junior and state college levels (Douglass, 2000). The report recommended the
expansion of the higher education institutions and programs throughout the state at
minimal cost to students and families. Douglass (2000) wrote that about fifty percent
39
of higher school graduates were denied the opportunity for higher education due to
lack of regional institutions. Douglass justified that many families could not afford to
send their children to institutions which were far away from their homes. To increase
the accessibility to higher education in California two factors were mentioned:
opening of regional universities and tuition free institutions. Positive consequences
for expansion of higher education in California included improvement of
socioeconomic mobility and higher quality of the labor pools .The 1948 Strayer’s
Report articulated the purpose and responsibilities of the three higher education
segments. The report is the basis for the 1960 Master Plan adopted 12 years later.
The three segments of the higher education are: the junior colleges, the state
colleges and the University of California (Douglass, 2000).The junior colleges had
the function to provide terminal education, general education and orientation and
guidance to students. The “terminal” education refers to vocational education for
California residents 18 to 21 years old. The “general” education function refers to
preparing students to function “effectively as a member of the family, a community,
a state, a nation, and a world” (Douglass, 2000, p.187). The most important function
of the junior colleges identified in the report is the “matriculation” function. The
matriculation function referred to the fact that junior colleges served as a feeder for
transfer to four year university, to a state, college or a private institution.
The Strayer’s Report mentioned that the second segment, the state colleges
should offer more than teacher education, including a “wide variety of curricula”
leading to bachelor’s degree and master’s degree in selective fields (Douglass,
40
2000,p.187). The two main authors of the report, Strayer and Douglass aimed to gain
the official recognition of state colleges as regional institutions. This intent “was not
clearly mandated in statute” (Douglass, 2000 p. 187).
The University of California, the third component of the California Higher
Education was assigned the function to “train the profession, for graduate work at the
doctoral level, research and scholarly endeavor for the highest type” (Douglass, 2000
p.189). The rule aimed to limit the dissipation of expenditures among more
institutions in granting terminal degrees. The report explained that limitation of
expenses justified the granting of doctoral degree by only one type of institutions in
California, the California University.
The California University enjoyed legislative autonomy based on the 1879
California Constitution granting it considerable independence from “fluctuating and
political influences of current legislative direction” according to Strayer’s Report
p.39-40, (as cited in Douglass, 2000). The report identified three historical factors
influencing the California University’s success:
• California Constitution’s provision allowing its self-management
• State government’s financial support
• Following Progressive Era, reforms extended to a multi campus
institution
Despite the successes and the praises gained by the California State
University, some frustrations are to be mentioned. Administrators and faculty tried
over time to obtain authority to open doctoral degree programs as the University of
41
California does. This aspiration is not yet fully implemented in 2000s.
Administrators and faculty asked also for the same level of authority for the CSU’s
new Board of Trustee that the regents of the University of California enjoyed
(Douglass, 2000, p. 322). Another reason of discontent was the funding system
between the segments. The University of California received blocks of money for
operating costs and autonomy in using it. The California State university gained
money only for “specific programs and faculty, with limited flexibility to change
priorities although the funding process is less restrictive today than in the past”
(Douglass, 2000, p. 323). Strayer and Douglass posited that “most state-funded
universities were condemned to perpetual mediocrity because of the influence and
controls of state government” (p.189).
The strengths of the California State University consist in its articulation
segments. The junior colleges function as feeders for the universities. The Strayer’s
Report explained that the state universities are required to admit all high school
graduates and in doing so its energy and focus is different than the University of
California.
The current situation of the California Master Plan is affected by:
• Decline in funding of the California State university and University of
California
• Increase of tuition and fees breaking the institutional promise for no
tuition policy
• Global financing crisis and state drastic budgetary deficits
42
The 1960 Master Plan is a framework for increasing the opportunity and
accessibility to higher education in California. It received national and international
praise for its innovation. The National Research Council and other agencies
recognized University of California campuses such as Berkley, UCLA and San
Diego among the top institutions in the nation (Douglass, 2000). A 1997 analysis by
Hugh Davis Graham and Nancy Diamond praised the high quality in research of
seven out of eight University of California which ranked in the top twenty among
public research universities. The California State University enjoyed recognition for
the quality of its faculty. As a tool state wide planning the Master Plan’s success is
due mainly to its connectedness rather than to its individual segments’ achievement.
The California Master Plan is also criticized for its inflexibility. “The Master Plan
also restricted creative initiatives and the ability of California State University
campuses to develop new programs and evolve” (Douglass, 2000, p.321).
The 1960 California Master Plan for higher education was renamed by
Senator George Miller the “Donahoe Higher Education Act” in honor of Dorothy
Donahoe, a Californian Assembly Woman who was the Chair of the Assembly
Committee on Education since 1958 and who died unexpectedly just days before her
committee to approve the Master Plan. George Miller and Dorothy Donahoe worked
together to have the bill pass. The Governor Edmund G. Brown signed the Donahoe
Act on April 14, 1960-1975, Senate Bill no. 33, 1960 (Douglass, 2000 p. 308-310).
The California Master Plan was structured into three documents:
Coordination; CSU Board of Trustee and Differentiation of missions. The
43
Constitutional Amendment created the California State University Board of Trustees
segment. It removed in 1961 governance of the California State Colleges from the
authority of the State Board of Education and assigned it under the new California
State College Board of Trustee. In 1972 California State Colleges was renamed
California State University and Colleges (CSUC). In 1982, the CSUC was renamed
the California State University system. The Statutory bill set the differentiation of
mission segment assigning types of degrees each institution grants.
The University of California grants Bachelor of Arts Degrees (BA); Master’s
of Art Degrees (MA); and professional degrees: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD); their
primary mission is to do research and public service function; their minor
responsibility is for teacher education. The California State University grants
Bachelor of Arts degree (BA); Master’s of Arts Degrees (MA); their primary
function is for teacher credential and their minor function is research and public
service; CSU started to offer doctoral degrees in 2005 as per Senate Bill 724.
Community Colleges grant Associate in Arts degrees (AA) offer two year
academic degrees as preparation for transfer to the UC and CSU, vocational and
adult education. (Douglass, 2000, p. 309).
The admission guidelines and California commitment to non tuition policy
for California residents was “never officially sanctioned by law” (Douglass, p. 308).
In 2005 at September 22, a change has been approved to the differentiation of
mission. For the first time the state universities may offer Doctor of Education
44
degrees (Ed. D) focusing on preparing administrative leaders as per the provisions of
Senate Bill 724 (2005).
The historical context of the higher education in California adds to our
understanding about the segmentation of higher and its differentiation of mission.
The next section discussed the California State University system as an example of a
US public university system.
The more recent legislation, SB 724 allows 14 of the state campuses to grant
Ed.D. degrees (the Doctor of Education) or education doctorate degree, and also to
offer Ph.D. degrees as a “joint degree” in partnership with other higher education
institutions including UC and accredited private universities. Some of the CSU
system 23 campuses are impacted. An impacted campus is one which has more
qualified students than its capacity permits. CSU Long Beach, San Diego State
University and Cal Poly are considered impacted for freshmen and transfer students
as of 2006. Other campuses such as CSU Fullerton, Cal Poly Pomona and Sonoma
are impacted for freshmen. These campuses have also higher admission standards
than the campuses which are not impacted. The CSU system is a member of the
National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges (NASULGC).
The average resident, undergraduate student fees to apply, enroll and attend the CSU
in 2007/2008 was $3,521.The cost may very depending on student’s enrollment
status, part time or full time, resident or non resident, the program or the campus.
(Kara Perkins, 01/14/2008).
45

Table 1: CSU 23 Campuses, Date of Foundation, Enrollment and Budget 2006-2007

Campus
Date of
foundation
Enrollment
2006-2007
Budget
2006-2007
Budget
2009
San Jose State 1857 31,906 247,292,042 278,532,822
Chico State 1887 17,034 163,699,267 174,723,742
San Diego State 1897 36,559 313,860,901 346,089,746
San Francisco State 1899 30,125 248,490,280 284,408,449
Cal Poly 1901 19,777 198,041,319 231,510,428
Fresno State 1911 22,383 199,868,440 227,134,512
Humbold State University 1913 7,773 95,417,349 102,694,440
Cal Maritime 1929 858 18,928,425 23,462,281
Cal Poly Pomona 1938 21,477 198,917,543 218,631,192
Cal State LA 1947 21,051 185,469,589 208,808,149
Sacramento State 1947 28,829 230,802,377 255,253,497
Long Beach State 1949 36,868 300,837,800 332,541,758
Cal Sate East Bay 1957 13,124 131,724,259 143,509,621
Cal State Fullerton 1957 37,130 261,349,127 305,502,337
Cal State Northridge 1957 35,446 275,687,073 312,868,936
Cal State Stanislaus 1957 8,836 81,052,209 92,062,857
Cal State Dominguez Hills 1960 12,082 105,947,348 109,164,143
Sonoma State 1960 8,770 81,076,854 91,922,273
Cal State San Bernardino 1965 17,066 147,737,249 165,955,088
CSU Bakersfield 1965 7,700 77,360,795 86,625,052
Cal State San Marcos 1988 9,159 79,882,615 96,334,822
CSU Monterey Bay 1994 4,080 60,577,008 65,481,703
Cal State Channel Islands 2002 3,599 41,477,343 53,184,603
Source: (“CSU History,” 2009 ; “CSU Facts”, 2009).
46
After the presentation of the organizational context of education, the next
section of Chapter 2 reviewed literature on international education and international
teacher education programs.
Experience with Foreign Programs
Svenson and Coleman (1984) described in their article Experience with
Foreign Programs how UCLA developed a system to monitor and control the
interinstitutional linkages after the legislation introduced in 1963. The Board of
Trustee in 1963, after the Master Plan has been introduced, established International
Programs as a statewide academic unit to offer students, study-abroad opportunities
at distinguished universities throughout the world. As a major university with
research being its primary mission, UCLA launched an active initiative to promote
interinstitutional relationships determined by the consideration to seek: “What will
enrich and enhance the academic and scientific mission of UCLA, scholars, and,
correlatively, advance as well the universal search for knowledge and truth
irrespective of national boundaries?” (Svenson &Coleman, 1984, p.57). The
rationale for developing initiatives with foreign universities is based on the
university’s mission to search for opportunities and arrangements for its scholars can
gain access to data and to seek systematic comparison on environment and human
conditions.
There are two main conditions to create a successful international partnership
between a domestic and foreign university according to Svenson and Coleman
47
(1984). The program has to be anchored in the faculty’s and students’ interest and
supported by the faculty.
Without the faculty and the graduates engagement and commitment there is
no sustainability of the interinstitutions relationships. In 1965, the UCLA Chancellor
created a standing Committee (later named a Council) on International and
Comparative Studies. The Chancellor served as a chair for two year. The
membership was formed by representatives of all the interests in the university. The
CICS had the following functions:
• Provide advice to the Chancellor regarding specific overseas proposals
• Veto and amendatory power on the proposed initiatives
• Advice and assist internal units in writing new proposals
• Analyze on its determination for approval “what’s in it for us” in terms of
what demonstrable faculty and graduate interest, competence and
commitment can be benefited, and find the potential academic pay-off of
a specific proposal
The CICS approved each individual proposal based on its strengths to:
• Based on the interests and competence of a cluster of faculty and
graduates whose professional, scientific and academic work will be
enhanced
• If the program conforms with all the university criteria governing the
overseas commitment
48
• If throughout its life it continues to be a productive and mutually
beneficial relationship (Svenson & Coleman, 1984, p.67). The article
mentions also how UCLA measured the effectiveness of an international
program, based on indicators such as:
• Access gained by faculty and graduate students
• Enrichment of knowledge base on foreign areas in which UCLA conducts
research
• Outreach programs
• Overall enrichment of the international dimension of UCLA’s academic
mission
A particular instrumental factor of success for the UCLA foreign partnership was the
university wide monitoring group that critically examined the process from the
initiation to its termination. The termination of a program was initiated when
meaningful academic work could no longer be conducted (Svenson & Coleman,
1984, p. 67). The article constitutes a base of comparison between the process of
initiating and implementing an international teacher education program by the State
University of the Future (SUOF) fictitious research site and the UCLA’s experience.
International Teacher Education Programs
International programs for educators are defined as international programs
that are specifically designed for teachers, instructors or education administrators
with the purpose of their development of obtaining professional information in
education (Rapoport, 2006). In the United States, the Fulbright Act of 1946 and the
49
Smith Mundt Act of 1948 established the initial federal policy for the initiation of
international programs. The literature found that terminology describing the
international educational programs includes: educational exchange programs,
international educational programs, study abroad, intercultural programs,
transnational programs, foreign studies which are used interchangeably. In searching
for international programs designed for teacher education, the researcher found three
relevant dissertations addressing teachers’ professional development (Casale-
Giannola, 2000; Rapoport, 2006; Ross, 1992). Study abroad programs for college
and university students are much numerous than those directed to teacher
professional development. The literature described the benefits of studying abroad
in more qualitative than quantitative manners. Flack (1976) found that studying
abroad can benefit the individual, the home society and the United States and the
international relations (cited in Rapoport, 2006). Consequently, a teacher educational
program with Chinese teachers coming to the United States can benefit then the
individual participants professionally and individually due to their acquiring
improvement and competency in English language.
China for example, as a country sending teachers for professional
development to US gains more highly educated teachers. Chinese teachers trained in
US can also influence their students’ academic achievement. Chinese teaches, as
individuals being trained in US gained a higher status in their country, possible better
employment perspectives due to knowledge of US educational system.
50
According to Rapoport (2006), the United States also expand their relations
with partnership countries by establishing agreements with institutions and
organizations which may provide access to our scholars to do research. “Participants
may also learn first hand how the United States and other countries are
interdependent” and raise their awareness and understanding that our world is a
common community with common needs, concerns and interests (Casale- Giannola,
2000, p. 61).
Ross (1992) explored in his dissertation the factors that contribute to a
reputation of effectiveness of international programs at public, four year colleges and
universities. As a results of a survey sent out to 113 institutions, out of the 84
responses, he found that expert participants on international programs believed the
effectiveness of the programs was related to the number of foreign languages taught;
number of foreign students; domestic participation in study abroad and perception of
upper level support administration on making decisions on international programs.
International Customized/Teacher Education Program at SUOF
The SUOF (State University of the Future) defines itself as a comprehensive
regional university with a global outlook. It serves more than 1,400 international
students from more than 80 countries. Among other Extended Education Programs,
SUOF offers an International Program, Asia. The program is offered in
collaboration with 8 academic colleges and it consists in a variety of opportunities
for professional development for groups of students from foreign universities. The
areas of professional development include: business, public administration,
51
education. The programs are customized to meet the needs of their students. The
programs differ in length and content. Programs can last from a few weeks to a year
or more. The programs are short term programs which last for 3 to 4 week training,
can be customized for public school and higher education administrators among
other business professionals. The programs for educators/ administrators are
developed for professional development in American education, concepts and
strategies for public school teachers, TESOL teachers, University faculty, public
school administrators, and higher education administrators. Professional
development/Customized Programs have been delivered for education, TESOL and
public administrators from China and other countries as well. Visiting delegation
programs include almost 100 delegations that have visited the university since 2003
to 2009 from countries such as China, Vietnam, Japan, Thailand, South Korea and
Taiwan. The university has strong relationships with Chinese universities such as
Fudan, Shanghai University and other institutions such as the Chinese Ministry of
Education. A group of faculty from Guizhou came for six month to the SUOF. With
Fudan University’s Continuing Education Unit the university offers a MA’s degree
program in educational leadership as well training for administrators and faculty
members (McLaren, 2005). According to McLaren, the SUOF is very successful in
international programs because prestigious universities such as the Chinese are very
careful in choosing the best quality programs and credits the university’s success to
the university and its administration. ”President Johnson has a great vision and his
efforts have been helpful in developing the SUOF’s reputation” (McLaren, 2005,
52
p.2). Another factor of success is the collaboration with deans and department chairs.
The SUOF developed also a Master Degree program in collaboration with Fudan
University (Ramos, 2007). Fudan English proficient students took 18 units of the 30
program degree at the SUOF. The remaining 12 units were taken in China as well as
the field research. Faculty from the SUOF traveled to China to teach courses,
administer the final grades and attended graduation ceremonies. The Chinese
students obtained a Master in Science from the SUOF according to Louise Adler,
Chair and professor of educational leadership (as cited in Ramos, 2007). Adler
considered that faculty will benefit from this program because they will learn about
the Chinese culture and educational system and share with other faculty and students
in US.
The Program Director remarked that “This new agreement ties in with the
SUOF’s mission to continue to build a university with a global outlook and to
promote academic exchanges such as this one” (cited in Ramos, 2007, p. 2).These
agreements enrich students’ and faculty members’ lives outside the classroom and
provide opportunities for people to know and understand each other. The President
believed educating students from abroad is one of the SUOF’s mission because “one
day they will be leaders in their own countries” (Ramos, 2007, p.2).
According to the SUOF’s mission “learning is preeminent” to the university
which “strives to be a center of activity essential to the intellectual, cultural and
economic development of our region” (“Mission”, 2008). The mission includes the
statement of being a comprehensive, regional university with a global outlook. The
53
goals of the SUOF’s mission are to: a) ensure the preeminence of learning; b)
provide high quality programs meeting the evolving needs of the students,
community and region; c) enhance scholarly and creative activity; d) make
collaboration integral to its activities; e) create an environment where all students
have the opportunity to succeed and f) increase external support for university
programs and priorities (“Mission”, 2008). The President at the SUOF advocates for
bringing community members together to seek support for international partnership
with China. Cruz, Ko (2007) reported on her article Expand connections and
partnerships with its region Asia Association Extended Education makes
International Connection on the formation of an Advisory Board. The participants
were community members of a diverse professional orientation: businesses,
journalists, diplomats from the Chinese consulate, China Association Organization in
the State of the Future, Asian Community Affairs, the Mayor of the city, and Consul
of education for the Chinese Education, Asian Business Association representatives
from the region, Science and Technology Association. The special guest to the
meeting was the State of the Future’s Controller. The President and the Dean of the
Extended Education delivered speeches.
The SUOF is certified by the China’s State Administration of Foreign
Experts Affair as an official training channel. “Guidance and support from the Dean
of EEU and other eight deans, local businesses, community members and
government officials in addition to trust and cooperation from others in Asia” are
factors to success as mentioned by the Program Director (Cruz, Ko, 2007, p. 3).
54
There is evidence in the literature that actually China offers opportunities to develop
partnership with US universities because of its motivation to improve the skills of its
graduates in order to attract foreign businesses (“Trends in”, 2007). The International
Programs, Asia at SUOF provide opportunities for US and Chinese teachers to learn
from each other and meet their goals.
55
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the implementation
process of a global teacher education program at a US comprehensive, regional
public university within a multi campus university system. The study sought to
understand how the senior leadership team at a public US university, which is a part
of a multi campus state university system incorporated global educational change
into its mission and programs. The study intended to understand how the leaders
constructed the concept of success of an international teacher education program.
The study addressed the following research questions:
1. How does the vision of the president of a public regional comprehensive
university lead to the implementation of an innovative global teacher
education program?
2. What system level and local campus level factors influenced the
implementation of this global teacher education program?
3. What indicators or benchmarks of success were identified by the
president, and program leadership for this innovative, global program?
The study employed a qualitative methodological approach to answer the
research questions. A single case study tradition was used to analyze a single public
university within a multi campus state university campus. The study sought to
understand in-depth how the globalization phenomena was perceived in a public
56
higher education in a natural setting and what local and state factors influenced the
implementation of global change (Patton, 2002; Merriam, 1998).
That method allowed the researcher to conduct inquiry into a broad selected
issue and to analyze it in great depth, with careful attention to context, details and
nuances in order to find out how globalization was translated into a global teacher
education program at a selected university. The qualitative method provided also the
benefit to analyze the globalization issue into a natural setting and context. The
researcher interacted with the natural setting by visiting the site, observing activities
and interviewing key expert players and learning from their authentic experiences.
The qualitative approach does not test theory; it creates theories, abstractions,
concepts or knowledge from local experiences. The final product was a rich
description of the lessons learned from the selected key expert players and their
contextual experience of implementing a global teacher education program at a
public university, within a multi system public US university. The case study is one
of the terms used interchangeably for qualitative research and also one of the most
common types of qualitative research in education among the basic or generic
qualitative study, ethnography, phenomelogy and grounded theory (Merriam, 1998,
p.5). As one of the terminologies associated with qualitative research, the case study
aimed to analyze a purposefully chosen program at a US university. The case was
bound to one university, one program, and one senior leader team - the president and
the international program leaders. According to Merriam (1998), naturalistic inquiry,
interpretative research, field study, participant observation, inductive research, case
57
study, and ethnography are also associated with the qualitative research (p.5). Yin
(1994) defined the case study in terms of the research process. “A case study is an
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are
not clearly evident” (Yin, 1994, p.13). Merriam (1998) defined the case study as an
“intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon or
social unit” (p.21).
According to Yin (2003) the research design is a “plan” or the “logical
model” which guides the researcher while in the process of collecting, analyzing and
interpreting the data. The conclusions are drawn based on the researcher’s
interpretations of the evidence that is collected and the literature review. Yin (2003)
recommended five components of a research design. First the study identified the
three study research questions. Second, the researcher articulated the purpose of the
study. Third the researcher decided what the case was about or the unit of analysis
and then she determined the logic linking of the data to the propositions. The final
component was to decide the criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin, 2003, p.21).
Sample
In a qualitative research the non probability sampling is the method of choice
according to Merriam (1998, p.61). The most common sample form is purposive or
purposeful (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) suggested selection of information rich
cases for study in order to learn about issues of significant importance. Merriam
(1998) recommended to determine a criteria which are essential to the case and then
58
to make a list of attributes. In identifying the unit of analysis or the sample for this
study, the researcher searched for a public US university within a multi campus
system which implemented an international teacher education program. The
researcher searched into multiple data bases to locate campuses in the state the study
was conducted or in the United States that developed partnership or international
programs for Chinese teachers. The researcher identified among several universities
which developed Institutes with other Asian universities, the SUOF which had a
unique program for Chinese teachers’ professional development. According to
Merriam (1998) a unique sample is” based on atypical, rare attributes or occurrences
of the phenomenon of interest” (p.62). The SUOF is also one of the campuses of a
state public university system. The SUOF was purposefully selected as the unit of
analysis based on its unique characteristic to implement an innovative global teacher
education program.
Snowball sampling technique was used during the interview process of senior
leaders at SUOF which means that the researcher asked key participants to
recommend other potential people who could provide information about the
international teacher education program or other global experiences or initiatives at
their campus. That strategy had the potential to augment the information by adding
more people who had knowledge and expertise about the implementation of the
chosen program (Patton, 2002). Yin (2003) recommended not to close the process of
selection of a unit of analysis because the researcher could take advantage of the
flexible, emergent characteristic of a qualitative approach and revisit the decisions
59
along the process as a result of discoveries that may arise (p.21). Patton (1990)
recommended specifying a minimum sample size “based on expected reasonable
coverage of the phenomenon given the purpose of the study” (p.186). SUOF, the
research site and the second level of selection involved the selection of the leaders,
the people who provided the rich information about the case.
Overview of Institution
State University of the Future (SUOF)
The SUOF is one of the multiple campuses within a US State University
system which was established in 1957 by act of state Legislature. Classes began in
1959 in facilities leased from a High School District. The SUOF functions at its
present location since 1960. As part of the SUOF System, its governance is subject
to policies established by the Board of Trustees. At the campus level, the governance
is vested into the President. The Academic Senate recommends policies affecting
curricula. Since 1957, SUOF had only four presidents. The actual president, Dr.
Johnson is in office since 1990. The average age of students attending SUOF is 24
years and the median age is 22. International students represented 79 nations in the
fall of 2007 census. The university has about 1,900 full and part-time faculty
members. Faculty members were awarded more than 1, 6 million in grants and
contracts for research and scholarly activities in 2006-2007. SUOF generates
annually $851 million in economic activity annually, more than $45 million in state
tax revenue and sustains more than 12,500 jobs in the region according to the Report
(“Working for state study”, 2004). The university offers 105- 155 undergraduate
60
programs; 50 graduate programs, including doctorate in education (Ed.D). The
university is proud of its Sport Complex opened in 1992. It has a 10,000 seat
stadium, 3,500 seats on one field and another field for softball and a track that goes
around a full sized soccer field. (“SUOF Fact Sheet”, 2008). Among other campuses
in the state, SUOF is considered an impacted campus for freshmen students. An
impacted campus is one which has more qualified students than its capacity. Those
campuses have also higher admission standards than the campuses which are not
impacted. The SUOF system is a member of the National Association of State
Universities and Land Grant Colleges ( NASULGC). The average resident,
undergraduate student fees to apply, enroll and attend in 2007/2008 was $3,521.The
cost may very depending on student’s enrollment status, part time or full time,
resident or non resident, the program or the campus (Kara Perkins, 01/14/2008).
Rationale for Selecting the Sample
The sample included the site: SUOF and the participants which are
represented by the senior leadership team. The SUOF was selected based on the
unique characteristic of being a campus within a multi campus state university
system that implemented an innovative teacher education program for Chinese
teachers. The President, as the senior leader of the university was identified also as
possessing unique characteristics. The President at the SUOF is African American
and occupies the presidential office for more than nineteen years. It is not very
common for university presidents to be in office for such a lengthy period of time.
61
Instrumentation
The study used three sources to collect data: 1) Interviews; 2) Documents; 3)
Observations.
Interview Protocol
The semi structured Interview Protocol was used as a guide for the
conversation between the researcher and the participants. The protocol included a
number of 19 questions organized to answer the three research questions. The
interview questions (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 17, 18, 19) were designed to answer the
research question 1; questions (9, 10, 11, 17, 19) aimed to provide data for answering
research question 2; questions (13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19) targeted information for
question 3. Two questions had the potential to gather information for the three
research questions: 17 and 19. The interview protocol questions were organized into
a flexible format. This semi structured interview format offered the flexibility of a
“list of things to be sure to ask about when talking to the person interviewed
(Lofland, 1971, p.84). The study designed two interview protocols: one for the
SUOF system Chancellor and another for university leaders. The double design was
assumed to be appropriate because it was believed the level of authority and
familiarity with a specific topic such as international programs with Chinese teachers
is different at the state level then university level. The researcher interviewed five
senior leaders at the university level. The order of interviewing started with the
program leadership. The Program Director, Program Manager and the Senior
Program Advisor, were the first three participants interviewed. The President and the
62
dean were the last interviewed. The Chancellor as the top state university leader was
not interviewed. Lofland (1971) defines interviewing as the “circumstance in which
a person with pre-set questions –called the interviewer- promotes another person to
answer his questions. The promoted person is called the “interviewee” or the
“respondent” (p.75). The questions were open-ended, and did not include leading
questions (Lofland, 1971). The unstructured interview used in the study “attempted
to capture the words of [the] subjects and not merely a summary of responses”
(Bogdan & Taylor, 1975, p.99).The interview protocol is attached in the Appendix E.
Observation Protocol
Creswell (1998) recommends designing an observational protocol as a
“method for recording notes in the field” (p. 125). The researcher designed an
instrument to collect information during the observations that includes demographic
information: time; length of the observation; place; activity or event; people and a
special place for descriptive notes space and also “descriptive and reflective notes”
(p. 152). The Observation Protocol is included in the Appendix G.
Document Summary Form
Documents can be “letters, policy statements, regulations, guidelines. They
provide a formal framework to which… to relate the informal reality” (Gillham,
2000, p. 21). The instrument used for collecting data is a Document Summary Form.
The protocol identifies: a) information about the document (name or title);
presentation form (report; email) date when it was received; b) key categories such
as what content of the program or implementation process (Creswell, 1994). The
63
protocol includes also space to record the document’s significance and a brief
summary of its content. The researcher used the document protocol mostly to record
documents obtained from the key informants in the study. The Document Summary
Form is attached in Appendix H.
Data Collection
The researcher obtained the USC IRB approval and then started the process
of data collection. Data were collected from interviews, documents and observations.
The researcher obtained access and gatekeepers’consent to conduct research after the
IRB approval was granted. The data collection was done between January and
March, 2009. In this study the information was recorded through field notes, tape
recorded interviews, document summary forms and observational protocols.
The Role of Researcher
The researcher is the primary instrument for collecting and analyzing data in
a qualitative research. The researcher was prepared and tolerated a high level of
ambiguity as there were not pre designed procedures or protocols that could be
followed with fidelity (Merriam, 1998, p. 20). The researcher exercised sensitivity to
the context, including the physical setting and people. The researcher used
professional communication and business like behavior to interact with participants.
The researcher has extensive experience in working with professionals of diverse
cultural background based on her international business and higher educational
background. The researcher used professionalism in building rapport with
participants and knowledge and skills learned from the doctoral coursework and
64
training in performing interviews and observations. The researcher identified
ambiguous answers and attempted to clarify them by rephrasing and probing
questions (Lofland, 1971). The researcher clarified questions such as institutional
structures and chose to move on the next question when the participant indicated by
his body language that no more elaboration would be offered.
Interview Procedures
The researcher conducted five interviews after obtaining the IRB approval
during January to March 2009. The senior leader team at the State University of the
Future (SUOF) selected to be interviewed were the President, Program Director,
Program Manager, the Senior Program Advisor/Provost and the Dean as key
informants that were identified through a purposeful and snowballing strategy. “We
interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe”
(Patton, 2002, p.340). The purpose of interviewing is to enter into the other person’s
perspective with the assumption that their perspective is meaningful, knowable, able
to be made explicit, find out what is in their mind and obtain their story (p.341).
Patton (2002) stated that “the quality of the information obtained during an interview
is largely dependent on the interviewer” (p.341). The researcher used a semi-
structured interview composed of open-ended questions. A semi-structured interview
was sent by the researcher to all the potential senior leaders who were invited to
participate in the study. According to Patton (2002) an interview guide approach
specifies in advance topics and issues to be covered in an out-line form. Interviewer
determines the sequence, wording of questions during the interview. One of the
65
strength of this approach includes that the interviews remain conversational and
situational, flexible enough to be adjusted according to the circumstances (p.349).
All the interviews were taped with the interviewees’ agreement. The five interviews
lasted from thirty minutes to more than two hours each.
The researcher took also notes during the interviews. The researcher
transcribed the taped interviews onto paper adding also the hand written notes taken
during the interviews. The written forms of the interviews were sent to all the
participants as part of the verification process or the member check process. The
researcher asked the participants to review, add, correct, make comments and
formally approve the content of the interview. At the end of each interview the
researcher asked all the participants to comment on her ability to interview and make
recommendations.
In recruiting the participants the researcher created a package of the IRB
approved forms. The researcher obtained faster responses when she sent emails
containing as “subject line” the wording “invitation to participate in a research
study” instead of “kind request for an interview”.
Documents
“Documents are a ready made source of data easily accessible to the
imaginative and resourceful investigator “(Merriam, 1998, p.112). The researcher
must establish the authenticity of the document in terms of its origin, how it was
found, who is the author and to analyze its content to determine if it is bias free
(p.121). The study used documents available in the public domain such as websites,
66
presidents’ speeches, internal available documents such as program’s content,
agendas, catalogues, schedule of classes, flyers to understand the university’s
mission and global initiatives. The SUOF websites were accessed to collect articles
on the events related to the international programs and obtain some feedback from
the Chinese participants. The documents were reviewed some before, and some after
the interviews.
The participants provided internal documents such as: information flyer of
the Professional Development programs at SUOF; International Programs; Power
Point lecture on Education on the state for a delegation of educators from Nanajing,
PRC; Draft of the International Agreement indicating the entities involved in the
process of implementing an international program. The document shows where a
proposal originates and how many signatures are required. The researcher collected
also programs and their agendas for three groups of Chinese educators: Advanced
Training Program for Distinguished Public School Teachers from Nanjing, PRC,
2008; Public Education Administrators Training Program for Beijing Xuanwu
District Education Commission, 2008 and for the Higher Education Administration
Training Program for Foreign Trade University, 2009. The documents demonstrate
how the SUOF customizes the content of the training according to the customers’
needs. The researcher accessed also the SUOF’s websites and collected articles on
the events related to the international programs and President’s speeches,
participation at events and ceremonials.
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Observations
Observations and interviews are two primary sources of data in qualitative
research. Merriam (1998) finds two differences between them. “First, observations
take place in the natural field setting instead of a location designated for the purpose
of interviewing and second the observational data represents a first hand encounter
with the phenomenon of interest rather than a second hand account of the world
obtained in an interview” (p. 94). Merriam recommended following of a format for
recording field notes based on observation that would allow the researcher to easily
find the information. Essential elements to be identified as components of a
systematic observation includes the date, time, place, description of the setting, the
people, the activities, use of direct quotations of what people said, and a section with
the observer’s comments that can be identified as “OC” by underlining, and
bracketing (p.106). Diagrams or handmade maps can help the observer to remember
important elements of the setting and make comments later after the observation took
place. The researcher conducted two observations during interviewing the
participants and also before and after the interviews of the setting of the university.
The observations took place between January and April, 2009.
Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis was to look at the whole collection of
information the researcher gained from interviews, documents and observations and
to identify patterns, themes and interrelationships among them ( Patton, 2002). The
content of data analysis was analyzed by coding the information obtained from
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interviews and looking for emergent themes or patterns. Creswell (1994)
recommended using description of the case and its setting to start the analysis of
data. Next, the researcher must look at the multiple sources of data to determine
evidence for each step or phase in the evolution of the implementation for example
of the international teacher education program. If there were more instances of
similar events or characteristics, the researcher should use the categorical
aggregation hopping to find an issue-relevant meaning that will emerge. If the
researcher looks at a single instance, then the direct interpretation will be the strategy
of analysis. Another approach suggested by Creswell is the identification of patterns
and correspondence between two or more categories, such as a table of 2x2 which
shows the relationship between two or more categories. Next step is to develop
naturalistic generalizations from analyzing the data in the form of lessons people can
learn from the case for themselves or applying themto a similar context. The last step
will be to add description of the case, the “facts” (p.154).
The researcher used Creswell’s recommended steps of describing the case,
the setting of the SUOF, the events which led to the implementation of global
changes, then highlight the major players, the activities. The data obtained from
interviews, documents and observations were aggregated into categories and
collapsed into discovered patterns. In the final part of the study the researcher
developed generalizations about the case in term of patterns and how they compared
and contrast with the literature reviewed (p.154). The Data Analysis Spiral sheet
adapted from Cresweell (1998) is included in the Appendix F.
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The data were analyzed by triangulating information from the main three
collected sources: interviews, observations and documents. The strategy of
triangulation requires the researcher to seek consistency across the information and
determine whether patterns, similarities or differences with other cases can be
identified. The researcher organized the data into files according to themes and
research questions as part of the data managing process. After data collection was
finished the researcher read several times all the interviews to get a sense of the
whole information. Next, the researcher looked for themes such as globalization,
leadership, education; categories as higher education; teacher education international
programs; comprehensive, regional university; structure in higher education; system
and local factors of change; dimension of change; indicators of success in
international teacher education programs. The researcher represented the findings in
a matrix format. The findings from interviews, documents and observations were
triangulated for each research question in a table format. The researcher discussed
further the findings for each research question. The last step in analysis was to
connect the findings to the literature review and generate similarities or differences.
The analysis concluded with practical and scholarly lessons learned from the case
study and recommendations for further research.
The content of each interview was reviewed with the goal to identify patterns
and themes related to globalization, leadership, higher education and teacher
education. During the interviews, the researcher kept a logical order of asking the
questions: leadership, globalization and international programs in teacher education.
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The researcher took mental notes and written notes during interviews of the key
concepts she intended to address in order to answer the research questions. The
researcher was prepared in advance will all the highlighted topics and subtopics. She
highlighted the key words and used an identifying color for each topic after
transcribing the interviews. The strategy was found useful when she tried to identify
quotes of each topic and report the findings from interviews.
Validity
The study used three strategies to ensure validity Creswell (1994).
Triangulation is defined as the use of multiple data sources in order to validate the
findings and make them as credible as possible (Patton, 2002). The study used three
sources of data for triangulation: interviews, documents and observations. The
researcher sent back to all of the participants the typed version of the interviews. The
researcher asked the participants to review, correct, add and comment on the written
report as part of the verification process or the member checking. Only one
participant took part in this process by asking the researcher to make corrections if
the sentence was awkward. The third validity strategy, the researcher’s assumptions,
worldviews, and theoretical orientations are clarified in the section under the
researcher’s role.
Reliability
A study is reliable if its findings can be replicated (Merriam, 1998). The
replication characteristic means that repeating the study under similar conditions, it
should yield similar results. In that qualitative research, a single case study, with a
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small nonrandom sample being selected, the precise purpose was the researcher
understands the particular in depth, not to find out what was generally true of the
many (p.208). “Case studies are generalizable to theoretical propositions and not to
populations or universes” (Yin, 2003 p.10) which means the lessons learned from
this study can be applied to similar contexts not to similar people.
Ethical considerations
Applied research is conducted by gaining information from people and
therefore the research should be done in an ethical manner (Merriam, 1998). Two
research areas are identified as possible generating ethical dilemma: the collection of
data and the dissemination of findings because they involve the researcher-
participant relationship (Merriam, 1998). As a result, the researcher has been CITI
(Collaborative IRB Training Initiative) certified and learned about the responsibility
to protect human subjects. The researcher applied for approval to the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) for interview protocol when dealing with informants.
Participants’ privacy and protection was taken into consideration for all the people
the researcher interacted with. The researcher used only the participants’ title and
their pseudonyms. The information was stored into a locked computer and cabinet
for three years. The real research site and participants’ names are known to the
researcher and her advisors only. Another ethical consideration when conducting
research is the researcher’ own biases. The researcher must be unbiased and free of
personal opinions or beliefs during the collection and analysis of data or at least
identify the existing bias.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
This chapter presents findings from data collected using a descriptive
analytical approach. The data were collected from three sources: interviews with
senior leaders of a four year public university in the United States, observations and
documents relevant to an international professional development program for
Chinese teachers. The data were analyzed with the goal to find patterns, similarities
and differences among participants’ perspective and finally to point them to previous
findings reported by literature in similar case studies related to globalization,
leadership and change in higher education. The main source of data collections were
interviews. Five leaders were interviewed: The Program Director; the Program
Manager; the Program Senior Advisor/ Provost; the President and the Dean of EEU.
The interview protocols included questions aimed to answer the following
three research questions:
1. How does the vision of the President of a public, regional, comprehensive
university lead to the implementation of an innovative global teacher
education program?
2. What system-level and local campus level factors influenced the
implementation of this global teacher education program?
3. What indicators or benchmarks of success were identified by the
president, and program leadership for this innovative, global program?
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The first part of the Chapter four describes the participants of the study. In
the next part of the chapter the findings from the five interviews, observations and
documents will be reported by research question.
Participants
The first level of selection for the case study was SUOF as the research site
as described in Chapter 3. The second level of selection involved the selection of the
leaders, the people who provided the rich information about the case. In order to
preserve the university’s confidentiality as well as the leaders who participated in the
study the following descriptions were used for the participants. The five leaders who
were interviewed were: the Program Director, Linda; the Program Manager,
Anthony, the Senior Program Advisor/Provost, Dr. Kwan; the Extended Education
University Dean, Dr. Finland and the SUOF’s President, Dr. Johnson.
The researcher approached the potential research site program Director in
April 2008 by calling her on the phone. The researcher informed the director about
her intention to conduct a research study on the International Teacher Education
Program based on the information she found published on the university website.
The researcher communicated that all the data collection could start after her
obtaining IRB approval. The director indicated willingness to participate. She
perceived the research study by a prestigious university such as USC as a potential
benefit for the international program she directed. The director thought the research
would attract more professionals to the SUOF programs.
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The researcher contacted the director again on January, 2009, after obtaining
the IRB approval. The Director was very busy with traveling abroad and confirmed
availability within one month. The director expected the first interview to be the only
in person meeting to conduct interview due to her limited availability and was
disappointed when asked to schedule a second meeting.
The initial introduction meeting was very important in getting to know each
other as professionals and laying out expectations and plans. The Program Director
Linda is of Chinese background and has a MA in education. She worked for more
than fifteen years in education including leadership experience at the university level
in another state. She is energetic, multitask oriented, with a visible preference for
doing things right and quickly. Linda indicated stress as a common part of her daily
job. Linda’s main responsibilities include recruiting professionals from Asian
countries to be trained at SUOF and traveling abroad very often. Using her own
words, Linda is like “a flight attendant” who has to attend to her traveling tasks
sometimes on short notice. Linda loves her job and displays confidence and
competence as a leader. As a Director with a Chinese background she understands
Asian cultural and system differences when she negotiates training agreements.
Linda pays close attention to meeting the customers’ needs based on an accurate
interpretation of their training requests.
The researcher indicated the need to talk with other people who had expertise
about the program. The director recommended the program manager, Anthony the
Program Senior Advisor Dr. Kwan and the Academic Affair Acting Vice President
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as potential participants. The program manager agreed to participate and
arrangements were made to interview him as well. The Program Manager Anthony
did not have a private office which he shares an office with other colleague. At the
beginning of the interview, Anthony was apparently tense about being audio taped.
The researcher did not start the tape recording before clarifying that the recording
would be transcribed and sent back to him for review. Any comments or even his
participation in the study could be terminated at his request at any time. After that
conversation, the program Manager consented verbally and in writing to being audio
taped after being reassured again about confidentiality of his comments. During the
interview the researcher stopped the recording twice due to conversations in the
background and asked permission to close the door for preventing noise coming
from the hallway. The program Manager Anthony has a Chinese background as well
as the program Director. He has a solid knowledge of the Chinese education system
and history of Sino- US relationship and its impact on education. Anthony’s main
responsibilities included being on charge of operations such as technology running
up in each lecture classrooms and scheduling of events. Anthony’s position is
subordinated to Linda’s and he maintained communication with the researcher while
the Director was abroad. During the interview Anthony was hesitant at times to
directly answer questions based on his opinion and experience. He referred to his
direct supervisor, Linda as a better source of information when asked directly to
recommend potential participants in the study.
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Based on Program Director’s recommendation, the researcher contacted by
email Dr. Kwan, the Senior Program Advisor/ Provost. Dr. Kwan accepted the
invitation to be interviewed and scheduled an interview time shortly after his coming
back from an out of state conference. Dr. Kwan has an extensive experience as a
university administrator and professor for about thirty five years, actually acting as a
Provost at another state university campus. Dr. Kwan worked for more than thirty
years at one campus and as an administrator for about twenty years. He was a
professor in public administration when he did not work in administration. He fully
retired about six years ago but he was called back to be in office as a Provost. After
his retirement he will continue to teach for the international programs at two state
universities campuses. Dr. Kwan is involved with the International Program, Asia at
SUOF for about six years. As an advisor he delivers lectures for professional
international students on topics of US education. Dr. Kwan’s interview lasted for
more than two hours and it was followed by a tour of the top floor of the university
where the leadership offices were located. Dr. Kwan recommended the Dean of the
Extended Education University as a potential participant. Dr. Kwan gave the
researcher permission to mention him as a reference on invite for Dean to participate.
Following the Director’s recommendation, the researcher contacted next the
Academic Affair Acting Vice President. After several emails indicating the Vice
President was out of her office, the researcher was informed the leader declined to be
interviewed on grounds of lack of expertise of the international teacher education
program with the Chinese teachers. The leader recommended a professor who had
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experience with taking US students abroad as a potential participant. The researcher
decided not to follow the lead based on the potential participant’s irrelevant expertise
to the study.
The Chancellor of SUOF system was the system expert to target in the initial
study plan. The assumption was the Chancellor leads from the system level the
international programs and a global initiative such as the implementation of a global
teacher education with the international students. The researcher had to decide about
a strategic order of recruiting the participants aiming to expand the information about
the program. The researcher designed two interview protocols: one for university
leaders and another for the Chancellor of the state university system level. The
researcher sent via email the invitation package including the interview protocol. The
researcher was directed to the campus level by the Chancellor office based on the
purpose of the study and interview questions. The correspondence with the
Chancellor Office indicated decisions related to international programs and
curriculum are taken at the campus level. The office recommended contacting the
SUOF President as the most competent leader to answer the questions and other
university presidents. The SUOF Chancellor was not interviewed.
When asked about inviting the SUOF President to be invited to participate in
the study, the Provost, the Program Director and Manager were not encouraging.
They all believed the president was absorbed by the financial crisis affecting the
entire economy and the university and discouraged the researcher from approaching
him. However, the researcher was empowered by the chancellor’s office
78
recommendation to contact the president which she mentioned on her emails to the
president. The researcher sent three invitations to the president. The researcher
conducted an extensive search on the university’s phone directory to locate the
President’s secretary name. The researcher discussed with the secretary the details of
the research, the purpose, the questions and possible time line for the interview. It
was always the possibility the president would be out of town or country and not be
able to secure an interview. After providing all the details, the researcher was given a
choice of two possible thirty minute interview times to meet with the President.
The SUOF President, Dr. Johnson is African-American and occupied the
office since 1990. Among multiple leadership positions, Dr. Johnson is associated
with the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, Committee on
International Education as a representative for [State of the Future] Universities.
President Johnson invited the researcher to start on time and positioned himself
facing a wall clock which he checked very often. The president seemed relaxed and
smiling but with a very keen sense of time.
The president recommended as an expert leader to interview the Dean of
Extended Education, Dr. Finland, as the Program Director and the Provost
recommended as well. The researcher indicated in the letter of invitation that the
President was interviewed and he had recommended the Dean to be interviewed. The
researcher sent the Dean a letter and emails of invitation before obtaining an
interview confirmation. Dr. Finland is white and described himself as a first
generation college graduate. He is proud to be a product of public education. Dr.
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Finland recruited the program director. Dr. Finland gave the researcher permission to
persist on contacting his office because the volume of his email can be easily
overlooked due to the volume he had to handle. The interview with Dr. Finland
lasted more than one hour.
The next part of the chapter presents the findings. The findings are presented
in a table format. The table includes the three research questions, the findings and
their source of data collection. The table is included in the Appendix A.
Findings: Question 1
There were nine significant findings related to the Research Question 1: How
does the vision of the president of a public, regional, comprehensive university lead
to the implementation of an innovative global, teacher education study? The study
intended to reveal the meaning the leaders at a four year public regional,
comprehensive university attached to the globalization, leadership and higher
education based on their own experience with implementing a global teacher
education program. First, the researcher reported findings on leadership in general
and higher education in particular. Second the researcher presented the findings on
globalization and globalization and higher education. The findings for the research
question 1 are concluded with a discussion of the overall findings.
Findings on Leadership
There are six findings related to the leadership theme. The study found the
following characteristic and actions as indicators of effective leadership in higher
education: vision; advocates for international programs; participates to ceremonial
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events; travels abroad to promote the university programs and mission; talks in
appropriate settings; networking at local and international level.
Vision. From the literature we learned, “Leaders who thinks more about the
future than to the present” are found to be effective in influencing the institutional
environment and carrying out goals and plans (Neumann & Bensimon, 1990;
Neumann & Neumann, 2000). Presidents who have a vision and focus on the goals
lead the institution through a productive path. Leaders interviewed in the study
indicated having a vision as an essential effective leadership indicator. President
Johnson himself mentioned vision as an essential leadership characteristic “A person
who has a vision on what he or she wants in terms of a successful education
program”. The Program Director, the Program Manager and the Dean described the
president as having a vision.
The President is a strong, visionary leader. And he himself places a lot of
emphasis on international education. He gives one hundred percent of
support to the international education. At our university the international
students get a lot of attention, a lot of care. It is a good place for international
students. He leads by example.

Dean Finland also described an effective leader as one who has a vision, is able to
communicate it clearly to his team and also create a team that is able to translate it
into practice. Dean Finland describes successful leadership as “one to having a
vision, pursuing a vision, articulating that vision, and being able to built a team that
can implement the vision.”
There is a strong consensus among the leaders at the SUOF that vision is
essential in leading the institution through a productive path. McLaren (2005) wrote
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that President’s vision is essential in promoting international partnership with China.
The Program Director remarked “The prestige of our university and of our
administrators had helped make our effort successful. President Johnson has a great
vision and his effort has been helpful in developing SUOF’s reputation” (as cited in
Ramos p.2).
All the leaders emphasized that President’s vision about international
partnerships and university’s engagement in preparing the leaders of the world is an
essential indicator for university’s reputation. President Johnson articulated his
vision through broad academic, local and international forums which sent the
message international partnership are an important goal on his educational agenda
and created a favorable environment for innovation to flourish.
Advocates for international programs. Advocacy means that a leader uses in
his communication statements that explain what he” thinks, knows, wants or feels”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 166). Literature links advocacy with a political leader who
is able to clarify what he wants and also is realistic about what he can accomplish.
The evidence for this finding comes from the interviews with the Program Director,
Program Manager and Provost. The Program Director, Linda, stated:
And he himself [the President] places a lot of emphasis on international
education. He gives one hundred percent of support to the international
education. At our University the international students get a lot of attention, a
lot of care. It is a very good place for international students.

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The Program Manager, Anthony recognized the President’s support by stating:
He [the President] is very supportive of international exchange. That’s why
he is a very successful leader. He can make the whole university grow so fast
during his Presidency for the past nineteen years.

The Provost, Dr. Kwan seems to resonate with what Duke (2008) remarked, that
innovation must start from the top in order to have chances to be initiated. This
observation points toward the leader as the creator of a favorable climate for change.
The provost said: “There has to be top form of support from the administrative
leadership. From the President on down….And I’m talking about not so much
financial support, but moral supports.”
The President asserts the SUOF strongly supports an education that give our
US students the opportunity to know other cultures and to the university the
opportunity to educate the leaders of the world in our philosophy.
What we have here now we have 80 international agreements. I’m always
trying to get countries involved which are currently not involved. For
example, we have a lot of Vietnamese students; we have a big agreement
with Vietnam… We have initiative around the world. China is certainly one
area where we have a number of programs. We have programs in Vietnam, in
Taiwan….But we have initiatives all around the world.

The SUOF has agreements with 19 countries and currently more than 63
universities (“International Partners”, 2008). According to President Johnson, the
university has plans to include other geographical areas such as Latin America,
South Africa and Cuba as President Johnson mentioned in his interview. The
president exemplified in the interview what the leaders described. He stated clearly
that he envisions expanding international partnerships in the other area of the world
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and by doing it he advocates for international education. Leaders know about his
agenda, which means the president uses internal channels of information to
disseminate his vision, demonstrating he is “mapping the political terrain” and
“setting agenda”, characteristics of a leader with a political perspective (Bolman &
Deal, 2003, p. 205).
Participates at ceremonial events. Kotter (2002) introduced eight stages that
were found successful change initiatives (as cited in Bolman & Deal, 2003).
According to Kotter, a successful leader at the fourth stage uses a combination of
words, deeds and symbols, “has a visible leadership participation at kickoff
ceremonies” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 384-386). The study found that President’s
participation at ceremonial events is perceived as an action leading to effective
leadership and implementation of innovation such as an international teacher
education program. Provost Kwan said:
President Johnson comes to a lot of our ceremonial events; because he takes
time out of his schedule – because it’s important to show up. That sends a
signal to his campus and to the people coming from other countries – this is
important and I think this is crucial.

The study found an abundance of evidence on the university’s Photo Gallery
about President’s Johnson participation at events such as buildings’ dedication,
receiving gifts and awards, presenting awards to professors, Donor’s Recognition
Ceremony (“Legends and Legacies”), Presidents’ Scholars, Dean’s Car Show; State
of the City Luncheon; Pizza with the President. The study found that many of the
events the president attended are traditional. Participation in events such as rituals
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and ceremonies are important because they send a symbolic message about
something that is significant.
Travels abroad to promote the university’s programs and mission. Mayer and
Weidner (1975) report that at the UWGB travel funds were used to send faculty
members at conferences and seminars. The authors suggest that the activity support
visits to other institutions, “especially [to] those that are innovative” p. 73. The
statement, although it refers mostly to “seminars of professors and other
professionals from throughout the country” being “sponsored by the University” (p.
73), it may be inferred to be extended to the traveling abroad since such activities
take place abroad too.
The study found from interviews and documents that the President’s actions
of leading delegations of faculty abroad are beneficial for the programs and
university’s reputation. During the interview, President Johnson mentioned several
of his trips abroad that he attended over the years. Some of the destinations the
President traveled to promote partnerships include South Africa, Europe and Cuba.
The President commented:
We are now trying to have an agreement and we went in June 2007 with
Nelson Mandela University in South Africa. A month ago I was in Hanoi.
When I went there to Taipei, in early 90s, the largest of our alumna were
from Taipei. But we have initiatives in Germany, Spain too. We have
initiatives all around the world. I am trying to establish something with South
Africa, and I eventually have a better initiative with Cuba. When we were to
Cuba a year ago we were hopeful we could have our students there too. When
I went there (to Moscow/Russia) seventeen years ago, they had interpreters.

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As an active ambassador of the university abroad and a keen observer, the President
noticed changes in the world any place he went. The President remarked that:
When you go to these other countries, for instance, in our trip to Korea, the
technology there is far superior to the one in the USA. You can see the rapid
development in China and around the world, so their competition is going to
be worldwide.

The President leads the implementation of global changes in his university because
he believes seeing the world, promotes understanding of differences.
…When you are there in Vietnam you are working with young people who
have fear of coming to the United States, and especially a number of years
ago, because they were concerned about living in a country from the view
they had of the United States in Vietnam and their concerns where how do
you even work with the freedom. I think for myself the greatest benefits have
come from my international travel, and the trips that we take to see what’s
really like in the world.

Dean Finland described the active marketing of the university through traveling
abroad as an effective practice to recruit international students. The role of the
president is also emphasized in traveling abroad.
…we travel, we go to other countries. I just had a meeting with senior head
staff that’s been out recruiting for our international programs, and if you were
to look at the calendar you will find that we’ve had two to three people in any
given place, since September…. And we have a wonderful environment; our
President will go with us; President, Vice Presidents, Deans, they will travel
with us so that we are able to show our institutional commitment.

Findings from interviews indicate that leaders perceive traveling abroad as a
significant factor in promoting the university image and the leadership commitment
for developing international partnerships. Leaders who travel abroad increase the
university’s reputation and credibility.
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Talks in appropriate leadership setting. The literature suggests that
communication is a powerful way to articulate the leader’s vision and advocacy.
Speeches, conversations, informal remarks before groups of diverse constituencies,
are all examples of leader’s ways to communicate (Maier & Weidner, 1975).
Data from interviews and documents indicated the SUOF’s President
participates and talks to students, faculty and local and international community
about his vision and goals. President Johnson encouraged the US students to visit
other countries and meet their people “…whenever I talk to groups of our students
who are going to another country”, the President encouraged them to leave the
university and venture into the streets, visit people’s homes and find their real life.
Dean Finland commented on the President’s speeches as well. He believed
president’s speeches convey university’s global mission:
… I think clearly our president has embraced the mission of global outreach.
He talks in appropriate settings from a leadership perspective, is involved in
discussing how we might be organized to achieve that role.

The President delivered speeches at local and international events promoting
the university’s mission. At the Advisory Board the President reiterated that: “What
we’re building here is going to be essential for the entire world, especially if the
world wants peace” (Ko, Cruz, 2007). The President greeted the Fudan University
Chancellor at the signing of Master’s Degree agreements and said “It’s important to
establish these relationships because they bring people together to better understand
each other” (Ramos, 2007).
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The President spoke at the Education Conference in Cambodia (McLaren,
2003) and expressed his view about globalization:
No university in any country can think of its educational curriculum without
considering the importance of globalization. Meetings such as this expand
our experiences and enhance the efforts we make in serving our students and
the community in which we live (McLaren, 2003).

The leaders in the study observed that the President communicates his vision
by talking in appropriate leadership settings to promote international partnerships.
President’s discussions, remarks, meetings, speeches at local and international events
appear to be significant actions that make disseminate information to larger groups
of people and organizations that are involved in international education.
Networking at local and international level. Kotter (1982) claimed that the
main difference between successful and less successful managers was related to their
ability to build and also cultivate connections with friends and allies (as cited in
Bolman & Deal, 2003). Data from interviews and documents indicated the President
valued teams and worked with people toward a common goal. The president is an
active member at the state system level committees and associates involved in
international education among other groups in different educational areas. The
Program Director indicated, “He [the President], served twice as President of
International Education for the Association of State American Colleges and
Universities” President Johnson himself attributed his success to his ability to build
teams.
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I work well with people especially with different opinions and I have always
worked hard at trying to do that. I have my opinions, visions, where I would
like to see, what I consider successful efforts, but I think it has been for the
ability to work with others, and I have always worked hard at trying to
achieve it.

The President seems to emphasize that despite his own points of view,
sometimes he negotiated, maybe compromised when worked with people with
different opinions and directed his effort to bridge differences. The governance
system in university allows the administration and faculty to exercise in certain
issues, their share of authority.
Dr. Kwan discussed the shared governance principle in the universities and
remarked that this means administration and faculty must work together to solve
academic differences too. The Provost expressed his view that:
There has to be shared governance on some key issues…All the other areas
(except salaries and contracts negotiated by the unions) such as curriculum
grading, those policies, curriculum development, those are the domains of the
faculty.

Provost Kwan talked about creating a team of right people where selection becomes
important for the job performance.
My personal philosophy in leadership is to get the right people, and to treat
them right. And I think that means, you have to be very careful when you
select people. I think the screening is extremely important.

According to Dr. Kwan, recruiting leaders who are enthusiastic and eager to develop
new leadership styles is an advantage to finding solutions to sensitive issues.
Sometimes I would rather select someone that has real potential to be an
effective leader or manger as opposed to someone who comes with years of
experience. Typically, people that are new are very anxious to develop their
leadership style and they are more amenable to working into these situations.
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At the local level for example the President Johnson created alliances in
community by bringing together people from different professional fields who were
interested in promoting partnership with China. At the Advisory Board Meeting
participated community businessmen, diplomats from the Chinese consulate,
representatives of China Association of the state, representatives of the Asian
Community Affair, the Mayor of the city, and the Chief Executive of the State,
among Deans and Vice Presidents, the SUOF President and faculty and staff ( Ko,
Cruz, 2007).
The study demonstrated that President Johnson focused in building forum or
groups of people who have a common goal, to promote support for partnerships
between the SUOF and Chinese universities. The leader’s ability to relate to people
with different views, are able to bargain, negotiate, create alliances, “develops
wherever possible relationship with potential opponents to facilitate education,
communication or negotiation” (Kotter, 1985) are found to be successful leader with
a political frame orientation (as cited in Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 210).
Discussion on Leadership
The study indicated that vision is the overarching essential indicator of
effective leadership in implementing innovation (Bensimon, 1989; Neumann &
Neumann, 1990; Northouse, 2004). The “vision turns an organization’s core
ideology, or sense of purpose into an image of what the future might become”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 253).The President’s vision is that “globalization is the
wave of the future”. During his presidency or more than nineteen years, he advocated
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among other changes for innovation in international education. The study found that
the president during a period of more than nineteen years employed a myriad of
actions that led his institution through the path of change. The President participates
at the state level in committees and commissions to expand international
partnerships; communicates his vision in many formal and informal ways. He
discusses, informs, remarks, comments on the topic of international education at
meetings, rituals, ceremonies, community forums. The President travels abroad often
and connects with members of the international community such as leaders of
universities around the globe.
Although vision is crucial in promoting change, vision without a strategy, is
doomed to fail. Smith (1988) posited that “A vision without a strategy remains an
illusion. A strategy has to recognize major forces working for and against the
agenda” (as cited in Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 206). The essence of this argument is
that vision has to be reinforced by congruent actions. The study found also that
President’s consistent actions from his leading position created the environment for
global change in his institution.
The President communicated through actions and his own example that
globalization can not be ignored and therefore changes have to be made. As a
consequence, the innovation started at the departmental level. The Dean and the
Program Director initiated the process of implementing the customized International
Program for teacher professional development. The literature discussed actions
employed by leaders in education who implemented change (Maier & Weidner,
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1975) and observable behaviors related to non educational organizations. Although
some actions the study found can be directly related to literature such as talking in
appropriate settings, advocating, building alliances, participating to rituals and
ceremonials (Maier & Weidner, 1975; Heimovics & Herman, 1993), traveling
abroad can be interpreted as an extension to what Maier and Weidner (1975)
described as funds allocated for conferences and seminars. Reina (2009) studied in
her dissertation: Travelers in the global economy: a Phenomenological study of
short-term international business travel how travelers’ experience after short term
international business travel changed over time. Reina (2009) claimed that over time
and with more traveling experience, participants become more knowledgeable of
norms, culture, political conditions and all that experience made the travelers more
successful in their international business objectives. What this new research does, is
to allow us interpret that Presidents, like business travelers, the more they travel
abroad the better they can become in forging partnership with international partners.
Findings on Globalization
There are three significant findings on globalization presented from the
study: Globalization is locally defined; Cultural difference influence the
implementation of global change and Housing availability affects global innovation.
Globalization is locally defined. The literature indicates people interpret
globalization from many different perspectives (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard,
2004). However, the local conditions such as demographics, norms, culture, political
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system, policies, regulations, and local customs shape the ways universities interpret
what globalization means (Marginson, 2002, Vaira, 2004).
Data from interviews and documents indicated leaders at the SUOF have a
diverse interpretation on globalization, global outlook and university’s global
mission. The Program Director, Linda, linked globalization to sharing information
across the border and promoting communication, understanding and peace among
other countries:
Our university wants to expand our resources to the whole world and in the
same time also, we want to learn from others. Global outlook could be
another word for globalization or internationalization.

Anthony, the Program Manager embraced the same view:
The main purpose of the educational globalization is to try to spread the
educational opportunities to the whole world. Locally, globalization provides
experiences to the students from the whole world, we can learn from the
students of different cultures and languages, from the international students.

Dean’s Finland seemed to conclude that the university’s mission becomes global
since the community around it has global ties;
We happen to be in a region of great diversity with more continuing flow of
immigrants from throughout the world. The number of languages spoken in
the home of our children is sixty to seventy or even higher in our school
districts.

…So that means that our region has connections through families and history
of our residents that is global. So our base needs has to be global because our
region is global.

Integration of international students into classes with the US students promotes
sharing of ideas and knowledge of cultural differences according to Dr. Kwan
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…globalization has to be more than just having an economics course in
globalization or global relations. I think it has to meld and integrate some of
the differences in cultures…We have 1,500 students; getting those into
classes and having those perspective shared from students [international] and
also faculty. I think it starts making the case global.

President Johnson believes globalization determines changes of power and
competition among nations and individuals. The US University has the mission to
prepare its students to compete with other nations. The SUOF’s mission states:
We are a comprehensive, regional university with a global outlook…. Our
expertise and diversity serve as a distinctive resource and catalyst for
partnerships with public and private organizations. We strive to be a center of
activity essential to the intellectual, cultural and economic development of
our region (“News & Information”, 2008).

The mission states the university is dedicated to creating partnership with different
organizations, prepare students for the regional labor force, but also has the goal to
reach globally by portraying a “global outlook” The meaning of this statement was
found to be subject of a diverse interpretation among the leaders at the SUOF.
During the interview, reflecting on current global changes, the President said:
In the past, the United States could have been considered the leadership of
the world. That’s not true anymore. You have China, India, UE, and they
[young people] are going to be competing with people in China, Middle East
and it won’t be as simple as the life I have lived.

Globalization is on President’s words “the wave of the future” with complex
implications. ”A ripple in one country can impact the entire world”. The president
considered globalization as a factor of change in higher education.” No university in
any country can think of its educational curriculum without considering the
importance of globalization” (McLaren, 2003).
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The study documented that leaders at SUOF perceive globalization as an
opportunity to share and also to learn from other cultures as well. The students who
are trained in the US go back to their countries and they will become world leaders
with an American educational perspective. The university’s “role in educating
students from abroad is an important mission…because one day they will be leaders
in their own countries” (President Johnson cited in Ramos, 2007).
Leaders at SUOF perceived the exchange of faculty as a benefit for the
university: “Our faculty will be able to learn more about China’s culture and
educational system, and can share this knowledge and experience with students and
others here” (Ramos, 2007).
On a personal level, Dr. Kwan reflected on his transformation by interacting
with international professionals.
I would have to say that my six years of teaching Asian government officials,
University officials, and university students, has changed my view of my own
culture, let alone how I view some of the Asian cultures. And I am still
learning a lot.

Provost Kwan identified learning about other cultures as a benefit for the US
citizens.
I think Americans are too self- centered. I think, when I think back before I
exposed myself and my wife and I exposed ourselves to other cultures, we
didn’t understand much about human beings and other cultures. And
certainly we found out about people and other cultures they live differently,
they dress differently, they think differently, and there are other ways of
living very happy and successfully other than we live in the US. And I think
it helps us evaluate our own lives here, in this culture.

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Leaders at the SUOF defined globalization and the university’s “global
outlook” from a diverse perspective. These findings have a significant application in
enlightening our understanding on globalization and how people make sense of this
complex phenomenon at their local institution.
Cultural differences influence global change. Living in an interwoven world
raises the issue of being knowledgeable of differences and applying it to our field of
education. The US education serves students reflecting our demographic diversity.
Reaching out to the world with the goal to create partnerships is even more
challenging in terms of knowing laws, customs, beliefs and policies that affect a
partnership agreement. Literature reminds us that “National culture has been shown
to impact on major business activities” (Leung et al., 2005, p. 357). All the
interviews with the Program Director, the Program Manager and the President
identified culture differences as being at times a challenge in implementing global
change.
The Program Director reported that “Some cultures think that contracts can
be changed. They do not understand our procedure. They always think American is
squares”. Director’s comment appeared to mean that others are not aware that US
universities have to meet their rules and regulations as well, which sometimes can be
extensive.
Anthony, the Program Manager talked about the difference of time and
political system that require SUOF’s leaders to pay close attention on how to
interpret the request for training and to adjust to customers’ local time.
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Every time we receive a request [for training] we try to interpret their
interests from the American perspective, to make sure we are going to
address their questions correctly; sometimes there are questions that confuse
us.

The President Johnson identified language as the most important cultural challenge.
Yeah. How do you define an American? They only speak English, that’s the
common joke around the world. I think we have to have a greater expansion
of other languages, and I think the other language we should go to is
Spanish….But I think language is the main barrier… but when I went back to
Moscow, they were all talking to me in English. I was sitting there listening
to three Russians talking to me in English. And I could only talk English.

Reporting on his negotiation experience with Chinese partners, the Provost found
that credibility is an essential factor.
Our first meeting, we spent the hour talking to these officials, and at the end
of the meeting we got to the car and I said: ‘You didn’t ask if they were
interested’. She [the Program Director] said: You don’t ask that question.
You have to develop the relationship…. Understanding the culture. I thought
the whole trip was a friendship…. They have to believe that they want to do
business. Also to establish credibility. Credibility is very important. That’s a
very different part of the culture than America.

Dean Finland noticed cultural differences expressed in behavior responsiveness.
Most of the places we are working with are not going to be as forthcoming as
to what they would like to see different. We are here in the US, so we need to
pay attention to this context, and not necessarily because we are not hearing
anything, everything is fine. So that’s a challenge.

The Provost discussed the cultural internal differences within university. The faculty
perceived international programs as having different goals than academic
departments.
We are here to educate, the Extension Education [EE] is out to make money.
Faculty tend to approach something like this with some apprehension, with
some suspicion because they know, they know EE have to make a buck to
cover all the cost, so that’s often times a barrier.
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Implementing global change such as an international program requires covering
costs. Provost Kwan points out:
The self support programs have to not only generate enough profit to cover
all the costs, but they have to cover some university overhead. At SUOF we
have very good arrangements where the overhead goes to general campus
operations.

Dean Finland discussed the monetary issues as being a challenge in implementing
global changes.
... there is no government money involved, no state money involved, there is
actually very seldom that is external. A client relationship, and a client is
going to be paying.

Data from all the interviews mentioned some aspect of cultural differences that can
be challenging when dealing with partners from abroad. Leaders indicated they use
flexibility (Program Manager, Program Director), envision becoming fluent in
foreign languages in the future (President), travel abroad with faculty staff which
knowledgeable about the culture (Provost) as solutions to the cultural challenge.
Housing availability can affect the global innovation. There is close to none
available information on housing availability and globalization. This reality seems to
be justifiable on grounds of novelty of the field of globalization and higher education
and also of relatively limited experience of universities that are involved in
international partnerships and research in this field. Armstrong (2007) refers to the
activity of recruiting students to home campuses “when excess capacity exists” (p.
10) where capacity may encompass availability of enrollment as well as houses.
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Armstrong’s comments seem to indicate that capacity is a factor affecting the
university’s ability to enter into international agreements.
Dean Finland reported that shortage of housing was a practical challenge to
implement global change.
We don’t have dormitory availability. So we have to work with what’s the
housing arrangement is going to be, and the longer they have to stay,
[international students] the less likely a hotel is a good solution…. That up
until 1991 we didn’t have dormitories at all, and that year we opened
dormitories with a little over 800 beds and it remains this way to this day. We
have plans to add 1000 more, but we have 1,500 students, as you can see 800
beds don’t either go very far.

Discussion on Globalization
Leaders at SUOF interpreted globalization from a local perspective
(Marginson, 2002; Vaira, 2004) and a mission anchored in their perceived
responsibility to prepare their regional labor force. The only exception from this
view was the President’s position. President Johnson affirmed that the SUOF has the
mission to prepare the future leaders of the world which he envisioned as his
university’s mission in the global contextual outlook. This finding may lead to
conclude that leaders may think globally but they act according to their locally
existent conditions. This discovery means that knowledge about local conditions
become even more important then those about the global economy in general.
Although the global economy may affect an institution from a distance, the local
contextual factors act from near the university and within it.
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All the leaders identified cultural differences as a significant factor in
international education. It follows then that leaders may need to focus toward
developing sensitivity and acquire skills and knowledge appropriate to addressing
cultural differences.
Findings: Question 2
What system-level and local campus level factors influenced the
implementation of this global teacher education program? The study found three
main findings on question 2. The following emerged as the predominate factors;
Decisions on international programs and curriculum are made at the campus level;
Change needs to be supported by the entire community; Implementation of the
Academic Quality Team.
Decisions on International Programs and Curriculum
The study assumed that SUOF as part of a public multi campus system had
limited flexibility in implementing global changes (Armstrong, 2007; Douglass,
2000). Armstrong (2007) discussed the lack of state and national guidance. “US
higher education therefore has little State guidance or encouragement in creating
strategies for globalization. To the contrary, US higher education encounters many
obstacles in its globalization efforts created by lack of any coherent State viewpoint
(p. 6)”. Douglass (2000), specifically analyzing CSU system claimed the system
“gained moneys only for specific programs and faculty, with limited flexibility to
change priorities – although the funding process is less restrictive today than in the
past” (p. 323). The Master Plan also “restricted creative initiatives and the ability of
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the CSU campuses to develop new programs and evolve” (Douglass, 2000, p. 321).
Researcher learned from correspondence with the Chancellor office that campuses
decide on implementation of their international programs. “Decisions such as
involvement with international programs and globalization of curriculum are made at
the campus level, not here at the system office” (Assistant Vice Chancellor,
Academic Affairs, personal communication, February, 18, 2009). The researcher
compared statements at the system level describing system and campus related
attributions on curriculum and international programs. The study found:
The Board of Trustees is responsible for the oversight of the State University.
The Board adopts rules, regulations, and policies governing the State
University. The Board has authority over curricular development, use of
property, development of facilities and fiscal and human resources
management (“Board of Trustees", 2008).

The “State University Programs Planning Report Executive Summary”, 2008
evaluated the role of the internationalization within a large public university system.
The document recommended each campus to make clear its commitment to
international education in its mission statement, strategic planning and actions. The
document made specific recommendation for system and campus level to implement
international programs and partnerships with other universities. “Drawing on the
resources and capabilities of self-support units on Sate University campuses” the
effort to make sustainable and significant international partnership is appropriate (p.
15). At the campus level, the report recommended the “designation of a Senior
International Officer to promote and coordinate international activities system wide”
(p. 18). At SUOF there were two officers designated to have that function (p.19).
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However, during the interviews with five leaders at SUOF the data found no
indication that leaders knew about the system link and its function related to the
international programs at their campus level. In sum, the study found that the system
and state lack of guidance in developing international program may not be a current
valid statement. There is evidence found in the study that there is recent guidance
mapping the path for implementing at the campus level international initiative.
Although the state report was issued in 2007, the Teacher Professional Development
Program at the SUOF started in 2003. This means the program was a campus
initiated innovation which was developed several years ahead of the system created
guidelines.
Change Needs to be Supported by the Entire Community. Duke (2008) wrote
that transformational systemic change requires the support of the whole community.
The President of SUOF built alliances within a broad range of constituency in the
community and transformed them into active ”actors” of the China international
program (Duke, 2008, p.153). The Advisory Board created by the International
Programs at the SUOF included members from business, diplomacy, state legislation
and education with an interest in promoting partnership with China. The Advisory
Board gathered local, state and international leaders with common goals in
expanding partnership with Chinese universities (Ko, Cruz, 2007). So, this evidence
demonstrates the President’s ability to built alliances with a diverse group of people.
The literature suggests that leaders who “identify principal agents of political
influence and analyze possibilities for both internal and external mobilization” are
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mapping the political terrain for their initiatives, or in the other words they cultivate
a broad range of relationships to obtain support (Pichault, 1993 as cited in Bolman &
Deal, 2003, p. 207).
Implementation of the Academic Quality Team
The interviews with the Program Director and the Provost documented that
SUOF implemented structural change to provide international quality education.
Normally people think that extended education they may not think they are
getting high quality education; but at the SUOF, our program has quality
because we are an academic team that will always keep the best professor to
lecture on the topic. This Professor needs to be pre-approved by the college
to teach… the Chair and Dean will have to review and tell us if [he is]
qualified of if we have to get someone else. …This is the academic quality
control team.

The international education as a non credit bearing service raised sometimes the
issue of credibility. Provost Kwan explained during the interview how the SUOF
implemented change and addressed the quality issue.
To Admission it’s not credit you can count towards a degree. It’s just a
certificate you participated in this program. So I would say that there is
sometimes a question of credibility; if it is not credit bearing, experience, is
really, does it have enough substance? So what we have done at the SUOF to
minimize this, we do grant the course [approval], even though it’s not credit.
We do first give course approval, even if it’s a one lecture program, new
course, we do run through the department to seek their approval.

At the SUOF two leaders discussed in the interviews about the quality of
international education. The Academic Quality Team is aimed to ensure that the
professor’s qualification and the content of their courses meet the same or similar
criterion to the credit courses. This initiative is evidence of leaders’ strategy to
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increase internally accountability and externally project the university’s reputation
for the quality of the training it provides to Chinese teachers and other professionals.
Svenson and Coleman (1984) attributed the UCLA’s success in developing
international programs to the “existence of a university-wide monitoring group that
critically examines all inter institutional relationship from initial conception to
completion” (p.59). Similar to UCLA’s university-wide monitoring group, at the
SUOF there is also a Risk Management group that analyzes the proposals and the
program’s expenses and income. The Program Director and the Dean commented
during the interviews on the procedural signing of programs proposals. Each
initiative requires about ten signatures before it is implemented. This statement
seems to explain the Director’s comments on cultural expectations in terms of
procedures and negotiation. The Director reported that sometimes customers ask for
changes on contractual obligations expecting our US system to be permissive and
liberal.
Discussion on Findings from Question 2. Research Question 2 intended to
identify the main factors at the state and campus level that influenced the
implementation of change. The study found one system related factor related to
international education and two campus level factors of change. The study revealed
that there are recent recommendations at the state level that support implementation
of international innovation at the campus level. The recommendations are issued in
2007 and seem to encourage campuses to become more entrepreneurial in building
partnerships with foreign universities and be more explicit in their mission and goals
104
for international education. The findings from the interviews and documents revealed
at SUOF the International Program for Chinese educators was initiated in 2003.
The finding is significant because it documents a new orientation at the state
level with potential to act as an incentive in promoting global change. However,
practical wisdom may be exercised in becoming too optimistic about this
expectation. The study proved that the SUOF is a leader among other campuses in
the state system and its innovative experience can be applied by other campuses to
their specific context. However, in order to understand better how the state level
guidance will influence campuses, more research studies need to be conducted.
The study found two campus related indicators of change. Two forums have
been documented in international programs with the Chinese teachers. The President
created an inclusive Advisory Board to built support from the entire community and
the Academic Quality Team to ensure quality for the training provided.
Findings: Question 3
What indicators or benchmark of success were identified by the President
and program leadership for this innovative global program?
Drawing from interviews and documents sources, the study found three
indicators of success: Positive feedback; More participants are sent to be trained;
Trained students are successful with the training they receive. Svenson and Coleman
(1984) measured success of international programs by the following indicators:
“access gained by faculty and graduate students in situations where such access
would otherwise probably have been impossible; the continuous enrichment of
105
knowledge base on foreign areas in our research, and outreach programs and the
overall enhancement of the international dimension of UCLA’s academic mission”
(p.59).
Positive Feedback. Current literature suggests that assessment of
international programs is predominately provided by descriptive methods (Casale-
Giannola, 2000, Ross, 1992). The Program Manager explained that positive
comments at the end of the program informed the leaders about the participants’
satisfaction.
Normally they give us a report, like a feedback on the programs we provided
for them. In this report, it’s a reflection of the program quality. [The report] is
not written in the agreement, but we encourage them to write a report to us,
so we know what we can do to improve in the future…. It’s uploaded to our
website.

The researcher sought the website and found the English version the Program
Manager referred to, presented thank you letters from Chinese leaders after they
returned to their country.
Dean Finland based his evaluation of success on positive comments from the
participants
so most of it we have anecdotal input from individuals and situations where
we have received some positives [comments] or something that we tried and
it was successful.

Leaders seemed to agree that success in international education is related to the
continuation of program. So, in the absence of more systematic forms of assessment,
leaders use an intuitive logical approach that seems to say: If more groups are
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coming from the same university or from a new university as a result of
recommendation, it means the participants are satisfied with our training.
More Participants are Sent to Training. The Program Manager determines
success if its operation is smooth such as the equipment is in good condition, rooms
appropriately lit, the schedule runs on time:
There are many aspects in defining success; like the program goes smoothly
and the program participants are satisfied and they get what they expect to get
from us and it will help to get more programs coming to our university and
expedites the globalization of our university.

The Program Director defined success in terms of what is has been achieved so far:
You know, at the beginning, I didn’t define the program as successful. I said
if we achieve what we have achieved. I feel great pride in what we’re doing; I
feel we are helping people from different cultures in the world, understand
each other, especially educators…. I do not want to say it is a successful
program, but at least what we are doing contributes to the mission we move
forward. I think we are following the university’s mission with a global
outlook.

The researcher inferred from the pride on Director’s voice during the interviews that
continuation of the program during the last six years is for her an indicator of
success. The Program Director stated that “It [the international program with
Chinese teachers] started in 2003, and has never been stopped, and then the
program’s been enlarged”. The Provost identified the repetition of groups as an
indicator of success too.
If a group –with an agency or college or university – only sends one group- it
usually isn’t because of lack of money – it is because they’re going to find
some program that they enjoyed more – I think the repeat group; and we
apart [sent another group] and we’ll probably get a third group; so that tells
me that they are happy.

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Most leaders believed that repetition of groups is an indicator of success for
an international program with Chinese teachers. The Dean described that if by
“word of mouth from previous clients, they decide they’ll like to receive training
from the SUOF programs, then that would be another measure of success.” Dean’s
comments seem to say that recommendation from clients is also an indicator of
success
Trained Students are Successful with the Training they Received
The Dean and the President mentioned participants’ application of the US
training at their local environment as a potential indictor of success in international
programs.
I wish we were great at assessing how participants used the training in the
future; But we don’t! It would be very challenging internationally. So most of
it we have anecdotal input from individual and situations.

President Johnson thought that the best success in implementing a teacher
education program was: “when we bring in students from other countries and have
them go through training programs and they go back and are successful with the
training we have provided from them.”
The President mentioned a possible indicator of success that measures how
the participants apply what they have learned during the training. Although the
President does not offer a more explicit description on how this method can be
applyied, it is to anticipate that following the Chinese teachers abroad and learn how
they are evaluated in their schools, is a complex process.
108
Discussion on Research Question 3 In this study, leaders at the SUOF
describe indicators of success in international program through anecdotal records of
positive feedback, indirect indicator of satisfaction such as the rate of repeat of
trained groups and future application of the training at their local environment. The
leaders at the SUOF confirmed what the literature suggested that assessment in
international programs is still a topic in need of solution and more research. The
important finding with practical potential to reflect success is the rate of repeat of
groups of participants. This indicator may be used to document quantitatively how
many groups attended the training and afford to add to it qualitative data such as the
feedback of participants’ satisfaction of their training.
The findings from this study are similar to previous studies (Svenson &
Coleman, 1984; Casale-Giannola, 2000; Ross, 1992). The rate of repeat is an
exception with potential to provide more data for analysis. Future studies may need
to focus on finding indicators of measurement to international program. When asked
about successful international programs leaders employed two perspectives. The
leaders who indicated the rate of repeat as a program indicator, thought about the US
program perspective. The President indicated the participant’s point of view when
mentioned the applicability of training. This point is important in clarifying those
indicators of success in international program need to reflect an economic
perspective as well such as the costs. However, the information about budgets and
cost allocation is presumed to be mostly confidential. These circumstances add more
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complexity to the field of designing efficient measurement instruments for
international programs, an area future research needs to address.

Table 2: Reports the Findings from Data Collected and the Study Research
Questions

Research Questions Findings / Keywords /
Themes
Source of data collections
1. How does the vision
of the President of a
public, regional,
comprehensive
university lead to the
implementation of an
innovative global
teacher education
program?
• vision
• advocates for
international
programs
• participates to
ceremonial events
• travels aboard to
promote the
university programs
and mission
• talks in appropriate
settings
• networking at local
and international
level
• globalization is
locally defined
• cultural challenges
• housing availability
interviews with the president,
program director, manager,
provost, dean
on line articles at SUOFwebsite
McLaren (2005) Bringing the
global experience Cruz, (2007)
Asia Associations Extended
Education Makes International
Connections; Ramos (2007)
SUOF’s Master’s in Education
Degree to Students in China;
SUOF’s President to speak at
Education Conference in
Cambodia Newsline, Jan., 2003).
documents: approval steps and
considerations at www. SUOF;
2009 Higher Ed. Adm. Training
Program for Foreign Trade Univ.;
2008 Public Ed. Adm. Training
For Beijing Xuanwu District Ed.
Commission; Advanced Training
program for Distinguished Public
School Teachers from Nanjing,
RPC; 2008
Professional Development
SUOF advertisement flyer
CSU International Programs
Planning Group Report Executive
Summary
observation: lecture on
international commerce;
observation of the setting;
observation of program Director.
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Table 2, continued

Research Questions Findings / Keywords /
Themes
Source of data collections
2. What system level
and local campus level
factors influenced the
implementation of a
global teacher education
program?
decisions on international
programs and curriculum
are made at the campus
level
• change needs to be
supported by the
entire community
• implementation of
the Academic Quality
Team
correspondence with the
Assistant Vice Chancellor
interviews with the president,
program director, manager, dean,
provost
documents: approval steps and
considerations
CSU International Programs
Planning Group Report Executive
Summary
3. What indicators of
success were identified
by the President and
program leadership for
this innovative global
teacher education
program?
• positive feedback
• more participants are
sent to receive
training
• trained students are
successful with the
training they receive
interviews with the president,
program director, manager,
provost and dean
website where participants sent
thank you notes for the training
they received
statistics on the numbers of
partnership (international partners
lists 15 Chinese universities
having partnerships with SUOF
SUOF.edu/world/faculty
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of the study was to explore how the President at a public four
year university, comprehensive, regional university, belonging to a state university
system implemented global initiatives into its mission and programs. The study
reviewed literature on the themes of globalization on higher education, leadership
and international programs in teacher education. The study employed two theoretical
frameworks to analyze the main research topics, globalization and leadership in
higher education.
Armstrong’s (2007) multinational framework on globalization is the
perspective of analysis chosen to describe how leaders at the State University of the
Future, (SUOF) the case study site, implemented global initiative such as an
International Professional Development Teacher Education for Chinese teachers. The
second framework was Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership in
analyzing characteristics of an effective senior leader in implementing global change
in higher education.
Summary of Findings
The next three sections in the chapter present a summary of findings on
globalization, leadership and indicators of success in international programs. The
purpose of the summary is to discuss how the findings in the study agree, disagree or
reflect the literature reviewed. The discussion incorporates the two theoretical
112
frameworks associated with globalization (Armstrong’s 2007) and leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Discussion on Globalization
There are three significant findings discussed in this section: 1) globalization
is locally defined; 2) system and campus level factors of global change; c) cultural
differences influence globalization.
The study found that leaders at the SUOF define globalization from an
eclectic perspective steaming from the university’s local mission. Armstrong (2007)
argued that universities are funded by public local and state government and
consequently their mission is to their own region and nation. The SUOF’s mission is
to “strive to be a center of activity essential to the intellectual, cultural and
economical development of our region” while it describes the university as
comprehensive, regional and with a “global outlook (SUOF.edu/catalog). There is no
common agreement among the interviewed SUOF’s leaders on how to define
globalization or the university’s stated “global outlook”. Most of the leaders at the
SUOF believe the university has a “global outlook” since it is engaged in
international education and serves a diverse community with global ties.
This is not a surprising finding since “globalization is not yet a scientific
construct” (Stromquist, 2002, p.iii). What becomes important is that, according to
Stromquist (2002), “we need descriptions of contexts and settings that capture
significant features in a variety of countries and regions” in order to understand what
globalization means (p.iii). Marginson and Rhoades (2002) observed also the need
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to emphasize on specific local conditions to understand how globalization is
implemented. The authors called for more studies on “local responses”, “actors” and
“practices” to understand how universities participate to international activities (p.
286). Marginson and Rhoades (2002) identified that globalization is influenced by
three dimensions which act simultaneously within an agency called “glonacal” (p.
281). The three indicators are the global, national and local level. The glonacal
agency directs our attention to the significance of local context among the global and
the national conditions as indicators of global change. At the SUOF leaders defined
globalization from different perspectives, attributing different degrees of significance
to the local, national and global mission on explaining their interpretation of
globalization. Marginson and Rhoades (2002) claimed that
even as universities position themselves globally, there is heightened local
and state government and public pressure to expand their involvement in
local context. For example, in many states of the US there is strong policy
pressure to limit the proportion of out of state students not to mention
international students in public universities. The idea is that state tax dollars
should be used for state residents” (p.304).

There is an abundance of evidence from the study to support the claim that
the SUOF is strongly committed to create international partnerships such as
exchange of students and faculty, US students study abroad, customized professional
development programs for teachers, administrators, business and short and long term
design. Literature reviewed describes these forms of partnerships as representing an
intensive traditional stage of internationalization (Casale-Giannola, 2000; Rapoport,
2006; Ross, 1992; Scott, 2000). Although leaders at the SUOF interpret their
114
engagement in international programs as examples for globalization and the
“university’s global outlook” there is no evidence to claim that they do or intend to
implement global institutional and structural changes in order to develop agreements
such as off shoring, twinning or franchising of educational services as described by
Armstrong’s multi-national model of globalization (2007).
Finding that globalization is defined by the university’s local mission is
significant because it directs our attention to specific contextual factors that shape
global change (Suarez-Orozco & Qin- Hilliard, 2004; Marginson, 2002; Vaira, 2004)
and points toward the need for future research studies into the university local level.
System and campus level factors influence global change is the second
significant finding in this study. The study assumed that the state system which
oversees the multi campus public university system impacts the implementation of
global innovations at the campus level. The literature discussed the structure of a
public university as part of a multi-campus public university system and its
potentially limited flexibility to implement global initiatives (Armstrong, 2007;
Douglass, 2000; Marginson & Rhoades, 2002). The study assumed that global
initiatives at the campus level are hindered by levels of bureaucratic approval at the
system level. Armstrong (2007) posited that “US higher education [therefore] has
little State guidance or encouragement in creating strategies for globalization. To the
contrary, US higher education encounters many obstacles in its globalization efforts
created by lack of any coherent State viewpoint” (p. 6). The assumption is
challenged by evidence in the study.
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Evidence from the study reveals that decision of global initiatives, programs
and curriculum are made at the campus level and not the system level “Decisions
such as involvement with international programs and globalization of curriculum are
made at the campus level, not here at the system office” (Assistant Vice Chancellor,
Academic Affairs, personal communication, February, 18, 2009). A State University
International Planning Group, Final Report in 2007, reinforces that campuses within
the state system have the ability to decide and implement international partnerships.
However, the study did not find any comments during the interview with the leaders
at the SUOF to link their local, campus level initiative with state recent
encouragement of international innovation although there are two representatives
from the state planning group employed at the SUOF. It may be implied from this
statement that the two representatives are not well known by the Extended Education
University which is the place for conducting international programs.
Shifting the decision from the state level to the campus level to promote
international partnership is important because it allows public campuses to be more
flexible in promoting global change. Deem (2001) predicted that in the present
global economy, the reduction of public funds for higher education may have even
the public universities enter into practices and values of private sector. Another
important point about the 2007 state level policy allows us to emphasize that the
SUOF, as a campus within a state public university multi campus university,
implemented the International Program, Asia, customized Teacher Education for
Chinese Teacher Program, in 2003. It means the program started several years ahead
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of state new policy. Consequently, the SUOF is a leader in implementing global
innovation and its experience serves as a role model.
At the campus level, support from the entire community is identified as a
significant factor in implementing global change. Literature reviewed suggests that
change can be achieved when the entire community supports it (Duke, 2008; Maier
& Weidner, 1975; Svenson & Coleman, 1984). Corroborating data from interviews
and documents supports the conclusion that at the SUOF the leaders created teams
across university for implementing international programs. The president and
program leaders discussed how faculty, students and community leaders actively
participate at the Advisory Board. The Quality Academic Team ensures that
international education has the same quality as the courses for US students and
maintains university’s reputation. This discovery is namely significant for the
practice of creating teams of people with broad expertise and various field of
authority which can support innovation and change.
Welch (2002) on his article Going Global? Internationalizing Australian
Universities in a Time of Global Crises discussed that quality of international
programs, “appeared at times, insufficiently adapted to the needs of international
students” (p. 455). Although Welch referred to Australian universities, he pointed
out that “such critiques largely parallel those voiced by a minority of international
students in the United States and the United Kingdom” (p.455). The Quality
Academic Team at the SUOF demonstrates there is a campus wide concern for the
117
quality of the customized international programs and also there is a structural
organizational component to address it.
The third significant finding related to globalization refers to culture. All the
leaders mentioned cultural norms, beliefs, language as being an important factor to
creating global partnerships (Leung et al., 2005). Leaders described through their
own experiences that being culturally competent promoted their ability to connect
and create partnerships across differences. When faced with challenges such as
interpreting the partners’ request on short notices, leaders indicated they had to be
flexible and to expect changes to their initial agreements. The President reflected on
his proficiency in English only as a potential limitation to his ability to relate to non
English speakers. President’s reflection means that in a global environment, it may
be necessary for US universities to ask its leaders to acquire foreign languages to
bridge across language differences.
Perrucci and Hu (1995) compared the Chinese (PRC, Taiwan) and US-style
of business negotiation. The authored described that the Chinese graduate students
placed more emphasis on harmony, displaying restrained public behavior. The
American negotiation style starts with recognition of differences and an “honest
confrontation” which is perceived as an aggressive strategy (Perrucci & Hu, 1995, p.
494). In business relationship there are also differences. Americans adopt an
equalitarian attitude among co-workers with different ranks, while Chinese tend to
distinguish between levels of authority and friendship.
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The discussion is relevant to leaders in the study who reported on negotiation
with their Chinese partners as being delayed until credibility and trust was built
between partners. This point becomes important because cultural differences which
are not addressed appropriately may inhibit communication and understanding
(Perrucci & Hu, 1995). However leaders and international professional development
participants are more flexible in their values than the traditional foreigners are
described (Perrucci & Hu, 1995).
The study employed Armstrong’s (2007) theoretical framework. Armstrong
posits that the US universities lag behind the corporate multi-national model. As
business organizations cross national borders to find new sources of revenue, more
favorable prices and labor, it is suggested that university might follow the same path
in order to create partnerships with other foreign institutions. Off shoring, twinning
and franchising of educational services are examples of agreements consistent to the
corporate multi national model. These global business innovations require
universities to make major structural changes. Armstrong (2007) argued that
universities are funded by public local and state government and consequently their
mission is to their own region and nation.
Consistent to Armstrong’s (2007) argument, the study found that leaders
defined globalization from a local mission and a broad range of perspectives. The
study identified abundant evidence of multi forms of international partnerships
similar to the stage of an intense traditional internalization or hub and spoke stage.
The description refers to the movement of persons across the border such as
119
exchange of students and faculty who return at the US campus or the Chinese
campus at the end of the course, program or research project. There is also
movement of content across border such as faculty teaching abroad, or Chinese
professors visiting the SUOF. There is no evidence in this study to claim that leaders
do, or envision in the near future any organizational or institutional change consistent
to off shoring, twinning, franchising of international education. The SUOF is a leader
among other campuses in the state system in implementing global innovation.
Discussion on Leadership
In the area of leadership and globalization, this study explored how leaders
implemented an innovative program in international teacher education with Chinese
teachers. There are three significant findings relevant to this area: a) leaders’ vision
as factor of change; b) leader’s specific actions to promote global change; c)
consistency of being in office as a factor of promoting innovation.
Leader’s ability to envision the future and lead the process of change is a
crucial indicator of effective leadership (Neumann & Bensimon, 1990). The
interviews with senior leaders at the SUOF revealed that the President has clearly a
vision about disseminating knowledge and promoting exchange of information as an
important factor of change. The SUOF’s President is dedicated to the
implementation of international education for the benefit of US students and
international community as well. The study reviewed literature analyzing presidents’
characteristics, strategic leadership styles and actions. The literature suggests that
Presidents, who direct their attention to the world, are willing to make contributions
120
to the humankind in general, visualize their institution as an active participant in the
interdependent world, act as “ambassadors to the outside world are described as type
A presidents and are linked to institution in good financial shape (Neumann &
Bensimon, 1990). This description is relevant to President Johnson because he has a
vision about implementing international partnership, sees globalization as the “wave
of the future” and believes that education of the leaders of the world is his
university’s mission. Another study found that visioning, focusing and
implementing the vision as the three transformational abilities of a leader who can
move the organization to carry out change (Neumann & Neumann, 2000). Duke
(2008) described that change starts at the top, which means a visionary leader has the
potential to bring about change.
President Johnson, as the data from the interviews showed, sets the tone in
his institution by discussing the vision, creating the environment and supporting its
implementation. Maier and Weidner (1975) asserted, “without substantial leadership
from the top, no university will go far toward innovation” (p. 69). Although the
process of visioning change in the future is critical, leader’s vision alone is not
enough to command change. Kouzes and Posner (2009) add another layer to the
visionary leader of the future. The authors describe a vision building process where
the best leader understands that “inspiring a shared vision” make everybody part of
the vision development (as cited in Hesselbein & Goldsmit, p. 32-34). The authors
seem to say that this does not mean we have to stop taking the view that visions
121
come from the top, but we may have to expect effective leaders of the future engage
others in a dialogue about the institutional future.
President Johnson leads the process of global innovation in his university by
participation and involvement. President’s specific actions are identified in this study
as significant to his leadership effectiveness. The President advocates for
international programs, participates as a member at state and national organizations,
university ceremonials and special events, delivers speeches in appropriate
leadership speeches, travels abroad and builds local and international alliances.
The literature describes and reports in several studies what presidential
actions are found to be linked to effective leadership in innovation. Heimovics et al.,
(1993) identified observable actions employed by Presidents such as developing new
information, emphasize objective goals, and/or mission that can be interpreted as
advocating for certain programs such as international programs. Similar to
advocating is Neumann and Bensimon’s (1990) description of the type A presidents,
who employed a mode of action like an “initiator” and who thinks about the future
more than about the present.
Bass (1985) wrote that charismatic leaders evoke rituals, ceremonies,
practices to arouse “visions of a preferred organizational future” (as cited in
Heimovics et al., 1993, p.422). There is evidence in the study that President Johnson
is an active participant at many local events in his campus. The events are published
in the university’s Photo Gallery and all the users notice that the President cares, are
there among students, faculty and community members. The president’s attendance
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at ceremonies, events with different orientation, cultural, academic, political,
budgeting sends the message of something being significant.
The leaders in the study mentioned in interviews, that when the president
travels abroad to join the Deans, Vice presidents and Program leaders, he conveys
the message that international education rates high on his agenda. In addition, the
foreign partners interpret his presence as a symbol of credibility and prestige.
The president disseminates information and advocates for international
programs by talking in leadership appropriate settings and delivering speeches.
Maier and Weidner (1975) describes events such as annual “state of the university”
speeches at the beginning of each school year, informal comments at faculty
meetings, conversations with faculty, informal remarks before community,
professional, faculty or students as opportunities for leaders to talk and advocate for
innovation. President Johnson spoke to International Conferences and events during
his travels abroad. His speeches made his vision known to different constituencies,
local and abroad and advocated for international education.
Maier and Waidner (1975) asserted that “to be a member of the academy is to
be a member of a national and even an international profession” and therefore, at the
University of Wisconsin Green Bay, travel funds are used selectively to send faculty
members to conferences and seminars and to visit institutions which encourage
innovations (p. 73).Visitors coming to the campus is interpreted as a validation that
what happens in the campus is important. “The many academic visitors to the
campus enhance the feeling of importance of the task on hand. In this way successful
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innovation begets still further innovation” (p.73). The essence of this is that traveling
to market the university and having visitors from abroad are effective practices to
promote international programs.
Senior leaders and the President himself emphasized that the agenda on
international education is mostly advanced by his ability and orientation to built
alliances. Teams and alliances are broadly mentioned by the literature as essential in
implementing change (Duke, 2008; Heimovics et al., 1993; Maier & Weidner, 1975;
Svenson & Coleman, 1984). The UCLA experience in implementing international
partnership included the creation of a Task Force to monitor campus wide the
international activities. The SUOF implemented a similar Academic Quality Team to
ensure the quality of the international programs. The President participates at the
Advisory Board Meetings which is a forum to bring together community leaders
with a diverse field of professional activity but with an interest in promoting
partnership with Chinese universities.
President’s consistency of office tenure is a significant factor of effective
leadership. In addition to his vision, specific actions, ability to forge alliances for the
promotion of his vision, the study observed a unique characteristic of President’s
Johnson’s leadership; his tenure in office. President Johnson ensured a consistent
leadership service for over nineteen years at the same university and state university
system. Neumann and Bensimon (1989) found that presidents who were in office
more than five years, were able to handle a more complex range of responsibilities
confirming what it is often said that practice and experience make the individuals
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more effective on their line of work. Being in office for much more than average
presidents, President Johnson provided to his institution a consistent vision and
stability. This finding allows us to deduce that consistency and coherence of vision
over time is a factor that is conducive to global innovation.
The study applied Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frame of leadership to
analyze President’s leadership characteristics at the SUOF. The study found that the
President advocates for the international programs and for the implementation of the
university’s global mission which he believes is to develop partnership with more
universities and provide opportunities to the US students and faculty to gain a first
hand understanding of other cultures and countries while preparing the future leaders
of the world in our philosophy.
The President creates also appropriate alliances such as the Advisory Board,
develops agenda favoring the expansion of agreements with universities from
different geographical areas, helps to find common interest and unite coalitions in his
organization such as the Academic Quality Team. The President supported the
process of implementing new international programs follow the same procedure
across the university regardless the department where it originated. According to
Bolman and Deal (2003) advocacy and building alliances are images of leadership
and a leader who has a political frame.
The findings of the study reveled also that the President has a clear vision
about the future of his institution. The President talks with committees and groups of
constituents, tells stories of his own life experience, inspires others to develop
125
international programs, presides at ceremonies, emphasizes that he is the leading
force in promoting change in the organization. Vision, presiding at ceremonies,
inspiring, talking on committees emphasizing his role in implementing change, all
are attributes Bolman and Deal (2003) precisely identified as related to a leader with
a symbolic leadership frame. President’s own statement and participants’ description
of his leadership style and actions are conducive to concluding that President
Johnson’s leadership perspective is predominantly political and symbolic. Although
elements and description of structural and human resource leadership frames are
present or they can be interpreted as such, the political and symbolic frames are
dominant.
Discussion on Indicators of Success for International Programs
The study found that leaders at the SUOF described success through
interpretation of participants’ satisfaction expressed through “Thank you” notes
received at the end of the program, repetition of groups which are sent from the same
institution based on groups’ own experience or recommendations, and by meeting
the demands of the initial agreement. These findings seem to echo what the literature
signals such as a lack of common practice to evaluate through indicators of success
the efficiency of the International Teacher Education Program with the Chinese
teachers or lack of “demonstrable results for students, undergraduates, domestic and
international” (Tambascia, 2005). Stevenson and Coleman (1984) referred to an
extensive exchange program with three institutions in the People’s Republic of China
as being “positive and productive as measured by access gained by our faculty and
126
graduate students in situation where such access would otherwise probably have
been impossible; the continuous enrichment of the knowledge base on foreign areas
in our research, teaching, and outreach programs; and the overall enhancement of the
international dimension of U.C.L.A.’s academic mission” (p. 59). Ross (1992)
studied the factors that contributed to a reputation of effectiveness of international
programs at public, four year colleges and universities. The study reported that
expert participants identified the number of foreign languages taught; number of
students; domestic participation in study abroad and perception of upper level
support administration as factors linked to effectiveness of international programs.
Rapoport (2006) and Casale-Giannola(2000) both found that participants described
the benefits of participation on international educational activities in a qualitative
manner.
Steven K. Trooboff, head of the Council on International Education
Exchange claimed the case for international education needs to be explained. “The
paradigm for educational exchange was always, ‘Send people around the world and
the world will be a better place, ‘ “There’s nothing wrong with that, and it’s true. But
in this hard nosed environment, we need to rethink that paradigm and, especially, to
identify and explain what the real payoff is for the United States in international
education. And today the payoff is economic and social, not idealistic” (as cited in
Duissereaux, 1996, p. A45).
Trooboff’s remark is a confirmation of the standard way of thinking about the
international programs. It is often said that international activities in the form of
127
sending and hosting visitors from other universities has a valuable contribution to
our experiences and knowledge. However, the articulation of how to measure the
effects of those experiences is still an unsolved topic. Trooboff seems to suggest that
a quantitative way of assessing results would be more appropriate to support the case
for the international activities in our current environment dominated by
accountability.
The data collected from interviews with five senior leaders at the SUOF
revealed that success of international programs is identified as obtaining infrequent
positive feed back as indicator of satisfaction in the form of “Thank you” notes at the
end of the program, resending groups from the same university, or assuming that the
partners obtained the training they expected. The study did not document the leaders
have in place a plan to assess the efficiency of the program. The findings are
consistent with the literature reviewed which signals an urgent need to design more
effective, research based assessment tools in the area of international activities.
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study have implications in the area of practical field of
implementing global change, knowledge about leadership actions and characteristics
conducive to successful innovative international programs in public universities
which belong to a state multi campus system.
The study discovered that in the state where the study was conducted, a
public university which is included in the state multi campus system can decide and
implement global initiatives based on recent new recommendations and policies.
128
This discovery means that all the other campuses may develop international
partnership and also benefit from the experience the SUOF campus acquired by
being a leader in this innovation.
The study reported that leaders who have a vision, a consistent presence in
office over a longer period of time, and employ certain actions such as participate at
ceremonials, events, talk in appropriate leadership settings, deliver speeches, travel
abroad and create coalitions to advance their agendas, are effective in promoting
international programs. The most unusual findings described in the study are related
to President’s active presence abroad and his consistent office tenure. These findings
make a contribution to our practical understanding of an effective leader dealing with
international education. Leaders who are engaged in the field of global innovation
may employ actions which are found by this study as positively related to effective
change in higher education. Neumann and Bensimon (1990) emphasized that
“research that ends with description that is driven by existent rather than created (or
reconstructed) theory tends to elaborate on that which is already known. Although its
findings may be informative, it does not represent new knowledge” (p. 681). The
researcher asserts this description is built on a known frame of analysis but it shields
light in a new and unexplored area, globalization and higher education.
The second field of practical implication for this study is related to the
discovery of leaders’ diverse interpretation of globalization and their institutional
mission. The theoretical frame of analysis, Armstrong’s (2007) was applied to
describe leaders’ view of globalization. Based on the compilation of data from
129
interviews and documents it may be concluded that the SUOF is at an intensive stage
of traditional internalization. There were no data from the study to claim that leaders
do intend to promote cross border activities and to develop international partnership
in the form of off shoring, twinning or franchising of educational services as
Armstrong’s (2007) multi-national model described, at least at this time. However,
the study found that leaders are strongly committed to expand their international
partnerships and engage in internationally related education services. This finding
may direct us in the future toward a deeper analysis of specific local conditions,
policies, demographics, traditions, cultural customs and norms that appear to shape
leaders’ interpretation and application of globalization (Stromquist, 2002).
The study documented the process of implementing a global initiative with an
international teacher education program for Chinese teachers. The study reviewed
literature related to other international programs and documented that indicators of
success are still elusive and at the anecdotal, intuitive, participant satisfaction level.
This finding falls under the area of designing research based assessment indicators
for the effectiveness of international programs. The research study in this field is
further complicated by usage of terms in international programs which are not
commonly standardized. For instance, it is not commonly agreed in the literature
how to describe a program that is geared toward Chinese teachers and it is delivered
by a US university. Terminology may use: international programs, study abroad,
professional teacher education, exchange programs, short term professional
programs. All these terms then make it difficult to find indicators of success because
130
they do not refer directly to participants or to the university that delivers the
program. It is to say, this is a task for further research in the field to clarify what an
international program entails and how to assess its efficiency. Perrucci and Hu
(1995) mentioned potential variable measurements of international student
satisfaction such as the student’s satisfaction with Academic Program measured by
the student’s evaluation of his experience with a major professor, faculty, and
relations with other US graduates, students, quality of instruction in courses,
counseling or advisory office.
Recommendations for Research
The study found recent policies at the state level system that encourage local
campus level implementation of international partnerships. Based on the finding that
more than half of the campuses included in their statement mission implementation
of global changes, the researcher recommends that other studies to be conducted on
campuses with a different location in the state and analyze how local contextual
factors influence the meaning of globalization in those institutions that belong to the
same state system.
The study used Armstrong’s (2007) multi-national model of globalization to
analyze global innovation at a public university. The study documented that leaders
still interpret globalization from a perspective different than the corporation model.
Although there are indications that public institutions are encouraged to become
more self sufficient in providing for their own budgetary needs and international
programs may offer such an opportunity, currently there are only few signs of
131
innovations or beginning of turning to international education as a mean to bring in
revenues. However, this opportunity, to provide money for the university, as an
entrepreneurial activity, it is not an explicit issue that leaders in this study discussed
or entertained. Further research is needed to inform the public university about the
sustainability of a teacher education program by using a different frame work.
The study reviewed literature related to international programs and
documented that indicators of success are still anecdotal and no systematic
assessment is used to inform the public and the participants about the effectiveness
of a teacher education program. In order to strengthen the assessment process of the
effectiveness of a short term training program for teachers, a longitudinal research
study would analyze its long effects for the participants and the university’s
perspective.
Conclusion
Globalization is important because it is a lasting phenomenon with
implications for the future of our institutions, society and culture. “Globalization will
continue to increase further and interact with other changes” (Hesselbein and
Goldsmith, 2009, p.312). Changes in higher education brought about by
globalization are not yet clearly understood and explained. It is therefore the task of
researchers to pursue discovering how innovators navigate the present uncharted
land of global change and to inform the field about their findings. It is asserted then,
that this dissemination of research based experiences will benefit other leaders who
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will translate to their specific contextual conditions the lessons learned from this
study.
133
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ON LEADERSHIP, GLOBALIZATION, CHANGE
AND INDICATORS OF SUCCESS AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO THE
LITERATURE REVIEW
Themes Findings Literature review
Question1. Leadership

Globalization
president’s vision leads to
global change
advocacy
participation at
international events
extended networking
speeches

it has not a universal
definition
it is locally defined
Bensimon, (1988); Neumann
and Neumann, (1990);
Neumann and Bensimon,
(1990); Northouse , (2004);
Duke, (2008); Fulan, (2001);
Bolman and Deal, (2003);
Heimovics et al., (1991)
Armstrong, (2007); Brody,
(2007); McLaren, (2005);
Ramos,(2007);Cruz,(2007)
Meister, 1998);Scott,(2000)
Stromquist, (2000); Vaira
(2004); Marginson (2002)
Question 2.
Factors of global change
within a public US state
university system, the
policy allows each campus
to decides on international
programs
president leads the effort of
global change
mobilization of academic
departments
Academic Quality Team
China offers opportunities
for partnerships
faculty support
departmental collaboration
Douglass, (2000); CSU
International Planning Group
Final report, (2008); Fulan,
(2001);
Vaira(2004)
Marginson( 2002)
Maier and Weidner (1975)
Hage (1999)
Leung et al.,2005)
Question 3.
Indicators of success
participants’ satisfaction
continuation of the program
Stevenson and Coleman,
(1984); Casale-Giannola,
(2000); Ross, 1992);
Rapoport,(2006);
142
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ON OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES
Findings Source of data collection Analysis
Cultural differences
• Contracts as bounding
agreements
• Semantic
interpretations of
terms and educational
concepts based on an
educational and
government different
system
• Building relationship
with government
officials requires
credibility before
concluding business
partnerships.
• Time differences
• High daily level of
stress
interviews and
observations

leaders in the program
perform several tasks in
the same time, need to
check all the details on
operations to make sure
all details are in place
To overcome
challenges the
program leaders
practice flexibility in
dealing with these
challenges.
Local bureaucracy in
approving the contracts; 10
signatures are required
Risk documentation to be
lost, misplaced, delayed due
to vacations, sickness,
conference attendance
interview A tracking system has
been implemented to
prevent loss and
delay
Lack of adequate housing
availability
interview
faculty apprehension for
extended education; EE is
perceived as inferior
education since is a non credit
education and aimed to gain a
profit
interview
costs need to cover program
and overhead cost
interview
global crisis or recession interview
143
APPENDIX C
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education, Doctor of Education Program
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON- MEDICAL RESEARCH
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
GLOBALIZATION of a Teacher Education Program at a Comprehensive State
University Campus: A Case Study
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Aura Felicia Sburlan,
M.A. and Dean Karen Symms Gallagher, Ph. D. from the Rossier School of
Education Program at the University of Southern California because you are
identified as a leader who influenced global changes in your institution. You were
selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a senior administrative
leader at the University of California Fullerton/ California University System. A total
of 3 to 10 subjects will be selected from your institution’s senior leadership
administrative team to participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should read
the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand,
before deciding whether or not to participate. Please take as much time as you need
to read the information sheet. You also decide to discuss it with your family or
friends. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to participate in a research study because we are trying to learn
more about how the senior leadership at the California State University Fullerton has
created institutional change by integrating globalization into its institutional mission
and an international teacher education program.

Completion and response to the interview questions will constitute consent to
participate in this research project.

PROCEDURES
You will be asked to participate in one-on-one, individual interview at a place of
your choice at California State University: Fullerton or Chancellor Office. The initial
interview should take approximately 45 to 90 minutes of your time. The types of
questions you will be asked may include your opinion about leadership and global
change in higher education.
144
Following the initial interview, and if you agree to it, the researcher may contact you
post interview by email or phone in case follow-up information is needed. The
amount of time spent for follow-up questions, either by phone, email or in person,
should not exceed more than 90 minutes total of your time. You will be asked to
allow us to audio tape the interviews.

The researcher will conduct several participant observations of meetings, activities,
events without being involved in any of them. Notes and photographs may be taken
during the observations. You may still participate in this research even if you do not
wish to be audio taped or photographed.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; you may experience some
discomfort in answering the interview questions or you may be inconvenienced from
taking time out of your day to complete the interview. Questions asked that make
you feel uncomfortable may be skipped or not answered.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.
However, there is a possibility that researchers may learn about institutional global
efforts.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment for participation in this research study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. The information which has your identifiable
descriptors will be kept separately from the rest of the data.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. The institution name, California State
University Fullerton and its program may be identified for the purposes of this study.
Personal information collected, such as your name, will not be disclosed during the
study. Rather your title/role at the institution and system level will be used (ex.
Chancellor, President, Dean, Program Director, administrative leader) to identify
your position at the institution.

The data will be stored for three years after the study has been completed and then
destroyed.

145
Before the interview begins, you will be asked by the researcher if the interview can
be audio taped and notes taken. The researcher will be the only person with access to
audio tape recording and notes gathered. Information recorded during this time will
be used for the purposes of this research study only. If you decline the option for
audio recording or note taking, you may continue to participate in the study.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. Only your title and/or
role associated with the institution or the system will be disclosed. As the
subject/participant of the study, you have the right to review/edit your tape up until
the completion of the study.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may
also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the
study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have any questions about your rights as a
study subject or you would like to speak with someone independent of the research
team to obtain answers to questions about the research, or in the event the research
staff can not be reached, please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice
Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact :

Dean Karen Symms Gallagher, Ph. D, Principal Investigator
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall, Room 11o1
Los Angeles, California 90089
Ph: (213) 740-8313
146
Aura Felicia Sburlan, M.A., Study Researcher
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
asburlan@usc.edu
or at Los Angeles City College 323 953-4000 ext 2225
Aura Sburlan
USC IRB: APP-08-08875
147
APPENDIX D
RECRUITMENT – PHONE/EMAIL DIALOGUE FOR SENIOR
LEADERS/CHANCELLOR
Hello__________________________
My name is Aura Sburlan and I am an EdD student in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California (USC) in Los Angeles, California.

I am conducting a research study called the “Globalization of a Teacher Education
Program at a Comprehensive State University Campus: A Case Study. I intend to
describe how the senior leadership team at California State University Fullerton
created institutional changes by integrating globalization into its mission and
international programs. Your participation is voluntary. If you agree to participate, I
would like to set up an interview session to ask you some questions about your
perspectives on the topic of the research. I would like to arrange a one-on one
interview at a place of your choice on campus at CSUF/Chancellor Office. I expect
this interview should take approximately 45 to 90 minutes of your time.

If you are interested or have any questions please do not hesitate to contact me. I can
be reached by phone during the day between 1:00PM-2:30 PM at 323 953-4000 ext
2225 or 323 665-9241 or by email at asburlan@usc.edu; Aura_Sburlan_Yahoo.com

Sincerely yours, Aura Sburlan USC EdD Student, Class 2006
Date of preparation : January 5, 2009 UPIRB#:UP-08-00373
Aura Sburlan
148
APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR UNIVERSITY SENIOR LEADERS
1. In your opinion, how would you define leadership in higher education?
2. How would you describe an effective higher education leader?
3. What are your views on globalization in general?
4. What are your views on globalization in higher education in particular?
5. As a comprehensive, regional public university, what do you see as
advantageous in the pursuit of a mission for developing a global outlook?

6. How has the institutional organizational structure changed, if at all, in
response to a global mission?

7. As one of the 23 campuses within the California University system, how do
you define your role in implementing global initiatives?

8. In your institution, who do you think is leading the effort to embrace global
initiatives? What does this leadership style look like?

9. What are the obstacles and challenges to institutionalize global initiatives?
10. How did you overcome these challenges? How have you mediated the local
and global mission of your institution?

11. What support structure is in place that promote global initiatives in your
institution?

12. There are global initiatives in your institution directed to China and other
Asian countries. In your opinion, what motivated the implementation of those
initiatives?

13. International education in the form of exchange of students and faculty is a
long-standing educational international activity. What do you think it is
unique about an international program for teachers?

14. Are there examples or models of international programs for teachers that
have been helpful in guiding your global initiative?
149
15. What have been the greatest successes in regard to the international Teacher
Education program for Chinese teachers?

16. How do you think the global teacher education program benefits the students,
faculty and community at large at your institution?

17. I am interested in gathering a comprehensive overview to enhance my
understanding of your international teacher education global initiatives at this
institution. Are there specific helpful documents, contact people, events,
meetings, or activities that you might recommend?

18. In reporting the data from our interview, would you agree to be identified by
your title, as the President/Director/Dean of your institution, program or
department?

19. Once this interview data are compiled and analyzed would you be willing to
meet with me briefly for any necessary clarification?

Thank you very much for granting me the opportunity to interview you.
150
APPENDIX F
DATA ANALYSIS SPIRAL SHEET
(adapted from Creswell 1998, p.142-154)

Case study Data Analysis and representation
Create and organize file for data Data managing (Organize data from the
sources into notes, computer files
Read through text, make margin notes,
form initial codes
Reading, memoing (Get a sense of the
whole data by reading several times)
Describe the case and its context Describing ( use multiple sources such
as interviews, documents, observations)
Use categorical aggregation
Establish patterns of categories
Classifying (look for categories, themes,
dimensions of information)
Use direct interpretation
Develop naturalistic generalizations
Interpreting (make sense of the data,
lessons learned from the case for
themselves or for another program,
contrasted with what is known from the
literature review
Present narrative augmented by tables,
and figures
Representing, visualizing

1. Describe the case setting.
2. Evidence of the process of implementation from: interviews, documents,
observations.

3. Evidence of the leadership perspective on globalization from interviews,
documents, observations.

4. Evidence of the leadership perspective on international programs on teacher
education from: interviews, documents, observations.

5. Identify categories such as: internal, local, systemic factors and evidence
from interviews, documents, observations.

6. Identify category such as: successful international teacher education program
from interviews, documents, observations.

151
7. Identify patterns and possible correspondence between categories.
8. Strategy: Naturalistic generalization in terms of lesson learned from the case
experience.

9. Add description to the case: facts
Compare and contrast the lesson learned with the literature reviewed
152
APPENDIX G
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Observer: Aura Sburlan

Length of activity : 30 to 90 minutes
Time Observer’s Comments (OC)
Reflective Notes

Place
Activity
People
Descriptive Notes
Maps/ Diagrams
153
APPENDIX H
DOCUMENT SUMMARY FORM

Document Form Site
Document
Date Received
Picked up

Name or description of the document

Event or contact

Significance or importance of the document

Brief summary of the contents

If document is central or crucial to a particular content

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Globalization affects all the areas of the world economy, nations, countries, institutions and people (Armstrong, 2007

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sburlan, Aura Felicia (author)

Core Title Globalization of a teacher education program at a comprehensive state university campus: a case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/02/2009

Defense Date 06/18/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Armstrong (2007) multi-national model,Bolman and Deal (2003) leadership frames,Chinese teacher education program,Globalization,international programs,leadership,multi-campus public university system,OAI-PMH Harvest

Place Name China (countries), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Diamond, Michael A. (committee chair), Gallagher, Karen Symms (committee chair), Normore, Anthony (committee member)

Creator Email asburlan@usc.edu,Aura_Sburlan@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2582

Unique identifier UC1226919

Identifier etd-Sburlan-3213 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-260217 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2582 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Sburlan-3213.pdf

Dmrecord 260217

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sburlan, Aura Felicia

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu