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Athlete activism: improving the effectiveness an innovation model
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Athlete activism: improving the effectiveness an innovation model
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Running head: ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 1
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS
AN INNOVATION MODEL
by
Chelsea Heyward
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2019
Copyright 2019 Chelsea Heyward
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 2
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my grandmother, who always believed in
me, never gave up on me, and motivated me to reach for the stars. To Grandaddy, Henry, and
Uncle Dirk, thank you.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank God for all of his merciful blessings both in and out
of Academia.
I would also like to thank my family, whose unwavering support helped push me through
this process even when they were also very distracting. To my mom, who picked up where my
grandma left off, thank you. To my dad, who first sparked my love for USC, thank you. Thank
you to my son Gavin, my brother Ray, sister Phoebie, brother in law Alan, sister Karen, and
brother Sebastian for your love and support. Thank you to my aunts, uncles, cousins, and
extended family. I love you all.
Thank you to my best friends, Erica, Tory, Denise, Jessica, and Madalyn for helping me
stay sane. Thank you also to Alexis, Annie, Kelechi, Josh, and my twin flame for giving me the
space I needed to focus and the freedom to always be myself.
Thank you to my turtle family (and the turtle husbands and babies), Angela, Lindsay,
Jessica, Rebecca, and Kristen. At the end of the day all that matters is that we have each other.
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Darline Robles, her assistant chair, Dr. Adrian
Donato, and my committee members Dr. Alan Green and Dr. Stephen Hawn. Without your
support I never would have made it through.
Thank you to my SCquad, whose support and sarcasm carried me through when I didn't
have the energy on my own. Thank you Kelly, Leslie, Amanda and Christine. We are now
bonded for life.
Thank you to my CIFSS Family and my LTFA family for proving work environments
conducive to working through this research.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 4
Thank you to the athletes who helped me complete this dissertation. While we wait,
thank you.
Anyone and everyone that played a role, thank you.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Performance Status/Need 11
Organizational Performance Goal 11
Related Literature — Background of the Problem 12
Importance of Solving the Problem 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Stakeholder Groups Performance Goal 19
Purpose of the Project & Questions 19
Methodological Framework 20
Definitions 22
Organization of the Dissertation 23
Chapter 2: Review of Literature 24
The State of Athlete Activism 24
Assessment of Barriers to Athlete Activism 32
Theories Related to the Involvement of Athlete Activists 37
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus 40
Clark and Estes Framework 40
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 41
Organizational Influences 56
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and 62
Motivation and the Organizational Context
Conclusion 65
Chapter 3: Methods 67
Research Questions 67
Participating Stakeholders 67
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 69
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale 69
Data Collection and Instrumentation 71
Data Analysis 74
Credibility and Trustworthiness 75
Ethics 76
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 6
Chapter 4: Results and Findings 79
Participating Stakeholders 80
Data Validation 82
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 83
Results and Findings for Motivational Causes 95
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes 103
Summary of Validated Influences 119
Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings 125
Organizational Context and Mission 125
Organizational Performance Goal 126
Description of Stakeholder Groups 126
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study 128
Purpose of the Project and Questions 128
Implementation and Evaluation Plans 129
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 145
Summary 167
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 168
Limitations and Delimitations 168
Recommendations for Future Research 169
Conclusion 169
References 172
Appendices 188
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 188
Appendix B: Data Coding Spreadsheet 192
Appendix C: Athlete Survey (After Training) 193
Appendix D: Support Staff Survey (After Training) 194
Appendix E: Interview Assessment 195
Appendix F: Voting Report 196
Appendix G: Stakeholder Goal Achievement Needs 197
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 19
Table 2. Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal,
Knowledge Influence, Type, and Assessment
48
Table 3. Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal, 55
Assumed Motivational Influences, and Motivation Influence Assessment
Table 4. Organizational Influences 61
Table 5. Stakeholder Demographics 81
Table 6. Factors that Maximize Athlete Activists’ Effectiveness 86
Table 7. Recommended Groups and Reasons to Collaborate 89
Table 8. Athlete Activism Best Practices 94
Table 9. Reasons Athlete Activists Need to be Motivated Towards Higher Personal
Expectations
99
Table 10. Reasons Athlete Activists Need a Support Staff to Facilitate Recruiting 108
Table 11. Athlete Activist Role Models and Reasons for Role Models 114
Table 12. Validated KMO Influences 124
Table 13. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 128
Table 14. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 131
Table 15. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 136
Table 16. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 141
Table 17. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 148
Table 18. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 151
Table 19. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 153
Table 20. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 161
Table 21. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 164
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Athlete Activist Association conceptual framework 65
Figure 2. How being a part of a larger group increases self-efficacy amongst
athlete activists
101
Figure 3. How a support staff or organization makes athlete activism turnkey 112
Figure 4. Level of athlete activist equippedness 118
Figure 5. Athlete activism: policy reform framework 160
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 9
ABSTRACT
Athlete activism is a non-normative behavior that when applied effectively, elicits systemic
change (Agyemang, Singer, & DeLorme, 2010; Gill, 2016) and leads to nation building (Pelak,
2005). Through this research, a policy reform framework has been innovated to improve the
overall effectiveness of athlete activism within the Athlete Activist Association (AAA). This
framework was developed through assessing athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to
improving the effectiveness of athlete activism, the culture and context within the AAA that
supports athlete activism, as well as the recommended knowledge, motivation, and
organizational solutions for improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. The research
presented through this innovation model works in conjunction with literature reviews and
researched theories aimed at understanding and framing athlete activist best practices. Semi-
structured interviews posed a mix of questions including opinion and value, feeling, knowledge,
sensory, background, demographic, and time-frame questions. The answers to these questions
shaped the narrative of present-day athlete activism and provided a foundation for the policy
reform framework. Limitations of the study include the fact that all athlete participants were in
the NFL and as such, were all male. In the future, it is recommended that studies of this nature
include female and male athletes of multiple sports.
Keywords: athlete activism, social justice, social identity threat, critical race theory, corporate
social responsibility, social cognitive theory, collective identity theory, KMO analysis
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
According to Kaufman and Wolff (2010), sports have long been used by national and
state institutions to advocate for political outcomes. Yet when athletes involve themselves in
political issues, “they are likely to face a backlash of contempt and scorn” (Kaufman & Wolff,
2010, p. 156) from the general public, their employers, and their peers. Hence, the tradition of
athletes advocating for political and social justice is quite small. Moreover, athletes feel a sense
of confusion when they are expected to act as role models but are then looked down upon for
getting involved (Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). But athletes have the power to influence fans’
attitudes and beliefs (Melnick & Jackson, 2002), can mobilize an apathetic public on issues they
would have otherwise remained ignorant of, and provide a voice for oppressed peoples (Marsh, ‘t
Hart, & Tindall, 2010). Currently, athletes may be underutilizing their political potential as
activists due to fears that limit involvement, misconceptions of the value of an athlete’s voice,
and race as an undertone for attitudes and behaviors (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016).
Without the involvement of these influential citizens, society is missing a crucial opportunity to
improve social equity.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Athlete Activist Association (AAA), established in the Fall of 2017, is an
organization founded by professional athlete activists that aims to improve equality in America
through policy reform at state, local, and federal levels. The AAA focuses on critical areas of
criminal justice reform and social and racial equality where their influence and support can make
a meaningful difference. Specifically, the AAA advocates around four pillars: criminal justice
reform, police and community relations, education, and economic advancement. Additionally,
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 11
the AAA provides training, resources, and a safe space for athletes to exercise activism while
teaching them how to maximize their impact and formulate the action plans required to bring
about change in their communities. To improve the effectiveness of professional athlete
activists, the AAA aims to implement a policy reform framework that ensures the athletes are
well equipped to advocate for the AAA’s key issues.
Organizational Performance Status/Need
To improve the effectiveness of professional athlete activism, the AAA needs to
implement a policy reform framework that educates athlete activists on the policy reform
process. This program should also teach athletes how to utilize their celebrity status in an
activist space. Effectiveness is difficult to define and the issues the AAA address are complex.
Here, effectiveness measures how well the AAA is able to impact legislation. Advocates often
attach themselves to causes but to be an advocate implies a commitment to policy reform (Marsh
et al., 2010). Effectiveness for the AAA lies in amended legislation because activism without the
goal of policy reformation is just an endorsement. By creating a policy reform framework that
serves as a general guideline for athlete activists, the AAA can improve the effectiveness of
professional athlete activism.
Organizational Performance Goal
By January 2020, the AAA aims to implement a policy reform framework for new and
existing members in support of one of their goals, impacting legislation. Currently, no
framework exists as an outline for athlete or celebrity activism. The framework created here
assists the AAA support staff in outlining the knowledge and skills needed for supporting their
four key strategies in reforming policy. These four strategies include lobby days around specific
legislation and policy change, meetings and conversations with elected officials, opinion
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 12
editorials (op-eds) and letters to the editor, and public service announcements. Understanding
the complexity of the policy reform process, attributing a quota to these numbers would merely
be obscure. The AAA deems success is built on quality rather than quantity as the work that
follows is dependent upon timing and relevance.
Related Literature — Background of the Problem
This review covers literature under three topic areas that emerged from the review
process. These topic areas impact athlete activism and include the fears that limit involvement,
the stigma and value surrounding the athlete’s voice, and race as an undertone for attitudes and
behaviors. Although the literature presented here is applied to a variety of contexts, this review
focuses primarily on the literature’s application to the problem of improving the effectiveness of
professional athlete activism. Additionally, considering the sparse nature of this research in
academia, the following literature serves as a comprehensive, scholarly review of present-day
athlete activism.
Fears that Limit Involvement
Research has shown that athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman &
Wolff, 2010) because athletes fear facing similar repercussions professional athlete activists have
faced in the past. Athletes like Muhammad Ali, Tommie Smith, John Carlos, and Mahmoud
Abdul-Rauf have lost endorsements, employment opportunities, and loved ones while
simultaneously facing jail time, threats to their lives, and rejection from fans and administration
(Sanderson, Frederick, & Stocz, 2016; Hartmann, 1996; Kaufman, 2008). While athlete activism
was more present in the past, today’s athletes risk losing exponentially more in salary and
endorsements (Agyemang et al., 2010; Cunningham & Regan, 2012; Powell, 2008; Rhoden,
2010). Hartmann (1996) notes that John Carlos, an athlete activist during the 1968 Olympics,
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 13
lost his wife to suicide due to the pressure and attention his activist actions induced. Via a social
media audit of responses to the St. Louis Rams’ 2015 silent, police brutality protest, Sanderson et
al. (2016) found that minority athletes who involve themselves in social justice issues subject
themselves to threats and taunting.
Most recently, Colin Kaepernick, former quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers, knelt
during the national anthem in protest of police brutality and minority oppression (Thiel,
Villanova, Toms, Thing, & Dolan, 2016). In response to the controversy, Colin was
subsequently shunned by sponsors, colleagues, fans, and front offices, and no longer has a job in
the NFL (Thiel et al., 2016). While Cunningham and Regan (2012) found that controversial
forms of activism do not elicit negative consumer perceptions in linking athletes with brands, the
fear surrounding endorsement loss still exists. Considering the backlash to athlete activism in
the past, professional athletes fear speaking out due to ever-present threats to their finances,
employment, and security for both themselves and their families. While there are a variety of
fears that may limit athlete activism, the stigma surrounding the athlete’s voice is an additional
hindrance to their activism.
Stigma and Value Surrounding the Athlete Voice
Studies show that while the negative stigma surrounding activism deters an athlete’s
involvement, their voices hold critical value. Most athletes are told that the field and court are
no place for politics or protests and that they should refrain from involving themselves in social
justice issues (Agyemang et al., 2010; Henderson, 2009; Kaufman, 2008; Kaufman & Wolff,
2010). But Kaufman and Wolff (2010) and Marsh et al. (2010) argue that sport and social
justice are not mutually exclusive. During the 1970s the resistance to the 1968 African
American Olympic protests has less to do with the racial politics of the event and more to do
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 14
with the interjection of political agendas into sports (Hartmann, 1996). Additionally, athletes are
subject to the same laws as the general public so their career choice should not forfeit their right
to an opinion (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). Kaufman and Wolff (2010) also argue that society is a
collection of shared experiences and the exclusion of athletes’ opinions limits a society. They go
on to argue that doctors, lawyers, or educators do not lose their right to have an opinion because
of their career choice.
Athletes have a unique platform to utilize their voice in mobilizing constituents who
would have otherwise remained ignorant (Marsh et al., 2010). Through an empirical review of
research, Henderson (2009) found that sports bring people together and Babiak and Wolfe (2009)
found that athletes can integrate communities. The negative stigma surrounding athlete activism
stifles athletes and the general public from realizing the power their voice holds over culture
(Agyemang, 2011; Agyemang et al., 2010). With sport being the “6th largest industry in the
United States” as reported by The Sports Industry, 2008 in Ratten (2011), athletes have a
national stage in which they can voice their opinions to an audience of millions (Henderson,
2009; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). While athletes’ voices are powerful, underutilized tools due to
the negative stigma surrounding athlete activism, race exists as another reason people reproach
athlete activism.
Race as An Undertone for Attitudes and Behaviors
Research has shown that race plays a vital role in the attitudes and behaviors surrounding
athlete activism for both the athletes and the general public. Though some argue sport is without
race, it is still a relevant issue in American culture and sports (Agyemang, 2011; Agyemang et
al., 2010) and may often perpetuate racial tensions (Brown, 2017; Edwards, 1969). Critics of
athlete activism often employ racial slurs and stereotypes which minimize the discussions
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 15
surrounding the issues and illuminates an undertone of racism (Sanderson et al., 2016). During
the Civil Rights Era, Black athlete activists were viewed as threatening and were often forced to
choose between their racial identity and their commitment to their team (Henderson, 2009).
Athletes of that era were more active in their involvement because a heightened state of racial
tensions presented the need for those with influence to utilize it. Cunningham and Regan (2012)
found that present-day athletes may not be as politically involved as those in the past because
they may feel racism is less prevalent.
Regardless of how race is perceived, in sports like the NFL and the NBA, the majority of
sports fans, owners, head coaches are White, while the majority of athletes and assistant coaches
are Black (Gill, 2016; Henderson, 2009; The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport [TIDES],
n.d.). Due to this disparity, an identity threat may arise from fans when the actions of the
athletes run contrary to the political beliefs of the fans (Sanderson et al., 2016). In traditional
and social media, athletes in minority laden sports are frequently called “thugs” (Wagner, 2014),
a term generally reserved for African Americans (Sanderson et al., 2016). That racial undertone
in the media can shape the public’s perception of the athletes. Research has also argued that
when stereotypes are perpetuated, Black Americans’ scope of opportunity is restricted
(Henderson, 2009) and sporting choice becomes racially driven (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). The
racial undertone associated with professional athlete activism is one of the reasons it is important
to improve the effectiveness of professional athlete activists’ issues of social justice.
Importance of Solving the Problem
It is important to solve this problem for a variety of reasons. Athlete activism is currently
a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010) that is exercised less than it has been in the
past (Agyemang et al., 2010). Through a case study of women’s netball in post-apartheid South
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 16
Africa, Pelak (2005) found that increasing the effectiveness of professional athletes in issues of
social justice can lead to nation building. It can also motivate groups to change their “basic
values, beliefs, and attitudes” (Eisenbach, Watson, & Pillai, 1999). Athletes can also unify
individuals on opposing sides of an issue (Kaufman, 2008), integrate communities (Babiak &
Wolfe, 2009), and bring awareness of complex issues to those less knowledgeable or interested
(Marsh et al., 2010). Since sports are one of the largest industries in the United States (Ratten,
2011), athletes have a national stage from which to voice their opinions to an audience of
millions (Henderson, 2009; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). Additionally, as role models (Agyemang
et al., 2010; Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014), they hold the power to inspire future generations of
activists (Agyemang, 2011). If athletes can expand their focus beyond finances and employment
(Gill, 2016), and overcome fears, combat misconceptions, and elevate conversations around race,
then they can pursue endeavors that elicit systemic change (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016),
while synchronously benefiting their personal brand (Babiak & Wolfe, 2009; Godfrey, 2009).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are a variety of stakeholders involved with the AAA. The primary stakeholders
include the athletes, support staff, and the general public. Because of their celebrity, the athletes
are the face of the organization. Rather than just raising awareness, the athletes, as everyday
makers are citizens willing to put in the effort to make a difference (Bang, 2009). Everyday
makers are people that engage in politics to find solutions to shortcomings in public policy
(Bang, 2009). Everyday makers also aim to empower others to find solutions to the problems
that plague them. Their commitment includes engaging in advocacy campaigns and events,
reviewing strategy, fundraising, meeting with the government officials and press, recruiting new
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 17
members and utilizing their celebrity to highlight various issues. Without the athletes and their
platform, the AAA could not scale their efforts.
The next stakeholder is the support staff of the AAA. Due to their busy schedules, the
athletes cannot maintain the AAA’s administrative duties alone. The support staff manages the
organization’s day-to-day work. Responsibilities include coordinating meetings with
government officials, securing media coverage, generating press releases, and marketing the
AAA through digital and traditional mediums. The support staff ensures that the athletes are
well prepared and informed before speaking out on issues or backing campaigns or policies.
A third stakeholder related to the AAA is the general public. Specifically, low-income
and minority community members are the focus of the organization’s advocacy efforts. Without
the support of, or relationship with, the general public, the AAA would not be able to establish
change in their communities. Having a connection with the general public gives the AAA a
direct a direct line of communication to the people who need the athletes to advocate for them.
Without the general public’s support, the athletes would not be able to maintain their celebrity,
which is their most important tool in advocacy. Through the athletes, the AAA can mobilize
masses. Thus, keeping a relationship with the general public is essential for inspiring action.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a complete evaluation project would focus on all AAA stakeholders, for
practicality, the stakeholder of focus for research is the athletes. Currently, there are over 60
active members of the AAA, all of which are all current or former NFL players and as such, are
all male. Organizational involvement follows a tiered structure, with time and resource
commitment increasing as tiers move up. The top tier is the task force or the governing board of
the organization. Responsibilities here include strategy and funding approval, attendance at
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 18
events, personal financial contributions, and engagements with social and traditional media. At-
large committee members make up the next tier, and commitment to most of the same criteria is
optional rather than required. Lastly, ambassadors complete the lowest tier and have the smallest
financial and time commitments.
The goal of the AAA is to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism. As a recognized
501(c)(3) and 501(c)(4) organization, the AAA is the only organization of its kind. Otherwise
stated, the AAA is the largest and only organization made up of professional athlete activists.
Since athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010) and the AAA is
the only organization of its kind, improving the effectiveness of their athletes brings
improvement to the effectiveness of athlete activists as a whole. The AAA aims to improve the
effectiveness of athlete activism by instituting a policy reform framework that equips their
athletes with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at state, local, and
federal levels. Such tools and resources may include information sheets, weekly meetings, and
strategic social media plans. Failure to accomplish this goal will inhibit the coalition from
reforming policies and hinder the athletes from increasing their effectiveness. Specifically,
without scale, education, and support, the athletes will not be able to reform criminal justice,
police and community relations, and education and economic advancement policies.
Additionally, if they are unsuccessful, recruiting more athletes to the AAA becomes harder.
Minimized numbers of athlete activists then limits their effectiveness due to time and resource
strains.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 19
Stakeholder Groups Performance Goal
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the AAA is to focus on key areas of criminal justice reform and social and racial
equality where their influence and support can make a meaningful difference.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization that
equips athlete activists with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at
state, local, and federal levels, ultimately improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Athletes
By January 2020, the
athletes of the AAA
will have implemented
a policy reform
framework that assists
them in understanding
policy reform at state,
local, and federal
levels.
Athletes
By January 2020, the
athletes of the AAA
will have used their
celebrity power to
reach government
officials and have
acquired enough
public signatures to
reform policy.
Support Staff
By January 2020,
support staff of the
AAA will lobby
congress in areas
athletes are most
concerned about. What
this looks like will come
in the implementation
plan.
General Public
By January 2020,
through petition
signatures, the
general public will
have assisted in
providing support
needed for policy
reform, such as
voting or calling
elected officials.
Purpose of the Project & Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis for the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources required to reach the AAA’s organizational
performance goal of implementing a policy reform framework that makes athlete activists more
effective. Doing so would lead the AAA to become more effective at achieving their goal of
reforming policy at state, local and federal levels for criminal justice, police and community
relations, and education and economic advancement. The analysis began by generating a list of
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 20
potential needs and then moved to a systematic examination of those needs to determine the
needs validity.
1. What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?
2. What are the culture and context within the AAA that supports the athletes’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
improving athlete activism?
Methodological Framework
The purpose of this research was to improve the effectiveness of professional athlete
activism. Specifically, this research aimed to examine the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences needed for athletes of the AAA to maximize their effectiveness. This
research implemented a policy reform framework that equipped the athletes with the tools
required for effective activism. The project questions that assisted in achieving the purpose of
this study include: What is the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism? What are the culture and context within the AAA that supports
the athlete’s knowledge and motivation? and What are the recommended knowledge, motivation,
and organizational solutions for improving athlete activism?
This study employed a qualitative approach by examining the quality and nature of
professional athlete activism inductively. Through examination, this research generated theory.
According to Patton (2009), qualitative research sets detail descriptions of people, places,
processes, or activities. The benefit of utilizing this type of design is that it serves to understand
how something works (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). To the above questions, this research
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 21
answered how effective activism should be employed. Understanding how to improve the
effectiveness of athlete activism is important because professional athletes have the power to
elicit systemic societal change (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016).
Considering that there is minimal, current research in this space, much of the data relied
on accounts from current athlete activists and the support staff of the AAA. McEwan and
McEwan (2003) found that individual accounts of an event are a critical component of
qualitative research. This research supported the methodological approach because it described
how athlete activism is executed as well as understood the role of this social phenomenon in a
naturalistic way. Analysis of the data utilized thematic coding and interpretation of narrative
data. It is important to note that Merriam and Tisdell (2016) find phenomenology to be
subjective to each individual’s perspective. Otherwise stated, the data collected varied amongst
participants. Lastly, considering that athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman,
2008), the sample size was small because the population is small.
The researcher’s worldview is transformative and informs the methodological approach
because they see the world as a place full of oppression that needs to be addressed. According to
Creswell (2003), researchers with a transformative worldview see the world as a compilation of
politics and political agendas as a driving force for action agendas and policy reformation. As
such, the researcher addresses the needs of marginalized groups in two ways. In part, the
athletes are oppressed in their ability to be activists. Additionally, their ability to advocate
affects the lives of oppressed peoples. As noted in Creswell (2003), the researcher’s
transformative worldview orbits asymmetric power dynamics. The dynamics address both the
research’s stakeholders of the athletes and the athlete’s stakeholders of the general public. In
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 22
linking political action to social inequalities, this research attempted to understand why such
dynamics exist and then provided relevant solutions.
This study employed a phenomenological approach. The research described the meaning
of effective athlete activism through the lived experiences of current athlete activists. According
to Creswell (2003), phenomenology pools the lived experiences of several individuals during a
particular concept or a phenomenon. Here, the universally experienced phenomenon is athlete
activism. The stakeholders in this research are professional athlete activists, and their views
determined how they felt their actions could best drive impact. By studying what it means to be
an athlete activist, the applied research aimed to improve the way things are done (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), and provided a foundation from which future researchers or celebrity or athlete
activists can improve their effectiveness.
Definitions
Athlete activism — Athlete activism is a commitment by athletes to policy reform (Marsh
et al., 2010) that increases awareness (Lee, 2015) by “starting advocacy organizations, engaging
in symbolic protests during competitions, and resigning from a team as a form of protest”
(Kaufman & Wolff, 2008, p. 158).
Social Justice — Social justice is “a state or doctrine of egalitarianism” (“Social justice, ”
2019) that aims to promote a just and equitable society that values diversity, provides equal
opportunities to all members regardless of disability, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation or
religion, and ensures a fair allocation of resources and support for their human rights (Bhugra,
2016).
Effective advocacy — Effective advocates reform policy (Marsh et al., 2010) by
developing a vision, seeking opportunities for policy advocacy, taking sensible risks, balancing
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 23
flexibility, and planning, are appropriately assertive, develop multiple skills, are persistent,
tolerate uncertainty, combine pragmatism with principles (Jansson, 2018), maintain strong
organizations, and continually rethink strategies (Klugman, 2011).
Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters are used to organize this dissertation. This chapter provided the reader with
the fundamental concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about athlete
activism. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the initial ideas of gap
analysis adapted to needs analysis were introduced. Chapter 2 provides a review of the current
literature surrounding the scope of the study as well as an explanation of the Clark and Estes
KMO framework. Topics of the state of athlete activism, assessment of the barriers of athlete
activism, and theories related to the involvement of athlete activists will be addressed. Chapter 3
details the assumed needs for this study as well as a methodology when it comes to the choice of
participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter 4, the data and results are assessed and
analyzed. Chapter 5 provides solutions, based on data and literature, for addressing the needs
and closing the performance gap as well as recommendations for an implementation and
evaluation plan for the solutions.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 24
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Athlete activism is a non-normative behavior that when appropriately applied, serves to
elicit systemic social change (Marsh et al., 2010). Currently, athlete activism is not maximizing
its effectiveness because the athletes do not involve themselves in issues of social justice as
often, they could be (Agyemang et al., 2010; Cunningham & Regan, 2012; Powell, 2008;
Rhoden, 2010). This chapter addresses the factors, variables, and causes that influence the
involvement of athlete activism through a review of general literature surrounding the state of
athlete activism, an assessment of barriers of athlete activism, an analysis of the role the media
plays, and an evaluation of theories related to the involvement of athlete activists. Then, this
chapter will review the role of athlete activists, followed by the explanation of the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences’ lens used in this study. Next, the chapter will focus on
athlete activists’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. This chapter then will
end by presenting the conceptual framework for this study.
The State of Athlete Activism
While athlete activism is rare today, research has found that athlete activists used to be
more involved, specifically around civil rights movements from the 1950s–1980s (Waller, Polite,
& Spearman, 2012). Compared to the work of Jim Brown, Kareem Abdul Jabbar, Arthur Ashe,
Jackie Robinson and other athlete activists of those times, athlete activism essentially lay
dormant until changing political climates and racial tensions warranted the involvement of
present-day athletes (Coombs & Cassilo, 2017; Gill, 2016; Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). As
such, little academic attention focuses on the relationship between sports and social movements
from the 1990s to the early 2010s (Agyemang, 2011; Harvey, Horne, & Safai, 2009). Even
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 25
though the literature may be over 20 years old, it is still pertinent because the academic findings
of those times remain relevant today. Otherwise stated, the barriers to athlete activism have not
changed in context, but they have grown in number. While these barriers may stay the same, the
involvement of the media, as well as the implementation of social media, have expanded the
athlete activism landscape beyond that of 20 years ago. Understanding the nuances of the
literature, the historical and present-day context of athlete activism, and the role of media, the
theories surrounding athlete activism help define its influential factors and present-day need.
Nuances of the Research Surrounding Professional Athlete Activism
Before understanding historical and present-day activism, it is essential to understand the
role the literature plays in this research. While there is a surplus of academic interest for fandom
or team identification, the amount of research that focuses on an athlete’s off-the-field activities
is dismal (Agyemang, 2011; Agyemang et al., 2010; Fink, Parker, Brett, & Higgins, 2009). The
20-year drought in athlete activism (Agyemang, 2011; Harvey et al., 2009) as well as its
infrequency (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010) and varying ways it is defined (Harvey et al., 2009) may
be reasons why little academic attention illuminates athlete activism. For example, in 2016,
there were only 225 instances of athlete activism (RISE, 2016). Considering the number of
athletes on professional rosters in the United States, this number is staggeringly minuscule. With
over 1600 men on NFL rosters alone, that number could be much higher. Outside of
competition, athletes are quick to involve themselves in scholarship funds or community center
improvements but activism, presented as policy reform, is rare (Dreier & Candaele, 2004). With
dismal empirical research on present-day athlete activism and ever-changing political climate,
research can often be restricted to the internet or an account provided by news publications
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 26
(Kaufman, 2008). While the literature frames athlete activism as small, in the present day, acts
are growing in number.
History of Professional Athlete Activism
Until recently, athletes almost entirely avoided utilizing their platforms to advocate for
social and political injustices (Coombs & Cassilo, 2017; Gill, 2016; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010;
Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). With prominent athletes such as Michael Jordan choosing to
distance themselves from political issues because “Republicans buy shoes too” (Agyemang,
2011) and the decline of activism due to fear of financial repercussions (Cunningham & Regan,
2012), athlete activism stalled from the 1980s to the early part of the 2010s (Coombs & Cassilo,
2017). Even though the level of risk back then was higher than today, past athlete activists were
still more likely to involve themselves in issues of social justice (Kaufman, 2008). Agyemang et
al. (2010) argue that the attitudes of athletes have changed over time hence the differing levels of
involvement. Athletes were less willing to get involved until the early 2010s because they felt
that racial tensions were not as extreme as in the 1960s–1980s. During the Civil Rights Era,
considered to be a peak of athlete activism, a heightened state of racial tensions presented both a
need for athlete involvement and a danger for athletes who decided to speak out (Hartmann,
1996). Athletes like Muhammad Ali, Tommie Smith, John Carlos, and Bill Russell advocated
for racial, sexual, political, social, educational, and religious equality and as such, endured
threats to both their safety and their careers (Kaufman, 2008; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010; Pelak,
2005). Understanding why athletes came to use their platforms for advocacy efforts is vital for
also understanding how athletes of today can become more effective at using theirs.
Through his review of the 1968 African American Olympic Protest Movement, Hartmann
(1996) argues that sports-oriented protests exist because of the cultural accessibility in which
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 27
minorities have developed a platform. When Tommie Smith and John Carlos chose to raise their
fists at the 1968 Summer Olympic Games, they did realize that they only held a position of
power when tied to the Olympics. The “clenched fist salute of Tommie Smith and John Carlos”
(Henderson, 2009, p. 103) uniquely gave Black athletes a voice in a place where they had a
platform. Once the games were over, due to the racial inequalities at the time, Tommie and John
knew they lacked the power and position to institute change for their community.
Hartmann (1996) goes on to argue four points that showcase the rise of athlete activism
in sports. First, sports existed as a place in the Black community for collective action. Secondly,
the realm of sport was one of the few places Blacks had reached the pinnacle of success and had
more confidence than their white counterparts (Brown, 2017). Third, Blacks were resisting the
racism and exploitation that existed in both sport and their personal lives. Lastly, sport was
supposed to be a place “untainted by discrimination, racism, and inequality” (Hartmann, 1996,
p. 561) and its corruption “carried important implications for the rest of society too” (Hartmann,
1996, p. 561). It is important to note that the prevalence of athlete activism was sustained via the
athletes as individuals and resisted by front office organizations (Henderson, 2009). Essentially,
the athletes of the 1960s and 1970s laid the foundation for athlete activists and civil rights. By
utilizing what little power they had earned, in a space in which their community could recognize
and relate to them, athlete activism gained notoriety from Black athletes resisting injustices in a
space that was meant to be free from those injustices (Agyemang, 2011; Hartmann, 1996).
Unfortunately, as civil unrest relented, the frequency of athlete activism declined (Coombs &
Cassilo, 2017). Though athlete activism was popularized by Black male athletes, RISE (2016)
found that since its return athlete activism has evolved to include other ethnicities, genders, and
causes.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 28
Present Day Professional Athlete Activism
Until recently, today’s athletes utilized their platforms to endorse market products and
enhance “their financial well-being,” as well as their “employment status or opportunities” (Gill,
2016, p. 401). The resurgence of athlete activism in recent years may be due to a slew of factors.
First, growing racial tensions in the United States (Intravia, Piquero, & Piquero, 2018, Marston,
2017), in conjunction with the Black Lives Matter movement and conversations around police
brutality, have brought racial issues to the mainstream media (Intravia et al., 2018; Weffer,
Dominguez-Martinez, & Jenkins, 2018). While some may argue those tensions are not as
volatile as those of the 1960s–1980s (Waller et al., 2012), research has shown than present-day
racial tensions are intensifying (Marston, 2017). Second, the death of one of the most prominent
athlete activists of all time, Muhammad Ali, sparked a new narrative that urged athletes to better
utilize their platforms (Coombs & Cassilo, 2017). Around that same time, Colin Kaepernick, an
NFL quarterback, began taking a knee during the national anthem in protest of racial inequalities
and police brutality, sparking a national debate (Edelman, 2018; Olsson, 2018; Weffer et al.,
2018). Third, Donald Trump being elected President of the United States prompted several
athletes to suggest if their team became world champions and they were invited to the White
House, they would decline the invitation (Rafferty, 2018). Additionally, his slander of Black
NFL players brought athletes together to combat the racist remarks (Weffer et al., 2018). Lastly,
the counter-narrative of “shut up and play” motivated more athletes to showcase that they are
more than their athletic abilities. With the combination of these contributing factors, athlete
activism seems to be peaking again.
Racial tensions in the United States. Racial tensions are on the rise in the United States
(Marston, 2017). Specifically, the deaths of Black boys and men at the hands of police or
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 29
neighborhood vigilantes shifted the cultural climate. In 2015, there were 529 killings by law
enforcement within the first six months of the year, and a majority of those deaths were Black
males (The Guardian, 2015). Deaths of Black boys and men such as Trayvon Martin in 2012,
Mike Brown and Eric Garner in 2014, and Alton Sterling and Philando Castile in 2016, have
roused athletes to respond publicly, via social media, or with their own form of activism
(Marston, 2017; Sanderson et al., 2016; Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). In 2014, five St. Louis
Rams players raised their arms in solidarity to symbolize surrendering, in rebuttal to the surge of
police brutality (Gill, 2016). Gill (2016) accounted for the incident in which a slew of negative
comments and threats toward the athletes came about from social media. Athletes of the NBA
and the WNBA followed suit, wearing “hands up don’t shoot” t-shirts during their pre-game
warm-ups. While fans may argue that sport is free of race, they often do so through the use of
derogatory slurs in an effort denounce an athlete’s worth (Van Sterkenburg & Knoppers, 2004),
which illustrates that racism is indeed prevalent (Sanderson et al., 2016).
Muhammad Ali and Colin Kaepernick. Rising racial tensions and Muhammed Ali’s
death are influential in shaping the narrative for present-day athlete activism. Muhammed Ali
was one of the most famous athlete activists from the late 1960s to the present day. He
advocated against the Vietnam War, refusing to fight for a country that limited his civil liberties
(Marqusee, 2005). Because of his political activism, Ali lost millions of dollars in sponsorships,
was vilified in the mainstream media, had his reputation tarnished, lost his championship title,
was wiretapped by the FBI, and blacklisted from boxing for three years (Reed, 2004).
Additionally, though he never served time because of his strength of appeals, he was sentenced
to five years in jail when usually evading the draft is 18 months (Reed, 2004). Both his
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 30
sacrifices and bold stances on political issues set the bar for athlete activism. His death in 2016
sparked a conversation questioning the role today’s athletes play in politics (Greenfield, 2016).
Presently relevant to this conversation, Colin Kaepernick began silently kneeling during
the national anthem in the 2016 NFL season to protest the civil injustices plaguing the country
(RISE, 2016). Once this was noticed, some additional athletes across sports followed suit and
began taking a knee or silently protesting for a variety of injustices (SB Nation, 2017). Because
of the initial lack of clarity surrounding the protests, these actions led to a national debate,
dividing the country (Edelman, 2018; Olsson, 2018; Smith, 2017). While some thought the
athletes were protesting the flag, the athletes were protesting inequality, the anthem, which had a
racial undertone, police brutality, and other shortcomings of our justice system. While athletes
knelt in protest of differing injustices, the general narrative surrounding the protests debated
patriotism, free speech, and race relations (Smith, 2017) as well as the rights and responsibilities
of athletes as public figures employed by private corporations (Edelman, 2018; Olsson, 2018).
Donald Trump. In rebuttal to these acts, at the start of the 2017 season, Donald Trump,
the sitting President of the United States, stated, “Wouldn’t you love to see one of these NFL
owners, when someone disrespects our flag to say, ‘Get that son of a bitch off the field right
now. Out. He’s fired. He’s fired.’” (Graham, 2017). The following day, Trump rescinded his
White House invitation to Stephen Curry, a point guard on the 2017 NBA Championship team
after hearing rumblings that he planned to decline (Rafferty, 2018). Whether protesting or not,
the sports world responded in droves to the criticism (Rafferty, 2018; Tinsley, 2018) and more
NFL athletes protested during the anthem than had in previous weeks combined (Graham, 2017;
Weffer et al., 2018). Lebron James’ response to Trump’s rescinded invitation has since sparked
an ongoing slew of disparaging remarks since 2017 (Foxworth, 2018). The President’s
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 31
disparaging remarks of NFL athletes have continued through the start of the 2018 NFL season
(Michel, 2018).
Shut up And dribble. Athlete activists tend to generate more negative responses than
entertainers of other industries, are often told to stick to sports, and are advised to keep their
opinions to themselves (Kaufman, 2008). In response to the stance Lebron James has been
taking on political matters, Laura Ingraham, a reporter for Fox News stated, “It’s always unwise
to seek political advice from someone who gets paid $100 million a year to bounce a ball”
(Sullivan, 2018, n.p.). Brown (2017) argues that “when images are displayed of Black males
expressing themselves in ways that are culturally unique, Whites often view them as
unacceptably arrogant” (p. 229). Brown (2017) evidences that Laura Ingraham’s comments
suggests she feels James has over-valued his own opinion and is overpaid. She then suggests
that his worth should be reduced to coincide with the simplistic nature of her phrasing. She went
on to say, “Keep the political comments to yourselves . . . Shut up and dribble” (Sullivan, 2018,
n.p.). Ingraham later apologized to Lebron and went on support athletes that choose to use their
platform for social justice. This incident helps to illustrate a different stance society has taken on
athlete activism.
Athletes are encouraged to get involved, but when athletes do involve themselves
politically, they are likely to be criticized and slandered (Roy & Graef, 2003) by both the media
and fans. Athletes are reminded to stick to what they know best (i.e., playing the sport)
(Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015) at the same time they are being encouraged to be better role
models (Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). While athletes of both the past and present were fighting
to reform policy, athletes of the present are still struggling to change the public perception
surrounding their involvement (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016). Gill (2016) suggests that
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 32
athletes should involve themselves in activism but should do so outside of work hours and not
while wearing their uniform because even the general public has restrictions surrounding their
behavior when acting as representatives of their organization. While conflicting narratives from
the general public may discourage athletes from involving themselves in activism, there are a
variety of barriers which athletes need to overcome, before increasing their involvement.
Assessment of Barriers to Athlete Activism
Social Identity Threat
One of the more common threats to present day athlete activism is social identity threat.
In this theory, individuals have social identities that are linked to demographic or organizational
groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Turner, 1982). When those identities are challenged, people feel
threatened. As a response, social groups, whose foundations lie in the intersection of their
identities (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Turner, 1982), opt to strengthen their identity by distinguishing
themselves from individuals with conflicting beliefs. By definition, fans have a vested interest in
an athlete’s success and failure and may associate threats to their identity in conjunction with an
athlete’s wins and losses (Sanderson et al., 2016). Because fans are negatively impacted when
athletes involve themselves with unscrupulous acts (Fink et al., 2009), it can be argued that wins
and losses extend to positive and negative public perceptions as well. As a result, fans may feel
“vicarious shame” (Lickel, Schmader, Curtis, Scarnier, & Ames, 2005) when athletes are
associated with adverse events, even if the fans themselves are not associated with the events.
This may lead fans to distance themselves or disparage the athlete, again in an attempt to
strengthen their own identity (Sanderson et al., 2016), hence the counter-narrative to athlete
activism.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 33
Fans tend to manage social identity threat via rallying, stigmatization, victimization,
intimidation, and degradation (Sanderson, 2013). As such, a common place that fans may
manage social identity crises and attempt to distance themselves from or tarnish an athlete’s
identity is social media (Sanderson, 2013). When an athlete takes a stance on a topic that a fan
may oppose, social identity threat suggests that the controversy may lead the fan to feel their
group membership is compromised (Sanderson et al., 2016). For example, if a fan views
activism on the field as unscrupulous, then dissociating with an athlete may lead the fan to social
media, where they can congregate with like-minded people. An individual’s social identity is an
output of their demographic or organizational classification (Turner, 1982), and they may resort
to strengthening this identity by negatively labeling individuals whose group ideals clash with
their own (Turner, 1975). But, recognizing those biases through reflexivity, individuals should
be encouraged to transform their prejudices and mitigate their oppressive behaviors (Bourdieu,
1996; Wasserfall, 1997). To move from protest to progress, groups must develop a collective
identity that shares experiences and interests (Melucci, 1996; Taylor & Whittier, 1992), set
boundaries and be willing to engage in negotiations (Taylor & Whittier, 1992). While social
identity threat may be one reason fans retreat from supporting athletes with differing views,
critical race theory is another.
Critical Race Theory
Critical Race Theory (CRT) suggests that as the cultural majority, Whites are privy to
certain freedoms that may perpetuate the injustices of non-Whites (Gill, 2016). CRT is framed
through several pillars that notate race and racism are socially created to move forward the
agenda of elite, Whites; racial equality exists only to assuage those within power and counter
storytelling challenges the validity of beliefs for those within power (Harper, Williams, &
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 34
Blackman, 2013). Brown (2017) also suggests that CRT employs color-blindness which allows
Whites to participate in subtly racist behaviors under the guise of not seeing color (Brown,
2017). Essentially, color-blind racism attempts to ignore racial differences and establish equality
but does so at the expense of refusing to acknowledge systemic injustices do exist (Buffington &
Fraley, 2011). It is still possible for people to hold athletes of color at high regard and treat them
with prejudice (Son Hing, Chung-Yan, Hamilton, & Zanna, 2008) and color-blindness
perpetuates that behavior.
As 92% of fans that attended NFL games in 2014 were White, while 68% of the
employees were Black (Tapp, 2014), it is hard to make the argument that sport is without race.
Additionally, the majority of athletes and administrative staff are Black while the majority of
head coaches and ownership are White (TIDES, n.d.). With both the seller and the buyer being
White, and the product being Black athletes, CRT would argue that the mission and values of the
fans and ownership do not complement that of the athletes. Otherwise stated, “disadvantaged
people have structural interest that run counter to the current situation” (Gill, 2016, p. 402).
While athletes may make millions of dollars in their prime, most athletes were disenfranchised
members of society before they were famous (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). The intersection of
inequalities sets boundaries around shared experiences between an athlete and the general public
which defines their collective identity (Pelak, 2005), further separating them from the elite.
RISE (2016) suggests that this connection of shared experiences is one of the athletes’ most
effective tools, but CRT would argue that it is a hindrance as well.
Related to moving forward the agenda of the elite, a sub-power structure of CRT is
hegemonic masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity happens when one group attempts to remain in
dominance over society (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). In sports, if the athletes feel related
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 35
to the general public, then they may feel less related to the White elites and the White elites can
continue to exercise their dominance. Under this theory, compliance would be to keep athletes
endorsing brands and choosing to remain uncontroversial. Antagonists would “perform loud,
violent, and hypersexual behaviors” which fit the stereotype of Black Masculinity (Hill Collins,
2004; Gill, 2016).
The Role of Media Involvement
The media also plays a key role in creating barriers for athlete activists. The media is a
tool for driving political agendas with lay people (Bang, 2009) and through their celebrity,
athletes have the power to revitalize political issues (March et al., 2010). The media reports on
criminal behaviors, performance-enhancing drugs, and other deviant behaviors of athletes
(Kaufman, 2008), but when an athlete acts with integrity, their publicity is minimized. Whether
intentional or not, media outlets, owned and operated majorly by Whites, frame minority athletes
through a White gaze and project and perpetuate assumptions and stereotypes for financial gain
(Brown, 2017). The media shapes the narrative surrounding athletes’ activism and, as such, they
can make athletes out to be either heroes or enemies. This acts as a barrier to athlete activism
because “distorted characteristics of Black masculinity being taught through the various sports
media outlets’ influence can impair Black males outside of sports” (Brown, 2017, p. 220). As
Lee (2015) notes, the media can portray athletes in a positive light. Minimization of positive
attributes may be tied to ratings. Tying in athletes’ aberrant behavior is important because sports
hold significant power in the media. In 2015 for example, NFL Monday Night Football was the
most watched show each week (Brown, 2017). In second, NFL Sunday Night Football, fourth
was NFL Thursday Night Football and fifth was NFL Sunday Night Football (Brown, 2017). In
2016, ESPN was the most watched cable network in the United States (de Moraes, 2016).
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 36
Without the media, individuals are limited in their interactions with one another. But with the
media, individuals are swayed in the direction of the narrative the media chooses to push.
Today, narratives are not only shaped in traditional media, but social media as well.
Social Media
Social media began as a method to evolve communication and has since developed into a
means of collaboration, education, and a system for facilitating digital activism (Chapman,
2016). New to present-day athlete activism, social media brings about an online centralization of
cultural conversations which can be especially useful for assisting minority groups in reshaping
the narrative put forth in traditional media (Chapman, 2016; Chen, 2013; Falk, 2011; Samuels,
2011, Shirky, 2011). Additionally, online media builds collective self-esteem and group
diversification which allows fans to strengthen their own social identities by refining in-group
values and distinctiveness and disparaging out-groups (Dalton, Sickle, & Weldon, 2009; Phua,
2010; Sanderson, 2013). While traditional media outlets may cover an event, social media acts a
two-way conversation for an event as well as an “intersection of group cultural values”
(Sanderson et al., 2016, p. 316). It allows fans and other audience members to engage daily in
discussions, perpetuate stereotypes, shape narratives, disseminate political positions, and expose
individuals to differing opinions or perspectives (Pelak, 2005; Sanderson et al., 2016).
Specific to sports, social media exists as a place for fans to interact with athletes in ways
that would not usually occur (Sanderson, 2013). While social media makes it easy to engage
with athletes, the lack of regulation causes social media to perpetuate stereotypes and racist or
derogatory behaviors (Chapman, 2016). Concerning the 2014 “hands-up don’t shoot” gesture
enacted by the St. Louis Rams, Sanderson et al. (2016) analyzed 1,019 user-generated Facebook
comments and 452 tweets. They found that six themes emerged. Fans either renounced their
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 37
fandom provided punishment commentary, racial commentary, general criticisms, attacked other
group members, presented the facts of the case, or some combination of the aforementioned.
Additionally, drawbacks of social media movements include their lack of leadership and
dependability on the content consumer’s perception rather than the creator’s intention (Chapman,
2016).
Recruiting
Athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman, 2008) that was essentially
dormant until changing political climates and racial tensions warranted the involvement of
present-day athletes (Coombs & Cassilo, 2017; Gill, 2016; Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). In
order for the AAA to continue with their activism, they will need to create a sustainable
recruiting model. As in any organization, people phase out (Case & Zeglen, 2018). Recruiting is
important because it draws human capital into an organization (Barber, 1998). With only 225
instances of athlete activism in 2016 (RISE, 2016) the pool of recruits is small. Recruiting can
influence employees’ motivation, performance, and retention, and ultimately influences an
organization’s capabilities, strategic execution, and competitive advantage (Phillips & Gully,
2015). This is important because, correctly applied, it serves to elicit system societal change
(Pelak, 2005).
Theories Related to the Involvement of Athlete Activists
RISE (2017) suggests that there are eight steps to successful athlete activism. As the only
organization that currently measures the effectiveness and frequency of athlete activism, their
suggestions are notable. The first step is education, in which athletes need to educate themselves
on the issues, tactics, and history of their advocacy focuses. Second, internally, groups need to
create a space for discussion, perspective sharing, and solution building. Third, activists need to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 38
focus on external relationships in which they establish an infrastructure for collaboration,
information, training, and strategy. Fourth, athletes need to engage with community leaders and
beyond. Fifth, athletes need to move from protest to action by studying their impact by
providing feedback and staying organic. Sixth, they need to clearly communicate goals and
metrics and report on progress regularly to stakeholders and fans. Seventh, athletes need to find
ways to amplify their message. Lastly, RISE (2017) suggests athletes should work with others
and know their strengths. By following these suggestions, athletes can begin to improve the
effectiveness of their activism.
Even by those that support it, the argument against athlete activism is that while they
have the power to raise awareness around an issue, they do not hold the power to elicit systemic
change, and jeopardizing their career or livelihood is unreasonable (Hall, Marach, & Reynolds,
2017). But, in the United States, the athlete and the soldier are arguably two of the most
important cultural and political identities (Abdel-Shehid, 2002). The military and sports
comparisons are endless, especially considering the way in which rituals in sport draw national
followings and normalize “a culture of war and disable democratic dissent” (Butterworth, 2014,
p. 207). By unifying individuals with a variety of opinions and beliefs, the following theories
suggest why athletes should involve themselves in issues of activism.
Corporate Social Responsibility
While there are risks involved, research argues that athletes have a corporate social
responsibility to engage in advocacy. Godfrey (2009) defines sport as a cognitive institution, a
regulative institution, and a normative institution as three pillars of institution within corporate
social responsibility that are unique to sport. As a cognitive institution, sport employs the idea of
“fair play” (Godfrey, 2009, p. 711). As a regulative institution, sport sends strong messages to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 39
other institutions by how the athletes choose to regulate themselves. The example here is the
Rooney Rule in the NFL. In 2003, the NFL implemented the Rooney Rule, which requires that
at least one minority candidate must be interviewed for head coach and executive level positions
(Fanning Madden, & Ruther, 2011). As a normative institution, sport acts as a religion built on
theology through “recipes for winning, gods and demons, and clearly articulated rites of worship
(e.g., tailgating rituals among American Football fanatics)” (Godfrey, 2009, p. 711). According
to Babiak and Wolfe (2009), the most strategic approach to corporate social responsibility (CSR)
is a stakeholder-centric CSR, or one adopted due to high internal and external pressures. When
CSR is adopted because of high external pressures, the stakeholders benefit but the environment
suffers (Agyemang et al., 2010). The opposite is also bad because high internal pressures lead
organization to over-focus on itself (Agyemang et al., 2010). Corporations can only act in
socially responsible ways if cultural foundations or incentives have made implementation
possible or attractive (Galaskiewicz, 1991) and sports serve as a platform for corporations to
maximize exposure (Polite & Santiago, 2017).
Social Cognitive and Collective Identity Theories
Credited to Albert Bandura (1977), social cognitive theory focuses on modeling,
imitation, and identification and makes the presumption that individuals learn from what they see
others doing. As such, there are four components to behavior imitation, which include
witnessing the model, remembering what behavior should be replicated, having the means to
replicate that behavior, and lastly having the motivation to reproduce that behavior (Bandura &
NIMH, 1986). To move from protest to progress, groups must develop a collective identity that
shares experiences and interests (Melucci, 1996; Taylor & Whittier, 1992), set boundaries and be
willing to engage in negotiations (Taylor & Whittier, 1992).
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 40
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus
The stakeholder group of focus for this study is the athletes of the AAA. The athletes of
the AAA are essential to improving the effectiveness of athlete activists because they represent a
portion of professional athlete activists in the space. In general, the literature states that athlete
activists are a small population (Kaufman, 2008). Additionally, these athletes are a part of a
resurgence of athlete activists, as there was a drought of athlete activists for over 20 years
(Coombs & Cassilo, 2017; Gill, 2016; Schmittel & Sanderson, 2015). Research suggests that
dormancy was due to differing perceptions of racial tensions (Hartmann, 1996), fears that limit
involvement (Hartmann, 1996; Kaufman, 2008; Sanderson et al., 2016), the stigma and value of
surrounding an athlete’s voice (Agyemang et al., 2010; Henderson, 2009; Kaufman, 2008;
Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), and race as an undertone for attitudes and behaviors (Agyemang,
2011; Agyemang et al., 2010). This group holds vital importance over society because they
serve to mobilize constituents (Marsh et al., 2010) and integrate communities (Babiak & Wolfe,
2009). Specifically, this group is important because through the AAA, a 501(c)(3) and 501(c)(4)
organization, they are the only unified organization of professional athlete activists.
Clark and Estes Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) outline a gap analysis framework that centers around the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect organizations (Clark & Estes,
2008). One way their framework is used is in diagnosing which of the KMO influences are
keeping organizations from reaching their goals. Clark and Estes define that knowledge and
skills are key determinants of job performance. According to Anderson et al. (2001), there are
four types of knowledge. Factual knowledge relates to key numbers or terms, overarching ideas
shape conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge is a how-to understanding, and
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 41
metacognitive knowledge is influenced by how a person thinks about thinking (Anderson et al.,
2001). Motivation is the second piece of the Clark and Estes framework. Motivation influences
personal and team confidence (Clark & Estes, 2008). Lastly, organizational influences such as
workplace culture or policies influence an individual’s performance. Clark and Estes argue that
failure to sustain any of these influences leads to declines in performance.
Through a review of the literature, the Clark and Estes framework will be utilized to
perform a gap analysis and ultimately to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism. With
knowledge, the Clark and Estes framework will be applied to getting the athletes to understand
the importance of their involvement in issues of social justice as well as the process of policy
reform. The stakeholder group of focus will be athlete activists. Motivation will be shaped
through applying the framework to understand how the athletes believe that achieving their goals
is possible and frame their expectancies for success and values. Lastly, organizational influences
will be measured through how well the AAA support staff train and prepare athletes for
advocacy and how well they keep the athletes involved in key efforts. The above mentioned
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will also be addressed in the methodology
section in Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The Athlete Activist Association (AAA), established in the Fall of 2017, is a nonprofit
organization made up of professional athlete activists and support staff. Together, they work to
establish equality in America via policy reform. Their key areas of focus center on criminal
justice reform, police and community relations, and education and economic advancement. One
of the goals of the AAA is to increase the effectiveness of athlete activists. The AAA plans to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 42
implement a policy reform framework that ensures the athletes are well equipped to advocate for
the AAA’s key issues. Improving the effectiveness of athlete activists requires sufficient
knowledge and skills. Specifically, the athletes of the AAA need to understand the importance
of their involvement in issues of social justice, as well as the policy reform process. Identifying
these gaps in knowledge is essential to athlete activism because athlete activism is a non-
normative behavior (Kaufman, 2008) that serves to elicit systemic societal change when
correctly implemented (Pelak, 2005).
Closing the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers can help the AAA
achieve its goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to Krathwohl (2002), there are four types of
knowledge gaps: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. The AAA can improve in
all four concepts. Factual knowledge is the basic knowledge needed in solving problems and
includes the retention of important dates, terms, or numbers (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual
knowledge generalizes classifications, principles, categories, theories, models, and structures
(Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge defines the process of how to do something
(Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge exemplifies the process of thinking about thinking
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Utilizing the definitions Krathwohl (2002) outlines, the athletes of the AAA need first to
understand the specific elements and critical terminologies related to the importance of athlete
activism. Then, they need to formulate conceptual knowledge around the policy reform process
at state, local, and federal levels. Lastly, they need to evaluate how well they understand and can
apply that information to practice. Addressing these critical areas is important for three reasons.
First, getting the athletes to involve themselves in a policy reform framework becomes easier if
the athletes understand the importance of their involvement (Flavell, 1979). Second, gaining
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 43
conceptual knowledge can improve the athletes’ effectiveness when dealing with unique
challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Finally, metacognition can assist the athletes with setting,
meeting, and revising goals (Ellis, Denton, & Bond, 2014).
Knowledge influence 1: Developing the need for involvement. While it is important
for athletes to involve themselves in issues of activism, many athletes are unaware of the level of
importance their involvement holds in society (Milken Institute, 2017). Research suggests
advocating effectively begins when the athletes can develop the need to better understand social
consciousness, meritocracy, responsible citizenship, and interdependency (Babiak & Wolfe,
2009; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). If the athletes of the AAA can develop a deeper social
consciousness, then they are more likely to understand the importance of their involvement
(Agyemang, 2011; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). If athletes realize that when they apply the same
meritocracy to activism as they apply to sports, then they can change their thinking
metacognitively to improve their involvement. Next, as responsible citizens, athletes have a
responsibility to involve themselves in issues of social justice (Agyemang, 2011; Kaufman &
Wolff, 2010). Lastly, due to interdependency, the idea that progress can only happen when
multiple groups work together, athletes working with the general public and government officials
can accelerate the process of policy reform (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010).
Developing a social consciousness starts when minority athletes are made aware of their
duality in citizenship, the effect their travel has on their experiences, and how their athlete status
affects more than just themselves. Bringing awareness to the fact that their duality between
celebrity and citizen provides them with a unique platform (Godfrey 2009; Kaufman & Wolff,
2010) is the first piece of metacognitive and conceptual knowledge athletes need. By merging
their “position as a privileged athlete with an audience” and their “position as an underprivileged
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 44
member of society” (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010, p. 159), athletes can begin to develop a social
consciousness. Additionally, because athletes travel so much, they expose themselves to a
variety of people with varying socioeconomic living conditions (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010),
which helps to connect them with the general public further. Lastly, in having a social
consciousness, athletes need to understand that their performance comes at the expense of the
unjust working conditions for others (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). An example here includes
bringing awareness to the sweatshop workers and custodial staff that work long hours with
minimal pay to provide new and clean uniforms and arenas (Islam & Deegan, 2010). Once
athletes are made aware of their citizenship, privilege, platform, and the effect their athleticism
has on the working conditions of others, they can begin to understand why applying themselves
to social justice advocacy is important.
Meritocracy is the next piece of metacognitive knowledge needed by the athletes of the
AAA. Meritocracy is the idea that a person succeeds or fails based on their individual merit
(Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). Through the AAA, the athletes should also think about how much
their efforts affect their outputs. If the goal of the AAA is policy reform, then the more time they
spend advocating should produce reformation more frequently and more effectively. But there
are key differences between sports and policy reform. In sports, there is a common belief that
the harder one works, the better they will become, unrelated to socioeconomic, racial, or political
status (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). While psychological and environmental factors may play a
role early on, it is the devotion of physical efforts that determine athletic success (Spieler et al.,
2007). If the athletes of the AAA can apply the same “win at all costs” mentality to policy
reform, then the willingness of the athletes to follow the policy reform framework will increase.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 45
As such, the athletes will become more effective at advocacy because they will increase their
efforts.
Responsible citizenship is the third piece of factual, conceptual, and metacognitive
knowledge related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. Kaufman and Wolff
(2010) relate responsible citizenship to the athletes by noting that athletes are obligated to
involve themselves in political issues because they are affected by the same rules and
regulations. Providing athletes with the knowledge that they are needed and responsible for
involving themselves in issues of social justice serves to silence critics that suggest athletes
should solely focus on sports. Sports and politics are not mutually exclusive (Pelak, 2005). For
example, stadium financing and Olympic city bids come from public tax dollars (Kaufman &
Wolff, 2010). Arguing athletes should not have a voice contradicts a “participatory democracy”
(Kaufman & Wolff, 2010, p. 165), which encourages the general public to provide input on
political matters. Athletes are consumers of goods, students, tax-payers, patients in hospitals,
voters, and “above all else, citizens” (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010, p. 167). By law, they have the
right to free speech as well as the right to concern themselves with political issues and policies
from which they are not immune. As professional athletes, the members of the AAA not only
have the right but the platform to shape policies from which they are not immune (Babiak &
Wolfe, 2009) and rely on other groups to do so.
Interdependency is the final piece of conceptual and metacognitive knowledge needed to
improve the effectiveness of professional athlete activists. With or without sport, solutions to
issues of social justice have existed because of group collaboration. In team sports, group
collaboration is what is needed to win. In advocacy, policy reformation requires group
collaboration. Providing the athletes of the AAA with this knowledge could lead the athletes to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 46
understand and associate the team aspect of advocacy. Advocacy also resembles the team aspect
of sport because group collaboration can be compared to the interdependency of a team trying to
win a competition (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). Interdependency also implies reliance. If the
athletes can understand that policy reform cannot be done alone and happens in tandem with
multiple groups, then they may further understand the importance of their involvement for the
collective good of society.
Knowledge influence 2: Understanding policy reform. The last piece of knowledge
that the AAA needs to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism is a conceptual
understanding of policy reform. Because the process of reforming policy is different for criminal
justice, police and community relations, education and economic advancement, a conceptual
understanding would provide the athletes with the tools needed to create their framework. A
deeper understanding of the policy process is also important because the talent and skills of an
organization’s membership base limits organizational success (Tierney, 2006). If the athletes of
the AAA do not have a foundational understanding of policy reform at local levels, scaling to
statewide and national campaigns is inconceivable. Getting the AAA to transfer this knowledge
to its members through a policy reform framework is the best way to provide knowledge to a
group that lacks procedural knowledge or experience and expertise on a particular topic (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
According to Sullivan (2007), there are seven steps to policy reform. The first step is to
identify the initial conditions. In this step, an organization seeks to understand the barriers to
success. For the AAA, this is laid out via their key pillars of criminal justice reform, police and
community relations, and education and economic advancement. The second step to policy
reform is understanding the key points of change. Here, an organization seeks to understand
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 47
what reforms elicit change in the initial conditions identified in the first step. These reforms are
to not only be supported by benefits to society but the benefits to the economy and the
organization. The third step is to mobilize stakeholders. For the AAA, this includes other
athletes, the general public, organizational partners and anyone else willing to bring about
collective action at an institutional level. Once initial conditions and points of change have been
identified, and stakeholders have been mobilized, generating specific policy recommendations
and setting achievable goals are the fourth and fifth steps. Then, initiating an aggressive
advocacy campaign that “effectively communicates complex ideas in simple and attractive ways
to build the case for policy reforms” (Sullivan, 2007, p. 2) will help in not only garnering support
but also in stating the importance of why change is needed. Lastly, identifying influential
government officials, political leaders, and businesspeople related to the initiative is pertinent to
know to whom policy reform agendas should be directed. Applying this framework to their
problem of practice could help the AAA close their knowledge gap in the policy reform process.
Table 2 shows the organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and three
knowledge influences identified in this literature review.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 48
Table 2
Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal, Knowledge Influence,
Type, and Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of the AAA is to focus on key areas of criminal justice reform and social and
racial equality where their influence and support can make a meaningful difference.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization that
equips athlete activists with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at
state, local, and federal levels, ultimately improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the athletes of the AAA will adopt a policy reform framework that assists them in
implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal levels.
Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual),
Knowledge
Influence
Importance of
Athlete Activism
Athletes lack the
ability to compare
theories of activism
based upon social
consciousness,
meritocracy,
responsible
citizenship, and
interdependency.
procedural, or
metacognitive) Knowledge Influence Assessment
Conceptual Using interviews or surveys, ask the athletes
direct or indirect questions that allow them to
paraphrase, give examples, summarize in own
words, classify, categorize, interpret, compare,
explain, or differentiate reasons in which their
involvement is warranted and necessary.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 49
Table 2, continued
Knowledge
Influence
Understanding the
Policy Reform
Process
Athletes lack
knowledge of the
steps to engage in
activism that
focuses on
legislation reform.
Developing the
Need for
Involvement
Athletes may lack
the urgency to
involve themselves
in activism related
causes.
Developing the
Need for
Involvement
Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual),
procedural, or
metacognitive) Knowledge Influence Assessment
Procedural Using interviews or surveys, ask the support
staff direct or indirect questions that allow
them to paraphrase, give examples, summarize
in own words, classify, categorize, interpret,
compare, explain, or differentiate the steps of
policy reform.
Interview Items:
“What would be the steps to follow in being an
effective athlete activist?”
“What have you seen as the most successful
factors in driving legislation reform with
athlete activists?”
Metacognitive Interview Items:
“How do you feel athlete activism has changed
from athlete activists of the past such as
Muhammad Ali, Jim Brown, and Kareem
Abdul Jabbar to athlete activism today?”
“Can you describe for me why you do or do
not believe professional athletes should
involve themselves in activism?”
Declarative “What have you found to be most convincing
for getting your peers involved in advocacy
works?”
“In general, in what ways do you think athlete
activism could be improved?”
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 50
Motivation
While closing knowledge gaps is pertinent to the AAA’s success in achieving their goals,
another necessary component is ensuring that the athletes are motivated to achieve these goals.
The AAA success in adopting a policy reform framework depends on the athletes’ desire to do
so. Motivation is a necessary point of goal-orientation because it influences personal and team
confidence, beliefs about organizational and environmental barriers in achieving goals, the
emotional climate people experience in their work environment, and the individual and team
values for their performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, it is not only important for
the AAA to set these goals, but it is equally as important for the coalition to individually and
collectively believe they can achieve their goals. Additionally, the goals of the group should
align with the goals of the individuals and foster a positive working environment.
While a variety of factors influence motivation, two are critical to the success of the
AAA. Expectancy-Value Theory argues that in addition to one’s belief in their ability to
complete a task, the level of significance they place on that task also determines whether they
will begin, persist, or complete a task (Eccles, 2006). Value exists where an individual feels
completing a task can enhance their life either personally or professionally. First, athletes of the
AAA need to individually and collectively believe that achieving their goals is possible. This
idea is supported through the underlying premise of self-efficacy, which is the level in which an
individual perceives themselves to be capable of completing a task (Bandura, 1994).
Motivational influence 1: Expectancy-value theory. The Expectancy-Value Theory is
the level of value an individual places on a task and how that task may affect their personal or
professional life (Eccles, 2006). For the athletes of the AAA, to increase expectancies for
success and values, three things need to happen. First, the athletes need to understand the
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 51
importance and utility value of their advocacy (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). Next, the support
staff of the organization needs to create relevant and useful materials for the athletes to refer
back to (Pintrich, 2003). Lastly, the board members of the AAA need to model behaviors and
attitudes that are attributed to success (Eccles, 2006). Implementation of this action plan assists
in setting the foundation of expectations for advocacy efforts. If the athletes can understand that
involvement with the AAA is an active choice in which they consciously decide their level of
involvement, then they can make a conscious decision to increase their efforts. Sports are
inherently tied to expectancy-value theory through self-discipline, diligence, obedience to moral
authority, and collective responsibility (Henricks, 2006). Athletes will work harder when they
attribute their success or failure to their efforts (Mayer, 2011).
Understanding the importance of athlete advocacy is important because athletes serve to
motivate individuals to change their “basic values, beliefs, and attitudes” (Eisenbach et al.,
1999). Athlete activists can unify opposing parties (Kaufman, 2008), integrate segregated
communities (Babiak & Wolfe, 2009), and raise awareness on lesser-known issues (Marsh et al.,
2010). Sports is unique in that it creates a national identity and fosters patriotism in ways no
other organizations can (Hughson, Inglis, & Free, 2004). Additionally, sports can bridge the gap
between politically and non-politically minded individuals while creating a community that
exemplifies as much patriotism as that seen in times of war (Hughson et al., 2004). Athlete
advocacy is also important because there exists an opportunity to unify individuals where
division exists amongst the political elite. This unification lowers counter-mobilization and
heightens the probability mobilization will succeed (Pelak, 2005).
Creating materials or activities is important for the athletes’ perceived expectancy-value
because, with tools such as job aids in the form of information sheets, athletes do not have to rely
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 52
on their knowledge of a situation. Job aids can increase motivation because it assists in
performance and set the expectation that athletes need to be knowledgeable about their advocacy
focuses. Since the AAA is a nonprofit organization and as such is accountable to the general
public (Wallis & Gregory, 2009), there is a high set of expectations that come with their
advocacy. In the past, when encountering athlete activism, some fans have renounced fandom
and given general criticisms to athletes (Sanderson et al., 2016). But, for the athletes to stay
focused on their efforts, it is important to ignore the criticism and focus on the expectations of
marginalized individuals who need their assistance.
It is important for the Board members to model exemplary attitudes and behaviors
because they set the cultural standard of the organization (Bandura, 1994). Sports model a
mentality where failure is abhorred, and the Board members of the AAA should model this
ideology for the organization as well. Since people act on their beliefs about how they think they
will perform, seeing models in similar situations motivates the athletes because they then expect
they can complete the same tasks. Social cognitive theory states that modeling influences
provide a social standard as well as a vehicle for transferring knowledge, skills, and strategies
(Bandura, 1994). Additionally, Bandura (1994) suggests that observing models helps individuals
to see comparable skills in themselves.
Motivational influence 2: Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is one’s perceived ability
to complete a task (Bandura, 1994). A key component of this theory outlines that if an
individual believes that they cannot complete a task, starting, persisting, and completing a task
become impossible. Increasing the self-efficacy of the AAA is important because as professional
athletes, the members of the AAA have dedicated their professional careers to their respective
sports and therefore do not have the experience of tenured politicians. This lack of experience
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 53
could lead to a lack of confidence. Thus, an increase in self-efficacy could help the athletes feel
motivated. Understanding the nuances of legislative changes and policy reform to elicit systemic
change in society is not first-hand knowledge. Participation in mastery experiences is one of the
most important sources of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994). By showing support to the athletes and
providing them with support, feedback, and rewards, the athletes of the AAA could build their
self-efficacy.
Showing support to the athletes is comprised of three tiers. First, the AAA needs to make
it clear to the athletes that they are not only capable of learning what is taught but also capable of
executing key initiatives (Pajares, 2006). Through collective identity theory, the athletes of
AAA should also motivate each other and maintain solidarity through the fact that they are
reconstructing and reinforcing racial boundaries, forging group consciousness of intersecting
inequalities, and negotiating power relations through everyday interactions (Pelak, 2005). Most
of the athletes of the AAA have dedicated their lives thus far to improving their athletic abilities
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). By expanding their focus to activism, there is much the
athletes still have to learn. Not only should the athletes understand they are capable of
successfully engaging in advocacy work, but they should also be provided with opportunities to
interact with current or previous athlete activists. Ensuring the athletes can observe credible
models operating in the same space, showcases to athletes what behaviors and attitudes hold
practical value (Pajares, 2006). Once they understand the roles and responsibilities of athlete
activism, engaging the athletes in the group by setting relevant, challenging goals allows the
athletes to experience small successes, ultimately increasing self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006).
By providing the athletes with support, feedback and rewards the AAA will increase the
athletes’ motivation because self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by the verbal and social
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 54
responses (Pajares, 2006). Additionally, this type of social persuasion showcases to the athletes
that they possess the skills needed to accomplish tasks (Bandura, 1994). Support should be
provided in goal-directed practices where athletes receive scaffolded instructional support
(Pintrich, 2003). Eventually, support should slowly be removed and replaced with feedback that
is frequent, accurate, credible, targeted, and private (Pintrich, 2003). In the process of learning
and performing, feedback should be provided immediately for simple tasks and delayed for
complex tasks (Pintrich, 2003). Balancing feedback for both strengths and weaknesses provides
individuals with a full picture of their current performance. Progress should also be linked to
rewards so that athletes understand they are improving and as such continue to learn (Pintrich,
2003). Ultimately, the level of self-efficacy of the athletes determines what goals they set, how
much effort the place in achieving those goals, how long they persevere through those goals, and
how resilient they are to failure (Bandura, 1994).
Table 3 shows the organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, motivational
influences and two motivational influence assessments identified in this literature review.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 55
Table 3
Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal, Assumed Motivational
Influences, and Motivation Influence Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of the AAA is to focus on key areas of criminal justice reform and social and
racial equality where their influence and support can make a meaningful difference.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization that
equips athlete activists with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at
state, local, and federal levels, ultimately improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the athletes of the AAA will adopt a policy reform framework that assists them in
implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal levels.
Motivational Indicator(s)
Assumed Motivational Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy — Athletes need to
believe they are capable of instituting
systemic social change at state, local,
and political levels.
Expectancy-Value Theory (unity
value) — Athletes need to value
advocating for issues of social justice.
Interview items:
“How would you assess your own effectiveness on
issues of reform?”
“What would make you feel more able to advocate
for issues of social justice at state, local, and political
levels?”
Interview items:
“On a personal level what do you or what do you
expect to derive from being an activist?”
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 56
Organizational Influences
General Literature
Organizational influence 1: Organizational change process. Clark and Estes (2008)
deem that organizational change should be addressed with a three-pronged approach. Those
three factors include stakeholder knowledge and motivation as well as organizational influences.
Change is initiated through addressing the knowledge and skills needed by stakeholders in
addressing change issues. The next step in organizational change addresses motivational
influences as it lays the foundation for the efforts put forth in accepting and implementing
change. Finally, the process concludes with organizational barriers that may inhibit the change
process (Clark & Estes, 2008). Effective change at the organizational level happens when
stakeholders are allotted the resources (equipment, personnel, time, etc.) needed to maximize
their success as aligned with organizational goals and objectives (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Clark and Estes (2008) go on to detail that there are five support types needed in
successfully managing change within an organization. First, it is pertinent that there is clarity
around the organization’s objectives, goals, strategies, and measures. Next, there needs to be
alignment between the systems and processes and the organization’s goals. Third, frequent
communication around plans and progress keeps change in track and serves to address issues
before they are detrimental. Fourth, senior management should be iteratively involved in the
change process so that they may provide any needed knowledge, skills, or motivational support.
Lastly, Clark and Estes (2008) note that all change processes should be treated differently even if
two processes may have the same name. Following this process helps to ensure change stays on
the timeline while leaving room to address potential barriers. Table 4 showcases these as well as
cultural influences needed in improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 57
Organizational influence 2: Cultural settings and cultural models. Cultural models
are the basic understanding of how an organization works or should be working and incorporates
the various behavioral and cognitive components that influence decision making (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings are the places or absence of places in which cultural
understanding and behaviors exist (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The first cultural model
influence that affects the AAA is that there needs to be a general acceptance and willingness
amongst athletes to involve themselves in issues of social justice. Kaufman and Wolff (2010)
note that athlete activism is a non-normative behavior, but Coombs and Cassilo (2017) note that
since the death of Muhammad Ali, there has been a slight surge in athlete activism. While
research shows that there are a variety of reasons why athletes refuse to involve themselves in
issues of activism (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016), athlete activism is important for
mobilizing the public (Marsh et al., 2010). Addressing this cultural model influence at the
organizational level could be implemented through a policy reform framework that athlete
activists can utilize. Training the athletes with this framework is important because it builds
upon trainees’ cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation and perceived utility of training
(Grossman & Salas, 2011).
The second cultural model influence that this framework could address is the need for a
willingness to reach out to peers about getting involved with the organization in some aspect (at
least at the bottom tier level). By implementing successful strategies for reaching out to peers,
the AAA could help motivate the athletes to reach out to peers. While the success of this
implementation seems to come from motivation, the need for creating a cultural model of
spreading awareness begins at the organizational level. If this is a norm, and the AAA has
established a success rate, more athletes may be willing to participate.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 58
Next, the first cultural setting influence that shapes the AAA is the idea that the athlete
needs to be evaluated on how much they know (as well as their willingness to know) about social
activism and the policy reform process. Evaluating how much the athletes know shapes the
content included in the policy reform framework. By implementing a survey or interview that
incorporates questions about how familiar with the process and key terminology athletes are, the
support staff of the organization can ensure they are teaching the athletes what it is that they do
not know.
Lastly, the second cultural setting influence is that the athletes need effective role models
within the space of athlete activism. Bandura (1994) argues that when people have role models
that emulate behaviors, they wish to follow; they are more likely to model those behaviors. By
looking to athlete activists of the past such as Tommie Smith, John Carlos, or Kareem Abdul
Jabbar, the athletes of the AAA serve to model personality traits as well as behaviors of past,
successful, athlete activists.
Stakeholder-Specific Factors
Need for training. While the need for a policy reform framework exists in the AAA, it
cannot be fully utilized without proper training. Training establishes how an individual’s
knowledge, skills, and attitudes are influenced when improving personal or group effectiveness.
Development is geared toward changing individuals’ knowledge or abilities solely for a personal
purpose or job growth (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Since the goal of the Association is to
improve the effectiveness of athlete activism, training is the necessary tool. The most effective
training programs were those including both cognitive and interpersonal skills, followed by those
including psychomotor skills or tasks (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). As mentioned before, training
not only may affect declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge but also may enhance
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 59
strategic knowledge, defined as knowing when to apply a specific knowledge or skill. Training
improves declarative knowledge and evidence suggests that trained teams demonstrated better
planning and task coordination, collaborative problem solving, and communication in novel team
and task environments. Training also assists in developing tacit skills. Tacit skills are behaviors
acquired through informal learning that are useful for effective performance (Aguinis & Kraiger,
2009).
Application practices.
1. Factual knowledge — the basic elements that students must know to be acquainted
with a discipline or solve problems in it: (a) knowledge of terminology; (b)
knowledge of specific details and elements.
2. Conceptual knowledge — the interrelationships among the basic elements within a
larger structure that enable them to function together: (a) knowledge of classifications
and categories; (b) knowledge of principles and generalizations; (c) knowledge of
theories, models, and structures.
3. Procedural knowledge — how to do something; methods of inquiry, and criteria for
using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods: (a) knowledge of subject-specific
skills and algorithms; (b) knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods; (c)
knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures.
4. Metacognitive knowledge — knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness
and knowledge of one’s cognition: (a) strategic knowledge; (b) knowledge about
cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge; (c) self-
knowledge.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 60
Athlete activism best practices. The argument against athlete activism is that while
they have the power to raise awareness around an issue, they do not hold the power to elicit
systemic change and jeopardizing their career or livelihood is unreasonable (Hall et al., 2017).
What RISE (2017) suggests is that not only do athletes hold the power to elicit systemic change,
there is a strategic way for them to utilize their celebrity in addressing activism. RISE (2017)
found that there are eight steps to successful athlete activism. The first step is education, in
which athletes need to get educated “on the issues, tactics, and history of the issues they are
advocating for.” Next, “internally, groups need to create a space for discussion, perspective
sharing, and solution building.” Third, “activists need to focus on external relationships in which
they establish an infrastructure for collaboration, information, training and strategy.” Fourth,
“athletes need to engage with community leaders and beyond.” Fifth, “athletes need to move
from protest to action by studying their impact, providing feedback, and staying organic.” Sixth,
“clearly communicate goals and metrics and report on progress regularly to stakeholders and
fans” (pp. 16–17). Seventh, find ways to amplify your message. Lastly, by working with others
and knowing their strengths, athletes can maximize their effectiveness. If the AAA were to
implement this eight-step process, they would serve to help their communities better.
Table 4 describes the assumed organizational influences needed for the AAA to elicit
systemic social justice change.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 61
Table 4
Organizational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of the AAA is to focus on key areas of criminal justice reform and social and racial equality where
their influence and support can make a meaningful difference.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization that equips athlete
activists with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal levels,
ultimately improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the athletes of the AAA will adopt a policy reform framework that assists them in implementing policy
reform at state, local, and federal levels.
Motivational Indicator(s) (only for Improvement Model)
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Effective change begins by addressing
motivation influencers; it ensures the
group knows why it needs to change. It
then addresses organizational barriers and
then knowledge and skill needs (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Cultural Model — There needs to be a
general acceptance and willingness
amongst athletes to involve themselves in
issues of social justice.
Cultural Model — There needs to be a
willingness to reach out to peers about
getting involved with the organization in
some aspect (at least at the bottom tier
level).
Cultural Setting — The idea that the
athlete needs to be evaluated on how much
they know (as well as their willingness to
know) about social activism and the policy
reform process.
Cultural Setting — Athletes need effective
role models within space of athlete
activism.
Interview Items:
“How well do you feel your organization has prepared you to
advocate for issues of social justice?”
“In what ways do you believe your organization could improve their
efforts?”
Interview Items:
“How does your organization identify shared values?” (cultural
models)
“What have you seen as the most effective strategies for getting
guys to commit to the work?” (cultural models)
Interview Items:
“What are the most effective ways your organization has prepared
you to reach out to your peers if at all?” (cultural models)
Interview Items:
“How would you describe your level of expertise when it comes to
social activism?”
“How would you describe your level of expertise when it comes to
the policy reform process?”
“How willing are you to learn about social activism?”
“How willing are you to learn about the policy reform process?”
Interview Items:
“In what ways do you feel your organization provides role models
for you to connect with?” (cultural settings)
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Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation
and the Organizational Context
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to support or frame research through an
interrelated system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories (Maxwell,
2013). Maxwell (2013) goes on to state that a conceptual framework should be supported by
previous research that justifies the purpose of a study, can inform the reader of the history of a
type of study, provide data in support or conflict of a study, or assist in establishing a new
theory. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) note that it is this prior research that is pertinent to inform
the direction of a particular study. While the research presented was originally implemented
independent of one another, they serve to assist in building new theory by cohesively examining
them. In short, the research presented here works in conjunction with one another as their
overlap is important to improving the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving
the effectiveness of athlete activism. The collaboration of research was also key in identifying
what the interaction between the AAA’s culture and context and the athlete’s knowledge and
motivation are, as well as what the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational
solutions are in improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
The conceptual framework, illustrated in Figure 1, outlines the relationship between the
stakeholders’ knowledge and motivation with the organization’s goals. Specifically, the purpose
of this conceptual framework is to frame the research around improving the effectiveness of
athlete activism. Within the AAA, four cultural settings and models shape the beliefs and
behaviors of the organization. Cultural models are the basic understanding of how an
organization works, or should be working, and incorporates the various behavioral and cognitive
components that influence decision making (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 63
are the places or absence of places in which that cultural understanding and behaviors exist
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
The first cultural model influence that affects the AAA is that there needs to be a general
acceptance and willingness amongst athletes to involve themselves in issues of social justice.
Kaufman and Wolff (2010) note that athlete activism is a non-normative behavior, but Coombs
and Cassilo (2017) note that since the death of Muhammad Ali, there has been a slight surge in
athlete activism. While research shows that there are a variety of reasons why athletes refuse to
involve themselves in issues of activism (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016), athlete activism is
important for mobilizing the public (Marsh et al., 2010). Addressing this cultural model
influence at the organizational level could be implemented through a policy reform framework
that athlete activists can utilize. Training is important because it builds upon the trainee’s
cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation and perceived utility of training (Grossman & Salas,
2011).
As depicted in the figure, the cultural settings and models of the organization influence
the knowledge and motivation of the athletes. Since the stakeholders, in this case the athletes, lie
within the organization operationally, then all cultural influences will affect the knowledge and
motivation of said stakeholders. Within the organization, the athletes’ knowledge and
motivation further affect their involvement in activism and how effective those efforts are.
Specifically, the athletes’ knowledge around understanding the importance of their involvement
in issues of social justice, membership growth, and retention, and the process of policy reform
are the three determining factors is justifying how effective their efforts are. Closing these gaps
in knowledge is important because athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman,
2008) that when correctly applied serves to elicit system societal change (Pelak, 2005).
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 64
Those efforts are underlined with a couple of theories about motivation. Motivation is a
pertinent point of goal-orientation because it influences personal and team confidence, beliefs
about organizational and environmental barriers in achieving goals: the emotional climate people
experience in their work environment, and the individual and team values for their performance
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The motivations of the athletes are framed through the theories of
self-efficacy and expectancy-value theory. Self-efficacy is one’s perceived ability to complete a
task (Bandura, 1994) and the athletes need to have high belief in their skills so that they are
motivated to continue with their duties. Second, the expectancy-value theory is the level of
value an individual places on a task and how that task may affect their personal or professional
life (Eccles, 2006). Here, the athletes need to understand the importance and utility value of
their advocacy because individuals work harder when they attribute their success or failure to
their efforts (Mayer, 2011).
Within the organization of the AAA, the cultural settings, cultural models, and athletes’
knowledge and motivation influence the success of their ultimate goal. The presence of the
overlapping influence implies that one is not complete without the other. But in this case, the
cultural influences of the organization hold the most weight as compared to the stakeholder’s
knowledge and motivation. If the cultural settings and models are not conducive to increasing or
supporting the athletes’ knowledge and motivation, then the arrow, as depicted in the figure,
would disappear. The ultimate goal of the AAA is to implement a policy reform framework that
equips the athletes with the tools needed for understanding policy reform at state, local, and
federal levels by 2020. Without the cultural influences of the organization laying the foundation
to support the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation, the organization will not be able to reach
their goal. By achieving their goal of implementing this policy reform framework, they serve to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 65
influence a large portion of athlete activists — those of which exist in a space where there are
few. And, by doing so, they can improve the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Figure 1. Athlete Activist Association conceptual framework
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism by
instituting a policy reform framework within the Athlete Activist Association (AAA). The
literature presented here assessed barriers to athlete activism, the lack of academic research
surrounding professional athlete activism, outlined present-day athlete activism, and illustrated
how to improve athlete activism. The knowledge presented here included the athletes’
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 66
understanding of the importance of their involvement in issues of social justice, membership
growth and retention, and the process of policy reform. The motivation presented here
showcased self-efficacy and expectancy-value theory. Lastly, the organizational influences that
affect improving the effectiveness of athlete activism included cultural settings and cultural
models, the need for training, the six support types needed in successfully managing change
within an organization, and the eight steps to successful athlete activism. The conceptual
framework of this study places the athletes’ knowledge and motivation within the sphere of
influence of the AAA’s organizational influence. Working in tandem, this model determines
how close an organization comes to reaching its goal. Chapter 3 presents the study’s
methodological approach.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 67
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Research Questions
This paper addresses increasing the effectiveness of athlete activism in the Athlete
Activist Association (AAA), a 501(c)(3) and 501(c)(4) organization comprised of professional
athlete activists. Below are the research questions that guided the innovation study that
addresses knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences needed in
understanding effective athlete activists.
1. What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?
2. What are the culture and context within the AAA that support the athletes’ knowledge
and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
improving athlete activism?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus is athletes in the AAA. These stakeholders were
selected because they are the largest unified group within the population with a membership base
of about 60 athletes. The practice of athlete activism is small (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), but
compared to the thousands of professional athletes in the NFL, NBA, MLB, MLS, and the
WNBA (TIDES, n.d.), this number could be much higher. Through this research, a policy
reform framework was developed and provides the athletes of the AAA with a framework aimed
to increase their effectiveness in reforming policy. Doing so may then increase the effectiveness
of athlete activism as a whole.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 68
Six athletes of the AAA were chosen as a representative sample because not only are they
the only unified organization, but they are also representing what effective athlete activism
should look like. Criteria for athlete selection includes varying levels of involvement on policy
reform, task force membership within the organization, and key area of focus. Athletes of the
AAA can be involved in activism at the state, local, or federal level and focus on policy reform.
The policy reform criteria are important to distinguish community involvement from activism.
Athlete activism by definition should include a commitment to policy reform (Marsh et al.,
2010). These athletes should also only include task force members of the organization, since
those are the athletes with the most experience and diversity amongst work within the
organization’s key pillars. This is important because the sample size should be representative of
the population (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and the policy reform framework should be applicable
to each key area of reform.
Six support staff members of the AAA were selected to give an account for present-day
athlete activism. The first criterion for selection was be co-managing directors. The AAA has
two co-managing directors and having worked with the athletes since the organization’s
inception, their perspectives highlighted their experiences with the athletes. Three other support
staff of the AAA were also chosen to illuminate more of the administrative duties of the
organization. Lastly, a liaison with a partner advocacy organization provided more information
on successful advocacy procedures. Interviewing both the athletes and the support staff of the
AAA provided a well-rounded narrative of present-day athlete activism.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 69
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Athletes Criteria
Athletes criterion 1. Athletes of the AAA can be involved in activism at the state, local,
or federal level and focus on policy reform.
Athletes criterion 2. After determining the athletes who focus on policy reform, athletes
from the AAA will include only the task force members of the organization, since those are the
athletes with the highest level of involvement.
Athletes criterion 3. A diverse sample of athlete activists were selected, with equal
representation amongst key areas of focus, spreading between police and community relations,
criminal justice reform, and education and economic advancement.
Support Staff Criteria
Support staff criterion 1. Support staff should be a co-managing director and have a
close relationship with the athletes.
Support staff criterion 2. Support staff should understand the grassroots aspects of
athlete activism and policy reform.
Support staff criterion 3. Support staff should have a legal background with a focus on
advocacy work.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
This qualitative study employed a purposeful sampling method. The athletes of the AAA
are a unique sample because athlete activism is such a rare occurrence. Athlete activists make up
less than 1% of the population (NCAA, 2018).
A qualitative design was used because it helps identify athletes, knowledge, motivation,
and behaviors (Clark & Estes, 2008; Johnson & Christensen, 2015) as well as the current nature
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 70
of professional athlete activism in an inductive manner. Ultimately, this research aimed to
generate theory around effective athlete activism, and that theory will serve as the foundation for
the policy reform framework. By interviewing both the athletes and the support staff of the
AAA, the gaps in KMO were addressed by at least one of the two groups. There were instances
the athletes highlighted key needs or best practices that the support staff did not. Additionally,
the support staff picked up on important traits or behaviors that made up successful athlete
activists, that the athletes had not recognized.
Because athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman, 2008), the sample size
was small. There were six athletes and six support staff interviewed in this study that concluded,
per Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) recommendation, when no new information was being
collected. Concerning the research question and methodology employed, 8 to 12 is a good
number for qualitative interviews and represents the small population size well. This need was
met through a sample size of 12. Interviewees were recruited through the co-managing directors
of the AAA for approvals and to ensure compliance regulations were met for both 501(c)(3) and
501(c)(4) statuses.
The timing of the interviews depended primarily on the athletes’ schedule. As a majority
of the athletes are in the NFL, interviews were scheduled to take place during Super Bowl
weekend, in-between events, where most athletes were present. Due to time constraints of the
weekend, remote phone interviews were conducted in place of in-person interviews, during the
athletes’ off-season activities. Sponsorship activations and appearances during Super Bowl
weekend often fill the athletes’ and support staff’s schedules, so in-person interviews were not
feasible for all subjects. Before the interview, once approval was obtained from the co-managing
directors and the lawyers, an email was sent out to all candidates inclusive of the researcher’s
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 71
title, position, and institution, as well as the study’s purpose, research questions, and
confidentiality guarantee (Creswell, 2003). The methodology of this research complied with
ethical and cultural norms, and the interviewees were not forced or coerced into participating.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Johnson and Christensen (2015) and Clark and Estes (2008) note that a qualitative design
is used to help identify participants’ knowledge, motivation, and behaviors. Following this
research, this study sought to do the same as well as further understand the current nature of
professional athlete activism in an inductive manner. Ultimately, this research aimed to generate
theory around effective athlete activism, and that theory served as the foundation for the policy
reform framework. An interview was selected as the method of data collection because it assists
in gaining clarity or more information (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Specifically, the
interview collected data via open-ended questions, a method which helps in gathering qualitative
information (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Here, more information was needed around the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences for effective athlete activism as practiced
through the AAA. A mix of opinion values and questions, feeling questions, knowledge
questions, sensory questions, background, and demographic questions, and time-frame questions
were used to illuminate the research questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) surrounding present-day
athlete activism. Interviews were chosen because they help researchers get access to the
observations of others, learn about people’s experiences, and learn about settings that would
otherwise remain closed off to the general public (Weiss, 1995). Interviews assisted in depicting
the current state of athlete activism from the athletes and staff who support them.
Observations and surveys were not utilized in this data collection process. Observations
were not utilized because there were not specific situations the athletes needed to be observed in
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 72
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Athlete activism happens in a variety of settings and using
guided interviews gives the most comprehensive review of those situations, reduces interviewer
effect and biases, and has a 50–60% or 60–75% response rate depending on if the interview is by
phone or in-person (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Observations would have been needed if
specific situations existed that showcased effective athlete activism. If this data collection
method had been pursued, observation would have taken place at a town hall event, a meeting
with members of Congress, or in another field situation. Extensive notes would have been taken
that paid attention to context, attitudes, and behaviors of all parties involved.
Questionnaires were not used because the sample size is so small. If the sample size was
larger and had hundreds of members, questionnaires could have been used. Or if the sample size
were more representative of the larger population size, having a questionnaire would mean the
data collected could be attributed to representing the population as a whole (Johnson &
Christensen, 2015). In this instance, since the athletes live in varying cities nationwide, a survey
link would have been emailed to the athletes and a follow-up and thank you email would ensue
where relevant.
Interviews
The protocol, located in Appendix A of this study, employed a semi-structured approach.
In a semi-structured interview, there are less structured questions which allow for more
flexibility (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Essentially, there were fewer
structured questions, which had a general layout but were not required to be repeated word by
word. This study asked open-ended questions. This flexibility allowed for a more natural
conversation (Patton, 2002). Even though these questions were open-ended, they followed along
with the KMO themes presented.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 73
First, the participants were thanked for agreeing to this interview. Then it was explained
to them that the purpose of this study was to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism and
made clear that the research was seeking to understand the knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational influences related to improving that effectiveness. For this interview the
pseudonym Athlete Activist Association, or AAA, was used instead of their organization’s name.
It was explained to the participants that this is due to ethical concerns related to the review
process and the ultimate goal was to create a policy reform framework for the AAA.
Next, the following was explained to the athletes and the support staff. The data in this
interview was confidential. They could have decided not to answer any questions they wish, and
they could have withdrawn from this interview at any time. All information was kept in a secure
file on the researcher’s Google Drive. When the data was transcribed, the researcher ensured
that it will be kept in a password-protected file on their computer. At the completion of the
study, if the participant chose to, all notes, transcripts, and related data was destroyed to maintain
the integrity of the information.
These interviews were semi-structured to allow for flexibility but still maintain a set of
guiding questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The timing of the
interview depended primarily on the athlete’s schedule. As a majority of the athletes are in the
NFL, the interviews aimed to take place during Super Bowl weekend in-between events in
Atlanta, but time did not allow. Subsequently, phone interviews were selected based on the
schedule and availability of the athletes and researcher. Twelve interviews were conducted, all
an hour in length, again depending on time and athlete or support staff availability. The entire
range of interviews lasted no more than 12 hours. Prior to the interview, once approval was
obtained from the co-managing directors, an email was sent out to all candidates inclusive of the
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 74
researcher’s title, position, an institution as well as the study’s, purpose, research questions, and
confidentiality guarantee as recommended by Creswell (2003).
The methodology of this research complied with ethical and cultural norms, and the
interviewees were not forced or coerced into participating. After the duration of the interview
was made clear, the interview began with gathering the athletes’ and support staff’s thoughts on
the current state of athlete activism. Then they were asked questions specifically related to the
AAA. To not take any of their words out of context, the participants were asked if it was okay to
record the session so that the researcher may play back and accurately transcribe them later. If
the participants consented, they were thanked and asked if they had anything, they wanted kept
off the record and the recording was stopped, and that information was not included in the
transcription. If they had not consented to recordings, then only handwritten notes would have
been taken. Lastly, the participants were asked if they had any questions and were reminded that
the interview would be a free exchange of information and they could stop at any time for
clarification or to repeat a question.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began during data collection. The researcher coded notes on a notepad
during the interview and wrote analytic memos after each interview. These notes included
documented thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data concerning the conceptual
framework and research questions. Once the interview concluded, the researcher transcribed and
coded the interviews. In the first phase of analysis, the researcher used open coding, looking for
empirical codes and applying codes from the conceptual framework. The second phase of
analysis was conducted where empirical and previous codes were aggregated into analytic/axial
codes. In the third phase of data analysis, the researcher identified pattern codes and themes that
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 75
emerged with the conceptual framework and study questions. The researcher then analyzed
documents and artifacts for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The first way in which credibility and trustworthiness was increased was through
triangulation. Through triangulation, the data collected holds credibility (Bowen, 2009) and
validity (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), triangulation
through multiple sources of data involves cross-checking and comparing data at different times,
places, or from people with different perspectives. Triangulation builds credibility because
numerous sources of data can reinforce theories or trends (Bowen, 2009). Here, data
triangulation occurs when participants provide their perspective of both the effectiveness of
athlete activism and the AAA. By incorporating the various perspectives of the athletes and the
support staff for shared events and moments, each participant served as a unique source of data.
Their varying views on the effectiveness of the AAA and present-day athlete activism provided a
framework for this problem of practice. Their responses assisted in creating a solution for the
AAA that improves the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Several other ways in which this study maintained credibility was through member
checks, remaining unbiased in data collection, reflexivity, and peer review. Member checks or
respondent validation involve soliciting feedback on the findings from participants in the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). By taking the preliminary analysis back to the participants and
reviewing if findings validate what they already believe to be true, their engagement reinforces
the findings. The researcher also sought out data that may disprove the study’s hypothesis. By
having questions that sought alternative explanations, the researcher avoided creating leading
questions that may skew the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this study, questions were
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 76
designed in an unbiased manner that may have led to follow up questions which probed for
evidence contrary to the hypothesis. Lastly, as the researcher, it was important to employ
reflexivity. To maintain the integrity of the study, it was important to reflect critically on any
biases and presumptions and ensure that these biases did not interfere with the data and were
notated in the research. Lastly, through a dissertation committee, this data was peer reviewed
which maintains credibility by evaluating how plausible the findings are based on the data
presented (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Since this research involves human subjects, the researcher reached out to participants to
acquire their consent. This ensured the participants that involvement in this study was voluntary,
it let them know of any aspects of the research that might affect their well-being and informed
them that they had the right to end the study at any point in time (Glesne, 2015). Additionally,
the researcher ensured the participants that their responses were kept anonymous. The researcher
informed the participants and gave them the option to continue with the study or decline their
invitation to record (Glesne, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When it came to storing or
securing the data, the researcher ensured participants that data was retained in a safe place so as
not to expose confidential data. In summary, as the interviewer, the researcher had the
responsibility to show respect, honor promises, and refrain from pressuring or doing harm to
participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2011).
As a support staff member of the organization, the study aimed to take place in Atlanta
but instead interviews were recorded remotely. Because of the nature of the organization, with
athletes being stationed all over the country, the support staff handles athlete relations remotely
on a regular basis. The implementation of this study was no different. As the Digital Media and
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 77
Branding Manager of the Organization, the only interest in the results of the project the
researcher would have would be to use quotes for branding materials — if the researcher were
permitted by the participants, because they have the right to privacy (Glesne, 2015). As an
advocate of the work, the researcher took on the perspective (Glesne, 2015) that athlete activism
is a worthwhile exploration. But the researcher resisted sharing that point of view during the
interview as a means to remain unbiased (Rubin & Rubin, 2011). The goal of the research was
merely to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism. Otherwise, there was no direct overlap
between the researcher’s role and the results of the study. If there were any confusion about the
researcher’s dual roles from other members of the organization, it would be reiterated that the
results of the study have little to no impact on their job performance or advancement.
Additionally, the researcher would allow the participants as well as other members of the
organization to read, observe, or engage with the research before it is published (Glesne, 2015).
The researcher ensured that the athletes and additional support staff of the organization
understand their role as an investigator by clearly articulating to participants their purpose as
well as the purpose of the study.
The researcher’s assumptions and biases in working with the AAA was that they believe
athlete activists hold a valuable place in society. Understanding this, the researcher thought
contrary to what one may think: because of being so close to the work, rather than assuming they
are doing enough, they believe that the efforts of athlete activists could be more effective than
that of today. Additionally, as a Black woman in America, the researcher believes that
minorities face a disadvantage for advancement in society. Correlating with the work, the
researcher also believes an improvement in the effectiveness of athlete activism serves to lessen
those disadvantages. The researcher needed to account for these biases when engaging in data
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 78
collection, analysis, and reporting activities. Even with their biases, interviewing stakeholders
can help to teach a researcher about places, conditions, settings, and experiences they may have
been unaware of or closed off to (Weiss, 1995). Overall, the benefits to society outweigh the risk
of their biases which minimizes ethical concerns (Glesne, 2015).
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 79
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this research was to improve the effectiveness of professional athlete
activism through the implementation of a policy reform framework. This research examined the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences athletes the AAA needed to maximize
their effectiveness. Modeling the KMO framework of Clark and Estes (2008), the results of this
study were organized by the categories of assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational
causes and supported influences developed in Chapter 2. Tables 2, 3, and 4 in Chapter 2 were
used a foundation to align assumed influences and interview questions.
Qualitative data were collected to validate the assumed influences. Specifically, semi-
structured interviews were conducted to gain clarity around the knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors surrounding improving the effectiveness of athlete activism in the AAA.
Interviews were chosen because, as Weiss (1995) found, interviews are helpful in gaining access
to the observations of others, learning about people’s experiences, and learning about settings
that would have otherwise remained closed off to the general public. Interviews were most
important here because they assisted in depicting the current state of athlete activism from the
athletes and staff who support them. A variety of open-ended questions were asked that included
a mix of opinion values and questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory
questions, background, and demographic questions, and time-frame questions. The resulting
responses to those questions were used to answer research questions 1 and 2 of this study. The
project questions that assisted in achieving the purpose of this study included:
1. What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 80
2. What are the culture and context within the AAA that supports the athletes’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
improving athlete activism?
Participating Stakeholders
To address these questions and validate the causes, the researcher conducted a 28-
question interview involving two groups of stakeholders. Of the 28 questions, 18 were asked
solely of the athletes, eight were asked of the support staff, and two were asked of both groups.
Interviews took place over the phone and lasted between 30 minutes and an hour-and-a-half.
The first group of stakeholders interviewed were the athletes of the AAA. Here, current
and retired male, professional, NFL athletes ranging in age from 29 to 38 accounted for six of the
12 respondents. These participants lived in various states across the nation. Five were Black
while one was White. The second stakeholder group that participated in this study were the
support staff of the AAA. The support staff accounted for the remaining six participants and
ranged in age from 25 to 48. Three of the participants were White females, two were Hispanic
females, and one was a Black male. Four of the respondents live in California while two live in
Texas. Five of these support staff members are employed by the AAA while one serves as their
legal counsel. Demographic data is represented below in Table 5.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 81
Table 5
Stakeholder Demographics
Factor
Athlete
Support Staff
Total Sample Sample
Sample
12 6
6
Job Status
Current
83% Staff 83%
Retired
17% Legal Counsel 17%
Age Range
0–25
8%
0%
17%
26–30 17% 33% 0%
31–35 25% 50% 0%
36–40 42% 17% 67%
41–45 0% 0% 0%
46–50 8% 0% 17%
Gender
Male
58%
100%
17%
Female 42% 0% 83%
Race
Hispanic
17%
0%
33%
Black 58% 83% 17%
White 25% 17% 50%
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 82
Data Validation
Data was validated through triangulation, member checks, remaining unbiased in data
collection, reflexivity, and peer review. Through triangulation, each participant served as a
unique source of data. The various perspectives of the athletes, support staff, and legal counsel
for shared events and moments, cross-checked and compared data at different times, places, or
from people with different perspectives. Member checks reinforced the findings by taking the
preliminary analysis of modern athlete activism to the participants and comparing what they
already believed to be true. Having follow-up questions that sought alternative explanations
contrary to the hypothesis helped the researcher remain unbiased in the data which ultimately
confirmed or denied assumptions. The interviews were concluded when saturation was reached.
This happened as the researcher exhausted follow up questions that sought to get to the root of
knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences. Additionally, at the end of the interviews,
participants were asked to share any information they felt was missed and to question
information they felt unclear about.
Influences were also validated during the coding process. If an influence occurred among
at least six participants, or 50% of the time, it was seen as significant. Participants’ responses
were summarized in an Excel spreadsheet. Then related influences were condensed into codes
and numbered. Similar codes were then assigned the same number and subsequently
summarized into a theme. Related themes were then congregated to help form a claim. In the
Excel spreadsheet, claims were then given a color to assign them to the categories of assumed
knowledge, motivational, and organizational causes. Additionally, a number was given to each
claim to account for alignment with the research questions. Ultimately the claims that were
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 83
supported by common codes across 50% of stakeholders and most directly answered the research
questions were determined to be validated. This process can be seen in Appendix B.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
All 12 participants interviewed within this study were aligned with the idea that the
effectiveness of athlete activism could be improved. Throughout their interviews, two findings
occurred related to the knowledge causes. The first research question of this study asked, “What
is the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the effectiveness of athlete
activism?” The research presented here resulted in two findings related to the knowledge
component of that question. The first knowledge type was conceptual, and the research showed
that education is the most important factor related to improving the effectiveness of athlete
activists. A secondary conceptual finding showcased that collaboration is an important
component of getting athlete activists the knowledge they need to maximize their effectiveness.
Procedural knowledge was the third component of knowledge to be validated. Here it was
discovered that there are a set of best practices for athlete activists to follow in order to maximize
their effectiveness. In general, these findings showcased the role and importance of conceptual
and procedural knowledge influences in maximizing the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Conceptual Knowledge
Influence 1: Athletes need to properly educate themselves on an issue.
Interview findings. To maximize their effectiveness, athlete actives need to properly
educate themselves on the issues they advocate for. Two questions were asked to identify this
influence. The first question that validated this finding asked both groups of stakeholders what
the most effective steps for an athlete activist to follow were. All 12 participants, or 100% of
participants ranked education as the most important factor related to improving the effectiveness
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 84
of athlete activists. Education makes involvement easier if an athlete understands the importance
of their involvement (Flavell, 1979) and can improve the athlete’s effectiveness when dealing
with unique challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Additionally, education assists people with
setting, meeting, and revising goals (Ellis et al., 2014). A report from RISE (2017) further
validated this influence by listing that the first step of athlete activism should be for athletes to
educate themselves on the issues, tactics, and history of their advocacy focuses. These
ideologies support the finding that education is critical for improving the effectiveness of athlete
activism because it sets the foundation for solution building.
Athletes can not properly champion a cause if they are not educated on the nuances
surrounding that cause. One athlete explained how education helped him better advocate by
saying:
I think the biggest thing is to get educated on what’s happening and what the
environment is. I know early as I tried to get into having an impact on the community, I
think I was very, very inefficient because I didn’t necessarily understand the landscape. I
thought if I just stepped in with my voice and started talking about issues, that I’d
somehow help, and that wasn’t really the case. It wasn’t until really the last three or four
years that I recognized what I could do. The biggest thing that I can do as an athlete is
lift up the voices of those who aren’t being heard, but to do that I have to learn the issue
as well. I have to speak to those directly impacted, I have to be able to listen to the other
side of the coin, who’s the opposition, and then convene people.
Another athlete explained how education is the most important first step of athlete activism by
describing the tiers of education. Speaking specifically on education related to legislation
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 85
reform, he said, “being educated on what the legislation does, what it is, who it impacts, why it’s
important, the pros and cons from subject matter experts” is important to truly be effective.
The support staff also reinforced the importance of education when dealing with
legislation reform. One support staff member argued that, “understanding the policy that’s been
put in place, why that policy is in place, and being able to provide and understand what the stats
are, and what the facts are, and what those numbers are” is an important step in discerning how
to bring about the most effective change and in what form that change should occur. Her
example noted that education is important for knowing whether the recommended change
solution is funding, a new program, a meeting, or a bill, because each outcome has a different
process that affects stakeholders and systems in different ways. If athletes are not properly
educated on an issue, they can ultimately do more harm than good. One support staff member
further validated this by saying, “it can affect a movement negatively if folks don’t know what’s
happening, and can’t be specific about both the problem and the demands.” These responses
illuminate the idea that if athletes do not have education, they can ruin a movement.
When the support staff were asked how equipped they felt athlete activists were
currently, the general consensus was that most athletes are not equipped to handle issues of
social justice because of how complex most of these issues are. But the support staff noted that
the athletes in the AAA were more equipped than the general public because they had resources
through their organizations that other athletes did not. One support staff member said, “we’re
equipped because we have the right people helping us,” and went on to say how without the
proper relationships and knowledge, that other athletes lacked the accurate stats, figures, and
resources needed for effective advocacy work. When asked to rank the athletes of the AAA
versus non-AAA athletes, the support staff gave the AAA athletes a score of eight to nine while
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 86
non-AAA athletes got a score ranging between three and six. Additionally, when asked how
well the support staff felt they had prepared the athletes, they all said pretty well. They
mentioned how well informed and confident athletes were going into meetings or media
interviews and how those sentiments have also been reiterated by external partners. All of these
examples support the idea that athlete activists need to properly educate themselves on an issue.
Table 6 illustrates all of the factors the participants mentioned related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activists, ranked in order. The mentions indicated how many participants
mentioned that influence in their response.
Table 6
Factors that Maximize Athlete Activists’ Effectiveness
Mentions Factor
12 Get Educated
11 Collaborate with Experts and Stakeholders
7 Connect with the Issue
6 Amplify the Message
4 Recognize Your Power
4 Analyze Data and Determine Next Steps
2 Identify Your Passion
2 Create an Event on the Ground
2 Remain Consistent
2 Get Small Wins
2 Have a Follow-Up Plan
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 87
Summary. The assumed influence that athletes need to properly educate themselves on
an issue was validated through the interview responses. Here, all 12 participants in this study, or
100% of participants recognized that education is the most important step in being effective
activists. They recognized that without education, they would not have the tools needed to
succeed in their goals. On a macro level, these participants’ responses reflect the importance of
education as it relates to improving the effectiveness of athlete activists.
Influence 2: Athlete activists need to maximize their effectiveness by collaborating
with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and other influential organizations
or corporations.
Interview findings. Collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations,
and other influential organizations or corporations provides athlete activists with the knowledge
needed to maximize their effectiveness. This finding was first assumed as a result of three out of
the eight steps RISE (2017) found athletes should engage in to become effective activists.
Through their review of all moments of professional athlete activism in 2017, eight findings
emerged. Three of those eight findings support this second influence. Their first finding noted
that athlete activists need to focus on external relationships in which they establish an
infrastructure for collaboration, information, training, and strategy. Next, they found that athletes
need to engage with community leaders and beyond. Lastly, they suggested athletes should work
with others and know their strengths. The research presented here supported the findings from
RISE (2017) and validated the assumed influence through two questions.
The first question related to this influence asked what the most successful factors of
driving legislation reform with athlete activists were. Here, 10 of the 12 participants, or 83% of
participants agreed that collaboration with experts and stakeholders was the second most
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 88
important factor in getting the athletes the information they needed for their advocacy efforts.
This finding is showcased in Table 6. In speaking about the power of collaboration, one athlete
said:
We’ll get them educated enough, we’ll give them the opportunity to learn directly from
experts, from grassroots organizers, from police chiefs, everything. Then once they get
that knowledge, now they can speak freely. What they oftentimes learn is they have the
biggest voice in the room.
Here he stressed the importance of how connecting the athletes with subject matter experts
provided the athletes with knowledge. Supporting that point, another athlete mentioned in his
interview how meeting with different experts is what was most effective in getting him the
information he needed. He said, “whether it be public defenders, teachers, lawyers, that are
defense lawyers or the prosecution,” the ultimate goal is to get the experts to share their
knowledge. He went on to say:
The best thing is you look up, and we’re sitting there for three or four hours, and no one’s
paying attention to time, because it’s everyone just trying to help inform everybody.
That’s honestly where I’ve probably learned the most, is just sitting in a room full of
different people that have different expertise.
A support staff member reiterated this sentiment by stressing how important connections
are for athletes in this space. He said, “without having the right connections to people that are in
the space, you have the potential to both mess up messaging, and maybe not just be the most
effective as possible.” These statements are evidence that athlete activists need to maximize
their effectiveness by collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and
other influential organizations or corporations.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 89
The second question asked support staff what they have seen to be the most successful
factors in driving legislation reform with athlete activists. Four out of six of the support staff
members, or 67% of participants, noted that in order for athlete activists to gain knowledge, the
athletes would need to collaborate with others. They stated that other influential groups included
grassroots organizations, or legal organizations, or political organizations. One support staff
member described these groups and their influence by saying:
Having good grassroots organizations, or legal organizations, or political organizations
that are already involved, that can both educate and help determine next steps. Because
it’s kind of a constant progress of, “Okay, where are we now? Where do we need to go?
How are we going to get there?”
These results elucidate that athlete activists need to collaborate with subject matter experts,
grassroots organizations, and other influential organizations to maximize their effectiveness.
Table 7 showcases the recommended groups, examples provided and why partnering with these
groups is important.
Table 7
Recommended Groups and Reasons to Collaborate
Recommended Groups
Subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, other influential organizations or corporations.
Examples Provided
Public defenders, teachers, lawyers, prosecution, police chiefs, community leaders, grassroots
organizations, political organizations, or legal organizations.
Reasons to Collaborate
Establish an infrastructure for collaboration, information sharing, knowledge gaining, training, and
strategy.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 90
Summary. The assumed influence of athlete activists needing to maximize their
effectiveness by collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and other
influential organizations was validated. Here, 83% of the participants felt collaboration helped
athletes maximize their effectiveness. Additionally, 67% of the support staff agreed that in order
for athlete activists to gain knowledge, the athletes would need to collaborate with others.
Essentially, they recognized that without collaboration, athlete activists would not have the
knowledge needed to implement systemic change in their communities. On a macro level, this
research underscored the importance of collaboration for improving the effectiveness of athlete
activism.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 1: Athlete activists need to follow effective athlete activism practices.
Interview findings. When asked what the steps were to follow in being an effective
athlete activist before government, 11 key steps emerged from both the athletes and the support
staff. All 12 participants, or 100% of respondents, described factors which they felt were the
most critical steps for getting policy passed and as such critical to their effectiveness. These
factors were categorized under the themes of developing the need for involvement and
understanding the policy reform process. Next, these themes and practices were arranged in
order of execution, based on how the participants described them and how they made the most
sense chronologically. Many athletes are unaware of the level of importance their involvement
holds in society (Milken Institute, 2017), but policy reform becomes easier if they do understand
their importance (Flavell, 1979). Additionally, understanding the policy reform process is
crucial to these best practices because the talent and skills of an organization’s membership base
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 91
limits organizational success (Tierney, 2006). Without following these best practices, the
organization minimizes their effectiveness.
In describing the importance of identifying your passion, one athlete said other athletes
can get spread too thin but that identifying their passion helps them be more strategic. He said,
“find something you’re passionate about or situation you’re passionate about, put everything into
it, really stand tall on that.” He went on to argue that after you find your passion you have to get
educated on an issue and connect with it. He said, “you need to do your homework on the stuff
that is important to you and really nail it.” He mentions that if you try to get involved in
everything without being intentional with one issue then your voice gets lost in the conversation.
Through his narrative, he was able to illustrate the importance of athletes finding their passion
and getting educated on an issue.
Another athlete summarized more of the process by explaining how athletes in their
organization will research many advocacy groups, evaluate the one they feel is most effective,
partner with them, and amplify their message. This is important because athlete activists can
help mobilize constituents who would have otherwise remained ignorant (Marsh et al., 2010).
That same athlete continued by describing how policy reform is controlled by the general public
but that they are seemingly unaware of that fact. He said, “All they have to do is vote for them,
but they’re not made aware of the issues that are going on.” He then discussed how easy it is for
politicians to get policies passed which can reinforce unjust systems without people realizing it.
But the athletes can actually step in and use their platform to bring awareness to issues
previously kept out of the public eye (Marsh et al., 2010). Ultimately, they amplify messages
and assist in getting the right policies passed. Another athlete reinforced that thought by stating:
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 92
I think for us when it comes to policy, rarely are we gonna be the ones to write the policy.
But once we learn the good policy and we begin to support it, we begin to put pressure on
those who . . . we have the ability to figure out who or identify who’s in the way of it and
go directly to them, knowing that we bring the pressure because we have cameras, we
bring publicity, we bring out followers. When people have to get held accountable
publicly, usually things move a little bit quicker.
What he reiterates here is that amplifying the message is important because of the platform and
massive following that professional athletes have gained through their sport.
Related to recognizing their power, one athlete spoke about this realization after helping
to pass bills in New York and Louisiana. He said:
You see that these advocacy groups [have] been working on some of these policies, year
in and year out, for five to 10 years with little to no change and then we come in and be
on the scene for a month, two months and the law’s changed.
This athlete described how he knew they had a large platform, but he didn’t realize the power of
their platform until he saw how they were able to come in and make change happen so quickly.
The support staff further detailed the steps that they have seen come to be most effective
through trial and error. In describing the importance of getting small wins, one support staff
member said:
I do think it’s helpful to be able to get some wins, so people see that, “Oh, this one is
valuable, we can actually make a difference.” Versus just showing up, ‘cause folks are
really busy and I think because people are very busy, people aren’t gonna take the time to
do something that they don’t think is gonna be worth it.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 93
He continues by saying small wins are important for athletes because it shows that there is value
in the work they are doing and reinforces that they are appropriately utilizing their limited time.
He went on to discuss how creating an event and having a follow up plan was also pertinent to
athletes maximizing their effectiveness. He said, “I think having either some event or meeting
and then have follow-up through, because of the problems of social media in our society.” He
went on to mention how the goal of the event or meeting is to raise awareness for the groups who
have been on the ground doing the work for so long. He then explains because content on social
media has such a short shelf life that having a follow through plan turns awareness to action.
This narrative is important because it evidences how creating events, getting wins, and having a
follow up plan is crucial for athletes to maximize their effectiveness.
Lastly, in speaking on maintaining consistency in your messaging, one support staff said
it is important to remain consistent because hearing something multiple times is how information
is retained in this space. She said:
They’re reading it in the newspaper, they’re hearing it on the radio, they’re watching it on
television. It takes generally messages of seven, you need to hear the same message
seven times in terms of it really resonating. Unless there’s a shock factor.
Her response demonstrates why remaining consistent is important for athletes to maximize their
effectiveness. In support of the assumed influence, Table 8 displays all 11 best practices
arranged in the order they should be implemented. It explains the process of athlete activism
best practices, categorized by the two themes of developing the need for involvement and
understanding the policy reform process.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 94
Table 8
Athlete Activism Best Practices
Theme Best Practice Explanation
Developing a
need for
involvement
Recognize
Your Power
Identify Your
Passion
Recognize that the biggest thing you can do as an athlete is lift up the voice of those that
are not being heard.
Find what you are passionate about a place your energy and efforts there. Without a
passion, it is easy to burn out or deliver diluted messages.
Understanding
the policy
reform process
Get Educated Educate yourself on what you are advocating for, what is happening in that space, what
policies or laws limit or enable that injustice to occur, who it impacts, why it is important,
the pros and cons from subject matter experts, educate the general public on what you
have learned.
Connect with
the Issue
Get to the ground level of an issue by connecting with subject matter experts and
stakeholders and then plug aligned people into movements that have specific solutions or
asks.
Collaborate
with Experts
and
Stakeholders
Establish collaboration amongst athletes, stakeholders, organizations, and corporations.
This step should also include researching advocacy groups already doing the work and
vetting them to see who is most effective. Next, major playmakers in this space need to
be identified. Once the above has been established, create strategic alliances with
corporate or grassroot groups or individuals that have a common goal.
Analyze Data
and
Determine
Next Steps
After collaborating with groups and individuals, the next step is to take their data,
determine whether the solution is a bill, funding, etc., and support with specific policy.
Meet with supporters and opposition to get a full picture of the issue. Bring the voice of
the oppressed to those meeting. Grassroots organizations and advocacy leaders that
oppose those in positions of power should also be brought to the table in an effort to give
their voice sustenance. If those individuals cannot attend the meeting, their talking points
should be addressed in the meeting on behalf of them.
Amplify the
Message
Identify influencers that may inhibit the policy and place public pressure on them via
awareness tools such as social media, op-eds, videos, or commercials. Messaging should
remain consistent across platforms and voices and should highlight the need for the policy
and speak to systems. Information sharing should be supported by research and/or work
that has proven to be successful. The goal of this shard information should be to break
down preconceived notions. In that the participants suggests that getting comfortable
being uncomfortable is important in staying motivated.
Create an
Event on the
Ground
Engage with the public and stakeholders to plan events such as forums or open
discussions that get even more individuals or influential citizens involved with the goal of
increasing awareness and expanding education.
Remain
Consistent
A large amount of consistency in a concentrated period of time is what is needed to
maintain external focus and pressure.
Get Small
Wins
Have some wins to shows the value of the work and keeps athletes motivated because it
shows change is a viable possibility.
Have a
Follow Up
Plan
Whether or not the policy passes, there should be a follow up plan to that goal that shows
continued support to grassroots groups or try a different solution.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 95
Summary. Table 8, as well as the participants’ responses, illustrate that the best practices
related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. Here, 100% of respondents identified
these best practices. The best practices were categorized under the two themes of developing a
need for involvement and understanding the policy reform process. Under developing a need for
involvement, the practices included athletes recognizing their power and identifying their
passion. Within understanding the policy reform process the best practices included getting
educated, connecting with an issue, collaborating with experts and stakeholders, analyzing data
and determining next steps, amplifying the message, creating an event on the ground, remaining
consistent, getting small wins, and having a follow up plan. The participants of this study are
adept to speak on these best practices because it what has helped them get policy reformed.
While athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), the AAA is the
only organization of its kind that is made up of athletes solely with the intent to advocate for
policy reform. Their effectiveness has been proven through the policies they were able to reform
in their first year. While referring to legislative wins in New York, and Louisiana, one athlete
notes, “We’ve been able to see laws changed and policies get changed simply by that process.”
The group has had other notable legislative wins in Florida, New York, Massachusetts and
Michigan as well. Following these best practices can lead other athlete activists to success in
legislative reform.
Results and Findings for Motivational Causes
Throughout these 12 interviews, two findings occurred related to the motivational
influences of improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. The first research question of this
study asked, “What is the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?” The research presented here resulted in two findings that
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 96
support the motivational component of that question. The first motivation type was expectancy
value. The research showed that athlete activists need to be motivated towards higher personal
expectations. The second motivation finding was self-efficacy, and it showcased that athlete
activists may need to be a part of a larger group to feel motivated. These findings represented
the role expectancy value and self-efficacy play in motivating athlete activists towards
maximizing their effectiveness.
Expectancy Value
Influence 1: Athlete activists need to be motivated towards higher personal
expectations.
Interview findings. When understanding what motivates athletes to involve themselves
in issues of social justice, the athletes of the study were asked two questions. First, they were
asked on a personal level, what they expected to derive from their activism. Of the six athletes
interviewed, five out of six, or 83%, expected only to derive something related to improving
another person’s life. Feeling a corporate social responsibility or a collective identity with
others, the five athletes described how they expected to gain equality, justice, or a better life for
others. Corporate social responsibility happens when a person has cultural foundations or
incentives that makes their intended goals possible or attractive (Galaskiewicz, 1991). A
collective identity can be developed through shared experiences and interests (Melucci, 1996;
Taylor & Whittier, 1992). Here, feeling a collective identity with their geographical,
socioeconomic, or ethnic communities helped to motivate the athletes.
Essentially, athletes placed a high level of value on helping people because they believe
that by doing so, they can bring good to someone else’s life, often times someone who they felt
they could relate to. One athlete said, “Though I have my own life’s worries and things I have to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 97
take care of, it’s also my responsibility to take care of people who can’t take care of themselves.”
Another athlete alluded to the same feeling by saying:
It’s about the people. It’s about the community. Are their lives being changed? Are they
given the opportunity to succeed? Are they given a chance at life? Not so much a second
chance but, a chance to succeed. For me, that’s what’s most important, not what I get out
of personal gain from it.
Another athlete spoke about how playing organized sports gave him the mentality to always
think of others. He said, “It’s not why you do it, but as a byproduct of getting involved
everybody wins.” Another athlete added, “It should be enough to want to improve the lives of
people that are being marginalized or being unfairly targeted.” These findings showcase how
athlete activists need to be motivated towards higher personal expectations by breaking down
how feeling a corporate social responsibility builds an intrinsic expectation to help others.
Otherwise stated, by involving themselves in issues of social justice, they expect their activism
will help others.
The second question the athletes were asked was, what their original motivation was for
involving themselves in issues of social justice. Of the six athletes interviewed, all, or 100%,
were motivated to involve themselves in athlete activism because of a calling to a higher
purpose. That ideology was also rooted in helping others. The root of this calling was identified
by any mix of two to five themes. Those themes included obeying religious teachings, pursuing
justice, having a social consciousness, striving for self-actualization in service of others, and
wanting others to have a better chance than they or their family did. Aligning one’s motivation
with group or team oriented dynamics leads people to invest maximum effort towards causes that
influence the greater good of the group (Clark & Estes, 2008). Higher levels of value, interest,
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 98
and intrinsic motivation serve as driving factors for motivation (Rueda, 2011) and as such have
encouraged these athletes to stay committed to the work. Ultimately, the athletes are motivated
by factors that bring beneficial solutions to society as a whole.
In speaking on faith, one athlete said it was his responsibility to care for those who
cannot take care of themselves. Because of his faith he felt, “It’s on those who have more to do
more for those who have less and especially if you come from those communities.” Describing
being motivated by his family, another athlete stated:
I have family that are still dealing with some of those issues. I have kids who are gonna
be African American, males and females, that will be dealing with issues, hopefully not
as bad as they are now but will be dealing with issues in some context when they become
older, so I want to make sure that the life that they live, you know down the road, is in a
better place than what I’ve had growing up or what I see currently happening in events
across the country.
Echoing those sentiments, another athlete said, “having two kids, two sons, that are African
American that are coming up and wanting a world where the America that they live in to be as
safe as possible for them.”
Several athletes also mentioned that they hoped their legacy did not end with what they
did on the field, but that it carried over to what they did for the communities they played in. One
athlete said:
You talk about legacy, and leaving different things behind, and leaving it better than you
found it. That doesn’t only apply to whatever team you play for, or whatever conference
you play in. Now, hopefully when we’re done, it applies to whatever city you play in, to
affect those communities in ways that you never thought you would.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 99
In all of these examples, the athletes highlight that they are most motivated by the idea of helping
other people. The reason for that motivation varied athlete to athlete, but at the core, this
evidence suggests athlete activists have people-centric motivations that drive them to maximize
their effectiveness. Table 9 summarizes expectancy value as an influence by breaking down the
two questions of what athletes expect to derive from their activism and what their original
motivation was for getting involved in activism. It categorizes participants’ main responses into
the identified theme and purposes.
Table 9
Reasons Athlete Activists Need to be Motivated Towards Higher Personal Expectations
Recommended Groups Theme Purpose
What athletes expect to
derive from their
activism
Athletes’ original
motivation was for
getting involved in
activism
Help someone
else
Calling to a
higher purpose
Corporate social responsibility
Collective identity
Religious teachings
Pursuing justice
Having a social conscience
Striving for self-actualization through service of
others
Wanting others to have a better experience than
they did
Summary. These findings show that athlete activists need to be motivated towards
higher personal expectations in order to maximize their effectiveness. Here, 83% solely
expected to derive something related to improving another person’s life. Additionally, 100%
were motivated to involve themselves in athlete activism because of a calling to a higher purpose
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 100
that was also rooted in helping others. Essentially, athlete activists need to be called towards a
higher purpose in order to stay motivated in their work. The purpose of this need was feeling a
corporate social responsibility or a collective identity. Examples of purposes higher than self-
included obeying religious teachings, pursuing justice, having a social consciousness, striving for
self-actualization in service of others, and wanting others to have a better chance than they or a
family member did. On a macro level, these findings emphasized the importance of intrinsic
motivations for improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Self-Efficacy
Influence 1: Athlete activists may need to be a part of a larger group to feel
motivated.
Interview findings. When understanding what influences an athlete’s perceived ability to
advocate for social justice reform, the athletes of this study were asked how they would assess
their own effectiveness on issues of policy reform. Of the six athletes interviewed, 100% felt
that they were most effective because they were working with a larger group. Case and Zeglen
(2018) found that a collective identity, a sense of community, and sense of efficacy were
important factors for sustaining and deepening engagement in community engagement work.
Through collective identity theory, athletes may feel more motivated as a group because
they are reconstructing and reinforcing racial boundaries, forging group consciousness of
intersecting inequalities, and negotiating power relations through everyday interactions (Pelak,
2005). Through interdependency, the idea that progress can only happen when multiple groups
work together, athletes working with the internal and external staff of the AAA can accelerate
the process of policy reform (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). This accelerated process, as a result of
working in a group, has combated the negative stigma surrounding athlete activism. Combating
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 101
this stigma has assisted in athletes and the general public realizing the power their voice holds
over culture (Agyemang, 2011; Agyemang et al., 2010) and has ultimately increased the self-
efficacy of the athletes of the AAA. Figure 2 illustrates this process.
Figure 2. How being a part of a larger group increases self-efficacy amongst athlete activists
Working through this figure, one athlete described how their involvement was making
change happen more quickly when he described how advocacy groups told him that certain
changes would not have happened had he not gotten involved. After describing how grateful the
group was, he said:
But also you see that these advocacy groups [have] been working on some of these
policies year in and year out for five to 10 years with little to no change and then we
come in and be on the scene for a month, two months and the law’s changed.
Another athlete supported this accelerated timeline when describing how the gratitude of another
group made him feel more able to advocate for issues of social justice. He described how
someone told him how big of a role he played in getting bills passed that sat around for a year
before he got involved. He went on to explain how his self-efficacy increased by saying:
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 102
I remember walking away from that like, “Wow. I didn’t think . . .’ I knew we were
athletes, and that people would want to talk to us about the Patriots, and football, and all
of that, but I just didn’t think it would have that kind of impact. It really inspired me to
like, “Man, we gotta do more of this for things we truly believe in, if it’s going to have
this kind of impact.”
This example showed how after sitting on the table for months, once he got involved, the bill
passed within weeks and he felt more able to advocate for issues in the future.
When asked what would make him feel more able to advocate for issues of social justice,
another athlete reflected this thought. He stated that people supporting him makes him feel more
able to advocate. He said it was inspiring to, “hear them tell us how us getting involved either
motivated them [or] helped them directly. Those things motivated me.” Speaking further on
how a group makes him feel motivated, one athlete said, “From a strength in numbers standpoint,
I do think so. When you are . . . but it is more powerful coming from a name. It’s nice when I
sign off on an op-ed and there’s three other names.” These findings exemplify that athletes feel
most able to advocate for social justice working with a larger group.
Summary. These findings validate that athlete activists may need to be a part of a larger
group to feel motivated. Here, 100% of the athletes felt that they were most effective because
they were working with a larger group. Working with a group motivates athlete collective
identity theory which forges group consciousness of intersecting inequalities and enhances
negotiating power relations through everyday interactions (Pelak, 2005). Additionally, the
interdependency that is established when working with a group leads to an accelerated policy
reform timeline. This accelerated process leads to policy reform more quickly and helps combat
the negative stigma surrounding athlete activism. As such, when athletes receive more support
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 103
from the general public, they feel more motivated to advocate for issues of social justice. On a
macro level, athlete activists may need to be a part of a larger group to feel motivated and an
increase in motivation increases the effectiveness of their activism.
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes
The second research question of this study asked, “What are the culture and context
within the AAA that supports the athletes’ knowledge and motivation?” Two cultural model and
two cultural setting influences from Chapter 2 were validated to help answer this question.
Cultural models are the attitudes and beliefs related to an organization, while cultural settings are
the behaviors of those in an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The first cultural
model identified that athlete activists need effective role models within the space of athlete
activism. The second cultural model stated athlete activists need to be more equipped to
advocate for social justice issues. The first cultural setting identified in this research was that
athlete activists need support organizations or staff to support and facilitate recruiting. The
second cultural setting identified in this research was that athlete activists need a support
organization or staff to make their activism turnkey. These findings represented the cultural
models and settings at play in the organization of the AAA, whose ultimate goal is to maximize
the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Cultural Settings
Influence 1: Athlete activists need support organizations or staff to support and
facilitate recruiting.
Interview findings. Influence 1 illustrated that athlete activists need a support
organization or staff to make their activism turnkey. Through a secondary influence, this
research also found that athlete activists need support staff to facilitate recruiting. When asked
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 104
what ways the AAA could improve, seven out of 12, or 58%, of the participants stated that
recruiting was an important factor of improving the effectiveness of the AAA. It is also
important here to note the 58% delineated to six out of six athletes and two out of six support
staff members. Establishing a sustainable recruiting pipeline helps athlete activists maximize
their effectiveness because it helps acquire, develop, and deploy human capital into an
organization (Barber, 1998; Phillips & Gully, 2015). Additionally, recruiting plays a role in
employees’ motivation, performance, and retention which ultimately influences an
organization’s capabilities, strategic execution, and competitive advantage (Phillips & Gully,
2015).
The reason the athletes need the support staff to recruit is because they themselves do not
have the time. One athlete explained this by saying, it is hard for the athletes themselves to
recruit guys in without doing it full-time. He said because they are athletes, “time is something
that is not in abundance, so the amount of work that we put in leaves very little room for ample
time to recruit guys and spend time on tasks just bringing people into the circle.”
When explaining why recruiting was so important three main points arose. These points
included improved diversity, maximize effectiveness, and relief for current athletes. First, the
athletes felt that the AAA should begin facilitating recruiting because getting athletes involved
from other sports establishes diversity and adequate representation. One athlete said, “At some
point, I think we’re going to be able to, again, utilize different sports and not just the NFL.” He
continued by explaining how a diverse representation allows the organization to cover more
ground by saying:
We have to find a way to better understand the entire demographic [of] not only of the
NFL but also, the NBA, the WNBA and all other sports should be able to gravitate and
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 105
differentiate the voices that are able to lend their voice to what the organization is doing
at this point.
This evidence showcases that the AAA needs to recruit because it could help them diversify their
representation.
Having diverse representation also allows for a unity amongst all professional athletes.
The second reason athletes felt they needed a recruiting plan was because the more people that
were involved, the more effective they could become at doing and scaling their work. One
athlete explained how that diversity unifies them and allows for the sharing of information. This
makes them more effective because if an advocacy strategy works in one city that athlete can
share that strategy with another athlete in another city and maximize their reach. But that can
only happen if there are other athletes doing other work in other cities. He said:
The more we can link each sport and player in those sports, it’s why we cover a ton of
ground. It allows us to have a united front that can be able to attack issues from every
angle. That only makes the athlete activation even stronger.
Another athlete said, “the more people we get involved, I think the more we can get
accomplished.” He continued by saying, “the more that we can collab with like-minded people, I
think the more effective we can be.” This was further supported by another athlete saying the
AAA needed to:
Let other athletes know outside our sport exactly what we’re doing and then creating a
structure and capacity and bandwidth to be able to allow more people to come in and help
us. The more people who focus around these areas and work in these areas the better.
In speaking on recruiting more guys to join the movement, one support staff member
said, “So I think that’s the challenge going forward, is recruitment, and figuring out how to get
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 106
other guys involved, ‘cause I just think once you have more folks speaking that collective voice,
I think that’s effective.” Another support staff member said it would be even better if the new
recruits were on a winning team because, “that’s an opportunity to create a bigger amount of
attention around the issue.” These examples are evidence that the AAA believes recruiting
would help them maximize their effectiveness.
The athletes also felt that recruiting would help take some of the pressure off of the
current athletes and decrease burnout. One player mentioned how they may burnout because on
top of the grueling work of activism, these guys have already busy schedules. He explained, “A
lot of guys have, most guys have other projects and so I think it can improve and just realizing
sometimes that these guys are busy.” He went on to say that the average NFL career is three
years long so recruiting needs to happen on a continuous basis because their platform is biggest
while they are still paying. He described this by saying, “you need to as quickly as you acquired
an asset or talent you need to be looking for someone else because guys come and go.” When it
comes to burnout, recruiting can ensure a pool of candidates are available to back fill the
positions of those who may phase out of the organization or those who may need a break.
Additionally, not establishing a recruiting pipeline keeps the organization from being
successful. When asked what failure looks like to them, several athletes mentioned failure would
be creating something that is not sustainable. One athlete said:
If we drop the ball as far as being able to transition other young men and young women
into these roles, then we’re going to drop the ball and I think that’s what failure looks
like. You don’t want to just have something that was in existence for two or three or four
years. You want to have something that’s going to stand the test of time.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 107
The athletes and the support staff then went on to mention several tactics for reaching out
to peers as well as several tactics for getting guys to commit to the work once they had been
reached out to. When asked what the most effective way was to reach out to their peers, several
tactics were mentioned. These tactics included material handouts such as fliers or t-shirts, digital
connections such as email, social media, and tapping into the league-wide brotherhood. One
recommendation that stood out was something that the AAA established in their contract with
the NFL. In partnering with the League, they required the League to establish a social justice
fund for every team where players are responsible for fundraising and distributing work. This
turned out to be helpful in recruiting because now there is a social justice presence in every
locker room. Recruiting then becomes easier because it challenges someone who already has a
passion. One support staff member noted this by saying, “When you find an opportunity that
really resonates with them, they dig in on their own. It doesn’t always take a lot of pushing from
us. Sometimes it’s the other way around.”
Lastly, this influence was supported through mentioned tactics of getting guys to commit
to the work. Committing to the work is easier when several tactics are employed. First, as
mentioned above, when involvement is turnkey that makes recruiting easier because there is less
for an athlete to do when getting involved. Additionally, athletes should see other athletes act as
a role model, they should have direct communication with other athlete activists and those
athletes should empower their peers with information. Next, having athletes witness injustices
firsthand by hearing from impacted citizens, participating in listen and learn tours, and attending
in-person meetings, events and activations were other mentioned tactics for getting guys to
commit to the work. Lastly, having support from the community helps with recruiting since
there was such a strong negative sentiment against Colin Kaepernick’s kneeling. Most
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 108
importantly, one athlete notes, athletes should not be chased hard. He said, “If somebody tells
me they’re interested in getting involved, and then they can’t seem to even do the preliminary
stuff. How am I going to depend on them to do the hard stuff?” This shows that the guys who
want to be involved may be the most effective at doing the work because they will be invested.
These examples showcased how athlete activists need support organizations or staff to
support and facilitate recruiting because it can help lighten the workload. This evidence also
introduced recommendations from the athletes and support staff as to how they’ve been most
successful in reaching out to other athletes and how they have been most successful in getting
guys to commit to the work. Table 10 summarizes these findings.
Table 10
Reasons Athlete Activists Need a Support Staff to Facilitate Recruiting
Influence and
Reason Result of Recruiting
Tactics for Reaching Out to
Peers
Tactics for Getting
Athletes to Commit
Athlete activists
need a support staff
to facilitate
recruiting because
they themselves do
not have the time
and need to
establish a
sustainable
organization.
Improved diversity
Maximized
effectiveness
Relief for current
athletes
Material handouts such as
fliers or t-shirts
Digital connections such as
email, social media
Tapping into the league-
wide camaraderie
Mandating the league
establish a social justice
fund on every team where
players are responsible for
fundraising and distributing
Act as a role model
Have athletes
communicate directly with
other athletes
Empower athletes with
information
Have athletes witness
firsthand (hear from
impacted citizens, in-
person meetings, attend
events and activations —
listen & learn)
The involvement is
turnkey
Have support from the
community
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 109
Summary. Here, 58% of the participants stated that recruiting was an important factor of
improving the effectiveness of the AAA. This validates the assumed influence that athlete
activists need support organizations or staff to support and facilitate recruiting. The main reason
the athletes need the support staff to recruit is because they themselves do not have the time. If
the AAA is able to implement a successful recruiting strategy, it would mean that they could
improve diversity, maximize their effectiveness, and provide relief for current athletes.
Influence 2: Athlete activists need a support organization or staff to make their
activism turnkey.
Interview findings. Of the 12 participants of the study, they unanimously agreed that
athletes could not maximize their effectiveness by doing this work alone. The groups agreed that
having a support staff enhances the athletes’ activism by multiplying access, efforts, and
relationships. Additionally the participants felt having an organization like the AAA helps
protect the athletes’ voice by creating strength in numbers and establishing a sound strategy,
which makes their activism turnkey. Related to these findings, the athletes and the support staff
were asked three different questions related to cultural settings within the organization. First, the
athletes were asked how they felt having an organization like the AAA affected their activism.
All of the athletes. or 100% of them, agreed that they could not do this work alone. Since
professional athletes spend on average 40 hours a week training for their sport (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2016), they do not have enough time to advocate for issues full-time.
In speaking on maximizing access and efforts, one athlete said, “I’m from Texas but I
work in New York and New Jersey and I’m actually able to work in both markets when I need to
because we have the resources to actually dive into those issues in both markets.” Another
athlete added, “I’ve done a lot of things and accomplished a lot of things on my own, but once
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 110
we started [the AAA] it’s been tenfold what I’ve been able to do on my own.” Since the athletes
are not working alone, some felt safer speaking out about controversial issues. One athlete said,
“Well, I think it lends power to your voice. I think one person can be effective, but I think when
you join together, different athletes, there’s a sense of security there.” Summarizing the strategy
and usefulness of the AAA, one athlete describes the relationship between the support staff and
the athletes by saying all he has to do is bring his passion and platform and the AAA will provide
the education and opportunity. He went on to describe how some people are organizers and
some people are galvanizers and defined the support staff as organizers and the athletes as
galvanizers. He said:
If Player X is marginally passionate about something, he educates himself sufficiently
about a topic. Then you just lead him to water and put them in front of a room full of
public defenders or, let him moderate DA race or have him do a PSA. It’s not his job to
think all this stuff up. Make it like turnkey is the way I like to think about it.
From the athlete’s perspective, the research here shows that having an organization like the AAA
with a support staff creates a cultural setting that makes an athlete’s activism turnkey. This
happens because it multiplies access, efforts, and relationships while protecting the athlete’s
voice by creating strength in numbers and establishing a sound strategy.
The support staff of the AAA also supported this influence. They were asked how they
felt their involvement shapes the effectiveness of the athletes’ activism. Of the six support staff
that were employees of the AAA, they all, or 100% agreed that the athletes could not do the
work without them. One support staff described this influence when she said:
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 111
I think that it keeps them organized and on track and moving forward. And it allows for
them to have a very clear plan and very clear direction. So all they need to do is do their
reading and research and use their platform.
Essentially, the support staff acts as an extension of the athlete since a majority of their time is
spent on their sport. Another support staff member said athletes need to “have a management
team solely dedicated to this,” otherwise, they will not be able to handle the demands of being
effective in this work.
When the support staff was asked how they felt the involvement of external partners,
such as legal aids or grassroots groups, affected the athlete activists 100% agreed that they could
not properly service the athletes without the partner organizations. Partnering with legal aids and
grassroots groups brings expertise knowledge to the AAA. In speaking on those partnerships,
another support staff member said:
There are so many issues out there, and there’s so many things that professional athletes
and celebrities can focus on, and I just think in terms of getting real results, it’s helpful to
have people involved that have been already siding and organizing around these issues.
Additionally, these partners are integral to the work that the AAA does because aside from the
expertise, they have first-hand knowledge on the issues. Their influence is pertinent to assisting
with strategy and forging pertinent relationships and combining their influence and expertise
with the athlete’s platform can also accelerate the policy reform process. As such, it is important
for the athletes to lean on these partners’ expertise in establishing strategy. One support staff
member noted:
When you combine those two forces, of someone with incredible influence, combining
with someone who is revered as a credible expert in the space who has the amount of
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 112
proven scientific evidence, or history of moving policy. When you combine those two
efforts, you’re going to see results more quickly.
This evidence shows that having a support staff and organization like the AAA helps athletes
facilitate work that they otherwise could not complete on their own. The internal staff acts as an
extension of the athletes and establishes relationships with subject matter experts, grassroots
organizations, corporate partners and legal counsel. Then together, they assist the athletes in
establishing a strategy and facilitating collaboration with other athletes. The result is an increase
in access, efforts, and relationships. Once the plan of action is complete, the athletes can execute
with a strengthened and more protected voice. Figure 3 illustrates this process.
Figure 3. How a support staff or organization makes athlete activism turnkey
Summary. This evidence shows that athlete activists need a support staff or organization
to make their activism turnkey. It also shows that it is difficult for athletes to advocate at scale
without organizations like the AAA, focusing, organizing, and prioritizing strategies. Here, the
findings were validated because 100% of athletes and 100% of support staff agreed that the
athletes could not do this work alone. The support staff helps the athletes by facilitating external
relationships with subject matter experts and community organizers so that the athletes are not
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 113
reinventing the wheel. What happens next is that athletes can use their platforms to amplify a
message and see change more quickly.
Cultural Models
Influence 1: Athlete activists need effective role models within the space of athlete
activism.
Interview findings. Of the 12 participants interviewed, the influence here was validated
through two questions asked only of the athletes. The first question asked the athletes who they
looked to model their own advocacy efforts after, and the second questioned how and if at all the
AAA provided role models for them to connect with. All of the athletes, or 100% of these
participants have other athlete activists that they look to as role models for their advocacy work.
Athlete activist role models are important because they hold the power to inspire future
generations of activists (Agyemang, 2011). Bandura (1994) found that when people have role
models that emulate behaviors they wish to follow; they are more likely to model those
behaviors. Additionally, modeled behavior is more likely to be adopted if the model is credible,
similar (e.g., gender, culturally appropriate), and the behavior has functional value (Denler,
Wolters, & Benzon, 2009). Table 11 lists all of the athlete activist role models mentioned as
well as reasons athletes look to role models.
The athletes of the AAA had many athlete and non-athlete role models. Most athletes
listed Muhammed Ali, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Jim Brown as their role models. One athlete
felt they served as the gold standard for what an athlete activists should be. He said, “They
brought people together, they found a way to do it right. It wasn’t about just them. It was about
the people, that’s a model that for me I kind of aspire to look at how they lead, honestly.” When
athletes look to role models, they look to people who look like them and do things that they want
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 114
to do. One athlete listed Tupac Shakur as a role model of his because of how he chose to use his
platform when he did not have to. He said, “Also, role models of mine like Tupac Shakur who
was an entertainer, but he used his platform. He could have very easily just made music, but he
used his platform to speak out against injustices that were going on.” These findings showed
that athletes have both athlete and non-athlete role models. Athletes do not have to have role
models that do exactly what they do but that they prefer to look up to people who operate in
similar spaces as them.
When asked if the AAA had provided role models for the athletes to connect with, they
said yes. One athlete actually wished that he had more time to make all of the connections the
AAA attempted to forge. He said, “Oh, absolutely. If there’s any gripe I have is that I have too
many opportunities to sift through.” Another athlete mentioned a panel he had been fortunate
enough to sit on. He said, “I actually did a panel with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Jim Brown, and
John Carlos out in San Jose.” Since 100% of athletes have role models and since the AAA feels
it important to establish relationships with role models, this finding validates that athlete activists
need role models to model their own advocacy efforts after.
Table 11
Athlete Activist Role Models and Reasons for Role Models
Athlete Activist Role Models
Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Muhammed Ali, Jim Brown, Tupac Shakur, Kareem Abdul-
Jabbar, John Carlos, Malcolm Jenkins, Anquan Boldin, Lebron James, Bill Russell.
Reasons Athlete Activists Have Role Models
Bring people together, fight for something bigger than themselves, use their platform to speak
out against injustice, ability to mobilize the masses.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 115
Summary. This evidence shows that athlete activists need role models. When asked who
their role models were and why, athletes listed several examples such as Muhammed Ali,
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Jim Brown. The reasons athlete activists followed their role models
was because they bring people together, fight for something bigger than themselves, use their
platform to speak out against injustice, and are able to mobilize the masses. If athlete activists
want to maximize their effectiveness, they should pay attention to what other successful athlete
activists have done.
Influence 2: Athlete activists need to be more equipped to advocate for social justice
issues.
Interview findings. Of the 12 participants in the study, three questions were used to
validate this influence. First, two questions were asked of the support staff of the AAA. The
first question asked how equipped they thought athletes inside and outside of the AAA were
currently. Here 100% of participants felt the athletes were equipped but could still be better
equipped. The second question asked the support staff to rate both sets of athletes on a scale
from one to 10. On a scale of one to 10, the support staff felt the athletes of the AAA were on
average an eight while other athletes were a four. It is important for the athletes to be properly
equipped because effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.) needed to do their job, and that if there are resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with organizational priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). The research
presented here showcased that while athletes of the AAA are somewhat equipped, athlete
activists in general need to be more equipped. It found that especially athletes outside of the
AAA are less equipped than athletes who currently identify with the AAA.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 116
One support staff noted that the reason so many athletes are not properly equipped to
handle issues of social justice is because of how complicated the issues tend to be. He said even
organizers have issues being properly equipped. In describing the complexity of these issues he
said:
this is especially true for criminal justice reform, there’s so many moving parts, and mass
incarceration has taken place over many years in many different ways. It’s not like you
could just say, “Oh okay, they changed this law and this law resulted for all these people
in jail.” It’s the law, then it’s the judges, then it’s the prosecutors, and then it’s not
finding a public defender, so there’s all these things.
When speaking on how athletes outside of the AAA were equipped, one support staff
member said, “I think a majority of them need a lot more support.” She explained that before
speaking on an issue, athletes needed briefing documents, meetings, or whatever it took to
better prepare them. Another support member said that what the athletes need that could help
them be more equipped is to figure out what the core issues are, focus their efforts on local
issues by figuring out what is happening, who is doing the work, and determining what a win
would look like. Lastly, he recommended athletes better equipping themselves could happen
when they put resources towards the experts. He said:
When I think you can actually get more results plugging into some local movements, and
so I think the challenge is even understanding what is a win? Or, what’s a big win and
what’s kind of a little win that we can vote on, and who are reliable voices in the space?
If the athlete activists could be more informed, have better connections, and receive more
support, they would be more equipped to advocate for issues of social justice.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 117
While the support staff rated the athletes of the AAA as an eight out of 10, those two
points indicate there is room for improvement. The third question that supported this influence
was posed to the athletes of the AAA. This question asked what they felt failure looked like for
their organization. This question was important in validating this influence because it showed
what happens when the athletes of the AAA are not very equipped. Several athletes noted that
failure happens when their organization is no longer sustainable. If being well equipped means
creating something sustainable, then the area that the athletes of the AAA are not as equipped in
is recruiting. This example will be further explained as its own influence related to cultural
settings. In the context of athletes needing to be more equipped, that same athlete said, “If we
can’t continue to have a pipeline of players that carry the torch when we’re done, that would be
failure.” While the athletes of the AAA seem very equipped, they currently need to be more
equipped to maintain sustainability. Figure 4 depicts the difference in levels of equipment by
AAA athletes and non-AAA athletes.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 118
Figure 4. Level of athlete activist equippedness
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 119
Summary. This evidence shows that athlete activists need to be more equipped. Here,
when the support staff were asked how equipped they felt athletes were, the athletes of the AAA
ranked as an eight out of 10 while athletes outside of the AAA were given a four out of 10.
Athletes in general need better relationships and more education while the athletes of the AAA
need to work on their recruiting. If either the athletes of the AAA or athlete in general are able
to better equip themselves, they serve to maximize their effectiveness.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge
Of the research presented here, three findings emerged related to two types of knowledge
needed to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism. The research showed a gap in two
conceptual knowledge influences and one procedural. The first conceptual knowledge influence
was that education is the most important factor related to improving the effectiveness of athlete
activists. This finding was validated amongst 100% of participants. The second conceptual
knowledge finding was that athlete activists need to maximize their effectiveness by
collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and other influential
organizations or corporations. This finding was validated amongst 83% of participants. This
knowledge gap will be built into a policy reform framework as a recommendation in Chapter 5.
The second type of procedural knowledge influence showed that athlete activists need to
follow effective athlete activism practices. The best practices were categorized under the two
themes of developing a need for involvement and understanding the policy reform process from
which the participants were able to identify 11 best practices. Under developing a need for
involvement, the practices included athletes recognizing their power and identifying their
passion. Within understanding the policy reform process the best practices included getting
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 120
educated, connecting with an issue, collaborating with experts and stakeholders, analyzing data
and determining next steps, amplifying the message, creating an event on the ground, remaining
consistent, getting small wins, and having a follow up plan. This final finding was validated
amongst 100% of participants. As a result there appeared to be a knowledge gap in this area.
Since the model of this study is an innovation model, this knowledge type will be included in the
recommendations section in Chapter 5.
Motivation
Two influences were examined in the area of motivation. The first influence was related
to expectancy value and found that athlete activists need to be motivated towards higher personal
expectations. The second influence was related to self-efficacy and found that athlete activists
may need to be a part of a larger group to feel motivated. Relating to the first influence, 83%
solely expected to derive something related to improving another person’s life. Essentially the
research found that athlete activists expected only to help others through their work. Reasons for
these feelings were rooted in corporate social responsibility and collective identity. This
influence will also be built into a framework that illustrates the recommended knowledge,
motivation, and organizational solutions for improving athlete activism in the fifth chapter.
Relating to the second influence of athlete activists needing to be a part of a larger group
to feel motivated, 100% of the athletes felt that they were most effective because they were
working with a larger group, a finding that was validated with prior research. Working with a
larger group leads to a collective identity and interdependence. This leads them to an accelerated
policy reform process, which decreases the negative stigma of athlete activism and increases
self-efficacy. As it relates to the motivational aspect of improving the effectiveness of athlete
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 121
activism, this finding will also be built into the framework. It is important to include this
component because it addresses motivational aspects of athlete activism.
Organization
Two different types of organizational influences were discussed during this study.
Relating to cultural models, this study found two influences. The first found that athlete activists
need effective role models within the space of athlete activism. Here, 100% have other athlete
activists from which they look to model their own advocacy efforts. When a person has a
credible, similar role model that emulates functional behaviors they wish to follow, that person is
more likely to model those behaviors (Bandura, 1994; Denler et al., 2009). Also, athlete activist
role models are important because they hold the power to inspire future generations of activists
(Agyemang, 2011). This research supports the finding that athlete activists need effective role
models within the space of athlete activism.
The next influence determined by this study found that athlete activists need to be more
equipped to advocate for social justice issues. Here 100% of participants felt the athletes were
equipped but could still be better equipped. The evidence showed that while athletes of the AAA
ranked better than non-AAA athletes, they both still had room for improvement. If athletes are
able to get better equipped in the space of social justice, then they serve to maximize their
effectiveness. This influence becomes a crucial component of the policy reform framework
because it will illuminate what and how the athletes need to become more equipped with.
Relating to cultural settings, this study found that athlete activists need a support
organization or staff to make their activism turnkey. Having a support organization like the
AAA is a crucial determinant in making their activism effective. This influence was validated
amongst both 100% of the athletes and 100% of the support staff. The evidence showed that the
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 122
internal staff extends the athletes’ relationships with subject matter experts, grassroots
organizations, corporate partners and legal counsel. Then together, they assist the athletes in
establishing a strategy and facilitating collaboration with other athletes. The result is an increase
in access, efforts, and relationships. Once the plan of action is complete, the athletes can execute
with a strengthened and more protected voice. This process will also be included in the policy
reform framework as a recommendation in Chapter 5 because it allows the athletes to be more
efficient with their time and helps them use their platforms to amplify a message and see change
more quickly.
Also relating to cultural settings, this study found that athlete activists need support
organizations or staff to support and facilitate recruiting. This influence was validated amongst
66% of participants. That 66% broke down to six out of six athletes and two out of six support
staff members. The findings indicated that athletes need a support staff to recruit because they
themselves do not have the time. It also showed that if the AAA is able to implement a
successful recruiting strategy, they could improve diversity within the organization, maximize
their effectiveness, and provide relief for current athletes.
The research presented here also showcased tested and proven tactics for reaching out to
peers and strategies for getting athletes to commit to the work once they had been reached out to.
By January 2020, the AAA aims to implement a policy reform framework for new and existing
members in support of impacting legislation. Because this influence impacts how effective the
group is at impacting legislation, this influence will also be included in the recommendations in
Chapter 5.
The purpose of this research was to answer two questions. The first question was what
are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the effectiveness of athlete
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 123
activism. The second question asked what are the culture and context within the AAA that
supports the athlete’s knowledge and motivation. The findings of these questions will be utilized
in answering a third question of this research in Chapter 5. That question is: “What are the
recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for improving athlete
activism?” Those recommendations will be discussed in the fifth chapter and build into a policy
reform framework to help the athletes of the AAA maximize their effectiveness as related to
their advocacy efforts. The validated KMO influences are listed in Table 12.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 124
Table 12
Validated KMO Influences
KMO Influence KMO Type
Validated
as Gap?
Validation
Percentage
Athletes need to properly educate themselves
on an issue.
Athlete activists need to maximize their
effectiveness by collaborating with subject
matter experts, grassroots organizations, and
other influential organizations or
corporations.
Athlete activists need to follow effective
athlete activism practices.
Athlete activists need to be motivated towards
higher personal expectations.
Athlete activists may need to be a part of a
larger group to feel motivated.
Athlete activists need effective role models
within the space of athlete activism.
Athlete activists need to be more equipped to
advocate for social justice issues.
Athlete activists need support organizations
or staff to support and facilitate recruiting.
Athlete activists need a support organization
or staff to make their activism turnkey.
Knowledge
(conceptual)
Knowledge
(conceptual)
Knowledge
(procedural)
Motivation
(expectancy value)
Motivation (self-
efficacy)
Organization
(cultural models)
Organization
(cultural models)
Organization
(cultural settings)
Organization
(cultural settings)
Yes 100%
Yes 83%
Yes 100%
Yes 83%
Yes 100%
Yes 100%
Yes 100%
Yes 66%
Yes 100%
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 125
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The data in Chapter 4 answered the first two research questions of this study. The first
question asked: “What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?” The second question asked: “What are the culture and context
within the AAA that supports the athlete’s knowledge and motivation?” Using the Clark and
Estes (2008) framework, the results of those two questions assessed athlete activists’ knowledge
and motivation as related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism and validated the
assumed influences discussed in Chapter 2. This chapter answers the third research question of
this study, which asks: “What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational
solutions for improving athlete activism?” The framework utilized in this chapter was the
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model. This model served as an
evaluation tool that established knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations.
Additionally this model was used to establish implementation and evaluation plans for the AAA.
Finally, this chapter concludes with an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the Clark
and Estes (2008) approach, limitations and delimitations, and recommendations for future
research.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Athlete Activist Association (AAA), established in the Fall of 2017, is an
organization founded by professional athlete activists that aims to improve equality in America
through policy reform at state, local, and federal levels. The AAA focuses on critical areas of
criminal justice reform and social and racial equality where their influence and support can make
a meaningful difference. Specifically, the AAA advocates around four pillars: criminal justice
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 126
reform, police and community relations, education, and economic advancement. Additionally,
the AAA provides training, resources, and a safe space for athletes to exercise activism while
teaching them how to maximize their impact and formulate the action plans required to bring
about change in their communities. To improve the effectiveness of professional athlete
activists, the AAA aims to implement a policy reform framework that ensures the athletes are
well equipped to advocate for the AAA’s key issues.
Organizational Performance Goal
By January 2020, the AAA aims to implement a policy reform framework for new and
existing members in support of one of their goals, impacting legislation. Currently, no
framework exists as an outline for athlete or celebrity activism. This framework will assist the
AAA support staff in outlining the knowledge and skills needed for supporting their four key
strategies in reforming policy. These four strategies include lobby days around specific
legislation and policy change, meetings and conversations with elected officials, opinion
editorials (op-eds) and letters to the editor, and public service announcements. Understanding
the complexity of the policy reform process, attributing a quota to these numbers would merely
be obscure. The AAA deems success is built on quality rather than quantity as the work that
follows is dependent upon timing and relevance.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are a variety of stakeholders involved with the AAA. The primary stakeholders
include the athletes, support staff, and the general public. Because of their celebrity, the athletes
are the face of the organization. Rather than just raising awareness, the athletes, as everyday
makers are citizens willing to put in the effort to make a difference (Bang, 2009). Everyday
makers are people that engage in politics to find solutions to shortcomings in public policy
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 127
(Bang, 2009). Everyday makers also aim to empower others to find solutions to the problems
that plague them. Their commitment includes engaging in advocacy campaigns and events,
reviewing strategy, fundraising, meeting with the government officials and press, recruiting new
members and utilizing their celebrity to highlight various issues. Without the athletes and their
platform, the AAA could not scale their efforts.
The next stakeholder is the support staff of the AAA. Due to their busy schedules, the
athletes cannot maintain the AAA’s administrative duties alone. The support staff manages the
organization’s day-to-day work. Responsibilities include coordinating meetings with
government officials, securing media coverage, generating press releases, and marketing the
AAA through digital and traditional media. The support staff ensures that the athletes are well
prepared and informed before speaking out on issues or backing campaigns or policies.
A third stakeholder related to the AAA is the general public. Specifically, low-income
and minority community members are the focus of the organization’s advocacy efforts. Without
the support of, or relationship with, the general public, the AAA would not be able to establish
change in their communities. Having a connection with the general public gives the AAA a
direct line of communication to the people who need the athletes to advocate for them. Without
the general public’s support, the athletes would not be able to maintain their celebrity, which is
their most important tool in advocacy. Through the athletes, the AAA can mobilize masses.
Thus, keeping a relationship with the general public is essential for inspiring action.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 128
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study
Table 13
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the AAA is to focus on key areas of criminal justice reform and social and
racial equality where their influence and support can make a meaningful difference.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization that
equips athlete activists with the tools needed for successfully implementing policy reform at
state, local, and federal levels, ultimately improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the athletes of the AAA will adopt a policy reform framework that assists them in
implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal levels.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a needs analysis for the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources required to reach the AAA’s organizational performance goal of
implementing a policy reform framework that makes athlete activists more effective. Doing so
would lead the AAA to become more effective at achieving their goal of reforming policy at
state, local and federal levels for criminal justice, police and community relations, and education
and economic advancement. The analysis will begin by generating a list of potential needs and
will then move to a systematic examination of those needs to determine the needs validity.
1. What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 129
2. What are the culture and context within the AAA that supports the athletes’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
improving athlete activism?
Implementation and Evaluation Plans
Since athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), and there
has been little academic attention placed on recent athlete activism (Agyemang, 2011; Harvey et
al., 2009), this research serves to establish precedence in academia. The following sections align
with the Clark and Estes (2008) KMO framework and organizes recommendations by
knowledge, motivation, and organization.
Knowledge Recommendations
Three knowledge influences were presented in this study. Through interviews with the
12 stakeholders, all three influences were determined to have a high probability of being
validated as a gap. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, influences were
presented by what the stakeholder of focus needed. All three of these influences supported the
first research question of this study, which asked: “What are the athletes’ knowledge and
motivation related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism?” Those deemed to have
the highest impact were validated by the highest percentage of participants.
Analysis of the data first determined that athletes need to properly educate themselves on
an issue. Kirschner, Kirschner, and Paas (2009) found that increasing germane cognitive load by
engaging the learner in meaningful learning and schema construction facilitates effective
learning. That ideology guided the discussion of this influence. As such, the recommendation
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 130
was to provide athlete activists with education on their area of focus in the form of concept maps,
mnemonics, concrete examples, case studies, and analogies.
Next, analysis determined that athlete activists need to maximize their effectiveness by
collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and other influential
organizations or corporations. Here Scott and Palincsar (2013) found that social interaction,
cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (such as reciprocal teaching) facilitate
construction of new knowledge. Scott and Palincsar (2013) guided the discussion of this
influence. The resulting recommendation was then to provide information to athletes that
educates them on issues of social justice and policy reform processes.
Lastly, analysis determined that athlete activists need to follow effective athlete activism
practices. Again, Kirschner et al. (2009) guided the discussion of this influence through their
finding that managing intrinsic load by segmenting complex material into simpler parts and pre-
training, among other strategies, enables learning to be enhanced. The recommendation was then
to provide training in the form of a job aid that outlines the steps of effective athlete activism.
Table 14 provides a summary of the knowledge influences and recommendations.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 131
Table 14
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes, High
Assumed Probability Priority?
Knowledge or No Yes, No
Context-Specific
Influence* (V, HP, N) (Y, N) Principle and Citation Recommendation
Athletes need to HP Y Increasing germane Provide athlete
properly educate
cognitive load by activists with
themselves on an
engaging the learner in education on that
issue. (C) meaningful learning and
schema construction
athlete’s prepared
area of focus in the
facilitates effective form of concept
learning (Kirschner et maps, mnemonics,
al., 2009). concrete examples,
case studies, and
analogies.
Athlete activists HP Y Social interaction, Provide information
need to maximize
cooperative learning, to athletes that
their effectiveness
and cognitive educates them on
when by
apprenticeships (such as issues of social
collaborating with
reciprocal teaching) justice and policy
subject matter
experts, grassroots
facilitate construction of
new knowledge (Scott &
reform processes.
organizations, and
other influential
Palincsar, 2013).
organizations or
corporations. (C)
Athlete activists
need to follow
HP Y Managing intrinsic load
by segmenting complex
Provide training in
the form of a job aid
effective athlete
material into simpler that outlines the
activism practices.
parts and pre-training, steps of effective
(P). among other strategies,
enables learning to be
athlete activism.
enhanced (Kirschner et
al., 2009).
*Knowledge type for each influence listed uses these abbreviations: (C)onceptual; (P)rocedural
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 132
Increasing conceptual knowledge of social justice issues. The results and findings of
this study indicate that 100% of athlete activists need to get properly educated on issues of social
justice. A recommendation rooted in cognitive load theory has been selected to close this
conceptual knowledge gap. Kirschner et al. (2009) found that increasing germane cognitive load
by engaging the learner in meaningful learning and schema construction facilitates effective
learning. This would suggest that providing athlete activists with education that is systematically
organized would assist them in more effectively applying the knowledge they are educated on to
their practice. The recommendation then is to provide athlete activists with education on that
athlete’s prepared area of focus in the form of concept maps, mnemonics, concrete examples,
case studies, and analogies.
Since athlete activists are merely utilizing their platforms to implement systemic change
and are not full time activists or civil rights lawyers, they only need conceptual or general
knowledge of the systems and solutions related to social justice issues. Conceptual knowledge
generalizes classifications, principles, categories, theories, models, and structures (Krathwohl,
2002) which are needed to establish a general understanding of the ecosystems that incubate
social injustice. Education essentially provides people with the knowledge of why and how
things happen (Clark & Estes, 2008) and increasing germane load is a factor of education that
facilitates the long-term storage of knowledge (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). Increasing
germane load happens when new information is connected with prior knowledge, presented in
the context of a familiar situation, or is presented more conversationally and less formally
(Mayer, 2011) or when information is scaffolded and modeled (Kirschner et al., 2009). Concept
maps, mnemonics, concrete examples, case studies, and analogies are tangible ways to increase
germane load (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). This evidence affirms that providing athlete activists
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 133
with education on that athlete’s prepared area of focus in the form of concept maps, mnemonics,
concrete examples, case studies, and analogies would increase their conceptual knowledge of
social justice issues.
Utilizing external partnerships to establish conceptual knowledge. The results and
findings of this study indicate 83% of athlete activists need to collaborate with subject matter
experts, grassroots organizations, and other influential organizations or corporations to improve
their knowledge. A recommendation rooted in sociocultural theory has been selected to close
this conceptual knowledge gap. Scott and Palincsar (2013) found that social interaction,
cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (such as reciprocal teaching) facilitate
construction of new knowledge. This would suggest that providing athletes with external
partnerships would support their learning and ultimately increase their effectiveness. The
recommendation then is to utilize subject matter experts, grassroots organizations, and other
influential organizations or corporations to provide information to athletes that educates them on
issues of social justice and policy reform processes.
In social justice work there is frequent collaboration between the general public,
grassroots organizations, political organizations or individuals, lawyers, and government
officials. Scott and Palincsar (2013) found that collaboration can facilitate the construction of
new knowledge because it presents a group’s world view and provides support for projects that
independently were too difficult to complete. Through an empirical study of “community
collaboration and systems advocacy domains articulated by the American Counseling
Association (ACA) Task Force on Advocacy Competencies,” Lopez-Baez and Paylo (2009)
indicated several important purposes of collaboration. They note collaboration is important for
identifying barriers, providing and interpreting data, strategizing change implementation,
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 134
analyzing systemic power and influence sources, planning for change responses or resistance,
and assessing the effectiveness of advocacy efforts on the system and constituents.
Collaboration can also provide financial and workload support (Huxham, 1996) which could
assist in decreasing extraneous load and increasing germane load. External partners or support
staff execute the above eight steps while athletes only need to understand the general concepts so
that they may speak on issues more effectively. The knowledge provided when collaboration
occurs, affirms that utilizing external partnerships provides conceptual knowledge related to
issues of social justice and policy reform processes.
Increasing procedural knowledge about effective athlete activism. The results and
findings of this study indicate that 100% of athlete activists need to follow effective athlete
activist practices in order to be most effective. Recommendations rooted in goal orientation and
cognitive load have been selected to close this procedural knowledge gap. Kirschner et al.
(2009) found that managing intrinsic load by segmenting complex material into simpler parts and
pre-training, among other strategies, enables learning to be enhanced. These findings would
suggest that athlete activists be provided with a visual organizer that outlines effective athlete
activism and training the athletes on these steps. The recommendation then is to provide athlete
activists with a job aid in the form of a concept map that would illustrate effective athlete
activism.
Many celebrities attach themselves to causes but to be an activist implies a commitment
to policy reform (Marsh et al., 2010). Since athletes are not full-time activists nor civil rights
lawyers, they need to gain a procedural understanding of the policy reform process as it relates to
their activism. Because athletes lack the relevant past experience of policy reformation, Clark
and Estes (2008) would suggest job aids be created to provide the athletes with a roadmap for
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 135
achieving performance goals. Athlete activists spend over 40 hours a week in the regular season
training for their craft (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016) and as such do not have the time to
master policy reform. What they can do is understand how to best apply their own platforms so
that they may support officers of the court that handle re-writing policy.
Athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010) and because
athletes only need the knowledge of how best to utilize their platform, not procedural knowledge
of legal procedures, they should focus on self-improvement and avoid social comparison or
relying on norm-referenced standards (Yough & Anderman, 2006). If athletes focus on mastery,
learning and understanding they can be more effective through the use of job aids (Pintrich,
2003). This evidence affirms that providing athlete activists with procedural knowledge in the
form of a job aid would help athlete activists follow effective athlete activist practices.
Motivation Recommendations
Two motivation influences were presented in this study. Through interviews with the 12
stakeholders, both influences were determined to have a high probability of being validated as a
gap. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, influences were presented as
what the stakeholder of focus needed. Both of these influences supported the first research
question of this study that asked: “What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to
improving the effectiveness of athlete activism?” Influences that were deemed to have the
highest impact were those that were validated by the highest percentage of participants.
Analysis of the data first determined that athlete activists need to be motivated towards
higher personal expectations for success in domains that they value, such as faith, justice, or
compassion. McCrudden, Schraw, and Lehman (2009) guided the discussion of this influence as
they determined activating and building upon personal interest can increase learning and
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 136
motivation. As such, the recommendation for this influence was to facilitate athlete activist
focus group discussions that help make connections between their own performance goals and
their inherent points that motivate their involvement in social justice issues. Next, analysis
determined that athlete activists may need to be a part of a larger group to feel motivated. Here
Pajares (2006) guided the discussion of this influence based on the idea that high self-efficacy
can positively influence motivation. The resulting recommendation was then to provide athlete
activists with models to perform tasks in groups, offer guided practice, and immediate targeted
feedback on performance. Table 15 provides a summary of the motivational influences and
recommendations.
Table 15
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Validated as a
Gap?
Yes, High Priority?
Assumed Motivation Probability, No Yes, No Principle and Context-Specific
Influence (V, HP, N) (Y, N) Citation Recommendation
Athlete activists need HP Y Activating and Facilitate athlete activists
to be motivated
building upon focus group discussions that
towards higher
personal interest help make connections
personal expectations
can increase between their own
for success in
learning and performance goals and their
domains that they
motivation inherent points that motivate
value such as faith,
(McCrudden et their involvement in social
justice, or
al., 2009). justice issues.
compassion. (EV)
Athlete activists may HP Y High self-efficacy Provide athlete activists
need to be a part of a
can positively with models to perform
larger group to feel
influence tasks in groups, offer guided
motivated. (SE)
motivation practice, and immediate
(Pajares, 2006). targeted feedback on
performance.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 137
Motivation as related to expectancy value theory. The results and findings of this
study indicated that 83% of athlete activists need to feel motivated towards higher personal
expectations for success if the task is tied to domains that they value, such as faith, justice, or
compassion. A recommendation rooted in expectancy-value theory has been selected to close
this self-efficacy gap. McCrudden et al. (2009) found that activating and building upon personal
interest can increase learning and motivation. This would suggest that providing athlete activists
with tasks that are relevant and useful would allow for personal identification of motivating
factors (Rueda, 2011). The recommendation then is to facilitate athlete activist focus group
discussions that help make connections between their own performance goals and their inherent
points that motivate their involvement in social justice issues.
Eccles (2006) states that expectancy-value theory is the level of value an individual
places on a task and how that task may affect their personal or professional life. Sports are
inherently tied to expectancy-value theory through self-discipline, diligence, obedience to moral
authority, and collective responsibility (Henricks, 2006). Additionally, athletes tend to work
harder when they attribute their efforts to a success or failure (Mayer, 2011). This supports the
recommendation that facilitating group discussions would help athlete activists connect between
their own performance goals and their inherent points of motivation. Once athlete activists have
identified those points of motivations, they may draw stronger connections to the work and
increase their expectations for completion of tasks. Providing athlete activists with models to
perform tasks, offer guided practice, and immediate targeted feedback on performance is crucial
to improving their self-efficacy.
Motivation as related to self-efficacy theory. The results and findings of this study
indicated that 100% of athlete activists need to be a part of a larger group to feel motivated. A
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 138
recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory has been selected to close this self-efficacy gap.
Pajares (2006) found that high self-efficacy can positively influence motivation. This would
suggest that providing clear and accurate feedback that focuses on competence expertise and
skills would support increasing athlete activists’ self-efficacy. The recommendation then is to
provide athlete activists with models to perform tasks, offer guided practice, and immediate
targeted feedback on performance.
Bandura (1994) found that self-efficacy is one’s perceived ability to complete a task.
Increasing the self-efficacy of the AAA is important because if an individual believes that they
cannot complete a task, starting, persisting, and completing a task become impossible (Bandura,
1994). Since athlete activists spend over 40 hours a week training for their sport (Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2016), they are not experts in the policy reform process of social justice. As
such, increasing their self-efficacy is important because it influences the level of engagement
athlete activists will produce. Since persistence is a key component of effective advocacy work
(Jansson, 2018), improving the effectiveness of athlete activism requires that they have high self-
efficacy, which aids in persistence (Bandura, 1994). Therefore, the AAA needs to provide
athlete activists with models to perform tasks in groups, offer guided practice, and immediate
targeted feedback on performance.
Organization Recommendations
Four organization influences were presented in this study. Through interviews with the
12 stakeholders, all four influences were determined to have a high probability of being validated
as a gap. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, influences were presented
as a what the stakeholder of focus needed. All four of these influences supported the first
research question of this study, which asked: “What are the culture and context within the AAA
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 139
that supports the athlete’s knowledge and motivation?” Influences that were deemed to have the
highest impact were those that were validated by the highest percentage of participants.
The first two influences were related to cultural models. Analysis of the data first
determined that athlete activists need effective role models within the space of athlete activism.
McCrudden et al. (2009) guided the discussion of this influence as they determined the AAA
needs to facilitate more relationships with their athletes and athlete activists of the past and
present. As such, the recommendation for this influence was to the AAA needs to facilitate more
relationships with their athletes and athlete activists of the past and present. Next, analysis
determined that athlete activists need to be more equipped to advocate for social justice issues.
Here Clark and Estes (2008) guided the discussion of this influence based on the idea that
effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources (equipment, personnel, time, etc.)
needed to do their job, and that if there are resource shortages, then resources are aligned with
organizational priorities. The resulting recommendation was that AAA needs to provide a
training that equips athlete activists with the tools they need to advocate for social justice issues.
The second two influences were related to cultural settings. Table 16 provides a
summary of the organizational influences and recommendations. Analysis of the data first
determined that athlete activists need their support staff to start facilitating recruiting. Clark and
Estes (2008) guided the discussion of this influence as they determined effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the resources (equipment, personnel, time, etc.) needed to do their job,
and that if there are resource shortages, then resources are aligned with organizational priorities.
As such, the recommendation for this influence was that the AAA needs to provide a training
that equips athlete activists with the tools they need to advocate for social justice issues. Next,
analysis determined that athlete activists need a support organization or staff to make their
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 140
activism turnkey. Here Clark and Estes (2008) guided the discussion of this influence, based on
the idea that effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.) needed to do their job, and that if there are resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with organizational priorities. The resulting recommendation was that
athlete activists need to rely on a support staff organization that works with them to establish,
from the beginning, what the priorities are, so that when hard choices have to be made, the
guidance is already in place. Table 16 provides a summary of the organizational influences and
recommendations.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 141
Table 16
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Validated as
a Gap?
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority?
Yes, No
(Y, N) Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Athlete activists
need effective role
models within the
space of athlete
activism. (CM)
HP Y Activating and building upon
personal interest can increase
learning and motivation
(McCrudden et al., 2009).
The AAA needs to facilitate
more relationships with their
athletes and athlete activists of
the past and present.
Athlete activists
need to be more
equipped to
advocate for
social justice
issues. (CM)
HP Y Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the
resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.) needed
to do their job, and that if there
are resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with
organizational priorities (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
The AAA needs to provide a
training that equips athlete
activists with the tools they
need to advocate for social
justice issues.
Athlete activists
need their support
staff to start
facilitating
recruiting. (CS)
HP Y Effective organizations
ensure that organizational
messages, rewards, policies
and procedures that govern
the work of the organization
are aligned with or are
supportive of organizational
goals and values (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
The AAA needs to conduct an
informal audit of the
sustainability of their
organization and establish a
recruiting pipeline.
Athlete activists
need a support
organization or
staff to make their
activism turnkey.
(CS)
HP Y Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the
resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.) needed
to do their job, and that if there
are resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with
organizational priorities (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Athlete activists need to rely on
a support staff organization that
works with them to establish,
from the beginning, what the
priorities are, so that when hard
choices have to be made, the
guidance is already in place.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 142
Increasing athlete activism by facilitating relationships with role models. The results
and findings of this study found that 100% of athlete activists need effective role models within
the space of athlete activism. A principle rooted in cultural models has been selected to close
this resource gap. McCrudden et al. (2009) found that activating and building upon personal
interest can increase learning and motivation. Because athlete activists are so few in number
(Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), connecting with other athlete activists may be a personal interest of
the athletes. This would suggest that if athlete activists had more athlete activist role models and
were able to connect with them, that they could increase their learning and motivation
surrounding athlete activism. The recommendation then is to have the AAA facilitate more
relationships with their athletes and athlete activists of the past and present. These relationships
should then increase the learning and motivation of current athlete activists and help them
maximize their effectiveness.
Role models hold the power to inspire future generations of activists (Agyemang, 2011).
For current athlete activists this is important because it keeps them motivated. For athlete
activists that have yet to engage in advocacy work, they may be inspired to do so if they are
choosing to emulate a role model. Additionally, Bandura (1994) found that when people have
role models that exhibit behaviors they wish to follow, they are more likely to model those
behaviors. If athlete activists of the past connect with athlete activists of the present, they can
share trials and tribulations and help athlete activists of the present to maximize their
effectiveness.
Increasing athlete activism by better equipping athletes. The results and findings of
this study found that 100% of athlete activists need to be more equipped to advocate for social
justice issues. A principle rooted in cultural models has been selected to close this resource gap.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 143
Clark and Estes (2008) found that effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources
(equipment, personnel, time, etc.) needed to do their job, and that if there are resource shortages,
then resources are aligned with organizational priorities. This would suggest that if the AAA is
able to better equip athlete activists, with resources aligned with organizational goals, then they
should be able to meet those goals. The recommendation then is to have the support staff of the
AAA provide a training that equips athlete activists with the tools they need to advocate for
social justice issues. This training would equip athlete activists with the tools they need to be
better activists and help them maximize their effectiveness.
If the athletes want to adopt all of the recommendations of this study, they will need to
take part in a training. This training is what will equip them will all of the tools that they need.
Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) found that training establishes an individual’s knowledge, skills, and
attitudes, which can influence and improve personal or group effectiveness. Additionally,
Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) found that training is important to job growth. They also found that
training can affect declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and can enhance strategic
knowledge. If athlete activists want to be better equipped to maximize their effectiveness, they
will need to take part in a training that helps them acquire the tools and skills needed.
Increasing athlete activism by improving recruiting. The results and findings of this
study found that approximately 58% of athlete activists need their support staff to begin
facilitating recruiting because they have not yet already done so. A principle rooted in cultural
settings has been selected to close this resource gap. Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that
effective organizations ensure that organizational messages, rewards, policies and procedures
that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of organizational
goals and values. This would suggest that establishing recruiting as an organizational goal should
also
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 144
result in messages, rewards, policies and procedures that also support that goal. The
recommendation then is to have the AAA conduct an informal audit of the sustainability of their
organization and establish a recruiting pipeline. This audit should determine how often and at
what scale recruiting needs to take place. Establishing recruiting as a goal and ensuring that the
strategy supports that goal could create a sustainable model for keeping new players involved
with the AAA.
Since the AAA does not currently have an established recruiting pipeline, implementing
one is important because recruiting is foundational to organizational performance (Phillips &
Gully, 2015). Recruiting can influence employees’ motivation, performance, and retention and
ultimately influences an organization’s capabilities, strategic execution, and competitive
advantage (Phillips & Gully, 2015). Case and Zeglan (2018) found through their exploratory
study of two Canadian water activist groups that burnout is a sincere threat to activist groups.
One participant in their study noted that this happens because people donate time, energy, and
money without ceasing. Additionally, recruiting draws human capital into an organization
(Barber, 1998), which is necessary when athletes feel that burnout or phase out of the
organization entirely. As indicated, it appears that the literature would support the need for the
AAA to improve their recruiting efforts in an effort to increase the effectiveness of athlete
activism.
Increasing athlete activism by making their activism turnkey. The results and
findings of this study found that 100% of athlete activists need a support organization or staff to
make their activism turnkey. A principle rooted in cultural settings has been selected to close
this resource gap. Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that effective change efforts ensure that
everyone has the resources (equipment, personnel, time, etc.) needed to do their job, and that if
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 145
there are resource shortages, then resources are aligned with organizational priorities. This
would suggest that having a support organization or staff could make athlete activism more
turnkey and increase their effectiveness. The recommendation then is to have athlete activists
rely on a support staff organization that works with them to establish, from the beginning, what
the priorities are, so that when hard choices have to be made, the guidance is already in place.
As an example, athlete activists could create their own organization and hire staff to fulfill
administrative duties or they could partner with organizations that already exist.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organizations are most efficient when members of an
organization are equipped with the resources needed to do their job, or in the case of resource
shortages, resources are aligned with organizational priorities. As it relates to athlete activists,
organizational support has a high level of influence on the effectiveness of athlete activism
because athletes are spending most of their time training in their sport (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2016). RISE (2017) found that one of the eight critical steps of athlete activists is that
activists need to focus on external relationships in which they “build a network for collaboration,
information, training and strategy” (p. 16). For example, one resource a support organization
could provide is access to role models. Bandura (1994) argues that when people have role
models that exhibit behaviors, they wish to follow; they are more likely to model those
behaviors. As such, it appears that the literature would support the need for athlete activists to
employ a support organization or staff to make their activism turkey.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The framework used to design this study’s implementation and evaluation plan is the
New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This revised version of the
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 146
original model reverses the order of the four levels to better describe a process for evaluating
evaluation. These levels include results, behavior, learning, and reaction. At the results level,
organizations are encouraged to evaluate “the degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a
result of the training and the support and accountability package” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016, p. 39). At the third level, the authors suggest organizations evaluate “the degree to which
participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on the job” (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 39). At the second level, organizations are to evaluate “the degree to
which participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment
based on their participation in the training” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 39). Lastly, at
Level 1, organizations evaluate “the degree to which participants find the training favorable,
engaging and relevant to their jobs” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 39). This revised
model was used to design an implementation and evaluation plan for the AAA.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
By 2020, the AAA will implement a policy reform framework within their organization
to achieve their global goal. That goal is to equip athlete activists with the tools needed for
successfully implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal levels, ultimately improving
the effectiveness of athlete activism. By 2020, the athletes of the AAA will use this policy
reform framework that assists them in implementing policy reform at state, local, and federal
levels. Because athlete activism is a non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), and
because athletes spend most of their time dedicated to their sport (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2016), they do not have the time to advocate for issues full-time. Implementation of this
framework serves to make them more efficient with the time they do have and serves as a
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 147
template for athlete activists outside of the AAA. By adopting this framework, the athletes of the
AAA will assist their organization with achieving their global goal.
The expectation is that if athlete activists are able to maximize their effectiveness, they
can utilize their platform of millions (Henderson, 2009; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010) to pursue
endeavors that elicit systemic change (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016). Their activism leads
to nation building (Pelak, 2005), motivates groups to change their “basic values, beliefs, and
attitudes” (Eisenbach et al., 1999, p. 83), unifies individuals on opposing sides of an issue
(Kaufman, 2008), integrates communities (Babiak & Wolfe, 2009), and brings awareness of
complex issues to those less knowledgeable or interested (Marsh et al., 2010). Additionally, if
athlete activists are effective, they can inspire future generations of activists (Agyemang, 2011)
and ultimately benefiting their personal brands (Babiak & Wolfe, 2009; Godfrey, 2009).
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 17 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes for the AAA. Internal
outcomes should be achieved as a result of job aids, education, and training. Once these
indicators are achieved the external outcomes should be measured and achieved for the general
public.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 148
Table 17
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Improved education Number of general public who 1a. Traditional and digital media outlets.
amongst the general public as can articulate four pillars of
related to the organizations focus.
four pillars of focus.
Number of general public who 1b. Solicit attendance information for the
can articulate four pillars of ground events.
focus.
1b. Number of conversations 1b. Conduct a bi-yearly audit of social media
related to the AAA’s four conversations for people who follow or
pillars. engage with the AAA online.
2. Increased legislative The number of legislative Aggregate data at the end of a voting period
reforms that lead to systemic reforms passed per market. to tabulate legislative reforms, account for
change.
market, pillar, and key issues to assist in
determining the level and location in which
systemic change has occurred.
3. Decreased division amongst Percentage of increased Conduct an as-needed audit of social media
constituents as related to the sentiment surrounding conversations for people who follow or
organization’s four pillars of conversations related to the engage with the AAA online.
focus. AAA’s four pillars.
4. Positively influenced Percentage of increased Conduct an as-needed audit of social and
narrative surrounding athlete sentiment surrounding digital media conversations for anyone who
activism. conversations related to the engages in conversation relating to athlete
AAA’s four pillars. activists.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 149
Table 17, continued
Internal Outcomes
1. Improved athletes’ The amount of information an Hold briefing calls or meeting to test an
education as related to the athlete is able to retain as related athlete’s knowledge before an event or
organization’s four pillars of to their pillar(s) of focus. activation.
focus.
2. Increased time given to The number of days the athlete has Create new timelines for briefing
athletes for parsing through with a document. documents and assess after documents are
educational material.
created if time-frames were kept via a
quick evaluation.
3. Decreased support staff The number of days required to Create new timelines for briefing
time spent on ideating create a briefing document start to documents and assess after documents are
briefing documents. finish. created if time-frames were kept via a
quick evaluation.
4. Increased strategic 1a. Number of partnerships. 1a. Utilize existing partners to establish
partnerships with external
new relationships and measure through a
subject matter experts,
scorecard.
grassroots organizations, other
influential organizations or
corporations.
1b. Number of partnerships. 1b. Establish partner scorecard to collect
data with 1 to 5 rating system (1 being the
highest and 5 being the lowest) based on
strategic alignment and prioritize events
and requests based on ratings.
5. Improved digital footprint. Pertinent digital KPIS include: Conduct monthly digital media analytics
- The number of social media
followers across platforms
- The number of unique monthly
website users
- The number of organic and paid
online mentions by media and
news outlets
audit that tracks KPIS annually.
6. Increased on-the-ground
events or activations as
related to the organization’s
four pillars of focus.
Number of local events or
activations held.
Track local elections in target market and
cross-reference with athletes’ availability
as well as the likelihood of a swing vote.
7. Improved diversity of
athletes within the AAA.
Pertinent digital KPIS include:
- Athletes by gender
- Athletes by sport
- Athletes by social justice
passion
Compare these KPI data year over year.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 150
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The primary stakeholder of focus for this study are the athletes of
the AAA. In order to demonstrate that they have improved their effectiveness, there are six
critical behaviors that the athletes of the AAA will need to exemplify. The first critical behavior
is that athlete activists will improve their education related to the issue of focus. The second
critical behavior is athlete activists will collaborate with subject matter experts, grassroots
organizations, and other influential organizations or corporations. The third critical behavior is
athlete activists will follow effective athlete activism practices related to improving their
effectiveness. The fourth critical behavior is athlete activists will define motivation for involving
themselves in activism. The fifth critical behavior is athletes will utilize support staff to make
their activism turnkey. Lastly athlete activists will become active recruiters in locker rooms and
social circles. Table 18 outlines the critical behaviors, metrics, methods, and timing needed to
adopt said behaviors.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 151
Table 18
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Athlete activists The amount of 1a. The support staff of the First evaluated 30 days
improve their education information an athlete is AAA will hold briefing calls after the training session.
related to issue of able to retain as related or meeting to test an athlete’s
focus. to their pillar(s) of knowledge before an event or
focus. activation.
The number of days
required to create a
1b. The support staff will
decrease the amount of time it
First evaluated 30 days
after the training session
briefing document start takes to get the athletes a then on-going.
to finish. briefing doc from when an
event is first presented to
when it is held by following
the established timeline
created during support staff
annual planning meeting and
sticking to that timeline.
The number of days the 1c. The support staff will First evaluated 30 days
athlete has with a
document.
increase the amount of time
an athlete has a briefing
document by sticking to the
after the training session
then on-going.
timeline created in the annual
planning meeting.
2. Athlete activists The number of strategic The support staff of the AAA Relationships will be
collaborate with subject relationships. will reach out to existing cultivated throughout the
matter experts,
partners to establish new year but established as
grassroots
relationships in areas where official during the support
organizations, and
support is needed. staff annual planning
other influential
meeting and evaluated no
organizations or
sooner than 30 days after
corporations. the training.
3. Athlete activists Evaluation of athletes’ The support staff of the AAA First evaluated 30 days
follow effective athlete
activism practices.
advocacy process. will evaluate how close an
athlete is sticking to the 11
best practices.
after the training session
then as needed.
4. Athlete activists Identified personal Support staff will solicit First evaluated 30 days
define motivation for motivations. feedback from athletes after the training session
involving themselves in
through Google Forms that then as needed.
activism.
help establish an athlete’s
motivation for involvement.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 152
Table 18, continued
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
5. Athlete activists
utilize support staff
to make their
activism turnkey.
Number of quality check-
ins with staff support.
5a. Support staff will reach
out to athletes to facilitate
conversations, briefings,
provide education, job aids,
and or training.
First evaluated 30 days after
the training session and then
weekly/bi-monthly check-ins
depending on what is on the
schedule of the impact
calendar.
- The number of social
media followers across
platforms
- The number of unique
monthly website users
- The number of organic
and paid online mentions
by media and news
outlets
5b. Support staff will provide
reporting metrics for
increased digital analytics.
First evaluated 30 days after
the training session and then
monthly.
Number and types of
events. KPIS to note
which pillar or key issue
event relates to.
5c. Support staff will provide
reporting metrics for
increased on-the-ground
events or activations.
First evaluated 30 days after
the training session and on-
going then monthly.
6. Athlete activists
become active
recruiters in locker
rooms and social
circles.
Number of athletes
recruited.
Support staff will provide a
report to the athletes that
showcases total athlete
growth. KPIS to note:
- Athletes by gender
- Athletes by sport
- Athletes by social justice
passion
First evaluated 90 days after
the training session the bi-
annually.
Required drivers. To improve their effectiveness, the athletes of the AAA will need the
assistance of the AAA’s support staff who will assist in the education and administrative duties
of the AAA. In some instances, they will also need the support of the general public. Lastly,
they will need to get some small wins so that they can stay motivated in their endeavors. Table
19 elucidates the methods, timing, and critical behaviors supported in this process.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 153
Table 19
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Reinforcing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported:
1, 2, 3, etc.
Job aid that establishes and outlines policy reform
framework for athlete activists
Individualized job aid that supports athlete’s pillar(s)
and key issue of focus
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 5
Job aid that outlines recruiting strategy Ongoing 3, 5, 6
Job aid that outlines new briefing document timeline Ongoing 1, 3, 5
Training that reinforces athlete activists’ best practices Yearly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Job aid that establishes partner scorecard Yearly 1, 2, 3
Meeting to establish official organizational partners for
the year
Job aid that tracks local elections in target market and
cross-reference with athlete’s availability as well as the
likelihood of a swing vote
Meeting with athletes and support staff that provides
updates on recruiting
Yearly 2, 3, 5
1, 2, 3, 5
Monthly 3, 5, 6
Check-in calls to touch base on recruiting strategy Monthly 5, 6
Briefing calls prior to athlete’s event or activation
appearances to establish retention of knowledge
1–2 days prior
to event or
activation
appearances
1, 2, 3, 5
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 154
Table 19, continued
Method(s) Timing
Encouraging
Critical
Behaviors
Supported:
1, 2, 3, etc.
Athletes are recognized internally and via social media for
awards and accomplishments on and off the field
Create friendly competition that encourages recruiting
contest
Ongoing 1, 3, 4, 5
Bi-yearly 5, 6
Meeting to discuss athlete’s goals and motivations Yearly 4, 5
During check-in calls, athletes will always be asked about
personal endeavors
Rewarding
Monthly 4, 5
Winner of recruiting contest gets to choose a restaurant at
the annual planning meeting
Yearly 5, 6
Athlete with the most events gets internal recognition and
an award
1, 5
Athlete with the most legislative wins gets internal
recognition and an award
Yearly 1, 5
Monitoring
Team members share feedback on various initiatives Ongoing 2, 3, 5
Report that outlines legislative wins and losses and
accounts for market, pillar, and key issue to assist in
determining the level and location in which systemic
change has occurred
Yearly 1, 2, 3, 5
Report that outlines recruiting progress Bi-annually 5, 6
Report that outlines new partners Monthly 2, 5
Report that outlines digital and on-the-ground analytics
that account for KPIS
Monthly 1, 3, 5
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 155
Organizational support. The athletes of the AAA will also need the assistance of the
AAA’s support staff in order to move on to the next phase of growth. First, the support staff of
the AAA will need to equip the athletes with the tools they need to maximize their effectiveness.
Then the support staff will assist in making the athletes’ activism turnkey. Lastly, the support
staff will need to facilitate recruiting to maintain the AAA’s sustainability. The athletes of the
AAA will need this support if they want to implement a policy reform framework in 2020 that
helps them to maximize their effectiveness.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Once the recommended solutions have been implemented, most notably
the policy reform framework, athlete activists will:
• Classify knowledge related to the social justice issues they are advocating for (C)
• Carry out the policy reform process (C)
• Know the importance of collaborating with subject matter experts, grassroots
organizations, and other influential organizations or corporations (C)
• Understand why developing their need for involvement is critical to maximizing their
effectiveness (C)
• Understand the importance of recruiting (C)
• Know athlete activist best practices or how to access these practices (P)
• Know the best ways in which to recruit new members to the AAA (P)
• Value their higher personal expectations as it relates to activism (value)
• Feel confident in their ability to advocate being part of a larger group (confidence)
• Be more equipped to advocate for social justice issues (models)
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 156
Program. Training, job aids, and education will assist in implementing the
aforementioned learning goals. Once adopted, the athletes of the AAA should see an increase in
the knowledge, skills, and motivation required to improve their effectiveness as related to their
activism work. Since the research found the organization needs to be sustainable and
sustainability meant creating a viable recruiting pipeline, this program will be on-going for all
new members of the coalition. This program will also remain available to current members who
may need a refresher.
First, the AAA will adopt the policy reform framework established from the research of
this study. This framework will be presented in the form of a job aid. Then, in year one, there
will be a training at the AAA’s annual planning meeting that educates them on how to use and
implement this framework. Moving forward, the yearly training will only be required for new
members of the AAA and current members seeking to be re-educated. The training session will
be four hours long and broken into four one-hour sessions for each section of the framework.
The training will be recorded and live-streamed via a private feed for participants who cannot
attend the annual planning meeting. The role of the support staff is to then utilize this framework
in building out their social justice reform strategy. They will ensure that athletes are following
the framework.
The reform framework listed will include information from interviews and literature
related to this research. The framework is broken up into four sections. The first section
discusses how athlete activists need to develop the need for involvement. The second section
displays two figures. It first describes how utilizing an organization can make activism turnkey.
According to Sullivan (2007), there are seven steps to policy reform. The first step is to
identify the initial conditions. In this step, an organization seeks to understand the barriers to
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 157
success. For the AAA, this is laid out via their key pillars of criminal justice reform, police and
community relations, and education and economic advancement. The second step to policy
reform is understanding the key points of change. Here, an organization seeks to understand
what reforms elicit change in the initial conditions identified in the first step. These reforms are
to not only be supported by benefits to society but the benefits to the economy and the
organization. The third step is to mobilize stakeholders. For the AAA this includes other
athletes, the general public, organizational partners and anyone else willing to bring about
collective action at an institutional level.
Once initial conditions and points of change have been identified, and stakeholders have
been mobilized, generating specific policy recommendations and setting achievable goals are the
fourth and fifth steps. Then, initiating an aggressive advocacy campaign that “effectively
communicates complex ideas in simple and attractive ways to build the case for policy reforms”
(Sullivan, 2007, p. 2) will help in not only garnering support but also in stating the importance of
why change is needed. Lastly, identifying influential government officials, political leaders, and
businesspeople related to the initiative is pertinent to know to whom policy reform agendas
should be directed. Applying this framework to their problem of practice could help the AAA
close their knowledge gap in the policy reform process.
A deeper understanding of the policy process is also important because the talent and
skills of an organization’s membership base limits organizational success (Tierney, 2006). If the
athletes of the AAA do not have a foundational understanding of policy reform at local levels,
scaling to statewide and national campaigns is inconceivable. Getting the AAA to transfer this
knowledge to its members through a policy reform framework is the best way to provide
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 158
knowledge to a group that lacks procedural knowledge or experience and expertise on a
particular topic (Clark & Estes, 2008).
RISE (2017) found that there are eight steps to successful athlete activism. The first step
is education, in which athletes need to get educated “on the issues, tactics, and history of the
issues they are advocating for.” Next, “internally, groups need to create a space for discussion,
perspective sharing, and solution building.” Third, “activists need to focus on external
relationships in which they establish an infrastructure for collaboration, information, training and
strategy.” Fourth, “athletes need to engage with community leaders and beyond.” Fifth,
“athletes need to move from protest to action by studying their impact, providing feedback, and
staying organic.” Sixth, “clearly communicate goals and metrics and report on progress
regularly to stakeholders and fans” (pp. 16–17). Seventh, find ways to amplify your message.
Lastly, by working with others and knowing their strengths, athletes can maximize their
effectiveness. By building in these recommendations, in addition to the data collected from the
interviews, athlete activists serve to maximize their effectiveness.
The third section of the framework illustrates the recruiting process and gives
recommendations on how to reach out to athletes as well as how to get them to commit to the
work once they are a part of the organization. The final section of the policy reform framework
describes how an organization can support their efforts. This section recommends materials and
reports that are most useful for providing education, maintaining motivation, and assessing
effectiveness.
Information shared in the training can be verbal or visual (Mayer, 2011) but should
connect new information with prior knowledge and provide adequate guidance via scaffolding
(Pintrich, 2003) and modeling (Bandura, 1994). The information presented at the training is
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 159
robust and as such the support staff of the AAA should manage the intrinsic load of the athletes
during training. Managing intrinsic load by segmenting complex material into simpler parts and
pre-training, among other strategies, enables learning to be enhanced (Kirschner et al., 2009).
Athlete activists will benefit from this training because it will help them to maximize their
effectiveness. Figure 5 illustrates the policy reform framework.
Evaluation of the components of learning. To date, a policy reform framework does
not exist in the context of athlete activism. As such, the participants of this study have yet to
utilize one. The research here generated the framework, but it will be both adopted by the
support staff of the AAA and executed by the athletes. To apply the knowledge and skills
generated from the above framework, athlete activists and the support staff need to value the
training and education opportunities. Additionally, they need to be motivated to follow the
framework in their advocacy space. Therefore, the implementation plan should encapsulate the
declarative knowledge, procedural skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment of the
stakeholders. Table 20 addresses the method or activities and timing related to these learnings.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 160
Figure 5. Athlete activism: policy reform framework
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 161
Table 20
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative knowledge — “I know it.”
Knowledge checks by the facilitator of the
training
At the end of each session
Demonstrated recall of job aid During the training and during briefing
calls and meetings
Checks for understanding During the training session and during
briefing calls and meetings
Report out on training At the end of the full training
Procedural skills — “I can do it right now.”
Questions directed to the athletes about how
they plan to implement a tactic
Support staff members’ observations of athletes’
level of engagement
During the training
During the training and after, during
briefing calls and meetings, events, and
activations
Demonstration of policy reform best practices After the training, upon new events and
activations
Implementation of “identifying a passion” and
“recognizing their power” components of the
framework
Implementation of recruiting tactics for reaching
out
Implementation of athlete specific “getting guys
to commit” tactics for reaching out
After the training in the Google Forms
During facilitation of recruiting
strategy
During facilitation of recruiting
strategy
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 162
Table 20, continued
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Attitude — “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Group discussions amongst athlete
activists on the value of the information
being shared
Body language and level of engagement
during the training session
Support staff members’ observations of
athletes’ level of engagement
During the training session
During the training session
During the training sessions and after,
during briefing calls and meetings, events,
and activations
Reflective comments During the training sessions and after,
during briefing calls and meetings, events,
and activations
Confidence — “I think I can do it on the
job.”
Reflective comments During the training sessions and after, during
briefing calls and meetings, events, and
activations
Feedback from the athletes During the training and after, during briefing
calls and meetings
Feedback from the support staff’s
observations
Commitment — “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions between athletes and
support staff
Discussions between athletes and
support staff
Immediately following the training and during
briefing calls and meetings
During the training
During briefing calls and meetings
Progress checks identified in reports After the training
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 163
Level 1: Reaction
It is important to measure the stakeholders’ reactions to the learning plan. Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016) define Level 1 as “The degree to which participants find the training
favorable, engaging and relevant to their jobs” (p. 39). Table 21 introduces the methods, tools,
and timing needed to analyze the athletes’ reactions to the learning program. It first details
whether or not the athletes are engaged in the learning experience. It then measures how and if
at all the learning is relevant to the athletes’ advocacy work. Lastly it lists customer satisfaction
which determines the athletes’ overall feelings towards the learning program.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 164
Table 21
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Participation and
contributions
During the training
Feedback and opinions During the training and after, during briefing calls and
meetings, events, and activations
Support staff’s observations During the training and after, during briefing calls and
meetings, events, and activations
Execution of
recommendations
Relevance
After the training, during briefing calls and meetings,
events, and activations
Support staff’s observations During the training
Brief pulse-check with
participants
During the training
Feedback and opinions During the training and after, during briefing calls and
meetings, events, and activations
Customer Satisfaction
Discussion During the training
Support staff’s observations During the training and after, during briefing calls and
meetings, events, and activations
Execution of
recommendations
After the training, during briefing calls and meetings,
events, and activations
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 165
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During the training, support
staff will periodically pulse-check the athletes to gauge relevance and satisfaction. Immediately
following the training session, two surveys will be administered to the group. For the first
survey, the support staff of the AAA will send it out to the athletes. This survey will assess the
athlete activists’ attitudes, confidence, and commitment to applying what was learned. It will
also assess how they felt the material was relevant to their work and how satisfied they were with
the training. The second survey will be dispersed amongst the support staff and ask them
questions relevant to their observations of the athletes during the training.
Feedback from these surveys is critical because they ensure the organization is moving
in the right direction. Essentially, this Level 1 data will be collected and analyzed so that the
support staff can quickly measure the athletes’ reactions during the training. Related to Level 2,
attitude, commitment, and confidence will be measured though athletes’ body language,
comments, feedback, and overall discussions. Additionally, support staff will note their
observations to assess for alignment and validation related to athletes’ responses. The full
survey is presented in Appendix C.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Each time an athlete has an
event or activation, the day prior a support staff member will have a briefing call with them to
discuss the run of show and talking points. For each athlete’s first call following the training, the
support staff will conduct a brief interview related to getting their delayed reactions for the
training. The first call will be conducted no sooner than 30 days after the training. This
interview will measure all four levels of the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model. Level 1
questions will measure engagement, satisfaction, and relevance. Level 2 questions will measure
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 166
declarative knowledge, procedural skills, as well as current attitude, confidence, and
commitment. Level 3 questions will measure the application of declarative knowledge and
procedural skills. Lastly, Level 4 questions will measure how the training has since helped
athlete activists maximize their effectiveness. The full survey is presented in Appendix D.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The outcomes described in Level 4 were set to help better establish metrics of success as
related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. As such, to determine the
effectiveness of the policy reform framework, the leadership should track the amount of policy
reform passed.
Additionally, as indicated in the policy reform framework, several other reports should be
used to gauge the full picture of the effectiveness of athlete activism. There are five reports that
the AAA should implement. The first report is the awareness report. This report is used for on-
the-ground events and media reach. This tool should measure reach for traditional and digital
media, event attendance, social media followers, the AAA’s unique website users, mentions on
social media and mentions by other media and news outlets. The second report, the listening
report, will audit social conversations and measure sentiment, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors.
Netbase is the recommended tool for this report. The third report, the voting report, is an audit
of legislative reforms measure by markets and key issues. This report determines level and
location of systemic change. The fourth recommended report is the partner report, which is a
scorecard that rates potential partners on a scale of one to five. This report is used to determine
strategic alignment between potential partners and the AAA. Ultimately this report would help
the AAA prioritize events and requests. Lastly, the recruiting report tabulates past, present and
future athletes of the AAA. It should categorize athletes by passion, sport, market(s), team,
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 167
gender, and playing status. Playing status indicates whether an athlete is retired or on an active
roster.
The ultimate goal of the AAA is to maximize the effectiveness of athlete activism and as
the research has indicated, the most important metric for gauging whether an athlete activist is
effective is how many legislative reforms they have been able to pass. Appendix F showcases an
example of what the voting report could look like. Appendix G then includes a hypothetical
snapshot perspective of stakeholder goal achievement needs from a national perspective. This
chart reflects how many of the athletes adopted a policy reform framework and this provides the
return on expectation for the entire study.
Summary
To implement and evaluate the recommendations for the AAA as related to improving
the effectiveness of athlete activism, the New World Kirkpatrick Model was used (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). This revised framework reversed the original model by having evaluation
begin at Level 4. Level 4 is the results and leading indicators level and is used to evaluate
targeted outcomes as a result of the training and the support provided. Level 3 evaluates how
well participants apply what they learned from training when they are back on the job. Level 2
evaluates how well participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and
commitment based on their participation in the training. Level 1 evaluates how participants find
the training favorable, engaging and relevant to their jobs.
In all, utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model should result in an organization
achieve their goals. If organizations achieve their goals, they most likely designed a quality
program that was relevant to participants and resulted in high levels of engagement (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). If goals were not achieved, it is likely that the quality of the program
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 168
designed was low, there were inadequate drivers, and/or there was resistance from the group. In
the case of athlete activism, the policy reform framework presented here utilized the New World
Kirkpatrick Mode to ensure goals were met. If goals are not met, it is recommended that the
program is re-evaluated.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
Related to improving the effectiveness of athlete activism, utilizing the KMO framework
established by Clark and Estes (2008) had several strengths and weaknesses. This research
employed a qualitative approach to data collection and analysis. The first strength of using this
method for qualitative research is that it measures knowledge and skills as key determinants of
job performance. Related to athlete activists, the research determined that these are two critical
components of maximizing their effectiveness. Because qualitative design is used to help
identify participants’ knowledge, motivation, and behaviors (Johnson & Christensen, 2015),
alignment exists between the type of study chosen and the framework used for study. The
weakness of using the KMO framework is that it lacked a component to measure burnout and
factors athletes cannot control, such as time. Many athletes of the AAA can still be motivated
but burnout so having a component of the framework that could be used to study external
demands outside of things that the organization can control for.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study employed several limitations. The first limitation was related to the
demographic of athletes interviewed. Five out of six of the athletes were Black males and one
was a White male. Additionally, all of the athletes were from the NFL. Another limitation of
this study was that all interviews were conducted over the phone. Because of the time
constraints that limit athlete activists’ schedules, the interviews could have provided more
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 169
information had they been conducted in person. During the course of this study, athlete activism
was just beginning to become more mainstream after several Black Lives Matter protests and the
kneeling during the national anthem by Colin Kaepernick. As such, several events unfolded
during this study and after data was collected that could have been useful talking points. Lastly,
a delimitation of this study is that because athlete activism had been so rare, no organization like
the AAA has ever existed or currently exists. Therefore, while recommendations and data
collected works for them, an entirely different strategy could be efficient for another organization
if one existed. Even with all other conditions considered, the demographic makeup of the
athletes could skew the results.
Recommendations for Future Research
Due to the limitations of this study, several recommendations for future research exist.
First, future studies should utilize athletes that varied in sport, gender, and race, as doing so
could provide varied results. Next, interviews should be conducted in person to see if any cues
in body language or length of the interview change the results provided. As future research will
be conducted at a later date, an analysis of the events surrounding athlete activism presented in
2019 and beyond should also be explored. Finally, future research could adopt different
frameworks than the ones presented here.
Conclusion
The original goal of this study was to provide a policy reform framework for the Athlete
Activist Association, as a means from which to improve the effectiveness of athlete activism.
This framework is important because athlete activism is a non-normative behavior that when
applied effectively, elicits systemic change (Agyemang et al., 2010; Gill, 2016) and leads to
nation building (Pelak, 2005). The athlete activists of the AAA were chosen because not only
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 170
are they the only unified organization, but they are also representing what effective athlete
activism should look like. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) framework, the results of the first
two questions of this study assessed athlete activists’ knowledge and motivation as related to
improving the effectiveness of athlete activism. Those questions were:
1. What are the athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to improving the
effectiveness of athlete activism?
2. What are the culture and context within the AAA that supports the athletes’
knowledge and motivation?
Related to the first question, the results found two conceptual knowledge gaps. The first
was that athletes need to properly educate themselves on an issue. The second was that athlete
activists need to maximize their effectiveness by collaborating with subject matter experts,
grassroots organizations, and other influential organizations or corporations. This research then
determined a third knowledge gap that was procedural. This gap was that athlete activists need
to follow effective athlete activism practices.
The second question was answered through four organizational influences. Two of the
organizational influences were cultural models and two were cultural settings. The first cultural
model determined that athlete activists need effective role models within the space of athlete
activism. The second found that athlete activists need to be more equipped to advocate on social
justice issues. The first cultural setting found that athlete activists need to be more equipped to
advocate on social justice issues. The second found that athlete activists need a support
organization or staff to make their activism turnkey.
This study then utilized Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Kirkpatrick
Model to address the third question presented in this research. That question asked, “What are
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 171
the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for improving athlete
activism?” The New World Kirkpatrick model served as an evaluation tool that assists in
establishing knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations as well as establishing
an implementation and evaluation plan. The resulting recommendations established a policy
reform framework. This framework employed all of the findings of this study and will be
implemented in a training session at the AAA’s annual planning meeting.
Moving forward, this framework and training program should be utilized when athlete
activists want to maximize their effectiveness. It could also be utilized when celebrities want
to become social justice advocates.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 172
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ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 188
APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Thank you for agreeing to this interview. The purpose of this study is to improve the
effectiveness of athlete activism. I am seeking to understand the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational influences related to improving that effectiveness. For the
purpose of this interview, I will use the pseudonym Athlete Activist Association or AAA instead
of your organization’s name. This is due to ethical concerns related to my review process. The
ultimate goal would be to create a policy reform framework for the AAA.
The data in this interview will be confidential. You can decide not to answer any questions you
wish, and you can choose to withdraw from this interview at any time. All information will be
kept in a secure file in my Google Drive. If the information is transcribed, I ensure that it will be
kept in a password-protected file on my computer. At the completion of the study, if you’d like,
all notes, transcripts, and related information will be destroyed so that the integrity of the
information is maintained. All of this was contained in the informed consent that you signed
earlier. I have a copy here should you like to review it again.
Our interview today will last about one hour. I will ask about your understanding of your
perspectives and thoughts on the current state of athlete activism and then I will ask you about
questions specifically related to the AAA. In an effort to not take any of your words out of
context, I would like to record this session so that I may play back and accurately transcribe them
later. Do I still have your permission to record the interview?
If Yes: Thank you very much. Just let me know if you have anything you would like kept off the
record and I will stop the recording and not include that in my transcription.
If No: Thanks for letting me know. I will only take handwritten notes.
Before we start, do you have any questions? It will be a free exchange of information and you
can stop me at any time for clarification or to repeat the question.
Interview Questions — Athletes
KNOWLEDGE & MOTIVATION
To begin the survey, I would like to ask you some questions about your perspective on the
current state of athlete activism.
BACKGROUND
Can you state your name, age, team and position?
How long have you been involved in social justice work?
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 189
Can you please describe to me your perspective of athlete activism today?
Knowledge — metacognitive; social consciousness (developing the need for involvement) —
Can you describe for me why you do or do not believe professional athletes should
involve themselves in activism?
Knowledge — conceptual (Importance of Athlete Activism) — Why do you think those that
support athlete activism feel athletes should involve themselves in issues of social
justice?
Motivation (expectancy-value theory) — On a personal level, what do you or what do you expect
to derive from being an athlete activist?
Motivation (expectancy-value theory) — As an athlete what is your motivation for involving
yourself in issues of social justice?
Knowledge — procedural (understanding policy reform) — What would be the steps to follow in
being an effective athlete activist before government?
Motivation (self-efficacy theory) — How would you assess your own effectiveness on issues of
policy reform?
Motivation (self-efficacy theory) — What would make you feel more able to advocate for issues
of social justice at any of the state, local, and federal levels?
Knowledge — declarative (developing the need for involvement) — What have you found to be
the most convincing tactics for getting your peers involved in advocacy?
Knowledge — declarative meritocracy/responsible citizenship (developing the need for
involvement) — In general, in what ways do you think athlete activism could be
improved?
ORGANIZATION
Thank you, I would now like to ask you some questions specifically related to how you feel the
AAA could assist you in improving the effectiveness of athlete activism.
Organization (cultural settings) — Who are some athlete activists or role models you look to
model your own advocacy efforts?
Has the AAA provided role models for you to connect with and if so, how?
Organization (Athlete activism best practices) — How does having an organization like the AAA
affect your activism?
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 190
Organization (cultural models) — In what ways do you feel your organization has been most
effective in communicating its priorities to you?
Organization (cultural models) — How does your organization identify shared values?
Organization (cultural settings) — How has your organization identified your level of expertise
when it comes to activism?
When it comes to policy reform specifically?
How have they addressed or identified your willingness to learn more on the policy reform
specifically?
When it comes to policy reform specifically?
Organization (cultural settings) — What does failure look like for your organization?
Organization (need for training) — How well do you feel your organization has prepared you to
advocate for issues of social justice?
Organization (organizational change process) — In what ways do you believe your organization
could improve their efforts?
Organization (cultural models) — What have you seen to be the most effective ways to get the
guys to commit to the work?
Organization (cultural models) — What have you seen to be the most effective ways your
organization has prepared you to reach out to your peers if at all?
Interview Questions — Support Staff
BACKGROUND
Can you state your name, age, organization, and position?
How long have you been involved in social justice work?
Can you please describe to me your perspective of athlete activism today?
Organization (cultural models) — How does your organization identify shared values?
Knowledge — procedural (understanding policy reform) — What would be the steps to follow
for athlete activist to be effective?
Knowledge — procedural (understanding policy reform) — What have you seen as the most
successful factors in driving legislation reform with athlete activists?
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 191
Motivation (expectancy-value theory) — What have you seen as most effective in motivating
they guys to commit to the work?
Motivation (self-efficacy) — How equipped do you think the athletes are currently?
On a scale from 1 to 10?
Motivation (self-efficacy) — How do you feel your involvement shapes their effectiveness?
Organization (cultural settings) — How well do you feel you have prepared the athletes to
advocate for issues of social justice?
Organization (cultural settings) — In what ways do you think you could improve your efforts in
preparing the athletes to advocate for issues of social justice?
Organization (cultural models) — Please describe the need for involvement of other
organizations outside of the AAA in athlete activism. For example, groups of lawyers or
other partnering organizations.
Before we conclude this interview, I just want to check in to see if there is any additional
information you like to share, or question related to anything I may have missed as it regards
your influence and involvement in athlete activism that we have not yet had a chance to discuss.
Are there any other athletes you recommend I reach out to get their perspective on athlete
activism?
Again, thank you for taking the time to speak with me and share your thoughts on athlete
activism. While I doubt anything will come up, do I have your permission to reach out regarding
any follow-up or clarifying questions as I work through your responses? At the completion of
the project, I would be happy to share my findings with you if you have a desire to see them.
Thank you again for your time and have a great rest of your day.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 192
APPENDIX B
DATA CODING SPREADSHEET
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 193
APPENDIX C
ATHLETE SURVEY (AFTER TRAINING)
Immediate Assessment L1 and L2
Please select the response that best categorizes how you would respond to the question.
Factor
Strongly
agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
This training felt relevant to my work (Level 1
Relevance)
4 3 2 1
I felt engaged during the training sessions (Level 1
Engagement)
4 3 2 1
I’ve obtained new information (Level 2
Conceptual Knowledge)
4 3 2 1
I will recommend this training to new members of
the AAA (Level 1 Relevance)
4 3 2 1
I participated in group discussions (Level 1
Engagement)
4 3 2 1
I now feel empowered to advocate (Level 2
Confidence)
4 3 2 1
I feel empowered to help others advocate (Level 2
Confidence)
4 3 2 1
I know how to access this tool should I need it in
the future (Level 2 Conceptual Knowledge)
4 3 2 1
I feel that I have all the tools I need to advocate
(Level 2 Conceptual & Procedural Knowledge)
4 3 2 1
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 194
APPENDIX D
SUPPORT STAFF SURVEY (AFTER TRAINING)
Immediate Assessment L1 and L2
Please select the response that best categorizes how you would respond to the question.
Factor
Strongly
agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
The athletes appeared to be engaged in the 4 3 2 1
training (Level 1 Engagement)
The athletes solicited feedback and asked 4 3 2 1
relevant questions (Level 1 Engagement)
The athletes appeared to react positively to this 4 3 2 1
training (Level 1 Engagement)
The athletes appear to feel empowered to 4 3 2 1
advocate (Level 2 Confidence)
The athletes appear to know how to access this 4 3 2 1
tool should they need it in the future (Level 2
Conceptual Knowledge)
The athletes appear to have all the tools they
need to advocate (Level 2 Conceptual &
4 3 2 1
Procedural Knowledge)
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 195
APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW ASSESSMENT
DELAYED Assessment L4, 3, 2, and 1
When we had our annual planning meeting, you participated in a four-hour training session. I
want to ask you a couple of questions related to that training.
First, do you remember the training?
Did you find the training useful?
What did you most enjoy about the training?
Do you still utilize the policy reform framework?
If Yes, Do you feel as though you have been properly implementing the
framework?
If No, why do you not utilize the framework?
Is there anything that you feel would improve the framework?
Have you been able to have more time with job aids such as briefing docs prior to an
event or activation?
How many policies have you reformed since the training?
How many athletes have you recruited since the training?
Is there anything else related to the training that you would like to share?
Thank you for your time.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 196
APPENDIX F
VOTING REPORT
Key Issue Pillar Market Status
The Promise Act Provides budgetary increases Education Massachusetts PENDING
to Boston schools.
Amendment 4 Automatically restores the Criminal Florida PASSED
right to vote for people with Justice
prior felony convictions. Reform
Amendment 2 Requires a unanimous jury of
12 to convict.
Criminal
Justice
Louisiana PASSED
Reform
Proposal 3 Creates fair rules that remove Economic Michigan PASSED
barriers and makes voting
more accessible and secure
Advancement
so all eligible voters are
heard on election day.
ATHLETE ACTIVISM: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS 197
APPENDIX G
STAKEHOLDER GOAL ACHIEVEMENT NEEDS
Market Number of Athletes Policies Reformed or Passed Officials Elected
New York 4 2 1
Los Angeles 8 2 2
Boston 6 1 4
Cleveland 4 3 2
Chicago 6 2 3
Miami 10 4 1
Seattle 4 1 1
Pittsburgh 2 1 1
Buffalo 4 1 3
New Orleans 4 4 2
Philadelphia 8 4 4
Baltimore 6 3 1
San Francisco 4 4 1
Oakland 5 2 1
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Athlete activism is a non-normative behavior that when applied effectively, elicits systemic change (Agyemang, Singer, & DeLorme, 2010
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Athlete activism: improving the effectiveness an innovation model
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Publication Date
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