University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Causes for a lack of gender diversity in leadership

(USC Thesis Other)

Causes for a lack of gender diversity in leadership

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Causes for a Lack of Gender Diversity in Leadership by Robert W. Sokol A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION December 2020 Copyright 2020 Robert W. Sokol ii Acknowledgements To begin, I would like to acknowledge the source of life, God… "for I can do everything through Christ, who gives me strength" (Philippians 4:13 New Living Translation). I would like to acknowledge those that helped guide me to completion on this journey. My Dissertation Committee Chair, Dr. Lawrence Picus, is an amazing mentor. He helped shape my thinking and challenged me to refine my approach. He always encouraged me to Fight On! Thank you for being patient and believing in me, even when I wasn’t progressing “as planned." My Committee Members, Dr. Monique Datta and Dr. Katherine Hanson, provided challenging insight throughout my proposal and final defenses. Rossier faculty, staff, and cohort three peers, you were truly world-class and helped better equip me for leadership, and life. To Dr. James Colón, thank you for being a proofreading partner and investing in me. To "Classmate A" (pseudonym required to protect Engineering-Co's identity) – you know who you are – I can't thank you enough for using your network to find an amazing organization for this project when my targeted research site declined participation (their loss). None of this would have been possible without you and Engineering-Co. I am sincerely grateful to you both! Thank you, Committee, USC Rossier community, and Engineering-Co, and… FIGHT ON! Mom and Dad, thank you for building integrity and persistence into my values. They came in handy. Oh, and didn’t you say you would pay for college?! I am sending the bill. Haha. Matthew and Hannah, our kids, thank you for being patient with me, and razzing me to completion with looks that said… “reeeallyyyy, daaaaad, you’re not done yet!”, when I was sometimes not “present.” You are both uniquely special, and I love you more than you know! To my wife, Christina… You’ve put up with my shenanigans for decades! You are my rock, my compass, and my true love. Words cannot express my feelings for you – I Love You! iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………… ii List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………. viii List of Figures…….…………………………………………………………………………... x Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….. xii Chapter One: Overview of the Study…………………………………………………………. 1 Introduction of the Problem of Practice……………………………………………... Organizational Context and Mission………………………………………………… Organizational Performance Status………………………………………………….. Related Literature………………………………….………………………………… Importance of Addressing the Problem……………………………………………… Organizational Goal………………………………….………………………………. Description of Stakeholder Groups………………………………………………….. Stakeholders’ Performance Goals…………………………………………………… Stakeholder Group for the Study…………………………………………………….. Purpose of the Project and Questions………………………………………………... Conceptual and Methodological Framework………………………………………... Definitions………………………………….………………………………………... Organization of the Dissertation………………………………….………………….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 12 13 Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature………………………………………………… 14 Introduction………………………………….………………………………………. Explanation of the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Model……………………. Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences……………….. 14 14 16 iv Knowledge and Skills………………………………….…………………….. Motivation………………………………….………………………………... Organizational Barriers………………………………….…………………… Conclusion………………………………….………………………………………... 16 20 25 29 Chapter Three: Methodology………………………………….……………………………… 31 Purpose of the Project………………………………….…………………………….. Research Questions………………………………….……………………………….. Conceptual Framework………………………………….…………………………… Participating Stakeholders………………………………….………………………... Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale………………………………….. Interview Sample (Recruitment) Criteria and Rationale…………………….. Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale…………………………………….. Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Criteria and Rationale……………………... Data Collection and Instrumentation………………………………………………… Interviews………………………………….………………………………… Surveys………………………………….…………………………………… Documents………………………………….………………………………... Data Analysis………………………………….…………………………………….. Credibility and Trustworthiness……………………………………………………... Validity and Reliability………………………………….…………………………... Ethics………………………………….……………………………………………... Limitations and Delimitations……………………………………………………….. 31 32 32 35 36 37 38 38 39 39 41 42 43 44 44 46 47 Chapter Four: Results and Findings………………………………….……………………….. 49 v Participating Stakeholders………………………………….………………………... Interview Participation………………………………….…………………… Survey Participation…………………………………………………………. Data Analysis………………………………….……………………………... Results………………………………….……………………………………………. Knowledge Results…………………………………………………………... Motivation Results…………………………………………………………… Organizational Results……………………………………………………….. Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Results………………….. Findings………………………………….…………………………………………... Research Question #1 Findings……………………………………………………… Knowledge Influences Interfering with Gender Diversity…………………... Motivation Influences Interfering with Gender Diversity…………………… Summary of Findings for Research Question #1…………………………….. Research Question #2 Findings……………………………………………………… Organizational Influence Interfering with Gender Diversity………………... Knowledge Influences in the Context of Organizational Influences………… Motivation Influences in the Context of Organizational Influences………… Summary of Findings for Research Question #2…………………………….. Summary………………………………….………………………………………….. 49 50 51 53 54 55 61 68 71 72 73 73 76 79 80 80 81 82 83 83 Chapter Five: Recommendations………………………………….………………………….. 85 Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences………………………... Knowledge Recommendations………………………………………………. 86 86 vi Motivation Recommendations……………………………………………….. Organization Recommendations……………………………………………... Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan…………………………………….. Implementation and Evaluation Framework………………………………… Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations………………….……….. Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators…………………………………….. Level 3: Behavior……………………………………………………………. Level 2: Learning…………………………………………………………….. Level 1: Reaction………………………………….…………………………. Evaluation Tools……………………………………………………………... Data Analysis and Reporting………………………………………………… Summary………………………………….………………………………….. Strengths and Weaknesses of Approach……………………………………………... Limitations and Delimitations………………………………….……………………. Limitations………………………………….………………………………... Delimitations………………………………………………………………… Future Research……………………………………………………………………… Conclusion………………………………….………………………………………... 89 92 94 94 95 96 98 102 106 106 109 110 113 114 114 115 115 117 References………………………………….…………………………………………………. 120 Appendix A: Interview Protocol and Questions……………………………………………… 127 Appendix B: Survey Introduction and Questions…………………………………………….. 131 Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet…………………………………………... 137 Appendix D: Company President’s Internal Announcement of the Study…………………… 139 vii Appendix E: Interview Invitation Sent to Executive Leadership Team Participants…………. 140 Appendix F: Survey Recruitment Letter……………………………………………………... 141 Appendix G: Reminder Email Used to Increase Survey Participation……………………….. 142 viii List of Tables Table 1.1 Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 8 Table 2.1 Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Knowledge Gap Analysis 20 Table 2.2 Stakeholder Goal and Motivational Influence and Assessment for Motivation Gap Analysis 25 Table 2.3 Stakeholder Organizational Influence, Type and Assessment for Organizational Gap Analysis 29 Table 4.1 Assumed Influences 55 Table 4.2 Assumed Knowledge Influences 56 Table 4.3 Validation Status for Knowledge Influences 61 Table 4.4 Motivation Influences 62 Table 4.5 Engineering-Co’s Perceived Corporate Gender Diversity Goals 67 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 4.9 Validation Status for Motivation Influences Organizational Influence Validation Status for Organization Influence Summary of the Validation Status for the Assumed Influences 68 69 71 72 Table 5.1 Validated and Partially Validated Influences 85 Table 5.2 Summary of Validated Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 87 Table 5.3 Summary of Validated Motivation Influences and Recommendations 90 Table 5.4 Summary of Validated Organization Influence and Recommendations 93 Table 5.5 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 97 Table 5.6 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Directors 99 ix Table 5.7 Required Drivers to Support Directors’ Critical Behaviors 101 Table 5.8 Components of Learning for the Program 105 Table 5.9 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 106 Table 5.10 Level 1 Evaluation Tools During and Immediately Following the Training 107 Table 5.11 Level 2 Evaluation Tools During and Immediately Following the Training 108 Table 5.12 Levels 1-4 Delayed Evaluation Method 109 x List of Figures Figure 1.1. A visual representation of the difference between the female representation of executive leadership and the senior manager level population Engineering-Co. 4 Figure 1.2. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008). 11 Figure 3.1. Conceptual Framework Graphic Representation. 34 Figure 4.1. Engineering-Co Leadership Reporting Hierarchy. 50 Figure 4.2. Participants Tenure with Engineering-Co by Gender in 5-Year Clusters. 52 Figure 4.3. Participants Tenure in Position by Gender in 5-Year Clusters. 53 Figure 4.4. Director responses to the question: “I fully understand the company interviewing and selection process for senior managers.” 58 Figure 4.5. Director survey responses in the context of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. 59 Figure 4.6. Figure 4.7. Figure 4.8. Figure 4.9. Director survey responses in the context of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. Director survey responses to the number of times in the last 12 months, their direct supervisor has discussed with them gender diversity in leadership positions. Director survey responses to the impact on the company values by increasing gender diversity of the senior manager position. Director knowledge of the existence of specific company goals related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions shown alongside director belief of the importance of related goals. 60 63 65 67 xi Figure 4.10. Figure 4.11. Figure 4.12. Figure 4.13. Figure 4.14. Figure 4.15. Figure 4.16 Director survey responses to the question: “The nature of our industry does not impact the likely effectiveness of male or female leaders.” Director survey responses, by gender of the respondent, to the question: “The nature of our industry does not impact the likely effectiveness of male or female leaders.” Director survey responses, combining responses for all company values questions, showing the overall impact on company values by improving gender diversity of senior managers. Survey responses showing male and female directors' beliefs related to the benefit of aspiring female leaders having a mentor from each gender. Survey responses showing male and female directors' beliefs related to the benefit of aspiring male leaders having a mentor from each gender. Directors response to the question: "for women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified female role model is important.” Directors response to the question: “I am comfortable helping aspiring female managers gain the skills and experiences they need to become a successful Sr. manager” broken out by the gender of the directors. 75 76 77 78 78 81 82 Figure 5.1. Level 4 quarterly tracking form for Level 4 results. 110 xii Abstract Women have become an increasingly more important part of America's workforce, making up more than half of all workers but do not hold 50% of leadership positions (United States Women's Bureau, 2012). The purpose of this study was to determine the causes for the lack of gender diversity of senior managers at Engineering-Co (pseudonym). Engineering-Co helps other organizations solve complex problems related to physics, chemistry, mathematics, and aeronautical, mechanic, chemical, and civil engineering. The study followed the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model using the findings from the literature review to identify knowledge motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences that were assumed to be contributing to the lack of gender diversity. To validate the assumed KMO influences, a sequential mixed method design was conducted by interviewing seven company officers, followed by a survey completed by company directors, who hire the senior managers. Findings from the study indicate that directors at Engineering-Co do not: objectively interview and select leadership candidates, believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership, know how their own biases influence selection decisions, have specific and timely improvement goals and do not support aspiring female leaders with female role models. This study contributes to the existing and growing body of work that is focused on understanding the causes for a lack of gender diversity in leadership positions and makes specific recommendations using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2017) regarding how Engineering-Co can take steps to begin solving the problem. 1 Chapter One: Overview of the Study Introduction of the Problem of Practice Women represent a disproportionately low percentage of managers within the leadership teams of American companies. In the United States, women have grown from 38% of the total workforce in 1963 to 58% in 2012 (United States Women's Bureau, 2012). This proportion of females in the workplace is not present in executive leadership positions. A review of Fortune's top 679 companies revealed that more than half did not have a single female on their executive leadership team (Krishnan & Park, 2005). Gender equality issues have plagued women for centuries. They include workplace concerns such as pay inequality, time-off restrictions related to childbearing, and the stereotyping of women into marginalized roles within organizations and teams (Smith, 2014). The lack of gender diversity in leadership teams leads to less creative work environments, decreased financial performance, and propagates century-old gender stereotypes (Hoogendoorn et al., 2013; Virick & Greer, 2012). Teams with both male and female leaders are much more creative than those that lack gender diversity because diverse leadership teams consider more alternatives when problem- solving (Opstrup & Villadsen, 2014). Additionally, diverse leadership teams work more harmoniously. Men experience less conflict when leadership teams are gender diverse and included at least one female peer (Chattopadhyay et al., 2008). As organizations work to improve financial performance, improving gender diversity of leadership teams has proven to be a positive contributor to performance. In the 334 top Fortune companies, those with an all-male leadership team produced 47% less return on sales than those with a gender-diverse leadership team (Krishnan & Park, 2005). An evaluation of the 236 science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and finance companies within the Fortune 500 list found firm performance was 2 positively impacted for companies that had female board representation of at least 30% (Wiley & Monllor-Tormos, 2018). In addition to the impact on performance, organizations that lack gender diversity in their leadership teams are viewed as less trustworthy by the communities in which they operate (Opstrup & Villadsen, 2014), and these organizations have lower corporate social responsibility scores (Mallin & Michelson, 2011; McCann & Wheeler, 2011). The specific problem addressed in this study is the lack of gender diversity in leadership positions. When organizations lack gender diversity of leadership teams, they have less creative and harmonious work environments, produce decreased business outcomes, and have diminished positive social impact. Organizational Context and Mission The organizational context for this study, Engineering-Co (pseudonym), is a private engineering firm that operates across the United States. Company offices include stand-alone locations as well as satellite locations that operate within its largest customers’ facilities. Each technical staff member at Engineering-Co has unique training and expertise in physics, chemistry or math disciplines, or engineering expertise in aeronautical, mechanic, chemical, or civil engineering. Operating as a private organization is an important part of Engineering-Co's strategy and helps further its mission, which is to provide accurate and timely engineering support to its government, private, and non-profit partners. As a private organization, Engineering-Co can focus exclusively on the needs of their customers. This clear focus is possible because Engineering-Co does not have to balance competing priorities between customers and shareholders. Because of its inherent neutrality, Engineering-Co is often brought into projects to validate complex data, assess risk, and validate conclusions proposed by other for-profit firms, and Engineering-Co is solely focused on the accuracy of its conclusions. 3 Engineering-Co provides a wide variety of technical expertise to a broad range of customers and projects. Government customers include the Internal Revenue Service, the Department of Education, the Department of Defense, and various branches of the U.S. military. Engineering-Co also serves a variety of private and non-profit organizations. With their vast technical and engineering expertise, Engineering-Co is brought into projects whenever the most complicated problems require the highest levels of engineering and technical support and analysis. Projects include a variety of technical complexity in communications, global positioning, and propulsion systems, as well as complex mathematical and statistical modeling. Because of the complex and cross-functional nature of the projects in which Engineering-Co participates, attracting and retaining the world’s foremost experts in various technical fields is required, and a commitment to people is a key part of Engineering-Co’s organizational culture and values. Organizational Performance Status One of the ways Engineering-Co measures diversity is female representation throughout its workforce. The Human Resources Department monitors all aspects of diversity and provides updates to the Board of Directors, the organization’s governing body. Figure 1.1 shows a recent analysis of female diversity, comparing two levels of leadership within the organization. The executive leadership team, consisting of approximately 38 leaders, is 41% female and 59% male, while the population of senior managers is 20% female and 80% male. 4 Figure 1.1. A visual representation of the difference between the female representation of executive leadership and the senior-manager level population Engineering-Co. Related Literature Over the past several decades, women have become an increasingly important part of the workforce in America. From 1963 to 2012, women's participation in the workforce grew by more than 52%. Working mothers grew from 54.4% to 70.5%, an increase of 29%, over that same timeframe (United States Women's Bureau, 2012). Gender equality issues have plagued women for centuries. Today these issues include workplace concerns such as: pay inequality where women continue to earn 23% less than men for performing the same job duties; time-off restrictions related to childbearing wherein some employers do not provide adequate time off or benefit pay during pregnancy, recovery, and bonding; and the stereotyping of women into administrative and clerical roles within organizations and teams (Smith, 2014). The pay discrepancies between men and women led to the Equal Pay Act (EPA) of 1963, which required men and women to be paid the same wage for the same work performed (Kmec & Skaggs, 2014). 59% 41% Executive Leadership Male Female 80% 20% Senior Managers Male Female 5 In addition to receiving unequal pay for the same work performed, when compared to men, women are also not provided the same type of career opportunities as men. In many organizational contexts, gender biases in leadership are commonly accepted. For example, in sports organizations, gender diversity is widely not valued by team owners and boards of directors. This is evidenced in that females are the head coach of women’s collegiate teams only 42.4% of the time and are the head coach of men’s collegiate teams less than 2% of the time (Cunningham, 2007). In focusing on the gender diversity gap in management positions, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015) reported that in 2014, women made up only 38.6% of the total population of workers in management occupations. The 38.6% women represent in management occupations is significantly below the 58% that women represent of the total labor force (United States Women's Bureau, 2012). As such, gender inequality in leadership positions is prevalent in American companies and is an important issue to address. Importance of Addressing the Problem Lack of gender diversity in leadership teams is an important problem to address because it has a greater impact on firm performance than other forms of diversity (Richard et al., 2013) and is an important social issue (Richard et al., 2013; Virick & Greer, 2012). Although improving all dimensions of diversity has positive social impacts, improving gender diversity has a greater financial impact than improving racial diversity. In a survey of 168 banking executives, when team function requires inclusiveness and has high interdependence, leadership teams with higher female diversity performed 39% better when compared to leadership teams that had high racial diversity but lacked gender diversity (Richard et al., 2013). In terms of social considerations, gender equality issues have plagued women for centuries, including workplace concerns like pay inequality, time-off restrictions related to childbearing, and the stereotyping of 6 women into marginalized roles within organizations and teams (Smith, 2014). Internationally, the issue of gender diversity in leadership drew attention in 2008 when Norway passed a law requiring all public companies to maintain at least 40% female representation on boards of directors or face dissolution (Adams & Ferreira, 2009). This legislative move by Norway highlights the importance of the issue. When not addressed, a lack of gender diversity of leadership teams leads to less creative work environments, decreased financial performance, and propagates gender stereotypes (Hoogendoorn et al., 2013; Virick & Greer, 2012). Organizational Goal Engineering-Co's organizational goal related to diversity and inclusion is to further improve the diversity of its leadership team at all levels through sourcing qualified, diverse external candidates while developing and promoting qualified diverse internal candidates. This goal was established by the organization's Chief Diversity Officer (CDO), who is the person within the organization tasked with defining diversity and inclusion goals, agendas, and action plans. In addition to the overall organizational goal, the CDO established a specific goal related to increasing the gender diversity of senior managers, as follows: by June of 2022, Engineering- Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. The CDO set the goal because gender diversity in leadership is a focus area for the organization. Engineering-Co expects to double in size over the next five years, making the goal attainable. Much of this growth is expected because many of Engineering-Co's leadership team members are late-career leaders and are expected to retire over the next several years. Although a 50% increase in female leaders at the senior manager level may seem aggressive, the anticipated company growth and the expected increase in retirements provide a unique opportunity for the organization to reshape the workforce and leadership team's 7 diversity. The Human Resources Department will monitor outcomes as Engineering-Co progresses through this transitional period and works to attract and retain the world’s foremost technical experts as a means to provide predictable and innovative solutions to its customers. Description of Stakeholder Groups Three stakeholder groups each uniquely contribute to the attainment of Engineering-Co's organizational goal. These groups are: directors, leaders at the business group level; senior managers, leaders at the department level; and the executive leadership team, consisting of program, engineering, and technology group officers. Directors contribute to the attainment of the organizational goal of increasing female diversity of the senior manager position by leading succession planning discussions with existing senior managers during quarterly check-in conversations and networking across the organization to identify possible future leaders. Senior managers contribute to the attainment of greater gender diversity in leadership positions through the talent pipeline planning process. Senior managers identify and work with key supervisors to build individual leadership development plans, which can produce a more diverse internal candidate pool of applicants as senior manager positions become available. The executive leadership team contributes to the achievement of Engineering-Co's goal to increase gender diversity in leadership positions through clear prioritization and the establishment of well-defined performance expectations. Establishing clear goals, benchmarking progress, and holding the organization's leaders accountable for achieving these goals is a key role that the executive leadership stakeholder group fulfills. 8 Stakeholders’ Performance Goals Table 1.1 Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals Organizational Mission To provide accurate and timely engineering support to our government, private, and non-profit partners. Organizational Performance Goal By June of 2022, Engineering-Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. Stakeholder Performance Goals Directors Senior Managers Executive Leadership Team By January 2021, directors will incorporate talent planning into every quarterly check-in with senior managers, including a focus on identifying diverse future senior manager candidates. Directors will monitor progress toward attaining a 50/50 gender mix of identified future leaders. By February 2021, each senior manager will identify at least one capable female leader or female employee interested in developing the skills needed to become a senior manager. The senior manager and female manager candidate will engage together in a quarterly leadership development program. At the February 2021 quarterly officer’s meeting, the executive leadership team will set annual goals for each of the next three years for the manager and senior manager positions. Performance against these goals will be reviewed at annual officer meetings on an ongoing basis. Stakeholder Group for the Study Achievement of Engineering-Co’s organizational goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022, depends on action from all stakeholder groups. The director stakeholder group has a high degree of impact on goal attainment and, as a result, will be the stakeholder group of focus for this study. The stakeholder goal of incorporating talent planning into every quarterly check-in with senior managers, including a focus on identifying diverse future senior manager candidates to attain a 50/50 gender mix of identified future leaders, will 9 help ensure female leaders are being identified for the position of senior manager. It was determined that without direct involvement from this stakeholder group in developing internal senior manager candidates, the organization would continue to experience a lack of gender diversity in the senior manager candidate pool. This stakeholder group is critical to the attainment of the organizational goal because directors are responsible for hiring future senior managers. Currently, nearly all senior manager openings do not have a single qualified female candidate. The population of qualified female senior manager candidates is expected to grow significantly through the inclusion of female leader succession planning in the directors’ quarterly check-ins with senior managers. Therefore, support from this stakeholder group will help ensure the successful attainment of the goal. Progress in attaining the stakeholder goal will be measured quarterly as directors benchmark progress toward attaining the 50/50 gender mix of identified future leadership candidates. Additionally, an assessment of each female leader's readiness to become a senior manager will be reviewed during annual performance review conversations between directors and senior managers. Failure to accomplish this goal will lead to a continued lack of gender diversity in Engineering-Co leadership positions. This continued lack of diversity in leadership will lead to reduced accuracy, less innovative and productive work environments, and decreased predictability for its customers, which will negatively impact the organization’s stated diversity and inclusion intentions. Purpose of the Project and Questions The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with creating gender equality in leadership positions. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all Engineering-Co stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder of focus in this study is the group of leaders 10 at the director level across U.S. business operations. The analysis focused on understanding how these hiring manager’s knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational issues interrelate and impact gender equality in the senior manager position. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed causes and then systematically examined the assumed causes to determine which were validated within the organization. As such, the questions that guided this study are the following: 1. What are the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences that interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? 2. How do the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences interact with organizational barriers to interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? Conceptual and Methodological Framework The methodological approach selected for this study is the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. This model follows a successive six-step process that begins with identifying the organizational global goal and specific stakeholder performance goal. The organizational global goal is a key measurable objective for the organization. In contrast, the stakeholder goal is specific to one stakeholder group, is narrow in focus, and serves as a means for attaining the organizational global goal. Once the specific and measurable goals and stakeholder groups have been identified, the model progresses to include steps that first measure actual performance gaps related to the stakeholder goal and then determine the root causes and issues leading to the performance gaps. Once the root causes have been determined, the possible knowledge and motivational influencers within the stakeholder group are identified, as are any organizational 11 barriers leading to the gaps in performance. This fifth step in the model includes implementing researched solutions based on the possible KMO influencers identified. The final step in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model is to evaluate the results, adjust the solutions and goals based on the effectiveness of the solutions implemented, and restart the model again, ensuring that the stakeholder goal supports the attainment of the organizational global goal. The six successive steps are shown in Figure 1.2 below. Figure 1.2. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008). Steps four and five of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model include the identification of the root causes leading to the performance gaps and identifying the KMO issues that are contributing to those root causes. This study used two research techniques to accomplish STEP 1 Identify the organizational global goal Identify the stakeholder performance goal Determine where performance gaps exist Determine root causes of the gaps - using literature and field work Identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational process issues and implement solutions Evaluate results, adjust solutions, and establish new goals STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6 GAP ANALYSIS MODEL 12 steps four and five. The first research technique included conducting an extensive literature review of the stakeholder goal, root causes, and stakeholder KMO influencers. Conducting a literature review is important because it allows consideration of work previously done by others (Creswell, 2014), as is demonstrated in the literature review of this current research report, which helped inform the current study. The second research technique was to gather and analyze data from the specific stakeholder group and within the organizational context. Relevant research data can be gathered through qualitative or quantitative research methods. Qualitative research is generally exploratory and can use observations, interviews, focus groups, and documents as data collection methods. In contrast, quantitative research uses measurable data from highly structured surveys, polls, and interviews (Creswell, 2014). The use of qualitative and quantitative research methods and the analysis of both data sets is called a mixed-methods approach (Creswell, 2014). This study included semi-structured interviews with individual stakeholders. Data from the interviews were analyzed and used to inform the structured survey instrument sent to the stakeholders. The data from the surveys were then analyzed. Based on the design used, this study falls within the mixed-methods research approach. Definitions Director: Managers at the business group level, which is one-level above senior managers. Executive Leadership Team: Company officers, to whom the directors report. Female Diversity: The ratio of female to male subjects in a specific population. Gender: Either male or female. 1 Gender Diversity: Equitable or fair representation between genders. Manager: One who has direct oversight over one or more employees. 1 The survey instrument in this study included male, female, non-binary, and decline response options. Because only male and female gender options were selected by respondents, study data is presented as either male or female. 13 Senior Manager: A manager who functions at the department level. Organization of the Dissertation This chapter outlined the nature of the problem being addressed by this study and the importance of answering the research questions. The site for the study, Engineering-Co, was introduced, and an overview of their mission, current performance, and relevant stakeholders was provided. In addition to providing definitions, this chapter also provided an overview of the conceptual and methodological framework used throughout the study. Chapter Two includes a review of recent literature on roles historically defined by gender, gender stereotyping in the workplace, and how gender influences perceived management ability. Chapter Two also reviews literature related to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact the problem being addressed in this study. Chapter Three outlines the stakeholder group of focus for this study, the research questions and rationale, and the data collection and analysis methods. The study’s results and findings are covered in Chapter Four, following the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barrier framework, and answers to the two research questions that guided the study are reviewed. Recommendations and an integrated implementation and evaluation plan are covered in Chapter Five, which also includes the strengths and weakness of the research approach, future research recommendations, and a summary conclusion. 14 Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature Introduction Chapter Two is a literature review that will examine the factors related to the lack of gender diversity in leadership positions. Each of the factors highlighted in this literature review represents a knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences that contribute to the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. These influences will be discussed through the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. The knowledge literature focuses on the candidate screening and interviewing process. The motivation literature focuses on hiring managers' belief in the value of creating gender-diverse leadership teams and the importance of goals. The organizational barriers literature review focuses on the organizational climate for diversity initiatives and the need for gender-diverse leadership candidates. Gender equality issues have plagued women for centuries (Nkomo & Ariss, 2014). Women have been stereotyped as capable or incapable of a variety of roles within society, homes, and workplaces (Cox & Miles, 2008). In America, women did not gain the right to vote until 1919, a significant milestone in the women’s rights movement (Keremidchieva, 2013). Stereotyping extends to the workplace, where certain types of jobs are seen as more male or more female (Luzadiset al., 2008). Historically, management positions were perceived by both women and men as being male-roles (Luzadis et al., 2008), and leadership teams today continue to be dominated by men (Krishnan & Park, 2005). Explanation of the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Model The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model introduces the need for establishing organizational performance goals and requires measurement to determine where gaps in performance exist. The model submits that organizational performance gaps are caused by 15 stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Identifying the specific cause will inform the action required to improve the performance gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). Stakeholders need to know how to attain performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008), and stakeholder knowledge can be assessed through the four knowledge types identified by Krathwohl (2011), which are: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The Clark and Estes (2008) model requires evaluating stakeholders' motivation through considering the degree to which the stakeholders choose to begin working on activities associated with goal attainment, their persistence in completing the tasks, and the amount of ongoing mental effort they exhibit toward attaining the goal. Rueda (2011) provides additional motivational factors, including self-efficacy, attributions, values, and goals, for use when determining how the stakeholders' motivation impacts performance. Organizational factors that influence performance can include resource allocation, work processes not aligned with strategies, and inadequate facilities (Clark & Estes, 2008). These organizational factors can become barriers to goal attainment. When aligned and working together, stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors will help ensure successful goal attainment. Each of the elements of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model will be addressed below, and related to how directors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences influence the attainment of the performance goal of improving female diversity in the senior manager role to 30% by June of 2022. The first section will discuss assumed influences on the stakeholder performance goal in the context of knowledge and skills. Next, assumed influences on the attainment of the stakeholder goal from the perspective of motivation will be considered. Finally, assumed organizational influences on the achievement of the stakeholder goal will be 16 explored. Each of the assumed stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance will be examined through the methodology discussed in Chapter 3. Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Knowledge and Skills Research shows that improving the gender diversity of leadership teams leads to more creative work environments, increases financial performance, and positively impacts corporate social responsibility scores (Hoogendoorn et al., 2013; Virick & Greer, 2012). The literature review that follows is focused on identifying the knowledge and skills required of directors that will lead to improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022 at Engineering-Co. For Engineering-Co to attain this goal, directors need to understand how to perform specific leadership tasks. In their research, Clark and Estes (2008) submit that knowledge informs how things should be done and is an accumulation of experiences. A lack of knowledge is one of the three principal causes of performance gaps in organizations. Understanding how a task is to be performed is critical to the completion of the task. A lack of knowledge can often be solved by improving communication or providing instructional training (Clark & Estes, 2008). Rueda (2011) posits that successful goal attainment requires knowledge of the steps and methods needed to attain it. A more detailed categorization of knowledge influences follows, which will help determine how knowledge gaps impact directors’ ability to solve the leadership gender diversity problem at Engineering-Co. Knowledge Influences Categorizing knowledge into sub-types helps create alignment in language. Knowledge categories can be used across domains to determine where similarities exist and can provide a 17 tool through which curriculum may be assessed to determine where there are gaps in knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Research conducted by Krathwohl (2002) provided four primary knowledge categories through which knowledge research can occur. Factual knowledge includes basic definitions and specific details. Conceptual knowledge is the ability to categorize and build models. Procedural knowledge is knowing how and when to apply models and principles. According to Krathwohl (2002), metacognitive knowledge differs from the first three knowledge categories in that metacognitive knowledge focuses on the knowledge of oneself. Evaluating stakeholder knowledge across specific knowledge categories will help determine the factors contributing to the identified problem of practice. The knowledge literature review that follows will focus on two specific categories of knowledge. Procedural knowledge gives directors the ability to properly identify and select leadership candidates, whereas metacognitive knowledge allows directors to understand how their gender biases impact candidate selection and hiring decisions. Understanding the directors’ procedural and metacognitive knowledge will help determine the action needed to positively impact the gender diversity of the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. Identifying and Selecting Leadership Candidates. To achieve the stakeholder goal, directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Knowing how to identify candidates and how to select interview questions is a crucial step to eliminating gender bias during the hiring process (Luzadis et al., 2008). Qualitative research conducted by Luzadis et al. (2008) determined that gender bias influences the leadership hiring process when applicant resumes are reviewed before the selection of interview questions. This finding demonstrates that properly planning the interview process may help eliminate gender biases during the candidate selection and interview processes. Selecting the appropriate interview 18 questions is another important step in proper identification and selection of leadership candidates. Saks and McCarthy (2006) found that even when interview questions were intentionally discriminatory, as long as those questions were asked consistently of all candidates, both male and female candidates had a similar level of intention to accept a job offer from the hiring organization. This finding reinforces the need for a standard set of interview questions for all applicants, regardless of the gender of the applicant or the interviewer (Saks & McCarthy, 2006). Properly planned and implemented interview practices help eliminate gender stereotyping that can occur in the candidate identification and selection process (Stamarski & Son Hing, 2015). This procedural knowledge is essential for directors to possess. Krathwohl (2002) submits that "knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods" (p. 214) is part of the definition of procedural knowledge. Also, procedural knowledge is knowing how to employ specific strategies based on the circumstances (Krathwohl, 2002). Based on the definition, the selection process of qualified candidates falls within the category of procedural knowledge. This is the case because hiring managers need to know how to conduct interviews properly and objectively when selecting leaders (Luzadis et al., 2008) and need to know when to use various interviewing strategies and techniques to avoid hiring biases (Stamarski & Son Hing, 2015). Gender Bias Influence on Candidate Identification and Selection. To achieve the stakeholder goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022 at Engineering-Co, directors need to understand their gender biases and understand how those biases influence candidate identification and hiring decisions. Throughout society, women and men have been viewed differently from one another (Zosuls et al., 2011), and societal gender stereotypes extend 19 to impact the workplace (Luzadis et al., 2008). Research shows that men and women have biases about whether or not they believe women are qualified to serve in leadership positions, believing that women are less qualified to serve as leaders than men (Luzadis et al., 2008). Understanding one's gender biases is a key step in eliminating the impact those biases have on the hiring and decision-making process (Martins & Parsons, 2007). Additionally, reflecting on those biases and implementing hiring strategies that maintain consistency is important. Research conducted by Stamarski and Son Hing (2015) found that a consistent hiring process is a key step in helping to eliminate the impact personal gender biases of hiring managers have on their decision-making. According to Mayer (2011), reflecting on one’s thinking and having control over that thinking is the metacognitive process. Because gender biases influence how hiring managers view candidates (Luzadis et al., 2008; Martins & Parsons, 2007), it is important for directors to be self-aware of their gender biases and to use specific strategies during the candidate interviewing and selection processes to minimize the impact biases have on hiring decisions. This self-awareness of gender biases and applying that self-awareness to the talent identification and selection process are classified as metacognitive knowledge. Together, directors' Metacognitive and procedural knowledge impacts how directors support the attainment of the stakeholder goal. The organizational mission, organizational global goal, and stakeholder goal for Engineering-Co are provided in Table 2.1. Also shown in Table 2.1 are the knowledge influences for the stakeholders related to the attainment of the stakeholder goal, with each knowledge influence classified by knowledge type. The knowledge influence assessment, also shown, is the method of assessment used to measure each specific knowledge influence for the stakeholder group. 20 Table 2.1 Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Knowledge Gap Analysis Organizational Mission To provide accurate and timely engineering support to our government, private, and non- profit partners. Organizational Global Goal To further improve the diversity of its leadership team at all levels through sourcing qualified, diverse external candidates while developing and promoting qualified diverse internal candidates. Stakeholder Goal By June of 2022, Engineering-Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Procedural Directors construct interview questions that will help identify candidate strengths that align with the needs of a specific leadership position. Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how they influence their candidate identification and hiring decisions. Metacognitive The directors' survey instrument will include the question "List the hiring criteria you use when making hiring decisions, besides a candidate's work experience and performance.” Motivation The literature review that follows is focused on defining motivation and examining how the motivation of directors impacts the problem of a lack of gender diversity within the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. Motivation can be defined as "an internal state that initiates and maintains goal directed behavior" (Mayer, 2011, p. 39). In a workplace setting, there are 21 three indicators of motivation through which analysis can be performed. Clark and Estes (2008) define the three indicators as “active choice, persistence, and mental effort” (p. 80). Active choice is the act of intentionally starting, or not starting, activity toward the attainment of a specific goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Persistence is maintaining an ongoing focus of activities associated with the attainment of a specific goal, in light of other competing goals and priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). Mental effort is the amount of active cognitive investment required for the successful attainment of a specific goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Understanding motivation is important because directors' motivation will impact, positively or negatively, the attainment of the stakeholder goal. In considering the problem of a lack of gender diversity in leadership teams, this literature review focuses on the motivational influences of stakeholders and revealed two relevant types of motivational influences, utility value, and goal content. Key stakeholders need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership, and the positive impact gender-balanced leadership teams have on the organization (deVries, 2014). This motivational influence is attributed to the motivational theory of utility value. The second motivational influence that emerged through the literature review is that stakeholders need to have specific and clear goals related to improving gender diversity in leadership (Klettner et al., 2014; Orlando et al., 2013). This second motivational influence is attributed to the motivational theory of goal content. Utility Value To achieve the stakeholder goal, directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Utility value, related to motivational theory, is the level of impact a specific task is believed to have toward the attainment of a specific goal (Rueda, 2011). The 22 utility value of a task is determined by how it impacts specific short-term goals and how the task will impact the attainment of other long-term goals and enables future plans (Eccles, 2006; Wigfield & Cambria, 2010). A task or initiative that positively impacts a short-term goal but does not positively impact a broader long-term goal will have less utility value than an activity that will positively impact the short and long-term goals. When utility value is low, it may not motivate efforts to the level needed to attain performance goals (Eccles, 2006). Of the three indicators of motivation outlined by Clark and Estes (2008), utility value relates to active choice because value judgments most significantly impact whether a task will get started (Rueda, 2011). Understanding the utility value directors place on tasks related to improving the gender diversity of the senior manager population is important because a higher utility value creates positive action throughout the organization (deVries, 2014). Directors’ Utility Value Utility value is directly related to the stakeholder goal in that directors need to believe in the value of attaining the stakeholder goal and understand the short and long-term benefits of increasing the gender diversity of leadership teams. Research conducted by Virick and Greer (2012) determined that gender diversity initiatives' success is primarily impacted by whether or not existing managers fully understand and believe in the benefits of gender initiatives. In organizations where existing managers understood the benefits derived from increasing the gender diversity of leadership teams, a more favorable climate for diversity programs existed. This more favorable climate resulted in greater succession planning for women into leadership positions (Virick & Greer, 2012). Directors need to believe in the benefits of increasing gender diversity in leadership positions to create a favorable climate for change within the organization. In addition to supporting the attainment of short-term leadership diversity goals, deVries (2014) 23 found that incumbents must understand how leadership diversity will positively support the organization's overall performance goals. At Engineering-Co, directors need to connect the increase in leadership gender diversity to the attainment of operational goals such as accuracy, timeliness, and consistency for customers. Goal Content To achieve the stakeholder goal, directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on improving the female diversity of the senior manager position. Goal content, related to motivational theory, is the extent to which goals motivate behavior. Goals can be analyzed to determine the degree to which they are relevant, clearly defined, and offer a challenge in their accomplishment (Rueda, 2011). Performance goals can either positively or negatively impact intrinsic motivation. Goal-related tasks that provide greater personal enjoyment enhance motivation and have a higher level of attainment (Moskowitz & Grant, 2009). Goals that are unclear and difficult to understand result in lower levels of attainment (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) submit that clearly established goals are a key part of each of the three indicators of motivation, which are: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Because the establishment of clear goals is an integral part of motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008), assessing participation in goals and goal setting is a key step to improving gender diversity in leadership (Orlando et al., 2013). Directors’ Goal Content The establishment of clear and actionable goals is a key factor related to the motivation of directors and impacts the overall goal of improving the gender diversity of the senior manager position. Establishing short-term goals was found to have the greatest immediate positive impact on improving gender diversity of leadership teams (Klettner et al., 2014). Setting shorter-term 24 goals and action steps will positively impact the motivation of directors as they work to attain the stakeholder goal. Directors' participation in establishing the short-term goals and action items is important. Research conducted by Orlando et al. (2013) determined that the participation by existing leaders in goal setting was a key step in attaining positive outcomes in diversity initiatives. One of the short-term goals set by directors should include a focus specifically on the inclusion of female leaders in the succession planning process for leadership positions. Having a succession plan that includes specific goals for improving the number of females in leadership positions is an important part of successful gender diversity initiatives (Virick & Greer, 2012). The impact of these motivational influences on the attainment of the stakeholder goal of improving the gender diversity of the senior manager population at Engineering-Co makes these motivational influences important to understand. The organizational mission, organizational global goal, and stakeholder goal for Engineering-Co are shown in Table 2.2. Also shown in Table 2.2 are the assumed motivation influences for the stakeholders related to the attainment of the stakeholder goal, with each motivation influence showing its motivation type. The motivation influence assessment, also shown for each motivation type, is the method of assessment used to measure each specific motivation influence for the stakeholder group. 25 Table 2.2 Stakeholder Goal and Motivational Influence and Assessment for Motivation Gap Analysis Organizational Mission To provide accurate and timely engineering support to our government, private, and non- profit partners. Organizational Global Goal To further improve the diversity of its leadership team at all levels through sourcing qualified, diverse external candidates while developing and promoting qualified diverse internal candidates. Stakeholder Goal By June of 2022, Engineering-Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. Motivational Indicators Active choice and persistence by directors Assumed Motivation Influence Motivational Influence Assessment Utility Value – Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Survey question: “It is important to create greater gender diversity in the senior manager position.” <Strongly disagree to strongly agree> Goal Content – Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on improving the female diversity of senior managers. Survey question: “I want to continue to learn new ways in which I can improve the female diversity of the senior manager position.” <Strongly disagree to strongly agree> Interview Prompt: “Share your short- term goals related to improving female diversity of the senior manager position.” Organizational Barriers In addition to stakeholder knowledge and motivational influences, Engineering-Co's ability to attain its goal to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022, will also be influenced by organizational barriers. According to Clark and Estes (2008), stakeholder 26 knowledge and motivational influences must be complimented by and aligned with organizational processes and resources to ensure goal attainment. Organizational barriers include all factors where internal processes or a lack of resources within an organization negatively influence goal attainment (Clark & Estes, 2008). Further, Clark and Estes (2008) submit that when stakeholder knowledge and motivational influences are eliminated as the main causes of performance gaps, the cause can frequently be directly linked to some form of organizational barrier. Organizational barriers can take many forms, including "culture, structure, and policies and practices" (Rueda, 2011, p. 53). To make the various types of organizational barriers easier to understand and apply, Rueda (2011) describes organizational barriers as either cultural models or cultural settings. A cultural model in an organization is a shared cognitive framework for how things should be done, and changes over time as behaviors are adopted or modified (Rueda, 2011). Organizational cultural models are difficult to operationalize because they are not always observable and are driven by an organization or team's value system (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) posit that organizational culture is an essential factor in assessing organizational barriers, and an organization's cultural model will influence all performance improvement attempts. Cultural models work along with cultural settings to impact an organization's ability to attain a specific goal (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are concerned with the physical places, the people completing tasks, and how those tasks are completed within the dynamics of the physical setting (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are, thus, more observable than are cultural models (Rueda, 2011). The degree to which an organization provides the resources necessary to attain a goal and how the work environment, processes, and procedures align behind attaining the goal influences the cultural 27 setting within an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings directly impact the degree to which goals are attained because physical environments, resources, policies, and procedures work in conjunction to support or inhibit the attainment of specific organizational goals, as such, it is important to understand the key cultural setting influencers, and how they may impact Engineering-Co's problem of practice. Organizational Influences To help determine how organizational barriers are impacting Engineering-Co's ability to attain its stakeholder goal, a narrowed literature review was conducted. This literature review was focused on the cultural model and cultural setting influencers related to the lack of gender diversity in leadership positions within organizations. A key cultural setting influence was discovered through the literature search and is the focus of this portion of the literature review. Lack of Internal Female Role Models. Women need to have same-gender role models and mentors as they grow into leadership positions. Women report that a lack of same-gendered role models was a significant concern (Broadbridge, 2010). In research conducted by Foster et al. (2007), women reported that having a same-gendered leadership mentor positively impacted their progression into a leadership position by a rate 32% higher than did men. The managerial level of a female role model is also important and must be closely related to the position of the female leader being mentored (Kurtulus & Tomaskovic-Devey, 2012). Providing executive-level female mentors to mid-level female managers creates feelings of inferiority and a perception that growth into management positions may be unattainable (Hoyt & Simon, 2011). Providing female mentors more closely aligned with the positions to which the female managerial candidates aspired, increased the mentee's desire to seek a leadership position (Hoyt & Simon, 2011). In organizational contexts made up of mostly male leaders, which is the case with Engineering-Co, 28 male mentors have been found to use a developmental approach that attempts to teach female leaders how to fit better into the male-dominated environment and conform to the male-biased workplace norms (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). Research conducted by Shortland (2014) found that women in leadership positions in male-dominated environments do not see themselves as role models for other women, even if assigned as mentors by the human resources department. A female leader’s need for a same-gendered and relevant leadership mentor, especially when in a male-dominated professional context, is a key cultural setting organizational barrier that leads to a lack of gender diversity in leadership positions. The organizational barrier reviewed in this literature review is important to consider as Engineering-Co works to solve the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position. The organizational mission, organizational global goal, and stakeholder goal for Engineering-Co are provided in Table 2.3. The organizational barrier related to the attainment of the stakeholder goal is also shown in this table. The organizational barrier influence assessment is also shown; it is the method of assessment used to measure the specific organizational barrier for the stakeholder group. 29 Table 2.3 Stakeholder Organizational Influence, Type and Assessment for Organizational Gap Analysis Organizational Mission To provide accurate and timely engineering support to our government, private, and non- profit partners. Organizational Global Goal To further improve the diversity of its leadership team at all levels through sourcing qualified diverse, external candidates while developing and promoting qualified diverse internal candidates. Stakeholder Goal By June of 2022, Engineering-Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. Organizational Influence There is a lack of female role-models for aspiring female leaders Assumed Organization Influence Organization Influence Assessment Cultural Setting Influence: The organization needs additional female role models who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Female Leader Survey Question: “Female mentors are readily available to help further my career development.” <strongly disagree to strongly agree> Conclusion This literature review was conducted to identify factors that lead to a lack of gender diversity in leadership positions in order to understand possible correlations with the organization that is the focus of this study. The factors highlighted in this literature review followed the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. As such, the literature review provided the knowledge and motivational causes and the organizational barriers related to a lack of gender diversity in leadership positions. The literature review revealed themes within procedural and metacognitive knowledge, utility value and goal content motivational influences, and a cultural setting organizational barrier, that each impact gender diversity equity in leadership positions. The organizational context at Engineering-Co and its specific problem of practice were not 30 applied to the literature review findings. The chapter that follows applies the specific findings from this literature review to Engineering-Co's chosen stakeholder group. Additionally, Chapter Three includes the data collection and data analysis methods used to determine how the knowledge and motivational causes and organizational barriers reviewed in the literature review contribute to the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. The assumed stakeholder knowledge and motivation influencers and the organizational barriers (KMO) that are contributing to the lack of gender diversity of the senior manager position at Engineering-Co were then validated by analyzing these assumed influences against the KMO literature review. Additionally, a mixed-methods research approach and the related statistical analysis were conducted to test the validity of the assumed KMO influencers. In addition to informing the nature of the research problem and questions, this data and analysis brought forward possible solutions that will lead to the attainment of the stakeholder goal. 31 Chapter Three: Methodology Purpose of the Project The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with creating greater gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. Currently, 41% of the executive leadership population at Engineering-Co is female, which is more than double the female representation of the senior manager position, which stands at 20%. To better understand the possible causes of the problem and possible solutions, a specific stakeholder group was identified as the focus of this study. Selecting a specific stakeholder group for the study helped focus the data analysis and recommendations on the group of leaders who can most significantly impact goal attainment. The stakeholder group of focus for this study encompasses the managers directly responsible for interviewing and hiring senior managers. These hiring managers include business group level leaders and are known internally at Engineering-Co as Directors. As mentioned in Chapter One, while a complete gap analysis would include managers at all levels, for practical purposes, the specific stakeholder of focus in this study is limited to the directors that operate within the United States. The directors' specific stakeholder goal is to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June of 2022. The analysis in this study focused on identifying the knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational issues impacting the directors and influencing their ability to attain the stakeholder goal. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed causes, and then systematically examine the assumed causes to determine the actual or validated causes. As such, the research questions that guided this study are provided in the following section. 32 Research Questions 1. What are the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences that interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? 2. How do the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences interact with organizational barriers to interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework is an underlying structure that incorporates a combination of multiple orientations and influences the research design and method of a research project (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A clearly defined conceptual framework incorporates the problem of practice, the purpose of the study, and the disciplinary orientation of the literature used to inform the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework is "the system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs" a research project (Maxwell, 2013, p. 39). The conceptual framework is important because it impacts all aspects of a research project and can help determine where threats to research validity or bias may exist (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework for this project considers the four key elements outlined by Maxwell (2013): experiential knowledge, existing theory and research, pilot and exploratory research, and thought experiments. According to Maxwell (2013), four elements of the conceptual framework contribute uniquely to the overall research design and paradigms and also work in a complementary fashion to create the overall conceptual framework for the study. While focused on answering the two previously defined research questions shown in the previous section, the conceptual framework constructed for this project makes two key 33 assertions. The first assertion is that the stakeholder group of focus, the directors, have knowledge and motivation gaps that are contributing to a lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. The second assertion is that the directors' knowledge and motivation gaps occur within the context of specific organizational barriers at Engineering-Co. Further, these knowledge and motivation gaps are contributing to and complimentary of the organizational barriers, while the organizational barriers are contributing to and complimentary of the directors' knowledge and motivation gaps. This co-contributory relationship between the stakeholder knowledge and skill gaps and organizational barriers impacts Engineering-Co's ability to improve gender diversity in the senior manager position. Clark and Estes (2008) submit that all three influences: stakeholder knowledge, stakeholder motivation, and organizational barriers, each independently contribute to the attainment of a specific goal. Additionally, these three influences interact together to impact performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). When evaluating performance gaps, knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers should be considered in a systematic matter, understanding how the three performance influencers relate to one another and impact goal attainment (Rueda, 2011), which is a consideration in the conceptual framework for this study. A conceptual framework cannot be found in literature alone and must be developed by the researcher (Maxwell, 2013). In the conceptual framework for this study, a literature review was used to demonstrate how other researchers have approached the problem of a lack of gender diversity in leadership, and to better understand the impacts of creating gender-diverse leadership teams. Findings from the literature review were considered in the context of the organizational setting at Engineering-Co as it relates to their goal to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 34 2022. Figure 3.1 is a visual representation of the conceptual framework for this study. It shows how specific director knowledge and motivation influences are embedded within the organizational context at Engineering-Co and work together to impact goal attainment. Figure 3.1. Conceptual Framework Graphic Representation. Directors need to have metacognitive knowledge whereby they understand their biases during the candidate selection process and possess procedural knowledge about conducting a proper interview that does not introduce hiring biases (Luzadis et al., 2008). In the case of Engineering-Co, the need for directors to possess this knowledge is within the context of an organization that does not have enough female mentors to adequately prepare female leadership candidates, which may influence hiring manager assessment and pre-judgment of female candidates. Director Knowledge and Motivation Procedural: Objectivity in selecting leadership candidates. Metacognitive: Understanding personal gender biases. Utility Value: See value in having gender diversity leadership. Goal Content: The need for specific and timely goals. Organizational Influence – Engineering-Co Cultural Setting: Female role models who can help mentor aspiring female leaders within the organization are required. Performance Goal By June 2022, Engineering-Co will improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30%. 35 Director motivation to attain the stakeholder goal is impacted by their goal content. Directors need specific short-term goals to remain fully engaged in the attainment of the longer- term stakeholder goal (Klettner et al., 2014). Diversity related goals should be set in partnership with the Human Resources Department because candidate sourcing, interviewing, and leadership development programs are managed within human resources at Engineering-Co. The need for directors to have short term and specific diversity-related goals works in opposition to the organizational context where there are not enough female role-models to support the development of female leadership candidates properly and, in this case, may impact directors’ motivation for the appropriate goal content needed to accomplish the stakeholder goal. Along with having organizationally aligned goals, directors need to believe in the value of improving gender diversity in leadership (deVries, 2014). With aligned goals, the Human Resources Department and directors can work together to identify and eliminate hiring biases and ensure objective criteria when filling leadership positions. Additionally, female role models can be identified to support the development of aspiring female leaders, which will help provide a gender-balanced candidate pool as leadership positions become available. As described, the knowledge and motivation of directors’ work within the context of specific the organizational influence to impact the attainment of the stakeholder goal. Participating Stakeholders The focus of this study was to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers contributing to a lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering- Co. In support of this research, the stakeholder group of focus for this study is made up of leaders at the director level. The total director population for this study consisted of the 114 leaders who directly make senior manager hiring decisions. The geographic area of study 36 encompasses Engineering-Co's United States operations. The directors at Engineering-Co are responsible for overseeing more than 300 senior managers. Directors were selected as the focus of this study because of the disparity in representation of lower-level female leaders compared to female leader representation in the executive team. It is also believed that focusing on department level hiring will have the greatest impact on diversity and inclusion initiatives within the organization. Findings from this study may be relevant at other levels of leadership within the organization. However, the findings are not generalizable across the overall organization because of demographic and cultural differences. Considering the problem of practice, the conceptual framework, and stakeholder group of focus, this study was conducted using an exploratory sequential mixed methods design. This design employs a qualitative study followed by a quantitative study where the data from the initial qualitative study is used to construct the quantitative study survey instrument (Creswell, 2014). The exploratory sequential mixed methods design is believed to be a more thorough approach than conducting only a qualitative or quantitative study (Creswell, 2014). Using this design, the real-life experiences and knowledge of executive leadership team members were captured, which helped shape the survey instrument used to collect the quantitative data from the total director population, which was phase two of this study. The study sampling criterion, recruitment strategy, and rationale were developed considering this study's conceptual framework and research questions. Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale Criterion 1 Participants must be current, active employees of Engineering-Co (not on a leave of absence). 37 Criterion 2 Participants must have 12 months of job experience at Engineering-Co at the executive level. Criterion 3 Participants must currently be in an executive leadership position and have direct reports. Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale The first phase of this exploratory sequential mixed methods design focused on collecting qualitative data by completing in-depth semi-structured interviews with seven executive leaders who work across the organization. Thirty-eight prospective participants make up the target population in this phase of the study. The sample population was sorted to get perspective interview candidates located across the nation, from each of the various business divisions, and to provide racial and gender diversity of participants. Additionally, including executives with at least 12 months of experience both in position and with the organization eliminated participation of executives who were trainees, which aligns with the study's conceptual framework by using a population with a higher likelihood of knowledge and motivational influences, as well as having a population that has first-hand experiences with any organizational barriers that may exist. In interview sampling, participants need to "contribute to the development of insight and understanding of the phenomenon" (Merriam & Tisdell, 2012, p. 127). This study used purposeful sampling, which Merriam and Tisdell (2012) define as intentionally selecting a population that will provide the greatest amount of information related to the study. With a target population of 38 executives in this phase of the study, the goal was for 20% of the target population to participate in an interview. The qualitative data collected from the interviews were analyzed and used to shape the survey questions used in the second phase of research. 38 Geographically, the executive population selected for participation in interviews was located across various time zones. As a result, interviews with the executives were conducted over the phone and at a time that was convenient for each participant. Incentives were not provided for participation in the interviews. Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale Criterion 1 Participants must be current, active employees of engineering-Co (not on a leave of absence). Criterion 2 Participants must have worked for Engineering-Co for at least one year. Criterion 3 Participants must currently be in a position at the director level and have direct reports. Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale The second phase of this study focused on collecting data through the implementation of an online survey instrument. The survey was sent using an existing company email system to all active directors, who have been employed by Engineering-Co for a minimum of one year, and who have direct reports. Using a one-year employment requirement at Engineering-Co was intended to help ensure that participants have been exposed to hiring decisions within the organizational setting. This first-hand exposure to the hiring process at Engineering-Co follows Merriam and Tisdell’s (2012) recommendation to sample people with knowledge and experience on the study's topic. In this study, this approach helped ensure that the target population provides data that will contribute to answering the research question and is aligned with the study's conceptual framework. The target population of the stakeholder group is a total of 114 directors. 39 Getting greater participation leads to greater credibility of the findings (Fink, 2013). In this study, 50% participation in the survey was the goal. The online survey instrument was finalized and administered after gathering and analyzing the qualitative data from the interviews in phase one. Insight gathered from phase one helped improve the quality of questions included in the survey phase and was aligned with the exploratory sequential mixed methods design. Data Collection and Instrumentation Considering the problem of practice, the conceptual framework, and stakeholder group of focus, this study began with an exploratory sequential mixed methods design. This design employs a qualitative study followed by a quantitative study where the data from the initial qualitative study is used in the construction of the quantitative study survey instrument (Creswell, 2014). The exploratory sequential mixed methods design is believed to be a more thorough approach than conducting only a qualitative or quantitative study (Creswell, 2014). Using this design, the real-life experiences and knowledge of executive leadership team members were captured, which helped shape the survey instrument for use in collecting the quantitative data from the total director population, which was phase two of this study. The final research method used in this study was the collection and analysis of relevant documents. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), documents used in qualitative research generally exist before the research begins and can be a valuable source of information. Together, the study sampling criterion, recruitment strategy, and rationale were developed considering this study’s conceptual framework and research questions. Interviews The exploratory mixed methods research design used in this project began with qualitative interviews, the data from which were used in the refinement of the quantitative survey 40 instrument and followed Creswell's (2014) construct of this research design. The qualitative interviews employed in this research were important in helping to address both research questions. A semi-structured interview format was used, which provided a consistent structure for topics and some standardized questions. It allowed the researcher to ask additional follow-up questions based on the participants' responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This was an important approach to take in this research because in assessing the stakeholder group's knowledge, the interviewer was able to ask follow-up questions that allowed the participant to describe specific instances where they have applied the specific knowledge in practice, adding to the credibility of the responses. Because perceptions about organizational barriers can vary based on position and tenure (Clark & Estes, 2008), asking follow-up questions to related topics helped the researcher better understand organizational barriers not addressed in the construction of the interview questions. In addition to providing valuable information related to the first research question, the interviews also helped in compiling of recommended solutions to the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position. Although the frame for the semi-structured questions was directed at assumed stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, respondents were able to provide additional information not discovered in the literature review. The complete set of findings are reported, which helps add to the validity of the study. Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted, one with each of the seven identified executives. Because the interviews were semi-structured, a more informal and conversational environment was established. Although the interviews were completed over the phone, each interview started with some informal dialogue to help create a more relaxed and comfortable environment. Live video streaming was not an option for these interviews because most of the participants work in restricted areas that do not allow video recording. The structured interview 41 questions are in Appendix A. According to Weiss (1994), most researchers try to keep interviews an hour in length, but interviews that take up to two hours are very common. Following this range, the interviews were scheduled for 60 minutes, and only one interview slightly exceeded the 60-minute expectation. Surveys Surveys can capture the beliefs and ideas of a population and be useful when conducting a quantitative analysis (Creswell, 2014). This research project is, in part, focused on understanding directors' knowledge and motivation related to the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position. As a result, using a survey instrument to better understand directors' ideas and beliefs related to how hiring practices, training programs, candidate mentorship, and the importance of addressing the problem helped determine the causes of the problem and informed the recommended possible solutions. Of the 114 possible participants, 65 people completed the survey resulting in a 57% participation rate, which exceeded the 50% participation goal for this study. The survey was administered using an online survey instrument. Because of the study's sensitive nature, a diversity-related topic, no personally identifying information was asked of respondents. The tenure and gender of participants were included in the survey, but a non- response option was provided. Ensuring anonymity and confidentiality can lead to more accurate responses, particularly when the research topic is sensitive (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Because the survey instrument included probing into personal biases, providing a confidential method to submit responses was important. The survey included 42 unique response items and was expected to take 20 minutes to complete. The survey questions are in Appendix B. Because surveys can capture attitudes and beliefs (Creswell, 2014), the survey explored the degree to 42 which directors believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership and focused on director motivational influences. Specific strategies were used to help ensure the validity of the survey instrument. Validity is the degree to which the research findings are accurate (Creswell, 2014). Various strategies may be used to ensure validity, including triangulation, use of member checking, thorough descriptions of findings, clarifying researcher bias, presenting negative findings, peer review of data and findings, and use of an external auditor (Creswell, 2014). To ensure a high degree of validity, the survey instrument was tested with a sample population as a peer debriefing method. This helped ensure that survey questions were well understood by participants and helped ensure participants read the same meaning into each question, adding to validity. Additionally, all findings were reported, including findings that were not in alignment with the research intention. Reviewing and analyzing all contradictory findings adds strength to findings that align with the research intention (Creswell, 2014). Together, these practices were expected to improve the validity of the research findings. Documents Documents and the data contained therein are a normal part of most research settings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Although documents can exist in physical form or online (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the Engineering-Co documents reviewed were all in digital form and included: company performance reports related to current staffing and demographics by position; tenure information; company operating procedures related to recruiting, hiring, and training; and company strategic priorities. These documents were compared to findings from the other research methods used in this research study and helped inform organizational barriers contributing to the lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position. 43 Data Analysis This study followed an exploratory sequential mixed methods design. This design uses the implementation of a qualitative study followed by a quantitative study. The data from the initial qualitative study is used to influence the construction of the quantitative study survey instrument (Creswell, 2014). Throughout the qualitative interviews, observer notes were used to capture non-verbal communication queues and elements related to the setting. Following each interview, analytic memos were completed, which focused on making initial connections to the research questions, conceptual framework, assumed influencers and included notes related to data that do not fit this criterion. Within four days of the interviews being completed, all recordings were transcribed, verified for accuracy, and researcher comments noted. The qualitative interviews were coded and were then analyzed together. The first phase of coding included an in vivo review of each transcript, coding relevant concepts inherent to each transcript. The second phase of coding was the completion of priori codes related to the research questions, conceptual framework, and assumed influencers. The frequencies of the in vivo and priori codes were noted in the codebook for each transcript. During the third phase of coding, the in vivo and priori codes were analyzed and put into analytic/axial codes. In the final phase of qualitative coding, the coded data was organized into themes related to the conceptual framework and research questions. The final qualitative analysis was used in conjunction with the quantitative data analysis that followed. For quantitative data analysis, all appropriate descriptive statistics were performed once all survey responses are received. For nominal and ordinal data, frequency was the primary measure in this study. Relevant nominal data was paired with ordinal data responses to determine the response rate of specific questions by nominal characteristic. Similarly, interval data was 44 sorted by response, and nominal and ordinal data frequencies were measured in each nominal cluster. Once the quantitative analysis was completed, the totality of the qualitative data, quantitative data, and documents were considered together to determine the study's overall findings. Credibility and Trustworthiness In qualitative research, credibility relates to the accuracy in which the researcher constructs, carries-out, and report the findings from their research, and trustworthiness relates to the repeatability of the research methods over time (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is recommended that all research projects include at least one specific strategy to improve both credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell, 2014). To that end, this research project included the triangulation of data. Triangulation is the comparison of data from multiple sources in determining themes and research conclusions (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents, interviews, and survey results were closely compared for the identification of themes across the data sources. Carefully reviewing interview transcripts is an important part of the qualitative research process and helps add to a study's trustworthiness (Creswell, 2014). In this study, all transcripts were carefully reviewed. The researcher compared each spoken word to the actual transcription, to ensure the accuracy of the data and the consistent application of pseudonyms. Validity and Reliability In quantitative research, the degree to which a study measures what it intends to measure is referred to as validity, and consistent measurement over time in quantitative research is referred to as the reliability of a study (Maxwell, 2013; Salkind, 2017). As is the case in qualitative research (Maxwell, 2013), triangulation improves validity and reliability in 45 quantitative research projects (Salkind, 2017) and was used in this study. Themes from qualitative surveys were compared to data from quantitative surveys and document analysis, with attention given to both the similarities and differences. To help ensure the questions asked in the survey were clear and well understood, all survey questions were reviewed in advance by company leaders who are not participating in the survey but are familiar with the related topics. Additionally, reporting all data, even data that is not part of a theme or runs contradictory to the research intention is a method to minimize researcher bias (Creswell, 2014). To that end, this research reported all quantitative data and provided themes that ran contrary to the assumed influencers determined through the literature review section of this study, which reinforced the researcher's objectivity in analyzing the data. Last, because the population of survey participants is 114 people, a minimum response rate of at least 50%, or 57 participants, was desired. Participants were not believed to be inherently motivated to participate in this survey, so alternative strategies were developed in case the response rate was projected to end up below 50%. Using others to help recruit participants, reinforcing participant confidentiality, sending reminders, and providing cash incentives are strategies recommended by Fink (2013). These were developed as possible strategies to use, as needed, to ensure at least 57 eligible participants completed the survey. The study attained a 57% response rate, with 65 participants completing the survey, which was attained using others to help recruit participants and by sending reminders to encourage participation. Engineering-Co’s president sent an announcement email to all possible participants and their direct supervisor, to add internal support and encourage participation. The email announcement is available in Appendix D. The interview and survey invitations are respectively shown in Appendix E and Appendix F, while the survey reminder email is in Appendix G. 46 Ethics Ethical considerations must be taken into account when conducting research with human subjects. The protection of participants is of primary concern for researchers, and researchers must ensure that "interviewees do not come to harm as a result of the research" (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 85). The research conducted in this study used an informed consent form with all participants, which is shown in Appendix C. One of the benefits of using an informed consent process in research is that participants are made aware of the type of research being conducted and any risks for participants that may be known (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). In this research project, informed consent forms were used with participants before participating in interviews, and prior to completing written surveys. Participants were informed that their participation is voluntary, that they may end participation at any time, and that they may skip any question they do not wish to answer. Participants in live interviews were informed that the interview was to be recorded and transcribed. After the interviews, recordings were transcribed with voice inflections or other recorded characteristics noted. The audio recordings were deleted immediately following the completion of the transcription and data coding processes. Participants were informed that no personally identifying information would be retained. All names and locations were changed to pseudonyms during the transcription process for recorded information and during the data review process for surveys. Lastly, the informed consent form used in the study explained that all materials would be stored on a private, password-protected computer to further protect the privacy of participants. The ethics of the researcher can impact the reliability and validity of a qualitative research project (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016). A researcher's biases, which can include a researcher's experiences, beliefs, values, and expectations of the research, can also influence the 47 reliability and validity of a research project (Maxwell, 2006). As such, it is important to note this researcher's relationship with the study's organizational setting. The researcher is not employed by or affiliated with the organization of study in any way. As such, it is believed that the researcher can personally conduct the interviews and implement the surveys more objectively than an insider to the organization. The researcher has no know possible gain within the organization resulting from the completion of the research and any results the research may reveal. The researcher has attempted to consider all ethical and researcher-bias concerns. To help ensure compliance with research traditions and norms, the researcher will participate in a third- party review. According to Rubin and Rubin (2012), it is important to ensure that research projects consider participants' safety and ethical conformity to established norms. To accomplish this end, the Institutional Review Board of the University of Southern California reviewed and approved the research proposal and methods, before survey work with human subjects began. Limitations and Delimitations Limitations and delimitations are influences on a study. While limitations are out of the researcher's control, delimitations are influenced by the researcher and caused by the researcher's choices in data collection, the subjects selected, and the type of questions asked. According to Creswell (2014), using a mixed-methods research approach can minimize the impact limitations have on a study compared to a strictly qualitative or quantitative study. This study had both limitations and delimitations. One limitation was the truthfulness of interview and survey participants. The topic's sensitivity may have skewed their responses, even though the research is foreign to the organization, and assurances of anonymity were built into the research. A second limitation was the participation rate. Although a 57% participation rate was attained, there was 48 likely additional data not obtained because participation was not 100%. The delimitations that impacted this study include the researcher’s lack of knowledge about Engineering-Co’s business functions and operating procedures. This lack of knowledge is due primarily to the researcher being a company outsider and is not familiar with cultural norms and practices, which limited the depth of follow-up questions the researcher was able to ask during the semi-structured interviews. An additional delimitation is the researcher's passion for gender equality, driven by the researcher's exposure to how male-dominated environments can become unwelcoming to females. A final delimitation is that the primary data collection method used with the target group of subjects was a survey and did not include observations or interviews. Observational or interview data would have added to the strength of the research, but time did not allow for these research methods. 49 Chapter Four: Results and Findings The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with creating gender equality in leadership positions at Engineering-Co. The research questions this study is seeking to answer are: 1. What are the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences that interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? 2. How do the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences interact with organizational barriers to interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? As discussed in chapter three, this study followed an exploratory sequential mixed methods design and employed qualitative interviews followed by a mixed-method survey where the data from the interviews was used to guide the construction of the quantitative survey instrument. When analyzed together, and compared to company documents and artifacts, the resulting data was used to determine the extent to which the assumed causes were validated. This chapter begins by providing an overview of the stakeholder groups that participated in the interviews and the survey. The chapter then reviews the data analysis approach and continues by covering the study results and findings. The results and findings span the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers related to the research and provide answers to the two research questions. Participating Stakeholders To achieve the stakeholder goal of improving female representation in the senior manager 50 position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022 at Engineering-Co, the primary stakeholder group for the study was set as leaders at the director level. This group was the target of this study because they are the leaders who are directly responsible for hiring and overseeing senior managers and will have the greatest impact on goal attainment. Prior to finalizing the survey instrument that was sent to eligible directors, and in compliance with the exploratory sequential mixed methods design of this study, interviews were conducted, and the resulting data used to refine survey questions. As such, interviews were conducted with select members of the executive leadership team, the group of company officers who directly oversee the directors and set priorities and expectations for the directors. These interviews represent the first phase of data collection in this study. Figure 4.1 shows the company leadership hierarchy, with the Board of Directors providing organizational oversight. Figure 4.1. Engineering-Co Leadership Reporting Hierarchy. Interview Participation There are 38 executive leadership team members at Engineering-Co. This population was narrowed for this study, eliminating leaders on a leave of absence, in an executive leadership position for less than a year, and leaders who do not have direct reports. To select the final seven Board of Directors Line Managers Executive Leadership Team Directors Senior Managers 51 executive leadership team members invited to participate in the interviews, the remaining pool was sorted to ensure that there was diversity in geographic, racial, and gender representation and representation from across the various company divisions and business functions. The goal was to conduct five interviews out of the seven executives invited to participate. All seven responded favorably to the opportunity to participate, and all seven were therefore interviewed. Because the focus of these interviews was to gain insight that would help shape the survey questions that would be sent to the primary subjects of this study, demographic and related information about executive leadership team participants will not be shared as part of this study. Survey Participation The second phase of data collection in this study was the administration of an online survey sent to all eligible directors. Eligibility to participate in the survey required one year of employment at Engineering-Co and current classification in a director role, with direct reports. In total, 114 directors were eligible to participate in the survey, and each was sent an identical survey invitation. Scheduled follow-up reminder emails were sent to those that had not yet completed the survey. To maintain confidentiality, the survey only collected gender, tenure at Engineering-Co, and tenure in the current position. Age, location, department, and other identifying information was not collected. In total, 72 directors began the survey. Of these, 63 completed the survey, and two additional directors completed 45% or more of the questions. In total, these 65 surveys, representing a 57% participation rate, are included in the data analysis and considered valid. In comparison, the remaining seven surveys that were started completed an average of 4 questions, and data from those seven surveys were not included. Of the 65 surveys, 19 were completed by female directors, and male directors completed 46. This rate of survey participation closely 52 mirrors the total director population consisting of 30% female and 70% male directors. In figure 4.2, the tenure of survey participants with Engineering-Co is broken out by gender. This figure shows that female participants are more tenured at Engineering-Co than their male counterparts, with the percent of male participants with one to ten years of company tenure outweighing their female counterparts while female participants with 26-35 years of company tenure outweighing their male counterparts. Figure 4.3 displays tenure in current position broken out by gender. This data shows that tenure in position is similar between female and male directors. Figure 4.2. Participants Tenure with Engineering-Co by Gender in 5-Year Clusters. 11% 0% 11% 5% 11% 26% 32% 0% 5% 15% 9% 9% 4% 22% 17% 15% 9% 0% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41 + % of Participants by Tenure with Engineering-Co Female Male 53 Figure 4.3. Participants Tenure in Position by Gender in 5-Year Clusters. Data Analysis The data from the interviews were collected via audio recording and then transcribed into Microsoft Word format. Interviewer notes taken during the interviews were added to the document as researcher notes. After transcription, the notes were verified against the audio recording to verify they were accurate. Following the verification, pseudonyms were added, and any identifying information was modified. In vivo coding of the interview data was followed by a priori coding, which evaluated the data through the study's conceptual framework, assumed influencers, and research questions. The data was then organized into themes. The survey, which focused primarily on collecting quantitative data, had a 57% response rate, with 65 of 114 surveys returned, and all response fields had an option for a non-response. The quantitative questions, with 1,820 possible responses, had a 96% response rate while the qualitative questions, which had 694 possible responses, had a 79% response rate. The qualitative data from the survey was processed in the same manner as the qualitative interview data. The quantitative data from the survey was analyzed using all appropriate descriptive statistics. Any non-response to a specific question by a participant lowered the total number of 58% 32% 11% 0% 0% 0% 59% 24% 13% 2% 0% 2% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 % of Participants by Tenure in Position Female Male 54 responses for that question when the analysis was completed. All of the data were considered together to determine the overall findings of the study. An assumed influence was considered validated if the data indicated at least a 40% confirmation rate, and was considered partially validated with confirmation ranging between 25% and 40%. Results This study's results are presented using the study’s conceptual framework and follow the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. The results are formatted using the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational barrier influences outlined in Chapter Two. Table 4.1 provides an overview of the assumed influences, by type, that will be covered in the following sections. 55 Table 4.1 Assumed Influences Influence Type Assumed Influence Knowledge Procedural Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Metacognitive Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring Motivation Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Organizational Cultural Setting The organization needs additional female role models who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Knowledge Results Organizational performance gaps are positively and negatively influenced by stakeholder knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) categorizes knowledge into four distinct types, two of which are explored in this study: procedural and metacognitive. Procedural knowledge is included in this study as an assumed influencer because proper candidate 56 identification and well-selected interview questions can help eliminate gender bias during the hiring process (Luzadis et al., 2008). The assumed procedural knowledge influence in this study is that directors at Engineering-Co need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Metacognitive knowledge is included in this study as an assumed influencer because directors need to understand their own gender biases and how they influence their candidate identification and hiring. According to Luzadis et al. (2008), common societal gender stereotypes are also present in the workplace, and Martins and Parsons (2007) submit that reducing the impact biases have on the hiring and decision-making processes can be attained through one's understanding of their own biases. Table 4.2 shows the procedural and metacognitive assumed knowledge influences that were explored in this study. Table 4.2 Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Type Assumed Influence Procedural Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Metacognitive Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring. Directors Need to Know How to Objectively Interview and Select Leadership Candidates Interviews with the executive leadership team (ELT) members revealed that Engineering- Co has a well-established process for posting, screening, and hiring senior manager candidates. All seven ELT members reviewed a nearly identical company process, which started with determining the position requirements and competencies, posting the position internally and 57 externally, selecting applicants for interviews who meet the competency requirements, developing interview questions, interviewing candidates, and making a final selection. This level of consistency was not held at the director level, with only 60% of responding directors outlining the processes described by the ELT participants. Figure 4.4 shows the percentage of directors who responded to the question “I fully understand the company interviewing and selection process for senior managers” and the degree to which they agree, where n=63. Fourteen percent of responding directors disagree while 44% agree, and 41% strongly agree. Ten of the 50 responding directors, or 20%, indicated that standardized questions are used with all applicants when describing the hiring process while all ELT participants described the use of standardized interview questions. One director responded that "interview questions are developed and approved so that all candidates are asked the same set of questions to establish a consistent evaluation process" and described that the development of interview questions happens after candidates are screened. Another director described that the selection process for hiring senior managers is “to hire ex-military white males.” ELT and director participant groups were not aligned with one another and directors were not consistent in describing the interviewing and hiring processes. Additionally, directors did not consistently use standardized interview questions and those that did, improperly develop the interview questions after having already screened the applicants, which decreases the objectivity of the hiring manager. These results demonstrate a gap in procedural knowledge about how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. As a result, this assumed influence is validated. 58 Figure 4.4. Director responses to the question: “I fully understand the company interviewing and selection process for senior managers.” Directors Need to Understand Their Own Gender Biases and How They Influence Their Candidate Identification and Hiring Decisions The survey results indicate that directors enter the recruiting and hiring process with biases related to a prospective applicant’s gender, and the attractiveness of working at Engineering-Co, based on the industry in which it operates. As shown in Table 4.5, 78% of directors agree or strongly agree that external male leadership candidates are naturally drawn to Engineering-Co (n=62). In comparison, only 51% (n=63) of directors indicate that external female leadership candidates are naturally drawn to work at Engineering-Co. There were 50% more directors who believe external male leadership candidates are drawn to Engineering-Co than are female leadership candidates. Table 4.6 shows that 45% of directors (n=63) believe that the gender of the leader impacts the effectiveness of that leader, because of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. Additionally, Table 4.6 shows that 23% (n=62) of directors responded positively that male leaders are likely to be more successful at Engineering-Co than their female counterparts. In comparison, only 15% (n=62) responded positively that female leaders will 0% 14% 44% 41% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Directors Understand Interviewing and Selection Processes for Senior Managers 59 likely be more successful than males. Together, this data demonstrates disparate beliefs about male and female prospective leaders at Engineering-Co, which allows for bias to enter the directors recruiting and hiring process. As a result, the data validates this assumed influence, and the survey results demonstrate that there is a metacognitive knowledge gap. Figure 4.5. Director survey responses in the context of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. 0% 49% 48% 3% 2% 21% 52% 26% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree External Leadership Candidates are Naturally Drawn to Engineering-Co Female Male 60 Figure 4.6. Director survey responses in the context of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. Summary of Knowledge Results Both of the assumed knowledge influences considered in this study were validated. The data analysis demonstrated that directors’ screening and selection practices were not consistently aligned with the ELT expectations which is leading in gaps in the directors’ ability to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Additionally, the data analysis confirmed that directors make assumptions and have biases related to the gender of leaders and, therefore, directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring processes. A summary of the assumed knowledge influences, and their validation status is in Table 4.3. 19% 15% 8% 58% 71% 37% 15% 13% 46% 8% 2% 10% Male leaders are likely more successful than females Female leaders are likely more successful than males Gender does not impact leadership effectiveness The Leader's Gender and the Impact on Leadership Effectiveness Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 61 Table 4.3 Validation Status for Knowledge Influences Knowledge Type Assumed Influence Validated Procedural Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Yes Metacognitive Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring. Yes Motivation Results Motivation is a status within a person that causes and maintains work and progress toward a goal (Mayer, 2011). Motivation is one of the three elements in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model used in this study. In motivational theory, according to Rueda (2011), utility value is the level of impact a specific task is believed to have on goal attainment. Utility value is included in this study as an assumed motivation influencer. The success of diversity initiatives is positively impacted when managers understand and believe in the benefits of gender diversity plans (Virick & Greer, 2012). The assumed utility value motivational influence in this study is that directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. A second assumed motivation influence is that directors need to have specific and timely goals related to improving the female diversity of senior managers. This second assumed motivation influencer aligns with the motivational theory of goal content. Goal content is the extent to which specific goals motivate behavior (Rueda, 2011). In their research, Klettner et al. (2014) found that the greatest immediate positive impact in initiatives focused on improving gender diversity in leadership resulted from establishing short-term goals. Both utility value and goal content 62 were expected to impact goal attainment at Engineering-Co. Table 4.4 shows the assumed motivational influences for this study. Table 4.4 Motivation Influences Motivation Type Assumed Influence Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Directors Need to Believe in the Value of Increasing Gender Diversity in Leadership Although not a topic directly probed during the executive team leader (ELT) interviews, four of the seven ELT participants included in one of their responses that there is little proven value in increasing gender diversity in leadership positions. One ELT participant said that diversity is only a priority “because we get in trouble for not being a diverse enough workforce, and so they've gotta make the numbers come out right. And that's my answer. And I don't care. That's a company problem, that's not my problem", implying Engineering-Co's motivation to improve gender diversity is solely compliance-based. Other ELT participants indicated that they have been told there are benefits to creating diverse workforces and that they have to take those "academic benefits,” as one ELT team member described them, at “face value.” An environment where some of the leaders above the directors do not believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership would likely influence how the directors perceive the impact. To further illustrate this point, Figure 4.7 shows the number of times, in the past 12 months, the direct 63 supervisor of each director has discussed with them the topic of gender diversity in leadership positions. 41% of directors (n=61) indicated having no conversations with their direct supervisor, while 23% had only one related conversation. The most frequent was a director who has had six conversations in the past 12 months and another director who had ten conversations. Figure 4.7. Director survey responses to the number of times in the last 12 months, their direct supervisor has discussed gender diversity in leadership positions. In evaluating the data from the director surveys, overall, one respondent indicated that increasing gender diversity of the senior manager position would have a negative impact on two of the company values and 81 responses, or 25%, were recorded as no impact to any of the company values, positive or negative. In total, 44% of responses indicated a positive impact on company values, and 31% indicated a significant positive impact. The data for each of the company values and the perceived impact are shown in Figure 4.8. The company values of outcome attainment, technical superiority, and objectivity and honor all had combined positive and significant positive impact scores in the 60-percentile range, showing a high degree of belief that greater gender diversity in the senior manager position will positively impact those company values. With an even greater belief of a positive impact, the company value of creativity had a 41% 23% 15% 8% 5% 5% 2% 2% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 Percent of Directors Number of Discussions in 12 Months Percent of Directors Whose Direct Supervisor has Discussed Gender Diversity in Leadership in the Past 12 Months 64 positive and significant positive combined result of 83%. The fifth company value, people- centered, had the highest level of combined positive and significantly positive combined result at 92% with significant positive impact making up 52% of total responses (n=65). In qualitative survey responses, directors responded to the perceived impact improving gender diversity of senior managers would have on each company value. Related to the company value of people-centered, one of the consistent themes in the comments was the positive impact on career pathing for employees and leaders. One director said that "greater leadership gender diversity will visibly demonstrate to our staff that there's action behind diversity and inclusion 'talk.' It demonstrates to management trainees, especially females, that there is a path for everyone to advance their careers at Engineering-Co.” Related to the company value of creativity, one director said that increasing gender diversity of senior managers “should have a step increase in creativity, as I believe women think about and approach problems in a different way than men do. Diversity in thought leadership is a direct link to creative, outside the box thinking.” While the comments proportionately aligned with the positively weighted scoring of the questions shown in Figure 4.8, six director participants provided 17 unique comments related to the risk of promoting gender diversity and gender initiatives with one director submitting that an initiative to improve gender diversity in leadership “could be negative, as many will assume highly qualified people ‘only’ got the job due to gender.” In total, 75% percent of related survey responses indicated a positive overall impact on the company values through improving gender diversity in the senior manager position, and the remaining responses, except for two negative responses, indicating there would no impact to company values by improving gender diversity in the senior manager position. 65 Figure 4.8. Director survey responses to the impact on the company values by increasing gender diversity of the senior manager position. On average, 26% of directors do not believe there will be any positive impact to the company values by increasing gender diversity of the senior manager position, with three of five company values ranging between 32% and 38% indicating no positive impact. That data, in the context of an environment where four of the seven ELT participants do not believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership and where 41% of directors have had no conversations in the past twelve months with their direct supervisor related to gender diversity of senior managers, provides evidence that many directors do not believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership positions. As a result, the assumed utility value motivational influence is determined to be partially validated. 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 2% 0% 34% 38% 6% 30% 17% 48% 40% 40% 36% 55% 18% 22% 52% 33% 28% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Outcome Attainment Technical Superiority People Centered Objectivity and Honor Creativity Director Survey Responses: The Impact on Company Values by Improving Gender Diversity of Senior Managers Significant Negative Impact Negative Imacts No Impact Positive Impact Significant Positive Impact 66 Directors Need to Have Specific and Timely Goals Focused on the Improvement of Female Diversity of Senior Managers Related to the existence of company goals, Figure 4.9 shows that 71% of directors (n=65) agree or strongly agree that Engineering-Co has a specific goal related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions while 28% disagree and 2% strongly disagree. When responding to an open-ended qualitative survey question to define Engineering-Co's related goal(s), directors described 14 different types of goals, none of which had a specific measurement attached. Table 4.5 shows the description of the goals most frequently described by directors and the number of directors who described each goal. These six goal types are those most frequently reported and represent 74% of all goal types described by directors (n=61). The most common response was that there is no goal, or the goal is unknown, as reported by 18% of directors. None of the company goals outlined by directors are measurable or specify a timeline. Additionally, although 78% of directors believe that having a specific goal is an important step in improving gender diversity in leadership positions, as shown in Figure 4.9, survey data revealed that 68% of directors (n=62) have not communicated a specific goal to the team they lead related to improving gender diversity. Together, the data validates that directors do not have specific and timely goals related to improving female diversity of senior managers and this assumed motivation influence is therefore validated. 67 Figure 4.9. Director knowledge of the existence of specific company goals related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions shown alongside director belief of the importance of related goals. Table 4.5 Engineering-Co’s Perceived Corporate Gender Diversity Goals Percent of Directors Responding Goal Type/Description 18% 13% 13% 13% 10% 7% There is no goal, or the goal is unknown. Get better, with no specified baseline or outcome. Hire the most qualified candidate. For each opening, review diversity data provided by human resources. Comply with legal requirements. Diversity should mirror the available, skilled, diverse population. Summary of Motivation Influence Results. Of the two assumed motivation influences, one was partially validated while the other was validated. The qualitative and quantitative analysis demonstrated that although 75% of 2% 28% 51% 20% 2% 20% 58% 20% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Company Goal Status Related to Improving Gender Diversity in Leadership Engineering-Co has a Goal Having a Goal is Important 68 directors believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership, the remaining 25% did not. Additionally, directors work in an environment where members of the ELT do not see the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership and 41% haven’t discussed gender diversity with directors in at least a year. As a result, the utility value motivation influence was partially validated. The data analysis related to the directors’ goal content motivation influencer validates that directors do not have specific and timely goals related to improving female diversity of senior managers. As a result, the second motivation influence is validated. A summary of the assumed motivation influences and their validation status is in Table 4.6. Table 4.6 Validation Status for Motivation Influences Motivation Type Assumed Influence Validated Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Partially Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Yes Organizational Results Organizational barriers are the third aspect of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. Organizational barriers negatively influence the attainment of goals in organizations and are often caused by internal processes or a lack of resources. Cultural settings are one of the organizational barrier classifications established by Rueda (2011) and are influenced by how an organization invests resources to attain a goal, and how the work environment, processes, and procedures align in support of attaining the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). This study 69 has one assumed cultural setting influence: there is a lack of female role models at engineering- Co who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Women note a lack of same-gender role models as a significant concern (Broadbridge, 2010), and women report progression into leadership is positively impacted by having a female role-model (Foster et al., 2007). The cultural setting assumed organizational influence is presented in Table 4.7. Table 4.7 Organizational Influence Influence Type Assumed Influence Cultural Setting There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. There is a Lack of Female Role Models Within the Organization, Who Can Help Mentor Aspiring Female Leaders Interviews with executive leadership team (ELT) members revealed that four of seven ELT members have difficulty finding gender diverse applicants for senior manager positions, and five indicated that feeder candidate pools are often even less gender diverse. Related to mentoring possible female leadership candidates, four ELT members indicated that they do not believe the gender of the mentee and mentor matter when assigning mentors and three indicated that there are not enough available female leadership mentors in the company. One ELT member stated: “To be honest with you, this is gonna sound stupid, but I don't really take gender into account at all. I personally don't. I don't really think of those things first, and most of the people in my organization, don't.” While describing past personal mentors, another ELT member said 70 that “for my mentors or those that I chose, gender never mattered.” While describing the possibility of mentoring a female leadership candidate, a different ELT member said: I worry about the politically correct thing. If I wanted to mentor a female and I bring them into my office, and I close the door, and there's always, "Well, what's going on in there? And why is he paying attention to her and oh maybe she's attractive or something. Why is he bringing her in and giving her these special sessions?" That's the piece that would concern me. Not the fact that she was female, but now that we've got this perception that all men are pigs and all females are victims, and I would just be exploiting my power position and leading her on into thinking she's going to be able to move up in the company because she's cozying up to me. That's what I mean about that kind of concern. And so, I'm very particular about if I have a female in my office, I... unless it's absolutely private, I leave the door open. Just because I try and avoid those sorts of things, not because I'm gonna be a pig, but because I have to worry about other people coming to that conclusion without any information whatsoever. So yes, that part of it does concern me. This ELT member also said that the gender of the mentor and mentee are not taken into account when leadership mentors are chosen, but showed gender bias and reluctance to mentor female leadership candidates, as evidenced in the previous quotation. Given that three of seven ELT participants mentioned a shortage of available female mentors and four of seven do not look for same-gender leadership mentors to support aspiring female leaders, the shortage of female mentors is greater than was represented in the responses. In evaluating the survey responses, 45% of directors (n=62) believe that aspiring female leaders benefit more from having a female mentor than a male mentor, while the remaining 55% 71 were not sure which is more beneficial. Additionally, 95% of responses supported the assertion that having a qualified female role model is important for women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position (n=63). In order for Engineering-Co to attain their goal of improving gender diversity of the senior manager position by 50%, an even greater number of female leadership mentors will be required than are currently available. Based on the data demonstrating the current stated shortage of female mentors, and the desired increase in the number of female senior managers, the cultural setting assumed organizational influence is validated. A summary of the assumed motivation influence and its validation status is displayed in Table 4.8. Table 4.8 Validation Status for the Organizational Influence Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated Cultural Setting There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Yes Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Results In order to be considered validated, the data gathered and analyzed in this study indicated that there was a strong likelihood the assumed influence is present. Table 4.9 shows the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed influences from this study, and their validated status. 72 Table 4.9 Summary of the Validation Status for the Assumed Influences Influence Type Assumed Influence Validated Knowledge Procedural Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Yes Metacognitive Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring Yes Motivation Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Partially Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Yes Organizational Cultural Setting There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Yes Findings This section will use the data and analysis to answer the study's two research questions. The data for each research question is organized and presented using the knowledge, motivation, and organizational framework consistent with research questions and the results section. The research questions are: 73 1. What are the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences that interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? 2. How do the knowledge and skills, and motivational influences interact with organizational barriers to interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position by 50%? Research Question #1 Findings The first research question focused on determining which assumed knowledge and motivation influences, as outlined in the literature review in Chapter Two of this study, are negatively impacting gender diversity of the senior manager position. Additionally, the data analysis of participant responses to the interview and survey questions was used to determine if any additional knowledge or motivation influences were impacting gender diversity of the senior manager position. Reporting all data, even data not supporting the study assumed influences contributes to the validity and reliability of the study (Creswell, 2014). Knowledge Influences Interfering with Gender Diversity Procedural Knowledge In their research, Luzadis et al. (2008) determined that selecting interview questions based on the requirements of the position being filled, and before any candidate resumes are reviewed or screened, helps eliminate gender bias during the interviewing process. Based on the analysis of the interviews conducted with the executive leadership team (ELT) members, the interview process used at Engineering-Co includes the construction of interview questions after applicants have been screened. Constructing interview questions after reviewing resumes and screening candidates contributes to gender bias in the selection process, which is unfavorable to 74 female candidates (Luzadis et al., 2008). This bias should be addressed by implementing a process where interview questions are constructed once the position requirements have been determined, and before any resumes are reviewed. In addition to having a properly constructed hiring process, it is important that all leaders are aligned behind the common processes. Although the majority of directors indicated that they understand the company interviewing and selection process for senior managers (see Figure 4.4), their description of the process was not consistent within the director group and was not aligned with what was described by ELT participants. This confirms a procedural knowledge gap within the director population. Providing training is one strategy used to effectively eliminate knowledge gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). During the qualitative data analysis, an additional procedural knowledge gap was discovered which was not part of the assumed influences: directors need to know how to source external gender-diverse leadership candidates. All seven ELT members indicated they believe a primary cause to a lack of gender diversity in leadership is the lack of a qualified external gender-diverse candidate pool, both for management positions and lower-level feeder positions. One ELT participant said: "When I graduated many years ago, there were probably four women out of 600 graduates in my program. The numbers have not changed a lot since then in most of what I'd call the hard engineering fields we still recruit in", a sentiment that held true for all ELT members. In analyzing the directors' qualitative data, 25% (n=65) indicated that the lack of gender diversity of senior managers is caused by too few women entering the science and technology fields. Even though a related question was not asked in the survey, directors added the commentary to other, unrelated questions. In order for Engineering-Co to solve the problem of a lack of gender diversity of senior managers, the directors need to know how to source gender-diverse leadership candidates, externally and internally. 75 Metacognitive Knowledge When one understands their own biases, those biases will have a reduced impact on decision making (Martins & Parsons, 2007). Directors need to understand their own biases to reduce the negative impact those biases have on candidate identification and hiring decisions of senior managers. Figure 4.10 shows that 56% of directors (n=63) believe gender impacts leadership effectiveness because of the nature of the industry in which Engineering-Co operates. Figure 4.11 compares the data by gender of the respondent and shows that male directors believe that gender impacts leadership effectiveness at Engineering-Co at a much higher rate than do female directors. Because personal biases impact decision making, directors need to understand and reflect on these and other personal biases throughout the candidate identification and hiring process to mitigate the effect personal biases can have on the selection of senior managers. Figure 4.10. Director survey responses to the question: “The nature of our industry does not impact the likely effectiveness of male or female leaders.” 8% 37% 46% 10% Director Survey Response: Gender Does Not Impact Leadership Effectiveness Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 76 Figure 4.11. Director survey responses, by gender of the respondent, to the question: “The nature of our industry does not impact the likely effectiveness of male or female leaders.” Motivation Influences Interfering with Gender Diversity Utility Value Motivation Diversity initiatives are more successful when managers understand and believe in the benefits of improving diversity (Virick & Greer, 2012). Twenty-six percent of director responses indicate that improving gender diversity of senior managers will have no impact, or a negative impact, on the company values, while 74% (n=324) believe there would be a positive or significant positive impact (see Figure 4.12). Three of the five company values range between 32% and 38% of directors indicating that improving gender diversity would have no positive impact while four of the seven ELT participants do not believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. This combined lack of belief is interfering with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female diversity in the senior manager position. 11% 28% 44% 17% 9% 53% 33% 4% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree By Responsent's Gender: Gender Does Not Impact Leadership Effectiveness Male Respondents Female Respondents 77 Figure 4.12. Director survey responses, combining responses for all company values questions, showing the overall impact on company values by improving gender diversity of senior managers. One additional utility value motivation gap was discovered through the quantitative data analysis, which was not part of the assumed influences. In research conducted by Foster et al. (2007), women reported that having a same-gendered leadership mentor positively impacted their progression into a leadership position by a rate 32% higher than was reported by men. It is important for directors at Engineering-Co to believe in the value of providing female leadership mentors to aspiring female leaders. Figure 4.13 shows that 65% of female directors (n=17) believe that aspiring female leaders would benefit from having a female mentor, while only 38% of men (n=45) reported that same belief. Additionally, Figure 4.14 shows that 35% of female directors believe that aspiring male leaders would benefit from having a female mentor, while only 13% of men reported that same belief. This data shows that directors at Engineering-Co do not believe that female leadership candidates will benefit from having female mentors. This gap Significant Negative Impact 0% Negative Imacts 1% No Impact 25% Positive Impact 44% Significant Positive Impact 30% Total Responses to the Overall Impact on Company Values by Improving Gender Diversity of Senior Managers Significant Negative Impact Negative Imacts No Impact Positive Impact Significant Positive Impact 78 could be contributing to Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female diversity in the senior manager position. Figure 4.13. Survey responses showing male and female directors' beliefs related to the benefit of aspiring female leaders having a mentor from each gender. Figure 4.14. Survey responses showing male and female directors' beliefs related to the benefit of aspiring male leaders having a mentor from each gender. Goal Content Motivation Based on the qualitative and quantitative data analysis, Engineering-Co has not communicated a clear and specific goal to the executive leadership team and directors related to 62% 0% 38% 35% 0% 65% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Not Sure Male Mentors Female Mentors Directors Believe Apsiring Female Leaders Benefit From Having a Mentor with the Following Gender Females report females benefit from: Males report females benefit from: 80% 7% 13% 65% 0% 35% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Not Sure Male Mentors Female Mentors Directors Believe Apsiring Male Leaders Benefit From Having a Mentor with the Following Gender Females report males benefit from: Males report males benefit from: 79 improving gender diversity in leadership positions. Within the significant amount of data collected in this study, not a single executive team member or director provided a specific goal and measurement related to improving gender diversity in leadership or improving any dimension of diversity in any area of the organization. Setting a measurable and time-bound goal is critical to improving performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). The lack of specific and timely goals focused on improving female diversity of senior managers is interfering with Engineering- Co's ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position. Summary of Findings for Research Question #1 The two assumed knowledge influences; that directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates, and directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring decisions were validated. Additionally, a third knowledge influence was discovered through the data analysis process: directors need to know how to source external gender-diverse leadership candidates. The two motivation assumed influences, which are that directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership and directors need specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers, were also validated. Along with the two motivation assumed influences, a third influence was discovered through the data analysis process. This additional motivation influencer falls under the utility value motivation theory. Data analysis determined that it is important for directors at Engineering-Co to believe in the value of providing female leadership mentors to aspiring female leaders. Together, these knowledge and motivation influences are interfering with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position. 80 Research Question #2 Findings The second research question focused on understanding how the knowledge and motivation influencers interact with organizational barriers, within the broader organizational setting, per the conceptual framework for this study. Figure 3.1 is a visual representation of the conceptual framework for this study. It shows how specific director knowledge and motivation influences are embedded within the organizational context at Engineering-Co, and work together to impact goal attainment. Organizational Influence Interfering with Gender Diversity One organizational barrier was presented in the literature review in Chapter Two, which was a cultural setting influence concluded that there is a lack of female role models within Engineering-Co, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Women's lack of same-gender role models is noted as a significant concern as it relates to preparing them for leadership opportunities and career advancement (Broadbridge, 2010). Three of seven ELT members discussed the shortage of qualified female mentors with one saying that female leadership mentors “tend to be really busy and you can tell that sometimes they're a little overwhelmed by just the sheer number of people that come to them for mentoring” while another said that “some of them, they dropped out because of commitments. We haven't been able to maintain them.” Figure 4.14 shows that 95% of directors (n=63) agree or strongly agree that for women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified female role model is important. With the shortage of available female mentors described by ELT members, the lack of female role models interferes with Engineering-Co's ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position. 81 Figure 4.15. Directors' response to the survey question: "for women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified female role model is important.” Knowledge Influences in the Context of Organizational Influences The procedural knowledge gap, with directors not objectively interviewing and selecting leadership candidates, is compounded by Engineering-Co's lack of female mentors to help prepare aspiring female leadership candidates when leadership positions become available. The lack of female mentorship could disadvantage the female candidates as they prepare for the selection process. Because interview questions are developed after candidates as screened, gender bias may influence how questions are written, disadvantaging female candidates. Additionally, because it was determined that directors need to know how to source external gender-diverse leadership candidates, it follows that directors need to know how to source diverse external mentors, given the shortage of internal gender diverse mentors. Directors need to understand how their own gender biases related to candidate identification and hiring decisions intersects with the shortage of qualified female mentors. Only 2% 3% 54% 41% Having a Qualified Female Role Model is Important for Female Aspiring Senior Managers Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 82 38% of male directors believe aspiring female leaders benefit from having a female mentor as compared to 65% of female directors indicating that female leaders benefit from same-gender mentors. Because directors are unaware of their bias against providing same-gender mentors, the directors are unintentionally disadvantaging female senior manager candidates, which is impacting hiring decisions. Compounding the bias against same-gender mentors for female leaders, is the unanimous belief by male directors that they can adequately mentor female candidates, as illustrated by Table 4.16. Figure 4.16. Directors response to the question: “I am comfortable helping aspiring female managers gain the skills and experiences they need to become a successful Sr. manager” broken out by the gender of the directors. Motivation Influences in the Context of Organizational Influences Three motivational influences are intersecting to compound the shortage of female mentors. First, twenty-six percent of directors do not believe increasing gender diversity will positively impact the company values. Second, Engineering-Co has not communicated clear goals related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions. Third, 41% of directors 6% 0% 33% 61% 0% 0% 9% 91% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Directors are Comfortable Developing Female Senior Manager Candidates Men Women 83 report having had no conversations with their direct supervisor about gender diversity over the past 12 months. Because these factors are negatively impacting director motivation to solve the problem of a lack of gender diversity in leadership, directors are, as a result, less motivated to solve the problem of a lack of female role models. Additionally, the lack of female role models is contributing to directors not seeing the benefit of gender diversity in leadership because female leaders are not properly supported and developed. Summary of Findings for Research Question #2 Correlations were made between the knowledge influences and the organizational barrier and between the motivation influences and the organizational barrier. Gender bias in the selection process is compounded by female candidates being under-prepared due to the lack of same-gender mentors. The lack of female role models directly impacts candidate preparedness which is compounded by some directors not seeing the value in increasing gender diversity in leadership positions, because female leadership candidates are less prepared than male counterparts. The knowledge and skills, and motivational influences are interacting with organizational barriers to interfere with Engineering-Co’s ability to improve female representation in the senior manager position. Summary This chapter began by providing an overview of the stakeholder groups that participated in the interviews and survey, was followed by a review of the data analysis approach, and continued by covering the study results and findings. The data was reviewed following the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework and was then used to answer the two research questions. The chapter that follows makes specific recommendations for the implementation of training using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) that will 84 help Engineering-Co’s attain their goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022. 85 Chapter Five: Recommendations This study examined the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (KMO) that are contributing to a lack of gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. Chapter Four determined which of the assumed KMO influences were validated in this study to be a contributing factor at Engineering-Co. The validated KMO influences are shown in table 5.1. Table 5.1 Validated Influences Influence Type Validated and Partially Validated KMO Influences Knowledge Procedural Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Metacognitive Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their candidate identification and hiring decisions. Motivation Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Organization Cultural Setting There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. 86 This final chapter of the study makes specific recommendations on how Engineering-Co can improve its training and operational programs related to the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational barrier influencers. The recommendations made in this chapter follow the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) and, if successfully implemented, will help Engineering-Co attain their goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022. Following the study recommendations, an evaluation plan and evaluation framework will be provided and follows Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) evaluation model. The chapter concludes with an overview of the approach's strengths and weaknesses, limitations and delimitations, and recommendations for future research. Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences Knowledge Recommendations Introduction The information presented in Table 5.2 represents the two validated knowledge assumed influences identified in this study's literature review, one procedural knowledge, and one metacognitive knowledge principle. Table 5.2 also shows a context-specific recommendation for each validated knowledge influence. The recommendations follow the theoretical principles outlined in research conducted by Krathwohl (2002) and following the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. 87 Table 5.2 Summary of Validated Knowledge Influences and Recommendations Validated Knowledge Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Procedural – Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to use specific strategies based on the situation or circumstances (Krathwohl, 2002). Hiring managers need to know when to use various interviewing strategies and techniques to minimize the impact personal biases have on hiring decisions (Stamarski & Son Hing, 2015). Provide a job aid that outlines the key steps to interviewing and selecting candidates. Conduct a training session where directors learn how to properly conduct interviews and select candidates using the job aid. Metacognitive – Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how they influence their candidate identification and hiring decisions. Reflecting on one’s thinking and having control over that thinking is the metacognitive process (Mayer, 2011). Gender biases influence how hiring managers assess candidates' qualifications (Luzadis et al., 2008). As part of the hiring process and hiring job aid, include a formal step where directors reflect on the leadership characteristics required for the position they are filling. Directors will reflect on and note assumptions they are likely to make about candidates. Procedural Knowledge Directors need to know how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to use specific strategies based on the situation or circumstances (Krathwohl, 2002). Providing job aids and training on how to use job aids has been found to successfully transfer procedural knowledge to learners (Krathwohl, 2002). Implementing a relevant and properly trained job aids is, therefore, expected to improve procedural knowledge. As a result, it is recommended that a job aid showing the steps to 88 objectively interview and select leadership candidates be developed and trained to directors. Use of the job aid is expected to help directors objectively interview and select leadership candidates. Bragger et al. (2002) studied the impact of using structured interviews versus non- structured interviews and whether the interviewing method impacted the rate that pregnant women were hired. In this study, 196 female and 78 male undergraduate psychology student participants observed eight taped interviews. The interviews were conducted with the same participant to provide some control and consistency. Three interviews were conducted using a structured interview guide and three without a structured guide. The participants rated each candidate on various job-readiness criteria. The results from this study showed that the use of the structured interview guide reduced hiring bias against the pregnant candidates. Related to this current study, research conducted by Stamarski and Son Hing (2015) recommend that hiring managers need to know when to use various interviewing strategies and techniques to avoid hiring biases. As a result, the recommendation in this current study is to provide a job aid with specific hiring steps and interview questions to directors and conduct a training session where directors will be trained on how to objectively interview and select leadership candidates using the job aid. Metacognitive Knowledge Directors need to understand their own gender biases and how they influence their candidate identification and hiring decisions. Reflecting on one's thinking and having control over that thinking is the metacognitive process (Mayer, 2011). In order to understand their biases, directors need to reflect on and identify potential biases. The recommendation is that before interviewing candidates, directors should reflect on the leadership characteristics required for the position and any assumptions they are making about candidates. This reflection process, 89 which is part of the recommended job-aid, is expected to help directors identify personal biases before making hiring decisions, so those biases do not influence decision making. Luzadis et al.’s (2008) research found that gender biases influence how hiring managers assess the qualifications of candidates. The study involved 1,075 college students, acting as hiring managers, evaluating the resumes of prospective candidates, and required selecting one candidate based on the supplied resumes. Some applicant names were identifiable as male or female, while others were indistinguishable. The applicant's qualifications were comparable and shared between both genders. Prescriptive gender bias was found related to positions that were perceived to be more male-oriented (police chief and finance director), which reinforces the need for hiring managers to understand their own biases when screening and selecting candidates. Because the metacognitive process should be used to impact future thoughts and actions (Krathwohl, 2002), the recommendation being made in this study is for directors to be trained to incorporate a reflection process using the job aid, identifying their own biases related to the position they are filling and the applicant pool. Motivation Recommendations Introduction The information presented in Table 5.3 represents the two validated motivation assumed influences identified in this study’s literature review, one based on utility value theory and the other based on one goal content theory. Table 5.3 also shows a context-specific recommendation for each validated motivation influence. The recommendations follow the theoretical principles outlined in research conducted by Krathwohl (2002) and following the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. 90 Table 5.3 Summary of Validated Motivation Influences and Recommendations Validated Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Utility Value – Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Utility value, related to motivational theory, is the level of impact a specific task is believed to have toward attaining goals (Rueda, 2011). When utility value is low, it may not motivate efforts to the level needed to attain performance goals (Eccles, 2006). Higher belief in the impact an initiative will have creates positive action throughout the organization (deVries, 2014). During training sessions and leadership succession discussions, findings from key peer-reviewed studies will be presented and discussed, along with internal data, demonstrating the positive impacts gender-diverse leadership teams have on business outcomes. Goal Content – Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. Establishing clear goals is an important factor contributing to motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). Klettner et al. (2014) found that establishing short-term goals had an immediate positive impact on improving gender diversity of leadership teams. During annual performance reviews, have individual leaders set specific and measurable personal goals for improving gender diversity of their leadership team. Monitor goal progress and goal attainment during quarterly check-in conversations, and encourage adjusting the plans. Utility Value Directors need to believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. Utility value, related to motivational theory, is the level of impact a specific task is believed to have toward attaining goals (Rueda, 2011). When utility value is low, it may not motivate efforts to the level needed to attain performance goals (Eccles, 2006). Higher belief in the impact an 91 initiative will have creates positive action throughout the organization (deVries, 2014). Clark and Estes (2008) submit that active choice, persistence, and mental effort are the three primary indicators of the existence of motivation. According to Rueda (2011), utility value most closely relates to active choice because the value judgements made about a task have the greatest impact on whether or not the task will get started. As such, demonstrating greater value will impact how motivated one is to begin the task. As a result, presenting findings from key peer-reviewed studies and credible internal data is expected to demonstrate the positive impacts gender-diverse leadership teams have on business outcomes, which is expected to positively impact directors’ motivation. Virick and Greer’s (2012) research studied 228 technology company executives and examined the diversity climate of the various organizations and the succession planning process. In their research, Virick and Greer (2012) submit that when existing managers believed in the benefits of gender diversity initiatives, they were more actively adopted by the managers and resulted in better implementation. Because interest in an initiative is increased when real-life data and examples are used in unique ways (McCrudden et al., 2009), the recommendation being made in this study is that during training sessions and leadership succession discussions, directors should be exposed to credible external studies and unique internal data that show the benefits of increasing the gender diversity of leadership teams. Goal Content Directors need to have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. According to Clark and Estes (2008), establishing clear goals is an important factor contributing to the degree to which one is motivated. To improve gender diversity in leadership, directors need to set specific and measurable goals that they can measure 92 over time. Directors setting specific goals related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions are expected to positively impact female representation in leadership positions. Klettner et al. (2014) evaluated empirical data related to regulatory practices and the establishment of quotas for putting women in leadership positions. The research found that establishing short-term goals had an immediate positive impact on improving gender diversity of leadership teams. Goals should be set by oneself, challenging to attain but achievable with reasonable effort, and should include self-reflection and evaluation (Denler et al., 2009). Additionally, goals should challenge the individual to improve their performance beyond current levels, using their performance as the key benchmark (Yough & Anderman, 2006). Because goals should be specific and measurable (Clark & Estes, 2008) and evaluated over time (Denler et al., 2009), the recommendation being made in this study is for directors to annually set personalized goals for improving gender diversity of the leadership team they oversee. Additionally, directors should measure and reflect on their progress during quarterly check-in conversations with their direct supervisor. Organization Recommendations Introduction The information presented in Table 5.4 represents the validated organizational assumed influence identified in this study's literature review based on cultural setting theory. Table 5.4 also shows a context-specific recommendation for the assumed organization influence. The recommendations follow the theoretical principles outlined in research conducted by Krathwohl (2002) and following the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. 93 Table 5.4 Summary of Validated Organization Influence and Recommendations Validated Organization Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation Cultural Setting Influence – There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Providing female mentors who closely aligned with the positions the female managerial candidates aspired to, increased the mentee's desire to seek a leadership position (Hoyt & Simon, 2011). The managerial level of a female role model is also important and must be closely related to the position of the female leader being mentored (Kurtulus & Tomaskovic-Devey, 2012) For aspiring female leaders, identify at least one internal female leadership mentor in a similar position. Where an appropriate or qualified internal female mentor is not available, work within professional organizations to identify an external female role-model for each aspiring female leader. Cultural Settings There is a lack of female role models within the organization, who can help mentor aspiring female leaders. Providing female mentors that closely aligned with the positions the female managerial candidates aspired to, increased the mentee’s desire to seek a leadership position (Hoyt & Simon, 2011). The managerial level of a female role model is also important and must be closely related to the position of the female leader being mentored (Kurtulus & Tomaskovic-Devey, 2012). As such, identifying a qualified and position relevant female role model for each aspiring female leader is expected to positively impact the number of female leaders eligible for promotion as leadership positions arise, which in turn is expected to positively impact the overall gender diversity of leadership positions. 94 Empirical research found that having a same-gender leadership mentor had a positive impact on a woman’s progression into a leadership position by a rate 32% higher men (Foster et al., 2007). In related research, Kurtulus and Tomaskovic-Devey (2012) found that the female mentor must be in a similar position as the mentee, or the positive impacts of the mentor-mentee relationship are diminished. In male-dominated leadership environments, male leadership mentors supporting aspiring female leaders have been found to use an approach that helps the aspiring female leaders learn how to fit into the male-dominated cultural norms (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). The positive impacts of leadership mentoring are well established and supported by research conducted by Taylor et al. (2009) which establishes that appropriate leadership mentoring positively impacts the readiness of the aspiring leadership candidate. Because having same-gendered leadership mentors is important for aspiring female leaders, it is recommended that all aspiring female leaders be supported with the identification of at least one internal female leadership mentor in a similar position. Where an appropriate or qualified internal female mentor is not available, an external female role-model should be identified for each aspiring female leader. Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan Implementation and Evaluation Framework The implementation and evaluation framework used in this study were constructed following Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatricks’ (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model, built on four distinct levels. Each level includes methods for evaluation of a training initiative, and the four levels work together to positively impact the effectiveness of the overall initiative or strategy being trained. Where most training evaluation programs are constructed to make future improvements to the training program itself, the New World Kirkpatrick Model was designed to 95 help ensure the training program improves the intended organizational performance outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Although the model is implemented beginning with level one and ending with level four, the design begins with level four and works back to level one, which helps ensure each step in the model is ultimately built around measuring the impact the training and support programs have on improving performance outcomes. The design begins with level four, which incorporates the creation of leading indicator outcomes that will ultimately lead to the attainment of the organization's objectives. Level three outlines the key stakeholder critical behaviors that will contribute to the attainment of the leading indicators. Level two, learning, evaluates "the degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge, skill, attitude, confidence, and commitment based on their participation in the training" which will contribute to participants being able to demonstrate the necessary behaviors outlined in level three (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 41). Level one measures participants' reactions to and engagement with the training event and materials, which impacts the factors outlined in level two. Together, these four levels are constructed so that training sessions are informative and engaging and lead to greater knowledge, skill, and motivation of participants, which leads to positively impacting targeted stakeholder behaviors, which positively impacts leading indicators, and ultimately positively impacts key organizational outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations Engineering-Co's purpose is to provide accurate and timely engineering support to its government, private, and non-profit partners. The company's ability to accurately, quickly, and creatively solve highly technical and complex problems requires cross-functional agility across the organization. Creating diverse leadership teams is expected to positively impact that purpose. 96 The knowledge, skill, and motivation of directors and the organizational barriers that inhibit directors from hiring gender-diverse leadership teams were examined. The solution proposed in this project, implementing a job and training session focused on teaching directors how to objectively interview and select candidates, identifying and selecting qualified female roles for aspiring female leaders, and integrating related goal setting and monitoring into existing business rhythms, is expected to enable Engineering-Co to attain its goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022. Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators Table 5.5 shows the proposed external and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods, which comprise the level four outcomes in Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model for Engineering-Co. Successful program implementation is expected to positively impact the internal outcomes, which would then positively impact the external outcomes. 97 Table 5.5 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes Outcome Metrics Methods External Outcomes 1. Increase the number of external female applicants for management positions. The percentage of external female applicants for each open management position. Data collected from the internal hiring system. 2. Improved external perception of Engineering-Co as a female-friendly workplace. Forbes “Top 25 Companies for Women” ranking. Use external annual benchmarking of female- friendly workplaces. Internal Outcomes 3. Increased number of internal female applicants for leadership open positions. Number of internal female applicants for each management position opening. Measure for each applicable opening using data collected from the internal hiring system. 4. Decreased time to fill leadership positions because of an expanded applicant pool. In days, the total time management job requisitions take to fill, from open to closed status. Calculate and compare the average length management job requisitions are open. 5. Increased gender diversity in all positions throughout the business group. Female percentage of total employee population by position grade, department, and location. Calculate and compare monthly the percentage of female employees to the total number of employees. 6. Increased overall and female employee satisfaction scores. Employee satisfaction survey results on key questions. Compare annual survey results. 7. Increased project accuracy scores. The percentage of verified accurate findings. Compare monthly project accuracy results. 8. Increased project on- time performance. The percentage of projects completed on time. Compare ongoing projects completed on time data each month. 98 Level 3: Behavior Critical Behaviors Table 5.6 shows the critical behaviors and related metrics, methods, and timing that the key stakeholders of this study need to exhibit. Key stakeholders are the directors, the leaders who select and hire and supervise the senior managers. The first critical behavior is to identify personal assumptions about open positions and applicants before conducting interviews. The second critical behavior is to identify qualified female role models for aspiring female leaders. The third critical behavior is to set and buy into specific personal goals for improving the gender diversity of the senior manager team. 99 Table 5.6 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Directors Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing 1. Identify personal assumptions about open positions and applicants before conducting interviews. The number and type of assumptions being made about each open position and each candidate. 1a. Director will meet with the hiring manager to discuss the upcoming interviews, use of the hiring job aid, and the number of and types of assumptions the hiring manager is making. Completed for each open management position before interviews. 2. Identify qualified female role models for aspiring female leaders. The number of aspiring female leaders assigned to a qualified female role model. 2a. The directors will partner with HR to track and monitor which aspiring female leaders have qualified role models, measuring the number of internal and external role models. Conducted during quarterly talent review meetings. 3. Set and buy into specific personal goals related to improving the gender diversity of their senior manager team. The number of directors who have published SMART goals for improving gender diversity of the senior manager position. 3a. Directors and HR will monitor which directors have SMART goals. Collected and assessed at quarterly talent review meetings and annual performance appraisals. 3b. Directors and HR will monitor which directors have communicated their specific action plans to their broader leadership teams. Collected at quarterly meetings. 100 Required Drivers Table 5.7 shows the required drivers needed to support the directors’ critical behaviors. The required drivers indicate how directors will receive the support necessary to successfully implement the recommended changes and are broken into the reinforcing mechanisms, methods for encouragement, reward systems, and methods for monitoring the progress of directors. 101 Table 5.7 Required Drivers to Support Directors’ Critical Behaviors Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported 1, 2, or 3 (From Table 5.6) Reinforcing Hiring job aid includes outlining key steps to interviewing and selecting candidates. Ongoing 1 Hiring job aid includes a formal process where directors reflect on the leadership characteristics required for the position they are filling. Directors will reflect on and note assumptions they are likely to make about candidates. Ongoing 1 Training session where directors learn how to properly conduct interviews and select candidates using the job aid. Annually 1 Training session where directors learn how to set SMART goals. Annually 1, 3 Encouraging Collaboration and peer modeling during team leadership and succession planning meetings. Quarterly 1, 2, 3 One on one feedback and coaching from executive leadership team members. Ongoing 1, 2, 3 Rewarding Public acknowledgement for teams accelerating performance is built into ongoing project status updates. Monthly 1, 2, 3 Public acknowledgement for teams accelerating performance is built into division meetings. Quarterly 1, 2, 3 Public acknowledgement for teams accelerating performance is built into conference calls. Monthly 1, 2, 3 Monitoring During formal performance reviews, have individual leaders set specific and measurable personal goals for improving gender diversity of their leadership team. Annually 1, 2, 3 Monitor goal progress and goal attainment during formal check-in conversations, and encourage adjusting the plans, as needed. Quarterly 1, 2, 3 Director and their supervisor to meet and discuss adherence to the hiring process and steps as outlined in the job aid before making hiring decisions. Ongoing 1, 2, 3 102 Organizational Support Engineering-Co will support directors through the integration of the required drivers and critical behaviors by incorporating the majority of follow-up into the existing company business rhythms. Existing quarterly talent planning sessions, training events, and conference calls. Hiring process steps are enhanced so the action required to attain the key outcomes are not seen as separate work, but are viewed as part of existing work. In addition to incorporating solutions into the existing rhythms, the company executive committee will review progress bi-annually to ensure that outcomes are being met and to take further action where additional support or resources may be required. Level 2: Learning Learning Goals Following a successful implementation of the recommended solutions, directors will: 1. Objectively screen leadership candidates. (Procedural Knowledge) 2. Objectively interview leadership candidates. (Procedural Knowledge) 3. Objectively select leadership candidates. (Procedural Knowledge) 4. Understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence how they identify potential leadership candidates. (Metacognitive Knowledge) 5. Understand their own gender biases and how those biases influence their hiring decisions for leadership positions. (Metacognitive Knowledge) 6. Believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership. (Utility Value Motivation) 7. Have specific and timely goals focused on the improvement of female diversity of senior managers. (Goal Content Motivation) 103 Program The seven learning goals listed in the previous section will be attained through implementing a new training session and providing ongoing support to directors through the existing business rhythms. This implementation is expected to positively impact directors’ knowledge, skill, and motivation related to improving the gender diversity of senior managers. The implementation includes two key phases, an initial training program and support activities built into the existing ongoing business rhythm. The training program is broken up into two key phases, an initial training, and ongoing training. The initial training will be a one-day course attended by all directors and all executive leadership team members. Executive leadership team members are attending the training to properly support the behavioral changes expected from the training. The course is broken up into three distinct topics. The first topic is a workshop where participants will learn how to properly screen candidates and conduct interviews. This workshop will begin with teaching company policies and expectations and will incorporate small group activities where participants will work together to practice screen and interviewing mock candidates. The second topic is teaching the newly created hiring job-aid, which incorporates each of the steps taught in the screening and interviewing workshop and incorporates how to reflect on position needs. In addition, participants will be taught how to use the "personal assumptions" tool built into the job-aid by having participants practice using mock applications and hiring scenarios. Participants will then discuss in small groups the assumptions they each made about candidates and how those assumptions might influence hiring. The third training topic is centered on teaching participants how to set SMART goals. The SMART goal process will be applied at the end of the training session by having each participant set smart goals related to improving the gender diversity of 104 their direct report team and establishing actions and timelines to which they commit. In addition to the initial training, ongoing support mechanisms are built into ongoing business rhythms. To support the implementation of the job-aid, personal reflection process, and to help support attainment of the SMART goals that each participant set in the initial training program, ongoing check-in conversations with executive leadership team members and team sharing is built into the existing and ongoing business rhythms. Ongoing quarterly succession planning meetings will include updates from each director related to their current talent pipeline, and collaborative activities will be built into these sessions, which are designed to reinforce proper candidate screening and hiring. Additionally, peer-sharing activities will allow for best-practice sharing and team learning. The succession meetings will also include an update related to progress against SMART goal attainment by each director. Additionally, ongoing support and follow-up will be provided by directors during normal monthly check-in's and directors will formally review the adherence to the candidate screening process, hiring process, and reflective process prior to each hiring decision being finalized. This will help ensure that directors are following the expected hiring steps and is expected to help each leader attain their SMART goal and ultimately improve the gender diversity of the senior manager team. Components of Learning In order for the initial training and change implementation to be considered effective, directors must demonstrate that they have learned the targeted procedural and metacognitive skills and are motivated to attain their personal SMART goals. Factors impacting director motivation include the degree to which they see value in the training and ongoing business rhythm enhancements. During and following the training, directors need to have a positive attitude about the training content and their role, confidence in their ability to apply the concepts 105 in the scope of their normal work, and be committed to applying what they learned. Table 5.8 outlines the methods and activities, with timelines, that will be used to evaluate the degree to which the training is effective and meeting the needs of participants. Table 5.8 Components of Learning for the Program Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing Declarative Knowledge “I know it.” Knowledge checks using multiple-choice questions testing knowledge from the previous section using the "Kahoot!" application to keep knowledge checks engaging. Following breaks at the training session. Knowledge checks using multiple-choice questions measuring key training concepts using the "Learning Lounge" internal platform. Administered two weeks following the training. Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.” Knowledge checks using multiple-choice questions testing knowledge from the previous section using the "Kahoot!" application to keep knowledge checks engaging. Following breaks at the training session. Demonstration in triads using the job-aid. During the training. Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.” Instructor’s evaluation of the quality of participants’ questions and statements. During the workshop. Open team discussions about the value of the job aid, reflective process, and SMART goal process. At quarterly talent review sessions. Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.” Open discussions following each of the three training topics. During the workshop. SMART plans turned in and evaluated for applicability. After the course. Commitment “I will do it on the job.” Discussions following all three training topics, personal testimonies. At the close of the training. Create a 12-month individual SMART plan. During the workshop. 106 Level 1: Reaction To maximize the impact of a training session, participants should "find the training favorable, engaging, and relevant to their jobs" (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 39). Table 5.9 shows how training participant satisfaction with the training event will be measured throughout the training event and initiative implementation. Participants will evaluate the training program and implementation across three key components: engagement, relevance, and participant overall satisfaction. Table 5.9 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing Engagement Online course evaluation Two weeks after the training Observations by the trainer During the workshop Relevance Check-in with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise. At training - before each break. Online course evaluation Two weeks after the training Customer Satisfaction Check-in with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise. At training - before each break. Online course evaluation Two weeks after the training Evaluation Tools Immediately Following the Program Implementation During the training session and following each module, the Kahoot! application will be used to monitor various aspects of the training session. The data from the surveys will provide real-time information about the participants’ opinions about course content, the timing of modules, the amount of interaction, and the quality of the content. Table 5.10 shows an example item for each 107 characteristic of the Level 1 evaluation for participant engagement, course relevance, and participant satisfaction. Table 5.10 Level 1 Evaluation Tools During and Immediately Following the Training Evaluation Example Item Engagement Completion of SMART plans Create and submit an individualized 12-month SMART plan at the conclusion of the training. Relevance Pulse check with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise following each session. I found the job-aid useful in helping me to identify possible unintended assumptions about candidates. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Customer Satisfaction Pulse check with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise following each session. I am satisfied with today’s training on how to build a SMART plan. In addition to measuring Level 1 participant reactions, the Kahoot! application will be used at the end of each training module to monitor various aspects of Level 2, participant learning. Table 5.11 lists an example item for each aspect of Level 2, showing how participant knowledge, skill, attitude, confidence, and commitment will each be evaluated during the training session. Because the surveys are real-time and are conducted at the end of each module throughout the day, instructors will be able to use the results from the surveys to improve training modules as the training progresses. 108 Table 5.11 Level 2 Evaluation Tools During and Immediately Following the Training Evaluation Example Item Declarative Knowledge Knowledge checks with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise following each session. Which of the following should be considered when screening an application (select all that apply)? A. B. C. D. E. Procedural Skills Skills check via triad-activity. During the triad activity, I realized that I made the following assumptions about candidates: ___________. Attitude Discussions about the value of reflecting on personal assumptions during triad-activity. For me, the value of reflecting on personal assumptions is:____________________. Confidence Confidence checks with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise following each session. I can use the job-aid as I screen and hire candidates: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Commitment Confidence checks with participants via a survey as part of the "Kahoot!" application exercise after building a SMART plan. I built a SMART plan that I am committed to executing: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation Ongoing talent-review sessions are scheduled to take place approximately three months after the training session, and quarterly thereafter. The first talent review session following the initial training will include the administration of a post-training survey. The post-training survey will include a survey designed to gain feedback about the effectiveness of the training and how it has impacted each of the four levels of evaluation. Participants will rate their reaction to the training session (Level 1), what they learned during the training (Level 2), how the training impacted their current behaviors (Level 3), and the degree to which the training has impacted 109 anticipated leading indicators and outcomes (Level 4). Table 5.12 shows a sample survey item for each level. Table 5.12 Levels 1-4 Delayed Evaluation Method Evaluation Example Item Level 1: Reaction The training session helped me better identify and select potential leadership candidates. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Level 2: Learning I was able to create more effective SMART plans following the SMART plan training session. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Level 3: Behavior I effectively use the screening and hiring job- aid prior to screening candidates and while conducting interviews. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Level 4: Results I am able to objectively screen external candidate, expanding the candidate pool for open positions Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree Data Analysis and Reporting Directors’ Level 4 goal is measured by evaluating the availability of diverse leadership candidates through internal leadership development programs and recruiting and attracting gender-diverse leadership candidates for senior manager openings at Engineering-Co. Directors need the knowledge, skills, and motivation required to increase the gender diversity of the senior manager position and solutions need to be implemented that will help directors overcome the related organizational barriers. To measure progress, directors will compile data related to the applicant pool and time to fill management positions and present the data at quarterly talent review meetings. Annual data will be summarized and reviewed during annual performance 110 appraisals. The quarterly and annual summary data for Level 4 can be seen in the report in Figure 5.1. Similar summary reporting will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2, and 3, which, together, will help provide the ongoing data needed to monitor attainment of program goals. CRITERIA GOAL Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 2021 AVG. Number of external female applicants for each management opening: 2 0 - - - 0 Number of internal female applicants for each management opening: 2 1 - - - 1 Time to fill leadership positions, from post to offer (in days): 21 29 - - - 29 Percentage of managers who are female: 50 22 - - - 22 Percentage of non-managers who are female: 50 34 - - 34 Figure 5.1. Quarterly tracking for Level 4 results. Directors enter each quarter's results in the respective quarter, denoted by Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4. The goal and cumulative average for the year are also shown. Summary It is important to measure the impact of any change or performance improvement initiative (Clark & Estes, 2008). The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model used in the implementation and evaluation framework for this study follows a summative approach, incorporates suggestions for program modifications, and includes measurement focused on how the training program impacts the intended organizational performance outcomes. The model is implemented in four levels, and each level is uniquely evaluated for impact and effectiveness while the overall model is designed to positively impact the change or performance improvement initiative. Implementation of the model begins with Level 1, which measures participant reaction to the training session and information being presented during training sessions. Level 2 measures the training session’s ability to transfer the intended knowledge and skill to participants and the participants' confidence and attitude related 111 to applying the materials trained. Level 3 measures the degree to which learners are applying and demonstrating critical behaviors that will lead to improving outcomes. Level 4 measures leading indicators that are believed to ultimately lead to the successful attainment of the organization's overall goals. Together, the four levels build upon one another to improve the participants’ knowledge, skill, and motivation, positively impacting the participants’ behaviors and improving the targeted outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In an effective evaluation plan following Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) model, it is important to determine the extent to which each level meets program expectations, and a make a determination related to why, or why not. For the implementation associated with this project, each of the four levels has unique touchpoints to determine the degree to which the implementation is meeting expectations. In Levels 1 and 2, which occur during and immediately following the initial training session, trainers will use Kahoot! to measure the knowledge and engagement of participants before training session breaks. At the breaks, the trainers will quickly evaluate the degree to which session objectives are being met. When session objectives are being met, the training will progress as planned. If Kahoot! surveys and feedback indicate that participants do not understand key concepts, a review session will be inserted following the break to help make sure participants have the knowledge they need. If Kahoot! surveys and trainer observations indicate that participants are not fully engaged, the feedback will be used at the moment to impact the delivery of the training modules that follow after the break. As the training session continues and engagement increases or decreases, trainers can use pulse surveys to determine what influenced the change in engagement and adjust their training approach as the day continues (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In addition to measuring and reacting to program effectiveness at the initial 112 training, it is important to measure the program's effectiveness on an ongoing basis. Measuring program effectiveness beyond the initial training session and throughout implementation will help connect the impact the training program had on the resulting behaviors and overall outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Measuring Level 3 effectiveness will determine the degree to which participants exhibit key behaviors on an ongoing basis. During quarterly talent review sessions, participants will reflect on and discuss how they use the tools that support the required behavioral changes. Additionally, a survey will be conducted at each session to measure actual tool use and behavioral change. Where expected behaviors are being executed, positive reinforcement will be provided. For participants who are not executing the expected behaviors, the participant's supervisor will schedule 1:1 time with the participant to determine what is causing the behavioral performance issue. An individual improvement plan will be put in place to help support and reinforce behavioral expectations. Measuring Level 4 will take place quarterly at talent review sessions. Where leading indicators are being attained, a discussion about the positive impacts will take place. Where leading indicators are not being attained, a discussion will take place, which will focus on determining how the expected behaviors might be modified to positively impact the leading indicators. In total, an overall implementation scorecard will be created quarterly, which follows Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) model, making sure that each level is effectively measured and ultimately tied to the overall goals of the change initiative. Incorporating Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model for implementation and evaluation will help ensure the program implementation remains focused on attaining the stakeholder goal of improving female representation in the senior manager position 113 by 50%, moving from the current 20% female representation to 30% by June 2022 at Engineering-Co. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach As was previously reviewed, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model introduces the need for establishing organizational performance goals and requires measurement to determine where gaps in performance exist. The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) New World Kirkpatrick Model uses four levels of measurement during training and implementation, with Level 4 including measurement for how the changes impact specific and targeted performance outcomes. Using these two models together establishes a clear performance orientation. Gap identification and determining causes for the gap follow the Clark and Estes (2008) model, while Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2016) model measures the impact the related training and implementation have on goal attainment, creating excellent synergy between the two models. Measuring the impact of any performance improvement initiative is important (Clark & Estes, 2008). While there are benefits to having aligned performance orientation between the models, both rely upon the development of relevant, effective action plans that will improve the performance. Identifying knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational causes of performance gaps will not alone solve the gaps and will only inform the action required to improve the performance gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). Similarly, the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model implies that the relevant action plans have been created and simply need to be trained, implemented, and measured. The risk in using these two models exclusively is that they may both need to lean on a third model, or approach, to build action steps that are relevant in an organizational context and will yield a positive outcome. 114 An additional weakness of the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model is that it relies on live training sessions, from which real-time participant can be evaluated. For large organizations spread over vast geographies, the expense to host live trainings could become cost- prohibitive. Additionally, teaching an entire training department a new training model and teaching the operational leaders how to follow-up using the new model may add additional program expense, negatively impacting any intended financial or speed benefits. Limitations and Delimitations As previously reviewed, limitations and delimitations are influences on a study. While limitations are out of the researcher's control, delimitations are influenced by the researcher and caused by the researcher's choices in data collection, the subjects selected, and the type of questions asked (Creswell, 2014). According to Creswell (2014). Using a mixed-methods research approach can limit the impact limitations have on a study compared to a strictly qualitative or quantitative study. This study had both limitations and delimitations. Limitations First, diversity-related topics can be sensitive or awkward for some people to discuss. As a result, participants may not have been willing to be completely truthful, which, if true, would skew the data. Although assurances for participant anonymity were built into the research, and the researcher is not known within the organization, participants may have feared retaliation for negative responses, not trusting the implemented anonymity measures. Although the study exceeded the survey participation goal of 50%, attaining 57% participation, attaining an even higher participation rate would have made the data more generalizable to the overall study population, which may have impacted the recommendations. Finally, the researcher was given limited access to resources within the organization. Reviewing previously completed recruiting, 115 interviewing, and hiring files for applicants would have provided additional data, but the organization's legal department denied access to personnel and hiring files. Delimitations The delimitations that impacted this study include the researcher's lack of knowledge about Engineering-Co's business functions and operating procedures. This lack of knowledge is due primarily to the researcher being a company outsider and not familiar with cultural norms, practices, policies, and internal slang. This limited the depth of follow-up questions the researcher was able to ask during the semi-structured interviews. An additional delimitation was the seemingly overwhelming amount of qualitative data provided by participants. Although the data strengthened the research and findings, this is the first advanced research project completed by the researcher. The survey instrument had 545 qualitative responses with a word count of 14,151 words. This qualitative survey data was in addition to quantitative survey data totaling 1,756 unique responses. Additionally, the qualitative data from seven live interviews totaled 28,517 words. The 42,668 words in the qualitative data responses in this project eclipse the word count of this written research report. The researcher's skill in managing that amount of data added to the project completion timeline and is a project delimitation. A final delimitation is the researcher's passion for gender equality, which is the result of the researcher's exposure to how male-dominated environments can become unwelcome to females, and the researcher's dissatisfaction with such environments. Future Research The participants in this study were director and executive-level leaders who work at a technology firm that operates in multiple locations. The organization specializes in solving highly complex problems in the disciplines of physics, chemistry, mathematics, as well as 116 aeronautical, mechanic, chemical, and civil engineering. Many employees in this company have high-level government security clearances, which restricts what the organization can and cannot share with company outsiders and insiders who do not possess the required security clearances. Although Engineering-Co operates within the male-dominated science and technology fields and proved to be an excellent site for this project, the research can be expanded and led by company insiders who have access to additional documents and artifacts, and who can also perform direct observations throughout the sourcing, interviewing, and selection processes. It was clear throughout the data analysis process that executive leadership team members and directors alike believe a main cause for the lack of gender diversity of senior managers is a perceived lack of females entering the science and technology fields in colleges, and successfully entering the related fields as technical experts after college, as compared to males. Although there is much research related to the causes of gender disparity in science and technology disciplines, additional research may be warranted about how a perceived shortage of females impacts hiring managers' motivation. Additionally, research related to how cultural norms may unintentionally be created within organizations as a result of those perceptions may also be warranted. Through the literature review, a second possible organizational influence was discovered; however, the organization sponsors within the Human Resources Department would not permit this project to move forward if it were to include this second assumed organizational influencer, which falls under the cultural model classification of organizational barriers. The second assumed organizational influencer not evaluated in this study is the reluctance of human resources departments to set specific and measurable diversity-related organizational goals. Shen et al.’s (2009) research related to diversity initiatives, human resources departments must 117 take an active role in setting specific diversity-related goals in the areas of pay standards, performance evaluation practices, training program completion, and management development programs, in addition to setting hiring quotas, to create a cultural setting that embraces diversity. Accordingly, the researcher believes further research related to the human resource department's reluctance to set specific and measurable diversity-related goals is warranted. A final recommendation for further research is to expand the research to additional levels of leadership. While this study focused on the gender diversity of middle-level managers, additional research using this study’s assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences conducted at multiple levels of leaders would provide a more complete picture. The researcher believes that having additional research conducted using the same assumed influencers from this project would help guide more effective solutions, which could then be adopted by other organizations in the science and technology fields that lack gender diversity in their leadership teams. Conclusion While women make up 58% of the American workforce, they hold only 38.6% of management positions (United States Women's Bureau, 2012). This study aimed to determine the causes for the lack of gender diversity of senior managers at Engineering-Co. Engineering- Co employs the nation's foremost technical experts in the scientific disciplines of physics, chemistry, and mathematics, as well as aeronautical, mechanic, chemical, and civil engineering. The organization is focused on solving the nation's most complex problems in and across science and technology. Within the organization, the senior manager position is a hybrid position requiring both deep technical expertise as well as excellent team leadership skills, as senior managers directly oversee small teams of skilled technical professionals who are completing 118 highly complex work. Related to gender diversity in leadership at Engineering-Co, the executive leadership team is 41% female, while the directors below them have 30% female representation. The senior managers, who report to the directors, are comprised of 20% females. Research indicates that gender-diverse leadership teams consider more alternatives when problem-solving (Opstrup & Villadsen, 2014), which leads to improved outcomes. As a result, with senior managers directly overseeing the technical workforce at Engineering-Co, it is important to make sure the population of senior managers is gender diverse to further excellence at Engineering-Co. As a result of this need, the directors were selected as the stakeholder group of focus for this study, because directors are responsible for sourcing, developing, and selecting senior managers. The study followed the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model using the findings from the literature review to identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that were determined to be contributing to the lack of gender diversity of senior managers. Findings from the study indicate that directors at Engineering-Co do not: objectively interview and select leadership candidates, believe in the value of increasing gender diversity in leadership, know how their own biases influence selection decisions, have specific and timely improvement goals and do not support aspiring female leaders by providing female role models. Because Engineering-Co exists to solve complex problems, it would follow that the leaders of the organization would want to leverage their already well-established values of goal attainment, technical expertise, people-oriented, integrity, and creativity to solve this very complex problem. Solving the gender diversity in leadership problem within the organization is expected to lead to even greater outcomes across the board. The findings from this study are aligned with prior research, as outlined in the study's literature review. The researcher would encourage any 119 organization that is focused on improving their performance to consider the recommendations from this study and tackle the causes for a lack of gender diversity in leadership. 120 References Adams, R. B. & Ferreira, D. (2009). Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance. Journal Financial Economics, 94(2), 291–309. Bragger, J., Kutcher, D., Morgan, E., & Firth, J. (2002). The Effects of the Structured Interview on Reducing Biases Against Pregnant Job Applicants. Sex Roles, 46(7), 215-226. Broadbridge, A. (2010). 25 years of retailing; 25 years of change? Reflecting on the position of women managers. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(8), 649-660. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542411011092318 Chattopadhyay, P., George, E., & Shulman, A. (2008). The asymmetrical influence of sex dissimilarity in distributive vs. collocated work groups. Organization Science, 19(4), 581- 593. Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right performance solutions. Information Age Publishing, Inc. Coda, R., & Coda, D. A. (2014). Strategic performance of the human resources management department: An exploratory research on the implications from the behavioral styles of its professionals. Brazilian Business Review, 11(4), 107-129. Collins, E. (2012). Global Diversity Initiatives. The International Lawyer, 46(4), 987-1006. Cox, A. B. & Miles, T. J. (2008). Judging the voting rights act. Columbia Law Review, 108(1), 1- 54. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE Publications. Cunningham, G. B. (2007). Creating and sustaining gender diversity in sports organizations. Sex Roles, 58, 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9312-3 121 Denler, H., Wolters, C., & Benzon, M. (2009). Social cognitive theory. http://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/ deVries, J. A. (2014). Champions of gender equality: female and male executives as leaders of gender change. Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: An International Journal, 34(1), 21- 36. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-05-2013-0031 Diehl, A. B., & Dzubinski, L. M. (2016). Making the invisible visible: A cross‐sector analysis of gender‐based leadership barriers. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 27(2), 181- 206. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21248 Eccles, J. (2006). Expectancy value motivational theory. http://www.education.com/reference/article/expectancy-value-motivational-theory/ Fink, A. (2013). Chapter 4: Sampling. In How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide (5th ed.) (pp. 79-98). SAGE Publications. Foster, C., Whysall, P., & Harris, L. (2007). Female career progression in retailing. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 35(12), 975-981. https://doi.org/10.1108/09590550710835201 Hoogendoorn, S., Oosterbeek, H., & van Praag, M., 2013). The impact of gender diversity on the performance of business teams: Evidence from a field experiment. Management Science, 59(7), 1514-1528. Hoyt, C. L., & Simon, S. (2011). Female leaders: Injurious or inspiring role models for women? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310385216 122 Keremidchieva, Z. (2013). The congressional debates on the 19 th amendment: Jurisdictional rhetoric and the assemblage of the U.S. body politic. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 99(1), 51-73. Kirkpatrick, J. D. & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation. ATD Press. Klettner, A., Clarke, T., & Boersma, M. (2014). Strategic and regulatory approaches to increasing women in leadership: Multilevel targets and mandatory quotas as levers for cultural change. Journal of Business Ethics, 133, 395-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2069-z Kmec, J., & Skaggs, S. (2014). The “State” of Equal Employment Opportunity Law and Managerial Gender Diversity. Social Problems, 61(4), 530-558. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2014.12319 Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. Krishnan, H. & Park, D. (2005). A few good women – on top management teams, Journal of Business Research, 58(12), 1712-1720. Kurtulus, F., & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2011). Do Female Top Managers Help Women to Advance? A Panel Study Using EEO-1 Records. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 639(1), 173–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716211418445 Luzadis, R., Wesolowski, M., & Snavely, B. K. (2008). Understanding criterion choice in hiring decisions from a prescriptive gender bias perspective. Journal of Managerial Issues, 20(4), 468-484. 123 Mallin, C. A., & Michelson, G. (2011). Board reputation attributes and corporate social performance: An empirical investigation of the US best corporate citizens. Accounting and Business Research, 41(2), 119-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00014788.2011.550740 Martins, L. L. & Parsons, C. K. (2007). Effects of gender diversity management on perceptions of organizational attractiveness: The role of individual differences in attitudes and beliefs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 865-875. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021- 9010.92.3.865 Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. Mayer, R. E. (2011). How learning works. In P. A. Smith, M. Buchholz, S. Steed (Eds.), Applying the science of learning (pp. 38-42). Pearson Education. McCann, M. & Wheeler, S. (2011). Gender diversity in the FTSE 100: The business case claim explored. Journal of Law and Society, 38(4), 542-574. McCrudden, M., Schraw, T., & Lehman, G. (2009). The use of adjunct displays to facilitate comprehension of causal relationships in expository text. Instructional Science, 37(1), 65-86. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass. Moskowitz, G., & Grant, H. (2009). The Psychology of Goals. In The Psychology of Goals. Guilford Publications. Nkomo, S. M. & Ariss, A. A. (2014). The historical origins of ethnic (white) privilege in U.S. organizations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 29(4), 389-404). doi:10.1108/JMP-06-2012-0178 124 Opstrup, N. & Villadsen, A. R. (2014). The right mix? Gender diversity in top management teams and financial performance. Public Administration Review, 75(2), 291-301. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12310 Orlando, R., C., Kirby, S., L., & Chadwick, K. (2013). The impact of racial and gender diversity in management on financial performance: how participative strategy making features can unleash a diversity advantage. The International Journal of Human Resources Management, 24(13), 2571-2582. Richard, O., Kirby, S., & Chadwick, K. (2013). The impact of racial and gender diversity in management on financial performance: how participative strategy making features can unleash a diversity advantage. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(13), 2571–2582. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.744335 Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Chapter 6: Conversational partnerships. In Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (3rd ed.) (pp. 85-92). SAGE Publications. Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance. New York: Teachers College Press. Saks, A. M. & McCarthy, J. M. (2006). Effects of discriminatory interview questions and gender on applicant reactions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 21(2), 175-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-006-9024-7 Salkind, N. J. (2017). Statistics for people who (think they) hate statistics: Using Microsoft Excel 2016 (4th ed.). SAGE. Shen, J., Chanda, A., D'Netto, B., & Monga, M. (2009). Managing diversity through human resource management: An international perspective and conceptual framework. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(2), 235-251. 125 https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190802670516 Shortland, S. (2014). Role models: Expatriate gender diversity pipeline or pipe-dream?. Career Development International, 19(5), 572 – 594. Smith, S. (2014). Limitations to equality: Gender stereotypes and social change. Juncture, 21(2), 144-150. Stamarski, C. S. & Son Hing, L. S. (2015). Gender inequalities in the workplace: the effects of organizational structures, processes, practices, and decision makers’ sexism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(1400), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01400 Taylor, C. A., Taylor, J. C., & Stoller, J. K. (2009). The Influence of Mentorship and Role Modeling on Developing Physician-Leaders: Views of Aspiring and Established Physician-Leaders. Journal of General Internal Medicine,24(10), 1130-4. United States. Women's Bureau. (2012). 50 Years Later: Women, Work & the Work Ahead. United States. Women’s Bureau. United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2015). Women in the Labor Force: a Databook. In Women in the Labor Force: a Databook. United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Virick, M., & Greer, C. R. (2012). Gender diversity in leadership succession: Preparing for the future. Human Resource Management, 51(4), 575-600. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21487 Weiss, R. S. (1994). Chapter 3: Preparation for interviewing, In Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview studies. The Free Press. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Expectancy-value theory: Retrospective and prospective. Motivation and Achievement, 16A, 35-70. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749- 7423(2010)000016A005 126 Wiley, C., & Monllor-Tormos, M. (2018). Board Gender Diversity in the STEM&F Sectors: The Critical Mass Required to Drive Firm Performance. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 25(3), 290–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051817750535 Yough, M., & Anderman, E. (2006). Goal orientation theory. http://www.education.com/reference/article/goal-orientation-theory/ Zosuls, M. Z., Miller, C. F., Ruble, D. N., Marton, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2011). Gender development research in sex roles: Historical trends and future directions. Sex Roles, 64, 826-842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9902-3 127 Appendix A Interview Protocol and Questions Interview Introduction Good morning, my name is Robert Sokol. Thank you for agreeing to participate in this interview. You were selected because you are in an eligible position at Engineering-Co and I can assure you, the Board of Directors at Engineering-Co are appreciative of your participation. Before we get started, I’ll cover a few things, give you an opportunity to review the study’s information sheet, and then answer any questions you have. First, I want you to know that protecting your confidentiality is of utmost concern to me, and is my absolute top priority. I am working as the data collection manager and chief researcher for this study and take my role very seriously. All of the data I collect throughout the study will be anonymized – meaning that all references to people's names, locations names, team names, and even the name of your employer will all be given pseudonyms or encoded, so the data I report back will not lead back to a specific person or place. If you make a reference to having worked for the company or in a specific job for a specific period of time, I will encode or delete that data, so it is not identifiable to you or any other participant. This study is not interested any specific person's responses, rather in what the total group of participants say as a collection of responses. We'll be having a conversation today about gender diversity-related topics, and the study is focused on understanding gender diversity in the senior manager position at Engineering-Co. To make sure I accurately capture our conversation, I will need to record the interview. The interview will be transcribed by a paid private and secure transcription service, who will maintain confidentiality, and the transcripts will be sent only to me. Before the data is used in 128 this study, I will anonymize the data; the audio recording will be destroyed. Please sign the release form so I can record our session. Now, I'll give you a couple of minutes to review the study's information sheet. It covers some of the information related to confidentiality that I have already discussed, and it makes sure you know that your participation in this study is completely voluntary, that you can skip any question you do not want to answer, that you can stop the interview at any time, and that we intend to harm to you as a result of participation or non-participation in this study. Having reviewed the information, do you have any questions? I expect our total time together to last less than an hour, and I will manage our time in an attempt to both hit that time commitment and gather all of the intended information. The overarching themes in the questions are related to candidate selection and training practices, and my goal is to use the questions as conversation starters. If you're ready to go, I'll start the recording now… Interview Questions 1. First, I will ask you to describe the process for selecting senior managers. <<Ask each section individually, and probe>>: 1a. How do you build a candidate pool when a senior manager position is open? 1b. What criteria is used to screen candidates prior to the interview? 1c. How are interview panel members (if used) selected, for the final interviews? 1d. What is the process for selecting the final candidate? 1e. How do you participate in making hiring decisions for senior managers? 2. What are the key characteristics you look for when selecting senior managers? 129 2b. How does… <<select most appropriate one based on answer>> location fit, peer team fit, or culture… influence candidate selection? 3. What steps are taken to prepare someone for a senior manager role, and can you use an example for someone who was recently prepared for the role? 3b. I understand that mentors are sometimes used to develop aspiring senior managers. What criteria is used when selecting mentors for potential senior manager candidates? 3c. Can you think of a specific example, who they were, and share how specifically the mentor was selected? 3d. How does the gender of the potential senior manager impact the mentor selected? 3e. Probing question: If gender does not influence mentor selection, do you believe gender is not a factor in the mentor/mentee relationship, and why? 3f. Are there enough female mentors in the organization for females aspiring to a senior manager position? 4. Building diverse teams is a priority for the organization. What do you believe are the main reasons the organization does not have as much gender diversity as it would like, among senior managers? 5. What steps do you believe hiring managers should take to improve gender diversity of senior managers? 5b. What knowledge or skills do you believe hiring managers as a group lack, related to improving gender diversity of senior managers? 5c. What do you believe is positively or negatively impacting the motivation of hiring managers as a group, related to improving gender diversity of senior managers? 130 6. One of the organization’s goals is to increase the gender diversity in the senior manager position… Why do you believe this is an area of focus for the organization? 5b. Did you already know that improving overall diversity of leadership is a goal? <<If so>> 5c. How did you learn about the goal? 5d. Do you know about any specific or measurable goals related to improving diversity in leadership? 5e. How about female diversity in leadership? <<If not>> 5f. Do you think it would be important for the organization to set related goals, and why? 7. What steps do you believe the human resources department should take to improve gender diversity within the senior manager position? 8. What do you think is getting in the way, from an organizational perspective, of creating more gender balance in leadership? 131 Appendix B Survey Introduction and Questions Survey Introduction Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey. You have been selected as a participant because of your position and your subject matter expertise with hiring senior managers. We are appreciative that you have taken the time to participate! It should take less than 20 minutes to complete all items. You can skip any questions you do not want to answer and can end your participation at any time. This research project focuses on the gender diversity within the senior manager position in at Engineering-Co. Please answer each question truthfully, and from your own perspective. This study is not focused on individual respondents, it is designed to capture themes from the total study population. A primary guiding principle of this study is to do no harm to participants for participation or non-participation. To that end, no identifying information will be captured, including not capturing participants internet ip addresses. You will note that we are not asking age, department specific, or geographic information to help ensure confidentiality. I will be will anonymizing any identifying data prior to using the data and once data is anonymized, the original data set will be deleted. Thank you again for your participation! Survey Questions 1. Gender: ___Male ___Female ___Non-Binary ___Decline 2. Tenure with the Engineering-Co (in years, round up to the next year): ____________. <<Numeric Response>> 3. Tenure in current position (in years, round up to the next year): ____________. 132 <<Numeric Response>> 4. Engineering-Co has a specific goal related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions? Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 5. Engineering-Co’s goal related to improving gender diversity in leadership positions is: ______________. <<Short Answer Response>> 6. Having a specific goal is an important step in improving gender diversity in leadership positions. Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 7. I have communicated a specific goal to my direct team related to improving the gender diversity of our leadership team. Yes / No 8. The specific goal I communicated to my team related to increasing the gender diversity of our leadership team is ______________. <<Short Answer Response>> 9. Please rate the impact that improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of goal attainment: Significant Negative No Positive Significant Negative Impact Impact Impact Impact Positive Impact 10. Please rate the impact that improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of technical expertise: Significant Negative No Positive Significant Negative Impact Impact Impact Impact Positive Impact 11. Please rate the impact that improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of people oriented: Significant Negative No Positive Significant Negative Impact Impact Impact Impact Positive Impact 133 12. Please rate the impact that improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of integrity: Significant Negative No Positive Significant Negative Impact Impact Impact Impact Positive Impact 13. Please rate the impact that improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of creativity: Significant Negative No Positive Significant Negative Impact Impact Impact Impact Positive Impact 14. In your own words, describe the impact you believe improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of goal attainment: <<Short Answer Response>> 15. In your own words, describe the impact you believe improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of technical expertise: <<Short Answer Response>> 16. In your own words, describe the impact you believe improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of people oriented: <<Short Answer Response>> 17. In your own words, describe the impact you believe improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of integrity: <<Short Answer Response>> 18. In your own words, describe the impact you believe improved gender diversity for senior managers will have on the corporate value of creativity: <<Short Answer Response>> 134 19. In the past twelve months, my direct supervisor has talked to me ____ times about gender diversity in leadership positions. <<Numeric Response>> 20. In the past twelve months, my supervisor has discussed the following topics with me related to gender diversity in leadership positions: ______________. <<Short Answer Response>> 21. I fully understand the company interviewing and selection process for senior managers? Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 22. The company process for interviewing and selection process for senior managers is: ______________. <<Short Answer Response>> 23. Key characteristics/traits I look for when hiring senior managers include: ____________. <<Short Answer Response>> 24. I align with my direct supervisor on my final selection prior to hiring a senior manager: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 25. In instances when I partner and calibrate with my direct supervisor on my final selection prior to hiring a senior manager, our discussions include topics such as: ____________. <<Short Answer Response>> 26. For the department I lead, I have the following number of female candidates that I believe are currently ready to assume a senior manager position: ____________. <<Numeric Response>> 27. For the department I lead, I have the following number of male candidates that I believe are currently ready to assume a senior manager position: ____________. <<Numeric Response>> 135 28. I am comfortable helping aspiring female managers gain the skills and experiences they need to become a successful senior manager. Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 29. For women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified female role model is important: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 30. For women aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified male role model is important: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 31. For men aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified female role model is important: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 32. For men aspiring to grow into a senior manager position, having a qualified male role model is important: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 33. Aspiring female leaders benefit more from having a qualified role model that is: Female Male Not Sure 34. Aspiring male leaders benefit more from having a qualified role model that is: Female Male Not Sure 35. Because of the industry in which we work, external male leadership candidates are naturally drawn to our company: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 136 36. Because of the industry in which we work, external female leadership candidates are naturally drawn to our company: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 37. Because of the industry in which we work, male leaders are likely to be more successful than female leaders: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 38. Because of the industry in which we work, female leaders are likely to be more successful than male leaders: Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 39. The nature of the industry does not impact the likely effectiveness of male or female leaders. Strongly-Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly-Agree 40. General comments and thoughts about gender diversity in leadership positions: ______________. <<Short Answer Response>> 137 Appendix C Informed Consent/Information Sheet Page 1 of 2 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089 INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH Causes for a Lack of Gender Diversity in Leadership You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand why there is a lack of gender diversity in leadership. The study is being conducted to better understand the causes for a lack of female diversity in a specified leadership position. The knowledge gained is expected to benefit leadership within the targeted organization so that improvements may be made, creating greater gender balance within leadership positions in the future. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT For participants who agree to take part in this study and complete surveys, you will be asked to complete an online survey which is anticipated to take about 15 minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to by selecting “NEXT”, and moving to the next question. For participants who agree to take part in this study and complete 1-on-1 interviews, you will be asked to participate in a 45-minute audio-taped interview. You may skip any question that you do not want to answer. PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION You will not be compensated for your participation in this research study. CONFIDENTIALITY For participants who complete surveys, there will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name, address, IP address, employee number, or other identifiable information will not be collected. Any names added in response to a question will be converted to false names (pseudonyms) when the survey data is retrieved and compiled. For participants who complete 1-on-1 interviews, any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The audio-tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. UPIRB#: UP-17-00404 138 Page 2 of 2 Required language: The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used. INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION Principle Investigator, Robert Sokol: via email at sokolr@usc.edu or phone at (XXX)XXX-XXXX IRB CONTACT INFORMATION University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu 139 Appendix D Company President’s Internal Announcement of the Study From: (Displayed the name of the company president) Sent: Wednesday, February 21, 2018 4:31 PM To: All Executive Leadership Team Members Cc: Executive Ranger Team (Pseudonym Displayed) Subject: Diversity survey and interviews All – The Office of Diversity and Inclusion has teamed with doctoral student Bob Sokol at the University of Southern California for a new study focusing on factors that may impact gender diversity for our senior managers. The study will gather data, through interviews and surveys, from directors and executive team members. We would like the executive team members to participate in a 45-minute interview and the directors to participate in an online survey. Both tools will help inform the process and assessment for senior manager hires. This is not an Engineering-Co-hosted survey and your participation is voluntary. Your name will not be attached to any results. Responses will be anonymized and collected by the Office of Diversity & Inclusion. The survey is user-friendly and you should be able to complete it within 15-20 minutes or less. Please note: Engineering-Co is not accountable for how the data will be used — respondents should choose to respond accordingly. We are very excited about this study and are confident it will provide insight and direction as to how we can better impact gender parity. Thank you for your time as you help inform the important work being done by our Diversity and Inclusion office (President’s name appeared here) 140 Appendix E Interview Invitation Sent to Executive Leadership Team Participants From: Bob Sokol [mailto:sokolr@usc.edu] Sent: Friday, March 02, 2018 7:53 AM To: (Individual Emails Sent to Each Executive Team invitee) Cc: (Chief Diversity Officer); (Administrative Assistant) Subject: Diversity Interview... Hi, (participants name) - I’m following up on the email sent by (presidents name) last week announcing a new diversity study at Engineering-Co (see below). The Office of Diversity and Inclusion has teamed with me (a Doctoral candidate at USC) to research factors that may impact gender diversity of senior managers. You have been identified as a leader that would provide valuable insight into this study; your input will help me shape the survey that will be sent to all directors. I would like to schedule a 30 to 45-minute live web-based interview. Your participation is very important to this project and is expected to help Engineering-Co maintain a workplace characterized by diverse and highly skilled employees. This overall project will also add to the research knowledge base on the topic of gender diversity in leadership positions. Because participant confidentiality and privacy are of utmost concern, all individual responses will be anonymized prior to being used and the original data set will be deleted. I will cover these details with you prior to your participation. My goal is to complete the interviews over the next ten days and I will be flexible in accommodating your schedule. Please let me know if you are willing to participate and I will send you the brief study information sheet and we can schedule our time together. I can be reached at sokolr@usc.edu or XXX-XXX-XXXX if you have any questions. We are counting on your participation and are very excited about this project – you can make a big difference! Thank you in advance for making the time to participate. Best Regards, Bob Sokol Doctoral Candidate USC Rossier School of Education sokolr@usc.edu 141 Appendix F Survey Recruitment Letter From: Bob Sokol <bobsokol@qualtrics-survey.com> Date: March 21, 2018 at 7:35:50 AM PDT To: (Sent to the directors that met the study criteria) Subject: Engineering-Co Diversity Survey Good Morning - My name is Bob Sokol and I am an Ed.D. doctoral degree candidate at the University of Southern California. I have partnered with Engineering-Co’s Office of Diversity and Inclusion to research factors that may impact gender diversity of senior managers. You received an email this week from (president’s name) announcing the launch of this study and I am inviting you, as a director, to participate in the survey that will help inform data for the study. Your participation, which should take less than 15 minutes, is expected to help Engineering-Co further exemplify its company values and help guarantee excellence. This overall project will also add to the research knowledge base on the topic of gender diversity in leadership positions. Because participant confidentiality and privacy are of utmost concern, all individual responses will be anonymized prior to being used and the original data set will be deleted. The survey information sheet, which includes detailed information about data handling and confidentiality, is included in the survey and is on file with the University. It should be noted that this is not an Engineering-Co-hosted survey and your participation is voluntary. Your name will not be attached to any results. Responses will be anonymized and collected by the Office of Diversity and Inclusion. Please reach out to me with any questions by simply replying to this email or sending me a direct email to sokolr@usc.edu Internally, you can contact Chief Diversity Officer, (name shown here), at (email address shown here) with any questions. Your survey link will remain active for eight days. We would encourage you to take a few minutes now to complete the survey. Thank you in advance for your participation! Best Regards, Bob Sokol Doctoral Candidate – Organizational Change and Leadership USC Rossier School of Education sokolr@usc.edu Follow this link to the Survey: Take the Survey Or copy and paste the URL below into your internet browser: https://usceducation.az1.qualtrics.com/xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Follow the link to opt out of future emails: Click here to unsubscribe 142 Appendix G Reminder Email Used to Increase Survey Participation From: Bob Sokol [mailto:bobsokol@qualtrics-survey.com] Sent: Wednesday, March 26, 2018 3:59 AM To: (Each eligible director who has not yet participated) Reply-To: Bob Sokol <sokolr@usc.edu> Subject: FINAL REMINDER (need your help): Engineering-Co Diversity Survey Hi – There are only three days left to participate and I could really use your help! As a reminder, per the email you received on March 20, 2018 from (presidents name), you have been invited to participate in a brief survey. THERE ARE ONLY THREE MORE DAYS TO PARTICIPATE and we need your help in order to help provide the most accurate data sample possible. We’re not focused on individual responses, but a greater number of individual responses will add to the validity of the study – ultimately benefiting Engineering-Co and its pursuit of excellence. We are counting on your participation and are very excited about this project – participation only takes a few minutes and you can make a big difference! Your survey link will remain active for three more days. Please take a few minutes now to complete the survey. I, along with The Board of Directors and the Executive Ranger Team, can’t thank you enough for your participation! Best Regards, Bob Sokol Doctoral Candidate – Organizational Change and Leadership USC Rossier School of Education sokolr@usc.edu Follow this link to the Survey: Take the Survey Or copy and paste the URL below into your internet browser: https://usceducation.az1.qualtrics.com/xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Follow the link to opt out of future emails: Click here to unsubscribe

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Gender inequity in executive leadership of midsize and large organizations in Los Angeles County: overcoming barriers & building leaders

PDF

Gender inequity and leadership in the large state militia: an innovation study

PDF

Mentoring as a capability development tool to increase gender balance on leadership teams: an innovation study

PDF

Lack of diversity in leadership: An organizational problem

PDF

Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on persisting leadership demographics in a military organization: perspectives on diversity and inclusion from minority female officers

PDF

Barriers to gender equity in K-12 educational leadership: an evaluation study

PDF

Missed opportunities: lack of advancement of African American females  into senior executive healthcare leadership

PDF

Minding the gender gap: self-efficacy and women senior leadership roles in banking

PDF

Women in executive leadership: a study of the gender diversity gap

PDF

Raising women leaders of Christian higher education: an innovation study

PDF

Applying best practices to optimize racial and ethnic diversity on nonprofit boards: an improvement study

PDF

Navigating race, gender, and responsibility: a gap analysis of the underrepresentation of Black women in foreign service leadership positions

PDF

Faculty experiences: sense of belonging for sexual and gender minority college students

PDF

Disrupting the homogenous leadership in post-secondary education by addressing the lack of women leaders of color: an innovation study

PDF

Succession for success: an evaluation study of corporate strategy to improve employee satisfaction for women of color

PDF

The underrepresentation of Black women general officers in a U.S. military reserve component

PDF

Partnerships and nonprofit leadership: the influence of nonprofit managers on community partnerships

PDF

Racial and gender gaps in executive management: a retrospective examination of the problem cause and strategies to address disparities

PDF

The underrepresentation of Latinas as K−12 school district superintendents: an evaluation study

PDF

Improving the representation of female executives in a large utility provider: a modified KMO framework

Asset Metadata

Creator Sokol, Robert W. (author)

Core Title Causes for a lack of gender diversity in leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 09/11/2020

Defense Date 08/20/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag diversity,female diversity,female leader,gender diversity,gender of mentor,leader diversity,leadership diversity,male diversity,male leader,manage diversity,manager diversity,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Hanson, Katherine (committee member)

Creator Email robrtsokol@aol.com,sokolr@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-369659

Unique identifier UC11666386

Identifier etd-SokolRober-8950.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-369659 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SokolRober-8950.pdf

Dmrecord 369659

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sokol, Robert W.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA