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Preparing student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental health needs

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Preparing student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental health needs

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Preparing Student Affairs Administrators to Support College Students of Color with Mental
Health Needs

by

Jason Enrique Steinas

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2020

Copyright 2020 Jason E. Steinas

ii
Dedication
To my family and friends, past and present, you are my foundation.
To student affairs administrators, keep educating and inspiring our future leaders.
To students of color, who have changed the world for the better.

iii
Acknowledgements
It all began in 2008 when Mr. Sababu Norris, my former supervisor, and current mentor,
recommended I pursue a doctoral degree. Given that I was in the midst of my master’s program,
a level of education I never thought I would achieve, and under the assumption that I was not
smart enough for a doctorate, I politely dismissed his comment. Mr. Norris persisted, and being
the person that I am, I attempted to cross-reference my sources (an unnoticed indication I may be
cut out for doctoral studies). I scheduled a meeting with Dr. Terri Mangione, who was the
Canisius College Dean of Students. I went into her office, confident she would tell me to focus
on the master’s degree, thus affirming my hypothesis. The meeting was relatively short, and in
short, Dr. Mangione told me it would be silly if I did not get a doctorate. I will never forget when
she looked at me, smiled, and said, “I see that’s not the answer you wanted to hear.” Shaken, but
not deterred, I mulishly continued my quest to find trusted colleagues who would agree with my
position. One afternoon, I made an unannounced visit to Dr. Sandra Estanek’s office, who was
my trusted professor and director of the College Student Personnel Administration graduate
program. She waited patiently as I gave her a summary of my previous conversations. Without
missing a beat, Dr. Estanek said it is not a matter of IF you pursue the degree, it’s simply a
matter of WHEN. The seed was planted, and I am forever thankful to my amazing Canisius
College family.
Given life, love, jobs, heartaches, peaks, valleys, and unbridled fear, it took a few years
before I was ready to begin the notorious doctoral application process. To make a long story
short, I applied to a number of great programs, and to my amazement, was accepted into all.
Given my goals, dissertation ideas, and proclivity for the finer things in life, I decided to enroll in
USC’s Organizational Change and Leadership Doctor of Education program.

iv
Without the support of countless family, friends, professors, mentors, and colleagues, this
reality would remain an unattainable dream. They say patience is a virtue. My wife, Stephanie
Steinas, may be one of the most virtuous people I know. Thank you for believing in me,
supporting me when I doubted myself, and keeping me laughing throughout the process. I love
you and would not have been able to do this without you. My parents, Florinda and Enrique
Steinas, taught me determination, humor, and kindness. Thank you for being the best damn
parents ever. I want to send a big thank you to all my family. In particular, those who let me vent
regularly and helped keep me sane: Debbie; Kristie; Marisa; Maxey; Mooch; and Stephen. While
all my friends were supportive and wonderful, a few special characters provided endless
positivity: the CSW team (JBo, KDC, Peeps, Rich, and Samantha); Dave; Mark; Rese; and
Travis. To my Tuesday and Wednesday OCL crew, I love you all. A special shout out to the
Mini C: Debbie; JZ; Sharon; and Trevor. I could not have done it without y’all. Another shout
out to Elia, my homie and writing partner from day one of immersion. Finally, Carol Jean, you
sat by my side while I did most of this work and I am forever grateful for your fluffy
companionship.
This degree would not be possible without my three wonderful dissertation committee
members: Dr. Courtney Malloy; Dr. Kathy Stowe; and Professor Shafiqa Ahmadi. Their
thorough eyes and invaluable feedback gave clarity and meaning to this dissertation. Dr. Malloy,
you encouraged me to think outside the box, provided direction, and kept me motivated. Words
cannot express how thankful I am to have had you as my dissertation advisor. Fight On!

v

Table of Contents
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ..................................................................................... 1
Field Context and Mission ......................................................................................................... 2
Related Literature ....................................................................................................................... 3
Importance of the Field Innovation ............................................................................................ 4
Field Performance Goal .............................................................................................................. 5
Description of the Stakeholder Groups ...................................................................................... 6
Stakeholder Group for the Study ................................................................................................ 6
Purpose of the Project and Questions ......................................................................................... 7
Methodological Framework ....................................................................................................... 8
Definitions .................................................................................................................................. 8
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................ 11
College Student Mental Health ................................................................................................ 11
History of College Student Mental Health............................................................................ 11
Contemporary College Student Mental Health Context ....................................................... 14
Understanding the Phrase Students of Color ........................................................................ 17
Connection Between College Students of Color and Mental Health .................................... 18
Student Affairs Administrators ................................................................................................ 19
History and Purpose of Student Affairs Administrators ....................................................... 19
Student Affairs Administrator Involvement with Mental Health and Students of Color ..... 22
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ...................................... 23
Knowledge and Skills ........................................................................................................... 24
Understanding the Varied Mental Health Context of Students of Color .......................... 25
Practicing Cultural Humility ............................................................................................. 26

vi
Responding to Students of Color who Present Mental Health Concerns ......................... 28
Motivation ............................................................................................................................. 30
Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental Health Needs .................................. 31
Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrators .............................................................. 32
Organization .......................................................................................................................... 34
General Organizational Theory ......................................................................................... 34
Cultural Models ................................................................................................................ 36
Culture of Learning within Student Affairs Administration ......................................... 36
Culture of Innovation within Student Affairs Administration ...................................... 37
Cultural Settings................................................................................................................ 38
Allocation of Resources ................................................................................................ 38
Needed Training ............................................................................................................ 39
Performance Feedback .................................................................................................. 39
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context ............................................................................. 41
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 45

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 47
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 47
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale........................................................................... 48
Data Collection and Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 48
Interviews ................................................................................................................................. 49
Interview Protocol ................................................................................................................. 49
Interview Procedures ............................................................................................................ 50
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 51
Credibility and Trustworthiness ............................................................................................... 52
Ethics ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Limitations and Delimitations .................................................................................................. 57

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ........................................................................ 59
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 59
Interview Participants ........................................................................................................... 60
Results and Findings ................................................................................................................ 64
Research Question One ......................................................................................................... 64

vii
Knowledge Results ............................................................................................................... 64
Factual Knowledge about Understanding the Varied Mental Health Context
of Students of Color .......................................................................................................... 65
How Participants Gained Knowledge about the Varied Mental Health Context
of Students of Color ...................................................................................................... 66
Perceived Challenges Faced by Students of Color ....................................................... 69
Perceived Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Care ...................................................... 72
Procedural and Metacognitive Knowledge Pertaining to the Practice of
Cultural Humility .............................................................................................................. 74
Cultural Humility Procedural Knowledge .................................................................... 76
Cultural Humility Metacognitive Knowledge .............................................................. 78
Procedural Knowledge about Responding to Students of Color who Present
Mental Health Concerns ................................................................................................... 79
Frequency of Response ................................................................................................. 80
Function of Responding Student Affairs Administrators .............................................. 81
Challenges Student Affairs Administrators Face when Responding ............................ 84
Additional Knowledge Observations ................................................................................ 86
Motivation Results ................................................................................................................ 87
Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental Health Needs .................................. 88
Intrinsic and Attainment Value ...................................................................................... 89
Utility Value .................................................................................................................. 91
Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrators .............................................................. 93
Self-Efficacy Among Student Affairs Participants ....................................................... 94
Collective Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrator Teams ............................... 95
Perceived Identity of Colleagues .............................................................................. 96
Skill Level of Staff Providing Support ..................................................................... 98
Values and Beliefs of Colleagues .............................................................................. 99
Research Question Two ...................................................................................................... 101
Organizational Results ........................................................................................................ 102
Cultural Model of Learning within Student Affairs Administration ............................... 103
Leaders of Learning .................................................................................................... 103
Components of a Learning Organization .................................................................... 105
Cultural Model of Innovation within Student Affairs Administration ............................ 108
Innovative Initiatives Around Student of Color Mental Health .................................. 108

viii
Connection Within and Outside of Student Affairs .................................................... 109
Resistance to Change ................................................................................................... 111
Cultural Setting of Resources ..........................................................................................113
Cultural Setting of Training .............................................................................................116
Cultural Setting of Feedback ...........................................................................................119
Additional Organizational Observations ..........................................................................119
Student Affairs Administrator Burnout ....................................................................... 120
Equitable Hiring Practices .......................................................................................... 121
Alignment of the Performance Goal ........................................................................... 122
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 123

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 127
Introduction and Overview ..................................................................................................... 127
Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 127
Research Question Three ........................................................................................................ 130
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................ 130
Knowledge Recommendations ........................................................................................... 131
Increasing Factual Knowledge about Understanding the Varied Mental Health
Context of Students of Color .......................................................................................... 133
Increasing Cultural Humility Procedural Knowledge During Interactions with
Students of Color ............................................................................................................ 134
Increasing Procedural Knowledge when Responding to Student of Color
Mental Health Concerns ................................................................................................. 135
Motivation Recommendations ............................................................................................ 136
Increasing Expectancy Value .......................................................................................... 138
Increasing Student Affairs Administrator Efficacy ......................................................... 138
Organization Recommendations ......................................................................................... 139
Strengthening a Cultural Model of Learning .................................................................. 142
Encouraging a Culture of Innovation .............................................................................. 144
Increasing the Cultural Setting of Resources .................................................................. 146
Increasing the Cultural Setting of Training ..................................................................... 146
Increasing the Cultural Setting of Performance Feedback ............................................. 147
Additional Organizational Recommendations ................................................................ 149
Decreasing Student Affairs Administrator Burnout .................................................... 149

ix
Addressing Equitable Hiring Practices ....................................................................... 150
Enhancing Alignment of the Performance Goal ......................................................... 150
Researcher Reflection ............................................................................................................. 151
Implications for Future Research ........................................................................................... 152
Master’s Preparation ........................................................................................................... 153
Student Affairs Administrator Burnout .............................................................................. 153
Faculty Impact on Student of Color Mental Health ............................................................ 154
Equitable Hiring Practices within Student Affairs.............................................................. 154
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 154

References .............................................................................................................................. 157
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................ 178
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 182

x
List of Tables

Table 1 Assumed Knowledge Influences, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge
Influence Assessment ............................................................................................................... 29
Table 2 Assumed Motivation Influences and Motivational Influence Assessment ................. 33
Table 3 Assumed Organizational Influences and Organizational Influence Assessment ........ 40
Table 4 Summary of Participants and their Respective Colleges............................................. 61
Table 5 Ways Participants Acquired Students of Color Mental Health Knowledge ............... 66
Table 6 Perceived Challenges Students of Color Face ............................................................. 71
Table 7 Perceived Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Care ..................................................... 72
Table 8 Knowledge and Skill Components of Cultural Humility ............................................ 75
Table 9 Frequency of Response to Students of Color with Mental Health Concerns .............. 80
Table 10 Function of Responding Student Affairs Administrators .......................................... 81
Table 11 Challenges Student Affairs Administrators Face when Responding ........................ 84
Table 12 Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental Health Needs .......................... 89
Table 13 Self-Efficacy Among Participants ............................................................................. 94
Table 14 Factors Influencing Collective Efficacy .................................................................... 96
Table 15 Collaborating Stakeholders ..................................................................................... 109
Table 16 Required Resources ................................................................................................. 113
Table 17 Desired Training Components................................................................................. 116
Table 18 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations .................................. 131
Table 19 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ................................... 137
Table 20 Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations ............................. 140

xi
List of Figures

Figure A. Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge

and Motivation within Field Cultural Models and Settings ..................................................... 44

xii
Abstract

Grounded by the Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework (2008) as well as an
amalgamation of learning, motivational, cultural, and organizational change theories and
frameworks, this field study aimed to understand the interaction between student affairs
administrators (SAA) and college students of color (SOC) with mental health needs. SAA are
higher education professionals who directly provide services to and care for attending students.
The purpose of this project was to uncover suggestions that could be used to produce strategies
to prepare SAA to work with and support SOC with mental health needs. To gather relevant and
meaningful data, the study applied a qualitative research methodology with a phenomenological
approach. Using a mix of convenience and snowball sampling, thirteen entry to mid-level SAA
who worked at non-profit public and private baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities
throughout the United States participated in individual interviews. The interview responses and
subsequent data analysis revealed several noteworthy findings in the realms of knowledge and
skill development, expectancy value theory, individual and collective efficacy, and cultural
models and settings within the field of student affairs. This study offered knowledge,
motivational, and organizational recommendations to SAA centered on the concepts of learning,
innovation, and diversity.

Keywords: college/university, student affairs administrators, students of color, mental health,
learning, innovation, discrimination, cultural humility, sense of belonging

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Student affairs administrators (SAA) are postsecondary educational professionals who
promote comprehensive student development, wellbeing, and learning through mentoring,
advising, and programming (Long, 2012; Sandeen, 2004). As part of their functional job
responsibilities and in alignment with a college’s respective mission, SAA regularly interact with
students outside of the classroom (Sandeen, 2004). As SAA are often at the epicenter of the
student experience, these educators regularly provide informed, non-clinical guidance and
support to students who have mental health needs (Douce & Keeling, 2014). Additionally, SAA
strive to advance equity, diversity, and inclusion efforts (EDI), particularly among college
students of color (SOC), which includes supporting SOC with mental health needs (Wesley,
2019). Despite the pivotal role SAA play in campus life, research regarding the mental health
needs of SOC seldom includes specific preparatory suggestions for SAA. The recommendations
commonly focus on senior-level administrators, campus mental health professionals, and faculty.
At the same time, colleges throughout the United States are experiencing an upsurge in
both the number of students entering higher education with preexisting mental health conditions
and the utilization rates of campus mental health resources (Center for Collegiate Mental Health,
2017; Gallagher, 2015; Gruttadaro & Crudo, 2012; Lipson et al., 2018). Moreover, SOC often
have a different, more nuanced set of mental health needs and are traditionally underserved in
mental health settings due to factors associated with experienced and perceived racism and
discrimination (Cokley et al., 2013; Cokley et al., 2017; Eisenberg et al., 2011; French &
Chavez, 2010; Harris Poll, 2015; Hunt et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2014; Miranda et al., 2015).
For example, help-seeking stigma tended to be common among SOC (Defreitas et al., 2018;

2
Miranda et al., 2015), which found many SOC turning to non-clinical campus entities for mental
health assistance (Lipson et al., 2018).
This phenomenological field study aimed to uncover recommendations for preparing
SAA to support SOC who have mental health needs. The intent of this research was not to
propose or generate best practices for assisting SOC with mental health needs; instead, it was to
formulate preparatory strategies specifically for SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.
SOC represent a wide-ranging community with differing identities, personalities, and
experiences. The choice to focus on such a broad and heterogeneous group was deliberate as this
research sought to offer recommendations that could be used to prepare SAA to serve diverse
populations.
Field Context and Mission
The field of college student affairs administration in the United States served as the
setting for this research. This study focused on non-profit public and private baccalaureate-
granting colleges and universities, which comprised 1,628 schools and approximately 11,700,000
students as of 2020 (Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research, n.d.). According to
the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, there were a total of 4,336
institutions of higher education in the United States when this study took place (Indiana
University Center for Postsecondary Research, n.d.). For this study, the term “college”
represented non-profit public and private baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities in the
United States. The actual number of SAA working in colleges was difficult to ascertain as the
field was combined with other postsecondary educational administration jobs within the
employment statistics. In 2016, there were 180,100 postsecondary educational administrator jobs
throughout all United States institutions of higher education, including student affairs, registrar,

3
and admissions professionals (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2016). The
National Center for Educational Statistics (2016) stated there were 113,000 student affairs,
academic affairs, and other educational services professionals working in colleges as of 2016.
SAA provide a multitude of holistic student services, encourage learning, and ensure the
basic needs of the student are met (Ciobanu, 2013; Sandeen, 2004). The field of student affairs
administration encompasses an array of specialized areas including, but not limited to: residential
life; leadership; active citizenship; mental health and wellbeing services; diversity and inclusion
affairs; campus events; and judicial affairs (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of
Labor, 2016; Cawthorn & McDonald, 2002; Long, 2012). While these specialized departments
vary from institution to institution, the purpose of student affairs is to elevate student life,
encourage civil discourse, promote connection, and uphold an institution’s respective mission
(Cawthorn & McDonald, 2002; Ciobanu, 2013). Most SAA have a master’s degree in higher
education administration or counseling (Renn & Jessup-Anger, 2008). The field does not have a
unified mission statement, but the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher
Education (2008) urged student affairs members to stimulate student learning, assess student
outcomes, and improve the function and process of programs and services. The National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) published Learning Reconsidered 2,
which recommended SAA focus on holistic student development, promote diverse experiences,
and foster positive wellbeing (Keeling, 2006).
Related Literature
In the 1860s, college health departments concentrated on physical wellbeing, but as time
progressed, the field began integrating mental health services (Kraft, 2011; Whitaker, 2010). The
mental health field developed steadily, but in the past decade, colleges have experienced

4
substantial growth in the number of students with diagnosed mental health disorders and
experiencing mental health issues (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017; Gallagher, 2015;
Gruttadaro & Crudo, 2012). In addition to the increase in quantity and severity of student mental
health issues, by 2060, the non-Hispanic White population is expected to decrease, while
multiracial, Hispanic, and Asian populations are projected to increase (Vespa et al., 2018). With
this demographic shift in the United States population, student of color enrollment in college is
also predicted to increase (United States Census Bureau, 2016). Given the anticipated rise in both
the student of color population and students experiencing mental health issues, SAA should
ensure strategies, services, and initiatives are equitable and inclusive. The Steve Fund and Jed
Foundation (2017) created a framework for colleges to address student mental health equity, and
while the research-based recommendations are thorough, they did not explicitly address ways to
prepare SAA to support the mental health needs of SOC.
Importance of the Field Innovation
SAA need to support SOC with mental health needs because failing to provide equitable
mental health assistance could find student affairs divisions and their colleges not in compliance
with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ensures that any student with a physical or mental
disability is provided equitable services, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits
discrimination based on race, color, and national origin for programs receiving federal financial
support. Together, these acts focus on equity of college mental health support regardless of race
or color.
Providing fair and inclusive mental health services benefit colleges, the general
community, and SOC (Ghavami et al., 2011; Gummadam et al., 2016; Hunt et al., 2012). When a

5
student’s mental health is sound, grade point averages (GPA) tend to increase (Bostani et al.,
2014; Eisenberg et al., 2009). Schwitzer et al. (2018) found participation in college counseling
can improve a student’s GPA. Eisenberg et al. (2009) posited dropout rates lower and graduate
rates increase when students are not struggling with depression or anxiety. Finally, improving
campus mental health can have a positive economic impact on the greater community (Ashwood
et al., 2016). As an illustration, the California Mental Health Services Authority (CalMHSA)
invested in programs at California public colleges aimed at increasing mental health treatment
for students (Ashwood et al., 2016). A cost-benefit analysis of the program estimated a
$56,000,000 per year societal benefit due to the expected lifetime earnings of students who did
not drop out of college due to mental health issues (Ashwood et al., 2016).
Field Performance Goal
This dissertation sought to uncover a set of recommendations that could be used to craft
strategies to prepare SAA to support SOC who have mental health needs. This field goal was
created after a review of literature highlighted the importance of senior college administration,
campus mental health professionals/offices, and faculty in supporting SOC with mental health
needs, but rarely explored ways SAA could support this group of students. The intent of this
study was not to supersede the work of counseling centers or wellbeing services, but to suggest
recommendations designed to work in conjunction with those offices and supplement the mental
health resources offered to SOC. While this study acknowledged components of identity such as
socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, and gender identity have an impact on mental health,
the emphasis of this research concentrated on the preparation of SAA regarding the intersection
of student race and mental health in college. A phenomenological field study, using a

6
knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) analysis, grounded the investigation of this
performance goal.
Description of the Stakeholder Groups
While SOC stand to be a primary beneficiary of the field performance goal, four main
stakeholders contribute to and are responsible for many diversity and mental health efforts within
colleges: faculty; senior administration; mental health professionals; and SAA. Faculty have
frequent, in-person contact with students primarily within, but also beyond the classroom setting.
The field goal directly impacts faculty as students with positive mental health and wellbeing
practices advance college academics (Dulce & Keeling, 2014; Bostani et al., 2014). In the age of
social and cultural movements concerning race and mental health, senior administration is
responsible for cultivating a campus environment welcoming to wellbeing and EDI efforts.
Senior administrators provide visionary oversight, but often lack routine one-on-one contact with
students. Campus mental health professionals are licensed counselors, social workers, therapists,
psychologists, and psychiatrists who work in a college’s counseling center or mental health
office. Counseling centers/mental health offices may be part of a student affairs division, college
medical center, or stand-alone entity that reports to senior administration. This stakeholder group
provides direct clinical assistance to students with mental health needs. Finally, SAA, who have
a direct connection to students as well as diversity, mental health, and general campus resources
(Ciobanu, 2013; Sue & Constantine, 2007), are a key stakeholder in the creation of equitable
student mental health support services (Fullerton, 201; LePeau, 2015). All these stakeholders
interact and collaborate regarding the mental health needs of SOC.
Stakeholder Group for the Study

7
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, one stakeholder group, SAA, served as the center of this study. SAA were defined as
full-time employees who worked in an entry to mid-level position relative to a college’s
respective organizational chart. Individuals above this level would be considered senior SAA.
While crucial to the success of this goal, senior SAA do not have as many one-on-one
interactions with students as entry to mid-level SAA. Therefore, this study concentrated on entry
to mid-level SAA who, by the nature of their job, have numerous concrete interactions with
students. SAA help create a sense of community for all campus constituents by promoting
belonging through an institution’s mission (Cawthorn & McDonald 2002). These administrators
contribute to student and academic life, support diversity and inclusion efforts, and encourage
active civil engagement (Ciobanu, 2013). SAA undergird student learning through leadership
activities, community service projects, and orchestration of faculty-student partnerships
(Sandeen, 2014). This stakeholder group works closely with SOC, counseling centers, EDI
offices, faculty, mental health professionals, and senior administration, making their placement
in the college network a tactical advantage for addressing the field performance goal.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to explore areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational influences required to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. The
analysis began by generating a list of needs and then systematically examined the list to
determine if items were needs, assets, or both. While a comprehensive asset and needs analysis
would include all key stakeholders, the stakeholder of focus for this phenomenological field
study was SAA.

8
The research questions that guided the needs and assets analysis and addressed
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization resources and solutions for SAA were:
1. What are the student affairs administrator knowledge and motivation influences related to
supporting college students of color with mental health needs?
2. What are the organizational influences with respect to student affairs’ culture and context
regarding the preparation needed to support college students of color with mental health
needs?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
prepare student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental
health needs?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework (2008) was adapted to uncover
potential student affairs administrator strategies in the area of student of color mental health.
This conceptual framework is a systematic, analytical method that helps clarify performance
goals and identify gaps between the actual performance level and preferred performance level
within an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Assumed KMO assets and needs were generated
based on the researcher’s knowledge of student affairs and related literature, as discussed in
Chapter Two. Individual interviews with SAA and data analysis determined whether the
assumed influences were needs or assets. Research-based solutions were recommended and
evaluated comprehensively.
Definitions

9
Cultural Humility: A lifelong process of authentic cultural reflection, which serves as motivation
to engage with individuals who have diverse backgrounds, thereby nurturing respect and forging
deep partnerships with one another (Foronda et al., 2016; Tervalon, & Murray-García, 1998).
Discrimination: Different from prejudice, which is an unfavorable attitude towards an individual
or group, discrimination is a direct or indirect action like preference, restriction, or exclusion
based on factors such as race, gender, color, ethnic origin, and national origin (“Discrimination”,
2019).
Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI): The Ford Foundation defined equity as providing
opportunities for all individuals to participate equally, diversity as the representation of differing
identities, and inclusion as the drive to fairly incorporate individuals with differing identities
(“Diversity, equity, and inclusion”, n.d.).
Mental Health: The state of wellbeing wherein individuals recognize their full potential and
have the ability to cope with everyday stressors, work effectively, and contribute to their
respective community (“Mental health”, 2019).
Race: A political, historical, cultural, and socially constructed term used to describe a group of
individuals often classified by similar physical characteristics (Dubriwny et al., 2004).
Student Affairs Administrators: A group of professionals who work in colleges throughout the
United States who provide student services, contribute to student life, and support the mission of
their respective institution (Ciobanu, 2013; Sandeen, 2004).
Students of Color: Black/African American, Latino/a/x American, Asian American, and Native
American students attending college. The term may also refer to individuals who have multiple
identities, such as Afro-Latino. There is a distinction between Black and African American.
Although the definitions are multifaceted due to their social, historical, and cultural contexts,

10
Black tends to serve as a racial descriptor for individuals of African ancestry and African
American is often considered an ethnic term describing Americans of Black African descent
(Sigelman, Tuch, & Martin, 2005).
Organization of the Study
This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter One provided a brief overview, key
concepts, and terminology commonly found in a discussion about SAA and the mental health
needs of SOC. Moreover, Chapter One introduced the field goal, stakeholders, and the concept of
the assets and needs analysis. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding
the scope of the study as well as a detailed examination of the study’s conceptual framework.
The chapter includes topics such as the role of SAA and a historical, cultural, and social analysis
of college student mental health. Chapter Three details the study’s research methodology, which
contains information regarding ethics, choice of participants, data collection, and data analysis.
Chapter Four will present the data and results of the study. Finally, Chapter Five provides the
study’s recommendations, based on the collected data, literature, and the conceptual framework
for preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. The chapter will also provide
implications for future research and the study’s conclusion.

11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The literature review begins with a historical and social narrative of student mental health
at colleges, including the current rise of student mental health concerns. The subsequent section
provides cultural and social perspectives of college students of color (SOC) while highlighting
the connection between mental health and race. The literature review then explores the
overarching purpose of student affairs administrators (SAA) and how these educators interact
with SOC. The chapter concludes with an application of the Clark and Estes Gap Analytic
Conceptual Framework (2008) to explore knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO)
influences of SAA in being prepared to support SOC with mental health needs. Although the
literature presented has been applied to various problems, this review focused primarily on the
literature’s application to preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.
College Student Mental Health
Historically, a portion of students attending colleges have required mental health
assistance; however, the number of students with mental health issues has significantly risen in
the past decade (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017; Lipson et al., 2016; Lukianoff &
Haidt, 2018; United States Census Bureau, 2016). Several studies concluded that experienced
and perceived discrimination have a significant impact on the mental health of SOC (Cokley et
al., 2013; Cokley et al., 2017; Harris Poll, 2015). Furthermore, lack of campus belonging
(Gummadam et al., 2016; Johnson et al., 2007) and barriers to seeking mental health assistance
(Hunt et al., 2015; Lipson et al., 2018; Miranda et al., 2015) also influence the mental health of
SOC.
History of College Student Mental Health

12
Colleges in the United States have worked progressively to provide and expand mental
health services for their students (Barreira & Snider, 2010; Kraft, 2009; Turner & Hurley, 2010).
In the early 1800s, Harvard University first introduced the concept of mass physical education,
influenced by German and Scandinavian practices (Turner & Hurley, 2010). When Amherst
College established the first student health service, personal health and exercise were the main
emphasis (Kraft, 2011). Between 1860-1900, the limited mental health offerings within student
health services were geared towards women (Prescott, 2011; Turner & Hurley, 2010). Vassar and
Wellesley Colleges provided care and isolation areas for women; Princeton University followed
by incorporating infirmary care for men in 1893 (Turner & Hurley, 2010).
In the early 1900s, the Mental Hygiene Movement underscored newfound attention on
psychosocial problems (Kraft, 2011), and colleges began to focus more time and energy on
student mental health (Kraft, 2011; Prescott, 2011; Turner & Hurley, 2010). In addition to
national movements, students began demanding better and more affordable health care at their
respective colleges (Prescott, 2011). A variety of mental health innovations also occurred during
this time: the University of California developed a holistic student health system, which included
physical and psychological care in 1901 (Turner & Hurley, 2010); the National Committee for
Mental Hygiene formed in 1909 (Barreira & Snider, 2010); and in 1910, Dr. Stewart Paton
established the first recorded student mental health service at Princeton University (Barreira &
Snider, 2010; Kraft, 2011). Dr. Paton stated students were not prepared for the challenges of
modern life and believed stressors beyond the “shell-shock” of veterans impacted mental health
(Barreira & Snider, 2010, p. 22).
During the 1920s and 1930s, colleges continued to expand their student mental health
services. The American College Health Association was founded in 1920, and its purpose was to

13
improve the physical health needs of college students (Randol et al., 2010), but also stressed the
importance of student mental hygiene (Kraft, 2011). In 1931, the National Conference on Health
embraced a set of universal student health standards, which included mental hygiene (Kraft
2011). In this same period, college administration and faculty continued to define and recognize
the roles of college health professionals (Kraft, 2009). Moreover, the National Conferences on
Mental Hygiene discussed the various social, legal, and educational responsibilities of colleges
regarding their student’s health and mental wellbeing (Turner & Hurley, 2010). While college
student mental health services developed steadily in the 1920s and 1930s, the growth paled
compared to the period after World War II.
Following World War II, more veterans were attending college than ever before due to the
promotion of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, colloquially known as the G.I. Bill
(Randol et al., 2010). Many of these veterans required additional physical and mental health
facilities, which found colleges growing their counseling services (Barreira & Snider, 2010;
Randol et al., 2010). In 1947, Dr. Fry, a Yale University psychiatrist, found 15% of students used
mental health centers at colleges and universities that offered those services (Kraft, 2011). By
1953, 87 colleges and universities had a designated mental health or counseling program under
clinical leadership and approximately 51% of institutions of higher education had some type of
program to assist with student emotional wellbeing (Reinhold, 1992). The 1950s saw an
increased awareness of suicide, eating disorders, violence, and drug and alcohol misuse, and as a
result, these issues were now considered part of an individual’s overall mental health (Whitaker,
2010). At this time, Dr. Dana Farnsworth, a Harvard University MD, promoted the idea of a
comprehensive college mental health care system for all students (Barreira & Snider, 2010).
Many of Dr. Farnsworth’s arguments were ahead of their time: mental health has a considerable

14
impact on the educational process; teachers and students should work together to create
supportive relationships (Barreira & Snider, 2010); and student health was not merely the
responsibility of the college’s health professionals, but of the entire school (Prescott, 2011).
During the 1960s and 1970s, college mental health services grew to include drug and
alcohol treatment, campus constituent involvement, and suicide prevention (Kraft, 2009). Due to
the civil rights movement, the women’s rights movement, and the increase in college attendance
because of baby boomers, the 1960s saw significant growth in college student mental health
services (Kraft, 2009; Whitaker, 2010). Still, the services offered were often small and split
between health services and counseling centers (Kraft, 2009). In 1973, Section 504 of the
National Rehabilitation Act prohibited discrimination against mental and physical handicaps,
making it easier for students with mental and physical disabilities to enroll and sustain in college
(Whitaker, 2010). The 1970s saw the mental hospital deinstitutionalization movement, which
allowed individuals with mental health issues to apply to institutions of higher learning
(Whitaker, 2010). As more individuals began attending postsecondary institutions, colleges
expanded their services and separated physical health from mental health; counseling centers
became the epicenter of student mental health (Barreira & Snider, 2010). For over a century,
student-driven campaigns, as well as social, cultural, and political movements directly influenced
the size and assortment of mental health care provided by colleges. During episodic periods of
growth, mental health centers developed appropriate accommodations. Presently, colleges and
their respective counseling centers are working to acclimate to the influx of students with mental
health concerns (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017; Lipson et al., 2018).
Contemporary College Student Mental Health Context

15
In the past decade, colleges have experienced a significant increase in the quantity and
severity of student mental health issues (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017; Gallagher,
2015; Gruttadaro & Crudo, 2012). According to the Center for Collegiate Mental Health 2016
Annual Report (2017), which collected data from 139 participating college and university
counseling centers, the number of students who sought mental health services increased by 50%
between 2015 and 2016. As of 2016, approximately 22% of incoming first-year college students
stated they had at least one disability or disorder (Eagan et al., 2017). This same survey, The
American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2016, found nearly 14% of incoming first-year
students anticipated seeking personal counseling, a steady increase from a low of 3.5% in 1991
(Eagan et al., 2017). The Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors
Annual Survey 2016-2017 found 46% of students reported problems with anxiety in 2013, which
rose to 51% in 2016 (Reetz et al., 2017). Anxiety is now one of the most common and
challenging issues for college students (Reetz et al., 2017). Moreover, many college-aged adults
also struggle with depression. Using data collected from 155,026 college students who
participated in the Healthy Minds Study, Lipson et al. (2018) found the rates of suicidal ideation
and depression increased from 2007-2017. Young adults with depression have the highest
comorbidity rates of any age group with symptoms that include suicidal ideation, anxiety, other
mental health issues, and substance misuse (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 2011). Between 2010 and 2016, reports of self-harm by college students who
sought mental health care rose from 21.8% to 27%, seriously considering suicide increased from
24% to 34.2% (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017).
While studies have demonstrated an overall increase in mental health issues and
counseling center utilization rates, student mental health experiences fluctuate based on

16
demographic differences. Lipson et al. (2016) reported differences in mental health issues vary
based upon academic major: humanities, arts, and design majors had an increased probability of
mental health issues; nursing, business, and public health majors had a decreased likelihood of
mental health issues; social work majors had the highest possibility of seeking treatment; and
engineering and business majors sought help the least. Equally important, suicide rates tended to
be higher for males than females (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.), while
depression rates were higher for females than males (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and
Quality, 2016). Students in private or small schools were more likely to receive treatment than
students attending large institutions (Eisenberg et al., 2011). As stated, SOC often face increased
stressors due to perceived and experienced racial discrimination, which can negatively impact
their mental health and help-seeking behavior (Cokley et al., 2013; Cokley et al., 2017; French &
Chavez, 2010; Hall et al., 2015; Gummadam et al., 2016; Hwang & Goto, 2009; Pieterse et al.,
2012). Given the increase in student mental health issues and wide array of factors impacting
mental health, colleges and scholars are attempting to find potential root causes.
Research-based opinions attempting to explain the current rise in student mental health
issues differ. Lukianoff and Haidt (2018) argued the decline of free play, political divisions, and
perfectionism might lead to a rise in mental health issues among students. Moreover, the authors
believed limiting free speech and overprotection from parents and college administration
confined the capacity to discuss, interact, and challenge thoughts, leading to increased mental
health struggles (Lukianoff & Haidt, 2018). Schepman et al. (2011) found that parents’
emotional problems may increase the emotional problems of their children. The rise and
utilization of social media and technology may increase depression and anxiety (Pantic, 2014) as
well as mood disorders and suicidal ideation (Twenge et al., 2019). How an individual used

17
information and communication technologies affected how it interplayed with mental health
(Panova & Lleras, 2016). If an individual was merely bored, using technology did not harm
mental health; however, if an individual used technology as a coping mechanism, emotional
issues often increased (Panova & Lleras, 2016). Payton et al. (2018) found being a victim of
violence, a survivor of sexual assault, or a member of an underrepresented/traditionally
marginalized race could exacerbate mental health issues. Equally important, the rise in college
student mental health issues and utilization of campus counseling services might be due in part to
a cultural change in thinking wherein individuals are more open, accepting, and aware of mental
health concerns (Gruttadaro & Crudo, 2012; Henriques, 2018). Essentially, this generation of
students may have a lower stigma associated with seeking care and feel more comfortable using
mental health services. Although it is challenging to deduce the precise factors leading to the rise
in student mental health concerns, colleges still have a responsibility to provide equitable and
inclusive care for all students.
Understanding the Phrase Students of Color
Race is challenging to define, as many scholars believe it to be socially constructed,
while others view it in terms of genetic differences based on population or power dynamics
(Dubriwny et al., 2004). One study found college students conceptualized race as a cultural,
biological, and socially constructed phenomenon; ultimately, these students did not have a
singular definition of the word “race” (Morning, 2009). Cornell and Hartmann (2007) defined
race as a classification system enforced by a dominant group over a traditionally oppressed group
based upon perceived physical characteristics. The concept of race in the United States includes
historical factors such as the Age of Exploration and English ethnocentrism (Sun, 1995) as well
as a deep connection to the transatlantic slave trade (Davis, 1997). While race has ties to culture,

18
power, and history, the physical characteristics that had defined race have varied over time,
emphasizing its socially constructed nature (Cornell & Hartmann, 2007).
The term “person of color” often refers to individuals in a racial or ethnic group who are
not White and is progressively replacing the word “minority” as that word suggests that an
individual is less than another (Schaefer, 2008). Schaefer (2008) believed there is a socio-
historical component to the term “person of color” as it allows individuals to discuss their racial,
ethnic, or tribal associations without using degrading terminology (2008). Generally, “student of
color” refers to Black/African American, Latino/a/x American, Native American, and Asian
American (Zanolini Morrison, 2010). 45% of college undergraduates, which equates to
approximately eight million individuals, identify as SOC (Espinosa et al., 2019). The phrase
people or students of color represents a tapestry that delves into an assortment of subject areas.
For this research, the term “SOC” refers to Black/African American, Latino/a/x American, Asian
American, Native American, and individuals who identify as multiracial. Studies on Native
American college student mental health are currently limited; accordingly, most of the research
centered on African American, Latino/a/x American, and Asian American students.
Connection Between College Students of Color and Mental Health
The interplay between race and mental health is decidedly intricate and nuanced.
Innumerable factors, both within and beyond the college environment, impact the mental health
of SOC. Research has uncovered three particularly significant factors related to college student
of color mental health: mental health stigma; perceived and experienced discrimination; and
sense of campus belonging.
SOC often have stigmas which prevent them from seeking clinical campus care
(Barksdale & Molock, 2009; Defreitas et al., 2018; Eisenberg et al., 2011; Lipson et al., 2018;

19
Mendoza et al., 2015; Miranda et al., 2015). This stigma to mental health and counseling services
negatively impacts the ability of SOC to receive proper clinical assistance (Barksdale & Molock,
2009; Miranda et al., 2015). SOC have cited fear from what others would think and time as
primary barriers to seeking assistance (Miranda et al., 2015). Defreitas et al. (2018) argued
stigmas are often symptoms of broader issues related to discrimination.
It is common for SOC to report high levels of perceived and experienced discrimination
(Cokley et al., 2013; Hall et al., 2015; Hwang & Goto, 2009; Kim et al., 2017; Pieterse et al.,
2012). Regarding mental health specifically, discrimination has been linked to an increase in
suicidal ideation, distress, anxiety, and depression (Hwang & Goto, 2009; Kim et al., 2017;
Pieterse et al., 2012). As an illustration, racial microaggressions, everyday exchanges that
transmit condescending messages to people of color, occur regularly, and negatively impact
wellbeing (Davis et al., 2016; Sue & Constantine, 2007). Students can experience
microaggressions at the interpersonal or institutional level (Yosso et al., 2009), highlighting the
constant, pervasive impact of discrimination.
Although mental health stigma and discrimination, which include microaggressions,
directly impact the mental health of SOC, when SOC have a strong sense of connection to their
respective campus, help-seeking behavior increases (Gummadam et al., 2016). Moreover, when
SOC have a definite sense of belonging to their college, overall mental health can improve
(Gummadam et al., 2016).
Student Affairs Administrators
History and Purpose of Student Affairs Administrators
In the early twentieth century, SAA provided rudimentary support to students regarding
matters outside of the classroom, but as time progressed, the field purposefully expanded and

20
now offers a diversity of holistic student services (Ciobanu, 2013; Keeling, 2006; Sandeen,
2004). Fashioned after Germanic and European university models, the roots of student affairs in
the United States began in the 1800s (Long, 2012). During this period, faculty worked with
students for non-academic matters such as financial, personal, and social issues; however, after
World War I, colleges began to hire dedicated administrators to oversee the non-academic
aspects of student life (Long, 2012). In the 1920s, the student personnel movement began
professionalizing the field by creating an alignment between student personnel administrators,
students, and faculty within the college environment (Hevel, 2016).
During the post-World War II era, the field of student affairs administration developed as
an essential entity within colleges, similar to the growth of college mental health centers
experienced at the same time. The 1960s saw the field transition from a model that acted in place
of parents, also known as in loco parentis, to a more theoretical and academically based standard
(Long, 2012). In this time, researchers created theories to help understand and provide improved
support to students. These theories explored matters such as individual identity development,
psychosocial aspects of development, and student epistemological models. During the 1980s and
1990s, student affairs research continued to center on White, male, late-teenage aged college
students, but focus began to shift in the early 2000s as student demographics diversified (Long,
2012). Student affairs is now typically characterized by a global mindset that includes
community development, diversity, caring for the whole student, conflict resolution, and
counseling (Long, 2012). With over 100 years of history, the field of student affairs
administration transitioned from an entity that served as a parental unit to a global profession that
seeks to help students in a multitude of ways. Like the development of college mental health and

21
counseling centers, many factors influenced the scope and direction of student affairs
administration.
Currently, SAA oversee many functional college areas such as residential student
housing, Greek life, and event management, and play a crucial role in student growth and
development (Marshall et al., 2016). SAA undergird student learning through leadership
activities, community service projects, and orchestration of campus partnerships (Sandeen,
2004). Moreover, the field contributes to student and academic life by supporting EDI efforts and
encouraging positive wellbeing (Ciobanu, 2013; Keeling, 2006). Many entry to mid-level SAA
work directly with students through their involvement in student organizations, campus housing,
community service, and other various campus activities. The median starting age for SAA was
32 years old, while the median age for an academic affairs position was 37. A master’s degree is
typically needed to acquire a student affairs position (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, 2016). SAA often attend graduate school for student affairs, higher
education administration, or counseling, and feel it is their calling to serve students (Renn &
Jessup-Anger, 2008). Many leave the field due to burnout, salary disputes, work/life balance
issues, loss of passion, and limited opportunities for professional growth (Marshall et al., 2016).
Additionally, an estimated 15–20% of the student affairs workforce is comprised of new
professionals (Renn & Jessup-Anger, 2008). These frontline professionals are often individuals
with more one-on-one interactions with students as compared to senior SAA who focus on larger
projects and initiatives.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics projected a 10% increase in postsecondary educational
administrators by 2026, which included student affairs, registrar, and admissions professionals,
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2016). This growth would account for

22
approximately 18,200 jobs (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2016).
Seventy-one percent of current SAA identify as female; 51% of the entire field identify as White
females (Pritchard & McChesney, 2018). Latino/a/x and Asian SAA are underrepresented in the
field compared to the student population they serve. Seventeen percent of college students
identify as Latino/a/x, but encompass 8% of the student affairs field; similarly, 6% of students
identify as Asian, but only comprise 3% of SAA (Pritchard & McChesney, 2018). Additionally,
20% of SAA identify as White men, and approximately 17% of SAA identify as Black (Pritchard
& McChesney, 2018). With the changing demographics in the United States, the subsequent
increase in student diversity, and need for additional mental health services, the field of student
affairs will need to continue to evolve to be prepared to support SOC with mental health needs.
Student Affairs Administrator Involvement with Mental Health and Students of Color
SAA are actively involved in EDI initiatives and non-clinical mental health efforts
(Ciobanu, 2013; Keeling, 2006; Sandeen, 2004), making them essential and knowledgeable
stakeholders in the pursuit of this goal. Moreover, this group has the motivation to work with
campus stakeholders to improve mental health and wellbeing services for their students (Baldwin
et al., 2017; Sue & Constantine, 2007). As stated, campus mental health and wellbeing centers
are seeing an increase in student utilization across the United States, and while these
developments are occurring, colleges should focus on creating and strengthening campus
partnerships (Fullerton, 2011). LePeau (2015) argued cultivating more reliable connections
between academic and student affairs could improve diversity and inclusion efforts at colleges.
Although SAA have vital skills and connections needed to progress the college
environment such as working in groups rather than isolation (LePeau, 2015), SAA should
acknowledge their racial and cultural norms, examine other worldviews, and continue

23
developing expertise in equity and inclusion to serve SOC (Sue & Constantine, 2007). SAA
should also aim to minimize the impact of racial microaggressions on SOC (Sue & Constantine,
2007). This study sought to develop the KMO influences associated with preparing SAA to
support SOC with mental health needs.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Change efforts are most successful when organizations clearly define strategies, mitigate
internal barriers, and utilize a practical framework to address goals and gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). The Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Framework (2008) aims to minimize performance
gaps, advance organizational goals, and solve real-world problems by examining assumed KMO
influences via a needs and assets analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). The researcher used this
framework to address assumed KMO influences of SAA within the field of student affairs. Clark
and Estes (2008) stated that knowledge influences assess a stakeholder’s awareness and
understanding of information, concepts, and procedures required to achieve a goal. Motivational
influences examine whether stakeholders have the drive to initiate, sustain, and utilize mental
dexterity when pursuing an organizational goal or minimizing a performance gap (Clark & Estes,
2008). Finally, organizational influences explore how components such as culture, values,
norms, and procedures impact the success or failure of change efforts.
For this study, the knowledge influences pertained to the information and skills SAA
need to be prepared to support SOC with mental health needs. The motivational influences
considered were expectancy value theory (Eccles, 2003) and efficacy (Bandura, 2005; Pajares,
2006), and the organizational influences explored cultural models and settings (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Since this study did not focus on one specific college, the word
“organization” will pertain to the field of student affairs. The following sections will explore, in

24
greater detail, this study’s assumed KMO influences and demonstrate how the individual
influences interact with one another. Chapter Three will provide the research methodology used
to assess KMO needs and assets.
Knowledge and Skills
The development of knowledge and skills is crucial for successful organizational and
employee growth (Clark & Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) identified four
different types of knowledge: factual; conceptual; procedural; and metacognitive. Factual
knowledge involves concrete bits of information such as dates, facts, terminology, and figures
(Krathwohl, 2002). As an example, SAA should understand the context of student of color
mental health, which encompasses concrete, factual information. Conceptual knowledge includes
models, theories, and differentiation between ideas (Krathwohl, 2002). In other words,
conceptual knowledge refers to the complex forms of ordered knowledge that analyze, compare,
and contrast information. Krathwohl (2002) combined factual and conceptual knowledge types
into an all-encompassing category known as declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge
explores how to do something and emphasizes steps, techniques, and methods (Krathwohl,
2002). Finally, metacognitive knowledge is thinking about how individuals think and how to
self-regulate behavior based on that information (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive
knowledge includes self-awareness, self-reflection, planning approaches to situations,
monitoring inner self-dialogue, and problem-solving skills (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Implementing novel and useful strategies requires SAA recognize the four knowledge types and
examine each to understand where knowledge gaps might exist in preparing to support SOC with
mental health needs. The researcher found three fundamental knowledge influences affected the
field performance goal: factual knowledge concerning the varied mental health context of SOC;

25
procedural and metacognitive knowledge of cultural humility; and procedural knowledge
regarding the direct response of SAA to SOC who present mental health concerns.
Understanding the Varied Mental Health Context of Students of Color
A vital component of this study’s KMO conceptual framework is the assumption that
SAA should be aware of the varied mental health context of SOC. As mentioned in earlier
sections of the literature review, a variety of factors impact the mental health of SOC, such as
help-seeking stigma, perceived and experienced discrimination, and sense of campus belonging.
Moreover, Karkouti (2015) argued colleges could better address campus discrimination and
racial incidents if they employ multicultural knowledge and skills. Ultimately, this knowledge
influence posited SAA should have a general awareness and comprehension of the college
student of color mental health environment, which includes topics such as mental health needs,
sociohistorical background, barriers to receiving care, recognized root causes, and mitigating
factors. At the most rudimentary level, college personnel should know the campus mental health
resources available to students (Goldman, 2018).
This assumed knowledge influence is factual as it comprises figures, demographics, and
facts about the mental health context of SOC. The student of color mental health context could
include a variety of statistical data such as counseling center utilization rates among SOC,
percentage of SOC entering colleges with preexisting mental health issues, and the changing
demographics of the college student population. A firm understanding of the underlying context
allows an organization to effectively address performance problems and gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). Bensimon (2005) argued college personnel should know, understand, and share pertinent
diversity and inclusion-based information with key stakeholders. To be included in the
conversation and share valuable learned knowledge with other campus stakeholders, SAA need

26
to be aware of the context of student of color mental health. It is important to note that college
student of color mental health research is vast and continually evolving. The expectation is not
that SAA know all facts and figures but have a general understanding when pursuing and
executing solutions. To explore this topic, the researcher conducted individual interviews with
student affairs administrator participants. The interviews assessed whether SAA understood the
fundamental mental health context of SOC.
Practicing Cultural Humility
The second knowledge influence examined was cultural humility, which includes
procedural and metacognitive knowledge types. Cultural humility is the process wherein
practitioners become progressively skilled at recognizing cultural differences through a humility-
based framework that aims to increase empathy (Davis et al., 2016). The constructs and
principles of cultural humility were grounded in the counseling field to enrich interactions with
people of different cultural backgrounds; however, this process offers a path for SAA to engage
and improve communication with SOC authentically. Cultural humility uses reflective modesty
to nurture a more culturally-minded perspective and approach (Davis et al., 2016). Cultural
humility differs from cultural competency insofar as cultural humility focuses on a communal,
lifelong process of cultural learning, rather than an aptitude-based endpoint (Tervalon, &
Murray-García, 1998). Furthermore, cultural humility includes understanding and respecting
others, developing partnerships, and fixing power imbalances (Hook et al., 2013; Tervalon &
Murray-García, 1998).
Cultural humility moves away from a self-focused perspective to a broader, more
inclusive other-oriented perspective (Hook et al., 2013). Hook et al. (2013) encouraged
counselors who wished to implement the other-oriented approach treat clients with respect, focus

27
on the aspects of identity that the client deems most germane, and see individuals as equals.
While SAA are not mental health counselors, SAA could incorporate the other-oriented approach
during conversations, interactions, and communications with SOC to address mental health
needs. In addition to a perspective focused on the other, self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-
critique are crucial aspects of cultural humility (Yeager & Bauer-Wu, 2013). Self-awareness
involves understanding individual biases and demonstrating compassion toward cultural issues
through an exploration of values, beliefs, and actions (Yeager & Bauer-Wu, 2013). Self-
reflection requires honest understanding of thoughts and feelings during and after interactions,
which focus specifically on cultural differences (Yeager & Bauer-Wu, 2013). Finally,
practitioners should engage in a self-critique wherein an evaluation of thought and action occurs;
ultimately, resulting in self-regulatory behavioral changes aimed at improving the connection
with individuals of different cultural backgrounds (Yeager & Bauer-Wu, 2013). As individual
identity is a dynamic and ever-evolving concept, those practicing cultural humility should
engage in reflective activities to gain a deeper understanding of others as well as self. Self-
reflection practices are especially relevant given the discrimination-based stressors, issues of
belonging, and help-seeking stigmas experienced by many SOC. In short, cultural humility
provides an avenue toward empathy, compassion, and understanding.
Developing and enhancing cultural humility proficiency requires individuals to
continually practice and learn a variety of skills such as cultural communication and active
listening (Foronda et al., 2016; Tervalon, & Murray-García, 1998). To be prepared to serve and
support SOC who have mental health needs, SAA need to know how to effectively utilize
cultural humility in interactions, conversations, communications, and initiatives with SOC.

28
Metacognitive knowledge finds individuals reflecting upon and adjusting to their
cognition and actions (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Using cultural humility to address SOC
mental health requires self-reflection and self-critique on the part of SAA. Essentially, observing
and noticing thoughts and ideas, then modifying those items accordingly. Reflection seeks to
make meaning through relationships, context, ideas, and experiences (Rodgers, 2002).
Throughout the practice and implementation of cultural humility, SAA need to regularly dissect
their thoughts, words, behaviors, biases, and preferences.
Individual interviews assessed the procedural and metacognitive knowledge types of
cultural humility. Interviewing SAA regarding SOC with mental health needs provided
information regarding assumptions, preferences, reflections, skillset, and biases. These
interviews also analyzed how and if SAA incorporate cultural humility into their interactions
with SOC.
Responding to Students of Color who Present Mental Health Concerns
The final knowledge influence is responding to mental health concerns of SOC, a
procedural knowledge type. As stated, procedural knowledge is the knowledge associated with
performing a task; essentially, it explains how an individual completes a specific duty
(Krathwohl, 2002). This study posited SAA need to know how to respond to SOC regarding their
mental health; specifically, how SAA talk, act, interact, and support SOC. Much of the literature
regarding non-clinical college employee response to student mental health concerns focused on
faculty; however, SAA can incorporate the same methodology. College employees require
deliberate mental health response training (Baldwin et al., 2016; Lipson et al., 2018) focused on
adjusting to individual student wellbeing situations (Manthorpe & Stanley, 1999). Research has
also discussed the importance of knowing and promoting campus mental health resources

29
(Goldman, 2018; Lipson et al., 2018) and observing, responding, and reflecting when students
present mental health concerns (Goldman, 2018; Kucirka, 2017). To address SOC and their
mental health, the literature highlighted the need for cross-cultural training of college staff and
faculty (Hunt et al., 2015; Karkouti, 2015; Lipson et al., 2018). Individual interviews assessed
the procedural knowledge of SAA regarding how they responded to SOC who presented mental
health concerns.
Table 1 provides an overview of the three assumed knowledge influences, their
respective knowledge type(s), and assessment methods to address the field performance goal.
Although the field of student affairs does not have a singular mission, Table 1 offers a brief
overview of student affairs guiding principles.
Table 1
Assumed Knowledge Influences, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Influence Assessment
Field Mission
While the field of student affairs does not have one overarching mission statement, the
Council for the Advancement of Standards (2018) in Higher Education advised SAA to
support student learning, assess program and student outcomes, and improve the function and
process of student-based initiatives and services. Learning Reconsidered 2, a publication by
the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), advocated that SAA
focus on student development, EDI initiatives, and wellbeing efforts (Keeling, 2006).

Field Performance Goal
To uncover a set of recommendations that could be used to craft strategies to prepare SAA to
support SOC who have mental health needs.

Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type

Knowledge Influence
Assessment

SAA need to know about the
varied mental health context of
SOC.

Factual Conduct interviews with SAA
across the country to assess
their knowledge of the varied
mental health context of SOC.

30
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type

Knowledge Influence
Assessment

SAA need to understand and
incorporate cultural humility
into their interactions with SOC.

Procedural and
Metacognitive
Interview SAA to analyze if
and how they incorporate
cultural humility when
supporting SOC; specifically,
pertaining to their mental
health needs.

SAA need to know how to
appropriately respond to SOC
who present mental health
concerns.
Procedural Interview SAA to assess if and
how they respond when SOC
present mental health
concerns.

Motivation
Knowledge alone cannot remedy a problem, minimize a performance gap, or achieve a
goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). When knowledge and motivation act together, their whole is greater
than the sum of their parts. As an illustration, if an organization were a car, knowledge would be
the engine, while motivation would be the fuel (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation provides
energy to complete tasks and achieve goals. Motivational theories center on cultivating and
sustaining effective organizational and individual problem-solving and goal achievement
(Pintrich, 2003). Clark and Estes (2008) argued motivation captures how an individual believes
in themselves, their colleagues, and the organization. Motivation partnered with knowledge
provides a strong foundation to address gaps and achieve goals. Motivation gets to the core of
what people want (Pintrich, 2003). An examination of motivation is necessary to address the
field performance goal.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation can thrive or collapse in one of three
areas: active choice; persistence; and mental effort. Referred to as motivational indices, these
three domains allow organizations to narrow the focus of their performance goals. Active choice

31
is the commitment to begin an intended task, item, initiative, program, etc. (Clark & Estes,
2008). Persistence is the ability and willingness to continue working on a goal for some time,
while curtailing distractions that arise. Mental effort describes the deftness of an organization,
employing flexibility and ingenuity when pursuing goals and adjusting to challenges (Clark &
Estes, 2008). For this study, SAA should have the motivation to prepare themselves to support
SOC with mental health needs. After reviewing the literature, the motivational theories of
expectancy value and efficacy were the most pertinent in pursuing the field performance goal.
Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental Health Needs
Eccles’s expectancy value motivational theory (2006) posed two questions: “Can I do the
task?” and “Do I want to do the task?”. This theory examines the expectancies of success and the
subjective task values of future relevance, personal interest, enjoyment, and cost (Eccles, 2006).
The essence of expectancy value theory is that values, active choice, persistence, and mental
effort are key motivational components. Four subjective task value beliefs ground expectancy
value theory: attainment, intrinsic, utility; and cost (Eccles, 2006).
Attainment value highlights the connection between personal self-schema and the nature
of the larger organizational goal (Eccles, 2006). If an organizational task, program, or initiative is
related to an individual’s beliefs and experiences, they are more likely to value and complete the
work assignment. Under this subjective task value, if SAA appreciate the importance of
preparing to support SOC with mental health needs, they are more likely to engage. The second
subjective task value is intrinsic value, which is the personal enjoyment that an individual
experiences or expects to experience when completing a task (Eccles, 2006). In the case of this
study, if SAA enjoy performing their job duties, which include supporting SOC with mental
health needs, they may place a higher value on pursuing the performance goal. Utility value

32
emphasizes the accomplishment of present and future goals and their respective usefulness to the
organization (Eccles, 2006). This subjective task value takes into account the interrelationship
between intermediate and global goals. In other words, utility value examines how a current goal
fits into an organization’s long-term plans. Supporting students with mental health needs has the
potential to improve retention rates (Douce & Keeling, 2014), advance academics (Bostani et al.,
2014; Eisenberg et al., 2009; Schwitzer et al., 2018), and strengthen a college’s overall finances
(Ashwood et al., 2016; Eisenberg et al., 2009). The last subjective task value is cost, which is the
total time, energy, and emotional effort required to complete a goal (Eccles, 2006). SAA need to
be aware that preparing to support SOC with mental health needs will require time, energy, and
mental effort. If SAA believe the perceived costs are too high, motivational problems may ensue.
To measure the expectancy value motivational influence, SAA participated in interviews
demonstrating the values related to supporting SOC with mental health needs. Fundamentally,
the interviews assessed if SAA valued the pursuit of this goal, where their value(s) derived, and
if their values aligned with supporting SOC with mental health needs.
Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrators
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to complete a task or project
(Bandura, 2005), while collective efficacy delves into the inner workings of an organizational
mindset, examining a group’s beliefs, agency, and effectiveness (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006).
In other words, collective efficacy signifies a team’s belief in their ability to execute tasks and
achieve a shared goal successfully. In contrast, self-efficacy focuses on an individual’s beliefs in
their skills and capacity. Groups with high efficacy work on goals, projects, and initiatives for
more extended periods and use a variety of learning strategies to pursue tasks, also known as
mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizations with high collective efficacy also experience

33
less anxiety about addressing performance gaps, and vigorously participate in challenging
activities (Pajares, 2006). When individuals and groups demonstrate high efficacy, the impact on
motivation is often positive. Conversely, low collective efficacy can harm team motivation
(Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Collective efficacy has a symbiotic relationship with a group’s
motivation level, success record, and emotional state (Pajares, 2006). Operationalizing individual
and collective efficacy requires SAA believe in themselves, their team members’ capabilities,
and have a shared vision for student of color mental health. Knowing the varied mental health
context of SOC, practicing cultural humility, and responding to the mental health needs of SOC
are challenging knowledge skills that require a high degree of efficacy among respective student
affairs teams. When perceived efficacy is high, team performance improves as well as the
capacity to navigate challenges effectively (Bandura, 2000).
Table 2 shows an overview of the expectancy value and efficacy motivational influences
and respective motivational influence assessments for SAA while addressing the performance
goal. Furthermore, Table 2 provides a broad student affairs vision that grounded this study.
Table 2
Assumed Motivation Influences and Motivational Influence Assessment
Field Mission
While the field of student affairs does not have one overarching mission statement, the Council
for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (2018) advised SAA to support student
learning, assess program and student outcomes, and improve the function and process of student-
based initiatives and services. Learning Reconsidered 2, a publication by the National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), advocated that SAA focus on student
development, EDI initiatives, and wellbeing efforts (Keeling, 2006).

Field Performance Goal
To uncover a set of recommendations that could be used to craft strategies to prepare SAA to
support SOC who have mental health needs.

34
Assumed Motivation Influences

Motivational Influence Assessment
SAA need to value the goal of supporting SOC
with mental health needs.

Interview SAA to assess if they believe
being prepared to support SOC with mental
health needs connects to their values.

SAA need to have efficacy regarding the support
provided to SOC with mental health needs.

Interview SAA to assess if they and their
student affairs colleagues believe in their
ability to be prepared to support SOC with
mental health needs.

Organization
Organizations and their respective cultures are multi-tiered, highly complex systems with
a diversity of rules, expectations, values, goals, processes, and assumptions (Schein, 2017;
Schneider et al., 1996). As organizations are not stagnant entities, they must embrace change to
remain adaptive, relevant, and sustainable (Clark & Estes, 2008; Kezar, 2001). Galvanizing
organizational buy-in for change impacts the ability to minimize performance gaps and
accomplish organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). As stated, this study did not examine one
specific organization, but the field of student affairs concerning the performance goal. Two
specific influences of student affairs organizational culture were analyzed to address the goal,
cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models are the collective values and mental
schema within an organization, while cultural settings are the visible social contexts within an
organization, including employees and their respective tasks (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
General Organizational Theory
Schein (2017) described organizational culture as a pattern of fundamental beliefs and
assumptions within an organization. These shared assumptions influence how an organization
adapts to internal and external changes, impacts employee morale, thoughts, and ideas, and

35
transmits from older members of the organization to newer members, directly and indirectly
(Schein, 2017). These organizational patterns, beliefs, and assumptions influence the overall
environment without conscious awareness (Schein, 2017). Positive organizational culture can
foster trust, build community, create allies, and increase communication (Agocs, 1997;
Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Korsgaard et al., 2002; Lencioni, 2004). Organizational cultures
that lack trust and communication foster fear, friction, and groupthink (Buckingham & Coffman,
1999; Harvey, 1998; Korsgaard et al., 2002; Lencioni, 2004; Morrison & Milliken, 2000). For
organizations to sustain a positive and productive organizational culture, the team must establish
trust, communicate effectively, create allies, and be willing to take risks (Agocs, 1997;
Korsgaard et al., 2002). Buckingham and Coffman (1999) posited trust and respect create the
foundation for diversity, mission-driven action, self-directed teams, and ultimately, an
organization that seeks learning and continuous improvement.
Schein (2017) believed organizational culture, whether constructive or harmful, is
demonstrated through three lenses: artifacts; espoused values and beliefs; and basic underlying
assumptions. Artifacts are the visible structures, behaviors, physical elements, and products of an
organization. The espoused values and beliefs are the communicated standards that provide
meaning and context to members within an organization. Lastly, the basic underlying
assumptions are the principles and systems that often unconsciously guide organizations, which
determine organizational behavior (Schein, 2017). A similar perspective is that organizational
culture consists of models and settings (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models include
underlying assumptions and espoused values and beliefs, while cultural settings encompass
artifacts and visual exemplifications of values and beliefs (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This

36
study explored the cultural models of learning and innovation and the cultural settings of
resources, training, and performance feedback concerning the field performance goal.
Cultural Models
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) described cultural models as the underlying beliefs and
values of an organization. Often, these models are so invisible, they go unnoticed by individuals
in the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models serve as the foundation of
cultural settings (Schein, 2017). When beneficial and innovative cultural models align with
cultural settings and organizational knowledge and motivation, sustainable change is almost
inevitable (Schneider et al., 1996). The field of student affairs administration needs a culture of
learning and innovation to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.
Culture of Learning within Student Affairs Administration. A learning organization
does not seek to find the “right” way to accomplish tasks but strives for strategic and dynamic
thinking that provides a bouquet of opportunity (Senge, 1990). This type of thinking requires
organizations modify their vision accordingly, foster creativity, adapt to their internal and
external environment, and find solutions to fundamental problems, not just the symptoms
(Garvin et al., 2008; Kezar, 2001; Senge, 1990). Within a learning organization, leaders are
stewards and coaches charged to stimulate learning, adaptability, and assessment (Senge, 1990).
Leaders facilitating a cultural model of learning should provide feedback, motivation, and
encourage knowledge and skill acquisition (Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999). Fernandez and
Rainey (2006) referred to these leaders as “idea champions” (p. 171). To foster trust, creativity,
and problem-solving, organizations must first value their employees and individuals they serve
(Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999).

37
Another central feature of this cultural model is integrative thinking, wherein
practitioners use creative tension to drive innovation and learning (Martin, 2009). In pursuing the
field performance goal, SAA need to have a culture of learning, focused on self-reflection
(Barley, 2012; Renn & Jessup-Anger, 2008; Rogers, 2002), collaboration and communication
regarding mental health and diversity (Barreira & Snider, 2010; Fullerton, 2011; Hunt et al.,
2015; Lipson et al., 2018) and knowledge assessment (Green et al., 2008; Schuh, 2013).
Culture of Innovation within Student Affairs Administration. In addition to a culture
of learning, the field of student affairs administration needs to focus on the cultural model of
innovation in the pursuit of the field performance goal. Innovation is a willingness to change by
implementing useful and novel ideas through networking, questioning, experimenting, and
observing (Dyer et al., 2011). A culture of innovation finds opportunity in complex and
challenging situations (Catmull & Wallace, 2014), takes risks and creates allies (Agocs, 1997;
Tellis, 2013), and allows time to hone creativity within group settings (Sawyer, 2012).
To strengthen a culture of innovation, organizations should step outside of their comfort
zone and network beyond their immediate work environment (Hargadon, 2003). Hargadon’s
small world theory (2003) suggested leaders are often siloed in their respective specialty areas
and should step outside of that community to collaborate with various individuals to increase
creativity. Innovative collaboration could find SAA partnering with important campus
stakeholders, such as faculty and mental health professionals, to discuss how to support the
mental health needs of SOC (Fullerton, 2011; Kitzrow, 2003; LePeau, 2015). A culture of
innovation may require SAA collaborate with external entities to help them pursue ideas to
support SOC with mental health needs. SAA need to be willing to take risks and try new tactics
when addressing the field performance goal. These tactics could involve engaging in difficult

38
dialogues regarding EDI with students (Sue & Constantine, 2007) or hiring more faculty and
staff of color (Hunt et al., 2015). Cultural settings should undergird the cultural models of
learning and innovation.
Cultural Settings
Changing an organization's values and beliefs require an alteration of everyday practices
and routines (Schneider et al., 1996). When two or more people from an organization come
together, that interaction creates a cultural setting (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural
settings are the concrete expressions of cultural models insofar as they are visible, everyday
components of an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). To put it another way, as an
electron is an excitation of the electron field, the cultural setting is an observable manifestation
of the cultural model. Cultural settings, like cultural models, can be detrimental to an
organization when trust, organizational support, and overall effectiveness is absent (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001; Schneider et al., 1996). The three cultural settings needed to accomplish the
field performance goal are resources, training, and performance feedback.
Allocation of Resources. If the field of student affairs administration seeks to prepare
itself and individual staff members to support SOC with mental health needs, resources are key
factors that may help or hinder goal achievement. Resources can refer to time, personnel,
finances, policies, etc. that an organization allocates for the pursuit of a goal or initiative. The
pace of organizational change must be known, agreed upon, and meet the needs of the
beneficiaries and overall organization (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006). If the time allocated to
prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs is too short or too long, employees and
leadership may get frustrated with the process or lose interest in pursuing the goal altogether.
Lack of financial or personnel resources can contribute to employee burnout and depletion of

39
motivation; however, if resources are healthy and the pace of change meets the need, employee
morale will likely increase (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). While simple concepts in theory,
organizations need to be strategic about how they amass the required resources to pursue student
mental health (Hunt et al., 2012) and EDI initiatives (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). The
field of student affairs administration needs to carefully consider sources of funding, calculate
indirect costs, and assess current and future resources.
Needed Training. The Japanese concept of kaizen, continuous improvement through
incremental change (Higuchi et al., 2015), embodies the training mentality required for the
pursuit of this goal. Kaizen acknowledges that all leaders have strengths and weaknesses, but
when leaders remain stagnant or aim to preserve the status quo, the lack of progress will likely
yield failure. Practical training is the transferring of knowledge and skills from one entity to
another, which leads to behavior change (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Grossman & Salas, 2011;
Kirkpatrick, 2006). Training is an essential part of organizational and individual employee
growth and change (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Berger, 2014; Fernandez & Rainey, 2006;
Grossman & Salas, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2006). Studies have established the importance of mental
health and EDI trainings for college personnel (Hunt et al., 2015; Karkouti, 2015; Lipson et al.,
2018). Regarding this study, trainings could cover cultural humility, organizational motivation,
self-reflection, and ways to respond to SOC who present mental health concerns. Akin to the
pace of change and resources, training should pair with student affairs cultural models and
settings, knowledge, and motivation.
Performance Feedback. The final cultural setting examined within the field of student
affairs administration was performance feedback. Feedback propels both the ambition to learn
and the desire for acceptance of individuals within an organization (Stone & Heen, 2014). When

40
performance feedback focuses on enhancing skills, reinforcing positive behaviors, and creating a
solid foundation for expectations, employees thrive (Armstrong, 2017). To put it another way,
feedback is about pulling the employee and not pushing them; pushing bolsters employer ego,
while pulling intrinsically motivates the employee (Stone & Heen, 2014). Clear and regular
communication is the key to successful performance feedback (Armstrong, 2017; Berger, 2014).
Armstrong (2017) argued performance feedback should be a continuous process rather than a
singular or biannual event. A supervisor can provide performance feedback to employees for
items such as training, program implementation, individual reflective activities, motivation, and
overall knowledge. As with most cultural models and settings, if the trust is absent, performance
feedback will not be successful (Stone & Heen, 2014). For example, when responding to student
mental health concerns, it is vital for individuals, such as faculty, to receive feedback and
practice individual reflection to improve their skills (Kucirka, 2017; Kitzrow, 2003). Mental
health and EDI trainings will likely not yield behavior change unless regular performance
feedback is provided to SAA by qualified practitioners within or outside the field of student
affairs. Mental health professionals, SAA content specialists, faculty, or practitioners outside of
the field can provide performance feedback during the pursuit of the field performance goal.
Table 3 provides a general student affairs vision, overview of the organizational
influences of cultural models and cultural settings, and organizational influence assessment to
utilize while addressing the field performance goal. Individual interviews assessed the five
assumed organizational influences.
Table 3

Assumed Organizational Influences and Organizational Influence Assessment

41
Field Mission
While the field of student affairs does not have one overarching mission statement, the
Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (2018) advised SAA to
support student learning, assess program and student outcomes, and improve the function
and process of student-based initiatives and services. Learning Reconsidered 2, a publication
by the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), advocated that
SAA focus on student development, EDI initiatives, and wellbeing efforts (Keeling, 2006).

Field Performance Goal
To uncover a set of recommendations that could be used to craft strategies to prepare SAA to
support SOC who have mental health needs.

Assumed Organizational Influences

Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence:
The field needs a culture of learning to
pursue new ideas and information.

Interview SAA to assess if the field has a
culture of learning and how the field can
increase a culture of learning to address the
field performance goal.

Cultural Model Influence:
The field needs a culture of innovation that
implements beneficial and creative change.
Interview SAA to assess if the field has a
culture of innovation and how the field can
increase a culture of innovation to address
the field performance goal.

Cultural Setting Influence:
The field needs resources to prepare to
support SOC with mental health needs.

Interview SAA to assess the resources
needed to address the field performance goal.

Cultural Setting Influence:
The field needs training regarding SOC
mental health.

Interview SAA to assess the mental health
and EDI trainings needed to address the field
performance goal.

Cultural Setting Influence:
The field needs to provide informed
performance feedback to SAA.

Interview SAA to assess the performance
feedback needed to address the field
performance goal.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework (CF) is a constructed, tentative model that highlights the
significant components within a planned study and how those components interact with one

42
another (Maxwell, 2013). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described the CF as the fundamental
structure or scaffold of a study created by the researcher. The Clark and Estes Gap Analytic
Conceptual Framework (2008) grounded this study. The CF connects pertinent frameworks and
foundational knowledge to a study’s importance, research questions (RQ), and purpose (Rocco &
Plakhotnik, 2009). Analyzing interactions between KMO influences is essential for achieving
organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The assumed KMO influences are not three separate
entities acting in isolation; rather, they are a symbiotic unit, which interacts closely with one
another (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study’s CF highlighted how the KMO influences
intermingled within the field of student affairs.
Figure A portrays the assumed KMO influences that impacted SAA in achieving the field
performance goal. Additionally, Figure A interweaved the four knowledge types (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011) with the Clark and Estes (2008) assumed knowledge influences. The first of
the assumed knowledge influence addressed in the conceptual framework is awareness of the
varied mental health context of SOC, a factual knowledge type. This assumed knowledge
influence highlights the range of pertinent information concerning the diverse student of color
mental health context. The second assumed knowledge influence is cultural humility, which
encompasses procedural and metacognitive knowledge types. Cultural humility can improve
communication and interactions with SOC (Davis et al., 2016; Foronda et al., 2016). The final
knowledge influence is responding to mental health concerns of SOC. An appropriate response
to students presenting mental health issues can lower student stress (Goldman, 2018). The
motivational influences addressed in the conceptual framework are expectancy value theory,
connecting values to a task (Eccles, 2006), and efficacy, a belief in the ability of self and
colleagues (Bandura, 2005; Pajares, 2006). The field of student affairs administration served as

43
this study’s organization, and SAA were the stakeholder of focus. Cultural models of learning
(Senge, 1990) and innovation (Dyer et al., 2011) undergirded the organizational section. The
researcher believed cultures of learning and innovation provided a stable foundation to pursue
the goal. In conjunction with the cultural models of learning and innovation, the conceptual
framework explored the cultural settings of resources, training, and performance feedback.

44
Figure A. Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation within
Field Cultural Models and Settings

All KMO influences have been included in the CF as the literature demonstrated their
importance and connection to one another. The outer blue oval represents the cultural context of

Field of Student Affairs Administration
The field needs cultural models of learning and innovation focused on the cultural
settings of resources, training, and performance feedback.

Student Affairs Administrator
Stakeholder Assumed
Knowledge Influences
Varied mental health context of
SOC (factual)

Cultural humility (procedural and
metacognitive)

Response to mental health concerns
of SOC (procedural)

Student Affairs Administrator
Stakeholder
Assumed Motivation
Expectancy Value Motivational
Theory

Individual and Collective
Efficacy

Field Performance Goal
To uncover a set of recommendations that could be used to craft
strategies to prepare SAA to support college SOC with mental
health needs.

Motivation Influence Descriptions:

SAA need to value the goal of being
prepared to support SOC with mental
health needs.

Individual and collective efficacy
explore the belief SAA have in
themselves and their student affairs
colleagues’ ability to pursue to
performance goal.

Knowledge Influence Descriptions:

Understanding the varied mental health context of
SOC provides a factual knowledge base.

Cultural humility requires procedural knowledge and
the metacognitive skills of self-reflection and self-
regulation.

Responding to student of color mental health
concerns is a necessary skill in the pursuit of this
goal.
Key

Field

Stakeholder
Knowledge

Stakeholder
Motivation

Parallel
Interaction

Interactions
Lead to Goal

Knowledge
and
Motivation
Additional
Descriptions

45
All KMO influences were included in the CF as the literature demonstrated their
importance and connection to one another. The outer blue oval represents the cultural context of
the field of student affairs administration within non-profit public and private baccalaureate-
granting colleges and universities. This area highlights the assumed cultural models of learning
and innovation and cultural settings of resources, training, and performance feedback necessary
to pursue the field performance goal. The green circle within the blue oval represents assumed
knowledge influences of SAA regarding student of color mental health: mental health context of
SOC; cultural humility; and response to mental health concerns of SOC. The red circle within the
blue oval signifies assumed motivational influences of expectancy value theory and efficacy. The
knowledge and motivation circles are deliberately positioned within the broader culture and
context of the field of student affairs administration to demonstrate the KMO’s mutual
relationship. The purple double arrow in between the knowledge and motivation circles represent
their parallel interaction, signifying the interdependent bond between knowledge and motivation
within the field. The orange square below the blue oval displays the field performance goal of
preparing SAA to support SOC with the mental health needs within the field of student affairs
administration in the United States. The Black dotted lines and boxes provide additional
descriptions of assumed knowledge influences and motivational theories.
Conclusion
This chapter reviewed literature related to college student mental health, the intersection
of student mental health and SOC, perspectives regarding identity and terminology, and SAA
involvement with student mental health and SOC. The chapter then provided assumed KMO
influences to address the field performance goal. Three knowledge influences were: factual
knowledge of the varied mental health context of SOC; procedural and metacognitive knowledge

46
related to cultural humility; and procedural knowledge in responding to the mental health
concerns of SOC. The assumed motivational influences included expectancy value theory and
efficacy. Finally, the assumed organizational influences comprised cultural models of learning
and innovation as well as cultural settings of resources, training, and performance feedback.
These assumed KMO influences were incorporated into the Clark and Estes Gap Analytic
Conceptual Framework (2008), which served as the foundation for this study. Chapter Three will
present the study’s methodology and research approach demonstrating how KMO information
was collected and analyzed.

47
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to explore assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) influences needed to prepare student affairs administrators (SAA) to
support college students of color (SOC) with mental health needs. The findings from the study
were used to craft strategies to prepare SAA to assist SOC with mental health needs. Chapter
Three includes a detailed review of the inquiry methodology used to collect and analyze data.
The chapter covers the following information: participating stakeholders; interview sampling
criteria and rationale; data collection and instrumentation; interview protocol and procedures;
data analysis; credibility and trustworthiness; ethics; and limitations and delimitations. The
research questions that grounded this study were:
1. What are the student affairs administrator knowledge and motivation influences related to
supporting college students of color with mental health needs?
2. What are the organizational influences with respect to student affairs’ culture and context
regarding the preparation needed to support college students of color with mental health
needs?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
prepare student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental
health needs?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this study was SAA. SAA are college staff who
provide a variety of services, such as campus housing and programming, to ensure that students'
essential needs are met (Ciobanu, 2013; Sandeen, 2004). Although the field has a large number
of employees, individual interviews served as the primary data collection method due to the

48
exploratory nature of this innovative field study. The purpose of this study and the research
questions align best with individual interviews. The researcher aimed to examine the intricacies
of the assumed KMO influences regarding SAA supporting SOC with mental health needs.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The main interview sampling criteria for this stakeholder group was that participants
were entry to mid-level SAA working at colleges in the United States. For this field study, the
researcher used a non-probability, non-random mix of convenience and snowball sampling.
Convenience sampling, selecting participants based on proximity to the researcher (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), initiated the interview process. The researcher first drew upon the researcher’s
professional network to recruit a small number of knowledgeable and conveniently accessible
SAA to participate in interviews. The researcher also utilized snowball sampling, a process
wherein a researcher asks participants to recommend other informed participants (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher recruited a sample of 13 participants who represented a diversity
of student affairs demographic and professional characteristics. As an example, the years of
student affairs experience of participants ranged from 2-24 years. Moreover, the colleges that
participants worked included a mix of small, mid-sized, and large public and private institutions.
Interviews concluded once saturation of responses occurred.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The purpose of conducting interviews is to gather rich, descriptive data, primarily
obtained by talking directly to individuals (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Through individual interviews, researchers can unearth deep meaning (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), which is not often able to be captured through observation (Patton, 2015).
Exploring the KMO influences needed to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs

49
required the researcher conduct in-depth, fact-finding, and meaningful interviews. Additionally,
the interviews utilized a phenomenological approach, a research method that focuses on
understanding phenomena, making meaning of situations, and analyzing how individuals interact
with one another and the culture in which they live (Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The proceeding sections expand upon the interview methodology.
Interviews
Interview Protocol
The interview questions for this study (see Appendix A) were semi-structured, which
means the researcher wrote the questions in advance and periodically asked questions out of
order to accommodate the flow of the discussion (Johnson & Christensen, 2015; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Semi-structured interviews allow a researcher to reword interview questions and
ask probing questions to clarify participant responses and find deeper meaning (Creswell, 2018).
Probing and follow-up questions are crucial to attaining accuracy and more in-depth responses
from participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton 2002). A semi-structured interview approach
provided a reliable medium to gather the necessary data to answer the research questions and
respect the participants’ comfort level. The interviews began with introductory questions, aimed
at easing the participant into the interview process. The researcher then asked question about the
assumed KMO influences, followed by closing questions.
The interview questions addressed all components within the conceptual framework:
knowledge influences of the varied mental health context of SOC, cultural humility, and the
response of SAA; motivational theories of expectancy value theory and efficacy; and
organizational cultural models of learning and innovation as well as organizational cultural
settings of resources, feedback, and training. The prewritten questions benefitted from probing

50
and follow-up questions to gain a holistic viewpoint of the KMO influences among participants
concerning SOC mental health. Furthermore, the prewritten interview questions, which were
open-ended, attempted to elicit honest individual narratives, rather than a simple one-word
response (see Appendix A).
Interview Procedures
The researcher conducted 13 one-time interviews with participants for around 60 minutes
each. The interviews started in November 2019 and finished in January 2020. The reasonably
uniform college work and holiday cycle guided the choice in the timing of interviews. The three-
month span of interviews allowed ample time for communicating, scheduling, and rescheduling,
which aimed to increase the likelihood the researcher achieved saturation of responses in a
timely fashion. The time of day in which the interviews took place was dependent upon the
participants’ schedules. Rich and meaningful data is best collected in a naturalistic setting
(Creswell, 2018; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). When possible, the researcher interviewed
participants while they were in their respective work environments, but some interviews were
conducted after hours and/or outside of a participant’s work environment. As participants
worked at colleges throughout the country, the researcher could not meet with everyone in-
person. Eleven interviews were conducted through online meeting platforms such as Skype,
Zoom, or FaceTime as well as via phone; two interviews occurred in-person.
As will be discussed in the ethics section, written and verbal informed consent notified
participants that the interviews would be recorded. All participants permitted the researcher to
take thorough hand-written notes to capture main points, thoughts, and observations. All
interviews were conducted in the English language. When appropriate, a researcher should share
past experiences and possible personal biases to participants to increase credibility and

51
trustworthiness (Creswell, 2018). Accordingly, the researcher shared a professional and personal
connection to the study with participants.
Data Analysis
Comprehensive qualitative data analysis allows a researcher to gain clarity and
understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher conducted data analysis throughout the
interview process. During interviews, the researcher methodically engaged in member checking
to ensure the researcher clearly understood participants’ responses and allowed them to clarify
their thoughts. Member checking is a practice of soliciting feedback, analyzing statements, and
addressing possible misinterpretations of participants during interviews (Maxwell, 2013). After
each interview ended, the researcher reviewed the recording to verify that it did not have audio
or technological issues. Following audio verification, the researcher submitted the recording to
rev.com, a confidential company that transcribes audio recordings. Upon receipt of the
transcribed interview, the researcher destroyed the audio recordings to safeguard confidentiality
further. The researcher stored the transcribed interviews on a password-protected desktop
computer, located in a locked room.
When the researcher transcribed the last interview, the researcher uploaded all 13
interview transcriptions to ATLAS.ti, a qualitative data analysis software program. The
researcher then engaged in the open coding process using ATLAS.ti. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
stated open coding is a process of noting relevant phrases and quotes, often in a verbatim
fashion. The codebook within ATLAST.ti captured all of the initial open codes. After the open
coding process ended, the researcher made a copy of the project in ATLAS.ti. The original
version of the project preserved the initial open codes, while the copy was used for the axial
coding process. For this study, axial coding involved sorting and merging open codes into

52
general themes based on the research questions, KMO framework, and related literature. The
final analytic process involved finding patterns within the axial codes that corresponded with
assumed KMO influences. The researcher then took the pattern codes within ATLAS.ti and
transferred the information into a Microsoft Word document to create an overarching data
analysis summary, which quantified responses, highlighted important participant quotations, and
curated themes which fell outside of the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness are keystones of qualitative research as data collection
methods, data analysis, and findings are tied to the researcher, who serves as the primary
research instrument (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). While the two terms are nearly
inseparable in qualitative inquiry, credibility refers explicitly to the findings, while
trustworthiness refers to the researcher and overall research process (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Since this qualitative research focused on preparing SAA to support SOC
regarding mental health needs, a socially, historically, and politically charged subject, the
researcher remained aware of personal biases, positionality, and philosophical worldviews to
maintain credibility and trustworthiness. If a researcher fails to disclose biases and personal
associations to the research subject matter to participants, credibility and trustworthiness may
decrease (Creswell, 2018; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Ignoring personal biases can find a
researcher asking leading interview questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and misinterpreting the
results (Malloy, 2011). For this study, the researcher frequently self-reflected on how personal
biases could negatively impact credibility and trustworthiness. To accomplish self-reflection and
self-regulation, the researcher set aside 1-2 times a week during interviews and the data analysis
process to capture thoughts and self-critiques through analytic memos. Analytic memos are brief

53
write-ups conducted by a researcher to examine and assess general metacognition and biases
throughout the interview process.
Creswell (2018) posited a researcher with a pragmatic worldview seeks to collect data
that best answers the research questions, regardless of methodology. Based on this study’s
research questions, individual interviews were the most effective means for data collection. As
an overarching philosophical perspective, pragmatism is concerned with practical, real-world
problem-solving and accepts that reality and truth are always changing (Creswell, 2018). In the
ever-evolving world of race and mental health, what is true today may not be true tomorrow.
Finding solutions to this problem of practice required the researcher to keep an open mind and
understand, as Creswell (2018) stated, that truth is what works at a given moment. Moreover, the
researcher understood a transformative philosophical worldview also carefully paired with the
research questions. The transformative worldview maintains an orientation focused on justice,
collaboration, and creating change (Creswell, 2018). These two philosophical perspectives were
synergistic as practical problem-solving and a drive for socially-just change grounded this study.
Along with mindfulness of biases and philosophical worldview, the researcher was aware
of positionality. Positionality refers to a researcher's social, political, cultural, and personal
position concerning the topic of study and respective participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In
this case, the researcher is a White, progressive, middle-class male who is studying the
intersection of student affairs, race, and mental health. By most postmodern measures, the
researcher is a privileged individual. The researcher was wholly aware that he could securely
write about issues of race and mental health as he had not personally experienced the
intergenerational trauma produced by systemic discrimination. At the same time, the researcher
is a first-generation American, first-generation college student, and has Jewish ancestry. These

54
identities contributed to the researcher’s passion for equity, diversity, and inclusion initiatives
and belief in open dialogue. The researcher accounted for personal positionality throughout the
research process to ensure participants found the researcher credible and trustworthy.
The researcher practiced reflexivity, collected rich data, participated in member checks,
and quantified data when feasible to explicitly address credibility within the findings of this
research. Reflexivity refers to the interplay between the researcher, the researcher’s connection
to the study, and the overall research process (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Reflexivity directly connects to an awareness of biases, positionality, and worldview. As stated,
analytic memos and regular self-reflection bolstered reflexivity. Still, as Robinson and Firth
Leonard (2009) argued, the researcher should monitor data interpretation and understand that
data is not divorced from the researcher’s beliefs. To assist in the reflexivity practice, the
researcher collected meaningful data. Maxwell (2013) stated that gathering useful data requires
copious notetaking, emphasizing verbatim quotes, or closely paraphrased statements. During
interviews, the researcher focused on capturing, as strictly as possible, precisely what
participants said. These notes included the researcher's comments, thoughts, and reactions to
participants’ responses.
To further increase credibility and trustworthiness, the researcher practiced member
checking during the interviews. Due to the complicated subject matter of this research, member
checking helped ensure the researcher clearly understood and accurately captured participant
perspectives. Finally, when applicable, the researcher engaged in the quantification of the
qualitative data. Maxwell (2013) stated that utilizing numbers in qualitative research adds a layer
of credibility. The researcher quantified the number of participants who answered critical

55
questions in a similar or dissimilar fashion and provided a numerical analysis of KMO influences
across participants.
Ethics
As this phenomenological field study was about preparing SAA to address issues of race
and mental health in college, ethical considerations were of the utmost importance. This study
included human subjects, so it was the responsibility of the researcher to ensure all steps of the
research process were ethical. A researcher should consider ethical responsibilities for the
individuals involved with and impacted by the study through adherence to the research standards
of informed consent, avoiding harm, and confidentiality (Glesne, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). In this study, the researcher provided participants written and verbal informed consent,
maintained individual and organizational privacy through pseudonyms, and notified participants,
at multiple times, that their participation was voluntary. The researcher interviewed SAA from
across the country, including the institution at which the researcher works. Furthermore, any
participants interviewed at the researcher’s institution were not in a subordinate role, eliminating
an employer/employee conflict of interest. During the time of this study, the researcher was an
entry-level student affairs administrator working in a student wellbeing office at a private
university in the southern portion of the United States. The amassed data contained no
personally-identifying information. The proceeding paragraphs outline the researcher’s approach
to avoiding conceivable ethical dilemmas.
The first step to ensure the safety and protection of participants was to submit a proposal
to the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB). The researcher
abided by all USC IRB rules and recommendations aimed at protecting the safety of participants.
Before the interviews, the researcher provided participants an informed consent document via

56
email (see Appendix B). Providing informed consent ensures participants are aware that
involvement in a study is voluntary, and they can withdraw at any time without penalty (Glesne,
2011). When the interviews commenced, the researcher also provided informed consent verbally.
The written and verbal informed consent notified participants that, if comfortable, interviews
would be recorded. Participants and their responses were kept confidential via individual
pseudonyms and aliases for the respective institutions that participants work. The recorded
conversations were stored on the researcher’s password-protected desktop computer and
included password-protected folders. Moreover, the files and folders did not contain any
personally identifying information. The researcher informed participants of these security
measures to underscore confidentiality and build trust with the researcher, which Rubin and
Rubin (2012) argued is crucial in establishing credibility.
For this study, the researcher-participant relationship hinged upon honesty and
transparency due to the research questions and sensitive topic. A researcher should explain the
concept of reciprocity to participants: the purpose of the study; overall benefits to participants
and the field; and how participants’ knowledge would inform the research (Patton, 2015). A
potential benefit to participants was the opportunity to help improve the way student affairs
divisions prepare their staff to support the mental health needs of SOC. The researcher was
aware that participants might experience emotional discomfort when discussing the mental
health of SOC. To minimize possible anxiety, the researcher listened with compassion,
emphasized the potential benefits of the research, and reminded participants that they could
remove themselves from the study without penalty at any time. Additionally, participants did not
receive any incentives for partaking in the interviews.
The final ethical component considered throughout this study revolved around researcher

57
assumptions and biases. A researcher should be cognizant of any personal assumptions and
biases brought into the research process (Glesne, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With over a
decade of student affairs, non-clinical mental health, and EDI experience, the researcher believed
SAA are a necessary component of holistic student care and require adequate preparation to
serve SOC with mental health needs. The researcher was aware of personal biases and
assumptions regarding the research topic, but ensured participants had the full opportunity to
openly share their opinions without being led or judged by the researcher. The researcher
focused on participant ideas and perspectives rather than interjecting personal thoughts.
Essentially, the researcher used multiple resources and tools to minimize the influence of
personal biases and assumptions during the interview process.
Limitations and Delimitations
As with all studies, limitations and delimitations exist that can produce unreliable or
unrepresentative data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Limitations are areas within a study that cannot
be controlled. Some limitations of this study were:
• the raw data collected was dependent on the respondent’s truthfulness;
• unconscious bias may exist in the interpretation and analyzation of the qualitative data by
the researcher;
• convenience and snowball sampling did not represent the full range of student affairs
administrator and college demographics; and
• the absence of funding and limited research time frame restricted the sample size.
Delimitations are the decisions made by the researcher, which have an impact on the
overall data collected from the study. The major delimitations of this study were:

58
• only entry-middle level SAA provided data, which does not capture senior
administration, faculty, mental health professionals, or student perspectives; and
• the conceptual framework is not fully exhaustive and may not have captured significant
elements to investigate this study.

59
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

This study sought to uncover recommendations that could be used to generate strategies
to prepare student affairs administrators (SAA) to support college students of color (SOC) with
mental health needs. To acquire recommendations, the researcher conducted and analyzed 13
individual interviews of SAA who worked at colleges throughout the United States. The
interview questions were framed around assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences. This chapter begins with general descriptions of interview participants and
the respective colleges at which they work. The subsequent section, results and findings,
examines the KMO needs and assets as well as the interplay between the assumed KMO
influences. The three research questions that guided the overall KMO assessment were:
1. What are the student affairs administrator knowledge and motivation influences related to
supporting college students of color with mental health needs?
2. What are the organizational influences with respect to student affairs’ culture and context
regarding the preparation needed to support college students of color with mental health
needs?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
prepare student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental
health needs?
Participating Stakeholders
Entry to mid-level SAA who directly or indirectly supported SOC with mental health
needs served as the interview participants. At the time of the interviews, all 13 participants
worked at non-profit public and private baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities
throughout the United States, hereafter referred to as “college/colleges”. According to the

60
National Center for Educational Statistics (2016), there were 113,000 student affairs, academic
affairs, and other educational services employees working at colleges in 2016.
Interview Participants
As the total population of SAA is sizable, 13 individuals cannot fully represent the entire
field. Despite this fact, the participants encapsulated a variety of different individual and
organizational demographics. Ten participants self-identified as female and three as male. Seven
participants self-identified as Black/African American, three as White, one as Asian Pacific
American, one as bi-racial, and one as White and Latina. Six participants served in an entry to
assistant director role, while seven participants were at the director level. Three participants
worked in residence life/housing and two in learning/wellbeing. The eight remaining participants
worked in a variety of departments within student affairs: student activities; leadership; mission
and ministry; diversity and inclusion; scholarship programs; campus and community
engagement; university recreation; and student organizations. Participants were involved in
many activities within their positions, including student wellness, academic progress, student
programming, strategic planning, student orientation, wellbeing/mental health activities,
recruitment, and retention. Experience in the field of student affairs ranged from 2-24 years.
The colleges at which participants worked did not entirely capture the broad scope of
institutions that SAA were employed; however, the colleges comprised an array of different
characteristics and classifications. The 13 participants worked at colleges throughout the United
States: seven in the Southeast; three in the Midwest; two in the Southwest; and one in the
Northeast. The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education stated small colleges
have a student population between 1,000-2,999, while medium-sized colleges have 3,000-9,999
students, and large colleges have 10,000 plus students (Indiana University Center for

61
Postsecondary Research, n.d.). According to this system, eight colleges within this study were
large, one was medium/mid-size, and four were small. Participants worked at a variety of
colleges: four participants worked at public research colleges; three at private research; two at
private Catholic; one at a private arts and design; one private liberal arts; one private; and one
public. Eleven participants worked at predominantly White institutions (PWI), one participant at
a predominantly Black institution (PBI), and one at a historically Black college/university
(HBCU). Table 4 provides a demographic summary of interview participants as well as the
corresponding colleges they worked. The researcher obtained student racial and ethnic
information from the colleges’ websites and rounded percentages to maintain participant
confidentiality.
Table 4
Summary of Participants and their Respective Colleges

Pseudonym Position How
Participant
Identified1

Years
in
Field

College Description (type, location,
and student population)
Antoinette Director of
Student
Activities and
Leadership

“Biracial,
Christian”
2 Small private arts and design
college in the Southeast

Student population: 50% White;
20% Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 15%
International; 10% Asian; 5%
Black/African American

Barnun Director of
Mission and
Ministry

“Female,
White,
Catholic”
5

Small private Catholic university in
the Midwest

Student population: 60% White;
15% Black/African American; 20%
Other; 5% Two or more races

1 Direct participant response.

62
Pseudonym Position How
Participant
Identified1

Years
in
Field

College Description (type, location,
and student population)
Cassie Director of
Student
Affairs
"Female,
White,
Latina”
21 Professional school within large
public research university in the
Midwest

Student population: 70% White;
10% Asian; 10% Black/African
American; 5% Hispanic/Latino/a/x;
5% Two or more races

Chloe Director of
Diversity and
Inclusion

“Female,
Black”
12 Small private Catholic university in
the Midwest

Student population: 60% White;
15% Black/African American; 20%
Other; 5% Two or more races

Faith Residence
Director
“Female,
African
American”
2 Small private college in the
Southeast

Student population: 90%
Black/African American; 5%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; Other 5%

Freddie Learning
Specialist and
Adjunct
Professor

“Female,
Black,
Christian”
19 Large private research university in
the Southwest

Student population: 65% White;
10% Asian; 10% Black/African
American; 10%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 5% Two or
more races

Jason Residence
Hall Director

“Male,
Asian
Pacific
American”

4 Large public research university in
the Southeast

Student population: 45%
Black/African American; 25%
White; 15% Asian; 10%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 5% Two or
more races

63
Pseudonym Position How
Participant
Identified1

Years
in
Field

College Description (type, location,
and student population)
Jennifer Scholarship
Program
Director

“Female,
White,
Cisgender”
2.5 Mid-size private liberal arts college
in the Northeast

Student population: 75% White;
10% Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 5%
Asian; 5% Black/African
American; 5% Two or more races

Jessie Academic
Coach
“Female,
White”
21 Large private research university in
the Southeast

Student population: 50% White;
15% Asian; 10% Black/African
American; 10%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 10%
International; 5% Two or more
races

Joni Director of
Campus and
Community
Engagement

“Female,
Black”
10 Large public research university in
the Southeast

Student population: 60% White;
10% Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 10% Two
or more races; 5% Asian; 5%
Black/African American; 5%
International; 5% Native American

Kelly Community
Director
“Female,
Black,
Christian”

6 Large public research university in
the Southwest

Student population: 45% White;
25% Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 15%
Black/African American; 10%
Asian; 5% Non-resident alien

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Pseudonym Position How
Participant
Identified1

Years
in
Field

College Description (type, location,
and student population)
Michael Director of
University
Recreation

“Male,
African
American”
24 Large public university in the
Southeast

Student population: 60% White;
20% Black/African American; 10%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 5% Asian; 5%
Two or more races

Quisco Program
Coordinator
for Student
Organizations

“Male,
Black,
Dominican”
11 Large private research university in
the Southeast

Student population: 50% White;
15% Asian/Asian American; 10%
Black/African American; 10%
Hispanic/Latino/a/x; 10%
International; 5% Two or more
races

Results and Findings
Thirteen individual interviews, along with the corresponding data analysis, literature
review, research questions, and conceptual framework grounded this study's results and findings.
Chapter Four focuses on the first two research questions, and Chapter Five explores the third
research question. The results and findings addressed all assumed KMO influences and how they
interacted with one another. The knowledge and organizational influence sections contain
additional observations, which is information not discussed within the conceptual framework.
Research Question One
What are the student affairs administrator knowledge and motivation influences related
to supporting college students of color with mental health needs?
Knowledge Results

65
This section explores the conceptual framework’s three assumed knowledge influences:
factual knowledge about understanding the varied mental health context of SOC; procedural and
metacognitive knowledge regarding cultural humility; and procedural knowledge in terms of
how SAA respond to SOC who present mental health concerns. Participants demonstrated a rich
comprehension of all three assumed knowledge influences. Participants actively sought to learn
more about the overall topic of student of color mental health, hone their practice of cultural
humility, and improve their procedural response skills. Given the participants' level of
knowledge, the mental health context of SOC and cultural humility knowledge influences were
assets. Participants shared several challenges facing SAA who respond to SOC with mental
health needs, which made this assumed knowledge influence a need. The following sections
discuss each of the three assumed knowledge influences and provide additional observations not
covered within the conceptual framework
Factual Knowledge about Understanding the Varied Mental Health Context of Students of
Color
Participants possessed a firm grasp of the factual mental health context of SOC by
demonstrating an understanding of the perceived challenges SOC face, barriers to seeking mental
health care, and overall awareness of this knowledge influence’s benefits. The collected
knowledge of participants made this influence an asset. The participants shared ways they obtain
information about the mental health context of SOC, which ranged from reading about the topic,
to watching TED talks, to participating in organization workshops and trainings. Moreover,
participant responses throughout the interviews indicated they understood there is no “one size
fits all” approach to addressing student of color mental health. The enthusiasm to seek

66
knowledge regarding the mental health context of SOC is an overall asset in the pursuit of this
goal as participants wanted to learn continuously.
Participants also shared their master’s programs did little to prepare them to support SOC
with mental health needs. Only three of the participants stated they received adequate preparation
regarding student mental health in their master’s program. While master’s programs may not
directly be under the purview of individual student affairs divisions, it is worth noting that
student affairs/higher education master’s programs could improve the way they prepare students,
future SAA, to support SOC with mental health needs based on participant responses.
This knowledge influence section contains three parts: how participants gained
knowledge about the mental health context of SOC; perceived challenges faced by SOC; and
perceived barriers to seeking mental health care. Participants possessed knowledge in each of
these areas, making this knowledge influence an asset.
How Participants Gained Knowledge about the Varied Mental Health Context of
Students of Color. Participants expanded their factual knowledge of the mental health context of
SOC via several different means, which is an asset. Table 5 provides a summary of how
participants learned about the varied mental health context of SOC.
Table 5
Ways Participants Acquired Students of Color Mental Health Knowledge

Knowledge Acquisition Method

Number of Participants

Reading

6
Conversations with colleagues

4
Professional development opportunities

3

67

Knowledge Acquisition Method

Number of Participants

Organization workshops and training

2
Social media

1
Watching the news 1

TED talks

1
Webinars 1

Six of the 13 participants stated they actively engage in reading about the topic through
periodicals, journals, and books. Kelly shared:
[I] read the literature. Look at the trends. One of the things that's very specific for me,
and I again just think it's because of the kind of research that I do, is I look at some of the
trends from the city that our students are coming from, because sometimes that plays a
part in what they might have been exposed to prior to coming to campus.
Reading the literature provided Kelly with contextual information to improve her knowledge
base and ensure her students received adequate individualized care. Jennifer echoed Kelly’s
comment and shared she struggled to find information about the topic:
It's hard to find that education [student of color mental health information] elsewhere,
short of…reading and learning on your own, but also recognizing everybody has different
learning styles, and while I do try to read and learn, and watch webinars, I'm more of a
one-on-one or a small group learning-style person and I learn from conversations and
dialogue, and so, trying to balance both of those things.

68
Jennifer’s viewpoint underscored the need for self-guided and group learning to gain more
factual knowledge about student of color mental health. All participants eluded to the fact that
they regularly seek information about the topic through self-guided learning. Like Jennifer, two
other participants stated they discussed the matter with their colleagues, and another three
participants shared that they take advantage of professional development opportunities such as
conferences to learn more about the mental health context of students. Others stated that they
study the topic through social media, watching the news, TED talks, and webinars. Antoinette
stated she and “quality personnel” use multiple platforms to learn about the mental health context
of SOC:
I think the quality personnel are people who are doing research every day. And I don't
mean you have to be in a book every day. I'm just saying it is so easy. I tell people if you
can be on Facebook for an hour, you can [learn about the context of student of color
mental health]...and it doesn't even have to be reading….You can turn the TV on to the
news and watch Fox for a day, or you can watch MSNBC for a day. You have students
that have differing opinions, and upbringings, and viewpoints. So, turn on BBC
America…or read something from Al Jazeera.
While self-guided and cooperative learning were the main methods in which
participants gained knowledge about the mental health context of SOC, an area that needed
improvement was student affairs/higher education master’s programs. Seven participants
received their master’s degree in student affairs/higher education, but most did not learn
information about student of color mental health. Eight participants stated their program did not
cover mental health issues of SOC, while six said their program provided minimal information
about general student mental health. Five participants shared their program did little to cover

69
issues of diversity. Three participants with master’s degrees in counseling, stated their program
provided some preparation to support students with mental health needs. Seven participants
specifically mentioned they wished their master’s program provided more information about the
mental health needs of SOC.
Perceived Challenges Faced by Students of Color. Participant responses regarding the
challenges faced by SOC mirrored the literature, indicating that this knowledge influence was an
asset. Responses revealed an awareness of the ways that discrimination and a sense of belonging
can help or hinder the mental health of SOC. Six participants each respectively said finances,
structural racism, and imposter syndrome are challenges that SOC face, all of which can impact
mental health. Imposter syndrome is common among SOC and is a condition where an
individual feels like a fraud in a particular environment, struggles with how to recognize their
successes, and has a broad sense of self-doubt (Cokley, et al., 2013; Cokley et al., 2017).
Regarding imposter syndrome, Cassie shared:
I think the sort of perfection complex, the imposter syndrome, which I think is common
for a lot of our students in professional school particularly, but college students. But I
think for our students of color, it's two versions of imposter. I'm an imposter in that why
do you trust me, and am I really capable of being here kind of? But also, kind of that idea
that I have to be three times as good as my White peer, and they're going to catch on real
quick.
Cassie believed SOC feel they have to work harder than White students to be seen as equal,
which can impact mental health. In addition to imposter syndrome, participants stated racism and
discrimination also affect the mental health of SOC. Joni said:

70
We have students that are being called the N word on campus by their peers. Then we
have students that go to class and that are being mistreated, discriminated against. It may
be being called names by their faculty. So, this takes a toll on you mentally. So, we have
to start talking about it and be more consistent about "this is a component of the success."
That has to be a part of the equation of how we calculate success for a student, and that's
mental health.
Joni asserted discrimination and racism directly influence the mental health of SOC, and colleges
have a responsibility to develop goals and initiatives to help SOC find success. Similar to
discrimination SOC face, financial stress can present challenges both within and beyond the
college environment. Chloe stated:
Well finance is number one, [it] is like if they're stressing out because they're trying to
find money, and then also I'm working with a lot of first gen[eration] low income
students of color so their parents aren't being approved for Parent Plus loans, or they're
trying to find somebody to co-sign for them, and that person doesn't exist…And it also
stresses them out.
Chloe believed the process of finding money to pay for college, especially for first-generation
students who might be new to financing their education, had an impact on general wellbeing and
overall stress levels.
In addition to finances, imposter syndrome, and discrimination, participants shared a
variety of other challenges SOC face: previous trauma; families are unsure how to provide
support; lack of trust in administration; peer pressure; and navigating academia. Quisco provided
a perspective as to why SAA need to understand this type of factual information:

71
It's important to teach people about pitfalls, teach people about certain challenges, if
they'd gone through it before and they overcame the challenges, I have a responsibility to
teach others who are coming up about those challenges and say, "Hey, this is what I dealt
with. These were my pitfalls. I want to make sure that you are aware of these so that you
have more experience and understanding moving forward."
For Quisco, as with many other participants, knowing this information is undoubtedly important,
but it is even more imperative to use it to connect and build rapport with SOC by sharing
experiences and inspiring hope. Table 6 summarizes what participants identified as the
challenges SOC face within and beyond the college environment.
Table 6
Perceived Challenges Students of Color Face

Challenge

Number of Participants

Finances

6
Imposter syndrome

6
Structural racism

6
Previous trauma

3
Family unsure how to support student 3

Lack of trust in administration

3
Difficulty navigating academia

3
Attending a predominantly White
institution

3
Not getting their voices heard

2
Peer pressure 1

72

Challenge

Number of Participants

Guilt for attending college/survivor’s
remorse

1

Perceived Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Care. Although there are similarities to
the previous participant responses, a portion of interview questions specifically focused on the
barriers that prevent or minimize the likelihood of SOC using campus mental health resources.
Participant responses were consistent with topical literature on student of color mental health
stigma, which showed this knowledge influence was an asset. Nine participants stated general
stigma within student of color communities is a barrier to seeking mental health assistance.
Seven participants said faculty communication and actions can hurt help-seeking behavior. Five
participants thought SOC might lack self-care skills, while another five stated SOC might not
feel a sense of belonging at their respective colleges. Along the same lines, three participants
said SOC do not feel supported by administration and one participant said SOC have a fear of
campus public safety officers. Finally, one participant said SOC lack time to utilize campus
mental health care. Table 7 provides a summary of participant responses.
Table 7
Perceived Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Care

Barrier

Number of Participants

General mental health stigma

9

Lack of faculty empathy

7

Lean self-care skills 5

73

Barrier

Number of Participants

Limited sense of belonging at college

5
Do not feel supported by administration

3
Fear of police/public safety officer

1
Lack of time 1

Regarding general stigma to seeking mental health assistance, Quisco said:
I think that's a big one, especially for students of color. This idea of getting help is seen
as a bad thing. You're assumed to be "crazy." You can create a dissonance when you do
that, or at least that's the perception, right? You can create a distance from you and your
peers if you're seen as someone who's seeking or receiving some sort of mental health
resources or therapy or whatever is used to help the student, assist. And so, while the
resources are openly available, the students, they're hesitant.
In addition to peer pressure creating barriers to seeking mental health care, Jason stated cultural
reasons may undergird stigma:
I think we [Jason’s colleagues] also are constantly struggling with cultural stigmas. I
think we need to, yeah, figure that out. We need to figure out a way to or constantly
normalize that assistance or constantly normalize seeking out mental health assistance or
support.
These responses align with research from Defreitas et al. (2018) and Miranda et al. (2015), which
posited mental health stigma impacts the help-seeking behavior of SOC.

74
Besides lack of time, the remaining responses related to the perception that SOC do not
feel supported at their respective college and have a general absence of trust in their college.
Barnun shared:
There's a lack of trust [among SOC], and it's well earned. So, it takes a lot to build that
trust. Depending on where you're coming from, and what you've experienced as a young
person, it doesn't come easy, and I don't blame them. I don't blame anyone for having that
problem.
Research has demonstrated that a negative sense of belonging can decrease help-seeking
behavior (Gummadam et al., 2016; Lewis & Hodges, 2015). When discussing her respective
college, Jessie shared Barnun’s viewpoint:
I think the institution as a whole is not particularly welcoming to students of color. So,
when you layer mental health needs on that, you've got resources that don't appear or are
not experienced as accessible for students of color in an environment that is already
stressing if there were existing mental health concerns or, certainly, creating additional
challenges, if not diagnoses.
Essentially, Jessie and Barnun believed SOC attending their respective institutions lack trust in
the administration, which has the potential to reduce help-seeking behavior.
Procedural and Metacognitive Knowledge Pertaining to the Practice of Cultural Humility
Participants had a substantial comprehension of the cultural humility knowledge
influence, conveyed deep care for SOC, and strove to continuously hone their cultural
communication skills. Eleven out of 13 participants partook in some form of cross-cultural
communication training during their time in student affairs. Equally important, participants,
without being prompted, discussed cultural humility’s procedural and metacognitive knowledge

75
types. For instance, 10 participants stated conversational skills, a procedural knowledge type, is a
crucial component to cultural interaction and understanding. In comparison, seven participants
reported they engaged in cultural self-reflection, an essential metacognitive facet of cultural
humility, according to Yeager and Bauer-Wu (2013). Eight participants said cultural humility
provides a necessary lens for SAA, and four participants said cultural humility practices could
make SAA more aware of culturally appropriate language. Other participants said cultural
humility could make SAA more confident when they engage with SOC, which can improve trust
between SOC and SAA. Given participants' responses, the knowledge influence of cultural
humility was an asset in the pursuit of the performance goal. The cultural humility knowledge
influence section focuses on the procedural and metacognitive knowledge types of cultural
humility concerning preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. Table 8 displays a
summary of the knowledge and skills components of cultural humility according to participant
responses.
Table 8
Knowledge and Skill Components of Cultural Humility

Knowledge and Skill Components

Number of Participants

Self-reflection

7
Listening skills

5
Asking questions

5
Stepping outside of comfort zone

5
Building rapport with students

3
Exploring different interpretations 3

76
Cultural Humility Procedural Knowledge. Participants affirmed that they had the
procedural knowledge and skills necessary for productive cultural humility practice throughout
their interviews. Cassie gained valuable listening skills from cross-cultural communication
trainings that added to her cultural humility practices:
Listening to their [students] stories that they talk about what they've experienced, or how
they interact with individuals like themselves, which therefore I can sort of use in my sort
of own cultural context and trying to engage with other folks. So, I would say the process
of listening and using that as a framework to conversation and just learning how to be
humble, I think really at work is important.
Cassie believed listening is an essential skill, but just as important, she used the cultural insight
obtained from conversations to provide context for future student interactions. Similar to Cassie,
Barnun recognized the importance of listening, watching, and responding. Barnun shared, “The
importance of active listening, and observation. If you see somebody in trouble, then you need to
do something about it, and know and have the skill of how to do that without causing major
problems.” Barnun stressed SAA need to listen and then act but do so in a way that does not
make the situation worse.
Asking questions grounded in cultural humility was also a procedural knowledge skill
that participants believed was important. Quisco said:
Asking or answering any clarifying questions so that we're making sure that they [SOC]
have what they need….So, although we can't provide or we're not equipped to provide
any clinical type of practices, we can at least create or try to help facilitate conditions that
will help alleviate through information.

77
Quisco knew SAA are not clinical entities, but that did not mean SAA cannot provide support to
SOC with mental health. Cassie shared an appreciation for asking questions, and succinctly said,
“My approach is to be humble enough to learn, ask questions, do what's right.”
The ability to step outside of one’s comfort zone was seen as an important cultural
humility procedural skill. Jennifer said:
From my experience as attending conferences like NCORE [National Conference on
Race and Ethnicity], I think it's just being willing to step outside of your comfort zone
and challenge the dominant belief systems, and the dominant cultures, and realizing that
almost all of our education has been based on a White dominant research, and theory, and
practice.
This response highlighted Jennifer’s ability to implement an other-oriented approach and
willingness to question a perceived dominance hierarchy that negatively impacts SOC.
Regarding stepping outside of one’s comfort zone, Jessie said:
They [cross-cultural communication trainings] have narrowed my blind spot. They have
certainly not removed it and never will. They have narrowed it effectively. They have
given me the confidence to be willing to be uncomfortable. And that's certainly more in
the more recent ones. Early on, I feel like... and by early on, I'm talking about 10 to 15
years ago. Conversations were about making sure you're using the right word, not about
what you meant, and that's like... I mean, I suppose it's helpful, but it doesn't matter.
Probably the biggest thing is a willingness to be uncomfortable and continue to engage in
the conversation.
For Jessie, stepping outside of her comfort zone is an active practice which is crucial for cultural
humility-based interactions with SOC. As participant responses concerning cultural humility's

78
procedural skills mirrored the literature, this portion of the knowledge influence is a definitive
asset.
Cultural Humility Metacognitive Knowledge. Participants mentioned that self-
awareness is crucial when interacting, communicating, and responding to SOC who have mental
health needs. According to seven participants, an awareness of one’s respective identity can
influence their cultural humility practice. Jason stated:
I think an important factor to mental health or being able to broach and to serve students
of color is also knowing yourself. I need to know myself and how my mental health
manifests also as a result of or influenced by my identity, my identity as a cisgender man,
as an Asian-American. These are all factors that I think are pertinent to the way that I
interact with my students, the way that my students see me. If I don't know myself, I
definitely don't know them. Or I can't even begin to get to know them.
Jason believed cultural self-reflection and self-awareness, key components of cultural humility,
benefit SAA when they respond to and interact with SOC with mental health needs as the
metacognitive actions provide perspective. Quisco shared his response to a student of color who
had mental health concerns and explained the importance of reflection:
My identities play a role in that student. I feel like it influences the student as well. So,
had I taken a step back and listened more, I probably would have gotten more
information. And just in my haste to make sure that the student felt okay, I referred the
resources. But I didn't take that step back to say, "Hey, tell me more. What's going on?"
Quisco, like Jason, acknowledged his identity not only influenced his response, but the student’s
response. Furthermore, Quisco's self-reflection on his story indicated he wished he had done

79
more for the student. Self-reflection can also include being aware of internal preconceptions.
Joni discussed the complexities of not making generalizations when interacting with students:
And to try not to generalize, which is really hard. I mean I've been doing a lot of sessions
on implicit bias. It's really hard to do. So, just like being hyper aware of how am I
interacting with the student and why am I interacting with this student this way….treating
them how they want to be treated.
Joni understood the difficulty of not making assumptions but strives to treat students as
individuals to build trust and rapport.
In short, participants had cultural humility procedural and metacognitive knowledge and
skills. The participants demonstrated the importance of practicing cultural humility in regard to
preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. The implementation of cultural
humility requires active listening, questioning, responding appropriately, stepping outside of
one’s comfort zone, and building rapport with students. Freddie encapsulated application of
cultural humility when interacting with SOC with mental health needs, “So, I cannot address
your mental wellbeing without addressing your cultural wellbeing because that plays a lot, that
plays a big role in this.”
Procedural Knowledge about Responding to Students of Color who Present Mental Health
Concerns
During interviews, participants discussed how they and their student affairs colleagues
respond to SOC who presented mental health concerns. Participants explained how often they
respond to SOC mental health concerns, the importance of responding to SOC who presented
mental health concerns, and the follow-up care SAA provide. Participants understood SAA are
not mental health professionals, but can be first-line responders in student mental health

80
situations. All participants agreed their role included connecting students to campus mental
health resources during direct response efforts. Additionally, participants were honest about the
challenges that they and their student affairs colleagues experienced when responding to SOC
with mental health concerns. Participants shared they sometimes did not know what to say and
their colleagues could sometimes be hesitant to respond. Based on these factors, this knowledge
influence is both an asset and a need. This knowledge influence section is separated into three
sections: frequency of response; function of responding SAA; and challenges SAA face when
responding.
Frequency of Response. The number of times participants responded to SOC who
presented mental health concerns varied: five participants stated they responded to such instances
daily; two reported weekly; one said around once a month; and five said they respond less than
monthly. Table 9 highlights participant response frequency. In general, participants who worked
in residence life/housing responded to more SOC with mental health concerns than those who
worked in offices such as student organizations; however, there were no clear-cut differences
between position and frequency of response outside of residence life/housing. Four participants
stated the time of the year had an impact on response frequency. According to those participants,
SAA responded to more mental health concerns of SOC at the beginning of the semester, end of
the semester, and during midterms and finals, which tended to be stressful times for students.
Table 9
Frequency of Response to Students of Color with Mental Health Concerns

Frequency

Number of Participants

Daily

5

81

Frequency

Number of Participants

Weekly

2
Once a month

1
Less than monthly 5

Function of Responding Student Affairs Administrators. Participants' answers
indicated there are two levels of student affairs response to SOC who presented mental health
concerns: an initial response when a situation directly transpired and a follow-up response to
provide long-term care and support. Table 10 highlights the function of SAA who respond to
SOC who presented mental health concerns. All participants stated they try to connect the
students to campus mental health resources. Eleven participants said they first approach these
situations by building trust and establishing rapport, while five shared their response served as an
early identification system to address potential future mental health concerns. Finally, three
participants said they conduct a form of triage when responding to SOC who presented mental
health concerns. Participants exhibited a strong knowledge base concerning their functions when
responding to SOC with mental health concerns, making this component of procedural
knowledge an asset.
Table 10
Function of Responding Student Affairs Administrators

Function

Number of Participants

Connect to campus mental health
resources

13

82

Function

Number of Participants

Build trust/establish rapport

11
Early identification of potential issues

5
Conduct initial triage 3

As stated, all 13 participants shared they try to refer students to campus mental health
offices. Seven participants went so far as to say they would walk the student to the counseling
center to make the student more comfortable and establish trust. Most participants said they try
to build trust by asking questions and listening to students before a mental health referral,
ensuring the response is appropriate to the situation. When discussing how he responded to SOC
who presented mental health concerns, Michael shared:
I will begin to ask questions as far as who have they tried to talk to. Have they been, for
example, have you seen anybody professionally about this? Or Is this something new to
you? And then from the standpoint of, "Hey, would you mind if I refer you or help you
meet up with a professional and if you need me to go with, you need me to escort you
out, I'd be more than glad to." And then other side of it is trying to really understand,
where are they coming from.
Similar to many participants, Michael’s answer highlighted a multi-tiered approach to direct
response. Michael did not immediately refer the student to the counseling center but gained
context by asking questions and listening to responses. Along the same lines, Jennifer said:
I'm not a confidential resource on campus and I am a mandated reporter. And I tell them
that and explain what that means, and I share very early on, and I make resources

83
available in my office, and on agendas, and in meetings what the confidential resources
are on campus. That way, I feel confident in, when they do start to tell me things, they
know that they're telling me and that I might need to do something to make sure that
they're safe.
When responding, Jennifer stated she makes sure to discuss her reporting status to have frank
and open discussions with students. SAA work under the guise of the Family Educational Rights
and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974, which protects student educational records, but does not
grant confidentiality in situations where students have the potential to be mentally or physically
harmed.
In addition to the direct response SAA provide to SOC who presented mental health
issues, participants also discussed their long-term response strategy. While not the primary area
of focus for this dissertation, participants shared how they provide care to SOC following a
mental health incident: eight participants discussed maintaining trust and rapport; four discussed
the importance of cultural context/cultural humility in follow-up care; two discussed the
importance of helping the student learn from their situation; and one participant talked about
providing self-care options for SOC. Barnun summed up most participants’ long-term response
strategy:
Learning, especially learning self-care. Something as easy as saying, "What have you
done for yourself lately? Are you getting enough rest? Are you talking to somebody, if
this is disturbing you? Do you know who to talk to?" Then, a little follow-up. "How are
you feeling today?" Then, they succeed better because they're thinking more in terms of
the whole person. A whole person is a much better employee, or starting their own
business, than someone who's not.

84
Barnun conducts a long-term response by continuing to ask questions to SOC about mental
health and self-care. When responding to SOC who presented mental health concerns,
participants clearly understood their role was to provide short-term and long-term support as well
as to refer students to the proper campus clinical or non-clinical resources.
Challenges Student Affairs Administrators Face when Responding. Although
interview participants demonstrated a high degree of care when responding to SOC with mental
health concerns, participants and their colleagues still faced challenges. This section of the
knowledge influence is a need. Table 11 highlights the challenges SAA have when responding to
SOC with mental health concerns: six participants said SAA, including themselves, sometimes
struggle to communicate; five participants shared their student affairs colleagues can be hesitant
to respond; five said there could be challenges to navigating conversations with a student’s
parents/family after an incident; five stated their student affairs colleagues would sometimes
send students to the counseling center without building rapport; and three participants said their
student affairs colleagues sometimes stereotype SOC.
Table 11
Challenges Student Affairs Administrators Face when Responding

Challenge

Number of Participants

Difficulty communicating

6
Apprehension to respond

5
Navigating conversations with student’s
family

5
Immediate referral to counseling center

5
Giving in to stereotypes 3

85
Struggling to communicate was the most frequently cited challenge in responding to SOC
with mental health concerns. Faith said, “I would say finding the right words….I'm so talkative,
but depending on the situation, I actually get extremely tongue tied and I just don't know what to
say.” Quisco shared a personal anecdote about a time when he struggled to find the right words
to say to a student:
I didn't know what questions to ask and I didn't want to be someone who would overly
probe, especially with the student's emotional state at the time. Because the student was
crying in my office. I didn't feel comfortable asking probing questions. And I think I felt
like that would have been inappropriate at that time, you know? But if trained properly,
I'm sure I probably could have asked these questions and provide more informed and
made a more informed decision to recommend and refer that person to the resources that
we have.
Quisco’s unease in the situation found him at a loss for words. Quisco also indicated that if he
had more knowledge, he might have felt comfortable asking follow-up questions.
In addition to finding the right words to say and asking the most appropriate questions,
participants shared their student affairs colleagues may be hesitant to assist and immediately
direct SOC to counseling services. Jason said:
I think that my colleagues, especially those who are maybe less familiar with or less
comfortable with engaging about mental health issues, they may more quickly just refer
or call our counseling office and just ask for their consultation or help.
In previous sections, participants stressed the importance of building trust and rapport with SOC
by asking questions and listening to responses. Jason said there are staff members who are not
comfortable having conversations with students regarding mental health issues. In those

86
instances, Jason implied some of his colleagues might forgo developing rapport and asking
probing questions, and simply refer the students to the counseling center. Kelly had a comparable
response:
A lot of my colleagues are by the book, so they're going to go specifically off of what the
protocol says. If the protocol says, you talk to the student, you file the report, that's what
they're going to do. There isn't much care offered in that regard sometimes.
Kelly’s position was that going “by the book” can lead to a dry interaction, which may follow
protocol, but lacks a personal, caring touch. In sum, most challenges of participants stemmed
from a drive to best serve students. Participants wanted to ensure SOC felt they were cared for
and supported throughout the entire response process, but questioned their abilities. Additionally,
participants indicated some of their colleagues may not have the cultural humility skills or may
not be comfortable discussing mental health issues.
Additional Knowledge Observations
During the interview process, participants shared information outside of the assumed
knowledge influences. While the literature review addressed barriers to seeking care, it did not
cite faculty as one of the obstacles, yet seven participants mentioned faculty could negatively
impact the help-seeking behaviors of SOC. The researcher never anticipated this finding, as the
interview questions did not ask about faculty. Participant responses indicated faculty might not
know how to interact with SOC with mental health needs. Jennifer shared:
I think that one of our significant downfalls is within our faculty. Time and time again,
when students come to me and tell me about their negative experiences on this campus,
students of color, it's within their classrooms. I don't often hear about other student affairs

87
professionals, not saying never, but typically I would say nine out of 10 times it's about a
faculty member.
Along the same lines, Faith shared, “Professors aren't always looking at students and saying,
‘Oh, I can tell you're struggling.’ No. For some professors, once they were done with the class,
they're done with the class. ‘Class hour's over see you next time.’” For Faith, faculty may not
know the signs of a student struggling with mental health issues. Moreover, Cassie added:
We understand the dynamics, we know who the faculty ... when they say, I had a bad
interaction with this particular faculty, we often already know whether that might be
something that might be a microaggression or a major aggression, or might just be that
faculty member's just kind of always a gruff person.
According to these participants, faculty may serve as a roadblock to SOC who are seeking
mental health care. Chapter Five expands upon this topic and provides areas for further research.
Motivation Results
The following motivational influence sections examine the findings related to
expectancy value theory and efficacy of SAA supporting SOC with mental health needs.
Interview questions asked participants to describe the value they saw in being prepared to
support SOC with mental health needs. The subjective task values expressed by SAA focused on
attainment, intrinsic, and utility value. Participants' drive to support SOC with mental health
needs stemmed from their penchant for serving students, the enjoyment of performing their job,
and the awareness that supporting SOC with mental health needs provided many benefits to a
college. Given the multitude of values expressed by participants, the expectancy value
knowledge influence is an asset.

88
Moreover, participants discussed their sense of individual and collective efficacy
concerning student affairs support provided to SOC with mental health needs. After analyzing
participant responses, no clear sense of individual or collective efficacy emerged. Only four
participants stated they had a high sense of self-efficacy, and three shared they had a low sense
of self-efficacy. Most participants had a moderate to high level of collective efficacy that
oscillated, depending on their colleagues' perceived racial identity, skill level, and beliefs. As
both individual and collective efficacy levels varied, the efficacy motivational influence is a
need.
Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental Health Needs
During interviews, participants regularly shared how intrinsic, attainment, and utility
value undergirded their work with SOC with mental health needs. Simply put, intrinsic value is
the enjoyment of engaging in a task, attainment value is the perceived importance of a task, and
utility value is the present and future usefulness of a task (Eccles, 2006). Seven participants
stated they felt a calling to the field of student affairs and loved working with SOC. Six
participants had a positive undergraduate experience and wanted to ensure other students had a
similar experience. Every participant spoke to the fact they tried to serve and support students
and, in doing so, add value to campus life. Participants not only enjoyed their job and working
with students, but they also had a deep personal desire to do so, which paired with Eccles’ (2006)
intrinsic and attainment values. Furthermore, participants understood the present and future
utility of supporting SOC with mental health needs. Participants indicated helping SOC with
mental health needs is beneficial to SOC, colleges, and in general, higher education.
Table 12 highlights the intrinsic, attainment, and utility values grounding participants'
drive to serve SOC with mental health needs. Thirteen participants frequently stated that caring

89
for SOC is a central value of their work. Seven participants said there is value in encouraging
healthy behavior in students, while four shared supporting SOC with mental health needs helps
with retention. Four highlighted the importance of responding to the changing student
demographics in colleges. Three mentioned the value of equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI)
initiatives. Another three participants said there is value in preparing students for life after
college, and finally, two discussed the importance of addressing institutional racism. This
motivational influence section examines the intrinsic/attainment and utility value of supporting
SOC with mental health needs.
Table 12
Value of Supporting Students of Color with Mental health Needs

Value

Number of Participants

Providing care

13
Encourage healthy behavior 7

Student retention

4
Responding to changing student
demographics
4

Equity, diversity, and inclusion

3
Prepare students for life after college

3
Address institutional racism

2

Intrinsic and Attainment Value. Many responses touched upon intrinsic and attainment
value when participants discussed their motivation to support SOC with mental health needs.
Participants expressed enjoyment in doing their job while also stressing the importance of

90
supporting SOC. These interweaving values were an asset for SAA in supporting SOC with
mental health needs. Barnun discussed the intrinsic value she saw in working with students,
which encapsulated many participant responses.
I believe that student affairs, to be honest, administration is a ministry. I think it's a
calling, because you really have to have a special love for young people to want to get
into it, because it's never going to be a nine to five. It's never going to be 40 hours. So, if
you think that, then you're in the wrong profession.
Along the same lines, when Cassie described her drive to work with SOC, she said, “I wanted to
make sure that students who came to college had the opportunity to finish college and sort of
achieve their dreams.” Chloe stated, “I’m paraphrasing Johann Wolfgang von Goethe when I
say, you take people as you find them, you might make them worse, but if you treat people as
you should be, you help them become what they're capable of becoming.” Chloe’s response
echoed the sentiments of participants insofar as they wanted to help SOC thrive within the
college environment.
All participants said providing care for students is a critical factor that grounded their
work and served as a motivating factor to support SOC. Cassie shared:
Care first, and make sure they [SOC] know you care. The one quote by Maya Angelo is
nobody cares what you do until you show that you care. I'm summarizing that quote, but
generally that's how I approach my work. So, my philosophy is to care about them first.
Cassie’s response succinctly summarized the stance of many participants, which is SAA should
actively care for SOC. Faith shared, “I really want all students to feel supported. I want them to
feel included, and I want to open up the mind of other students that may not be used to seeing
different students.” Faith’s answer highlighted the importance of offering inclusive care to

91
students. Additionally, participants discussed the value in having SAA share healthy wellbeing
habits to students. Barnun stated:
I think it's important for the student, and the fact for them to be successful, and for them
to be healthy. You can't be fully healthy if you're not mentally healthy, and sometimes
people don't realize that it's just something small, or something that they need to work on,
and it will make them better at whatever path they've chosen to take. Learning, especially
learning self-care. Something as easy as that saying, "What have you done for yourself
lately?”.
Barnun believed SAA could assist SOC with their mental health by talking with students, asking
questions, and providing self-care practices. As SOC with mental health needs are often
underserved in mental health settings (Eisenberg et al., 2011; Hunt et al., 2015), Kelly believed it
is vital for SAA at all levels to spend time reflecting on how they serve all students.
My biggest thing is if we're here to truly serve students, and this is one of my biggest
questions, whenever they [senior administration] say things like, "Students have a great
experience here," which students are you asking? Because I'm sure our dreamers are not
going to say that. I'm sure our Black students are not going to say that. I'm sure a large
number of our international students are not going to say that. So, I'm very intentional
when people say things like, "All of our students." And I'm just like, "Well, what students
are you inquiring?”
Attainment and intrinsic values ignited and sustained participants’ motivation to serve, support,
and care for SOC with mental health needs. Participants were continually mindful of why they
do their work and its overall significance.

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Utility Value. The participants' responses regarding the utility value of supporting SOC
with mental health needs paired with the research. Participants discussed issues of student
retention (Douce & Keeling, 2014), responding to changing student demographics (Pritchard &
McChesney, 2018), and the importance of student diversity and inclusion (Bensimon, 2005).
Given the array of utility-based responses, this is an asset in preparing SAA to support SOC with
mental health needs. On the topic of retaining SOC, Chloe said:
There's not enough students. Part of that is, we need to be educated to be able to increase
our retention. We can bring people there, but if they're not building it, they're not going to
stay. It's very cliché to say it's “cheaper to keeper”, but it's easier to keep a student than
have to keep recruiting new ones.
In essence, Chloe claimed colleges might be able to recruit a diverse array of students, but if
colleges do not serve these students, they may leave. Chloe’s response mirrored the work of
Bensimon et al. (2007), who argued colleges should welcome a diverse array of students but
ensure the campus environment is inclusive to all. Jason identified the value in student retention
as well as the importance of responding to the changing student demographics:
Well, we see that students of color are quickly increasing in numbers at our institutions.
If we're not prepared to serve them, we're going to continuously fail them. I think that the
value of actually investing in the time to develop skills in this area is absolutely essential
to the future of higher education. I mean, I think it's one of the top things to worry about
if I'm being honest.
Quisco had comparable thoughts:
I feel like we have to be able to work with each other. How else are you going to be
aware of other people's needs? I often believe that diversity improves efficacy. I've

93
always believed that in order for you to be more effective, you have to be connected to
different ways of thinking, you have to be exposed to different ways of being. You have
to be exposed to different viewpoints. How can you be effective all encompassing? And
I'm not doing the word justice. But how can you be great at what you do if you can't serve
everybody?
Quisco and Jason understood the utility value in college EDI efforts as they offer benefits to a
multitude of stakeholders. Antoinette shared a slightly different EDI perspective:
And our goal as student affairs professionals is to prepare them [students] to be able to
take these qualities and skills into the world, and be able to function while battling
whatever issues they may have. Whether it be based on their intersection of identity, or
maybe they generally have a mental health issue that has nothing to relate to their
identity. It doesn't have to do with identity development. But in any case, making sure
they know how to combat that.
Antoinette saw the value in having SAA provide students with identity-based and mental health
skills for life within and beyond college. In sum, participants' values were multifaceted insofar as
they enjoyed their work in student affairs, genuinely cared for students, and also understood the
present and future usefulness of supporting SOC with mental health needs.
Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrators
Self-efficacy, or individual efficacy, refers to the belief an individual has in their ability
to complete a task and produce the desired result (Bandura, 2005), while collective efficacy is
the belief in a group’s ability (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006). After conducting data analysis on
participant responses on supporting SOC with mental health needs, self-efficacy among
participants was moderate to high, although three participants said their sense of self-efficacy

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was low. Participants' ranging sense of self-efficacy stemmed from a lack of assuredness in skills
and knowledge or awareness that they could do more to serve SOC with mental health needs.
Furthermore, participants’ sense of collective efficacy was also moderate to high. Collective
efficacy levels were dependent upon variables such as the perceived racial identity of other
colleagues, the skill level of staff who are providing support to SOC with mental health needs,
and overall values and beliefs of colleagues. As individual and collective efficacy levels were
moderate to high, this motivational influence is a need. The two following sections will provide
further context to individual and collective efficacy.
Self-Efficacy Among Student Affairs Participants. Participant answers about self-
efficacy when supporting or responding to SOC with mental health needs ranged: four
participants stated they had high self-efficacy; six participants said their efficacy was moderate
and vacillated depending on confidence level; and three participants said they had low self-
efficacy. Table 13 shows the self-efficacy ranges of participants. As self-efficacy levels varied,
this is a need.
Table 13
Self-Efficacy Among Participants

Self-Disclosed Range

Number of Participants

High

4
Moderate

6
Low 3

Chloe had a high belief in her ability to support SOC with mental health needs.

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I am very confident in regard to, as I stated before, I make sure that there's a training that
I can know being able to pay attention…. being able to understand how trauma informs
everything. I'm constantly, like I said before, I'm constantly trying to stay fresh and
current and learning.
While Chloe and three others stated they had a high sense of self-efficacy, six participants said
their self-efficacy level was moderate. When discussing her self-efficacy in supporting SOC with
mental health needs, Antoinette said:
I would say on a scale of one to 10, probably a six or seven. And I say that because I am
unaware of a plethora of research from it. I don't know if there is a lot out there about it. I
think that, I mean I know that there isn't as much as there could or should be.
Antoinette’s answer echoed many other self-efficacy responses insofar as participants felt they
could learn more about the topic. Unlike Chloe, Cassie had a low sense of self-efficacy
concerning the support she provided to SOC with mental health needs.
[I am] Very uncertain, and I think I constantly feel like I am screwing it up. So, I believe
I'm doing the best I can, and I believe that I try really hard to learn and know and be and
all those things.
Cassie’s response toward self-efficacy was representative of participants who also had a low
sense of self-efficacy. Those participants indicated they were doing the best they could, but
thought they could feasibly do more.
Collective Efficacy Among Student Affairs Administrator Teams. Data analysis
revealed participant responses about collective efficacy were nuanced. In general, collective
efficacy was moderate to high, with participants sharing both positive and negative aspects.
Work teams with high collective efficacy are decidedly motivated and tend to respond well in the

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face of organizational adversity (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006). As participant responses
indicated that collective efficacy is not definitively high, this aspect of the efficacy influence is a
need. Table 14 displays factors influencing how participants perceived collective efficacy. Six
participants shared overconfidence impedes collective efficacy. Five participants stated some
SAA value the goal, while others may not. Another five said some SAA may not be concerned
with the mental health needs of SOC. Four shared not all SAA are adequately prepared to
support SOC, while an additional four said the racial identity of SAA may hinder the ability of
SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. The subsequent sections examine three
consolidated variables impacting the collective efficacy of SAA supporting SOC with mental
health needs: perceived identities of colleagues; skill level of staff providing support; and values
and beliefs of colleagues.
Table 14
Factors Influencing Collective Efficacy

Factor

Number of Participants

Overconfidence

6
Differing values

5
Lack of concern

5
Not prepared to help

4
Racial identity 4

Perceived Identity of Colleagues. One of the variables which impacted the sense of
collective efficacy was the perceived racial identity of SAA. Three participants stated White

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SAA sometimes struggle to connect with SOC, while one participant said that Black SAA might
not take student mental health concerns seriously. When Joni discussed her belief in her
colleagues’ ability to support SOC with mental health needs, she replied, “I think that I'd give
them maybe 65%, 70% of folks should be able to help.” Joni then said, “Did you say students of
color....Okay. Maybe more 50% because it makes a difference when it's color because they're
just seen differently. So, I'd say about half.” Quisco provided a response that illuminated how
some White SAA may struggle to support SOC:
With my White colleagues, a good number, and I'm not going to say all because I feel
like we do have some good colleagues that get it. But some of them I feel like might not
always understand, and part of that too, I feel like there might be a disconnect there from
student to colleague. So, I don't necessarily... I'm not going to necessarily place all of it
on their lack of understanding. I also will, I hate to say this, but I will also play some of it
on the students' either desire or lack of desire to be as informative as possible.
Safeguarding information is important, and I think for some students there may be some
revealing information that they might not feel comfortable sharing. And as a result of
that, there may be that inability to help the student as needed.
Quisco revealed some White SAA might not have the necessary context or knowledge to connect
with SOC. Equally intriguing, Quisco also indicated some SOC might not wholly engage with
White SAA due to a potential lack of trust that would not occur if SAA of color responded to a
similar situation. Faith provided a different view on the issue of racial identity’s impact on
student affairs collective efficacy:
Some of them [SAA], to be honest, I feel like, I feel like some people, because of the
stigmas of mental health and in the Black community. It's a joke, "Oh you're sad, toughen

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up." Like no, that's not what we need to say to this student. So, it absolutely depends on
the person. But, if I see somebody saying that to somebody, I'm like, "No, I'm like, you
can leave the conversation if you want. I'm going to talk to the student and let's see what's
going on because we don't need to tell our students, you just toughen up.”
Perceived mental health stigma within the Black student affairs community affected Faith's sense
of collective efficacy. These responses highlight a relationship to the knowledge influence
sections that emphasized the importance of cultural self-reflection and self-regulation when
interacting with SOC. For these participants, perceived racial identity impacts the relationship
between SAA and SOC, so self-awareness is paramount for response efforts and collective
efficacy.
Skill Level of Staff Providing Support. In addition to the perceived racial identity of
SAA, the skill level of staff supporting SOC also impacted collective efficacy. Participants with
a generally lower sense of collective efficacy had limited faith in their colleagues’ ability to
serve SOC with mental health needs. Chloe stated:
My institution sucks at it right now. We have one counselor, and I feel like she's
culturally incompetent, and I don't know. They suck. I know that's not the most
professional way to say it, but yeah, my school doesn't support students that well with
mental health issues. I know that there's a lot of outside resources in my small little town
that a lot of students go to because they don't like our current counselor.
Chloe’s low collective efficacy stemmed from specific individuals, in this case, their college’s
counselor, as well as the college as a whole. Chloe shared she works with some culturally
competent colleagues, but that is not the majority. On the other hand, some participants had an
overall high sense of collective efficacy. Freddie said:

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Of my immediate team, I feel very confident. There's a total of three of us, and I'm the
only one of color but of the other two, we've all held each other's jobs, and all three of us
have a counseling background. And so, I think that makes the difference.
Regarding her overall organization’s approach to the mental health needs of SOC, Freddie also
stated:
More and more people are getting it and understanding and are very... are open to it. So,
I'm seeing that over the years, that there has been more and more interest and more and
more support that has been gathering, so I think that is a strength, and I've seen some
good things to come out of that.
Freddie’s level of collective efficacy stemmed from her immediate colleagues’ skills, counseling
backgrounds, and her institution’s approach to the mental health needs of SOC. Michael shared a
comparable perspective regarding the skills of his colleagues:
I think most of them [SAA colleagues] would do similarly [supporting SOC with mental
health needs]. I think some would get a little bit more engaged because of their training.
But I think in the rapport they may have with that person. And the rapport makes a big
difference.
Participant responses indicated that their colleagues' perceived skill levels ranged, and this
variance impacted participants' sense of collective efficacy.
Values and Beliefs of Colleagues. Overconfidence and lack of concern regarding the
mental health needs of SOC were main values and beliefs which impacted collective efficacy.
Regarding overconfidence of SAA, Cassie shared:
I think the one piece that I will say is that I think many of us of a certain age, which I will
say mine, maybe 10 years younger than me and 10 years older than me, feel like we've

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figured it out. There's an ego there. Like I've done this, I've been through, 1990s, AIDS
epidemic, and I've been through all that. So, I know what you mean. So, I think most
people do want to get learn more and do all those things, but I think some colleagues feel
like they're kind of above it or burned out of it.
Jessie also similar shared thoughts regarding student affairs administrator overconfidence:
I think my colleagues tend to assume they know a lot more than they do about mental
health in general. And I can only presume that, then, they also think they know a lot more
than they do... because this is how humans work... about the experiences of those who are
different from them. I think I have a number of colleagues of color who are actively
working to speak up in meetings and do that kind of work, but I think there's probably
some gaping blind spots and presumption of expertise.
These responses indicated some SAA might feel they are well-skilled at supporting SOC with
mental health needs, but that elevated confidence level could give those individuals an
unwarranted sense of ability, which could harm collective efficacy.
In addition to overconfidence, another area that mitigated a high sense of collective
efficacy was a perception among participants that some SAA might not value the goal of
supporting SOC with mental health needs. Shared goals are critical for teams with high
collective efficacy (Pajares, 2006). Collective efficacy and motivation might decrease if some
SAA care about supporting SOC with mental health needs, while others do not. Regarding care
and empathy of student affairs staff, Faith shared:
I think empathy is one of the biggest challenges. Like I said before, laughing it off, telling
them to man up, you'll be okay. Okay, sure. I believe too that they’ll be okay, but I'm also
going to sit here and listen to them. So, I would say empathy. And along with empathy, I

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would also say just the lack of concern in general. Like, okay, you're here in student
affairs, it's not all fun and games. We know that at any point in time, which is why we
have people on call. Things can go south; things can get serious. So, you have to want to
be concerned about your students.
Kelly had a related opinion:
[I’m] not very certain [in the abilities of my colleagues] because I think a lot of my
colleagues come to work to get a paycheck. So as soon as they can clock out, they're
gone. I don't feel like that builds any kind of authentic connection or trust or anything like
that for folks to be able to want to be open and share any experiences with folks.
Kelly and Faith’s responses highlight how lack of concern can hurt students and student affairs
teams. When describing how her colleagues have tried to educate themselves on matters
pertaining to the mental health needs of SOC, Jennifer said:
I really think it's on one end of the spectrum or the other. Personally, I don't see a lot of in
between. I see either people are really opposed to it [learning about the mental health of
SOC], don't think it's necessary, think that everything they're doing is perfectly fine. Or
the other side of the spectrum where people recognize that there's a lot of work to be done
and not that that means everything they're doing is perfectly fine, but that there's work to
be done and a lot of learning to happen and are making an effort.
The perception that some SAA have the initiative to learn more about the mental health needs of
SOC, while others lack that drive influenced Jennifer's moderate level of collective efficacy.
Teams with high collective efficacy work cooperatively and have shared beliefs (Clark, 2005).
Participant responses indicated that some of their student affairs colleagues might not have

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similar beliefs concerning the support provided to SOC with mental health needs. The perceived
conflicting views negatively affected participants' sense of collective efficacy.
Research Question Two
What are the organizational influences with respect to student affairs’ culture and
context regarding the preparation needed to support college students of color with mental health
needs?
Organizational Results
This section explores participants’ thoughts regarding their respective organizations'
cultural models of learning and innovation as well as their cultural settings of resources, training,
and performance feedback. All the assumed organizational influences were needs, except a
culture of learning, which was both a need and an asset. When asked about a culture of learning,
participants rarely mentioned progressive thinking, fostering trust, idea champions, or
strategically adapting to their environment, all of which are indicators of a learning organization.
Conversely, seven participants stated their organization had thoughtful leaders who appreciated
learning and supported the mental health needs of SOC. As this knowledge influence has both
strengths and weaknesses, it is both a need and an asset. Regarding a culture of innovation, only
four participants could share innovative programs or initiatives geared toward student of color
mental health. Furthermore, participants said a lack of connection with colleagues and
organizational resistance to change prevented a culture of innovation. The cultural settings of
resources, training, and performance feedback were all needs as the majority of participants
shared that those organizational influences are seldom occurring or are just beginning at their
respective colleges. Participants stated more resources, such as funding, personnel, and time are
needed. Twelve participants said their current organizations had not provided training to SAA

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regarding the mental health needs of SOC. Eight stated they received general feedback from
SOC, but ten participants had not received formal feedback from supervisors or colleagues about
their work around student of color mental health.
Cultural Model of Learning within Student Affairs Administration
The cultural model of learning is both a need and an asset. Participants seldom described
their colleges as learning organizations and focused primarily on individual knowledge
concerning SOC mental health. In other words, participants rarely said cooperative learning,
coaching, creativity, and trust were salient components of their organizations. Participants did,
however, provide thoughts on what they believed is required to foster a learning organization.
Those ideas centered on establishing trust and being willing to learn. Seven participants stated
their colleges had dynamic leaders who championed organizational learning and EDI initiatives.
Participants said those individuals were thoughtful and eager to support efforts centered on SOC.
The culture of learning influence section contains two parts, leaders of learning and components
of a learning organization.
Leaders of Learning. Leaders within learning organizations are strategic individuals
who garner buy-in, foster creativity, and promote knowledge and skill development (Kezar,
2001, Senge, 1990). Seven participants discussed senior and departmental leaders who espoused
the tenets of a culture of learning. When describing her organization’s strategic leadership,
Jennifer stated:
I will say, over the last couple of years, from the higher up administration, there's been a
recognition of this issue and the administration, specifically the president, who's a woman
of color, has made a lot of strategic choices and since her arrival two and a half years ago,
we also now have women of color in several senior leadership positions. The provost, the

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vice president of student affairs, and a couple of other positions on campus…. they're
working really, really hard on recruitment and retention efforts and trying to build up a
community of faculty, staff and students that can all support each other without it being
such a small number of professionals that are really doing that work every day.
Jennifer’s response demonstrated how a leader of learning utilizes multiple tools and strategies to
implement change. Similarly, Barnun had this to say about her organizational leadership:
I think that the strength lies within our coaches, for one, and our faculty and staff. Really,
everybody wants the best for every one of our students, and so I believe that as a
university, we bend over backward. One of the things that's very keen is the fact that our
president is a mental health professional. She's an MSW [Master of Social Work], and
served in Miami at a time. Of course, it is still very multicultural, and so she is aware of
things that many of the faculty and staff are not. So, when there's a challenge, she's
definitely always aware of things that are going on.
Barnun discussed how her organization’s strengths lie not only with the president, but also
faculty and staff leadership.
Learning organizations rely on integrative thinking, which is synthesizing and adapting
information throughout all organizational levels to execute tasks (Martin, 2009). Regarding
integrative thinking and the self-reflective nature of her organization’s student health center and
counseling center leadership, Antoinette shared:
The director and associate dean of our student health center are very forward thinking.
So, while the overall institution maybe struggling just a little bit, the health center itself is
open to a lot of procedural changes. And they're kind of ahead of the game in comparison
to maybe other offices. So, when I think about the statement I said before about what

105
we're struggling with and willingness to change, I think that's our overall gist….But our
health center, it's combined with our counseling center and a lot of them are trained in
trauma, trauma behavior therapy and things like that. So, they're able to look through
those lenses to help our students.
Flexibility, ongoing communication, and curiosity are stalwart traits of leaders who actively
cultivate a culture of learning (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006; Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999). These
participants affirmed their institutions had senior and departmental leaders who promote
learning.
Components of a Learning Organization. Beyond strategic leadership, participants
rarely discussed other aspects of learning organizations such as healthy creative tension,
experimentation, coaching, and dynamic thinking. Participant responses focused on individual
learning, not the cooperative, organizational aspects of learning. Some participants shared
thoughts about what they believed their organizations needed to improve the culture of learning.
Essentially, most participants indicated organizational learning was lacking at their college,
making this aspect of the influence a need. This section will cover the concepts of a desire to
learn, a willingness to make mistakes, leaning into an organization’s vision, and valuing
individuals.
A desire to learn is a fundamental component of a learning organization (Kezar, 2001,
Senge, 1990). Antoinette reflected on her colleagues’ willingness to learn:
It shocks me how much, you could say a statement and be like, "Well this is the statistics
that are happening now. We should be really looking out for our students." And it shocks
me how many people are like, "How am I supposed to keep up with that? How am I
supposed to know that?" And in my head, I'm thinking this is our job. This is what we're

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supposed to be doing. We're supposed to be looking up how these things affect each
other. Looking at our particular audience, our students, and their demographics.
Antoinette expressed frustration that some of her student affairs colleagues lack an eagerness or
motivation to learn. In addition to a drive to learn, learning organizations are willing to make
low-risk mistakes (Senge, 1990). Quisco shared:
I hate to say it, but we may fail from time to time. We might misinform the student; we
might misidentify the needs. There's a lot of things that you can do wrong, and that's a
reality too. So being graceful to each other in that process as we're learning together. And
also getting to know the resources, literally developing a relationship with the resources.
Quisco asserted SAA might make mistakes when supporting SOC with mental health needs, but
those mistakes are opportunities to learn.
Learning organizations lean into their mission and adjust when necessary (Senge, 1990).
When asked about her organization’s strengths about the support it provides SOC with mental
health needs, Chloe stated:
I think that the strongest characteristics that my current institution has is that it's a
Catholic institution, so there's the faith piece of it is very helpful, because if a student is
really going through something, because we really try to take a holistic approach to
things, we're able to have more flexibility in regards to something that was going on.
On the contrary, Jennifer said the liberal arts mission of her college might not align with their
actions:
I think that liberal arts colleges are really doing a disservice to their students when they
claim to be a liberal arts institution and you look at what that curriculum is and what that
means. I think the whole purpose of that is to create a well-rounded person and coming

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from a Jesuit education and not that I'm a Jesuit, but some of those values of cura
personalis [care for the whole person] and what have you, really thinking of the whole
person and educating outside of your math and your science. I think there's so much more
that could be done in first year seminars and through a liberal arts curriculum that
addresses some of these issues within the student population.
Chloe and Jennifer's divergent perspectives had a similar undertone insofar as they both
pertained to the alignment of their organization’s mission with its activities. While Chloe saw
cohesion, Jennifer did not.
Organizations that foster trust are more adept at learning and acting with integrity
(Korsgaard et al., 2002; Lencioni, 2004; Senge, 1990). Mainly, if employees and the individuals
an organization serves do not feel trusted and appreciated, learning can be impacted. Jennifer
said:
I see all the time a lot of practices that are not that equitable to our students, our
interviewing practices, and our hiring, and the way that our student leaders are chosen, or
who we deem to be a student leader, and how that's assessed, are certainly not equitable
for all of our students on campus. And I think that really plays into the mental health
needs of our students of color.
Freddie shared an anecdote about her college’s campaign regarding student diversity.
To say that we value all of our students and we value our students for their various
differences. I will say here a few years back, the institution had a campaign on
differences, and that campaign ran for quite some time, but there was no breath in it. It
was like, "Yeah, we'll put it on shirts," and all of this, but there was nothing behind that to

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where if you asked the student of color, did they feel what this campaign presented, and
the answer was “no”.
Organizations with a culture of learning thrive on creative tension, dynamic teamwork, proactive
problem-solving, and trusting in their teammates (Senge, 1990). Learning organizations
methodically align their behaviors and mission to ensure clarity of purpose (Garvin et al., 2008).
Participant responses indicated their colleges often lacked these learning-centered elements,
which not only impacted learning, but organizational trust.
Cultural Model of Innovation within Student Affairs Administration
The study’s conceptual framework argued a culture of innovation is required to prepare
SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. Innovation is the implementation of valuable and
original ideas that occur through learning and collaboration (Dyer et al., 2011; Hargadon, 2003).
The researcher asked participants if they knew any current innovative programs regarding the
mental health needs of SOC. The majority, nine, stated they did not know of any innovative
initiatives led by colleges or SAA. Additionally, participant responses revealed a lack of
connection to stakeholders and organizational resistance to change hindered innovation. Given
the limited innovation regarding the support SAA provide to SOC with mental health needs, this
assumed knowledge influence is a need. The culture of innovation influence section is divided
into three parts: innovative initiatives around student of color mental health; connection within
and outside of student affairs; and resistance to change.
Innovative Initiatives Around Student of Color Mental Health. Although nine
participants did not know of any current innovative mental health programs focused on SOC,
four participants were aware of innovative programs. The programs included forum discussions,
student and staff panels, a Black men’s initiative, an EDI curriculum, and a program about the

109
mental health in people of color. Students led two of the programs, one by a counselor of color,
and three by staff. Three participants stated innovative ideas need to have a direct connection to
SOC and their needs. Two participants said the creative use of social media could garner more
student buy-in. As participants indicated that innovative programs around preparing SAA to
support SOC are sparse, this aspect of the knowledge influence was a need.
Connection Within and Outside of Student Affairs. Innovation occurs through a
connection with others (Dyer et al. 2011; Hargadon, 2003). In other words, without
collaboration, idea sharing, and networking, innovation stifles. Seven participants said there is a
need for further connection with others, while five participants explicitly stated they wanted
more collaboration with faculty. Given the limited connection and subsequent diminished
innovation, this component of the organizational influence was a need. Table 15 shows offices
that SAA collaborated regarding the mental health needs of SOC. Thirteen participants worked
directly with their counseling centers. Twelve participants said they collaborated with student
affairs offices. Of that 12, six participants specifically mentioned they connected with
diversity/identity centers. Five participants mentioned working with students. Three participants
stated they sought the consult of national student affairs organizations such as the National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) and the American College Personnel
Association (ACPA). Two mentioned collaborating with off-campus counselors.
Table 15
Collaborating Stakeholders

Stakeholders

Number of Participants

On-campus counseling centers

13

110

Stakeholders

Number of Participants

Student affairs offices

12
Students

5
National student affairs organizations 3

Off-campus counselors

2

Regarding the limited connection within her organization, Antoinette said, “I find that
everyone is a little siloed. And I don't know if that's just my institution or every institution,
because what I'm learning is that most institutions are the same.” Faith stated, “It should be
everybody's job, everybody's mission to do so [support SOC with mental health needs]. And it
shouldn't just be on Res[idence] Life and Counseling Health Services, but that's not effective.”
Faith sought more collaboration outside of residence life/housing and the counseling center and
believed all college employees should support SOC with mental health needs. Quisco also sought
collaboration, but from entities outside of his organization, “I think we need to connect with
these people [local mental health providers] throughout the community locally as close as
possible, obviously, establish, develop relationships with them…good working relationships with
them. Create opportunities to engage more in best practices.” These participants felt their
colleges needed to further connect with internal and external entities to support SOC with mental
health needs. Innovation and creativity do not thrive when individuals act in isolation; rather,
connection, collaboration, and working outside of everyday teams is the soil in which novel and
valuable ideas flourish (Hargadon, 2003, Sawyer, 2012).

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Moreover, five participants specifically mentioned they wanted further collaboration with
faculty. Cassie said:
I truly believe that you would need less student affairs practitioners if we actually helped
our faculty with sort of that triage response. If we actually helped our faculty with, “Oh
my goodness, hey student, you're not doing okay. What's going on? Here are the 17
resources I can get you to. Let me help you get there”. The reason I picked this is because
for two reasons. One, more people on the ground catching more students. We get more
people. But two, it de stigmatizes a lot of things as it relates to, I'm going to ruin my life.
Somebody who grades me in any way, shape or form knows I'm struggling, which I think
is a huge barrier to especially our students of color seeking help.
Cassie would like to see more faculty trained on mental health response to help destigmatize
help-seeking behavior and provide further assistance for those helping students who have mental
health needs. Joni also saw a need to further connect with faculty:
So now we're talking about student affairs, but then as you know, we have to get this to
our faculty, right? We still have faculty that don't want to accommodate students….So,
maybe the first tier is staff and then the second tier is faculty. And then we talk about
how are you a student partner, a student mental health, I don't know. But it has to be a
part of the strategic plan because I think a lot of people are talking about EDI. But they're
not talking about mental health specifically.
Joni stated faculty might not make accommodations for SOC with mental health issues, but
forming relationships between SAA and faculty might foster context and understanding.
Additionally, Joni implied that although many individuals are discussing EDI concerns, those
conversations do not often include mental health issues, highlighting a further need for

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innovation and learning. While participants had associations within student affairs and
counseling offices, the lack of connection outside of these realms stifled innovation. A positive
aspect of this organizational influence is that participants were eager for more connection and
recognized its usefulness.
Resistance to Change. The final subsection of the culture of innovation knowledge
influence is organizational resistance to change. Five participants said resistance to change
impeded innovation. Innovation, at its core, is driven by a readiness to change, evolve, and
implement creative new ideas (Dyer et al., 2011, Catmull & Wallace, 2014). Organizations that
are resistant to change lack transparency, communication, collaboration, and sensitivity (Agocs,
1997; Duhigg, 2016; Korsgaard et al., 2002; Morrison & Milliken, 2000). Additionally, an
organization’s culture can promote apathy toward change and growth (Clark and Estes, 2008).
Antoinette shared the following about her organization:
This is going to sound really generalized and cliched, but just the willingness to change. I
think change is really hard, and the institution I'm currently at is pretty small. And for the
past five years or so, we've been in a period of growth and we're still in a period of
growth. And people I don't think are in that willingness to change quite yet. If I told you
we have to call everyone people of color or something like that, or you have to say that
people are Black, not African American. Or everyone wants to be called something
different, so you just have to ask.
For Antoinette, resistance to change prevented her organization from supporting SOC.
Chloe said her organization struggled to adapt to the changing student demographics:
The culture at my institution is a lot of the people are lifers, so they're at the institution
forever, and they are not adjusting to the changing demographic that we have on campus

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right now. Right now, my institution is 18% Black. We have about 12% Hispanic Latino,
and I'm majority minority on campus right now are Latino women. So, this is very
different demographic than some of them that have been at the institution for 10, 20
years. They're not adjusting to the students [who] are different. And they're [students]
coming with different experiences and different issues, and especially with so many of
our students being non-dominant populations, they [staff] need to learn how to talk to
them differently than what they do now.
These participants indicated organizational resistance to change might stems from apprehension
or fear of stepping outside of cultural comfort zones. Nearly all responses indicated colleges
might not be accommodating to traditionally marginalized students. Ultimately, resistance to
change hampered innovation, and also impacted collective efficacy.
Cultural Setting of Resources
Participants stated their organizations had not provided sufficient resources such as time,
finances, and personnel to support SOC with mental health needs. Table 16 provides a summary
of resources participants believed were necessary to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental
health needs. Eleven participants shared colleges need to allocate more funding or find new
sources of funding. Eight participants shared more time is required as SAA are very busy. Six
said SAA need more training. Six stated hiring practices need to improve; essentially, colleges
need to hire SAA who support SOC and their mental health needs. Finally, one participant said
policies and procedures should be updated to address the mental health needs of SOC.
Table 16
Required Resources

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Resources

Number of Participants

Funding

11
Time

6
Training for SAA 6

Hiring

6

Policies and Procedures

1

Barnun emphasized the importance of funding:
Budget is always the first thing that comes to mind. There's no doubt we want to do the
best by our students. Unfortunately, we also have to pay the bills. So, figuring out a way
to do the best we can with what we have. I think part of that is thinking outside the box.
Barnun understood running a college is expensive, but supporting SOC with mental health needs
is essential. Barnun continued and provided a creative thought regarding the securing of funds:
All universities come across this, and it's really hard for them because they want to be
supportive, but they have to draw a line. That's just fact. So, how do you jump over that?
One of the things that would be nice would be to be able to find a grant program, or
something. We have a grant that we've used to help against domestic violence, and we've
had it for the last year and a half, and have done a couple of programs, but certainly it's
one of those things where we need to do more.
Kelly emphasized the importance of hiring practices:
Really trying to be just more mindful of how we go through hiring practices, how much
resources we're putting into things and how are we actually supporting the students who

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need to help as opposed to just saying, "We hired four new counselors." But do these
counselors specialize in anything? Do they specialize in trauma? We're just spinning our
wheels and doing things to say we're doing things, but it doesn't seem like there's a lot of
intentionality behind it.
For Kelly, funding and personnel are important, but both resources must be appropriately utilized
and align with the end outcome. Jason had this to say about the importance of proper staffing,
“We need more staff, professional staff, or graduate doctoral interns that could serve as a buffer
of some sort. I think we need more staff in positions to support our students.” Jason also shared
his thoughts about the limitations of time:
Very few faculty and staff members that are becoming the go-to people for our students
of color, and to the point where, as many hours in a day as they put in and as much work
as they do outside of their normal job descriptions, it's not possible to have that be a
sustainable model and our students are not feeling supported on campus all the time.
Jason shared that limited personnel and time prevent college staff from sufficiently supporting
SOC. Organizations achieve goals and minimize performance gaps when they align their
resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Kelly provided an anecdote which sums up the importance of
resources:
I do believe that it takes for a university and the system of the university to say, "We are
going to support this initiative. We are going to put resources behind this initiative,
whatever that initiative means and support our students the best way we know how." And
I say that specifically on a campus that has a very large Hispanic student population. We
have a large percentage of dreamers on our campus, and our university didn't support any
sanctuary acts or anything like that.

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In short, responses affirmed the need for resources such as time and funding to ground
preparatory efforts for SAA. Moreover, participants recognized the complexity of acquiring
funds for programming and hiring while also expressing the importance of allocating financial
resources toward preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.
Cultural Setting of Training
All participants said SAA needed more training on the topic of supporting SOC with
mental health needs. Twelve out of 13 participants stated they had not received student of color
mental health training from their college, which made this influence a need. Table 17 displays
the desired training components for SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. Thirteen
participants wished for more training. Four mentioned trainings often cover EDI issues and
student mental health, but rarely connect the two topics. Three said trainings should be
continuous and not a one-time only event. Three participants stated human resources should
begin training SAA about student of color mental health during the on-boarding process. Another
three mentioned bringing outside experts to their respective colleges.
Table 17
Desired Training Components

Training Components

Number of Participants

Increase training

13
Cover both EDI and mental health issues

4
Continuous training

3
HR trainings

3
Utilize outside experts 3

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Kelly believed training is foundational and said, “I think it all starts with training,
because I'm a firm believer that ...we're in the field of student affairs, everybody naturally wants
to help. Right?” Kelly also stated:
I do think that sometimes when we look at the demographic of our professionals and the
demographic of our student, it doesn't necessarily match up. So being able to train staff
on how to have some of those challenging conversations so that they can still be able to
support some students, because I do believe that students go where folks can be trusted or
where they feel most comfortable. And I don't know that staff have necessarily been
trained on that. We do a lot of training on how to do your job, how to use the software,
how to use the program. But I feel like there should be a training in regards to the softer
stuff.
Kelly’s answer related to participant responses and the literature review regarding cultural
humility's other-oriented perspective. Learning, developing, and implementing an empathetic
lens does not come naturally; it requires training. Faith also saw the importance of and need for
more training:
I feel like trainings need to be increased. Like I said, even if it's something small, even if
we're just passing out a pamphlet to our professional staff members to say, "Hey, check
this out. Like these are better ways we can describe our feelings, especially when we're in
front of our students. No, we can't control you all, but we need to help change the
culture."
Faith indicated smaller training opportunities, or the use of job aids, can help teach SAA how to
respond when SOC present mental health concerns. Quisco expressed a desire for his college to

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offer collaborative, continuous training to SAA:
Creating opportunities for people in our division to get educated. And not just once, not
like a one-stop shop type of thing. It's more of a series of educational opportunities. As I
mentioned again, simulations where you would get to practice or engage in best practices,
with guidance of course, but doing stuff with your team every once in a while to make
sure that if something were to take place, that you would at least be somewhat prepared
to engage that student and provide the appropriate support.
Quisco is seeking active, hands-on training to gain a better understanding of how to support SOC
with mental health needs. Moreover, Quisco understands that this topic's complexity cannot be
covered in one training session and requires regular practice. Jessie wanted to see training on the
mental health needs of SOC begin during the human resources new employee onboarding
process:
All of the sideways trainings that people are seeking out, make them part of onboarding.
Just make that be a normal thing. And I think part of that has to be naming the
institution's conflicted history around students of color. I feel so sorry for anybody who
walks into an office on this campus, ready to start what they think is going to be a normal
job in student affairs, not having any idea that, A, the history we have, and B, how much
of a current topic of conversation it is at all levels. So, providing context for employees.
Training is one of the prerequisite components of innovation, behavioral change, and
organizational learning (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Berger, 2014; Fernandez & Rainey, 2006;
Grossman & Salas, 2011). Participants noted the usefulness of training and wanted their
organizations to provide more opportunities to learn about the mental health needs of SOC,

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whether through continuous, cooperative practice or during the human resources onboarding
process.
Cultural Setting of Feedback
The final cultural setting of performance feedback is another need based upon participant
responses. Only two out of 13 participants stated they received direct feedback regarding student
of color mental health from their supervisor. Eight participants said they received most of their
feedback regarding their work with SOC or work with student mental health from students. Five
said they receive little to no feedback about the mental health needs of SOC from anyone in the
organization. One participant said they receive feedback from like-minded colleagues, and
another shared they provide feedback upward regarding mental health initiatives of SOC. In
general, participants did not have much to say about this assumed organizational influence.
When asked about the type of feedback she receives, Jennifer said:
I think a lot of my students have seen me as someone that they can come to with their
mental health needs. I've spent a lot of time with my students who are students of color in
the hospital. A couple of my students have been hospitalized for mental health crises and
I've been the one that they've called and you they've asked me to come and spend time
with them there.
Jennifer’s answer was emblematic of those who primarily receive feedback from students.
Cassie’s response offered a general summation of participant who did not receive performance
feedback, “I get very little feedback about my work in general, and that's a product of a couple of
things. But I also get very, I would say zero, feedback as it relates particularly to our students of
color.”
Additional Organizational Observations

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During interviews, participants shared information outside of the assumed organizational
influences. Participants said colleges should address student affairs administrator burnout,
equitable hiring practices, and aligning the goal of preparing SAA to support SOC with mental
health needs.
Student Affairs Administrator Burnout. Eight participants stated burnout is a
significant issue facing SAA. Essentially, participants said burnout is high due to their workload,
which could find SAA struggling to support SOC with mental health needs. Five participants
shared SAA of color felt a heightened sense of burnout and fatigue due to their unofficial EDI
responsibilities. Jason shared his thoughts about student affairs administrator burnout:
[I] think that tending to or helping professional staff, our paraprofessional RAs [student
resident assistants] as well as our hall directors, and supporting their mental health is part
of the structured web of support that needs support. In addition to giving some tabling
time and flyers and promo materials to our various campus partners, I think, truly
providing space and encouragement and support for our staff to develop and to tend to
their mental health care is probably my top priority. Just because I've seen it burning out
people and cause strain on staff. It's just not good for anybody. Because people leave
their job and, I guess students. They quit their jobs because they're stressed out and that
puts all stressor on us, too.
Jason believed student affairs burnout is a concern and would like to see more collaborative
efforts organized by colleges to help staff learn about their mental health and wellbeing. On the
topic of burnout among SAA of color, Quisco shared:
My colleagues, and I'm going to dichotomize here a little bit. I'm recognizing that. In my
interaction with my colleagues of color, they get it. Again, more so than me. I learn a lot

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from them and in our conversations. They get it, but they're exhausted too. There's
burnout, there's exhaustion. I forgot the term. There was a term, it's a fatigue term, but I
forgot what it was... I think it is compassion fatigue.
Kelly also felt supporting SOC contributed to the burnout of SAA of color:
When we talk about our people on the ground who are our residence hall directors, our
coordinators of student life and those kinds of things, I think it's important for those folks
to know when they're helping a student, how much emotional capacity they have to give
when it comes to helping students. Because I don't think as ... I say this particularly as
staff of color, we want to support a lot of the students and we don't realize how exhausted
we become in the process.
Burnout is one of the predominant reasons SAA leave the field (Marshall et al., 2016).
Participants clearly indicated burnout minimizes the capacity of SAA to provide care and support
to SOC.
Equitable Hiring Practices. In the resources influence section, participants highlighted
the importance of having a sufficient number of skilled staff supporting SOC with mental health
needs; however, five participants mentioned the importance of diverse and equitable hiring
practices within student affairs. On this topic, Michael shared:
I think we need more and more administrators of color to relate. And two, more
willingness to address the needs, categorically of the students of color and not lump some
students. And I said what all students know we have different issues. So, I think if we
address both of those, I think we kind of, it won't be 100%, nothing will be, but it will
address a lot, some of it.

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Michael believed colleges need to address the EDI issues within student affairs divisions and
among their population of SOC. Barnun echoed Michael’s stance:
Well, first thing is to hire a person of color in our social work department, or counseling
department, to look for opportunities to hire people of color. In student affairs, we're a
very pale organization, and it seems that when we do have people of color, they don't stay
very long. Part of it has to do with the current leadership, but the other part of it has to do
with just the city in which we live.
Participant responses indicated the importance of proper and equitable staffing within their
respective student affairs divisions as it would allow for true representation.
Alignment of the Performance Goal. Cohesion within all levels of a learning
organization is crucial to achieving goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Five participants stated if their
respective colleges wanted to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs, a more
deliberate alignment would be required. Joni provided a perspective on how to align the different
resources:
It can't just be we're looking at a strategic plan and we're like, "We want students to
belong and we want them to be included and dah, dah, dah". But it has to be tangible.
"We want this many student affairs professionals to be trained on mental health issues by
this year. And that training will be facilitated by this person. And we have put this much
money aside and we have created spaces on campus so that if students, maybe they're
meditation rooms, maybe they're quiet rooms. We've created spaces so that students can
reflect or unwind. Or we're also talking about healthy coping mechanism."

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Joni stated securing multiple resources is required to support SOC with mental health needs. The
strategic plan, training, logistics, funding, and college personnel have to be aligned to make a
real impact. Jason identified alignment as a call to action:
These [mental health] initiatives are pretty effective. At least we're getting the word out
there, but we're a largely commuter school, so they have to be strategic about when and
where these meetings or in what ways is this information passed along. Trying to engage
with social media, I think, is going to be the next step, at least more deliberate step.
Because that's definitely an avenue that our students are really familiar with and they
utilize for everything else. I think we need to meet them where they are.
For Jason, alignment means garnering buy-in, understanding your students and respective
organizational context, and using communication forms that will connect with students. Clear
and cohesive alignment of resources, ideas, personnel, and organizational culture are essential
ingredients of organizational change (Beer et al. 1990).
Conclusion
This chapter presented results and findings from 13 qualitative interviews of entry to
mid-level SAA who worked at colleges within the United States. The assumed KMO influences,
as well as the literature review from Chapter Two framed the results and findings within this
chapter. The results and findings revealed many assets and needs to prepare SAA to support SOC
with mental health needs. Participant responses also highlighted the intricate web that connected
the assumed KMO influences.
Participant responses regarding the mental health context of SOC aligned with the
research from the literature review. Participants were aware of the barriers and stigmas
associated with mental health support and the general challenges SOC face outside of the college

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environment. Similarly, participants expressed a deep understanding of the procedural and
metacognitive knowledge types of cultural humility. Participants shared they engage in self-
reflection and interact with SOC in culturally appropriate ways. Despite the collective
knowledge of participants, their responses indicated they strive to learn more and collaborate
further with their colleagues on the mental health needs of SOC. Participants also revealed they
regularly respond to SOC with mental health concerns, but they and their colleagues sometimes
struggle in finding the right words to say or can be hesitant to respond.
The motivation influences of participants centered on value expectancy theory and
efficacy. Overall, participants had the drive to serve and build a better future for students and
provide a caring space for SOC. Participants discussed the value in supporting SOC with mental
health needs, which comprised intrinsic, attainment, and utility. Participants believed that SAA
should work with and serve SOC with mental health needs as it is crucial work, personally
meaningful, and useful for colleges. Moreover, participants' sense of individual and collective
efficacy regarding the support provided to SOC with mental health needs was moderate to high.
Participants sometimes questioned their abilities and believed they could do more to improve
their skills when supporting SOC with mental health needs. Equally important, participants’
sense of collective efficacy was impacted by their colleagues' perceived identity, the skill level of
staff providing support, and the values and beliefs of their colleagues.
The cultural models of innovation and the cultural settings of resources, training, and
performance feedback were all designated as needs. The majority of participants did not know of
any innovative initiatives or programs that SAA led to address the mental health needs of SOC.
Participants also stated that limited connection to other colleagues and resistance to change
impeded innovation. Concerning cultural settings, participants indicated all of the influences

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needed to improve or begin. Participants said the resources of time, funding, and personnel
limited the support SAA provide to SOC with mental health needs. Most participants' colleges
had not provided training on student of color mental health to SAA. Additionally, many
participants stated they do not receive corrective or reinforcing performance feedback from their
supervisor on the topic. The culture of learning knowledge influence was the only organization
influence that was both an asset and a need. The asset was that several participants had
leadership who fostered the tenets of a learning organization. These leaders focused on EDI
issues and wanted to create a welcoming environment for SOC and staff; however, most
participants did not describe their college as a learning organization. The findings indicated their
organizations did not have a culture of learning insofar as participants did not mention key
aspects of learning organizations such as creative tension, strategic action, willingness to fail, or
divergent thinking.
There were several findings shared by participants, which the conceptual framework did
not address. While some interview questions focused on master’s preparation, participants shared
their graduate programs rarely explored the intersection of race and mental health. Participants,
however, wished their master's programs had taken time to discuss these issues. Moreover, an
unanticipated knowledge finding was some participants believed faculty might not know how to
interact with SOC and serve as a barrier to seeking mental health care. Three unexpected
findings arose within the organizational influences. Participants said burnout could negatively
impact their work with SOC. Essentially, fatigue can minimize productivity. Some participants
stated burnout among SAA of color was particularly challenging as these individuals usually
address more of the EDI concerns of SOC. It was also important for participants that their
college hires diverse staff to foster connections with SOC and create a more inclusive

126
community. Finally, participants stated their respective organizations needed to be deliberate in
aligning resources, training, staff, and culture when preparing SAA to support SOC with mental
health needs.
These findings indicate a healthy level of dedication among participants and a drive to
support SOC. Guided by the literature review and the validated KMO needs and assets
participants shared in interviews, Chapter Five provides recommendations that can be used to
craft strategies to prepare SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction and Overview
The purpose of this study was to explore areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) needs and assets required to prepare student affairs administrators (SAA)
to support college students of color (SOC) with mental health needs. This chapter provides the
recommended KMO solutions for the identified needs of SAA and the implications for future
research.
Discussion
Interview participants worked at a range of colleges throughout the United States, had a
variety of titles and responsibilities within the field of student affairs, and held an array of
individual identities, yet all genuinely cared about the mental health needs of SOC. Participants
disclosed thoughts about their knowledge and skills on student of color mental health, which
included strengths and areas for improvement. Not only did participants demonstrate a strong
knowledge and skill base, but they expressed a drive to continue learning and growing to
improve the support they provide to SOC. Participants also shared their perceptions of the
knowledge, skills, and motivation of their student affairs colleagues regarding their work and
efforts to support SOC with mental health needs.
The first research question explored the knowledge and motivation of SAA related to
supporting SOC with mental health needs. Concerning knowledge, participants shared how they
learned about the mental health context of students of color, how they practiced cultural
humility, and how they responded to SOC with mental health needs. Throughout the course of
the interview process, participant responses indicated they never seemed fully satisfied with their
existing knowledge and skills on the support they provided to SOC with mental health needs.

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Participants actively sought to gain more information and improve their abilities. This drive to
continually hone skills pairs with the concept of kaizen, which roughly translates to continuous
improvement (Higuchi et al., 2015). Moreover, when participants discussed their knowledge and
skills, they frequently stated they practiced self-reflection when interacting with SOC with
mental health needs. Self-reflection allows for a rich exploration of thoughts, feelings, and
actions, and helps guide a path to behavior change (Rodgers, 2002; Yeager & Bauer-Wu, 2013).
Ultimately, participants demonstrated a strong knowledge and skill base for supporting SOC
with mental health needs, which is vital as multicultural knowledge and understanding help
colleges address issues of campus discrimination and racism (Karkouti, 2015).
The second component of the first research question centered on the motivation of
participants, examining concepts of expectancy value theory and efficacy. When employees
connect their values to the pursuit of an organizational goal or task, they remain highly focused,
engaged, and motivated (Eccles, 2006). Participants valued preparing SAA to support SOC with
mental health needs and consistently discussed three of Eccles’ subjective task values: intrinsic;
attainment; and utility. Equally important, the findings revealed participants had a moderate to
high sense of individual and collective efficacy. Groups with high levels of individual and
collective efficacy remain motivated, flexible, and creative (Bandura, 2000; Bandura, 2005;
Pajares, 2006). To put in another way, when individuals and groups believe in their ability to
accomplish goals and tasks, they tend to be successful. As participants' efficacy was not
conclusively high, the influence was a need.
The second research question focused on organizational influences in the field of student
affairs regarding the preparation needed to support SOC with mental health needs. Most
participants said their respective student affairs divisions had not provided resources, training, or

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performance feedback to support the mental health needs of SOC. Clark and Estes (2008)
emphasized the importance of sufficiently allocating resources to the pursuit of organizational
goals. In other words, without necessary resources, an organization cannot efficiently or
effectively address performance goals. Additionally, participants indicated their organization
offered minimal to no training on student of color mental health needs. Training is a fundamental
component of employee behavior change and organizational improvement (Aguinis & Kraiger,
2009; Clark & Estes, 2008; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Participants also stated they rarely
received feedback from their supervisor about their work with SOC. Employee motivation grows
stronger when performance feedback occurs regularly (Armstrong, 2017; Stone & Heen, 2014).
Resources, training, and feedback are essential ingredients to organizational learning and
innovation as they establish trust, enhance knowledge development, and foster creativity (Kezar,
2001; Sawyer, 2012; Senge, 1990). The findings also highlighted that student affairs divisions
may not be innovative when it comes to preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health
needs. Innovative organizations build extensive networks and step outside of their comfort zones
(Catmull & Wallace, 2014; Dyer et al., 2011; Hargadon, 2003); however, participants did not
state their organizations were participating in such activities. Moreover, the findings revealed
that some participants had leaders who embraced learning, but most student affairs divisions
struggled to embody tenets of a learning organization concerning the mental health needs of
SOC.
Ultimately, the findings demonstrated how closely the ten assumed KMO influences
interact with one another, highlighting the importance of KMO alignment. Participants shared a
wide range of thoughts on their knowledge, skills, and motivation as well as the cultural models
and settings within their respective institutions. Findings indicated that participants and their

130
respective organizations have both assets and needs regarding the preparation of SAA in
supporting SOC with mental health needs. The next section will provide recommendations
through the lens of the KMO influences.
Research Question Three
What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
prepare student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental health
needs?
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Research on the topic of preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs was
objectively limited. Most of the literature and research focused primarily on senior college
administration, faculty, and campus mental health professionals. The Equity in Mental Health
Framework (2017) provided suggestions for SAA regarding ways to support SOC with mental
health needs, but did not expressly state how to prepare SAA for such endeavors. The
recommendations of this study were grounded by the research questions, literature review, and
Clark and Estes (2008) KMO Framework. The recommendations provide strategies to address
the KMO needs and assets revealed during this study’s interview and data analysis process. The
knowledge influences were the factual knowledge of the student of color mental health context,
procedural and metacognitive knowledge of cultural humility, and procedural knowledge
regarding how to respond to SOC with mental health concerns. The motivational influences were
expectancy value theory and efficacy. Finally, the organizational influences were separated into
cultural models and cultural settings. The models were learning and innovation, while the
settings were resources, training, and performance feedback. The subsequent sections provide
recommendations to craft strategies for preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs.

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Although entry to mid-level SAA were the target of the recommendations, leadership within
student affairs divisions may find the suggestions helpful, especially ones focused on the
organization. As this study’s interview participants worked at an array of institutions, SAA and
student affairs divisions should consider aligning recommendations with their respective
college’s needs, culture, students, and staff.
Knowledge Recommendations
Knowledge influences are a crucial component in addressing an organization’s
performance goals and assessing employee development (Clark & Estes, 2008). As discussed in
Chapter Two, Krathwohl (2002) identified four knowledge types: factual; conceptual;
procedural; and metacognitive. A review of the literature revealed three assumed knowledge
influences on crafting strategies to prepare SAA to support college SOC with mental health
needs. For this study, awareness of mental health context of SOC was a factual knowledge type,
the practice of cultural humility were procedural and metacognitive knowledge types, and
response of SAA to SOC who presented mental health concerns was a procedural knowledge
type. Based upon interview responses and data analysis, awareness of the mental health context
of SOC and cultural humility were assets, while the response of SAA was both a need and an
asset. Table 18 displays the knowledge influences, whether they were a need, asset, or both, and
the context-specific recommendations along with grounding principles(s).
Table 18
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

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Assumed Knowledge
Influence

D-F=Declarative Factual
P=Procedural

Need (N),
Asset (A),
or Both
(B)?

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
SAA need to know about
the varied mental health
context of SOC. (D-F)

A Integrating auditory
and visual information
maximizes working
memory capacity
(Mayer, 2011).

Provide SAA a
sequentially
scaffolded series of
job aids, such as
pamphlets, emails,
and videos
explaining and
analyzing the varied
foundational mental
health needs of
SOC.

SAA need to understand
and incorporate cultural
humility into their
interactions with SOC (P)

A Modeled behavior is
more likely to be
adopted if the model is
credible, similar (e.g.,
gender, culturally
appropriate), and the
behavior has
functional value
(Denler et al., 2006).

Providing multiple
opportunities for goal-
directed practice and
frequent, targeted, and
private feedback on
progress increases
learning and
performance (Pajares,
2006).

Create a training
series for SAA on
understanding and
incorporating
cultural humility
into interactions
with SOC that
emphasizes and
modeling and peer-
to-peer feedback.

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Assumed Knowledge
Influence

D-F=Declarative Factual
P=Procedural

Need (N),
Asset (A),
or Both
(B)?

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
SAA need to know how to
appropriately respond to
SOC who present mental
health concerns. (P)

B Modeling to-be-
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
self-efficacy, learning,
and performance
(Denler et al., 2006).

Providing multiple
opportunities for goal-
directed practice and
frequent, targeted, and
private feedback on
progress increases
learning and
performance (Pajares,
2006).

Provide SAA
targeted trainings on
how to
appropriately
respond to SOC
who present mental
health concerns,
which integrates
modeling, case
studies, and role-
playing.

Increasing Factual Knowledge about Understanding the Varied Mental Health Context of
Students of Color
The data analysis indicated that interview participants had a good understanding of the
current mental health context of SOC. While this knowledge influence is considered an asset,
interview participants stated they were eager to learn more information to improve their factual
knowledge base, which is a strength based upon the research in the literature review. Moreover,
participants implied that their student affairs colleagues might benefit from improving their
knowledge of this topic. A recommendation grounded in information processing theory
addressed this knowledge influence. Information processing theory suggests that active learning
occurs when information is meaningfully constructed, connects to prior knowledge, and
promotes automaticity (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). The theory posits employing visual and

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auditory information promotes long-term learning (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). In pairing the
factual knowledge influence with information processing theory, the recommendation is to
provide SAA a series of job aids that explain, in progressive detail, the varied mental health
context of SOC. The job aids would incorporate visual and auditory learning tools such as videos
and pamphlets.
Clark and Estes (2008) contend a solid comprehension of pertinent knowledge-based
facts is fundamental to addressing organizational problems. Providing baseline factual
information regarding the varied mental health context of SOC through job aids may improve the
overall knowledge of SAA. According to Krathwohl (2002), increasing factual knowledge
requires the repetition of both relevant terminology and content-specific information. Student of
color mental health context job aids should be distributed frequently via different modalities such
as printed pamphlets as well as emails and build upon previous material to facilitate learning.
The organizational research of Clark and Estes (2008), the theoretical framework of information
processing theory, and research regarding student of color mental health highlighted the
importance of sequentially scaffolded job aids in developing student affairs administrator factual
knowledge of the varied mental health context of college SOC.
Increasing Cultural Humility Procedural Knowledge During Interactions with Students of
Color
While the dissertation addressed two different knowledge types associated with cultural
humility, the interviews called attention to the importance of the procedural knowledge type.
According to the data analysis, the majority of interview participants believed they utilized
cultural humility skills when interacting with SOC; however, interview participants also stated
some of their student affairs colleagues might struggle to practice cultural humility in their

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interactions with SOC. Social cognitive theory, the framework that supported this procedural
knowledge influence, states the interplay between environment, cognition, and individual
behaviors are instrumental in learning and improving performance (Bandura, 2005). Pajares
(2006) found goal-driven practice and private performance feedback is crucial when teaching
new action-based knowledge to learners. The recommendation is SAA should participate in a
training series which emphasizes cultural humility-based procedural practice through modeling
and peer feedback.
Incorporating performance feedback and peer modeling improves the learning process
(Pajares, 2006). Foronda et al. (2016) posited the practice of cultural humility requires skills such
as active listening and cultural communication. Moreover, Krathwohl (2002) stated procedural
knowledge training should focus on how to perform content-specific techniques and in what
situations to implement those techniques. Bandura (2005) found social learning practices of
modeling and feedback improve overall cognition and ability more effectively than individual
learning. Modeling and feedback provide learners with opportunities to observe, practice, and
hone their skills in a cooperative environment that fosters talent development and knowledge
acquisition (Bandura, 2005). As SAA frequently work alongside SOC, cultural humility trainings
should incorporate feedback and modeling to bolster procedural knowledge and skills. Trainings
could focus on how to communicate and interact with SOC with mental health needs, while also
examining when it is most appropriate to practice cultural humility skills.
Increasing Procedural Knowledge when Responding to Student of Color Mental Health
Concerns
The data analysis revealed interview participants and their student affairs colleagues
sometimes struggled when responding to SOC who presented mental health concerns. Given the

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intricate procedural knowledge required of SAA to respond to SOC who present mental health
concerns, targeted trainings based in social cognitive theory framed this procedural knowledge
influence. As stated, social cognitive theory posits learning is a dynamic interplay between the
individual, environment, and behavior of the learner (Bandura, 2005). Similar to the cultural
humility procedural knowledge recommendation, trainings would incorporate modeling and peer
feedback. The suggestion is to provide trainings on best practices in responding to SOC with
mental health concerns that include peer modeling and feedback.
Bandura’s (2005) social cognitive theory, Pajares’ (2006) emphasis on modeling and
feedback, and Krathwohl’s (2002) practical approach to procedural knowledge training
undergird this recommendation. In this case, trainings on how SAA respond to SOC with mental
health concerns should explore how behaviors, skills, knowledge, attitude, and environment
interact with one another. Furthermore, Krathwohl (2002) argued procedural knowledge should
focus on providing practical, useful skills. Essentially, learning procedural knowledge is most
efficient when the information taught is tangible and connected to real-world outcomes.
Therefore, the recommendation is to train SAA on how to effectively and practically respond
when SOC present mental health concerns through cooperative learning activities.
Motivation Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) contended motivation propels organizational growth and change.
Without motivation, knowledge cannot create or sustain the successful development of
organizations and their respective employees (Clark & Estes, 2008). After reviewing the
literature regarding the relationship between SAA and SOC with mental health needs, two key
assumed motivational influences emerged, expectancy value theory and efficacy. Expectancy
value theory refers to the anticipation of and respective values connected to successfully

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achieving a task (Eccles, 2006), while efficacy is an individual or team’s belief in their ability to
accomplish tasks and goals (Bandura, 2000; Bandura, 2005; Pajares, 2006). Participants
repeatedly expressed strong values for supporting SOC with mental health needs. Furthermore,
participants stated individual and collective efficacy levels were moderate to high. After data
analysis, expectancy value theory was an asset, while efficacy was a need. Table 19 shows the
motivational influences, whether they were a need, asset, or both, grounding principle, and
context-specific recommendation.
Table 19
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Need (N),
Asset (A), or
Both (B)?
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
SAA need to value
the goal of
supporting SOC
with mental health
needs. (Expectancy
Value)

A Rationales that include
a discussion of the
importance and utility
value of the work or
learning can help
learners develop
positive values
(Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003).
Provide meaningful
explanations on the
value of preparing
SAA to support to
SOC with mental
health needs within
job aids, general
communications
(i.e. emails and
newsletters), staff
meetings, and
trainings.

SAA need to have
collective efficacy
regarding the
support provided to
SOC with mental
health needs.
(Efficacy)

N Feedback,
collaboration, and
intentional practice
improves perceived
collective efficacy and
team motivation
(Clark, 2005).
During trainings and
staff meetings,
incorporate
appropriate group
feedback, case study
deliberation, and
opportunities for
collaboration.

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Increasing Expectancy Value
Interview participants valued serving SOC, viewed their profession as an important
calling, and understood the current and future usefulness of supporting SOC with mental health
needs. Capitalizing on the values participants placed on their work with SOC, expectancy value
theory was designated to explore this motivational space. Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003)
found discussing the value of work completed by employees could increase productivity and
motivation. This framework implies SAA who may not see value in supporting SOC with mental
health needs could benefit from a holistic discussion of the importance and usefulness of
pursuing the goal. Accordingly, the recommendation is that director and mid-level SAA should
regularly communicate the values of pursuing the goal to SAA. Moreover, director and mid-level
SAA should engage in dialogue about the value of this goal in a variety of formats such as job
aids, general communications, trainings, and staff meetings with their teams. For instance,
director and mid-level SAA could take a few moments from their respective staff meetings to
discuss the value of supporting SOC with mental health needs.
Empirical evidence about the value SAA place on supporting student of color mental
health needs is limited. There is, however, a wealth of research highlighting the benefits of
college student mental health initiatives. Student mental health programs and efforts can improve
student academic performance (Bostani et al. 2014; Eisenberg et al, 2009; Schwitzer et al., 2018)
and benefit a respective college’s finances (Ashwood et al., 2016; Eisenberg et al., 2009). Mental
health initiatives focused on SOC can increase help-seeking behavior (Gummadam et al., 2016)
and students’ sense of overall campus belonging (Lewis & Hodges, 2015). There are a variety of
strategies to increase the value of pursuing a goal: frequently underscore the goal’s short-term
and long-term relevance; use appropriate, real-world material to highlight practicality; and

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directly connect activities to individuals’ values (Pintrich, 2003). The recommendation centers
on student affairs divisions facilitating open, collective, and honest discussions among SAA
focused on the importance and usefulness of supporting SOC with mental health needs. As
supporting SOC with mental health needs is valuable to staff, students, and the college, the value
forward conversations and communications might help SAA connect more personally to the
goal. Eccles (2006) demonstrated that when an individual’s values align with organizational
goals, the individual is more likely to complete the task with a higher level of engagement.
Increasing Student Affairs Administrator Efficacy
The data analysis found interview participants’ sense of individual and collective efficacy
was moderate to high. Regarding self-efficacy, participants stated there was always more
knowledge and skills they could improve. Furthermore, participant responses indicated perceived
identity of colleagues, staff skill level, and their colleague’s values and beliefs could help or
hinder collective efficacy levels. Since neither individual nor collective efficacy levels were
high, this knowledge influence was a need.
As empirical evidence regarding the efficacy of SAA who support SOC with mental
health needs is sparse, theoretical frameworks undergirded this assumed motivational influence.
Efficacy examines an individual and group’s inner beliefs, agency, and effectiveness when
pursuing a goal (Bandura, 2000; Bandura, 2005; Pajares, 2006). High individual and collective
efficacy can benefit an organization in myriad ways: improved performance; increased
dedication to a respective organization; and a high level of determination and grit in the face of
challenges (Bandura, 2000; Clark, 2005; Pajares, 2006). Low efficacy can reduce organizational
trust and negatively impact motivation (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006). This research suggests
SAA could benefit from an increased belief in their abilities as well as the abilities of their

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colleagues to support SOC with mental health needs. The recommendation is to incorporate
group feedback and case studies during staff meetings and trainings to bolster dialogue and
provide opportunities for a contextual, nuanced discussion about ways SAA can prepare to
support the mental health needs of SOC. If a student affairs division desired, conversations could
focus on the cultural and identity components that help or hinder the ability of SAA to support
SOC with mental health needs. Based upon participant responses and efficacy research,
incorporating collaborative feedback and case studies within group meetings and trainings may
have a positive impact on the individual and collective efficacy levels of SAA.
Organization Recommendations
Organizations that address performance gaps, demonstrate flexibility, and strategically
analyze company culture often achieve success (Clark & Estes, 2008). While the concept of
organizational culture can quickly become convoluted, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
concisely break organizational culture into two categories, cultural models and cultural settings.
Cultural models refer to the underlying values and schema within an organization; cultural
settings are the visible aspects of an organization such as tasks, documents, and employees
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This study explored the cultural models of learning and
innovation, as well as the cultural settings of resources, training, and performance feedback.
After data analysis, the culture of learning was a need and an asset, while the remaining
organizational influences were needs. Table 20 shows the organizational influences, whether
they were need, asset, or both, grounding principle, and context-specific recommendation.

Table 20
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations

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Assumed Organization
Influence

Need (N),
Asset (A),
or Both
(B)?

Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model:
The field needs a culture
of learning to carefully
pursue new ideas and
information.

B Effective change
efforts use evidence-
based solutions and
adapt them, where
necessary, to the
organization’s
culture (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Provide
opportunities for
SAA to engage in
and share research
regarding the
mental health
needs of SOC
with their student
affairs colleagues.

Base trainings, job
aids,
communications,
etc. in research
and evidence-
based solutions.

Cultural Model:
The field needs a culture
of innovation that
implements beneficial and
creative change.

N

Innovation is
enhanced through
collaboration outside
of a designated work
team to foster
creative thinking and
produce strong social
networks (Hargadon,
2003).

Organizational
resistance to change
is improved by
having strong leaders
who foster trust,
engagement, and
communication
(Agocs, 1997;
Duhigg, 2016;
Korsgaard et al.,
2002)

Provide
opportunities for
SAA to engage in
creative and
innovative
collaboration
efforts regarding
the mental health
needs of SOC with
colleagues outside
of their immediate
team.

SAA attend
workshops/town
halls that address
the benefits of
supporting SOC
with mental health
needs and
strategically assess
the source of their
respective
organization’s
resistance.

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Assumed Organization
Influence

Need (N),
Asset (A),
or Both
(B)?

Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Setting:
The field needs resources
to prepare to support
college s SOC with
mental health needs.

N Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources
(equipment,
personnel, time, etc.)
needed to do their
job, and that if there
are resource
shortages, then
resources are aligned
with organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Work with senior
SAA to allocate
resources to
support programs,
trainings, and
learning
opportunities (i.e.
books,
conferences)

Cultural Setting:
The field needs training
regarding the mental
health needs of college
SOC.

N Effective change
efforts ensure that all
key stakeholders’
perspectives inform
the design and
decision-making
process leading to
the change (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Provide
collaborative
opportunities for
SAA at all levels
to share thoughts,
feedback, and
design ideas
around mental
health initiatives
for college SOC.

Cultural Setting:
The field needs to provide
informed performance
feedback to SAA.

N Effective change
efforts utilize
feedback to
determine when/if
improvement is
happening (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Implement a
mentor system to
pair SAA who are
knowledgeable
about the mental
health needs of
SOC with SAA
who are still
developing that
knowledge.

Strengthening a Cultural Model of Learning

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Based upon data analysis, the cultural model of learning was a need and asset as seven
participants had leaders who embraced learning; however, participants did not identify their
colleges as learning organizations. The organizational change theory of Clark and Estes (2008)
grounded the recommendations. Clark and Estes (2008) stated successful organizational culture
change employs contextual, evidence-based solutions to increase learning, creativity, idea
sharing, and dynamic thinking. The two recommendations for this organizational influence were
to provide opportunities for SAA to engage in and share research with their student affairs
colleagues and base trainings, education, job aids, and communications in evidence-based
solutions.
Learning organizations encourage knowledge development and motivation while
planning, acting, and evaluating with an empirical mindset (Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999;
Senge, 1990). These actions set the foundation for organizational trust and cooperation (Garvin
et al., 2008; Kezar, 2001; Senge, 1990), which are fundamental components when pursuing goals
related to mental health and diversity (Barreira & Snider, 2010; Fullerton, 2011; Hunt et al.,
2015). Organizational growth and learning are not sustainable without evidence-based research
undergirding change initiatives (Clark & Estes, 2008). As such, integrating empirically grounded
research and literature informed this organizational influence recommendation. The
aforementioned theories and research suggest SAA should read and create studies on student of
color mental health and student affairs divisions should undergird their preparatory initiatives in
evidence-based research to strengthen a culture of learning. These recommendations could
provide student affairs divisions with the opportunity to ground initiatives, practices, and
interactions in relevant literature to foster a curious learning mindset. Moreover, the

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recommendations might increase the currently limited research concerning the interaction
between SAA and SOC with mental health needs.
Encouraging a Culture of Innovation
The amassed data indicated the cultural model of innovation is a need. Participants stated
resistance to change and lack of connection hindered innovation. Hargadon’s small world theory
(2003) undergirded the first recommendation. Hargadon (2003) found innovative organizations
foster creativity and efficiency when their employees connect with individuals outside of their
small teams or divisions. Hargadon’s theory indicated SAA could increase their student of color
mental health knowledge, become more adept at problem-solving, and increase innovation by
engaging with individuals who work outside of their respective student affairs office.
Furthermore, research has demonstrated the positive value of innovative collaboration when
addressing college student of color mental health (Barreira & Snider, 2010; Fullerton, 2011;
Hunt et al., 2015; Lipson et al., 2018). The recommendation is to provide SAA the opportunity to
collaborate with on and off campus entities regarding the support provided to SOC with mental
health needs. Accordingly, SAA are encouraged to collaborate with SAA who work in different
functional areas, faculty members, students, campus mental health professionals, and individuals
outside of their college, including national student affairs organizations or off-campus mental
health providers.
Innovative organizations actively seek to implement solutions via adaptive and
contextually based experimentation and view complex situations as opportunities to practice
strategic problem-solving (Catmull & Wallace, 2014; Dyer et al., 2011). Given that the
intersection of race, mental health, and student affairs is highly complex and multifaceted,
connection plays a key role in finding innovative ways to prepare SAA. SAA could consider

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partnering with one or more of the many student affairs, mental health, or student mental health
national organizations such as the American College Personnel Association (ACPA), Center for
Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH), The Jed Foundation (JED), National Alliance on Mental
Illness (NAMI), ), the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), The
Steve Fund, or Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In
addition to partnerships with national organizations, SAA may consider creating an online
clearinghouse of ideas, strategies, and programs about the ways they are preparing to support
SOC. Two participants mentioned designing an online cache that SAA could access, which
would give guidance, thoughts, and success and failure stories so colleges could learn from one
another. Should a student affairs division execute some of this study’s KMO recommendations,
they could share overall ideas, strategies, and results with other student affairs divisions.
In addition to increasing innovation through connection with individuals outside of a
respective student affairs office, participants indicated resistance to change impeded innovation.
Organizational change research, which grounded this second recommendation, stated opposition
to change often stems from lack of trust, transparency, and communication (Agocs, 1997;
Duhigg, 2016; Korsgaard et al., 2002). Additionally, resistance to change diminishes when
employees are allowed to voice their thoughts and feelings in an appropriate setting (Morrison &
Milliken, 2000). Keeping in mind that connection with individuals can increase innovation, the
recommendation is to have SAA at all levels participate in workshops and town halls to share
their thoughts and values on supporting SOC with mental health needs as well as address any
potential organizational hesitancy. Resistance to change can stifle creativity, innovation, and
make employees feel unappreciated (Agocs, 1997; Duhigg, 2016; Korsgaard et al., 2002;
Morrison & Milliken, 2000). These workshops and town halls would require careful, mindful,

146
and strategic facilitation as they involve the race and mental health of students, but also the staff.
This recommendation aimed to address the root cause of an organization's resistance to change
within a collaborative, innovative, and transparent environment.
Increasing the Cultural Setting of Resources
The findings indicated the cultural setting of resources is a need; specifically, the lack of
financial resources, personnel, and time provided to SAA to engage with student of color mental
health initiatives. Similar to the cultural model influences, the recommendation is based in
organizational change theory. Clark and Estes (2008) stated employees require proper resources
to complete their jobs, and organizations should align resources with priorities. As such, student
affairs divisions and senior SAA should consider how to allocate funds for initiatives focused on
preparing their teams to support the mental health needs of SOC. The recommendation is that
senior SAA should allocate resources, especially financial, to preparing SAA to support SOC
with mental health needs.
Lack of resources can negatively impact the pursuit of an organizational goal (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007; Clark & Estes, 2008). Limited funding can also lower employee morale and
motivation (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Accordingly, ensuring financial resources are sound
may help SAA maintain motivation toward the support they provide to SOC. Hunt et al. (2012)
argued colleges need to be strategic in how they allocate funding for student mental health
initiatives. If this goal is a priority at a college, senior SAA could reallocate their budgets or find
new sources of funding to ensure long-term financial health. The data analysis indicated
collaboration with other internal stakeholders or national organizations could ameliorate the
financial cost. Additionally, interview participants stated grants could represent new revenue
streams for the field in pursuit of this goal.

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Increasing the Cultural Setting of Training
The cultural setting of training was a need as nearly all participants said their
organization had not provided training on the mental health needs of SOC. Organizational
change theory served as the basis for the training influence recommendation. Effective
organizational change takes into account the ideas of key stakeholders during the research,
design, and implementation portions of change efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008). Consequently,
SAA at all levels should participate in the creation and execution of training, from brainstorming
to the evaluation stage. This inclusive approach allows all staff within a student affairs division
the ability to share thoughts, ideas, and recommendations for the types of training provided to
their student affairs colleagues, garnering greater buy-in. The suggestion is to offer opportunities
to staff throughout a student affairs division to participate in the creation of the needed training
efforts to support the mental health needs of SOC.
Practical training leads to long-term behavior change and is a crucial component of
organizational and individual growth (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Grossman & Salas, 2011;
Kirkpatrick, 2006). This organizational change framework pairs with content-specific theoretical
research that emphasizes the importance of culturally minded mental health training for college
personnel (Hunt et al., 2015). Training is the backbone of an organization as it spurs growth,
innovation, and problem-solving skills (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). As participants indicated,
student race and mental health training is uncommon for SAA, and previous recommendations
suggested specific content trainings, including how to respond to SOC who present mental health
needs and cultural humility. This recommendation focused on the underpinnings of training and
suggests student affairs divisions should include entry to senior SAA in the planning and

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implementation stages of training to build trust and help ensure training meets the needs of the
target audience.
Increasing the Cultural Setting of Performance Feedback
The findings showed the cultural setting of feedback is a need. Data analysis found 10
participants did not receive feedback from supervisors or colleagues regarding their work with
SOC. Many, however, received feedback from SOC. Organizational change theory undergirded
the feedback recommendation. Feedback is a crucial component of effective organizational
change as it can identify if and when progress occurred (Clark & Estes, 2008). While student
feedback is critical, feedback from student affairs supervisors and colleagues can directly impact
the pursuit of this performance goal. The recommendation is to create a mentor system pairing a
student affairs administrator who is skilled at supporting SOC with mental health needs with a
student affairs administrator who is developing skills regarding the mental health of SOC.
Continuous corrective and reinforcing feedback can bolster motivation, enhance skills,
and allow employees to thrive (Armstrong, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008; Stone & Heen, 2014). As
a result, providing feedback to employees cements organizational trust and allows employees to
self-reflect; therefore, allowing the space for growth (Clark & Estes, 2008). Corrective feedback,
when conducted properly, can increase the intrinsic motivation of employees (Stone & Heen,
2014). Moreover, Eby, Durley, Evans, and Ragins (2006) asserted mentoring could improve an
employee’s attitude, loyalty to the organization, and connection to the overall company mission.
The data analysis found SAA are not regularly receiving performance feedback from supervisors
or colleagues regarding their work with student of color mental health. Providing feedback to
SAA via a mentorship program is thought to lower anxiety regarding competency, improve
motivation, and create a culture of learning, innovation, and collaboration.

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Additional Organizational Recommendations
While this study focused on ten KMO influences believed to impact the goal of preparing
SAA to support SOC with mental health needs, participants shared additional organizational
influences that the conceptual framework did not address. The following section will provide
suggestions regarding the three other organizational findings.
Decreasing Student Affairs Administrator Burnout. Eight participants indicated
burnout in the field of student affairs is common and can sometimes hinder the ability of SAA to
support SOC with mental health needs. The indication was that the field’s general workload
causes SAA to burnout and become exhausted. This pairs with the research of Marshall et al.
(2016) who found SAA leave the field due to long hours, lack of work/life balance, low salaries,
and minimal opportunities for career growth. Marshall et al. (2016) suggested that faculty in
student affairs/higher education administration graduate programs and supervisors of new SAA
should have honest conversations about the field, the pay, and the hours with their students and
employees, respectively. Moreover, it was found many SAA leave the field due to limited
support and supervision from their employer (Marshall et al., 2016). Organizational leaders who
foster trust, honesty, transparency, and communication often have highly motivated employees
(Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Korsgaard et al., 2002; Lencioni, 2004). SAA who supervise
staff should consider augmenting their leadership skills, communication efforts, and interactions
with their employees to foster a student affairs environment that reduces employee burnout.
These knowledge, skill, and leadership enhancements could take place through training,
educational sessions, or job aids focused on improving and developing supervisory
competencies.

150
Addressing Equitable Hiring Practices. Five participants stated equitable hiring
practices could help SOC with mental health needs feel a sense of belonging to their college and
form more reliable, inclusive student affairs teams. Peer-reviewed research regarding inclusive
hiring practices within the field of student affairs is minimal, but the research of Holvino (2008),
Stevens et al. (2008), Bradshaw and Fredette (2012), and Kerby and Burns (2012) revealed
positive gains in organizational finances, leadership, creativity, and innovation within companies
that support equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) efforts. Additionally, NASPA and the College
and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR) websites provided
basic information on the topic. The NAPSA website offered resources for inclusive hiring
practices to student affairs hiring officers, which included concepts such as unconscious bias,
cultural fit, feminism, diversity within work teams, and advocacy (Kline, 2019). An article
within CUPA-HR’s website offered suggestions from the assistant vice president for equity,
inclusion, and social justice at NASPA, which focused on EDI training, conversations with
leadership and key stakeholders about inclusive hiring practices, and the importance of diversity
in the workplace (Ingram-Edwards, 2019). Using workplace diversity research as well as the
NASPA and CUPA-HR websites as starting points, student affairs divisions could assess their
hiring practices and, if necessary, address issues of inequity. Training and educational activities
conducted by human resource officers or outside organizations could inform SAA of best
inclusive hiring practices and their benefits.
Enhancing Alignment of the Performance Goal. Five participants explicitly stated
their colleges needed more practical and tangible alignment to address the ways they prepared
SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. Aligning goals to organizational culture requires
a shared vision, effective communication, flexibility, and buy-in of employees at all levels (Beer

151
et al. 1990; Clark & Estes, 2008; Kotter, 2007; Russakoff, 2014). The New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), a program implementation and evaluation framework,
is the organizational theory grounding this recommendation. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
suggests organizations begin the alignment process by clearly defining the intended results of a
respective program or goal (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Once an organization establishes
envisioned results, they strategically determine what behavioral changes they are seeking in
employees and what knowledge and skills are needed to align the behavioral changes to the
overall intended results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The recommendation is that student
affairs divisions start with the end in mind, which means taking the time to clearly understand
the expected results of preparing SAA to support SOC with mental health needs. A task force or
steering committee comprised of entry to senior-level SAA can lead these efforts. Once a
committee cements the intended results, their attention would shift to determining the anticipated
behavioral changes and vital knowledge and skills their student affairs colleagues require. From
there, the committee could focus on themes of learning and staff satisfaction with the overall
program. Throughout the process, the committee and SAA actions should keep the intended
results in the foreground to help secure alignment.
Researcher Reflection
While the researcher analyzed data and crafted Chapter Five, the world was battling the
COVID-19 pandemic, and people were protesting police brutality transpiring within
predominantly Black communities. The pandemic created a situation wherein colleges sent most
students home to minimize the virus' impact while attempting to uphold their missions through
distance learning and electronic interaction. Faced with incomprehensible uncertainty, colleges
struggled to connect and provide services to their students (Dziech, 2020). A 2020 Active Minds

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survey of 2,086 college students found COVID-19 adversely impacted 80% of participants’
mental health. The survey also reported that students want colleges to focus on mental health
efforts, communication, and compassion during and after the pandemic. Moreover, the pandemic
disproportionately affected people of color. Black and Latino/a/x communities lost lives, jobs,
and incomes at higher rates than White communities (APM Research Lab Staff, 2020; Bureau of
Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2020; Lopez, Rainie, & Budiman, 2020).
At the same time as COVID-19, two innocent Black individuals murdered by police
officers, George Floyd and Breonna Taylor, prompted global protests. The demonstrations aimed
to minimize the racism, trauma, and injustice incessantly faced by Black individuals in the
United States. Protesters argued for substantial long-term changes, which included a call for
individuals and organizations to publicly and privately support Black lives. Although racial
protests can inspire change, they can also take a toll on the mental health of people of color. For
example, Black and Latino/a/x individuals who experience antagonistic interactions with police
(Geller, Fagan, Tyler, & Link, 2014) and/or watch racial related traumatic events online (Tynes,
Willis, Stewart, & Hamilton, 2019) experience a decrease in their overall mental health.
The overlapping impact of COVID-19 and protests highlights the significance of SAA
supporting SOC with mental health needs. Colleges should strive to care for their students
whether they are on or off campus, while maintaining an awareness that their SOC may be
suffering disproportionately during novel times.
Implications for Future Research
A number of unexpected themes emerged after data analysis concluded: limited teaching
of student of color mental health issues within higher education/college student personnel
master’s programs; burnout of SAA; faculty impact on the mental health of SOC; and equitable

153
student affairs hiring practices. Beyond questions about participants’ master’s program
experience, the research and interview questions did not directly address these topics. Further
research is needed to explore and examine the unanticipated themes that arose during interviews.
Additionally, conducting a similar study, with different participants who work at different types
of colleges, would assess the credibility and trustworthiness of this research and its conceptual
framework.
Master’s Preparation
Participants who received their master’s degree in higher education/student personnel
administration said their programs rarely discussed the intersection of race and mental health.
Some programs covered EDI or mental health topics, but seldom both. Participants who received
counseling-based master’s degrees stated they received some information specifically around
student of color mental health. Additional research could examine if it is common or uncommon
for student affairs/higher education master’s programs to cover student of color mental health
topics within their curriculums. Future research could also explore ways in which higher
education/student personnel administration master’s programs are incorporating or could
incorporate themes around student of color mental health.
Student Affairs Administrator Burnout
Eight participants discussed the importance of colleges and student affairs divisions
addressing SAA mental health and burnout. Additional research could examine the source of
burnout and mental health issues as well as ways colleges and senior SAA can improve student
affairs administrator mental health. Moreover, research could explore the impact of self-care and
self-reflection on burnout and mental health and its overall impact on how SAA support SOC
with mental health needs. Future research could also examine the effectiveness of general mental

154
health services provided to SAA. Five participants specifically discussed the burnout of SAA of
color. Participants shared SAA of color often deal with many unwritten student and staff EDI
issues, known as invisible labor. These additional EDI duties not assigned can negatively impact
the mental health of SAA of color. While some research has been conducted on the hidden
workload of faculty of color, future research could explore the mental and emotional cost of the
invisible labor on SAA of color. Additional research might examine ways student affairs
divisions could diminish the feelings of burnout on their staff of color.
Faculty Impact on Student of Color Mental Health
Seven interview participants cited inadequate faculty as a barrier for SOC who sought
mental health care. Those participants implied faculty are not currently equipped to help SOC
with mental health needs and may need training on how to interact with SOC. Future research
could explore why SAA believe faculty are not prepared to support SOC with mental health
needs. Recommendations from this research suggested a collaboration between faculty and SAA
may be beneficial, but future research could examine best practices for this type of partnership.
Additional research might also explore the perceptions of SOC regarding faculty support.
Equitable Hiring Practices within Student Affairs
To ensure SOC feel they are represented within the college environment, five interview
participants discussed the importance of diverse and equitable hiring practices. Future research
could uncover the benefits SOC gain from having a diverse and representative student affairs
division. Additionally, further research could examine how the student affairs recruitment and
onboarding process impact the success of student affairs divisions and the SOC they serve.
Conclusion

155
This study aimed to craft recommendations and strategies to prepare SAA to support
SOC with mental health needs. The findings offered suggestions for SAA and student affairs
divisions: utilize multiple modalities to educate SAA on the varied mental health context of
SOC; facilitate cooperative trainings on cultural humility and response efforts; emphasize,
capitalize, and communicate value; strengthen efficacy through collaboration and group learning;
ground initiatives and engage in credible and trustworthy research; foster connection to amplify
innovation; and increase performance feedback and resources allocated to preparing SAA to
support SOC with mental health needs.
Thirteen SAA participated in individual interviews, which does not represent the
thousands of SAA working in the United States. Additionally, this study included SAA who
worked at non-profit public and private baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities,
excluding staff in tribal, community, for-profit, and technical colleges. Despite these
delimitations, the recommendations can serve as a data-informed guide for SAA seeking to
improve approaches to student of color mental health. Again, the specific ways in which SAA
operationalize recommendations should be contingent upon a respective college’s culture and
needs.
This research hopes that SAA will improve organizational effectiveness, communication,
motivation, collaboration, innovation, and learning on the topic of supporting SOC with mental
health needs. Further, this research recognized the unique role SAA play in the life of students
and how their work and talents positively impact colleges. On the importance of SAA, Jessie
stated:
Because we're the ones that have the primary relationships with students. We are the ones
that are with them where they live, where they think, where they cry, where they eat. We

156
are the ones that help students grow. Faculty members teach. And good faculty members
are there in those other spaces, even if it happens standing outside the classroom, but
we're the ones they grow up. We're the ones they come to.
These recommendations intended to supply student affairs divisions with concrete strategies to
create initiatives to prepare SAA to support SOC. Student affairs divisions should use the
recommendation(s) that best suit the needs of their staff and students when crafting their
strategies. The eventual aim is that these efforts will benefit SOC with mental health needs, a
group who has given so much to colleges and deserves equitable, fair, and inclusive mental
health support.

157
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Appendix A
Interview Questions
1. As a SAA in 2019, discussions about how individuals identify have become more
frequent in our work environment. If comfortable, would you please share how you
identify?
2. How long have you worked in the field of student affairs?
3. What position do you currently hold?
a. What types of responsibilities do you have as a X?
b. Why did you become a SAA?
4. How did your master’s program prepare you for the field of student affairs?
a. Within your program, what did you learn regarding student mental health and/or
wellbeing?
b. What did your program teach you about working with SOC?
5. What types of training have you received regarding cultural communication?
a. How have these trainings improved your communication skills?
b. If you have not received this type of training, what cultural communication skills
would you like to improve?
6. In what ways, if at all, does your college/institution currently work to support student
mental health?
a. Can you please share a specific example?
b. Have any of the student mental health efforts/initiatives focused on SOC?
7. Based on your experiences at your college/institution, what are some of the institutional
challenges to supporting SOC mental health?

179
a. What are the strengths your college/institution has when addressing SOC mental
health?
b. Can you provide specific examples?
8. Tell me about any training or information you have received at your college/institution
regarding SOC mental health.
a. To the best of your memory, what were the objectives of that/those trainings?
b. How were those objectives met?
c. If you have not received training, what would you like to learn more about?
9. What organizational resources (i.e. time, funding, personnel) are needed to better support
the mental health needs of SOC?
a. How would you allocate resources to address this issue?
10. What kinds of feedback do you typically receive from others when it comes to your work
with SOC?
a. What about specific to mental health?
11. In what ways could your college/institution improve the mental health support offered to
SOC?
12. Could you please share any innovative SOC mental health programs or strategies used
within or outside of your college/institution?
a. If comfortable and able, would you be willing to share forms or documents?
13. In your opinion, what are some common issues faced by SOC?
a. What areas do colleges need to focus?
b. Where does mental health rank within that list?
c. What have you done in the past to address some of these issues?

180
14. What is different about the mental health needs of SOC compared to White students?
15. What is the role of SAA in supporting the mental health needs of SOC?
16. What is your philosophy for working with diverse populations of students?
17. How confident are you regarding your ability to address mental health issues among
SOC?
a. How confident are you regarding the abilities of your SAA colleagues to address
mental health issues among SOC?
18. What challenges have you faced in the past regarding supporting SOC mental health?
a. In your opinion, what are challenges your colleagues have when they have
responded to a SOC mental health concern?
19. How often do you respond to students directly with mental health concerns?
a. What is the nature of those interactions? (i.e. Do you interact with the students in-
person, via email, phone? Do you refer to other resources?)
20. Next, I’m going to ask a hypothetical question. If a SOC contacted you and began
discussing a mental health concern, how would you approach the situation?
a. How would your colleagues approach the same situation?
21. Imagine a SOC comes to you to discuss a personal issue. Based on the conversation, the
student likely needs to be connected to a campus mental health or wellbeing resource.
Walk me through the steps you would take to help the student connect to the proper
resource.
a. How do your SAA colleagues encourage SOC to utilize campus mental health
and/or wellbeing resources?

181
b. Is there a reason why you may not refer SOC to mental health resources on your
campus?
22. What is the role of campus mental health and/or wellbeing offices?
a. In what ways do you interact with those offices?
b. Tell me how you feel about the effectiveness of campus mental health and/or
wellbeing offices within your college/institution.
23. What is the difference, if any, between the mental health/counseling center utilization
rates between SOC and White students at your college/institution?
24. Beyond mental health and/or wellbeing offices, what other campus entities (offices,
centers, individuals, etc.) do you interact regarding SOC mental health?
25. Are there any questions or topics not covered in this interview that you would like to
discuss?
26. Is there anything else you would like to share regarding the topic?

182
Appendix B
INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH

Study Title: Preparing Student Affairs Administrators to Support College Students of Color with
Mental Health Needs

Principal Investigator: Jason Enrique Steinas

Department: University of Southern California Rossier School of Education

INTRODUCTION

You are invited to take part in a research study conducted by Jason E. Steinas, candidate for
Doctor of Education in Organizational Change and Leadership under Courtney Malloy, PhD at
the University of Southern California. Your participation is voluntary.

Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. If you find any of the language
difficult to understand, please ask questions. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to
provide consent via email.

DETAILED INFORMATION

PURPOSE

The purpose of this innovation study is to uncover a set of recommendations that could be used
to craft strategies to prepare student affairs administrators to work with college students of color
who have mental health needs. You are invited as a possible interview participant because you
are an entry to director-level student affairs administrator who works with college students of
color. Approximately 15 student affairs administrators will take part in the study.

PROCEDURES

If you decide to participate, you will be asked to engage in an interview with the principal
investigator/researcher, which should last between 45-60 minutes. Based on the preference of the
participant, interviews can take place in person, over the phone, or through an online video
communication platform such as Skype or FaceTime. The interview will explore areas of student
affairs administrator knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to
support students of color with mental health needs

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

183
There are no foreseen risks to your participation in this study. Please note that some of the
questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can choose to skip questions or stop
answering at any time.

BENEFITS

This study anticipates potential benefits to student affairs administrators, students of color, and
colleges. A potential benefit to participants is the opportunity to help improve the support
colleges provide regarding the mental health needs of students of color. Much of the literature
pertaining to student of color mental health offers comprehensive institutional change
suggestions and/or guidance for college counseling centers, but seldom provides direct
suggestions for student affairs administrators. As this is a research study, the benefits are
contingent upon results.

PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY

Your name and name of the organization you work will be coded with a pseudonym; identifiable
information will be kept separately from your responses in a secured and locked location.

With permission, the interview will be recorded. The interview transcript will be stored on
USC’s secured cloud-based network and held for three years after the study has been completed
and then destroyed. Personally-identifying information will not be stored on this network.
Recorded audio files from your interview will be destroyed immediately after transcription. A
confidential service will be used to transcribe the audio-recording, but they will not have access
to personally-identifying information. You have the right to review/edit the audio-recordings and
interview transcripts.

When the results of the research are published or discussed at conferences, no personally-
identifying information will be used.

We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law; however, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information. Efforts will be made to
limit the use and disclosure of your personal information, including research study records, to
people who are required to review this information.

The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) may review your
records. Additional parties that may also inspect and copy your information include members of
the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP). The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research subjects.

PAYMENTS

You will not be compensated for your participation in this research.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

184

It is your choice whether or not to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change your
mind and leave the study at any time. Refusal to participate or stopping your participation will
involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.

CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions, concerns, complaints, or think the research has hurt you, talk to the study
investigator, Jason E. Steinas, at (615) 557-3328 or by email at steinas@usc.edu.

The University of Southern California IRB has reviewed this research. The IRB is a research
review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a research
participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at (323) 442-
0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

STATEMENT OF CONSENT

You have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. You have been
given a chance to ask questions. If you agree to take part in this study, please send an email to
steinas@usc.edu to verify that you have read the informed consent and want to participate.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Steinas, Jason Enrique (author)

Core Title Preparing student affairs administrators to support college students of color with mental health needs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/19/2020

Defense Date 06/04/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college/university,cultural humility,Discrimination,innovation,Learning and Instruction,Mental Health,OAI-PMH Harvest,sense of belonging,student affairs administrators,students of color

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Malloy, Courtney L. (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee member), Stowe, Kathy (committee member)

Creator Email jesteinas@gmail.com,steinas@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-332807

Unique identifier UC11665984

Identifier etd-SteinasJas-8694.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-332807 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SteinasJas-8694.pdf

Dmrecord 332807

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Steinas, Jason Enrique

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA