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Sustained mentoring of early childhood education teachers: an innovation study

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Sustained mentoring of early childhood education teachers: an innovation study

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SUSTAINED MENTORING OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION TEACHERS: AN
INNOVATION STUDY

by
Stephanie A. Caspian

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2020

Copyright 2020 Stephanie A. Caspian
ii

To my mentor, Dr. Daisaku Ikeda, for all the encouragement and wisdom you have provided
throughout the years.

iii

Acknowledgements

I am tremendously grateful to my dissertation chair and committee Dr. Cathy Krop, Dr.
Monique Datta, and Dr. Rebecca Lundeen. Thank you for providing all your expertise, amazing
feedback, constant encouragement, and patience. I want to especially thank Dr. Krop for not
letting me revert back to the original dissertation topic. Despite the extra work, this mentoring
thesis is exactly what I needed to address. Not to forget my dissertation co-chair, Dr. Alexandra
Wilcox, thank you for always picking up the phone. I have appreciated your inspiring words,
clarity, and advice since leadership class. I could not have hoped for a better team in completing
my doctoral journey.
I wish to express my profound gratitude to my mother, Rita Celano, for all the warmth,
strength, encouragement, and support you provide on a daily basis. Our family would not have
made it without you.
In loving memory of my late father, Dominic Celano, you would be proud.

Thank you to my husband, Amir, for inspiring me to take this scholarly step and for all
your love, support, and sacrifice. All my love to my three amazing boys, Dominic, Marco, and
Brando, for inspiring me to keep growing, to challenge myself. I hope to inspire you to do what
you love and make a meaningful contribution to this world. I’m looking forward to spending
more quality time with all of you.
My appreciation to my friends, who helped me pause, take a breath, and have some fun
along the way.
Thank you, my fellow cohort nine (C-9) members, I enjoyed getting to know you and
traveling this scholarly path together. I learned so much from each of you. Danielle, Alecia, Cat,
and Melissa C., we started the first step together as the 60-unit crew, and somehow it felt like a

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special bond formed during that first class, first year. I have truly appreciated your support and
friendship along the way.
I’m indebted to Melissa Franklin for taking on the added role of third-party data collector
in my study. Amid your own doctoral odyssey, you made the time and commitment to support
me. My friend, you really got me through. I could not have done a better job. #Wegotitdone!
A final expression of gratitude to all my colleagues and fellow mentors, your passion and
dedication to the families and children, and to the field of early education is impressive. Our
work is valuable and so are you.

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Table of Contents

Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xii
Abstract xiii
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice 1
Organizational Goal 2
Organizational Context and Mission 2
Related Literature 3
Importance of the Organizational Innovation 4
Description of Stakeholder Groups 5
Stakeholder’s Performance Goals 6
Stakeholder Group of Focus 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions 7
Methodological Framework 8
Definitions 8
Organization of the Study 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 11
Early Childhood Education and Teacher Training in the United States 11
Importance of Early Childhood Education 11
Current Status of Teacher Training 14
Requirements of Teacher Training in Early Education 15
Early Childhood Teacher Turnover, Causes and Implications 19
Types of Turnover 19
Job turnover 19
Position turnover 20
Occupation turnover 20
Current Turnover Rate in Early Childhood Contexts 20
Causes of Teacher Turnover 21
Low compensation 22
Lack of benefits 23
High turnover climate 23
Stress and burnout 23
Lack of administrative support 24
Lack of preparation 25
Lack of advancement opportunity 26
Consequences of Not Retaining Early Childhood Teachers 26
Child outcomes 27
Parent outcomes 27
Teacher outcomes 27
Organization/School program outcomes 28
Mentoring as a Professional Development Pathway 29
Mentoring Defined 29

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The Role of Mentoring in Induction and Retention 31
The Mentoring Relationship 32
Qualities of an Effective Mentor 34
Mentoring Best Practices in Early Childhood Settings 35
Mentor training 35
Adult learning theory 36
Communication 38
Goal setting 39
Modeling 39
Observation 40
Feedback and assessment 40
Reflective practice 41
Administrative support 41
Professional learning community 43
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework 44
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 45
Knowledge and Skills 45
Knowledge influences 45
Lead teachers need to understand their role in the mentoring process 46
Metacognitive reflection on mentoring 48
Motivation 50
Self-efficacy theory 51
Mentor teacher self-efficacy 52
Expectancy value theory 52
Mentor teacher intrinsic value 53
Mentor teacher utility value 53
Organization 55
General Organizational Theory 56
Cultural models 58
Trust and empowerment 58
Cultural settings 59
Effective mentor training and support 60
Incentives 61
Time allocation 62
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and
the Organizational Context 64
Conclusion 66
Chapter Three: Methodology 68
Introduction to Methodology 68
Research Questions 68
Sampling and Recruitment 69
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 69
Criterion 1. Teacher leadership 69
Criterion 2. Grade level 70
Criterion 3. Employment length 70

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Interview Recruitment Strategy and Rationale 70
Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale 70
Criterion 1. Teacher leadership 71
Focus Group Recruitment Strategy and Rationale 71
Data Collection and Instrumentation 72
Interviews 73
Interview Protocol 73
Interview Procedures 73
Focus Group Protocol 74
Focus Group Procedures 75
Data Analysis 75
Credibility and Trustworthiness 77
Ethics 80
Limitations and Delimitations 82
Limitations 82
Delimitations 83
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 84
Participating Stakeholders 85
Data Analysis 87
Results and Findings for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 89
Knowledge Results and Findings 90
Influence 1. Lead teachers need to understand their role in the mentoring process 91
Interview Findings 91
Summary 94
Influence 2. Lead teachers need to know how to reflect on their effectiveness as
mentors 97
Interview Findings 97
Summary 101
Newly Identified Influence 1. Lead teachers need to know how to provide and
receive effective feedback as mentors 102
Interview Findings 102
Focus Group Findings 102
Summary 103
Motivation Results and Findings 104
Influence 1. Lead teachers need to believe they are capable of taking on the role of
mentors 105
Interview Findings 105
Summary 106
Influence 2. Lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor 106
Interview Findings 106
Summary 107
Influence 3. Lead teachers need to feel the importance of becoming a mentor 108
Interview Findings 108
Focus Group Findings 109
Summary 110

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Emergent Value Theme: Mentoring and Teacher Retention 111
Organizational Results 112
Cultural Model 113
Influence 1. The organization needs to foster a culture of trust and empowerment
where lead teachers are part of the decision making as mentors 113
Interview Findings 113
Summary 116
Cultural Setting 116
Influence 1. The organization needs to provide effective training and support to be
a mentor 116
Interview Findings 116
Focus group findings 117
Summary 119
Influence 2. The organization needs to provide incentives to be a mentor 120
Interview Findings 120
Focus group findings 121
Summary 121
Influence 3. The organization needs to allocate time for lead teachers to effectively
fulfill the responsibilities of being mentors 122
Interview Findings 122
Focus group findings 124
Summary 125
Summary of Findings 126
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation 128
Introduction and Overview 128
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 129
Knowledge Recommendations 129
Introduction 129
Lead teachers have declarative knowledge about the role of mentoring 134
Lead teachers have metacognitive knowledge on their effectiveness as mentors 135
Lead teachers need procedural knowledge on how to give and receive effective
feedback as mentors 137
Motivation Recommendations 139
Introduction 139
Lead teachers believe they are capable of taking on the role of mentors 142
Lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor 143
Lead teachers feel the importance of becoming a mentor 144
Organizational Recommendations 145
Introduction 145
Cultural model 1: Culture of trust and empowerment 149
Cultural setting 1: Effective training and support 150
Cultural setting 2: Incentives 150
Cultural setting 3: Time allocation 151
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 152
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 152

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Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 155
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 156
Level 3: Behavior 158
Critical behaviors 158
Required drivers 160
Organizational support 159
Level 2: Learning 163
Learning goals 163
Program 164
Evaluation of the components of learning 165
Level 1: Reaction 166
Evaluation Tools 167
During and Immediately following the program implementation 167
Delayed for a period after the program implementation 168
Data Analysis and Reporting 168
The Preschool AFS Training Program Overview 169
Summary 170
Future Research 171
Conclusion 172
References 174
Appendix A: Participant Opt-out Email 195
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 196
Appendix C: Focus Group Protocol 201
Appendix D: Interview Participant Consent 205
Appendix E: Focus Group Participant Consent 209
Appendix F: Immediate Blended Evaluation Protocol 212
Appendix G: Instructor Observational Checklist and Assessment Tool 215
Appendix H: Delayed Blended Evaluation Protocol (Follow-up Checklist) 217

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List of Tables

Table 1: Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 6
Table 2: Minimum Qualifications for Early Childhood Teachers in Alabama, California,
and Arizona 17
Table 3: Assumed Knowledge Influences on Performance and Assessments 50
Table 4: Assumed Motivation Influences on Performance and Assessments 54
Table 5: Assumed Organizational Influences on Performance and Assessments 63
Table 6: Description of Participating Stakeholders for Individual Interviews 86
Table 7: Description of Participating Stakeholders for Focus Group 87
Table 8: Timeline of Data Collection for Interviews and Focus Group 88
Table 9: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences and Findings 91
Table 10: Participant Interview Responses Related to Conceptual Knowledge of the Role
of a Mentor 95
Table 11: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences and Findings 104
Table 12: Summary of Assumed Organizational Influences and Findings 113
Table 13: Summary of all Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and
Results 126
Table 14: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 131
Table 15: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 140
Table 16: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 146

Table 17: The New World Kirkpatrick Model Applied to the Preschool AFS Training
Program 155
Table 18: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 157
Table 19: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 159
Table 20: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 161

xi
Table 21: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 165
Table 22: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 167

xii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Interactive conceptual framework for lead teacher mentoring program plan and
development in early education. 65

Figure 2: The New World Kirkpatrick Model. 154

Figure 3: Sample dashboard to report progress toward goals. 169

xiii
Abstract

Teacher attrition is a consistent problem of practice in early childhood education settings. This
innovation study proposed sustained mentoring of first-year teachers as a viable solution to solve
this problem, while also raising the skill level of novice teachers. This study applied the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework to the needs of lead teachers in a private preschool
and infant-toddler program. The study explored nine assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs of lead teachers to take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentor program. The findings indicated five of the influences
were current assets. The findings also revealed a new emergent procedural knowledge need of
providing and receiving effective feedback, validated the intrinsic value motivation influence,
and three organizational influences of support and training, incentives, and time. The study
offered context-specific recommendations rooted in self-efficacy, motivation, and organizational
change theory to either reinforce the assets or fill the lead teachers’ existing gaps. Furthermore,
an evaluation plan based on The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016) was proposed.
Keywords: mentoring, early childhood education (ECE), teacher attrition, turnover,
preschool, infant-toddler center, professional development, training program, lead teachers, first-
year teachers, self-efficacy, motivation, organizational change, organizational culture.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM OF PRACTICE

Early childhood education (ECE) teacher qualifications and how to best develop their
capacity and skills is of national concern. Teacher qualifications are often linked to program
quality and, subsequently, child outcomes related to school readiness (Barnett, 2003; Tout,
Zaslow, & Berry, 2006). Policymakers advocate for ECE teacher quality improvements through
degree requirements, and the majority of states now require lead teachers to have a bachelor’s
degree in public pre-K and Head Start programs (Barnett, 2003; Institute of Medicine [IOM] &
National Research Center [NRC], 2015). This traditional educational pathway may be beyond
reach for many in the early education workforce, including the 47% of the estimated 1,000,000
teachers in the United States who make up the early childhood workforce without a degree in
center-based programs (private programs not run out of a home nor provided by the school
districts), and who earn half the wages of K-12 teachers (National Survey of Early Care and
Education [NSECE], 2013). Furthermore, the demand for qualified ECE teachers is significant
because ECE programs must compete for teachers with better paying K-12 programs, special
education programs, or other higher paying fields (Barnett & Carolan, 2013).
This evidence suggests a need for a multi-pronged approach to attracting and keeping
qualified ECE teachers to the field. One area of increasing focus is the need for a broader range
of professional development opportunities beyond formal education, like mentoring, for ECE
teachers to gain practical knowledge and skill development. Mentoring for ECE teachers can
keep them in ECE programs and in the field, while increasing compensation commensurate with
their growing skills and experience (Ackerman, 2004). Mentoring is a valuable pathway to
developing capacity and retaining quality ECE teachers, regardless of where they are in their
career (Fuligni, Howes, Lara-Cinisomo, & Karoly, 2009; IOM & NRC, 2015; Kagan, Kauerz, &

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Tarrant, 2008; National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2009). In a
field where turnover is between 30–50% annually (Porter, 2012; Wells, 2014), research indicates
that having a teacher mentor in one’s field can reduce turnover by as much as 30% (Smith &
Ingersoll, 2004). Given this evidence, providing sustained, on-the-job training or mentoring for
ECE teachers to improve quality and stabilize the workforce is warranted.
Organizational Context and Mission

Preschool AFS (pseudonym) is a private preschool and infant-toddler program with
multiple locations located in Los Angeles, California. The mission of Preschool AFS is to
nurture and educate children, where teachers implement research-based curriculum and guide
parents in early childhood development. Preschool AFS serves approximately 180 families,
whose children attend the preschool and infant-toddler program from 7:30 am–5:30 pm daily,
Monday through Friday. Preschool AFS employs 43 full-time teachers. Forty-two are female and
one is male, ranging in age from 20 to 45 years old. They are racially/ethnically diverse (nine
White, six Black, 27 Latin, and one Asian) and have some level of formal education in early
childhood studies (i.e., having earned or working toward a bachelor’s or master’s degree in early
childhood education). First-year teacher turnover is approximately 40% and has become an
organizational problem that needs to be addressed. First-year teacher turnover is an issue of
accountability for the preschool administration to solve (Preschool AFS Strategic Plan, January
2020–2025).
Organizational Goal

The goal for Preschool AFS is that by December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will
participate in the teacher mentor program, leading to best practices and choosing to remain

3

working at the center. The Director identified this goal in 2019 after meeting with the
Administrator and Assistant Directors to address the high teacher turnover in the school and
discuss aspects of mentoring teachers in early education. To monitor the progress of the goal, the
Director will collect data via teacher evaluations on teacher satisfaction and retention rates.
Related Literature

As a measure to improve academic, social, and emotional outcomes for children, there is
increased pressure to professionalize early education to increase teacher qualifications and
program quality that is more aligned with K-12 schools (Barnett, 2003; Early et al., 2007). The
IOM and the NRC (2015) issued a report recommending a bachelor’s degree as a minimum
requirement for teachers to work in publicly funded preschools. At the same time, it is difficult to
prove a causal link between teacher quality with degree attainment or level of teacher education
(Barnett, 2003; Saracho & Spodek, 2007), and some studies have concluded that degree
attainment is only mildly correlated to child outcomes, with the exception of early mathematical
concepts (Early et al., 2006). Furthermore, research suggests that investing in a teaching degree
in the field of early education has one of the lowest returns on investment over a lifetime since it
also has one of the lowest salaries in the education field (Austin et al., 2015). It is estimated that
in 2012, ECE teachers without a degree who worked in center-based programs (programs not run
in a home or as part of a school district) across the nation earned on average $9.00 per hour,
increasing to $11.00 and $14.00 per hour with an associate and bachelor’s degree, respectively
(Whitebook, Philips, & Howes, 2014). Accordingly, for early education teachers who want to
continue their studies, compensation remains low and reduces incentive to pursue a degree or
remain in the ECE profession for very long.

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If degree attainment becomes a barrier, either due to the cost of the degree or because the
low compensation for ECE teachers is not worth pursuing a degree, for prospective teachers to
have the needed skills and supports to succeed in the ECE field and choose to stay, early career
mentoring with supervision in quality programs could provide another professional development
pathway. In-service or on-the-job mentoring offers teachers needed skills, knowledge, and
general improvement in teaching practice wherever they are in their career (Howes, James, &
Ritchie, 2003; Lutton, 2012; NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011).
Well-designed mentor programs have been shown to lower the teacher attrition rate in
public school settings (Halloway, 2001; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). There is little formal data
specific to early childhood regarding the efficacy of mentoring, except for Head Start, so the data
from those public school settings is informative. Halloway (2001) stated that mentoring can
provide valuable guidance and professional development for inexperienced as well as veteran
teachers. Halloway (2001) cites a study that showed a reduced attrition rate of 13% between
teachers who were mentored and those who were not. Similarly, Smith and Ingersoll (2004)
indicated novice teachers who are mentored during their first year of service by experienced
teachers who are trained mentors in their field lowers attrition by as much as 30%. Therefore,
providing quality mentoring can lower turnover by offering new teachers professional
development and support, and help them establish careers in the ECE field.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation

It is important to develop and implement a formal mentoring program to help achieve the
organization’s goal of 100% of first-year teachers participating in the teacher mentor program,
leading to best practices and choosing to remain working at the center. Quality teachers are
central to the mission of the organization because they provide care and educate children

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aged zero to five years. Research indicates teacher turnover weakens teacher-child relationships
(Barnas & Cummings, 1994; Phillips, Austin, & Whitebook, 2016). Therefore, the Preschool
AFS administration is responsible for mitigating teacher turnover because this negatively affects
the mission of the organization. Currently the annual first-year teacher turnover rate is 40%, and
the Preschool AFS administration is responsible to reduce turnover (Preschool AFS Strategic
Plan, January 2020–2025). An effective mentoring program can help reduce teacher turnover by
as much as 30% (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Teacher attrition has been shown to affect
organizational culture (Rueda, 2011; Wells, 2014), therefore it is also possible that quality lead
teachers may leave the organization at increasing rates if they do not feel the Preschool AFS
administration is addressing teacher retention appropriately. Accordingly, failure to address this
problem and provide a quality mentorship program to help mitigate low teacher retention will
lead to a loss in quality programming for its children, which negatively impacts the
organization’s ability to fulfill its mission.
Description of Stakeholder Groups

The Preschool AFS stakeholder groups include the administration, lead teachers, and
first-year teachers. Table 1 provides a description of the goals of each stakeholder in achieving
the organization’s performance goal. The lead teachers will be instrumental in achieving the
performance goal of 100% of first-year teachers participating in the teacher mentor program,
leading to applying best practices and choosing to remain working at the center. Preschool AFS
employs 43 full-time teachers. Of the 43 full-time teachers, 10 are lead teachers and the
remaining 33 are teachers. The lead teachers have worked at the organization for at least one year
and have the requisite education and experience to instruct or guide other teachers based on best
practices. Their goal is to take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and implement the

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first-year teacher mentoring program. Of the remaining 33 teachers, the goal is for 100% of
the first-year or new teachers to the organization to participate in the teacher mentoring
program, enabling them to implement best practices they learned in their classrooms, and
choose to remain working at the center. The administration is responsible for developing and
implementing a strategic plan and ongoing guidance for establishing the first-year teacher
mentoring program.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals

Table 1

Organizational mission, organizational goal and stakeholder performance goals

Organizational Mission
The mission of Preschool AFS is to nurture and educate children, where teachers implement
research-based curriculum and an innovative approach based on listening, and guide parents in
early childhood development.

Organizational Performance Goal
By December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will participate in the teacher mentor program,
leading to applying best practices and choosing to remain working at the center.

Preschool AFS
Administrators
By August 2021, Preschool
AFS Administrators will
develop and implement a
strategic plan to establish a
first-year teacher mentoring
program.
Lead Teachers
By December 2021, lead
teachers will take on the role of
mentors, as well as help
develop and implement the
first-year teacher mentoring
program.
Novice or New Teachers
By Fall 2022, 100% of first-year
teachers will participate in the
teacher mentoring program,
enabling them to implement best
practices they learned in their
classrooms, and choose to
remain working at the center.

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Stakeholder Group of Focus

Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, the focus for this study is the lead teachers as a stakeholder group. The stakeholder
goal will be to acquire the requisite knowledge and training to take on the role of mentors, as
well as help develop and implement the first-year teacher mentoring program. Since the lead
teachers are primarily responsible for training first-year or new teachers, as well as overall
classroom management and instruction, they are an important stakeholder group in achieving
the organization’s mission.
The Director identified the stakeholder goal in 2019 after meeting with the Administrator
and Assistant Directors to discuss aspects of mentoring as it affects teacher retention in early
education at Preschool AFS. To monitor the progress of the goal, the Director will work with the
lead teachers to collect and analyze data, including surveys on employee engagement and
retention data. Failure to achieve the goal will lead to continued high teacher attrition and this
may impact the organization’s ability to provide effective instruction for children, leading to loss
of clients.
Purpose of the Project and Questions

The purpose of this innovation study was to conduct a needs’ analysis to ensure the
attainment of Preschool AFS’s goal to design and implement a program for mentoring of early
education teachers to increase first-year teacher retention. The analysis began by generating a list
of possible needs and then moved to examining these systematically to focus on actual or
validated needs. While a complete needs’ analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes the Preschool AFS lead teachers were the stakeholder group focused on in this analysis.

8

As such, this qualitative assessment sought to uncover the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs of the lead teachers. The questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational needs required by
lead teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as develop and
implement a mentor program for first-year early education teachers based on best
practices?
2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

Methodological Framework

Clark and Estes (2008) offered an analytical, conceptual framework to improve
performance and support successful change within organizations. Their research-based approach
examines, based on personal knowledge and related literature, assumed knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational factors affecting performance, to identify and understand gaps
between an established organizational performance goal and actual performance level (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Once gaps are identified, the assumed stakeholder knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational influences are further researched. This study adapts that model to
an innovation study, looking at stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to
develop an innovation related to first-year teacher mentorship. The assumed needs will be
examined in this study using individual interviews and a focus group. Research-based solutions
will be recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
Definitions

Early Childhood Education: The field of education that offers care and instruction to
children aged zero to eight years (NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011).

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Lead Teachers: Designated teachers who have acquired the educational level and/or
experience in early education to command a classroom in the organization.
Mentor: A more experienced or knowledgeable colleague in teaching who provides
guidance and models for a lesser experienced teacher, protégé, or mentee (NAEYC &
NACCRRA, 2011). In this context, the designated lead teacher is the mentor who has acquired
the educational level and experience in early education, provides guidance based on best
practices to less experienced or novice teachers, and is also characterized as having been
employed in the organization for a minimum of a year.
Novice Teachers: Early education teachers who are new to the field or have less than one
year of employment in the organization.
Organization of the Study

Five chapters are used to organize this study. Chapter One provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about mentoring and its effect on
teacher retention in early education. It also introduced the organization’s mission, goals, and
stakeholders, as well as the initial concepts of gap analysis adapted to a needs analysis. Chapter
Two provides a review of current literature surrounding early childhood teacher training. Topics
of teacher turnover, including current status, causes of teacher turnover and its consequences on
the field of early education, as well as mentoring best practices in ECE programs in the United
States, will be addressed. Chapter Three details the assumed influences that hinder the
organization from achieving its goal, as well as methodology relative to participant selection,
data collection, and analysis. Chapter Four will present the data, a data analysis, and the results
of the study. Chapter Five will offer solutions, based on data and literature, for addressing the

10

needs and closing the perceived performance gap within the organization. Finally, an
implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions will be provided.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This literature review will examine the gaps in education and training for early childhood
educators in the United States and the need for long-term mentoring as practitioners in the work
context. The research begins with general research on early childhood teacher training, including
current status of requirements. Next, a discussion of the current status of early childhood teacher
turnover as well as the causes of teacher turnover will follow. Finally, the discussion will turn to
best practices of teacher mentoring in the United States. Following the general research, the
review will explain the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework, particularly the
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational resource needs for lead teachers to develop
a mentoring program for early childhood educators based on best practices.
Early Childhood Education and Teacher Training in the United States
Importance of Early Childhood Education
Scientific research validates the importance of quality early learning experiences for
young children. Children depend on knowledgeable parents and other adults, (e.g., caregivers
and teachers), to provide appropriate cognitive, physical, emotional, and social experiences to
support proper overall development in the early years from birth through age eight (IOM &
NRC, 2015). When children’s relationships with these adults are consistent and based on
responsive interactions and input (2015), children thrive in all aspects of learning and cognitive
development including early language acquisition (Girolametto, Weitzman, & Greenberg, 2003),
social-emotional skills (Jamison, Cabell, LoCasale-Crouch, Hamre, & Pianta, 2014), and
mathematical competence (Klibanoff, Levine, Huttonlocher, Vasilyeva, & Hedges, 2006),
among other learning competencies. Therefore, teachers and caregivers who support children’s
care and education on a daily basis take on a considerable responsibility for their development

12

outside the home. Children who are enrolled in high-quality early care and preschool programs
benefit in their development in numerous ways, which predicts future success in school and life.
Participation in quality early education offers academic, cognitive, and social-emotional
gains to children (Barnett, 1995; Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010; IOM & NRC, 2015).
Research that has evaluated earlier model programs, such as the Abecedarian and High/Scope
Perry Preschool programs, indicate moderate to large improvements in academic, language
development, and social skills in disadvantaged children (Barnett, 1995; Barnett, 2008; Duncan
& Magnuson, 2013). Several longitudinal studies of Head Start and other programs regarding the
effects of one year of preschool on disadvantaged children also saw significant social-emotional
advantages of participation in early childhood education (Barnett, 2011; Chase-Lansdale &
Brooks-Gunn, 2014; Lee, Brooks-Gunn, Schnur, & Liaw, 1990). Children who attend preschool
have higher social competence scores on competency tests than those who do not attend (Barnett,
1995; Barnett, 2011). Also, teacher and parent reports indicate improved socialization, including
better relationships, classroom behavior, and pride in academic achievements after attending
preschool (Barnett, 1995; Barnett, 2011).
Preschool has been shown to provide long-term effects as well, including personal and
societal benefits. Barnett (2008) and Heckman and Savelyev (2013) agreed that a quality
preschool education improves future academic outcomes such as increased high school
graduation rates and lower grade retention, as well as long-term employment prospects and
earnings, while reducing detrimental behaviors like smoking, drug use, and crime. Research
indicates that the beneficial effects of preschool, particularly in model programs, remain evident
at the age of 21 (Duncan & Magnuson, 2013). Early model programs targeted disadvantaged
children and were focused on improving their well-being and intellectual and social development

13

with results showing improved performance on intelligence test scores, improved academic
ability, and reduced grade retention (Barnett, 1995). However, evidence also showed preschool
benefits children from all socioeconomic backgrounds (Camilli et al., 2010; Gormley, Gayer,
Philips, & Dawson, 2005). For example, Oklahoma’s state-funded pre-K program has been
shown to provide notable cognitive gains in applied problems, letter-word recognition, and
spelling for all children enrolled, not just poor or at-risk children, because it is universal in that it
offers free full- or half-day preschool to those of diverse backgrounds, both racial (Black, Latin,
Native American, and White) and economic (those eligible for a lunch subsidy or not) (Gormley,
Phillips, & Gayer, 2008).
Although the United States’ federal and state-funded early educational initiatives
primarily have targeted children in low-income families in programs such as Head Start, Barnett
and Frede (2010) clarified that middle-income children account for the majority of children who
have low academic skills and are underprepared for kindergarten, and they could also benefit by
attending quality preschool programs. Given that there are an estimated 24.2 million children
ages zero to five years in the United States (Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2017),
quality early education can positively benefit a significant number of children regardless of
socioeconomic background (Barnett & Carolan, 2015; Gormley et al., 2005). Early longitudinal
studies such as the Perry Project (1962-1967), the Abecedarian (1972-1985), and the Head Start
Longitudinal Study (1968-1969), and others since, provide compelling evidence that preschool
attendance in high-quality programs increases children’s development and academic readiness,
suggesting continued substantial investment in quality programs is vital (Barnett et al., 2017;
Barnett, Hustedt, Robin, & Schulman, 2005). The next section discusses the current training and
qualifications of early education teachers.

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Current Status and Requirements of Teacher Training

The early childhood workforce is composed of teachers with different levels of education
and qualifications (Whitebook, 2014). Some teachers who have worked in the field for years may
have entered when a high school diploma was sufficient. Other teachers may have entered having
earned an associate or bachelor’s degree, while teachers already working in ECE programs may
have continued to educate themselves, whether they were required to or not. Newer teacher
entrants may be working and earning their degrees concurrently. Statistics indicate that roughly
45% of preschool teachers have a bachelor’s degree or higher, 17% have an associate degree,
24% have some college but no degree, and 13% have a high school diploma or less (NSECE,
2013). For teachers who work with children ages zero to three years, only 19% attained a
bachelor’s degree or higher, 17% earned an associate degree, 36% had some college but no
degree, and 36% had a high school diploma or less (NSECE, 2013). Currently, more public
preschool programs require teachers to either have a bachelor’s degree or be working toward one
(Barnett, 2003; Office of Head Start, 2007).
Whitebook (2014) suggested these differences in education levels result in inequities in
education for children because less educated teachers may be less qualified and may not be as
skilled in their teaching practice. Therefore, the wide differences in education levels of the ECE
teacher workforce has been the topic of much discussion among advocates who call for greater
professional qualifications to improve quality in early childhood programs (Barnett, 2003; IOM
& NRC, 2015). Nevertheless, these variances in educational requirements are based on the
complexities of the early childhood context and individual requirements determined by each
state, and in some cases, local districts. A brief review of teacher training requirements follows.

15

Requirements of Teacher Training in Early Education

Compared to K-12 teaching requirements, early childhood education teaching
requirements are minimal. Rather than a uniform national standard of requirement as in
elementary school settings, ECE teacher training and requirements vary depending on position,
the age of the children the teachers teach between zero to eight years, where the ECE teacher is
employed in the workforce context, and in which state (Kagan, Kauerz, & Tarrant, 2008; Pianta,
Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009; Whitebook, 2014). Since ECE teacher educational
requirements differ based on each state, teachers who are qualified to teach in one state are not
automatically qualified to teach in others.
Kindergarten teachers in public schools are required to have earned a bachelor’s degree
as well as specialized training in education to be certified to teach in most states (Pianta et al.,
2009). In state-funded pre-K programs, teacher and assistant teacher requirements range from
needing an associate or bachelor’s degree, or a Child Development Associate (CDA) credential.
Teachers who work with children under three years old may be required to have a CDA or only
a few courses in child development or early education to satisfy a state child care licensing
requirement. Since September 2013, Head Start programs have mandated that at least half of
their teachers hold degrees; to meet the 50% requirement, lead teachers should have a bachelor’s
degree in early childhood education and assistants should have an associate degree or CDA or be
enrolled in programs leading to degrees in early childhood education (Office of Head Start,
2007).
The National Institute of Early Education Research (NIEER) recommends the minimum
degree requirement for preschool lead teachers is a bachelor’s degree with specialized training in
early education and the minimum requirement for teacher assistants is a CDA or equivalent

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(Friedman-Krauss & Kasmin, 2018). For accreditation of early learning programs, the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) suggests teachers be well trained
and qualified and have “a minimum of a higher education degree (any degree level)” with a
minimum of 60 credits (equivalent to an associate degree), 30 of them being in ECE, CD, early
childhood special education, or elementary education; assistant teachers/aides should have a
CDA, or 12 credits in ECE, CD, early childhood special education, or elementary education
(NAEYC, 2018, p. 81). NAEYC advises that teachers seek degrees through accredited colleges
for either two-year or four-year degrees (2018). It is also important to note that while K-12
teachers are required to participate in student teaching prior to becoming a fully certified teacher,
only a small percentage of higher education teacher preparation programs require students in
early education to participate in student teaching courses prior to graduation (Whitebook &
Austin, 2015). The authors stated most early childhood degree programs not linked to
certification, including most associate degree programs, currently only require students to
complete a practicum. The authors recommended that increased opportunities and improvements
in field-based learning experiences be offered in teacher preparation programs to better prepare
ECE students who work with all age children birth through eight years (Whitebook & Austin,
2015). Whitebook (2014) explained that many ECE teachers’ first job often doubles as their
practical student teaching, meaning they learn as they go. While both NIEER and NAEYC offer
recommended guidelines, it is clear that public and private programs have different minimum
standards. Table 2 provides some examples of the variation in state degree and training
requirements for ECE teachers and assistant teachers in public, private, and the federally funded
Head Start contexts:

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Table 2

Minimum Qualifications for Early Childhood Teachers in Alabama, California, and Arizona

Program by
State
Alabama
Teacher Degree
Requirement
Assistant Teacher
Degree Requirement
Specialized Training

AL Pre-K
Program*
Private Center-
BA CDA or 9 ECE/CD
credits
ECE, CD, ECE Sp Ed
based Child
Care
California
HS Diploma/GED HS Diploma/GED N/A

CA-TK* BA HS Diploma/GED ECE, CD, Elementary Ed

CA-State*
Preschool
Program

California CDA
Teacher Permit

HS Diploma/GED ECE, CD

Private Center-
based Child
Care
Arizona

12 ECE credits 6 ECE credits N/A

AZ-Pre-K* 12 credits ECE;
CDA (25% of
teachers)
HS Diploma 12 credits ECE; CDA (25%
of teachers)
Private Center-
based Child
Care

12 credits, at least 6
in ECE/CD

Enrollment in HS/HS
Diploma; at least age 16

N/A

Head Start
(in each state)
BA (at least 50%
nationwide)
AA/CDA (or enrolled in
a program leading to
degree)
ECE, CD, or related to
ECE

Note: Data for pre-K programs * in all three states adapted from Friedman-Krauss, A. H., Barnett, W. S.,
Weisenfeld, G. G., Kasmin, R., DiCrecchio, N., & Horowitz, M. (2018), for AL private center-based care from State
of Alabama (2018), for CA private center-based care from California Department of Social Services (CDSS).
Community Care Licensing Division (CCLD)., (n.d.), for AZ private center-based care from Arizona Department of
Health Services. Bureau of Child Care Licensing (BCCL). (2010), and for Head Start from Office of Head Start.
(2007). BA= bachelor’s; AA= associate’s; CDA= Child Development Associate credential; CD= child development;
and HS= high school.

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As shown in Table 2, of the four state pre-K programs, two (the Alabama Pre-K Program
and California T-K) require a bachelor’s degree for qualified teachers, whereas the other two
(California State Preschool Program and Arizona Pre-K) require a CDA or 12 ECE credits. Most
of the private center-based programs require qualified teachers to have at most 12 ECE credits or
a high school diploma. The assistant teachers need a high school diploma or 6-9 ECE credits. As
was indicated earlier, Head Start programs have separate requirements, either bachelor’s,
associate, or CDA for qualified and assistant teachers.
Accordingly, wage disparities exist among teachers based on their degree attainment, the
work context, the age of the children they work with, and their state (Whitebook, 2014). At the
same time, regardless of degree, work context, age of children, or state, wages for ECE teachers
remain low relative to other professions. As an example, in 2012 preschool teachers with a
bachelor’s degree earned 60% of kindergarten teachers, and three-quarters of what other civilian
professional women earned (Whitebook, 2014). In the 2018 Early Childhood Workforce Index,
Whitebook, McLean, Austin, and Edwards (2018) examined economic insecurity in non-profit,
for-profit, and public (Head Start and public pre-K) early care and education programs. They
concluded that early education compensation is so low, many ECE teachers struggle to feed and
provide housing and healthcare for their families (Whitebook, 2014). Due to low compensation,
the authors clarified, on average, early education teachers were more than twice as likely to
qualify for public subsidies, such as Federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), Medicaid, food
stamps, or a housing subsidy (Whitebook, 2014). In center-based programs, 86% of early
educators who work with infants and toddlers and 56% who worked with preschool-aged
children earned less than $15 per hour (Whitebook et al., 2018). The data indicated that
regardless of degree or context, ECE teacher wages and benefits are unlivable, and often below

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minimum wage. Turnover and its various components will be addressed next, as will be the wage
structure, the lack of preparation, and the lack of advancement opportunities of the early
education workforce as key contributive factors of turnover in the field.
Early Childhood Teacher Turnover, Causes and Implications
Types of Turnover
Teachers leave their schools for a variety of reasons, both temporary, due to illness or
maternity leave, and permanent, due to retirement, work at another school, or leaving the
occupation all together. Turnover has been categorized as functional, when underperforming
employees leave the organization and the organization supports the separation, and
dysfunctional, when high performing employees leave the organization when the organization
would like to retain them (Dalton 1981). Therefore, in the teaching context, not all turnover can
be considered detrimental (Finster, 2015); some teachers do not actively engage with children,
and therefore may not be best suited for the profession (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). Although
there is a lack of consistent and current data on teacher turnover in the ECE field, teacher
turnover is a persistent concern. Three types of turnover are job turnover, position turnover, and
occupation turnover (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
Job turnover. Job turnover is when ECE teachers leave their jobs to go to another school
and stay in the field. The reasons may be involuntary, when they are fired, or voluntary because
they move to a position that offers better pay, benefits, or for other personal reasons (Finster,
2015; Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). While Whitebook and Sakai (2003) suggested job turnover
creates the most instability in the ECE field, Finster (2015) indicated some level of deselecting
low performing teachers is necessary.

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Position turnover. Position turnover is when teachers move to another class or position
but remain at the school (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). Teachers might also move to other
positions if the organization is expanding and opening new classrooms or schools. Position
turnover supports the school positively (Finster, 2015), but still may require the hiring of
additional staff to maintain the effective operation of the school.
Occupation turnover. Occupation turnover is when teachers leave their jobs and the
field of early education completely. Teachers may leave because they do not feel best suited to
the field or they may feel the sacrifices to stay in the field are not worth it. This type of turnover
can lead to teacher shortages and makes hiring challenging, particularly when ECE programs
already lose teachers during job turnover (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). Finster (2015) suggested,
even though turnover is unavoidable, and there is difficulty in tracking as well as mitigating
occupational turnover, it is important to try tracking the various types turnover when possible.
Current Turnover Rate in Early Childhood Contexts
Previous research indicated that rates of early childhood teacher turnover are between
30–50% depending on the context (Ingersoll, 2003; Perda, 2013; Wells, 2014; Whitebook, Sakai,
Gerber, & Howes, 2001). Whitebook et al. (2001), interviewed directors and teachers in
California center-based preschool programs at three different intervals 1994, 1996, and 2000;
they found high turnover rates made the early education field “alarmingly unstable” even in
centers considered to be of higher quality (p. v). The authors suggested average teacher turnover
is 30% overall, but particular centers reported having 100% turnover in teacher assistants
between 1999 and 2000. In another study by Whitebook and Sakai (2003), 54% of teachers (81
out of 149) left their jobs after four years in 2000. Similarly, Wells (2014) conveyed that out of
69 first-year teachers eligible for the study, turnover was 36% by the end of the year in Head

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Start programs. Turnover in K-12, although typically considered lower, is important to look at
since it encompasses public pre-K and kindergarten through third grade, as components of early
education.
Studies showed similar high turnover rates in K-12 schools nationally. Ingersoll’s results
(2003), based on the National Center for Education Statistic’s (NCES) Schools and Staffing
Survey (SASS) using a random sample that included 12,000 principals, 53,000 teachers, and
4,500 districts in all 50 states, for four different cycles (1987-1988; 1990-1991; 1993-1994;
1999-2000) and the Teacher Follow-Up Survey (TFS) containing a sample of 7,000 teachers,
estimated that 40–50% of first-year teachers in K-12 move jobs or leave the field within their
first five years of teaching. Perda’s (2013) longitudinal study using data from 1993-2003,
suggested turnover is over 41% for K-12 teachers who enter the field and leave within five years,
which includes both teachers who move to another school and those who leave the teaching
profession completely. The same study revealed that childcare workers had a 49% rate of leaving
the occupation completely. Since early education teachers are part of the public elementary
teaching context (pre-K through 3rd grade), this data is applicable. These studies suggest
aggregately that the statistics of teachers who leave their jobs and the profession result in a
serious turnover rate in the ECE context, which is a problem for schools and the industry itself.
Causes of Teacher Turnover
Extensive research has explored the causes of early childhood education teacher turnover.

Beyond retirement, the reasons vary and can be broken down into categories related to school
action, personal, and environmental. Some reasons teachers stated for leaving their jobs are
financial, including low compensation and lack of benefits, a high teacher-turnover climate,
stress and burnout, lack of support from administration, lack of preparation, and a lack of

22

opportunity for advancement (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll, 2003;
Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
Low compensation. Low compensation, and therefore an undervalued status, has
affected the early childhood workforce for decades. Low compensation is the number one
predictor of teacher turnover (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). In fact, one out of five teachers leave
due to low wages (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). Advocacy organizations like
NAEYC and the Center for the Study of Child Care Employment (CSCCE) have called for ECE
teacher wage parity for decades, declaring that both child care workers and preschool teachers
are underpaid because they are undervalued, and therefore seek employment in other higher
paying professions (NAEYC, 1993; Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).
According to the CSCCE in Berkeley, the poverty-level wages have not increased over
the past 25 years in alignment with the educational expectations for ECE teachers (Whitebook et
al., 2014). ECE teachers are so financially burdened that many are forced to subsidize their
wages with public assistance; more than 50% of child care workers and more than 40% of
preschool and kindergarten teachers are using at least one form of public assistance or health
care program such as Medicaid or food stamps (Whitebook, McLean, Austin, & Edwards, 2018).
Whitebook et al. (2014) conveyed that although more state- and federally-funded programs
require ECE teachers to have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, their wages don’t match their
levels of education. According to the National Survey of Early Education in 2012, school-
sponsored teachers earned on average $16 per hour, Head Start teachers earned just under $12
per hour, other public pre-K teachers earned $10 per hour, and all other ECE teacher earned $10
per hour (Whitebook et al., 2014). Until ECE teachers are paid livable wages commensurate with

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their education and experience, and on par with teachers in elementary schools and professionals
in other fields, turnover in ECE will not likely subside.
Lack of benefits. Lack of benefit packages such as paid time (vacation, sick, personal),
medical/dental, or retirement, is also a salient factor influencing teachers’ decisions to leave their
positions and the field (Russell, Williams, & Gleason-Gomez, 2010; Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
In a random study of 78 ECE teachers in child care centers in Texas, respondents who did not
have health benefits showed less commitment to their job and were 92% more inclined to report
thoughts of leaving their current position (Russell et al., 2010). Whitebook and Sakai (2003)
reported more than half the teachers who left their schools and the field also did not receive
benefit packages. Considering the cost of insurance and the need for paid time off, opportunities
to secure jobs offering more financial and health-related stability in K-12 schools and other
professions that routinely offer employee-paid benefit packages likely are too hard for ECE
teachers to pass up.
High turnover climate. Teachers who are better educated are more likely to leave
schools with high turnover climates, as well as the early education field (Whitebook & Sakai,
2003). The authors reported teachers revealed that working in a high-turnover environment
makes their jobs more difficult and was a contributive factor in their decision to leave. Schools
that are unstable, exhibiting high turnover, are generally staffed with under-qualified teachers
and considered low quality (Cassidy, Lower, Kintner-Duffy, Hegde, & Shim, 2011; Ingersoll,
2003). The school environment and culture declines over time as teachers come and go, lowering
morale where turnover becomes a vicious cycle.
Stress and burnout. ECE teachers experience multiple stressors throughout their day.
Teachers reported frequently feeling overwhelmed and overworked due to long hours, financial

24

concerns, a lack of support from administrators, miscommunication with parents, and disruptive
behaviors from children (Hale-Jinks, Knopf, & Kemple, 2006; Russell et al., 2010). These
cumulative stress factors may eventually lead to burnout and ultimately result in turnover in the
workforce (Hale-Jinks et al., 2006; Russell et al., 2010). In addition, the stress levels of teachers
who stay in high turnover environments increase because there are higher demands placed on
them. These stressors could include taking over additional responsibilities and the education of
more children (Russell et al., 2010). Turnover compounds stress, and teacher burnout results.
Lack of administrative support. Teachers’ perceptions of administrative consistency,
support, and competency is important in determining whether to leave or stay in a position (Hale-
Jinks et al., 2006; Russell et al., 2010). Russell et al. (2010) assert the role administrators play
can help or hinder teacher turnover. Unless administrators replace appropriate staff as efficiently
as possible, as well as provide adequate training to build capacity for teachers who remain,
turnover will remain high. According to Hale-Jinks et al. (2006), administrators characterized as
unable to create a cohesive climate, establish mutually constructive relationships, and those who
do not offer support and guidance when teachers need it most, can exacerbate rather than
ameliorate teacher turnover. For example, teachers need directors’ and administrators’ expertise
to implement pedagogical advice in handing conflict resolution with children, to act as buffers to
manage parent-teacher issues, and to help resolve staff differences. When teachers recognize an
administrator as incompetent in balancing the work environment, coordinating teacher roles, or
managing resources equitably, teachers report considerations of leaving their jobs (Russell et al.,
2010).

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Lack of preparation. Research suggests that early education teachers are not adequately
prepared for the demands of the job once they leave school (Hamre & Pianta, 2005; Whitebook
& Austin, 2015). Hamre and Pianta (2005) found that teachers who form positive, low-conflict
relationships can help support the academic and social emotional experiences of children who
are at risk for school failure. The degree to which these relationship-building skills can be or are
learned in current ECE preparation programs must be examined (Early et al., 2007).
Often preservice teachers are required to take field-based coursework as part of their
degree requirement (Whitebook & Austin, 2015). The authors reported the most common
preservice requirement for ECE teachers is a practicum (i.e., a short-term in-class student teacher
learning experience supervised by a mentor) and is often the only field-based learning
opportunity offered by early education degree programs. Since these practica range in duration
from only a few hours to approximately 100 over a class term, ECE teacher preparation may not
be adequate to “build an understanding of development and learning across the age spectrum”
with such limited field-based opportunities (p. 12).
Strong preparation programs and field placements help sustain preservice and novice
teachers in the early education profession (Hanline, 2010; Kilgallon, Maloney, & Lock, 2008).
Hanline (2010) explored the valuable impact a 100-hour field experience had on 15 preservice
special education preschool teachers placed in inclusive preschool settings composed of typically
developing, developmentally delayed, and at-risk three- to five-year-old children. In testament to
her field-work experience, one teacher revealed the following: “[E]very day that I am in my
fieldwork placement, I gain new experience and become more confident in teaching. … Even
though I feel I have learned a lot, I feel I have much more to learn” (pp. 349–350). Overall,
preservice teachers’ fieldwork placements offer an applied understanding of and hands-on

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experience of best teaching practices that affect change for children and their parents (Hanline,
2010). Kilgallon et al. (2008) found early education teachers are more likely to remain in the
field when they have strong pedagogical preparation before entering the field, establish
relationships with mentors who help build their confidence and efficacy, and participate in
continued professional development to help in their “ability to cope with the daily demands of
their work” (p. 46). Without multiple hands-on opportunities to apply what they learn in their
preparation programs, ECE teachers cannot develop the necessary skills and knowledge to be
confident and effective in the classroom, which may affect their decision to remain in the field
(Ackerman, 2004; Whitebook & Austin, 2014).
Lack of advancement opportunity. Another important environmental consideration for
teachers is whether there’s an opportunity to advance within their career and the profession
(Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Holochwost, DeMott, Buell, Yannetta, & Amsden,
2009). Carver-Thomas and Darling-Hammond (2017) indicated that 21% of teachers were
dissatisfied with teaching as a career, for reasons that included a lack opportunity for
advancement. Holochwost et al. (2009) contended not having opportunities to advance can
demotivate teachers from continuing to work either in the school or profession because there’s a
lack of growth opportunity, both professionally and financially, particularly beyond five years of
employment.
Consequences of Not Retaining Early Childhood Teachers

Research indicates multiple consequences of not retaining early childhood teachers. High
teacher turnover is costly and impacts children, parents, teachers, and the school program
(Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Cassidy, Lower, Kintner-Duffy, Hegde, & Shim,

27

2011; Ingersoll, 2003). These factors create unsatisfactory outcomes for all stakeholders,
personally and environmentally.
Child outcomes. Children are affected by the turnover of teachers in the classroom
emotionally, academically, and socially (Cassidy et al., 2011; Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
Whitebook and Sakai (2003) noted teachers who are overwhelmed in high turnover schools are
less likely to interact with children in emotionally supportive ways, which can affect children’s
self-concept, sense of well-being, and language development. This lack of teacher attentiveness
and teacher consistency can affect young children’s secure attachment (Raikes, 1993). Children
develop attachment over time, and disruption caused by turnover can potentially interfere.
Supporting this point, teachers observe changes in children’s emotions and behaviors such as
loss or sadness, increased frustrations, and confusion due to teacher turnover (Cassidy et al.,
2011). Children may be adversely affected by a close teacher leaving that increases a feeling of
unease, which may bring about the changes in feelings and behaviors as they adapt to either the
loss of the teacher or a new one in the classroom.
Parent outcomes. Parents often choose programs depending on the consistency and
reliability of care and quality of education for their children. Often parents seek programs with
lower rates of turnover, looking for the stability (Cassidy et al., 2011). When teacher turnover is
high, parents lose trust in program quality. Since parents also develop relationships with teachers
whom they trust (Cassidy et al., 2011), inconsistent caregiving and teaching disrupts the parent’s
understanding of their child’s early educational experience. They do not know who to rely on for
accurate information when teacher turnover is high.
Teacher outcomes. Teachers also suffer when high turnover rates persist in schools. Not
only does it exacerbate the growing teacher shortage, high turnover also lowers teacher morale

28

and quality (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll, 2003). Ingersoll (2003)
stated that teachers with greater educational levels tend to leave more frequently than less
educated ones, thereby lowering overall teacher quality in the program. Teachers who remain
end up with heavier workloads, greater stress levels, and feelings of loss of relationships when
teachers depart (Cassidy et al., 2011). Preschool programs tend to have lower ratios when two or
more teachers are available to co-teach in a classroom. When teachers leave, the ratios may be
forced to the upper levels, often 1:12 or higher depending on the context or the state regulations
(California Department of Social Services [CDSS], Community Care Licensing Division, 2015).
Higher teacher-student ratios also make it more demanding for teachers who stay to develop
engaging curriculum (or any at all) and management of the classroom suffers. Teachers who
work with infants and toddlers have lower teacher-child ratio requirements, usually about 1:4 or
1:6, depending on the state regulations. A teacher working in infant care suddenly leaving can
easily put the entire classroom out of ratio and potentially subject the organization to sanctions
from overseeing state regulatory agencies (CDSS, Community Care Licensing Division, 2015).
Organization/School program outcomes. ECE programs depend on teachers for
consistency and quality of programming. Experienced teachers build relationships with children
and families and know the daily routine and curriculum (Cassidy et al., 2011). When teachers
with a level of experience and relationships with parents leave, it disrupts the continuity of care
and education. Therefore, programs that have high turnover are generally equated with low
quality (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). It is no surprise that turnover is costly to organizations and
can even result in ECE program closure. Studies show that each teacher that leaves a school can
cost the organization as much as $20,000 to replace (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond,
2017). Whitebook and Sakai (2003) noted that 30% of 226 centers had closed due to high

29

turnover nine years after the completion of the National Child Care Staffing Study (Whitebook et
al., 1990). Turnover rates are typically higher for schools serving children of color (Carver-
Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). Therefore, closures of centers in neighborhoods serving
children of color not only adversely impact teacher employment, they can further reduce access
to care and education for poor families and children who need it most. Next, an overview of
mentoring, its potential impact on turnover, and key elements of a quality mentor program in
early education are explored.
Mentoring as a Professional Development Pathway

Mentoring Defined

Mentoring is a relationship-based process where a more experienced person (mentor)
supports and imparts their knowledge and skills to help a less skilled person (mentee or protégé)
develop her or his capacity in a particular area or field of expertise (Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, &
Tomlinson, 2008; NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011). Other terms may also be used interchangeably
with mentoring in the ECE field, such as coaching or consulting, depending on the organization
or the context, but some researchers feel distinctions in meaning or role may exist (NAEYC &
NACCRRA, 2011; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Coaching, also a relationship-based process, is
administered by an individual who is considered an expert and serves in a different professional
role but may work with one or more individuals in a single school or across many locations
(NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Consulting is defined as a
collaborative process offered by an individual or group, geared toward problem solving of a
specific issue (NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011). Comparatively, given the definitions, in actual
practice the roles may be overlapping or quite similar, but the outcomes ultimately are all geared
toward the professional development of teachers.

30

In the field of education, mentoring as a professional development strategy can support
new teachers through the complexity of their new career, as well as assist veteran teachers in
adapting to new teaching curriculums by improving practice (Carter & Francis, 2001; Feiman-
Nemser, 2001; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). According to Feiman-Nemser (2001), the resulting
improvement of teacher skills and practice based on mentoring can improve curriculum and the
ultimate vision of improved student learning. The goal of mentoring teachers can also be
directed toward improving the quality of a program, reducing turnover, or even weeding out
potential teachers who do not appear to be suited for the organization or the field, thereby
creating stability in an organization and the field (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).
Research indicates that mentoring reduces turnover by 30% when the mentor is in the
mentee’s field (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Beyond retaining teachers, mentoring is a valid
professional development pathway that provides ECE teachers with induction and training
(Howes, James, & Ritchie, 2003; Lutton, 2012; NAEYC & NACCRRA, 2011; NSECE, 2013).
Mentoring offers teachers on-site support to help develop the aspects of teaching in-practice that
cannot be learned in preparation for teaching or through formal education (Ambrosetti, 2014;
Ball & Cohen, 1999; Hudson, 2016a). Ball and Cohen (1999) asserted teaching is learned by
doing it in context—in the classroom with students. Well-trained mentors have a positive impact
on the knowledge and skills of pre-service teachers (Ambrosetti, 2014). These skilled mentors
provide instructional, pedagogical, and classroom management skills through modeling, and can
help ECE teachers improve their qualifications while keeping them in the field (Whitebook &
Bellm, 2013). Therefore, mentoring is a promising method of developing and retaining skilled
and qualified ECE teachers while creating stability and quality programming, as well as
improving outcomes for children.

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The Role of Mentoring in Induction and Retention

Induction is the process of assisting preservice teachers from either preparation schools or
as experienced teachers in their first year at a new school (Feiman-Nemser, 2001b; Ingersoll &
Kralik, 2004). Feiman-Nemser (2001b) characterized this induction period as the novice
teacher’s movement from preservice learning as “knowing about teaching through formal study
to knowing how to teach by confronting the day-to-day realities” (p. 1027). Although sometimes
used synonymously with induction, mentoring is not induction itself, rather it is a common
component of induction programs that is particularly effective in helping retain teachers (Odell
& Ferraro, 1992; Parker, Ndoye, & Imig, 2009; Rosetto & Grosenick, 1987; Smith & Ingersoll,
2004). As previously mentioned, the literature reveals a quality induction program that includes
mentoring can reduce teacher turnover by as much as 30% when the teacher mentor shares the
same field as the protégé (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Researchers Rosetto and Grosenick (1987)
tracked 13 years of graduates in a one-year cooperative induction program that included a
mentoring component for teachers as on- the-job training and preparation offered by the
University of Oregon with select public school districts. The data show that 88% of the 106
teachers queried responded that they remained in the field of education since their completion of
the program. Furthermore, the authors indicated a 95% respondent future satisfaction rating,
meaning the graduates who completed the induction intended to pursue careers within the
teaching profession. The study also stated that 95% of the graduates felt satisfaction with their
level of teaching competency in the field attained during the induction period.
Similarly, Odell and Ferraro (1992) showed that a year-long induction program that
included seven categories of mentoring support for beginning K-5 teachers in the first year of

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teaching is highly predictive of teacher retention. The authors’ follow-up study indicated that of
the 100 teachers who were surveyed, there was a 96% retention rate; the teachers were still
teaching in a classroom four years later. Additionally, teachers found emotional support to be
the most valued mentor support in improving their first-year teaching experience. Therefore, an
important aspect of the mentoring process is the relationship between the mentor and the
mentee, so careful thought in mentor-mentee match must be considered.
Parker et al. (2009) asserted that 60% beginning teachers who received significant
help from their mentors, planned to stay in teaching. Over 33% of beginning teachers who
planned their day regularly over the month with their mentors indicated they were likely to
continue working in the profession. The study also reiterated that mentees who were matched
with mentees based on grade level was highly predictive of teacher retention.
The Mentoring Relationship

In education, researchers agree the relationship between the mentor and mentee is
integral to the success of the goal for which mentoring was established (Hudson, 2016a; Moir,
Barlin, Gless, & Miles, 2009; Ragins & Cotton, 1999). The relationship between mentor and
protégé can be informal, where the mentor actually initiates the role through volunteering to
participate as a mentor, whereas a formal relationship develops when a mentor is assigned by an
administrator to serve in the mentoring role (Ragins & Cotton, 1999). The authors suggested
informal mentor relationships in an organization are more effective because there’s a natural
development; it’s a mutual relationship in terms of selection that ultimately enhances the
communication, emotional support, and interpersonal rapport. If organizations do implement
formal mentor relationships, the decision makers should consider establishing a match between
mentor and mentee that closely resembles the informal mentor relationship (Ragins &

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Cotton,1999). Conversely, Moir et al. (2009) indicated the mentor-mentee relationship is more
effective when it is more formal. The authors also felt distance in the relationship can help
mentors establish more professional roles or identities that may be new to them and their
mentees, particularly if the mentors are existing teachers in the organization.
Research further indicates the quality of the mentor-mentee relationship is influenced by
the effort made to ensure a good match or pairing. A particularly salient point in determining a
good match for teachers is whether the mentor and mentee work in the same subject or content
area (Ingersoll & Smith, 2004). In the field of ECE, having a mentor who works with the same
age group of children is found to be effective (Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Children ages zero
to eight years have quite different needs and unique strategies are required to meet them.
Experienced mentor teachers who work with infants, toddlers, or older pre-K and early
elementary children can respectively address those specific concerns and the use of teaching
strategies with their mentees.
In contrast, not all pairings are successful just because the mentor and mentee work in the
same field (Hobson et al., 2008; Little, 1990). Little (1990) explained that selection of the mentor
should be based on sound criteria including knowledge and teaching experience, not only with
children but also with adults; it should not be just a bureaucratic decision based on tenure.
Similarly, since the success of the relationship between mentor and mentee is social in nature,
the pairings must be complimentary, so the mentor and protégé may get along both
professionally as well as personally (Hobson et al., 2008). The next section addresses the
essential qualities of effective mentorships.

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Qualities of an Effective Mentor

There are several key characteristics that make an effective mentor. Often a combination
of personal and professional attributes that include both interpersonal skills and professional
skills, such as empathy, communication skills, contextual knowledge, and experience of subject
matter, as well as respect and trust, were all seen as important characteristics to both mentors and
protégés (Cothran et al., 2008; Hudson, 2016a; Little; 1990). Cothran et al. (2008) interviewed
15 mentor and protégé dyads four times over the course of a year during the induction process.
The authors revealed that protégés wanted “real world” experience and applied subject
knowledge of the field as well as that of the school context (p. 245). Mentees were interested in
gaining an understanding of what they were going to experience as a new teacher, particularly
since they were teaching in an urban setting. The mentors were also expected to have effective
communication and listening skills (Cothran et al., 2008), so guidance could be offered in a
productive manner. Hudson’s (2016a) multi-case study of over 200 teachers suggested both
mentors and mentees agreed that mutual respect and trust are particularly salient characteristics
to support a positive mentor-mentee relationship. The professionalism of the relationship
depends on a co-construction of trust and respect, in an open, two-way communication process
and a non-judgmental environment (Hudson, 2016a). The mentor must have the psychosocial
and professional skills, time, and a willingness to take on the role, and the mentee must be
willing to learn from the mentor (Little, 1990). Mentors often face challenges in their role when a
protégé feels a loss of autonomy (Little, 1990). Next, an overview of best practices for mentoring
will clarify how mentors develop needed skills for a successful mentorship.

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Mentoring Best Practices in Early Childhood Settings

Mentoring programs in early childhood settings tend to be modeled after programs in the
elementary and secondary settings (Whitebook & Bellm, 1996). The authors indicated the
different mentoring model programs in early education include mentoring centers, where
students or teachers can visit to learn, or established programs that develop mentors to instruct
mentees at their school or home programs. Of course, an on-site mentoring program can be
developed within an individual school or program. Although the design of mentor programs
may be unique, many basic components include (a) mentor training, (b) communication (c) goal
setting, (d) modeling, (e) observation, (f) reflection, (g) feedback and assessment,
(h) supervisory support, and (i) a learning community (Moir et al., 2009; U. S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2001; Whitebook & Bellm, 1996; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013).
Within the varied program designs, the structure and content should address the needs of
mentors, the novice teachers, as well as the overarching organization or district that is sponsoring
the program. Next, best practices in mentor training, administrative support, and professional
learning communities will be detailed.
Mentor training. It is widely accepted that mentor teachers need training prior to
undertaking the role (Cothran et al., 2008; Moir et al., 2009; U. S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2001; Whitebook & Bellm, 1996; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Mentor training
varies program to program in terms of content as well as length. McCaughtry, Kulinna, Cothran,
Martin, and Faust (2005) described a mentor program of 15 mentor-protégé dyads engaged in
four day-long workshops over the course of a year that included training for both mentors and
protégés. The first workshop was separate for mentors and mentees, and the three subsequent
ones were jointly attended. Mentors were trained on the role of a mentor, which included

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dialogues and handouts on models of mentoring, challenges of new teachers, challenges of
learning new curriculum, how to effectively communicate, conducting conferences and
observations, and reflective teaching practices (McCaughtry et al., 2005). The authors indicated
the first workshop for mentees included training of the newly proposed curriculum for physical
education.
In a mentoring program for Durham, North Carolina public schools, all selected mentors
were trained over a period of three years in the New Teacher Center’s Mentor Academy (Moir et
al., 2009). The authors stated mentor training consisted of capacity-building sessions dedicated
to developing mentoring skills, applying professional teaching standards to develop teaching
skills, and using formative assessment to guide teacher practice of beginning teachers.
Furthermore, they asserted that the mentors in this program were given full-release time from
their teaching responsibilities to focus solely on mentoring in one or two schools with up to 18
beginning teachers. This full-time mentor status allowed for the lengthy training period and
process.
As was previously mentioned, training programs for mentors are varied. While many of
the best practices mentioned above may or may not be included as curriculum in mentor training,
seven are generally outlined in training programs. The mentor training will often focus on adult
learning theory, communication, goal setting, modeling, observation, feedback and assessment,
and reflective practice.
Adult learning theory. While teachers may be qualified and experienced teaching
children, adult learning theory is a primary component for mentor training to help early
educators transition into teaching adults (Moir et al., 2009; U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2001; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). In his widely accepted adult learning

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framework, Malcolm Knowles (1984) posited that adult learning, andragogy, differs
significantly from children’s learning, pedagogy. The author indicated four principles of
andragogy when approaching adult learners: (a) adults develop the self-concept of being a
self-directed learner, and therefore need to be involved in the planning or evaluation of the
learning; (b) adults have gained experience, which should be incorporated as a resource for
learning; (c) adults have interest in learning when it is relevant to their life or work; and (d)
adults in learning should be centered around problem solving, rather than content. When
adults are responsible for training other adults, these principles can be kept in mind.
Whitebook and Bellm (2013) advised introducing a number of theories, including
constructivist theory (e.g., Dewey, 1997 or Vygotsky, 1978) and stages of teacher development
(e.g., Lillian Katz, 1972). In accord with constructivist theory, the authors indicated adult
learners prefer hands-on learning and applying their experience, so mentors should teach to the
protégé’s developmental level (Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Similarly, early education scholar
Lillian Katz’s (1972) four stages of development (i.e., survival, consolidation, renewal, and
maturity) offers a framework that can help mentors’ understanding of how to communicate and
develop strategies based on the new teacher’s level of knowledge and experience as a teacher.
Mentoring experts at the New Teacher Center purported their adult learning training for mentors
includes a “just-in-time” learning approach for teachers based on their prior knowledge (Moir et
al., 2009). Mentor teachers are trained to know when and how to provide curriculum or
pedagogical advice, for example, either individually or as a group, and guide new teachers based
on their needs, supporting them to become increasingly self-motivated and autonomous learners
and practitioners.

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Communication. Effective communication between mentor and protégé can lead to
greater learning (Bradbury & Koballa, 2008; Hudson, 2016a; Little, 1990; Whitebook & Bellm,
2013). Whitebook and Bellm (2013) explained that experienced teachers need to be able to
describe the reasons behind their teaching practices; they need to share with their protégés why
they do what they do. Little (1990) stated isolated teachers may not have the skills necessary to
engage others in the details of their teaching practice, so the vital knowledge remains hidden.
Although fears of looking incompetent may arise for the mentor and protégé (Bradbury &
Koballa, 2008), open and honest communication from both parties is paramount. Hudson
(2016a) reported that 55 mentor-protégé dyads said two-way communication was “a shared
responsibility of both parties to engage in meaningful conversations” and can involve
questioning, sharing of personal background, stating clear expectations, and vulnerable
expression of weaknesses or insecurities (p. 34). Along with being able to communicate, the
active listening was highly important to both protégés and mentors (Cothran et al., 2008). Moir et
al. (2009) recommended that mentors use techniques such as active listening, paraphrasing,
reflective questioning, and clarifying to stay focused on what the mentee’s saying to support
their problem solving, extension of their thinking, and autonomous teaching practice. The act of
listening can strengthen the learning exponentially.
Of course, breakdown of communication can occur for a variety of reasons. A few
examples are a lack of time, differing conceptual understandings of teaching or pedagogical
beliefs, or an underdeveloped sense of trust in the mentor-mentee relationship (Bradbury &
Koballa, 2008). These barriers in communication must be addressed and overcome if effective
mentoring is to be achieved.

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Goal setting. Setting goals is an important part of the mentor-mentee relationship and
should be established in the very beginning (Hudson, 2016a; Feiman-Nemser, 2001a; Whitebook
& Bellm, 2013). Whitebook and Bellm (2013) recommended setting down goals in the form of a
contract, clearly defining roles and what each party will be responsible to do. Hudson (2016a)
revealed that out of 200 responses, 33 mentor-protégé participants wrote that setting clear
expectations in the form of “goals, visions, and clear parameters for mentees to engage in their
work” were important for developing a professional relationship (p. 34). The author shared that
mentors established goals by directly asking the protégés what their weakness were and what
they wanted to work on (Hudson, 2016a). Another consideration for mentors when goal setting is
to help protégés acknowledge strengths as well as weaknesses the teacher wants to improve upon
(Feiman-Nemser, 2001a). As the protégé progresses in her teaching practice, new goals can be
established.
Modeling. Mentor teachers provide an example of effective teaching practice through
modeling accepted or desirable strategies and behaviors (Abell, Dillon, Hopkins, McInerney, &
O’Brien, 1995; Feiman-Nemser, 2001a; Simpson, Hastings, & Hill, 2007). One 30-year veteran
teacher and mentor to 14 beginning elementary teacher offered that his approach to modeling
effective teaching strategies is to promote “a shared understanding of good practice” but not
“imposing his own style” (Feiman-Nemser, 2001a, p. 20). Scaffolding as a form of modeling was
a common approach for mentors with interns in the Beginning Teacher Internship Program
(BTIP) in Indiana (Abell et al., 1995). Mentors modeled ways of teaching lessons, designing
curriculum, talking to parents, and classroom management, as well as sharing experiences to help
build confidence and learn specific teaching practices over the one-year experience (Abell et

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al.,1995). Mentors modeling specific knowledge and experience is a powerful tool for teaching
novices.
Observation. Whether the mentee observes the mentor or vice versa, observation is a core
component of mentoring because it promotes dialogue on the essential thinking behind teaching
practice (Rowley, 2006). Novice teachers require opportunities to try out previously modeled
instructional strategies or introduce planned curriculum in the classroom with the support of the
mentor. The observation is a planned opportunity for the mentor to watch the mentee in the
classroom with the intention of then offering support and feedback (Skiffington, Washburn, &
Elliott, 2011). Observations can focus on various aspects of teaching, such as teacher-child
relationships, classroom set up, lessons, or classroom management skills, but are more effective
when the mentor and protégé agree upon the focus, length of time of the observation, and use of
an observation tool in advance (Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Afterward, the observation tool can
be used for discussion and feedback and assessment between the mentor and protégé.
Feedback and assessment. Mentors need to develop the ability to provide appropriate
feedback and assess the teaching practices of their protégés (Cothran et al., 2008; Whitebook &
Bellm, 2013). Since receiving feedback can be difficult for protégés initially, Whitebook and
Bellm (2013) proposed mentors offer feedback that is specific, child-focused (not about the
personality of the protégé), include praise and areas of improvement, and come from a place of
compassion and support. Cothran et al. (2008) and Faust (2008) indicated that mentees preferred
direct feedback as opposed to an indirect approach. Tools such as a checklist, a video recording,
or a formal rating scale (e.g., Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale [ECERS-R]: Harms,
Cliffard, & Cryer, 2017 or the Classroom Assessment and Scoring System [CLASS] Manual K-
3: Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008) that may have been used in the observation process can also

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be used during feedback and assessment (Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). The assessment tools can
support discussion and help both the mentor and protégé highlight areas of success as well as
growth.
Reflective practice. Experienced mentors use reflective practice and help engage mentees
in the process of reflective practice (Rowley, 2006; Simpson, Hasting, & Hill, 2007). Reflective
practice is the ability to think about, understand, and analyze our knowledge, skills, thoughts,
and actions during practice in a way that may help improve learning (Schon, 1983). Mentor
teachers must first think about their own teaching practice to develop the teaching practice of the
mentee. Early education and primary grade mentor teachers in New South Wales, Australia
reported that engaging in self-reflection helped them realize the importance of making their
teaching practice public for mentees; it was a self-evaluative process of “theorizing and
justifying practice … revisiting why we do things” (Simpson et al., 2007, p. 490). Rowley (2006)
encouraged mentors to model the practice of reflection by describing or articulating their
thoughts, which then enables the protégé to think about their work. The author also suggested
using artifacts, such as a student’s work or audio or videotaping the protégé in the classroom to
stimulate reflection offers “an authentic representation of the teacher’s practice” (Rowley, 2006,
p. 131). The protégé can think back to how the student work was created or what actually
happened in the classroom. Rowley (2006) recommended allowing the protégé to view their
videotaped class session alone first, then a process of conversation on reflection naturally
evolves between the mentor and protégé. The mentor can simply invite discussion afterward.
Administrative support. The establishment of a high-quality mentor program requires
contextual support from administrators, directors, principals, and other key decision makers to
ensure success (Little, 1990; Moir et al., 2009; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Authors Moir et al.

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(2009) and Little (1990) agreed that structured support from organizational leaders is needed on
multiple levels from helping with mentor selection, structure of professional development,
relationship building, and particularly for allocation of resources, such as release time,
incentives, and space for mentors and mentees to meet. The importance of helping mentors in
allocation of time, incentives, and space to meet will be further discussed.
Little (1990) indicated that mentors who participated in the California Mentor Teacher
Program were most interested in having regular release time to meet during their salaried work
time. The teachers felt time spent with their mentees in the classroom and conferencing was
better accomplished during the regular work day, as opposed to other non-teaching related
mentor duties, and better matched their conceptualized idea of their role while also supporting
the accomplishment of their other work responsibilities (Little, 1990). The New Teacher Center
recommended that supervisors grant mentors and new teachers a minimum of 1 1/2–2 1/2 hours
of release time from teaching weekly to meet (Moir et al., 2009). The authors warned decision
makers that insufficient time to meet slows the growth of new teacher learning and leads to
“diluted or negated instructional progress and retention” (p. 194). Mentors and interns in the
Beginning Teacher Internship Program (BTIP) in Indiana found release time supportive to
setting up scheduled time to meet but used a flexible approach to make meetings convenient for
both individuals (Abell et al., 1995). Whether structured or flexible, time to meet for mentors and
mentees is integral to facilitating learning in a mentor program.
Whitebook and Bellm (2013) proposed establishing meeting space as well as times
ahead of time, whether in the classroom, a private room in the school, or at a local meeting spot.
It is necessary for mentors and mentees to discuss teaching strategies, set goals, and give and
receive feedback regularly. Since educational settings may be difficult to find private spaces and

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to allocate time, Whitebook and Bellm (2013) recommended getting directors or principals
involved to help facilitate.
Studies indicate that some form of remuneration, incentives, or recognition is necessary
and shows mentors they are valued (Abell et al., 1995; U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2001). Head Start programs use a variety of financial support, including stipends,
salary increases, promotions, release time, tuition reimbursement, and recognition, such as letters
of recognition and small gifts (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001). Similar
recognition for protégés may also be offered based on improved performance (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 2001). Stipends of $600, release time, and recognition were
offered to mentors in the Beginning Teacher Internship Program (BTIP) in Indiana (Abell et al.,
1995). Although incentives, rewards, and recognition can take many forms, they are important
considerations potentially for both mentors and protégés.
Professional learning community. Teachers need regular opportunities to discuss their
teaching practice in groups of professionals (Feiman-Nemser, 2001b; Moir et al., 2009). Feiman-
Nemser (2001b) indicated professional learning communities offer an avenue for teachers to
develop critical inquiry into the practice of teaching, co-construct knowledge, and reinforce
collegiality. Similarly, Moir et al. (2009) stated professional learning communities also act as a
forum for developing emotional, social, and practical support, where mentors can share their
professional knowledge and experiences based on best practices. The authors conveyed that the
Durham Public School mentor program instituted bi-weekly sessions for mentors in a district-
wide professional learning community. Additionally, the authors found the 3- to 4-hour
collaborative learning forums accelerate the learning and development of mentors, and
subsequently the teaching practices of beginning teachers. Professional learning communities

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support mentors’ relationships, while exposing them to varied professional perspectives
and experiences.
The first half of this chapter reviewed the general literature on current early childhood
teacher training and qualifications. It also reviewed early childhood teacher turnover and
mentoring. This chapter will now review literature related to the assumed knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational needs of Preschool AFS lead teacher to support the
organizational goal of 100% of first-year teachers participating in the teacher mentor program,
leading to applying best practices and choosing to remain working at the center.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework

Clark and Estes (2008) offer an analytical, conceptual framework to improve
performance and support successful change within organizations. Their problem-solving
approach examines knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational (KMO) factors, to
identify gaps between an established organizational performance goal and actual performance
level of stakeholders (2008). Once gaps are identified, the assumed stakeholder KMO
performance influences are researched using general theory, context-specific literature, an
existing knowledge of the organization, and formal data collection. Findings are reported and
then proposed solutions are generated with an implementation and evaluation plan as the final
steps in gap analysis (Rueda, 2011).
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework will be applied to address Preschool
AFS lead teachers’ KMO needs to achieve their performance goal. The following sections will
discuss the stakeholder-specific assumed influences on KMO as they affect the aforementioned
performance goal. Finally, the same KMO influences on performance will be discussed in the
context of a proposed methodology in Chapter Three.

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Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
When diagnosing performance gaps within organizations, Clark and Estes (2008) assert
the application of their research-based gap analysis framework is effective in determining if a
lack of knowledge and skills are a fundamental cause. Discovering whether people know how to
do their jobs or if they have the requisite knowledge and skills to perform the tasks asked of them
is necessary to determine before an organization can solve problems or reach its goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to determine what knowledge and skills the Preschool
AFS lead teachers need to achieve their goal.
Krathwohl (2002) outlined four main types of knowledge as follows: (a) factual
knowledge is basic elements of a discipline (e.g., facts, details, terminology); (b) conceptual
knowledge is the inter-relationship of elements of knowledge, including categories,
classifications, principles, theories, and models; (c) procedural knowledge is the step-by-step
process of how to do something or perform a task; and (d) metacognitive knowledge is self-
knowledge or awareness of one’s own cognition (i.e., knowing what one knows and does not
know). Rueda (2011) explained that improving performance is contingent upon being “explicit”
about what knowledge an individual or learner is expected to acquire to achieve a particular goal
(p. 33). Therefore, it is important to clarify how the assumed knowledge and skills influences
affect the attainment of the stakeholder goal.
Knowledge influences. This section will review literature to identify various knowledge-
related influences as they pertain to the Preschool AFS lead teachers’ goal of taking on the role
of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Generally, all four knowledge types are valuable in attaining goals. However, the two knowledge

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types that will be addressed in this study are conceptual knowledge regarding the lead teachers’
role in the mentoring process and metacognitive knowledge regarding the lead teachers’
reflection on their effectiveness as mentors.
Lead teachers need to understand their role in the mentoring process. The first
knowledge influence that lead teachers need is conceptual knowledge of what their role is in
the mentoring process. Lead teachers need to understand their role as mentors in the mentoring
process and be able to apply it to the context of Preschool AFS. The mentor teacher’s role is
complex, with multiple interpretations of responsibilities based on both the individual mentor’s
understanding and the organizational context (Hall, Draper, Smith, & Bullough, 2008;
Maphalala, 2013; Thornton, 2014). Lead teachers need knowledge and skills to effectively train
new teachers with a clear understanding of their multiple responsibilities as a mentor based on
expectations within the organizational context.
In a mix-methods study of 46 mentor teachers in South Africa, Malaphala (2013)
reported teachers’ perceptions of their role as mentors included: (a) induction into school
culture, (b) modeling teaching strategies, (c) observing mentees, (d) providing feedback,
(e) providing a place to teach, and (f) encouraging reflective practice. The author indicated
mentor teachers saw their roles as “initiators” of the new teachers into the teaching profession.
The author also found that mentor teachers believed certain qualities are required to be an
effective mentor. The mentor teacher must possess extensive experience in teaching, expertise in
pedagogy and curriculum development, confidence, morals and ethics, effective listening and
communication skills, respect for diversity, and a sense of humor. One respondent mentioned a
good mentor was considered to be a person who could impart wisdom and share experiences
with mentees. Furthermore, participants felt they lacked knowledge of their role as mentors. For

47

example, the mentors felt they did not know how to adequately support new teachers based on a
lack of feedback or clear expectations from The University of South Africa, the organization
sponsoring the mentoring (Malaphala, 2013).
Hall et al. (2008) suggested a research-based approach to mentoring is required for
effective adoption of the normative role of a mentor in education literature. Survey responses of
264 mentor teachers indicated that mentor teachers’ understanding of their responsibilities fell
into four categories: (a) providing emotional and professional support, (b) supervision, (c)
evaluation and reflection, and (d) collaboration. Experienced mentor teachers had a better
understanding of their roles as mentors than did inexperienced mentors. The role confusion led
inexperienced mentor teachers to see their mentees more as collaborative, team teachers. Rather
than challenging novice teachers to engage in rigorous discourse on effective teaching and by
modeling good practice for them, they let beginning teachers try out teaching strategies without
support (Hall et al., 2008).
Thornton (2014) proposed teachers associated at the New Teacher Center (NTC) in Santa
Cruz, California have a broad understanding of their role as mentors. These mentor teachers see
their roles as teacher leaders and as change agents. They not only effectively guide beginning
teachers based on best practices but implement strategies to affect change within the culture of
the organization to support the growth of a community of learning that promotes the learning of
students (Thornton, 2014). They work with program staff at NTC to enhance their role identity
as mentors. Therefore, conceptual knowledge of the mentor role is not simply conjured up by the
mentor, but rather established in tandem with the overseeing organization. Preschool AFS lead
teachers must have the conceptual knowledge to understand their roles as mentors in the mentor

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process with clear expectations within the context of the organization to create an optimal
mentoring and learning experience for beginning teachers to improve their professional practice.
Metacognitive reflection on mentoring. A second knowledge influence Preschool AFS
lead teachers need is the metacognitive awareness and self-regulation to reflect on the mentoring
process in the classroom with new teachers. The knowledge of ones’ ability to teach comes from
one’s awareness or metacognitive thinking about one’s thinking during the practice of teaching
(Mayer, 2011). The author highlighted the connection between metacognition and learning, and
the effect it has on the learning environment. According to Bandura (1989, as cited by Pajares,
2006), people use metacognition or the reflective thought process to self-evaluate their thought
process as well as their experiences. Effective teacher mentoring is dependent on the lead
teachers’ metacognitive awareness of what they know about their own understanding or
cognition of their mentoring strategies. Preschool AFS lead teachers will need to use
metacognitive knowledge to differentiate between the mentoring strategies that work in the
classroom with new teachers and those that need improvement.
Rodgers and Raider-Roth (2006) stated that the reflective practice of teaching requires
the teacher’s mindful state focusing on herself, on the individual as well as the group, and on the
environment. The focus on the self is in constant flux and constitutes metacognitive knowledge
as it relates to personal growth in teaching. This reflection on teaching practice is integral to the
mentoring process.
Mentor teachers’ use of reflective practice on their own teaching as they mentor
novice teachers enhances their mentoring strategies, as well as the professional practice of
both the mentor and mentee (DeGregory, 2016; Walkington, 2005; Zeek, Foote, & Walker,
2001). The experienced mentor teacher reflects on her cumulative knowledge and past

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experiences as a novice teacher in how to best support the novice teacher. Mentors reflect on
what strategies work and don’t work in each individual relationship. The mentor’s goal is to
improve the mentee’s professional practice based on their unique set of personal characteristics,
knowledge, experience, and the context (Walkington, 2005).
Zeek et al. (2001) shared that mentors’ metacognitive awareness can help them employ
new strategies to support a novice teacher’s risk taking during curriculum development. A
mentor’s ability to reflect on her preconceived notions can give the mentor pause and prevent
premature judgment of the mentee’s ideas. The mentor can then promote a strategy of support
rather than disapproval when new teachers bring innovative ideas to the classroom that a mentor
may not think will work.
The metacognitive process of reflection allows mentor teachers to infuse their teaching
practice with new ideas or perspectives (DeGregory, 2016). The author suggested mentor
teachers can make changes or improvements in their teaching strategies that not only support
learning for the mentee, but also the students. Therefore, mentor metacognitive knowledge
enhances both the mentor’s and the beginning teacher’s professional practice.
Metacognitive knowledge is also useful in applying contextual components to solving
problems (Rueda, 2011). Consequently, metacognitive knowledge is necessary for lead teachers
to develop the awareness of complexities that arise based on the variance of the classroom
context that could lead to strategies that help solve instructional problems within the context of
mentoring new teachers.
Table 3 provides a summary of the knowledge influences, types, and relevant
assessments needed for the Preschool AFS lead teachers to attain the goal of taking on the role
for mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.

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Table 3

Assumed Knowledge Influences and Performance on Assessment

Organizational Mission

The mission of Preschool AFS is to nurture and educate children, where teachers implement
research-based curriculum and an innovative approach based on listening, and guide parents in
early childhood development.

Organizational Global Goal

By December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will participate in the teacher mentor program,
leading to best practices and choosing to remain working at the center.

Stakeholder Goal

By December 2021, lead teachers will take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement the first-year teacher mentoring program.

Knowledge Type
Knowledge Influence

Lead teachers need to understand
their role in the mentoring process.
(i.e., declarative
(factual or
conceptual),
procedural, or
metacognitive)
Declarative
(Conceptual)
Knowledge Influence
Assessment

Interview: Ask lead teachers
what they think will be expected
of them as mentors and how their
mentoring strategies might
impact new teachers.

Lead teachers need to know how
to reflect on their effectiveness as
mentors.
Metacognitive Interview: Ask lead teachers to
discuss what they see as their
strengths and weaknesses as
mentors, and how they will
reflect on their effectiveness as a
mentor and make adjustments.

Motivation

In this section, literature on motivational theories will be discussed as the motivation-
related influences pertain to the achievement of Preschool AFS lead teachers’ goal of taking on

51

the role of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement the first-year teacher mentoring
program for early education teachers. Mayer (2011) defined motivation as “an internal state that
initiates and maintains goal-directed behavior” (p. 39). Three essential behaviors we can observe
to infer motivation, suggested by Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2020), are active choice,
persistence, and effort. Active choice is the decision to begin, or not begin, a goal or activity.
Persistence is the action of working toward and completing the goal or activity. Finally, effort,
more specifically mental effort, is the amount of mental output it requires to finish the goal or
activity.
Rueda (2011) stated the importance of motivation in achieving goals depends on both
internal factors, such as ability (cognitive) and willingness (affect) to engage in a task, as well as
external factors (social or cultural). It is not actual reality that matters most but the perception of
what is happening. Furthermore, motivation is a multi-dimensional construct that can affect
performance, or whether or not goals are achieved. Rueda (2011) also clarified that motivation
issues are “context-specific,” so not all motivation issues arise from the same causes. The two
motivation theories that will be discussed are self-efficacy theory and expectancy value theory.
Self-efficacy theory. Bandura (1982) defined self-efficacy as one’s judgment or self-
perception of capability to perform a specific task or accomplish something, which involves
cognitive, behavioral, and social components, within various situations or contexts. Self-efficacy
is foundational to motivation theory because people need to believe they can accomplish a task,
or they are unlikely to start or persist in accomplishing the task (Rueda, 2011). Confidence level
is predictive of a person’s sense of self-efficacy; therefore, the more confident a person is, the
more the person expects favorable outcomes. Overconfidence, on the other hand, can lead to less
effort, so a balanced sense of self-efficacy is optimal (Pajares, 1996).

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Mentor teacher self-efficacy. Preschool AFS lead teachers need to feel confident in their
ability to provide effective mentoring to achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as
well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. In a mixed-
methods study, researcher Hernandez (2001) indicated mentor teachers who received training
felt increased self-efficacy in their roles as mentors. The mentor teachers also felt greater
confidence in their ability to provide supervised instruction for pre-service teachers, which
positively impacted their mentoring effectiveness. Walkington (2005) suggested some mentor
teachers lack confidence in their abilities to mentor effectively, possibly from a lack of training
or from not having the requisite personal traits of being a mentor. The author clarified not all
teachers can be expected to be effective mentors just because they are experienced teachers.
Therefore, mentor teacher self-efficacy has an important motivational influence on lead
teachers’ ability achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping develop
and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory, as proposed by Eccles and Wigfield
(2002), is how an individual’s cognitive perceptions and beliefs affect their expectancies and
values regarding task choice, performance, and persistence. A person’s expectancy-value for
tasks is shaped over time and by their personal experiences and their perception of those
experiences. Additionally, task value is comprised of four components including (a) intrinsic
value, or the personal satisfaction one experiences when engaged in the task; (b) utility value, or
how useful one finds a task; (c) attainment value, or the importance one places on the task; and
(d) cost, or one’s perception of the investment in terms of time, effort, or what else one might
give up to engage in the task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Rueda, 2008). Two value components

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that influence AFS Preschool teachers’ motivation for accomplishing their goal are intrinsic
value and utility value.
Mentor teacher intrinsic value. Preschool AFS teachers need to find personal
satisfaction in their professional careers as teacher mentors as they pursue their goals within the
organization. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) defined intrinsic value as the personal satisfaction,
pleasure, or interest a person feels when engaging in a particular task or goal. Researchers Watt
et al. (2012) imparted the motivations for pre-service teachers’ choice for going into the
profession is intrinsic in nature in the United States, Australia, Germany, and Norway. The top
reason was “I am interested in teaching.” Although all the sample countries rated intrinsic value
for entering the teaching profession high, the United States sample had the highest intrinsic value
rating. Similarly, Walkington (2005) shared that teacher mentors found personal satisfaction in
being able to support the professional growth of novice teachers and helping instruct them as
adult learners. If Preschool AFS lead teachers have a strong intrinsic value for the profession,
and specifically a strong interest or personal satisfaction for the task of mentoring, they are likely
to engage in, persist, and successfully complete the tasks.
Mentor teacher utility value. Preschool AFS lead teachers need to see the personal utility
value of providing mentoring to new teachers relative to their goals as a professional educator, as
well as the utility value it provides to their colleagues and the future goals they have (Rueda,
2011). Utility value is defined as the level of purpose the task serves in helping an individual
achieve current or future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The authors clarified the utility of a
task may have both intrinsic and extrinsic components related to an individual’s achievement of
significant goals. Walkington (2005) revealed the motivations of 105 surveyed mentor teachers.
One motivating factor of the mentor role was the mentor teachers felt a sense of reward in seeing

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the achievements of the beginning teachers. Mentor teachers also expressed that their role as a
mentor enhanced their professional practice; a specific benefit was that collaboration with pre-
service teachers introduced the mentor to innovative teaching strategies (Clinard & Ariav, 1998;
Walkington, 2005). Finally, there were also incentive-based motivations such as improving
professional qualifications and recertification, as well as receiving a monetary stipend
(DeGregory, 2016).
Table 4 outlines the motivational influences and related assessments needed for
Preschool AFS lead teachers to attain the goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as
helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Table 4

Motivation Influences on Performance and Assessments

Organizational Mission

The mission of Preschool AFS is to nurture and educate children, where teachers implement
research-based curriculum and an innovative approach based on listening, and guide parents in
early childhood development.
Organizational Global Goal

By December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will participate in the teacher mentor program,
leading to best practices and choosing to remain working at the center.
Stakeholder Goal

By December 2021, lead teachers will take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement the first-year teacher mentoring program.

Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment

Self-efficacy— Lead teachers need to believe
they are capable of taking on the role of
mentors, as well as helping develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring
program.
Interview item:
Ask lead teachers about their ability to
mentor, as well as helping develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring
program.

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Table 4, continued
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment

Value (Intrinsic):
Lead teachers need to feel personal
satisfaction in becoming a mentor and helping
to develop and implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program.
Interview item:
Ask lead teachers to describe their
personal satisfaction in becoming a
mentor, as well as helping develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring
program.

Value (Utility):
Lead teachers need to feel the importance of
becoming a mentor, as well as helping to
develop and implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program.
Interview item:
Ask lead teachers to describe their
personal value for becoming a mentor,
as well as helping develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring
program.

Organization

This section will discuss the assumed organizational influences needed for the lead
teachers to achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping to develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring program at Preschool AFS by December 2021. Based
on Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis, sufficient organizational policies, processes or
systems, as well as resources, such as supplies and equipment, are needed for performance goals
to be met. Clark and Estes (2008) indicated when these policies, processes, and resources are
inadequate, organizational barriers exist and may cause performance gaps. Accordingly, culture
as a “work process” plays an important role within organizations and influences how individuals
interact and therefore how they perform (p. 107). The following section will introduce general
organizational theory as it pertains to the proposed performance issue, as well as discuss specific
aspects of organizational culture that are necessary for lead teachers to accomplish their
performance goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a
first-year teacher mentoring program at Preschool AFS.

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General organization theory. Organizations are complex and multi-layered systems
(Perrow, 1972), involving social and cultural components that affect how people in the
organization behave, individually and as a group (Schein, 2017). According to Schein (2017),
culture plays a part in almost everything a person believes and does, whether learned on a macro
level (e.g., societal, national, or occupational) or micro level (e.g., organization, department, or
personal). The author also stated artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and underlying
assumptions are critical cultural phenomena, and evidence of shared learning of an
organization’s culture. Artifacts are the most visible, yet inherently difficult to explain, aspects
of culture and include the products of an organization such as language use, observed behaviors
and interactions, rituals, office layout, and written missions, policies, or charters. Schein added,
espoused beliefs and values and behavioral norms are conscious and articulated ideals,
aspirations, values or goals. Finally, basic assumptions can be thought of as unconscious values
and beliefs that act as guiding principles of behavior that are shared by the members of an
organization (Schein, 2017). These cultural components, when analyzed and assessed, are useful
when problem-solving or implementing organizational change or improvements.
Since change occurs over time, is non-linear, and requires a multi-directional top-down
and bottom-up approach, people are integral to and exert considerable influence on the
organization’s change process, which involves culture change (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Moran &
Brightman, 2000; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Schneider et al. (1996) suggested it is
necessary to change the employees’ psychology or how people “feel” about proposed changes;
make efforts to change their beliefs and values through changing policies, practices, and
procedures. Enlisting stakeholders in the change process as early as possible and help them
prepare for and personalize the change is important (Moran & Brightman, 2000). When

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employees’ values and beliefs about a proposed change are aligned personally and with the
organizational goals, change is more likely to be sustained. Similarly, Bolman and Deal (2013)
asserted that changes that include employee input are more successful because employees often
have a broader understanding of circumstances that will be affected by the change. If employees
do not support change, the organization will not achieve its goals.
Organizational leaders, whether founders or managers, are responsible for initiating,
guiding, and implementing change within an organization’s culture to sustain organizational
change and development (Berger, 2014; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Kezar, 2001, Schein;
2017; Senge, 1990). Kezar (2001) recommended leaders use change theories and research-based
principles to initiate change in organizations. The multiple theories have both strengths and
weaknesses, but they provide leaders the option to try one or more approach to align the change
initiative to the organizational context. Leaders’ competent and consistent communication about
their vision, what is worth paying attention to, what is valued in the organization, or the need for
change, acts as a reinforcing mechanism for employees (Berger, 2014; Schein, 2017). According
to Berger (2014), the keys are leader visibility, consistency, and honesty; otherwise, employees
can misconstrue the leader’s messaging. Senge (1990) proposed continual learning through
managing mental models of culture and creating a shared vision between leaders and all
members of the organization. Rather than the role of problem solver, the leader takes on the new
roles of teacher, designer, and steward to intrinsically motivate employees to engage in and
participate through “creative tension” rather than merely reacting to changes in the organization
(Senge, 1990, p. 9). Buckingham and Coffman (1999) asserted that great managers are key to
catalyzing employees’ performance by bringing out their innate potential and directing that
toward reaching the goals that lead to organizational improvement. To support performance, the

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authors suggested leaders need to ensure employees have clear expectations, adequate
training, input, recognition and reward for performance, and feedback.
Finally, Clark and Estes (2008) reiterated organizational change efforts require leadership
involvement to integrate employees’ knowledge and skills and motivation changes and direct
them toward organizational gaps that will lead to more effective performance improvements. The
following literature will explore culture as it relates to the Preschool AFS organization,
specifically the cultural models and settings that impact the lead teachers’ performance goal of
taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program.
Cultural models. Cultural models are the mental schemas or ways of making sense of
the world that are shared by a particular group in a specific context (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Schein, 2017). Schein (2017) described cultural models as shared understanding and
learning within an organization. Cultural models are dynamic and manifest as shared patterns of
beliefs, perceptions, or behavioral responses to changes or challenges in the environment
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In organizations, cultural models influence the formation of
values, policies, and practices that provide structure (Rueda, 2011). This section will review
literature related to the cultural model of trust and empowerment at Preschool AFS that may act
as either an asset or barrier to the lead teachers achieving their performance goal.
Trust and empowerment. The organization needs to foster trust with both lead teachers
and their mentee teachers. Additionally, mentor teachers need to feel empowered by the leaders
as they perform their roles and make decisions (Thornton, 2014). Trust built through
relationships is paramount in organizations (Korsgaard, Brodt, & Whitener, 2002; Rath &
Conchie, 2009). Rath and Conchie (2009) suggested that employee trust in leadership is one of

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the most important characteristics of leadership and supports employee engagement.
Furthermore, when trust exists between colleagues, it speeds up critical team building as it can
reduce time in reaching performance objectives. The parties involved skip over the lengthy
“getting-to-know-and-trust-you” phase and achieve more at a faster rate. Leaders earn trust by
engaging in trustworthy behavior; this encourages employees to engage in “organizational
citizenship behavior” or exceed performance expectations observable to other employees, which
ultimately benefits the organization (Korsgaard et al., 2002, p. 314). Furthermore, leaders who
develop strong relationships of trust with employees empower them by sharing decision-making
responsibilities and encourage confidence, independence, and risk taking (Fernandez, Resh,
Moldogaziey, & Oberfield, 2015; Northouse, 2016). One study found that mentor teachers felt
empowered as change agents and as leaders (Thornton, 2014). The author asserted when teacher
leaders build confidence and capacity, not only do they improve the instructional practice of new
teachers, they also improve the culture of learning within the organization. Conversely,
Holloway, Nielsen, and Saltmarsh (2018) found mentor teachers who were given leadership roles
but were not actually empowered in their decision-making responsibilities became
disenfranchised. Therefore, if Preschool AFS lead teachers have a sense of being trusted and feel
empowered in their decision-making ability to provide effective mentoring, they are more likely
to achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping to develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Cultural settings. Cultural settings are the visible manifestations of cultural models and
shape the behaviors and routines of a particular group in a specific context (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). In organizations, cultural settings are where the people enact the behaviors
they value or share culture. Cultural settings are also dynamic, and the behaviors and social

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contexts are inextricably linked, from a sociocultural perspective. As such, if an aspect of the
cultural setting changes within an organization so does the context (Rueda, 2011). This section
will review literature related to the cultural settings of effective training and support, incentives,
and time allocation within the organization that may act as either assets or barriers to the lead
teachers achieving their performance goal.
Effective mentor training and support. The organization needs to provide mentor
teachers explicit training and continued support to learn the knowledge and skills of how to be
mentors in order to be effective in assisting new teachers (Clark & Estes, 2008; Feiman-Nemser
& Parker, 1993; Thornton, 2014; Whitebook & Bellm, 1996). According to authors Whitebook
and Bellm (1996), early childhood mentor programs should adopt similar training protocols as
elementary and secondary schools, and emphasize topics including adult education theory,
modeling, observation, reflective practice, feedback, communication, conflict resolution, and
teacher self-care. Thornton found (2014) teachers associated with the New Teacher Center in
Santa Cruz, California, who received training in the program, indicated the mentor academies,
forums, and support from program staff developed their understanding of the mentor role, and
also strengthened their leadership skills. Furthermore, mentors received research-based literature
that informed them of the mentor process in the forums, which offered opportunities to
collaborate with and gain peer support. Feiman-Nemser and Parker (1993) highlighted the
differences in training based on context and design in two mentor programs, The Teacher
Trainee Program in Los Angeles, California and the Graduate Intern Program in Albuquerque,
New Mexico. The authors characterized the Los Angeles mentor training as 30-hours of
conferences and workshops focused on guidelines, leadership styles, classroom consultations,
coaching, and strategies for balancing teaching and classroom responsibilities, but it lacked a

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cohesive mentoring approach. The Albuquerque mentor-training model started with a weeklong
orientation, then an on-going training and support system was implemented over a two-year
period. The effectiveness of mentor teacher trainings and duration of support may vary based on
design, as well as by interpretation of the mentor (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993). Based on
these two programs, it appears on-going training and support in mentor training programs are
more effective than one-shot training sessions. Preschool AFS leaders in the organization will
need to provide on-going, effective mentor training and support for lead teachers to achieve their
goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-year
teacher mentoring program.
Incentives. The organization needs to provide mentor teachers with some form of
incentives for their mentoring duties (Futrell, 1988; Whitebook & Bellm, 1996). Although not all
mentor programs or schools provide remuneration for mentors, rewards and recognition are
increasingly important incentives that employers use to value, devalue, motivate, and even retain
staff (Hansen, Smith, & Hansen, 2002; Huff, 2006; Markova & Ford, 2011; McGee & Johnson,
2015; Reilly, 2004; Roberts, 2010). Hansen et al. (2002) clarified that reward is an extrinsic
motivator to be used for meeting expressed rules, goals, or standards, whereas recognition that
reinforces competence is an intrinsic motivator to be used for initiative, creativity, or
commitment. Furthermore, the authors said since poorly designed incentives can demotivate
employees, rewards and recognition are two forms of motivation that should not be used
interchangeably. Roberts (2010) indicated that designing useful and effective incentives is
challenging. Considering the variety of incentives beyond monetary pay, including promotions,
recognition, recommendations, praise, and so forth, Huff (2006) suggested asking people for
input, such as what type of recognition they would prefer. The Preschool AFS organization will

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need to carefully design incentives that will motivate lead teachers in support of them attaining
their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-
year teacher mentoring program.
Time allocation. The organization needs to allocate time for mentor teachers to plan,
reflect, set goals, and meet to support mentees (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993; Ganser, 2001;
Thornton, 2014). Differences in mentoring roles tend to be context dependent (Feiman-Nemser
& Parker, 1993). Feiman-Nemser and Parker (1993) compared two mentor programs in the
United States, one in Los Angeles and another in Albuquerque. In the Los Angeles program,
mentor teachers had to teach students full-time while fulfilling their mentor duties. Maintaining a
full-time teaching schedule gave them little time to meet with mentees or implement a
developmental approach with them. In the Albuquerque program, mentor teachers did not have
classroom teaching responsibilities and only worked part-time as mentors. Not having teaching
responsibilities gave them flexibility in their schedule to support mentees in a developmental
way (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993). Since teachers selected for mentoring have multiple
duties on top of mentoring duties, leaders should allocate adequate time for mentor teachers, free
of other responsibilities, to fulfill their mentoring role or it will lose its potential benefits or
effectiveness (Ganser, 2001). Thornton (2014) reported that teacher mentors frequently cited
lack of time to meet with mentees and collaborate and prepare during school hours as a barrier
for the mentoring process. The lack of time during the day due to full-time teaching duties
required teachers to meet with mentors after hours, which was less effective because teachers
were tired. The Preschool AFS organization will need to allocate sufficient time for lead teachers
to achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors, as well helping develop and implement a
first-year teacher mentoring program.

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Table 5 summarizes the assumed organizational influences and related assessments
needed for lead teachers at Preschool AFS to achieve their goal of taking on the role of mentors,
as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Table 5

Organizational Influences on Performance and Assessments

Organizational Mission
The mission of Preschool AFS is to nurture and educate children, where teachers implement
research-based curriculum and an innovative approach based on listening, and guide parents in
early childhood development.

By December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will participate in the teacher mentor program,
leading to best practices and choosing to remain working at the center.

Stakeholder Goal
By December 2021, lead teachers will take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring program.

Assumed Organizational Influences
Organization Influence Assessment

Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs to foster a culture of
trust and empowerment where lead teachers
are part of the decision making as mentors.
Interview: Ask lead teachers about trust and
empowerment within the organization; ask
questions that indicate how the organization
fosters a culture of trust and empowerment.

Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to provide effective
training and support to be a mentor.
Interview: Ask lead teachers about what
training and support they would need to be an
effective mentor.

Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to provide incentives
to be a mentor.
Interview: Ask lead teachers what types of
incentives they would need to be a mentor.

Cultural Setting Influence 3:
The organization needs to allocate time for
lead teachers to effectively fulfill the
Interview: Ask lead teachers how the
organization could allocate time for them to
fulfill their duties as mentors.
responsibilities of being mentors.

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Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
The purpose of a conceptual framework, also termed a theoretical framework, is to
provide the theory, terms, concepts, ideas, and essential structure that undergirds the study
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual framework for this study is based on
the theory of gap analysis espoused by Clark and Estes’ model (2008). For the purposes of this
study, it proposes particular assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
interact and affect the lead teachers’ achievement of their stated goal of taking on the role of
mentors, as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program in the
Preschool AFS organization. Although the potential influencers of the conceptual framework are
presented individually, they do not remain in isolation. Therefore, the causes of gaps in
performance are not merely a fault of the stakeholder, nor are they solely due to organizational
issues; rather they are the result of the layers of interactions and relationships among all
stakeholders and the organizational context or culture (Rueda, 2011). Each influence interrelates
and ultimately affects the achievement of the stakeholders’ and the organization’s global goals.
Furthermore, the culture of an organization is comprised of beliefs, assumptions, values,
and behaviors that are dynamic and shared and transmitted among members of the organization
(Schein, 2017). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) indicated the culture of an organization can be
subdivided into both cultural settings, those aspects of culture that are visible in a social context,
and cultural models, the aspects that are invisible (as cited by Rueda, 2011). Highlighting the
dynamic nature of the interactive framework, the people within the organization have impact on
the cultural models and settings. With respect to this study, the lead teachers have the potential to
impact the organizational influences based on their behavior and vice versa.

65

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Figure 1. Interactive conceptual framework for lead teacher mentoring program plan and
development in early education.
Figure 1 is a graphic representation of the interactive relationship of the knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational influences. For instance, the cultural setting influence of
trust and empowerment within the organization may influence the lead teachers’ self-efficacy,
by either increasing or decreasing the performance of lead teachers in taking on the role of
mentors, as well as helping develop and implement the first-year teacher mentoring program
within the context of the Preschool AFS organization. In addition, the cultural model influence
of incentives can influence the lead teachers’ motivation and intrinsic value, by increasing or
decreasing their performance to take on the role of mentors, as well as helping plan and
implement the first-year teacher mentoring program. It should be noted that the procedural
knowledge influence of providing and receiving effective feedback was added to the conceptual
framework after data collection and analysis; this influence will be discussed in further detail in
Chapters Four and Five. The methodology and findings of this study in upcoming chapters will
be based on this conceptual framework.
Conclusion

This innovation study sought to establish the necessary knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organizational resources to achieve the Preschool AFS global goal of 100% of first-year
teachers participating in the teacher mentoring program, leading to best practices and choosing
to remain working at the center based on the conceptual gap analytical model (Clark & Estes,
2008). To inform this study, the chapter reviewed the literature surrounding the training and
current educational requirements of early education teachers. It also reviewed the current status
and causes of early childhood teacher turnover, as well as the impact of teacher turnover to the
organization and the early childhood field in general. It introduced mentoring and its effect on

67

teacher attrition. Finally, the best practices of mentoring programs within the United
States were explored.
The literature review then presented the Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual framework,
which examined the assumed knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences
related to the lead teacher stakeholder groups’ performance goal of taking on the role of mentors,
as well as helping develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. Several broad
theories on knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011), motivation (Bandura,
1982; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pajares, 2006), and organizational factors (Rath & Conchie,
2009; Schein, 2017; Senge, 1990) helped provide a foundation for these influences. The
knowledge influences specifically are related to lead teachers’ conceptual understanding of their
role in the mentoring process and the metacognitive reflection on mentoring. The motivational
influences include lead teacher efficacy beliefs around their capacity to take on the role of
mentors, as well as the intrinsic motivation and utility value of becoming mentors, and helping
develop and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. Finally, the organizational
influences include trust and empowerment, effective training and support, incentives, and time
allocation for lead teachers as they take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement the first-year teacher mentoring program. Chapter Three will present the study’s
methodological approach to understand these assumed influences on performance.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Introduction to Methodology

The purpose of this innovation study was to conduct a needs analysis to ensure the
attainment of Preschool AFS’s goal to design and implement a program for mentoring of early
education teachers to increase first year teacher retention. This chapter discusses the
methodology that was used to determine the requisite knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational resource needs of the stakeholder group of focus, lead teachers, to achieve their
performance goal at Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. The analysis began with a list of possible
needs and, through the discussed methodology below, then systematically examined them to
determine the actual or validated needs. Although a complete needs’ analysis would include all
stakeholder groups, for practical purposes, the stakeholder of focus for this analysis were lead
teachers at Preschool AFS.
Research Questions

The questions that guided this study were as follows:

1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational needs required by
lead teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as to develop
and implement a mentor program for first-year early education teachers based on best
practices?
2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

This chapter provides a description of the sampling and recruitment, data collection and
instrumentation, and data analysis that guided the methodology to answer these research
questions.

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Sampling and Recruitment

The stakeholder group of focus was the lead teachers of Preschool AFS. To be an eligible
participant for the study, teachers had to have already been in a full-time lead teacher role, had to
have maintained the lead position for at least three months, and had to have worked for the
organization prior to becoming a lead teacher for at least a year. This population consisted of 10
full-time lead teachers who work with children from infants to preschoolers, ages three months
to five years. The study sought to involve as many of the population as possible to gain a
complete understanding of the lead teachers’ perspectives and experiences (Creswell, 2014). The
qualitative sampling was purposeful and convenient (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), meaning that the
respondents were chosen because they would be best able to answer the research questions
meaningfully and would be easily accessible since they work for the organization. The following
section describes the sampling and recruitment of the data collected.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest developing interview sampling criteria to create rich
data. The interview sampling criteria were based on the importance of the respondents having
had knowledge of the subject matter to answer the research questions based on their length of
teaching experience and employment length within the organization. The criteria also
necessitated that participants had lead teacher roles across the different age groups of children
within the organization. The rationales were meant to reflect the depth and range of viewpoints
and knowledge of the organization. These three criteria and their rationales are outlined below:
Criterion 1. Teacher leadership. The teachers must be in lead teacher roles for at least
three months at Preschool AFS. Teachers with at least three months of leadership have the
experience training other teachers and can best answer the research questions.

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Criterion 2. Grade level. The teachers must represent the various grade levels of
children, including infants aged three months to two years, as well as toddlers and preschoolers
aged two to five years at Preschool AFS. The inclusion of teachers in both age groups helped
capture a range of viewpoints from teachers in the organization. There were five eligible infant
lead teachers and five eligible toddler-preschooler lead teachers.
Criterion 3. Employment length. The teachers must have worked for the Preschool AFS
organization for at least a year. Teachers with at least a year of employment within the
organization can understand the context of the organization when answering the research
questions.
Interview Recruitment Strategy and Rationale

The sampling was purposeful and convenient, since it included participants who work at
Preschool AFS and who also understand the context of the organization (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The sample of 10 participants, with at least one lead teacher per age group, is within a
range that is considered manageable and still captures a large selection of the population
(Creswell, 2014). The lead teacher participants were best able to answer the research questions
meaningfully based on the context of the Preschool AFS organization, adding credibility to the
proposed gap-analysis conceptual framework (Clark & Estes, 2008; Creswell, 2014). The
eligible participants were invited by the researcher via email to participate in the interviews.
Appendix A presents the recruitment opt-out email.

Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale

Focus groups are a method of collecting qualitative data through the interaction of several
knowledgeable participants that incorporates a social constructivist approach (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The authors indicate that participants “who know the most about a topic” should

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be chosen, where they can build upon one another’s answers, thereby generating data that is not
possible through individual interviews (p. 114). There was one focus group sampling criterion
based on the respondents’ current leadership role or eligible candidacy for a leadership role. The
rationale was meant to reflect in-depth leadership experience and knowledge of training teachers
within the organization. The respondents had the ability to answer the research questions and to
offer further insight on them beyond what the original interview protocol would allow. The
focus group sampling criterion and its rationale is outlined below:
Criterion 1. Teacher leadership. For inclusion in the focus group, the teachers had to
have been in an assistant director role or had to have been an eligible candidate for assistant
director role at Preschool AFS. These teachers have extensive leadership and experience training
teachers within the organization and were best able to answer the research questions. There were
three eligible assistant directors and two eligible candidates for assistant director roles. To be a
candidate for an assistant director, the teachers must have earned a degree in early education and
must have two or more years of center-based experience.
Focus Group Recruitment Strategy and Rationale

The sampling was purposeful and convenient, since the researcher sought to compose the
focus group with at least four participants who were in leadership roles at the school in the
position of assistant director or candidate for assistant director. These leaders have experience
training teachers who work with either age level of children at Preschool AFS, and who also
understand the context of the organization (Johnson & Christensen, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The sample of four participants in the focus group was within a range that is considered
manageable for the facilitator and allows all participants to contribute (Johnson & Christensen,
2015; Krueger & Casey, 2009). The lead teacher participants of the focus group, who are in

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leadership roles, were best able to answer the research questions meaningfully. They also were
collectively able to generate ideas about their KMO needs regarding the development and
implementation of the mentor program based on the context of the Preschool AFS organization,
while adding credibility to the proposed gap-analysis conceptual framework (Clark & Estes,
2008; Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Christensen, 2015). The eligible participants were invited after
the interview to participate in the focus group based on the focus group sampling criteria.
Data Collection and Instrumentation

Prior to data collection, approval from the International Review Board at the University
of Southern California was obtained. The primary qualitative data collection method was
interviews, both individual and focus group. The researcher relied on a third-party data collector
to conduct the interviews to maintain ethical research standards and to minimize researcher bias.
The person chosen to collect data met the required IRB certifications and was also
knowledgeable on the research and conceptual framework. Face-to-face and focus group
interviews were an essential method to collect qualitative data from participants because it
allowed the third-party data collector to gather data directly from the participants, both verbal
and non-verbal (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). However, for convenience, the
third-party data collector offered participants the opportunity to be interviewed online using
Zoom. All 10 participants chose face-to-face interviews. Both the individual interviews and the
focus group enabled the third-party interviewer to capture an in-depth understanding and
verification of the participants’ meaning making of the research problem (Creswell, 2014). The
interviews enabled the third-party data collector to make meaning of the lead teachers’ discourse
(Creswell, 2014). Interviews provide rich data of the lead teachers’ perspectives and experiences
related to the research questions and their KMO needs related to mentoring (Clark & Estes,

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2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This section addressed the interview method of data collection,
specifically the individual and focus group protocols and procedures respectively.
Interviews

Interview Protocol. In a formal but semi-structured, face-to-face interview format, the
third-party data collector explored an ordered set of 12 open-ended interview questions with each
of the 10 participants. Although, for convenience, the participants were offered the opportunity
to be interviewed online using Zoom, all participants chose face-to-face interviews. The structure
of the interview and the use of the interview protocol allowed the third-party data collector to
guide and focus the interview but offered enough flexibility to establish a spontaneous
conversational style, and probe or explore particular areas more with the participants (Patton,
2002). The questions in the interview protocol directly related to the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational influences identified in the literature. The questions allowed the
third-party data collector to develop an understanding of each participant’s perceptions of their
lived experiences and perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) of the how to best achieve the
stated stakeholder goal to take on the role of a mentor, and to help develop and implement a first-
year teacher mentoring program for early education teachers at Preschool AFS.
Interview Procedures. A one-time semi-structured interview was conducted with each
participant, which ranged from 13 to 47 minutes. This allotted time allowed the third-party data
collector to gather sufficient data from respondents without exhausting them (Weiss, 1994). All
the interviews were conducted in English. The individual interviews were conducted first, then
one focus group with four participants was conducted afterward. The rationale for conducting
individual interviews first was so each participant could provide subjective and specific

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information, which was true to their personal experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), not
influenced by other respondent’s ideas or opinions. Since interviews essentially cost time and
money, to add convenience to each participant, the third-party data collector worked around the
participants’ schedules, and asked each participant to identify where and when would be the best
location for the individual interview, whether face-to-face or online (Weiss, 1994). The
participants were offered the opportunity to interview on the weekends, either at school or at
another location that was more convenient for the participants. The participants were also offered
the opportunity to interview at work with release time or directly after work at the school in the
conference room, where professional development is normally conducted. All participants chose
the latter option, to be interviewed at work during their regularly scheduled work hours.
Release time was offered to the participants. The school location was offered given that the
nature of the interviews was not sensitive and pertained directly to the organizational business
that the teachers engage in on a daily basis. The third-party data collector audio recorded the
interviews, with the participants’ approval. The third-party data collector also took notes to
highlight particular data offered by participants (Weiss, 1994). Appendix B presents the
individual interview protocol.
Focus Group Protocol. In a formal but semi-structured format, the third-party data
collector explored an ordered set of six open-ended interview questions in a focus group with
four participants. The structure of the focus group and the use of the focus group protocol
allowed the researcher to guide the focus group but offered enough flexibility to establish a
spontaneous conversational style, and probe or explore particular areas in more depth with the
participants (Patton, 2002). Specifically, the focus group participants offered detailed
information regarding the next steps for developing the mentoring program within the

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organization. The questions in the focus group protocol directly related to the knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational influences identified in the literature.
Focus Group Procedures. One one-time focus group was conducted as a semi-
structured interview with four participants. The size of the focus group was manageable and
allowed all participants to share their ideas (Krueger & Casey, 2009). Having a separate focus
group, conducted after the individual interviews, with a select group of participant leaders
allowed the participants to collaboratively co-construct meaning of their shared experiences on
the research topic using open-ended conversation. The group interaction between participants
allowed them to make connections to various concepts through the discussions about developing
and implementing a mentor program that was not possible during the individual interviews. The
researcher also was able to compare themes across the focus group and interviews based on the
interview transcripts. The focus group was conducted on a Saturday chosen by the participants
for added convenience. The focus group interview took 2 hours and 16 minutes and was
conducted in English. The third-party data collector audio recorded the focus group to capture
data verbatim, with the participants’ approval. The third-party data collector took notes to
highlight particular data offered by the participants (Weiss, 1994). Appendix C presents the
focus group protocol.
Data Analysis

The stakeholders of focus were the lead teachers of Preschool AFS. The qualitative
methodology used to obtain data were individual interviews and a focus group. The researcher
used several strategies during the multiple phases of data analysis of the qualitative interview
and focus group data. As previously mentioned, a third-party data collector conducted the
individual interviews and the focus group.

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Once the third-party data collector left the field, the interviews were transcribed and
coded. A professional service, Rev.com, was contracted to create transcriptions of the audio
recorded interviews and focus group. To maintain the anonymity of the participants,
pseudonyms were chosen by the participants and used during the interviews and the focus group.
These pseudonyms were maintained throughout the transcriptions. The transcription service
guaranteed 99% accuracy.
The researcher wrote analytic memos after reading the individual interview transcripts
and the focus group transcript. The memos allowed the researcher to document thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the established conceptual
framework and research questions. Specifically, the themes that related to the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs of the lead teachers were of particular importance.
In the next phase of analysis, the researcher open coded the data to establish empirical
codes and apply a priori codes from the conceptual framework. To facilitate data analysis, the
researcher reviewed the interviews by rereading the transcriptions to develop themes based on
the textual data (Maxwell, 2013). In this step of data analysis, the researcher took notes, which
allowed the researcher then to develop axial coding themes. Maxwell (2013) suggested that in
qualitative research, coding is an essential strategy of categorization of emergent themes and
underlying relationships by comparing and contrasting them. To increase accuracy, the
researcher engaged in an iterative process of coding and recoding based on the raw data from the
transcripts to ensure the coding was consistent (Creswell, 2014).
The third phase included the division of coded themes into multiple subcategories related
to the KMO needs based on the conceptual framework. If needs related to knowledge and skills,
categories of conceptual and metacognitive were established. If motivational needs were

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discovered, they were subcategorized into themes related to self-efficacy, utility, and intrinsic
value. Finally, as organizational needs arose, they were categorized as cultural models and
setting issues, and then subdivided if they related to trust and empowerment, training and
support, incentives, as well as time allocation. This coding strategy allowed the researcher to
document any conflicting codes or counter examples, and themes that guided the proposed
solutions for the study. Finally, a hand-written codebook was created for the qualitative data. The
codebook allowed the researcher to effectively record and organize the codes for both the
individual and focus group interviews.
Credibility and Trustworthiness

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) indicated qualitative researchers cannot design studies that
“capture objective ‘truth’ or ‘reality’” (p. 244). Therefore, the authors asserted it is incumbent on
the researcher to establish credibility and trustworthiness through the methodological rigor of the
study. The following section will include the steps the researcher took to provide as accurate an
interpretation as possible of the collected data, in this case, the interviews (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
To assist in establishing credibility and trustworthiness of the study, the researcher did
not conduct the qualitative interviews and focus group. The researcher’s role as an insider or
member of the organization (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), can introduce bias or be seen as
coercive, since the researcher has a supervisory role over the participants who are staff in the
organization. The researcher used a third-party data collector for data collection. The researcher
maintained transparency regarding the methodology and purpose of the study by sending the
participants an opt-out email. This transparency helped establish trust and credibility in the data
collection process with participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants were also informed

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that their responses would be anonymous and kept confidential, encouraging open and honest
responses in the interviews, further enhancing the trustworthiness of the study (Patton, 2002).
To increase credibility and trustworthiness, the strategy of “adequate engagement” was
employed during the data collection phase (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 246). This entailed
seeking an adequate number and depth of interviews to ensure the feeling of saturation in data.
The allowance for one-hour interviews across 10 participants provided enough time and variation
in the participants’ understanding and experiences of developing a mentoring program to inform
the research until no new ideas or insights were evident, so data saturation was accomplished
(Creswell, 2014). The researcher also sought out ideas and examples that served as “alternate
explanations” to counter the data that supported the assumed influences and themes that arose
during the interview process to add credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 248).
The researcher approached the study with an understanding of the naturally occurring
inherent bias and reactivity (or reflexivity) during the interview data analysis (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Maxwell (2013) indicated it is more important to reflect on how the
researcher’s values and biases may influence the findings rather than try to eliminate them
completely. One clear strategy the researcher used to help reduce the influence of the researcher
bias was by incorporating open-ended questions for the interview protocol, not leading questions
(Maxwell, 2013). Another strategy the researcher used was a journal to record thoughts, biases,
values, and expectations and to reflect on how they might influence the different phases of the
study; the journal reflections ultimately helped inform the inquiry based on what perspectives the
researcher brings to the study (Maxwell, 2013). Prior to actual data collection, the interview
protocols for individuals, as well as the focus group, were reviewed and revised by individuals
who are knowledgeable about the subject matter and approved by the dissertation committee.

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The researcher explored the protocols with cohort members and others to determine that the
questions were actually open ended, and measured data directly related to the research questions,
to address potential validity threats (Maxwell, 2013).
To gather rich data, the third-party data collector audio recorded and had the participant
interviews transcribed. The transcriptions were done professionally, not automated, using the
transcription service Rev.com. The service indicates transcribed data is guaranteed to be 99%
accurate. Once completed, they were stored on a secure platform, on password-protected
computers.
This process of mechanically recording the interviews enabled the third-party data
collector to accurately capture the participants’ verbatim data of their experiences (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), and was not limited by what the third- party data collector
could capture through notetaking. Thick, rich data from the participants offered detailed
experiences, ideas, and knowledge, which formed the basis of the findings and were not based
on researcher bias. The details presented offered enough description of the contextual setting,
the participants, and use of direct quotes in the findings to enhance the possible transferability
to similar settings for readers of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The information gathered
in the individual interviews and focus group from the transcripts were considered in light of the
collective data by the researcher to analyze and compare based on quality to advance the main
themes and points in the narrative findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher member checked the emerging findings with the participants, who have
considerable knowledge of the context of the organization and the research topic, to check the
accuracy of the emerging findings of the interview data (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,

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2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that member checking is a particularly potent way to
eliminate misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and bias as a researcher. The researcher offered
a summary of findings from the interviews for the third-party data collector to give participants
to check if their responses matched their intentions. The third-party interviewer noted any
discrepancies. Once data analysis commenced, specific details of participants’ words formed the
basis of the findings and were not based on researcher bias, or what the researcher subjectively
thought was significant.
In the reporting phase, the researcher connected the findings back to the research
questions, conceptual framework, and the literature. Maxwell (2014) clarified that connecting the
participant perspectives back to the literature is an essential aspect to helping researchers deal
with validity threats, or mistaken views of data interpretation. Also discussing findings and
recommendations as they pertain to the literature helped improve quality and design, and
ultimately enhanced credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To summarize, the researcher acknowledges there are multiple ways people experience
phenomena (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher’s portrayal of how these participants
experienced and articulated their role as lead teachers and assistant directors in the organization
of study in developing a mentor program was more credible by having a third-party data
collector interview them. As well, this study’s methodological rigor, and the researcher’s
commitment to it, helped develop a more accurate interpretation. Throughout each phase, the
researcher’s role, then, was to systematically conduct the study with integrity to ensure the
greatest degree of credibility and trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics

This qualitative study relied on research gathered via interviews and a focus group with

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participants based on the sense-making of the participants’ perspectives and lived experiences
(Meriam & Tisdell, 2016) and was guided by the integrity of the researcher who must ensure the
trustworthiness of the study results. The researcher purposefully removed herself from further
biases that could hinder the credibility and trustworthiness of the study due to her supervisory
role over the participants. Therefore, a third-party data collector conducted and collected the
interview data. The individual interviews reflected the personal, separate experiences of the
participants. Whereas the focus group contained four participants to highlight shared experiences
of the participants, as well as to help them learn from each other, and build on each other’s ideas.
The University of Southern California (USC) provided guidelines for this study, which were
followed. Additionally, the researcher acted with integrity, and no data collection was conducted
before International Review Board (IRB) approval was granted.
Research studies involving human subjects require informed consent, voluntary
participation, participant and data confidentiality, as well as data security (Glesne, 2011). The
consent forms for the interviews and focus group were separate. The third-party data collector
provided participants with informed consent and permission to audio record forms. The third-
party data collector also provided the focus group participants with informed consent and
permission to audio record forms. The forms for the research participants were provided before
the start of study and can be found in Appendices D and E. In these forms, and throughout the
study, the researcher provided knowledge of informed consent, clarifying for participants that
participation is voluntary, confidential, and potential risks were minimized (Glesne, 2011).
Before each interview and the focus group session, the third-party data collector
reminded the participants verbally and in writing that they could cease involvement in the study
at any time. The researcher minimized the effects of coercion by relying on a third-party data

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collector, who explained the participants should not feel in any way pressured to participate due
to the researcher’s role as principle investigator; no retaliatory action, such as negative
performance evaluations or hindrance in job advancement, would be taken should the
participants choose not to participate at any time during the study. Although the data were not
sensitive in nature, the third-party data collector provided a clear explanation that the interview
participants’ disclosures would be kept confidential, and as a small token of appreciation for
their anticipated 1-hour participation, a $10 gift card was offered for their participation. In
addition, the researcher also reminded the focus group participants of their responsibility to
respect each other’s perspectives and keep the discussions confidential. The focus group
participants received no compensation for their approximate 2-hour involvement but were
offered a $10 gift card for their participation. After the data were collected, it was professionally
transcribed, kept confidential, and secured on password-protected computers.
Research bias is an important consideration to a study’s validity (Maxwell, 2013). The
researcher’s identity as a female, her role and experience as a director in the organization of
study, or as an early educator for over 10 years, may have imposed bias on the qualitative study’s
findings; the researcher’s strongly held opinions or position may have informed or distorted any
of the data collection, analysis, and reporting activities (Maxwell, 2013). Since data
interpretation is the area of a study at most risk for researcher bias, the researcher attempted to
assess the influences of the potential risks by using self-reflection and peer debriefing (Creswell,
2014).
Limitations and Delimitations

Limitations

There were limitations of this study beyond the researcher’s control that must be

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addressed. Since this study relied on the interview responses of 10 participants, these self-
reports by the lead teachers may have potential issues based on truthfulness, exaggeration,
respondent stress, respondent cognition, and recall bias. The short duration of time spent
collecting data was another limitation.
Delimitations

Delimitations are the researcher choices that can be controlled. The primary focus of the
innovation study was to conduct a needs analysis of the primary stakeholder of a single-study
site. Therefore, the primary delimitation of the study was that it related to the specific needs of
the Preschool AFS organization. This delimitation may have restrained the generalizability of the
characteristics of the organization of study to that of other organizations with different staff
compositions and contexts in early education. Using a third-party data collector was also a
delimitation, since the researcher had to rely on the accuracy of collection from an external
source. Another delimitation may have been the choice of lead teachers as participants based on
convenience and access; the researcher had access because of her position as director in the
organization. The researcher also did not include the perspectives of first-year teachers or the
administration. Therefore, the scope of the study may have been constrained by the lack of
generalizability, the use of a third-party interviewer, the researcher’s positionality, choice of
participants, access and convenience, but many of these limitations were addressed earlier, and
the results, as presented in Chapter Four, are believed to further the literature on lead teachers’
needs to develop and implement a quality mentor program.

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The purpose of this chapter is to report findings from the qualitative data collected. This
innovation study sought to conduct a needs’ analysis of assumed knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organizational influences (outlined in the conceptual framework in Chapter
Two) required to support the Preschool AFS organizational performance goal of 100% of first-
year teachers participating in the teacher mentor program, leading to best practices and choosing
to remain working at the center. The focus was on the needs of Preschool AFS lead teachers to
take on the role of mentors to first-year early education teachers and to help develop and
implement an innovative mentoring program at the school. The research questions that guided
this study were as follows:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational needs required by
lead teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as help
develop and implement a mentor program for first-year teachers based on best
practices?
2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

Research question one will be discussed in this chapter, and research question two will be
discussed in Chapter Five. As discussed in Chapter Three, the methodology of this study used a
qualitative approach (Creswell, 2014). The stakeholder group of focus was lead teachers due to
their primary role in enabling the organization to reach its performance goal. As an ethical
consideration, since the researcher has a supervisory role over the stakeholders (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), a third-party data collector conducted the interviews and a focus group. The
methodology for data collection included 10 individual interviews first, then a four-person focus
group. By instructing the third-party interviewer to conduct the individual interviews first, the

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researcher ensured that lead teachers’ subjective views and understanding about mentoring
could be shared without being influenced by other participants’ opinions. Both the individual
interviews and the focus group were conducted in English. The rich qualitative data gathered in
the interviews and focus group provided insight and validation of the needs and assets of lead
teachers to take on the role of mentors and help develop and implement a first-year early
childhood teacher mentor program at Preschool AFS. Any new needs that were considered
central to lead teachers achieving this goal were also identified.
This chapter begins with the description of the participating stakeholders, the lead
teachers of Preschool AFS. This is followed by a discussion of the data analysis. Then the results
and findings are presented for the identified knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs or
assets, as well as any additional emergent themes. The chapter concludes with a summary of the
validated findings that informs the solutions and recommendations offered in Chapter Five.
Participating Stakeholders

The stakeholder group of focus was Preschool AFS lead teachers, whose performance
goal is to take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and implement the first-year
teacher mentoring program. The study sought to recruit a sample of participants who were full-
time lead teachers who work with children from one of two different age groups, infants ages
three months to two years and toddler/preschoolers ages two to five years. The study sample
included 10 lead teachers who have worked at Preschool AFS for at least one year and have the
requisite education and experience to instruct or guide other teachers based on best practices.
Five study participants worked with infants and five study participants worked with toddler
preschoolers. The participants had varying lengths of experience in the field of early education,
ranging between 2 years and 18 years. All 10 lead teachers fully participated in the individual

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interviews, indicating a 100% interview response rate. Table 6 indicates the descriptive
information of the stakeholders who participated in the individual interviews:
Table 6

Description of Participating Stakeholders for Individual Interviews

Participant Name* Gender Length of Teaching in Early Education
Gabby Female 6 years
Elizabeth Female 12 years
Lylah Female 5 years
Berlin Female 10 years
Sarah Female 10 years
Claire Female 7 years
Brianna Female 3 years
Angelica Female 3.5 years
Barbara Female 2 years
Brooke Female 18 years

*Pseudonyms and limited demographic data were used to maintain anonymity of the lead
teachers.

The focus group consisted of four lead teacher participants, who were invited verbally by
the third-party data collector after they participated in the individual interviews. These four lead
teachers currently hold leadership roles at the school, either as assistant directors or are
candidates to become assistant directors. These four lead teachers participated fully in the focus
group, indicating 100% participation in data collection for focus group data. Table 7 provides the
descriptive information of the stakeholders who participated in the focus group:

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Table 7

Description of Participating Stakeholders for Focus Group

Candidate

Candidate

*Pseudonyms and limited demographic data were used to maintain anonymity of the lead teachers.

Data Analysis

The researcher invited the 10 lead teachers via email to participate in the study (see
Appendix A Participant Opt-out Recruitment Email). After a two-week period, the third-party
data collector then contacted the participants by email to schedule the individual interviews.
Although for convenience participants were offered the option of conducting an on-line
interview via Zoom or a face-to-face interview, all 10 participants chose the face-to-face
interview. After the individual interviews, the third-party data collector invited four lead
teachers, who participated in the individual interviews and were eligible based on their role as an
assistant director or candidate to be an assistant director, to join the focus group. No saturation
point was determined due to the small participant interview group; all participants were
interviewed. The third-party data collector began fieldwork collecting interview and focus group
data on November 15, 2019 through November 23, 2019, a 9-day period. The third-party data
Participant
Name*
Gender Length of Teaching in Early Role Eligibility
Education

Brooke

Female 18 years
Assistant Director/
Angelica Female 3.5 years Assistant Director/
Candidate
Sarah Female 10 years Assistant Director/
Candidate
Claire Female 7 years Assistant Director/

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collector conducted the interviews and focus group in English at one of two school locations in
the Los Angeles area where the teachers work during their regular work hours to add to the
participants’ convenience. The lead teacher participants were given release time to participate in
the interviews. The third-party data collector recorded the individual interviews and the focus
group interview to accurately capture the participants’ verbatim data of their experiences
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Since the researcher has a supervisory role to the
participants, to maintain anonymity, the participant’s each chose pseudonyms to use during the
recordings. Then the third-party data collector had the individual interviews and focus group
interview transcribed using these pseudonyms by Rev.com, a transcription service that
guarantees 99% accuracy. The researcher began data analysis after transcription was completed;
the transcription and data analysis occurred between November 16, 2019 through February 10,
2020. The researcher coded the open-ended questions from the individual interviews and focus
group manually. The timelines for data collection for participant interviews and the focus group
are detailed in the Table 8:
Table 8

Timeline of Data Collection for Interviews and Focus Group

Interview Participant Name* Interview Date Interview Length (approx.)
Gabby November 15, 2019 27 min.
Elizabeth November 15, 2019 18 min.
Lylah November 15, 2019 42 min.
Berlin November 19, 2019 22 min.

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Table 8, continued

Interview Participant Name* Interview Date Interview Length (approx.)

Sarah November 19, 2019 30 min.

Claire November 19, 2019 34.5 min.

Brianna November 20, 2019 25 min.

Angelica November 20, 2019 27 min.

Barbara November 20, 2019 13 min.

Brooke November 23, 2019 47 min.

Focus Group Participant Name Interview Date Focus Group Length

Brooke

Angelica November 23, 2019 2 hours 16 minutes

Sarah

Claire

*Pseudonyms and limited demographic data were used to maintain anonymity of the lead teachers.

Results and Findings for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

This data presented for this study are based on the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences outlined in the conceptual framework (see Figure 1) and the literature
review in Chapter Two and was guided by the methodology detailed in Chapter Three. For each
influence, interview findings were presented based on data analysis. For certain influences,
focus group findings were also presented, but only for those influences where the focus group
addressed the subject matter. The researcher determined the results were either a need or a
current asset based on the participant responses from the interviews and the focus group (see
Table 13). For example, a continuing need means that the participants have a gap related to this

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influence and there is a need for the knowledge, motivation, or organizational support.
Therefore, a solution will need to be generated to help further develop that knowledge,
motivation, or organizational support. If the assumed influence on performance was found to be
a current asset, that means that the knowledge, motivation, or organizational support is already
at the needed level and no solution may be needed or reinforcement may be implemented based
on the context and participants. Due to the importance of the influences, a validated influence
refers to nine of the 10 respondents confirming the assumed influence as a continuing need, or it
may then be determined as a current asset. The discussion that follows presents the qualitative
interview and focus group data using the detailed quotes from participants as evidence of the
researcher’s analysis of the findings.
Knowledge Results and Findings

Four types of knowledge are categorized by Krathwol (2002): factual (declarative),
conceptual (declarative), procedural, and metacognitive. The two assumed knowledge influences
explored through individual interviews and the focus group in this study were lead teachers’
conceptual (declarative) knowledge of their role in the mentoring process and the metacognitive
knowledge of how to reflect on their effectiveness as mentors. In addition to these two assumed
knowledge needs, an emergent procedural knowledge need was discovered in the interview
responses and focus group discussion: Lead teachers need to learn how to provide and receive
effective feedback as mentors. The assumed knowledge influences and their findings are
summarized in Table 9:

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Table 9

Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences and Findings

Knowledge Influence

Lead teachers need to
Knowledge
Type
Interview
Findings
(Asset/ Need)
Focus Group
Findings
(Asset/ Need)
Final Findings
(Asset/ Need)
understand their role
in the mentoring
process.
Declarative
Conceptual
Asset Asset Asset

Lead teachers need to
know how to reflect
on their effectiveness
as mentors.

Metacognitive Asset Asset Asset

*Lead teachers need
to know how to
provide and receive
effective feedback as
mentors.

Procedural
Newly
Identified
Need

Newly
Identified
Need

Newly
Identified
Need

*Newly identified or emergent influence.

Influence 1. Lead teachers need to understand their role in the mentoring process.

Interview findings. All 10 of the participants provided sufficient responses indicating
they had conceptual knowledge of the role of a mentor. When participants were asked if they
were mentored early in their career and what do they think the mentoring role entails,
collectively the qualitative data indicated that the lead teachers had multiple common ideas of
what the role of a mentor included, that were consistent with the literature. Clark and Estes
(2008) explain that for employees to perform their roles effectively, particular knowledge and
skills are required. Since the mentor role is multi-dimensional and complex, it is important for
prospective mentor teachers to have a conceptual understanding of what is expected when taking

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on the role of a mentor. Literature on the best practices for mentors delineated seven foci as
central to the mentor role including adult learning theory, communication, goal setting,
modeling, observation, feedback and assessment, and reflective practice, which can be utilized to
gauge lead teachers’ conceptual knowledge of the role of mentors (Feiman-Nemser, 2001a;
Hudson, 2016a; Moir et al., 2009; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013).
To a significant degree, participants’ conceptual understanding of the role of a mentor
emerged based on their personal experiences of being mentored, either formally or informally,
along with their subjective ideas of what the role of a mentor entailed and the qualities they
thought a good mentor would possess. Ten out of 10 lead teachers said they experienced some
form of mentoring in their career as an early educator. Specifically, Gabby explained the role of
a mentor is “someone that will help you gain that confidence that, as a teacher, you should have
no matter what the circumstance. Pretty much someone that’s always helpful.” Gabby said the
experience of being mentored helped augment her understanding of early education and become
a better leader. She said her mentor was there for her, she laid out “the steps to follow” and was
available to answer questions and provide “constructive feedback.”
Brooke, who was mentored by several teachers, expressed fond memories of being
mentored first by her aunt while she worked with 3-year-old children.
Some of my most joyous experiences I can remember first being in the classroom were
with her over the summer. And I even hear myself sometimes say things or do silly things
that remind me of her. So I think that while I was working, I didn’t realize how much of
an impact she was having on me. I feel like she really imprinted in me having joy and fun
and the power of being silly with the kids, how it can diffuse any situation. And just
really love for the children. And also, she taught me a lot of songs that I still use. But

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most of all I feel like I got my heart from that first position, which I think is vital to have
if you want to be successful in this field.
Mentor teachers often can share the joy of teaching with mentees, which is unlikely to be learned
in a school setting. The participants who were mentored were eager to share their passion and
love for teaching, as well as their expertise.
Brianna and Sarah both emphasized the mentor must be willing to share knowledge and
expertise. Brianna mentioned that at first the mentor can help fill “knowledge gaps” for the
mentee. Then as the mentee becomes more confident the support can move on to more complex
skills such as supporting “children with challenging behaviors.” Sarah said some of her strengths
as a mentor would be her willingness to share her professional knowledge, being able to break
down the teaching practice into basic components at the novice teacher’s level, and helping the
novice teacher feel comfortable to ask questions:
I think that I try to understand everybody and bring things down to a level that they can
understand. I always tell everybody like, “Ask me questions, if you don’t understand
something.” I have been doing this for a little bit longer, so I know what I’m supposed
to be doing.
When asked what the role of a mentor is, several participants, including Claire, Berlin,
Elizabeth, and Barbara, stressed the importance of being a good communicator and being able to
set expectations. Barbara’s expectations from herself as a mentor are, “just staying consistent,
following up with them, asking them if they have any questions and just providing feedback.”
Lylah felt the role of a mentor was to help guide new teachers who “are fresh out of
school” and who might not understand the full expectations of working as an early childhood
educator. She believed having patience as a mentor is required because working in the field may

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be new to them. The participants’ offered numerous responses that indicated they had conceptual
knowledge of mentoring.
Summary. The assumed influence that lead teachers understand their role as mentors was
determined to be an asset. All 10 of the lead teachers showed through their detailed responses
that they had the conceptual knowledge of what the mentoring role entails. Drawing on their past
experiences of either training other teachers or having previously been mentored, all of the
participants shared contextual knowledge of the responsibilities of a mentor, the expectations
they might have of themselves as a mentor, or what qualities a good mentor might possess. Some
of the varied responses regarding the role of a mentor offered by participants were that a mentor
needs to have and be able to share knowledge of early childhood education, can model best
practices as an early childhood educator for different age children, can communicate effectively
with children, parents, as well as other teachers, can offer constructive feedback, and needs to
teach adults according to their capacity. Among the many qualities the lead teachers cited were
respectful, understanding, a good listener, positive, a problem solver, and reflective. Given
that the participants were able to conceptualize and articulate the complex role of a mentor, this
influence is an asset. The participant interview responses from the lead teachers on their
conceptual knowledge of the role of a mentor are detailed in Table 10:

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Table 10

Participant Interview Responses Related to Conceptual Knowledge of the Role of a Mentor

Participant Mentored Conceptual Knowledge of the Role of a Mentor Responses
Formally/
Informally Mentor is: Mentor Qualities
Are:
Gabby Formally -Someone “to ask questions, you feel
comfortable going to”
-Someone “to help you gain confidence as
a teacher in ECE”
-Someone “to learn curriculum from”
-Someone “to learn how to deal with
conflict from”
-Someone “who motivates you”
-Someone who “provides constructive
feedback”
Elizabeth Formally -Someone who “understands how others
learn”
-Someone “to work one-on-one with”
-“Being a good leader”
-“Working as a team”
-“Taking feedback from others”
-Someone who “promotes good
communication among others”
Helpful
Respectful
Ethical
Positive
Responsive (to
mentee’s needs)

Respectful
Honesty
Good communicator

Lylah Both
Formally
and
Informally
-Someone “to guide you”
-Someone “with time”
-Someone “who talks with you”
-Someone “who models for you (e.g., how
to talk with children, how to prepare
documentation for parent conferences, how
to talk with parents)”
Vision
Patience
Flexible
Problem solver
Prepared in advance
Communication
skills

Berlin Informally -Someone who “teaches you how to talk
with parents, teachers”
- Someone who “teaches you how to
understand each individual child”
-Someone who “shares their knowledge”
-Someone “who understands how teachers
learn differently”
Communication
Understanding
Non-judgmental
Being available

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Table 10, continued
Participant Mentored

Conceptual Knowledge of the Role of a Mentor Responses
Formally/
Informally Mentor is: Mentor Qualities
are:
Sarah Informally -Someone “to ask questions to”
-Someone “to help set you on your path”
-Someone “to give you different ideas and
tools”
-Someone “to give information”
-Someone “who self reflects”
-Someone “who understands how others
learn”
Good listener
Empathetic
Creative
Adaptive

Claire Informally -Someone who “models positive behavior”
(e.g., how to talk to children, teachers)
-Someone “you can ask questions to”
-Someone who “is making sure you’re
growing”
-Someone who “is open to feedback”
Self-reflective
Positive feedback
Communicate in
positive tone
Supportive

Brianna Informally -Someone who “makes sure the knowledge
gaps are filled”
-Someone who “can offer advice on how
to work in a preschool environment or with
infants (e.g., basic techniques, how to
soothe an infant, how to work with
parents)”
-Someone who “knows how to train adults,
who knows what a teacher needs to learn,
and to adapt to that”
-Someone who “can provide feedback”
An apt listener
Encouraging
Positive
Supportive
Good problem solver

Angelica Informally -Someone who “constantly gives you
feedback”
-Someone who “motivates you”
-Someone who “understands the role of an
infant teacher (or a teacher in ECE)”
- Someone who “is knowledgeable, who
has a background in ECE”
-Someone who “teaches you how to
communicate with children”
-Someone “who checks in”
Approachable
Motivated
Excited
Organized

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Table 10, continued
Participant Mentored Conceptual Knowledge of the Role of a Mentor Responses
Formally/
Informally Mentor is: Mentor Qualities
Are:
Barbara Informally -Someone “to follow their lead throughout
the day”
-Someone to “prepare you for difficult
situations, or parents, or other teachers, or
administration or school”
-Someone who “sets expectations”
-Someone who “stays consistent”
-Someone who “asks questions”
-Someone who “provides feedback”
Communication, open
Respectful
Brooke Both
Formally
and
Informally
-Someone “to model”
-Someone “to learn curriculum from”
-Someone who helps you develop an
understanding of ECE theories (e.g.,
Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences,
Tools of the Mind).
-Someone who helps you develop
“confidence in your talent”
Someone one who “cares about your
Confident
Being reflective
Passionate
Nurturing
success, as a future teacher”

Influence 2. Lead teachers need to know how to reflect on their effectiveness as
mentors.
Interview findings. When lead teachers were asked what they do to improve their
teaching practice, 10 out of 10 teachers found reflection to be a regular part of their day.
Multiple respondents said they reflect on how they communicate with the other teachers, the
children, or parents, curriculum, or how the day went. As a means to improve her teaching
practice, Sarah described what she reflects on:
I reflect on how my interactions with the kids were, how my interactions with the parents
were and my co-teachers, all the teachers. … What I might have said, what I might not
have said, what I should have said, if I could have done something better. What type of

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curriculum I should be doing later, and what interactions the kids were interested in. A
little bit of everything.
Similarly, Angelica shared that she regularly reflects on how her teaching is impacting
newer teachers who are in training:
At the end of the day, I do reflect on how I talk to certain teachers and where certain
teachers are in their training. And then I think to myself, “What’s one of the ways that I
can help them or how am I not being clear to them? After I’ve told you you need to talk
to the children and you’re not talking to them, how can I make it more direct or clear?”
While reflecting, Barbara offered that she thinks about her general day and the multiple
stakeholders she deals with:
Time management, dealing with new teachers coming in, how to deal with the parents.
There might be a hard parent that’s particular about something, so I’m always thinking
about something like that. Just how the day is going, what I need to catch up on, what I
need to do. Is there something I need to do with a particular child? Do I need to reach out
to a particular teacher?
Elizabeth also added that she tries to take the perspective of the other teacher while she is
reflecting on her teaching practice and training:
I go home and think about what could I have done better. Maybe I could have showed her
the way. Or, just reflect back. If it was me in her shoes, what would I like for the lead
teacher to teach me? Or, how would I like... What would be [an] easier [way] for me to
learn?

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As the responses indicated, lead teachers’ metacognitive knowledge on reflection on their
teaching practice, covered multiple themes or topics including, training teachers, communicating
with children, parents, and other teachers, as well as with the general goings on of the day.
Teachers were also asked when, how long or what percentage of the day do you reflect
on your teaching process, if at all. Several participants shared they use metacognitive reflection
on their teaching practice at different points of the day while at work, as well as on the way
home, or on the weekends. Brooke said, “I do do a daily reflection.” A number of teachers
estimated they reflect a certain amount. Berlin mentioned she reflects “70% of her day.” Barbara
said, “About an hour a day” and Claire indicated, “I pretty much reflect for a good 15 to 20
minutes after work.” Whereas Brianna clarified that she looks for quiet points in the day to
reflect: “Usually my commute home is when I spend a lot of time reflecting” or “if it’s been a
challenging morning, I’ll spend some of my lunchtime thinking about that as well.”
Although the process, time of day, and duration may differ, the lead teachers have metacognitive
knowledge on their teaching practice.
Several lead teachers including Angelica, Claire, Lylah, Elizabeth, and Berlin explained
that their process of reflection included journaling. Angelica shared, “I know some people don’t
really use notebooks. I have five different notebooks.” She uses journaling to write down the
areas of improvements for each of the teachers she trains on a weekly basis.
Adding to this, Claire said she recommends new teachers to use journaling for
documentation as well as reflection:
I do advise always having a little notebook. We do a lot of observations on the children
during their play, or when we’re doing projects. So just being able to note take on what
the children are saying, but then also like, okay, well, what did you say? What kind of

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questions are you asking to kind of further that along? And then just by doing that, how is
your language? Like, questions obviously. And then at the end of the day [for the
teacher’s reflection], write down your little experience while you were sitting down doing
that observation. What did you feel? Did you feel you could have brought anything extra
or anything that you feel that you need more help or support with? So we can further
build that growth in that particular area.
Journaling can support mentor teacher’s metacognitive reflection on their teaching practice,
as well as that of first-year teachers. The notes can support reflection on specific areas of
improvement and help set goals.
As a result of self-reflection on their teaching practice, Berlin, Gabby, Barbara, and Lylah
added they make efforts to improve their teaching practice by “reading books on different
philosophies,” “watching educational videos on early development”, TED talks, “listening to
podcasts” on “different teaching techniques” and various early childhood education topics like
conflict or “how to deal with coworkers.”
The interviews also explored how lead teachers might help a mentee learn to reflect on
her or his teaching practice. Angelica mentioned she would encourage mentees she is training to
use a notebook to write down the goals she sets as well as their own goals. She elaborated,
I’d probably have them keep a notebook just for their training, and then have them write
down the goals that I’m listing. Because I have them write it down, but I have been
thinking, “Well, how do they know this is what they need to work on for the next week?
And how do they know or remember what they learned three weeks ago?” And see how
they’ve improved themselves.

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Even though Sarah does not use a journal herself, she “would suggest keeping a journal
or … jotting things down and remembering kind of what worked, what didn’t work, what’s
going on, how can we fix something.”
Brooke stated she directly shares her process of reflection with co-workers:

I talk to them about how I mentally reflect and my process that I go through. And I also
really encourage them to do a meditation or a reflective practice on their own at night.
And I also try to reflect with them, whether it’s through communication, like, “This
didn’t work. What do you think about this kid? Or How could we help this time of day?”
So, through dialogue.
The interview responses further showed that lead teachers not only possess metacognitive
knowledge of reflecting on their teaching practice, but also understand the importance and have
the ability to share their metacognitive reflection strategies with other teachers.
Summary. The assumed influence that lead teachers know how to reflect on their
effectiveness as mentors was determined to be an asset. All 10 of the lead teachers indicated that
they had the metacognitive knowledge to reflect on their teaching practice, whether related to
working with children, developing curriculum, or training co-teachers, therefore this
metacognitive knowledge can be applied to their knowledge of reflection on their effectiveness
as mentors. Several participants indicated that reflection on their teaching practice occurred on a
regular, if not daily basis, and some incorporated journaling to support their reflection. Since
participants were able to describe their strategies and process of metacognitive knowledge of
reflection, including how, what time, or duration, this influence is an asset.

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Newly Identified Influence 1. Lead teachers need to know how to provide and
receive effective feedback as mentors.
Interview findings. The interviews revealed a newly identified procedural knowledge
influence, that lead teachers need to know how to effectively communicate as mentors with
mentees. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something (Rueda, 2011). Several
respondents had trouble with or concerns talking to co-teachers when they had to deliver
feedback or setting expectations. In certain cases, some new teachers may be experienced but
are new to the organization. When interacting with such teachers, Brianna explained,
I find it challenging to provide feedback to teachers who already have expectations of
how things should be. So when teachers are established in their way of doing things and
see nothing wrong with the way they’re doing things, that’s a little bit harder for me to
jump in.
Berlin expressed challenges in providing feedback to prospective mentees as well. She
said she needed “stronger ways to communicate with them and when letting them know how to,
when not to do something and when to do it …coming up with a better way of letting them know
when something needs to improve.” Sara also mentioned she needed more strategies in
“intentionally” providing feedback with other teachers.
Focus group findings. The focus group participants gave mixed responses when asked
about their confidence in providing feedback to a new teacher. Angelica is straight forward when
dealing with a new teacher about providing feedback. She said,
I’m very comfortable proving feedback to a new teacher. … I want to make them a well-
rounded teacher here in our school so the only way I could do that is by continuously
giving them feedback. … I give them the heads up.… “Just so you know I’m going to

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start giving you more feedback. I don’t want you to take it personally, but I just want
to make sure that this is what ... You understand that this is what I’m going to start
doing from this point forward.
Both Claire and Brooke felt moderately confident in their feedback skills. Brooke
admitted, “I think I’m fairly comfortable. I don’t like to hurt people’s feelings. I don’t think that I
do. It’s hard to have to give some feedback sometimes, let’s be honest. It’s not always easy.” She
recalled a time when trying to set forth policies for teachers, like showing up to work on time,
and they got defensive. Then Angelica jumped in again and said it was easier for her to give
feedback when it related to training but harder when the feedback relates to some topic that
might be taken personally, such as how to dress at work. She also indicated it is challenging
when the teacher is not responding to the feedback that has been given multiple times. Claire said
she thinks about how it would be to receive the feedback she’s about to give, “I need to make
sure I word it properly.” Sarah agreed with both Claire and Angelica and added that you might
“have to gauge the person and accept that sometimes you might have to tell them multiple times”
… or “you maybe need to find a different way to say it.” These focus group responses appear to
corroborate later requests for training on providing feedback from the focus group discussion.
Summary. The newly identified influence that the lead teachers need to have procedural
knowledge of how to provide and receive effective feedback as mentors was determined to be a
newly identified need. The findings from the 10 lead teacher interviews indicated that while
some teachers did not bring up the challenge of providing and receiving feedback, five
participants said giving feedback was a challenge. The findings from the four focus group
participants provided mixed responses about their effectiveness as mentors in giving feedback.
Since several participants’ responses indicated a desire to acquire knowledge on how to

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communicate effectively with other teachers in particular instances, this procedural knowledge of
how to provide and receive effective feedback as mentors was identified as a new knowledge
need for lead teachers.
Motivation Results and Findings

Motivation refers to a learner’s ability to take initial steps toward engaging in a task and
putting forth the necessary cognitive effort to complete the task (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011).
Furthermore, motivation can increase performance when combined with knowledge (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Motivation is influenced by several factors such as a person’s beliefs, interests, and
goals, which can affect the effort made toward learning (Mayer, 2011). Table 11 summarizes the
assumed motivation influences and findings related to stakeholders’ self-efficacy, intrinsic value,
and utility value.
Table 11

Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences and Findings

Motivation Influence
Motivation
Type
Interview
Findings
Focus Group
Findings
Final Findings
(Asset/ Need)
(Asset/ Need) (Asset/ Need)

Lead teachers need to
believe they are
capable of taking on
the role of mentors.

Self-efficacy Asset N/A Asset

Lead teachers need to
feel personal
satisfaction in
becoming a mentor.
Intrinsic
Value
Need N/A Need

Lead teachers need to
feel the importance of
becoming a mentor.

Utility Value Asset Asset Asset

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Influence 1. Lead teachers need to believe they are capable of taking on the role of
mentors.
Interview findings. When participants were asked do you feel you have the necessary
skills to be a mentor, all 10 lead teachers responded that they believed in their ability to mentor
new teachers. Motivation includes the ability to consistently work or make effort toward a goal
(Mayer, 2011). An integral component of one’s effort is influenced by self-efficacy, or the belief
that one can accomplish a particular task based on experiences of achievement (Bandura, 1982).
Gabby offered that she gained the belief in her ability to mentor over time as she learned
more about early education and through her experience working with children in the classroom:
I feel ever since I started working with children, as time went by, I just matured more and
more in the field. And as days went by, I was learning more about early childhood
education. Like aside from school, because it’s one thing to do just books and it’s one
thing to actually work.
Although Gabby said her experience training adults supports her belief that she would be
a good mentor, one of her self-reported challenges is “there’s times where I overthink too much.
I’m doing the right thing, but I guess my problem is just overthinking it.” She explained that how
she demonstrates that she would be a good mentor is by “giving good feedback. Being to work
on time every day” and giving new teachers “that confidence and support that they need.”
Barbara shared her belief and confidence in her ability to mentor comes from her early
childhood classes and her experience working at Preschool AFS. She states, “I’m confident with
the knowledge that I’ve learned over time, with the experience. I’m also still taking classes, so
I’m able to share my knowledge.”

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Brianna admitted she felt confident in her ability to mentor new teachers, but less
confident in mentoring more experienced teachers because it takes “more finesse to understand
what skills they already have versus what skills they might need some more support on.” Lylah
and Berlin similarly expressed confidence in their ability to mentor other teachers but felt there
still was a lot to learn. Claire indicated “everything she learned throughout her years in early
childhood education” her role as a parent, and the “positive feedback” she’s received from
previous lead teachers in her position at work have undergirded her belief in her ability to
mentor. The evidence suggests lead teachers have developed self-efficacy to mentor from
multiple sources.
Summary. The assumed influence that lead teachers need to believe in their ability to
take on the role of a mentor was determined to be an asset. All 10 lead teachers indicated that
they have the self-efficacy to be a mentor. Most teachers attributed their feeling of self-
efficacy in mentoring to the combination of being mentored, having a background in early
childhood an education, parenting, as well as work experience. Since participants conveyed
their confidence in their ability to take on the role of mentors, this influence is an asset.
Influence 2. Lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor.

Interview findings. Five out of 10 lead teachers expressed a sense of personal satisfaction
or intrinsic motivation to mentor in several different ways. According to Eccles and Wigfield
(2002), this subjective satisfaction, pleasure, or interest can occur when a person is engaging in a
particular task or goal. Walkington (2005) asserted mentor teachers often describe the intrinsic
value of mentoring as a personal satisfaction or reward in seeing the growth of other, newer
teachers. When asked what motivates you to want to mentor other teachers, Brianna, Lylah, and
Angelica indicated they felt it was rewarding to see the growth of others. Brianna recollected that

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as a new teacher her mentors gave her such “good information and helped me out so much” that
she wanted to “be able to do that for others as well.” Lylah put it succinctly, stating that she liked
“helping people become successful.” Angelica said she’s motivated by her “love for this field
[early education] … I just want to share it with the other teachers that are coming in so they can
see how valuable being an infant teacher is.” Brooke expressed that to be an early educator “you
have to love it.” Her passion and joy as an early educator come from her desire to “see the
impact of the relationships that I develop with these kids and their families.” She related that this
joy translates into wanting to see and bring it out in other teachers. Claire agreed and shared the
sentiment that she’s motivated to mentor because she loves where she works and wants to
support other educators to feel the same. “I don’t feel like this is a job. … I really love it and I
want to make sure everyone gets the full benefits of what we’re trying to accomplish in nurturing
the children’s growth into their formal years.” The five participants’ responses indicate personal
satisfaction in mentoring as a sense of intrinsic reward for helping other teachers grow
professionally and a love for teaching. However, the five additional participants did not overtly
express their personal satisfaction, intrinsic value, or motivation for mentoring during their
interviews. It is not to say their personal satisfaction or interest in mentoring as a motivation did
not exist, but perhaps it was difficult for some participants’ to differentiate an intrinsic value
(personal satisfaction) from the utility value (usefulness toward achieving personal goals or
helping others) of mentoring.
Summary. The assumed influence that lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in
becoming a mentor was determined to be a continuing need. Although five of the 10 participants
shared intrinsic values in teaching or helping other teachers grow, half of the participants did not
obviously express their personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor. Since only half the

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participants overtly mentioned their personal satisfaction and intrinsic value for mentoring, this
influence is a continuing need. Although closely intertwined with intrinsic value, utility value is
discussed next.
Influence 3. Lead teachers need to feel the importance of becoming a mentor.

Interview findings. Ten out of 10 lead teachers clearly described the utility value of
mentoring or the importance of mentoring in terms of the impact it has on the children and their
families, the professional growth of other teachers, the organization, and on the early education
field in general. Barbara stated, “I think it’s always about the kids and making sure they’re safe.
… We have great teachers that are in the environment that are here to really like learn and take
the job seriously because we’re dealing with little ones and we want the best environment for
them. So if I can train someone to be their best and then that’s a great thing.”
In her years of working with and training early education teachers, Brooke mentioned she
can see their potential and wants to bring out their inherent gifts: “I see the passion in you, and I
see the gift and I see the talent. And I see that you really want to do this.” Not only will her
mentoring support the growth of other teachers, Brooke also said she believes mentoring will
help develop her own growth, both personally and professionally as an educator because she can
“learn more about herself as an educator.” Berlin also recognized the importance for her
becoming a mentor is to provide a non-judgmental opportunity to help newer teachers learn,
stating that she believes “if she’s here, it’s because she wants to learn.” Berlin also admitted she
could also benefit from a mentoring partnership by learning from the mentee, specifically in
areas such as improving her “language, communication, maybe more curriculum.”
Two lead teachers believed mentoring would benefit the organization. Gabby said
mentoring was important in developing the organization because it would enhance “teamwork,”

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making sure “everyone’s doing their job” and overall support the growth of the community.
Claire shared that mentoring would ultimately benefit the organization because it would create a
“positive, encouraging environment” that both children and parents would notice and appreciate.
Sarah commented that mentoring has the power to “break the stigma” that early education is
somehow “not teaching.” She felt that mentoring could “better the field” of early education by
raising quality teachers such that early education teachers and the profession itself would earn
the same value and recognition as elementary education.
Focus group findings. The focus group discussion echoed the interview responses
regarding the participants’ feeling of the importance of mentoring, it’s impact on children, on the
teachers themselves, and the field of early education. Angelica highlighted that research
underscores the importance of quality early education and children’s outcomes, for example,
infant attachment and how that affects children into adulthood. She believes an in-house mentor
program has the potential to positively affect all stakeholders:
It’s like not all the schools are providing good quality early childhood education.
Through this program and doing it in the school, it’s so motivating. And we’re educating
the parents like we’re a great school by doing this mentorship program because your
child is gaining so much information from teachers that want to be here, from teachers
that are talking to your children and being respectful in accordance to RIE [Resources for
Infant Educarers] with infants, RIE, Reggio, Soka [Value Creation] philosophies. So, it’s
really exciting.
Claire emphasized the importance that implementing a mentor program would have on
her growth and the growth of the other teachers: “I’m thinking of this [mentor] program just

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personally for myself, that it’s going to better me so I can help others grow. I feel like that in
itself is just ... I like that. I’m happy about it.”
Brooke elaborated how important mentoring and a mentor program is to all stakeholders
and to the field of early education,
I just want to emphasize that I think that this is really important. I think it’s really
important to the field. I think that starting mentoring programs, whether it’s in our school
or other schools [sic] should be doing it. I just think everyone should be doing it. The
impact that my own mentors had on me, I didn’t realize in the moment, but now here I
am, 18 years later, and now I really am able to see the impact of it long term. So I think
it’s really important for the field overall for the field to grow and flourish and change and
become more appreciated and respected, and maybe to help people see this field for what
it is, which is it’s this early childhood education. It’s education for parents, for families
and for these little people that are going to grow up and lead our society one day.
The focus group participants’ responses showed their feeling of the importance of becoming a
mentor. They felt mentoring would positively benefit individual stakeholders’ experience of
enrollment in early education or working in the field. They also clarified how the organization
and the field of early education can improve when a quality mentoring program is implemented.
Summary. The assumed influence that lead teachers feel the importance of becoming a
mentor was determined to be an asset. Utility value, in this instance, is correlated to the purpose
mentoring serves generally speaking, and perhaps the value mentoring provides relative to the
lead teachers’ current goals or as professional educators, but it could also indicate the value it
provides to their colleagues (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Rueda, 2011). All 10 of the lead teachers
expressed that they felt it was important to become mentor, whether related to benefiting the

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children and their families, in the professional development and training of teachers, as an
improvement to the organization, or to the early education field overall. The focus group
confirmed the responses of the interview responses and furthered the discussion that the
importance of implementing a mentor program would better the organization and better the early
education field. Though the statements did not explicitly relate to lead teachers’ personal goals
per se, it could be implied that since participants were able to articulate the importance and
utility value of becoming a mentor, this influence is an asset.
Emergent Value Theme: Mentoring and Retention of Early Childhood Teachers

As was noted in the literature in Chapter Two, research indicates mentoring can increase
teacher retention, and reduce turnover by as much as 30% (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).
Throughout the interviews, the participants related how their experiences of being mentored
helped them stay in the field of early education. Angelica’s experience of mentoring:
It was a different experience because I never really had a mentor going into any career
that I chose. It was different having someone that’s constantly giving you feedback.
Learning how to receive the feedback because not everyone can receive the feedback or
constructive criticism that well. But the relationship that I had with my mentor, I think
that process is what motivated me to continue in the career that I am now.
Lylah mentioned being mentored “was exciting for me to want to continue and stay in this field.

… It was more encouraging because you had someone there to guide you and you’re not just
thrown into a position.”
In the focus group, Claire shared that implementing a mentoring program would impact
teacher retention because new teachers would see the school is “really focused on [training] their
teachers.” Adding to this point, Sarah believed that mentoring would also weed out teachers who

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are “just looking for a regular job” from those that are looking for a school that promotes the
professionalism of early education.
Brooke said, “A mentor program fosters relationships. So if you’re fostering
relationships, it should have an overall effect on the whole culture of the whole school.” The
participants believed the mentor program will improve the quality of the school so children will
grow, parents would be happy, and the school will “flourish and prosper.” These responses from
the participants indicated that mentoring helped them continue their own careers in early
education. Furthermore, the participants believed an effective relationship-based mentor
program would also improve the retention of engaged early education teachers, thereby
improving the quality of the school and the education and care of the children.
Organizational Results

Two dimensions of organizational culture are cultural models and cultural settings
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models can be described as the invisible aspects of
culture, such as shared beliefs and understandings, whereas cultural settings include the physical
environmental contexts where the cultural models are enacted in the form of organizational,
structures, policies, and practices (Rueda, 2011). Organizational change is a dynamic process
that involves intentional or unintentional impact on these cultural components (Schein, 2017).
Table 12 provides a summary of the assumed organizational influences and findings:

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Table 12

Summary of Assumed Organizational Influences and the Findings

Assumed
Organizational
Influence
The organization
needs to foster a
Type Interview
Findings
(Asset/Need)
Focus Group
Findings
(Asset/Need)
Final Findings
(Asset/Need)
culture of trust and
empowerment
where lead teachers
are part of the
decision making as
mentors.
The organization
needs to provide
Cultural
Model

Cultural
Asset N/A Asset
effective training
and support to be a
Setting
Need Need Need
mentor.
The organization
needs to provide
incentives to be a
mentor.
The organization
needs to allocate
time for lead
teachers to
effectively
fulfill the
responsibilities of
being mentors.
Cultural
Setting

Cultural
Setting
Need Need Need

Need Need Need

Cultural Model

Influence 1. The organization needs to foster a culture of trust and empowerment
where lead teachers are part of the decision making as mentors.
Interview findings. When lead teachers were asked how important is it that the school
places trust in you to make decisions, all the respondents felt it was “very important.” Brianna

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framed the importance of being trusted by the organization to make decisions as a sense of being
valued by the organization:
I think it’s really important because part of that is making you feel like your judgment
is valued and you are responsible for the school’s success, which inherently makes you
want to do a better job. And so I think the school definitely does a great job of making
sure you feel valued so that you want to put your value back into the school.
Again, Sarah confirmed that organizational trust was important and, in fact, integral to
her position, “I think very important, especially as a lead teacher. If I had to go to a different
person every time I had to make a choice, it kind of defeats the purpose of my position. So, I
think, yeah, it’s really important.”
Trust from the organization to make decisions encourages leadership capacity building
and growth within the organization (Thornton, 2014). This trust of organizational leaders toward
lead teachers also establishes a culture within the school where teachers are willing to go above
and beyond to exceed performance expectations, or engage in “organizational citizenship
behavior” (Korsgaard et al., 2002, p. 314), which can positively influence the behaviors of the
other teachers, including first-year teachers.
Participants also were asked to what extent do you think the school empowers you to
make decisions as a lead teacher, nine of 10 respondents felt empowered to make decisions. On
the other hand, Lylah felt she was limited in her decision making from the organization based on
past experiences. She explained:
I think it’s just set in a way that I don’t do anything that they don’t want me to do. Do
you understand what I’m saying? So, they allow me to, but it’s to a certain extent. I can’t
really do much because there’s been times when I felt like, “Well, let’s do it this way,”

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and then they’re like, “Why did you do it this way?” And I was like, “Well, you know.”
I feel like everybody’s got a different way of doing things, and sometimes I feel that this
way could be better. But because of the past experience, I don’t want to shake it.
In Lylah’s commentary, she expresses a feeling of a lack of empowerment which can lead to a
sense of disenfranchisement (Holloway et al., 2018). It is important for all lead teachers who are
given mentorship roles to feel empowered in their decision-making responsibilities, so it does
not impede the progress of achieving the stakeholder goal.
Angelica reported that she feels the organization supports her to make decisions and she
can go to the school administrators to discuss decisions about which she may have questions:
I feel they definitely do support the decisions that I make or that I want to make,
especially being or trying to become an assistant director, since I don’t officially have the
position just yet. The decisions I make, certain ones where I would discuss with my
director or the administrator, and then based on what they tell me or the feedback that
I’ve received, I carry it outwards.
Brianna clarified the responsibility of decision making was clearly an aspect of being a
lead teacher:
I think it [the school] does a great job empowering lead teachers to make decisions.
There’s a lot of responsibilities that are given to lead teachers that aren’t really passed
around to other teachers as well. And I think, I’m finding that as the school is growing a
lot more that I’m making a lot more decisions myself for this whole side of things, which
definitely makes me feel a lot more empowered and competent over here.
Sarah further elucidated that the lead teacher training and her experience within the
organization has prepared her to understand how and when to make decisions, whether the

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choices end up being the best or not, which underscores her sense of empowerment as a decision
maker. She said, “I think they’ve provided me with all of the information, so it’s up to me to
make the correct choice.” As indicated in the literature, organizations that establish trusting
relationships and share decision-making responsibilities with employees instill a sense of
independence, confidence, and risk taking that ultimately benefits the organization (Fernandez,
Resh, Moldogaziey, & Oberfield, 2015; Northouse, 2016). The cultural model of the
organization fostering a sense of empowerment and trust in decision making as lead teachers was
validated by most of the respondents and was felt to be important by all the respondents. This
“fostering” was clearly part of the training they received as lead teachers, and also supported
through discussion when questions arose.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to foster a culture of trust
and empowerment where lead teachers are part of the decision making as mentors was
determined to be an asset. Nine of 10 participants suggested the organization fostered a culture of
trust and empowerment in decision making, while one did not. It is vital that lead teachers feel
the organization fosters a culture of trust and empowerment in decision making to become
actively engaged as decision makers as mentors. Since nine of 10 participants felt trusted and
empowered to make decisions, this influence is a current asset.
Cultural Setting

Influence 1. The organization needs to provide effective training and support to be a
mentor.
Interview findings. When participants were asked what support or training opportunities
would help you become an effective mentor, multiple ideas arose. Every participant provided
suggestions for how the organization could provide support or topics of training. Research

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substantiates that organizations need to provide employees continued training to enhance
knowledge and skills (Clark & Estes, 2008; Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993; Whitebook &
Bellm, 1996). Thornton (2014) suggested that training better prepares the mentors for their role
and assuming leadership. Brooke thought training on “what kind of learner is a person” and
strategies for “employee development” was needed. Lylah said “more writing workshops”
related to creating documentation that can be presented to parents. Gabby suggested establishing
resources on mentoring that included videos and books. Both Sarah and Elizabeth asked that a
training topic include “communication.” Berlin felt one area of support from the organization
would be to establish regular feedback sessions where mentors could provide input on “what can
improve” as well as getting feedback such as “hey so we see you can get better on this.” Brianna
also mentioned “more formal knowledge on being a mentor.” Although she was not specific,
Barbara said, “sending us out to different things where we can do workshops,” and Claire added
courses on mentoring “at one of the local colleges” would be beneficial. The participants
proposed many ideas and important areas of training that the organization can use for topics of
professional development to build the lead teachers’ capacity and competence as mentors.
Focus group findings. The focus group discussion reiterated some of the interview
findings as well as revealed additional areas of training that would be necessary. Sarah
reconfirmed the notion that training on “providing us with communication skills” was important.
Angelica alluded to “a timeline” that the mentors could establish when training mentees to
formalize the mentorship program. Brooke shared she was interested in “more background
knowledge” and learning from “an expert” on topics such as “how to motivate people, and
different types of learners, and different styles of giving feedback, … cultural awareness would
be helpful.”

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During the focus group discussion, four of four participants were in agreement that an
area of support was for the organization to help establish a good match or pairing between the
mentors and mentees. Research does indicate that mentor-mentee match should be considered
with respect to subject (Ingersoll & Smith, 2004), and in this case, age group of children
(Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). Several considerations for mentor-mentee match were the age
group of children (infant, toddler, preschool), one’s length of teaching experience, age of the
teacher, cultural considerations, and gender.
Sarah recalled a period of working with a co-teacher where “there was a big language,
culture barrier.” She said the misunderstandings had built up and took some time and a lot of
“self-reflection” to resolve. She realized, “If I’m not working well with somebody … something
has to be figured out for it to work and for us to learn from this experience.”
Brooke further indicated that diversity in mentoring was an important consideration:

I do think it’s also important to have mentor teachers that are of the same culture
sometimes, whether it’s African-American or Hispanic. … I think we need more mentor
teachers that are from other cultures and diverse backgrounds to be an example and an
inspiration ... instead of it always being one race or culture as the mentor teacher.
At times Brooke’s perception that her being a White teacher may not have been as effective
when training teachers from other races or cultures; she felt it may have posed a potential barrier
because she did not share that common identity.
Drawing support not only from the organizational leaders but also from the other teacher
mentors would be practical. Sarah mentioned she sought advice from other more experienced
teachers to help. Claire also confirmed this point that if you reach a point with a mentee that you

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are unsure of how to help them, teacher mentors “collaborating with each other” could provide
support to help meet the needs of mentees.
Hobson et al. (2008) suggested due to the social nature of mentoring, consideration for
mentor-mentee pairing requires a complementary match both professionally and personally. On
the contrary the participants did not believe personality was a valid factor for organization to
consider when pairing mentors with mentees. Brooke clarified, “I don’t think it should be
overthought or people should be paired up specifically for their personalities. I think any pairing
can be a growing experience for both parties.” She drew upon her own experience when she was
being mentored. She recalled that even when the match did not at first appear to be a good fit,
over time she came to understand, “Wow, this is amazing that I was paired with this person, like
it’s perfect.” In the final analysis, lead teachers believed that it is the mentor’s responsibility to
figure out what is going to be the best way to help the mentee grow and learn.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to provide effective
training and support to be a mentor was determined to be a continuing need. The findings from
all 10 lead teacher interviews indicated that the organization could provide ongoing support and
trainings related to communication, feedback, college courses on mentoring, and workshops. The
findings from the four focus group participants provided additional suggestions for trainings that
would support their effectiveness as mentors, including a general mentor program timeline,
access to expert advice, and communication skills. An area of support was for the organization to
establish appropriate mentor-mentee pairings. Since the participants were able to clearly identify
multiple areas for organizational training and support to mentor effectively, in addition to the
professional development they already receive, this influence is a continuing need.

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Influence 2. The organization needs to provide incentives to be a mentor.

Interview findings. When participants were asked what type of rewards or recognition
the organization provides for their accomplishments, 10 of 10 lead teachers felt the organization
currently provided verbal recognition for their accomplishments at work. Gabby commented that
the organizational leaders “thank us all the time, which feels good.” Elizabeth agreed and said, “I
think what they do is good. As long as they recognize what we’re doing, I think that’s what
counts.” Brooke also mentioned that during six-month evaluations, teachers receive private
feedback and recognition, “I think those moments are times where you get to hear some
constructive feedback, but then also feedback about really what an asset you are to the school
and what great work you’re doing.” Brianna and Brooke both saw the promotional opportunities
as additional forms of recognition or reward. Brooke elaborated, “I think that they’ve developed
a great promotional process here, where you interview for a promotion and you write an essay
and then you get, like I said, you’re interviewed by a board.” These responses indicate the
organization is currently providing rewards and recognition for the teachers’ accomplishments.
Then lead teachers were further asked what incentives, as a mentor, they would like the
organization to provide, if any. Brianna shared, “It’s a hard question to answer because I’ve
worked at many schools where the recognition has been very low. And working here the
recognition is significantly higher than what I’m used to.” Claire felt that the recognition from
the school was enough: “I know other centers like do, or previous ones that I’ve come from,
where they do like and send them stuff. I don’t fully agree with that, because I feel like this is
what we’re here to do.”
On the other hand, several participants had varying opinions about the ways the
organization could further develop a mentor incentives program or provide additional rewards.

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While Sarah, Barbara, and Lylah thought verbal recognition of the good work mentors were
doing in professional development meetings would continue to be beneficial because “it’s hard
work. … It helps you keep going,” four of 10 participants gave ideas for additional incentives
that might be valued by mentors. Brooke suggested the organization could provide compensation
for additional time required for meeting with mentees: “I think it would make teachers feel
happy and appreciated to be paid for that extra time you’re putting in.” Berlin also commented
additional time off would be an added incentive because being able to “leave a couple of hours
early and it’s just unexpected and it’s a day we can get stuff done because it’s the weekdays
because we can never really have the time.” Gabby thought “maybe awards would be nice. … Or
even like a certificate or something.” Angelica felt that an important incentive the organization
could offer her and to mentors would be help to continue their education: “Incentives? To help
me continue my education. I’m so motivated to get my master’s degree. I think that would be the
biggest incentive.” These participant responses emphasized the organization should provide
additional incentives for lead teachers to become mentors that they would value.
Focus group findings. The focus group discussion revealed an additional incentive,
discretionary funds for relationship building among mentors and mentees. Brooke suggested
“maybe some funds for having coffee and bagels on a Saturday morning or something, lunch
with your mentee or something.” She felt discretionary funds would “support [mentors] with
building relationships.” The focus group data further corroborates the need for the organization
to provide incentives for lead teachers to become mentors.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to provide incentives to be
a mentor was determined to be a continuing need. Although all 10 of the lead teachers indicated
that the organization currently provides verbal recognition and promotional opportunities as

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rewards for teacher accomplishments, four teachers provided additional suggestions for
incentives. The suggestions for incentives would improve the current incentives structure
specifically that lead teachers would value if becoming a mentor, and is consistent with the
literature that multiple incentives in the forms of rewards and recognition supports teachers in
their role as mentors (DeGregory, 2016; Futrell, 1988; Whitebook & Bellm, 1996). The
participants thought incentives such as awards or certificates, monetary stipends for extra time to
meet with mentees, additional time off, and financial support to continue one’s education would
be most valued by lead teachers who might choose to become mentors. An additional
discretionary fund incentive was brought up during the focus group. Asking the participants what
incentives they find valuable and then establishing an appropriate incentives plan can show value
of, motivate, and even retain staff (Hansen et al., 2002; Huff, 2006). Since participants were able
to clearly define multiple incentives, in addition to the current recognition and rewards system,
this influence is a continuing need.
Influence 3. The organization needs to allocate time for lead teachers to effectively
fulfill the responsibilities of being mentors.
Interview findings. All 10 participants indicated it would be necessary to meet with their
mentees and the organization should help facilitate that time allocation to help them effectively
fulfill their responsibilities of being mentors. As indicated by the conceptual framework and the
literature, mentor teachers need time to meet with mentees to plan, make goals, and reflect
(Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993; Ganser, 2001; Thornton, 2014). When participants were asked
how frequently a mentor would need to meet to communicate with a mentee about teaching
strategies, there was a general consensus, eight of 10 participants, that stated once a week was an
appropriate meeting frequency. On the other hand, Brianna indicated “probably every other

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week, once you see the patterns emerging.” In contrast, Sarah said, “It varies, because in the
beginning, maybe every day, like at the end of the day, or at the beginning of the day, whichever
one works better. … And, then maybe once a week.” Brooke clarified, meeting “formally once a
week. I think that’s at a minimum. I also don’t think you should meet too much because I think
sometimes it could … it could just be too much.” Brooke mentioned mentors can meet
informally with mentees at times throughout the day for a few minutes to check in to ask, “How
did it go? What worked, what didn’t work? What can you do next time?” Lead teachers indicated
that the meeting length could range anywhere from 5 to 30 minutes.
Additionally, when lead teachers were asked when the best time would be to meet with a
mentee, the answers varied. Many teachers responded that during the regular workday, such as
when children were napping, on breaks, or during lunch, was an option. Brooke, Gabby, and
Lylah thought making time after school to meet was an option. Gabby suggested, “Maybe after
work when the day’s over and you have more time and you’re not in a rush.” Both Barbara and
Angelica thought Fridays were best. Barbara elaborated,
I think Fridays, the end of the week because Monday it’s kind of hectic. But throughout
the week they [mentees] can come up with ideas and maybe questions so we can get
those brought up on Friday and we then can go from there answering them and working
them out.
Corroborating the idea that Friday mentor-mentee meetings were the best option,
Angelica said,
“My hope is that the information I share with them, over the weekend they have that
moment to settle and to think about it. Or if I share some articles with them, it gives them
the weekend to read on them.”

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The lead teachers’ consideration for when to schedule mentor-mentee meetings involved
working around their busy daily and weekly schedules that would support the organization, as
well as when would be most beneficial for the exchange of information for the mentee. However,
not having release time could make the mentoring less effective (Thornton, 2014).
When asked how the organization could support the facilitation of the meetings, several
lead teachers indicated that providing extra time and staffing were most important, which is more
conducive for mentors to assist the professional growth of the mentees in a more developmental
way (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1993). Elizabeth mentioned,
I feel by maybe giving you a little extra time, maybe like when we do breaks or lunch,
since that’s the time a lot of people come in and out. Just giving you that little extra 5-
10 minutes, just to have on the side to talk to that person.”
Claire said, “making sure we have coverage everywhere so we could have a quick out of
classroom meeting.” Brianna thought the organization can facilitate by “providing a time and a
place for mentors and mentees to meet” because meeting in the classroom can be disruptive and
“challenging to hold a focused conversation.”
Focus group findings. The four focus group participants confirmed that the organization
would need to allocate time for mentors and mentees to meet weekly. As stated by Angelica, “I
feel just meeting with your mentee is really important to establish that communication between
the mentor and the mentee because if you’re not meeting with them, at least once every week,
you can’t gauge what they’re learning.” The discussion went a bit further to include establishing
time, perhaps weekly, biweekly, or monthly, for lead teachers who become mentors to meet
collectively as a professional learning community. This idea of teachers meeting as a
professional learning community where mentor teachers share professional knowledge and ideas,

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to provide one another emotional and social support, and to enhance collegiality is substantiated
by the literature (Feiman-Nemser, 2001b; Moir et al., 2009). Sarah explained that “the face-to-
face or digital face-to-face [e.g., Zoom, Skype]” meeting would facilitate collaboration. Brooke
suggested “having a 2-hour Saturday workshop” where prospective mentors could receive
“PowerPoint training” as professional development. These forums actually can accelerate
learning and development of mentors, and thereby advance the teaching practice of first-year
teachers (Moir et al., 2009).
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to allocate time for lead
teachers to effectively fulfill the responsibilities of being mentors was determined to be a
continuing need. All 10 of the lead teachers were in agreement that it would be necessary to
meet with mentees on a regular basis, most suggested at least once a week. Several participants
suggested the organization would be able to facilitate the mentor-mentee meetings by either
providing release time and support staff during the day when teachers could conveniently meet,
or by offering opportunities to meet after work hours with compensation. Some lead teachers
thought shorter, impromptu meetings would still be possible during down time such as when
children were napping or as an extension of their lunch break, but carving out a focused
meeting would be necessary at least once a week. An additional long-range idea of mentor
teachers meeting as a professional learning community regularly was advanced by the focus
group participants. Since all participants felt it was necessary for the organization to allocate
time for mentors to effectively fulfill their responsibilities, to help facilitate mentor-mentee
meetings or collaborative mentor meetings, this influence is a need to be further addressed.

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Summary of Findings

The innovation study presented nine assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that might impact lead teachers’ ability to take on the role of mentors and help plan
and implement a first-year teacher mentor program at Preschool AFS. The findings indicated two
knowledge influences were assets, however one additional procedural knowledge influence
emerged during data collection as a need. Two of three motivational influences were determined
to be assets and one was a need. Finally, three of the four organizational influences were found
to be needs, while one was an asset. Table 13 presents a summary of the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences and the corresponding determination as a need or an asset.
Table 13
Summary of all Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and Results

Category Assumed Influence Final
Assertion

Conceptual Lead teachers need to understand their role in the mentoring
Process. Asset

Metacognitive Lead teachers need to know how to reflect on their effectiveness
as mentors. Asset

*Procedural Lead teachers need to know how to provide and receive
effective feedback as mentors.
Need
(Newly
Identified)

Self-efficacy Lead teachers need to believe they are capable of taking on the
role of mentors.
Asset

Intrinsic
Value
Lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in becoming
a mentor. Need

Motivation
Knowledge

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Table 13, continued

Utility Value Lead teachers need to feel the importance of becoming a mentor.
Asset

Cultural
Model

Cultural
The organization needs to foster a culture of trust and
empowerment where lead teachers are part of the decision
making as mentors.
The organization needs to provide effective training

Asset
Setting and support to be a mentor. Need

Cultural
Setting
The organization needs to provide incentives to be a
mentor. Need

Cultural
Setting
The organization needs to allocate time for lead teachers to
effectively fulfill the responsibilities of being mentors.

Need

*Indicates emergent influence.

Next, Chapter Five will answer the final research question “What are the recommended
solutions to better meet those needs?” The context-specific recommended solutions to address
the continuing needs related to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
identified in the next chapter. A detailed implementation and evaluation plan will also be
outlined.
Organizational

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CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION

Chapter Four presented the results and findings from the interviews and focus group in an
attempt to answer the first research question by identifying the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs of the lead teacher participants:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization needs required by
lead teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as develop and
implement a mentor program for first-year early education teachers based on best
practices?
Chapter Five focuses on the remaining research question that guided the study:

2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

This chapter presents the recommendations correlating to the identified needs and assets in this
research study within the context of the organization. Finally, the chapter concludes with a
proposed evaluation and implementation plan.
Introduction and Overview

This innovation study offers a proposed program based on the needs and assets of lead
teachers of Preschool AFS achieving their stakeholder goal of taking on the role of mentors, as
well as developing and implementing the first-year teacher mentoring program, as previously
identified in this research project. The chapter begins with the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences and their corresponding context-specific recommended solutions
related to the problem of practice. Recommendations have been provided for all the influences,
whether validated or not, for several reasons. One reason is that staff turns over, and other
teachers may fill the positions of lead teachers who have different needs. Also, future cohorts of
lead teachers who choose to become mentors will have differing needs. Finally, these findings

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might not be true for other organizations, therefore providing the recommendations would be
useful.
The proposed knowledge recommendations include dialogue groups, feedback, and job
aids to support the lead teachers’ conceptual understanding of their roles as mentors, procedural
knowledge of providing and receiving effective feedback, as well as the metacognitive
knowledge on reflection of their effectiveness as mentors using strategies learned through
instructional modeling during trainings. Practice of self-talk and reflection journals will
reinforce the lead teachers’ learning and implementation of the metacognitive reflection
strategies. The motivation recommendations incorporate dialogue groups, modeling, and
feedback to foster lead teacher mentoring self-efficacy and the understanding of intrinsic value
for and the utility value or importance of mentoring through discussion. Finally, the
organizational recommendations focus on feedback to design a mentor program that provides
organizational support of appropriate training and support, teacher release time, and a multi-
pronged incentives policy to increase the likelihood that lead teachers will take on the role of
mentors within the organization and that the organization can achieve its internal and external
outcomes. Following the recommendations, an integrated implementation and evaluation plan
for those recommendations, using the New World Kirkpatrick Model, is presented.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. As discussed in Chapter Two, Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that a lack
of knowledge is a fundamental cause of performance issues. Organizations must discover
whether people have the knowledge and skills to do their jobs before stakeholders can solve
problems or reach their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, in Chapter Two, Krathwohl

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(2002) provides a framework to address knowledge-related performance gaps that included
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge categories. The assumed
knowledge influences for this study include conceptual (declarative) and metacognitive
knowledge. For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that lead teachers need the
conceptual knowledge to understand their role in the mentoring process and lead teachers need
to know the metacognitive knowledge of how to reflect on their effectiveness as mentors. In
addition, a newly identified procedural knowledge influence that lead teachers need to know
how to provide and receive effective feedback is also presented. The conceptual knowledge and
metacognitive knowledge influences were identified as assets, and a newly identified procedural
knowledge need emerged based on qualitative data analysis.
Table 14 presents the complete list of assumed knowledge influences, as well as an
emergent influence. It also indicates whether each influence was found to be a need or an asset
based on data analysis. Finally, Table 14 suggests a prioritization of all influences based on the
probable impact on achieving the stakeholder goals and context-specific recommendations based
on theoretical research principles.

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Table 14

Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed or Newly Identified
Knowledge Influence
Validated as
a Need or
Asset?
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

Lead teachers need to understand
their role in the mentoring
process. (D-C)
Asset Y
Information learned
meaningfully and
connected
with prior
knowledge is stored
more quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
(Information
Processing System
Theory)

How individuals
organize
knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
(Information
Processing System
Theory)

Social interaction,
cooperative
learning, and
cognitive
apprenticeships
(such as reciprocal
teaching) facilitate
construction of new
knowledge (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
(Sociocultural
Theory)
Provide ongoing
training that includes
discussion that
identifies the various
components of the role
of the mentor and
connect it to the lead
teachers’ current roles
and early experiences
as educators.

Provide a job aid that
details the
organization’s
expectations of the role
of a mentor in training
novice teachers to
perform their role as
assistant teachers.

Provide a training that
includes dialogue
groups for lead teacher
mentors to discuss the
role and how best to
mentor first-year
teachers.

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Table 14, continued

Assumed or Newly Identified
Knowledge Influence

Validated as
a Need or
Asset?

Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)

Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation

Lead teachers need to know how
to reflect on their effectiveness as
mentors. (M)
Asset Y
Metacognition is
reinforced when the
learner is provided
opportunities to
engage in guided
self-monitoring and
self-assessment
(Baker, 2006).
(Information
Processing System
Theory)

Providing
scaffolding and
assisted
performance
in a person’s ZPD
promotes
developmentally
appropriate
instruction (Scott &
Palincsar,
2006).
(Sociocultural
Theory)
Provide training that
includes opportunities
for lead teachers to
observe models who
engage in
metacognitive self-talk
to show lead teachers
when and how to use
specific strategies.

Lead teachers will
have opportunities to
practice the strategies
(i.e. self-talk) aloud in
training and role play,
then based on
performance, models
can provide scaffolding
and assist with
appropriate instruction
when needed. Teachers
will also keep a
reflective journal.

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Table 14, continued
Assumed or Newly Identified
Knowledge Influence
Validated as
a Need or
Asset?
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

*Lead teachers need to know
how to provide and receive
effective feedback as mentors.
(P)
Need
(newly
identified)
Y
Modeling to-be-
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
learning, and
performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).
(Social Cognitive
Theory)

Feedback that is
private, specific, and
timely enhances
performance (Shute,
2008).
(Social Cognitive
Theory)

To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when to
apply what they
have learned
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
(Information
Processing System
Theory)
Provide training where
instructors or peers
model scenario-based
mock feedback
sessions as well as
show observation
videos of teachers-in-
practice for critiquing
of first-year teachers.

Then give lead
teachers opportunities
to demonstrate these
learned skills through
participating in mock
scenarios and watching
similar observation
videos to practice
giving and receiving
feedback.
Instructors or peers can
offer feedback to lead
teachers during the
mock feedback
sessions.

Provide a job aid
describing how lead
teachers provide and
receive feedback. As a
guide, include a
recommended
feedback-on-
performance checklist
to be used during
scheduled feedback
meetings with first-
year teachers.

*Indicates a newly identified influence based on data analysis.

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Lead teachers have declarative knowledge about the role of mentoring. The findings
of this study indicated that all of the participants have declarative knowledge, specifically
conceptual knowledge, to help them understand their role as mentors so they may guide first-
year teachers in their role as early educators. However, given the significant range in their level
of experience as lead teachers and as early educators, the lead teachers will benefit through
discussion as a professional learning community on the basic elements of the role of a mentor
and what mentoring entails. Also given that future lead teachers are likely to be promoted into
the role of mentors, the current cohort of lead teachers will likely support the newer lead teacher
mentors in assuming their roles. Therefore, a recommendation rooted in information processing
theory has been selected to reinforce this asset. Krathwol (2002) described conceptual
knowledge as the inter-relationship of basic elements of knowledge, such as classifications,
categories, models, and theories. Based on information processing theory, Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) posited that new information be connected to prior knowledge so learners
can store it more quickly and accurately, as well as more meaningfully. The authors also
suggested that how learners organize information in the learning process can influence how they
learn and apply what is presented.
Using these two information processing principles together, it is plausible that
declarative knowledge learning will be enhanced by implementing them. Therefore, providing
training and opportunities for discussion for lead teachers that is connected to the prior
knowledge of their current roles and early experiences as new teachers can help lead teachers
learn more quickly and accurately and apply the new knowledge more effectively. Also training
that employs a job aid that details clear organizational expectations about the role of mentoring
can help lead teachers organize what they learn and apply the new knowledge to their work
context. To further enhance learning from sociocultural theory, Scott and Palincsar (2006) stated

135

that the development of new knowledge is facilitated by cooperative or guided learning and
social interactions. The recommendation is to provide training that includes dialogue groups to
facilitate discussion on the specific roles a mentor plays in the mentoring process and to address
conceptual knowledge of the mentor’s role as a group.
The complex role of the mentor is made clear and established within the context of the
organization (Hall et al., 2008; Malaphala, 2008; Thornton, 2014; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013).
Hall et al. (2008) suggested that a rigorous, research-based approach to mentoring supports
inexperienced teachers to adopt effective roles as mentors. Thornton (2014) indicated the role
of the mentor is not conjured up, but rather defined with the guidance of the sponsoring
organization. Crafton and Kaiser (2011) explored how small collaborative dialogue groups
between a mentor/coach and several literacy teachers influenced the development of knowledge
of the teachers’ meaning making of their roles and identities through shared discourse. Since the
role of a teacher mentor is complex, clear organizational expectations help reduce role
confusion (Malaphala, 2013; Whitebook & Bellm, 2013). These studies substantiate that
organizational training and discussion that supports clear role expectations and shared meaning
making of one’s identity within their role provides lead teachers with effective learning to take
on the role of mentors.
Lead teachers have metacognitive knowledge of their effectiveness as mentors. The
findings of this study revealed that 100% of the participants possess a measure of metacognitive
knowledge to help them reflect on their effectiveness as mentors so they may guide first-year
teachers in their role as early educators. Once again, given their differences in length of
experience as lead teachers and as early educators, it is beneficial for the lead teachers to share
their metacognitive reflection process and strategies that work with one another to reinforce and

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enhance their metacognitive knowledge. A recommendation grounded in information processing
theory is again chosen to support this knowledge asset. Based on information processing theory,
Baker (2006) found that learning is augmented when metacognitive strategies are employed. In
addition, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) indicated that individuals can develop a sense of
mastery when basic skills are acquired, practiced, and understood when and how to apply what
they have learned. The use of these metacognitive principles can help lead teachers reflect on the
effectiveness of their teaching practices. The recommendation of providing training, modeling,
and opportunities for lead teachers to learn how and when to implement metacognitive strategies
through a formalized process, as well as opportunities to practice self-talk, can help them acquire
metacognitive knowledge.
Schon (1983) described the reflective practice as an individual’s ability to think about,
understand, and analyze one’s own knowledge, thoughts, skills, and actions during one’s
practice, such as teaching, in a way that may help improve learning. Corroborating this idea,
Mayer (2011) asserted that one’s ability to teach comes from the act of metacognitively
reflecting while one is teaching. This suggests that when lead teachers engage in this reflection,
metacognitive awareness or learning is enhanced. The mentor’s goal is to improve the first-year
teacher’s practice by reflecting on their own teaching strategies and finding out which strategies
work and which don’t (DeGregory, 2016; Walkington, 2005). Beavers, Orange, and Kirkwood
(2017) found that a 7-week practicum of guided dialogue groups using prompts, questions, role
playing, and written reflections for 10 preservice teachers in early education was an effective
methodology to increase metacognitive self-reflection on classroom practice. These studies offer
evidence of the importance of providing training and opportunities for lead teachers to learn and
practice effective metacognitive thinking skills, such as self-talk and reflective journals, to

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activate mentor metacognitive knowledge, which enhances both the mentor’s and the first-
year teacher’s professional practice.
Lead teachers need procedural knowledge of how to provide and receive effective
feedback as mentors. The findings of this study indicated that at least four of 10 participants
explicitly stated a need for procedural knowledge on how to provide and receive effective
feedback as mentors so they may guide and help improve novice teachers’ performance in their
role as early educators. Therefore, the recommendation selected to close this procedural
knowledge gap incorporates both information processing, cognitive, and sociocultural theories.
As posited by information processing theory, learners develop proficiency after acquiring
specific skills, then applying that knowledge appropriately and as needed (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006). From a sociocultural theory perspective, Denler, Wolters, and Benzon
(2009) asserted that modeling “how to do” something is an effective way for learners to gain
procedural techniques and strategies. Furthermore, cognitive theory suggests providing timely,
private feedback can reinforce these newly learned strategies (Shute, 2008). The
recommendation then is for instructors or more knowledgeable peers to provide training that
includes modeling during mock sessions of how to provide and receive feedback. At these
sessions, lead teachers will have opportunities to demonstrate their newly learned strategies,
while also receiving appropriate, private feedback on their techniques. As such, lead teachers
will be given a job aid with recommended examples of feedback. Included will be a feedback-
on-performance checklist that can be used as a guide during regularly scheduled feedback
sessions with first-year teachers. These recommendations of providing training with a job aid,
modeling, and timely feedback will support lead teachers in acquiring procedural knowledge.

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Brukner (1999) found that incorporating a scenario-based feedback provision workshop
was effective in enhancing the feedback skills for medical staff when assessing medical students.
The 2-3-hour workshop included observing the role play of others and practice providing
feedback of commonly identified scenarios that required specific behavior-based feedback
strategies to support learning for the medical staff. Such workshops can be adapted to other
organizational contexts, for example, to support effective feedback training of early education
teacher mentors. Hudson (2016b) inferred that by providing professional development on the
feedback skills of 24 mentors, the feedback, whether written or verbal, can be improved, using
mentor peer groups. The study used an observational video of a final-year student teacher during
a high school science lesson as a guide for the mentors’ observational skills and then offered a
combination of positive feedback and constructive criticism. The peer group process offered
opportunities to provide feedback on the student teacher’s general teaching practice as well as
her use of questioning. Another study involving 17 triads (teacher educators, mentor teachers,
and primary student teachers) revealed that mentors found a feedback checklist to be a
supportive and valuable assessment tool on performance when engaged in collaborative feedback
sessions with student teachers in the Netherlands (Tillema, 2009). The author indicated, due to
the complexity of process of providing feedback, a collaborative feedback process of giving and
receiving feedback was facilitated when the stakeholders involved mutually set goals, thereby
creating buy-in from the learner, and then the mentor used established criteria to monitor
performance. These studies substantiate the significance of providing scenario-based workshop
training and opportunities for lead teachers to learn and practice effective feedback skills. The
workshops would include the use of modeling, videos, a job aid checklist, and offering

139

appropriate feedback during these activities to develop mentor procedural knowledge of
providing and receiving effective feedback with mentees.
Motivation Recommendations

Introduction. Analysis of the data for this study from participants indicated the three
motivational influences self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and utility value were assets. Clark and
Estes (2008) declared motivation performance barriers are contingent on factors within
organization work environments that impede stakeholders’ belief in their personal effectiveness.
The authors clarify the difference in motivation levels are the underlying cultural and personal
belief systems that influence one’s effectiveness.
Mayer (2011) defined motivation as “an internal state that initiates and maintains goal-
directed behavior” (p. 39). Three essential components of motivation, suggested Schunk,
Pintrich, and Meece (as cited in Rueda, 2011) are active choice, persistence, and effort. Active
choice is the decision to begin (or not begin) a goal or activity. Persistence entails the action of
working toward and completing a designated goal or activity. Finally, effort, more specifically
mental effort, is the degree of mental output required to achieve that designated goal or finish a
desired activity (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Rueda (2011) clarified the importance of motivation in achieving goals depends on both
internal factors, such as ability (cognitive) and willingness (affect) to engage in a task, as well as
external factors (social or cultural); it is not actual reality that matters most but the perception of
what is happening. Furthermore, motivation is a multidimensional construct that can affect
performance, or whether or not goals are achieved. Rueda (2011) also maintained that
motivation issues are “context-specific,” so not all motivation issues arise from the same causes.

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This study focused on three motivational influences that might hinder lead teachers’
performance: self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and utility value. Table 15 presents the complete list
of assumed motivation influences. It also indicates whether each influence was found to be a
need or an asset based on data analysis. Finally, Table 15 provides a prioritization of influences
based on the probable impact on achieving the stakeholder goals and context-specific
recommendations based on theoretical research principles.
Table 15

Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Motivation Influence Validated
as a Need
or Asset
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

Lead teachers need to believe they
are capable of taking on the role of
mentors, as well as helping develop
and implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program. (Self-efficacy)
Asset N Feedback and
modeling increase
self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006).
(Self-efficacy
Theory)
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have
positive
expectancies for
success (Eccles,
2006).
(Self-efficacy
Theory)
The study found
lead teachers have
high self-efficacy.
This is not a
priority at this time.

Provide training
where lead teachers
watch videos of
mentors modeling
best practices of
mentoring, then
have discussion
afterwards where
instructors can
encourage lead
teachers that they
will be successful in
mentoring.

Lead teachers can
engage in mock
exercises related to
mentoring to
increase self-
efficacy and then be
provided feedback.

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Table 15, continued

Assumed Motivation Influence Validated
as a Need
or Asset
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

Lead teachers need to feel personal
satisfaction in becoming a mentor, as
well as helping to develop and
implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program. (Intrinsic Value)

Lead teachers need to feel the
importance of becoming a mentor, as
well as helping to develop and
implement a first-year teacher
mentoring program. (Utility Value)
Need Y Activating personal
interest through
opportunities for
choice and control
can increase
motivation (Eccles,
2006; Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
(Motivation Theory)

Asset Y Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner values the
task (Eccles, 2006).
(Motivation Theory)

Individuals are more
likely to engage in
an activity when it
provides value to
them (Eccles, 2009).
(Motivation Theory)

Rationales that
include a discussion
of the importance
and utility value of
the work or learning
can help learners
develop positive
values (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich,
2003).
(Expectancy Value
Theory)
To increase
intrinsic motivation,
provide training
where lead teachers
can discuss the
personal interest
and satisfaction in
being a mentor.

Provide
opportunities for
lead teachers to
make choices for
interesting
mentoring topics to
include in the
trainings.

During the training,
include rationales
and the value for
lead teachers of
becoming a mentor,
as well as helping
develop a first-year
teacher mentoring
program.

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Lead teachers believe they are capable of taking on the role of mentors. The findings
of this study indicated that all 10 participants believe in their ability to take on the role of a
mentor, as well as help to develop and implement a first-year teacher mentor program. To
reinforce this motivational asset, given the differences in length of experience as lead teachers
and as early educators, a recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory is proposed. Modeling
increases learners’ self-efficacy and motivation (Bandura, 2005; Pajares, 2006). Furthermore,
Pajares (2006) posited that social messages from others, whether intentional or not, can influence
the belief in one’s ability to perform a task. Therefore, providing lead teachers with opportunities
to view the modeling of successful mentors in action, as well offering feedback after the lead
teachers engage in mock exercises of mentoring, will enhance their motivation and sense of self-
efficacy.
Thomsen (2018) revealed, in a study that followed 37 teacher mentors, teacher mentor
self-efficacy increased after receiving training and observing other peer mentors in an Arizona
K-12 mentoring program. Hernandez (2001) indicated, in a mixed-methods study of 16 teacher
mentors, after the teachers received instructional training, they felt increased self-efficacy in
their roles as mentors. The teachers also felt an increased ability to provide supervised
instruction for pre-service teachers, which positively impacted their mentoring effectiveness.
Gandhi and Johnson (2016) described an increase in self-efficacy of HIV researchers after
participating in a 2-day “Mentoring the Mentor” workshop training that required participation in
role play of mock scenarios at the University of California, San Francisco. Six mentoring
competency skills were assessed using a validated measurement tool, including areas related to
communication, setting expectations, understanding, encouraging independence, diversity, and
development. This empirical evidence suggests that lead teachers’ participation in instructional

143

mentor training that includes modeling, role play, and provision of positive feedback by
instructors or peers, can increase their motivation and self-efficacy to mentor.
Lead teachers need to feel personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor. The findings
of this study indicated that only five out of 10 lead teachers could articulate their intrinsic value
or feeling of personal satisfaction in becoming a mentor, as well as helping to develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentor program. To support this motivational need, a
recommendation rooted in motivational theory is proposed. Personal interest can be activated
when learners are provided opportunities of choice and some element of control in their tasks as
a means to increase motivation (Eccles 2006; Schraw & Lehman, 2009). The recommendation,
based on motivation theory, would be to increase intrinsic motivation, specifically interest, by
providing training where lead teachers can discuss their personal interest and satisfaction in
becoming a mentor, as well as allowing lead teachers to make choices for interesting topics to
include during the training. Providing both discussion on the personal satisfaction of mentoring
and supporting control and choice over the mentoring topics enhances the motivation or intrinsic
value lead teachers have for becoming mentors.
Rueda (2011) described intrinsic value as the intrinsic interest or personal satisfaction a
learner experiences while engaging in a particular activity or task. The author stated
motivation for starting a task is particularly influenced by a learner’s value for it. Evidence of
the importance of exploring motivation in mentoring, including intrinsic value, has been
substantiated by numerous studies (Newby & Heide, 1992; Rogers, Luksyte, & Spitzmueller,
2016; van Ginkel, Verloop, & Denessen, 2016). The literature review by Newby and Heide
(1992) outlined key components of intrinsic value of mentoring including personal choice and
control, curiosity, confidence and competence, challenge, and cooperation. A study by van

144

Ginkel et al. (2016) found 726 Dutch mentor teacher survey respondents cited motivations
including personal learning and enjoyment. From a theoretical perspective, these studies
offer evidence of the importance of increasing intrinsic value with respect to lead teachers’
mentoring practice and how it can motivate them to take on the mentor role, as well as
helping to develop a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Lead teachers feel the importance of becoming a mentor. The findings of this study
showed that nine of 10 participants clearly were able to express their feelings of the importance
of becoming a mentor, as well as helping to develop a first-year teacher mentoring program.
Therefore, a recommendation rooted in expectancy value theory has been selected to reinforce
this asset. Eccles (2006, 2009) underscored the importance of learners having a sense of value
for an activity or task, since motivation and engagement is enhanced when the task is valued.
Utility value relates to how the task relates to or affects future goals (Wigfield & Cambria,
2010). To facilitate this need of utility value for lead teachers, a recommendation rooted in
expectancy-value theory is to provide training where rationales are provided for lead teachers
and discussion on the value or importance of becoming a mentor is promoted. Providing training
that includes discussion of the rationales and the value or importance of mentoring enhances the
motivation or utility value lead teachers have for becoming mentors.
Hudson (2016a) concluded that the utility value of the mentor roles for 10 mentor
teachers included enhancement of their pedagogical knowledge, improved their communication
skills, and also developed their leadership roles. Walkington (2005) studied the motivations of
105 Australian mentor teachers in the preschool context. The preschool teachers were surveyed
about their motivations to mentor preservice teachers, such as what personal and professional
benefits or risks the mentor teachers experienced as a result. The results indicated that the

145

mentors had positive experiences that allowed them to contribute to the improvement of the
profession as well as their personal teaching practice. In another qualitative study of seven high
school mentor teachers, DeGregory (2016) described the utility value of mentoring as improving
teachers’ professional qualifications as well as recertification potential. Therefore, from an
empirical perspective, research suggests increased mentor utility value can benefit teachers’ both
personally and professionally.
Organization Recommendations

Introduction. Analysis of the data for this study indicated significant organizational
barriers that may impede the stakeholder group from achieving their goal exist, and will be
discussed in this section. In addition to knowledge and motivation barriers, Clark and Estes
(2008) proposed that organizational components such as inadequate work processes, policies,
and resources can impede work performance. Similarly, culture plays an integral role within
organizations since it influences how individuals interact and therefore how they perform (Clark
& Estes, 2008; Schein, 2017).
The two aspects of culture presented here are cultural models and cultural settings.

Culture models are depicted as the mental schemas or sense-making of the world that are shared
by a group in a particular context (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schein, 2017). These can be
seen as ways of understanding or seeing how to operate within an organization. Cultural models
are shared perceptions, beliefs, or behavioral responses to changes or challenges in the
environment and tend to be more dynamic. In organizations, cultural settings affect the formation
of values, policies, and practices that constitute structure (Rueda, 2011). Table 16 presents the
complete list of assumed organizational influences. It also indicates whether each influence was
found to be a need or an asset based on data analysis. Finally, Table 16 provides a prioritization

146

of influences based on the probable impact on achieving the stakeholder goals and context-
specific recommendations based on theoretical research principles.
Table 16

Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Organizational
Influence
Validated as
a Need
or Asset
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

The organization needs to foster a
culture of trust and empowerment
where lead teachers are part of the
decision making as mentors. (CM)
Asset N Organizational
change is based
on improving
organizational
effectiveness
through strong
trust-based
relationships with
followers (Rath &
Conchie, 2009).
(Organizational
Change Theory)

Effective change
efforts ensure that
all key
stakeholders’
perspectives
inform the design
and decision-
making process
leading to the
change (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
(Organizational
Change Theory)
As an asset, this is not
a priority at this time.

The organizational
leaders must model
and foster trusting
relationships with lead
teachers, where lead
teachers are
encouraged in
decision making.

Lead teachers’ ideas
must be included in
the decision-making
process, particularly
when mentoring first-
year teachers and in
designing the
mentoring program.

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Table 16, continued

Assumed Organizational
Influence
Validated as
a Need
or Asset
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

The organization needs to provide
effective training and support to be
a mentor. (CS)
Need Y Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources
(equipment,
personnel, time,
etc.) needed to do
their job, and that
if there are
resource
shortages, then
resources are
aligned with
organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
(Organizational
Theory)

Support systems
that are self-
directed, site-
based, and
connect directly to
the strategic plan
are found to
increase both
teacher
effectiveness and
student
achievement
(Hanover, 2012).
(Organizational
Theory)
The organization must
establish training
programs to meet the
lead teachers’ needs
for ongoing training to
fulfill their roles as
mentors.

The organization must
work with lead
teachers to establish
support as needed;
trainings for lead
teachers should be on
site and directly relate
to the organizational
goal of developing a
first-year teacher
mentor program.

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Table 16, continued

The organization needs to provide
incentives to be a mentor. (CS)
Need Y Effective
organizational
change requires
the correct
understanding and
use of reward and
recognition to
maximize
employee
motivation
(Hansen et al.,
2002).
(Organizational
Change Theory)
The organization must
work with lead
teachers to understand
their needs for
rewards and
recognition to support
their roles as mentors.

The organization must
design an effective
incentive structure for
lead teachers to
become mentors.

Design of
incentive structure
and use of
incentives are
more
important than the
types of
incentives used
(Elmore, 2002).
(Organizational
Theory)

The organization needs to allocate
time for lead teachers to effectively
fulfill the responsibilities of being
mentors. (CS)
Need Y Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources
(equipment,
personnel, time,
etc.) needed to do
their job, and that
if there are
resource
shortages, then
resources are
aligned with
organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
(Organizational
Theory)
The organization must
provide release time
for lead teachers (i.e.
substitutes) so they
may fulfill their
responsibilities as
mentors.

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Cultural models 1: Culture of trust and empowerment. This study’s analysis of
participant responses confirmed the organization currently fosters a culture of trust and
empowerment where lead teachers feel a part of the decision making. Therefore, a
recommendation rooted in organizational change theory is offered to reinforce this
organizational asset. Rath and Conchie (2009) suggested organization leaders must first establish
relationships based on mutual trust, as a precursor to organization change. Clark and Estes
(2008) further stated that effective change is possible when key stakeholders contribute to and
inform the decision-making process. Therefore, organizational leaders must continually model
relationships based on trust, and include lead teachers’ input and foster decision making while
they engage in the mentoring process, as well as in the development and implementation of the
mentor program.
Fernandez et al. (2015) found that organizational leaders who shared decision making
with employees encouraged a feeling of empowerment within them. Similarly, Thornton (2014)
proposed that mentor teachers who took on leadership roles and were entrusted with decision-
making responsibilities served as change agents within the organization and improved the growth
of the organization. Based on qualitative data from focus group discussions, Halloway et al.
(2018) revealed that 29 mentor teachers believed shared leadership and decision making was part
of the responsibility of the mentor teacher’s role. Although some mentors felt they were trusted
with leadership authority and saw it enacted within their mentor-mentee team, other mentors felt
disenfranchised when their ideas were not implemented. This evidence suggests organizations
need to establish a foundation for trust and empowerment for lead teachers to make decisions as
mentors.

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Cultural settings 1: Effective mentor training and support. The findings of this study
have confirmed the conceptual framework’s proposal that the organization will need to provide
mentor training and support for lead teachers to become mentors, as well as help develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. Clark and Estes (2008) proposed a proper
balance and allocation of resources are required for employees to effectively perform their
duties; in this case the resources include appropriate levels of training and support. The
recommendation for the organization is to provide lead teachers with effective on-going, on-site
training as well as organizational support for the duration necessary so lead teachers can fulfill
their roles as mentors. The explicit trainings can act as professional development classes and can
be provided in multiple forms, such as through more experienced in-house peers, by outside
professionals, or video training modules.
Feiman-Nemser and Parker (1993) found that on-going training over a 2-year period
proved more effective than a 30-hour one-shot conference approach. The researchers suggested
the duration of mentor training may vary by program, but a comprehensive long-term program
supports mentors’ acquisition of their complex roles. Furthermore, Thornton (2014) studied
mentor teachers in Santa Cruz, California. In the study, the mentor teachers agreed that forum-
type trainings offered clarity on the mentor role and strengthened their leadership capacity based
on feedback and peer support. Thus, empirical evidence suggests on-going training and support
are more impactful than one-shot trainings to help mentor teachers to fulfill their roles as
mentors.
Cultural settings 2: Incentives. Participant interviews confirmed that the organization
will need to provide incentives for lead teachers to become mentors, as well as help develop
and implement a first-year teacher mentoring program. Hansen et al. (2002) clarify that the

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proper use of reward and recognition can support employee motivation. Therefore, a
recommendation rooted in organizational change theory is for the organization to carefully
design an incentives program whereby administrators would discuss with lead teachers which
forms of reward and recognition they would find appropriate to fulfill their roles as mentors.
Research indicates there are a variety of incentives used as compensation, in the form of
both rewards and recognition for mentor teachers (DeGregory, 2016; Iancu-Haddad & Oplatka,
2009; Mullinix, 2002). In a multi-study analysis, Mullinix (2002) indicated that many mentor
teacher compensation strategies include non-financial rewards such as increased status and
respect, advancement opportunities, and involvement in opportunities decision-making.
DeGregory (2016), in a study of seven high school mentor teachers, found first-year mentor
teachers were incentivized by improving professional qualifications and recertification, as well
as receiving a monetary stipend as incentive-based motivations (DeGregory, 2016). Iancu-
Haddad and Oplatka (2009) pointed out that, while nominal financial compensation was offered,
12 Israeli teachers found more value in the professional recognition of being invited or
recommended to mentor as “a badge of honor, recognition of their teaching skills” from
administrators and colleagues and feeling gratitude from the novice teachers as key incentives (p.
58). As a reward, a small stipend was offered to the mentors, but only two mentors mentioned
the financial remuneration, indicating although it was “nice to get something” the amount did not
really cover the numerous hours devoted to mentoring (Iancu-Haddad & Oplatka, 2009, p. 57).
Therefore, evidence indicates organizations need to consider multiple reward and recognition
plans to support lead teachers to take on the mentor role.
Cultural settings 3: Time allocation. This study’s analysis of stakeholder responses
confirmed there is a need for the organization to allocate time for lead teachers to effectively

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fulfill the responsibilities of being mentors, as well as helping to develop a first-year teacher
mentoring program. Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that adequate resource allocation is required
for employees to effectively perform their jobs; in this case the resource is time. Therefore, a
recommendation rooted in organizational change theory is to provide release time and substitutes
as needed for lead teachers to fulfill their roles as mentors. Substitute teachers can work in the
classroom while lead teachers either support new teachers in the classroom or conference with
them outside of the classroom.
Feiman-Nemser and Parker (1993), after comparing two different mentor programs, one
in Los Angeles and another in Albuquerque, New Mexico, found that mentor teachers who had
release-time from their regular duties were more effective in their roles as mentors. According to
the researchers, the teachers did not have classroom teaching responsibilities and only worked
part time as mentors. The researchers suggested this may have afforded them more energy
because mentors did not have to extend their day to meet with mentees after hours. Feiman-
Nemser and Parker concluded that release time afforded mentor teachers the flexibility to meet
regularly with their mentees and provided a developmental learning approach. Corroborating this
point, Thornton (2014) found mentor teachers who were not offered release time were less
effective in their mentor role because they were unable to collaborate during regular teaching
hours and were tired from the added mentor responsibilities. This evidence suggests
organizations need to ensure that time is allocated for lead teachers to effectively fulfill the
responsibilities of being mentors.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Effective training is to support the organization’s mission, the ultimate goal of its

153

existence. The design of the implementation and evaluation plan of this teacher mentor
program is based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016). The reason for evaluating
training programs is for program improvement, to optimize transfer of learning to the targeted
work context, and to prove the value of the training for the organization (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) proposes four levels of evaluation of training,
using a reverse order: 4) Results, 3) Behavior, 2) Learning, 1) Reaction. Level 4: Results
includes the organizational outcomes, both internal and external, that directly result from
effective training, and organizational accountability and support, which are measured by leading
indicators. Level 3: Behavior is the successful transfer or application of the training to the work
context, resulting in a change in the behavior of stakeholders. This transfer behavior is supported
by identifying critical behaviors, or performance expectations from the key stakeholders, to
achieve the desired outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 2: Learning assesses the
level of knowledge and skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment of stakeholders as a result
of the training. Finally, Level 1: Reaction measures the degree to which stakeholders found the
training satisfying, engaging, and relevant to their work context. Figure 2 depicts the reverse
flow of four levels of evaluation of training below. The focus is Level 4: Results, as this is the
most important objective of the training program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).

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Figure 2. The New World Kirkpatrick Model. Reprinted from Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of
Training Evaluation (p. 11), by J. D. Kirkpatrick and W. K. Kirkpatrick, 2016, Alexandria, VA:
ATD Publications. Copyright 2016 by Kirkpatrick Partners, LLC.

The components of the New World Kirkpatrick Model discussed here address and
evaluate the Preschool AFS training program to determine the value to the lead teacher
participants as well as to the Preschool AFS organization. Table 17 depicts the application of
the New World Kirkpatrick Model and the four levels of training evaluation as applied to the
Preschool AFS training program.

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Table 17

The New World Kirkpatrick Model Applied to the Preschool AFS Training Program

4 Results The extent to which targeted Preschool AFS
outcomes occur as a proximate result of the
professional development training program.

3 Behavior The extent to which Preschool AFS Lead Teachers’
learning translates to action from the performance
improvement program.

2 Learning The extent to which Preschool AFS lead teachers
acquire program directed knowledge, skills,
attitudes, confidence, and commitment as a result of
their participation in the professional development
training program.

1 Reaction The extent to which Preschool AFS lead teachers
find the performance improvement program
favorable, engaging, and relevant to their jobs.
leading indicators,
desired outcomes

monitor, adjust
reinforce, and
reward

knowledge, skills,
attitude, confidence,
commitment

engagement,
relevance, customer
satisfaction

Note. Adapted from Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Training Evaluation (p. 11) by Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016).

Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations

The goal of Preschool AFS is by December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will
participate in the teacher mentor program, leading to applying best practices and choosing to
remain working at the center. The current first-year teacher turnover rate is 40%, which creates
an unstable workforce and negatively impacts the quality of the school. It is the expectation that
by participating in a teacher mentor program, lead teachers will develop the necessary
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational support to guide and improve the first-year
teachers’ teaching performance in the organization. Research suggests that mentoring has a
profoundly positive influence on teacher retention (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). As a result of
Level Measure Description Components

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Preschool AFS lead teachers mentoring first-year teachers, it is expected that the performance of
and retention rate of first-year teachers will increase. Second, overall teacher job satisfaction is
expected to improve. Finally, it is expected that parent and community perceptions of the quality
of the school program will increase due to the increased retention of the first-year teachers.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators

Level 4: Results are the desired organizational results or outcomes, both external and
internal, that training, as well as support and accountability from the organization, are meant to
achieve (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Leading indicators, or short-term observations and
metrics, are the gauge by which the organizational leaders and stakeholders can measure the
progress or achievement of these specified outcomes. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
clarified that the internal indicators are visible first and may include items such as employee
retention, output, sales, and quality. On the other hand, external indicators appear after the
leading indicators, and may include responses of the clients or customers of the supplying
organization, such as customer referrals, increased sales, and client retention. The Preschool
AFS four external outcomes are (a) reduced parent perceptions of first-year teacher turnover, (b)
increased parent satisfaction of the quality of the school, (c) increased enrollment of children,
and (d) increased community perceptions of the quality of the school. The five internal outcomes
include (a) increased first-year teacher performance, (b) increased first-year teacher retention, (c)
increased lead teacher participation in the mentor program, (d) increased teacher satisfaction of
the school and job, and (e) an established multi-pronged incentives program for mentor teachers.
The proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators as well as the corresponding metrics and
their methods of assessment are shown in Table 18.

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Table 18

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes

Reduced perceptions of
first-year teacher turnover
by parents

Community perceptions

Feedback from parent
satisfaction surveys

Increased parent
satisfaction of quality of
school

Number of satisfied parent
reports

Parent satisfaction surveys

Increased enrollment of
children

Number of monthly student
enrollment

Enrollment data

Increased community
perceptions of quality of
the school

Number of prospective students
collected through word-of-
mouth referrals

Leads and enrollment data
Internal Outcomes

Increased first-year
teacher work performance

Number of novice teachers who
report knowledge and
satisfaction of their jobs

Observation and novice teacher
evaluations

Increased retention of
first-year teachers

Number of novice teachers who
stay at the center annually
Number of new teacher
vacancies

HR data on teacher vacancies
Increased participation of
lead teachers in mentoring
program
Number of teacher requests post
study who want to participate
during the next cycle of
mentoring
Email requests received Verbal
requests received

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Table 18, continued
Internal Outcomes Internal Outcomes Internal Outcomes

Increased teacher
satisfaction of school and
job

Number of satisfied teacher
reports

Observation and teacher
satisfaction surveys

Multi-pronged incentives
policy established

Internal policy

Solicit policy data/information
from handbooks

Level 3: Behavior

Critical behaviors. The most critical level of evaluation is Level 3: Behavior because it
is determined by whether the training participants “transfer” or actualize what they learned from
the training in their on-the-job context (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The actions performed
by the newly trained stakeholders can be distilled to a few key behaviors that encapsulate what
organizational leaders deem most significant to achieve desired outcomes. These critical
behaviors are the necessary behaviors enacted by the stakeholder group that directly received the
training. These behaviors are what directly impact or affect the organizational outcomes, and
must be “specific, observable and measurable” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 50). To
achieve the desired Preschool AFS organizational outcomes, the lead teachers must (a) mentor
first-year teachers on performance on a daily basis, (b) meet with first-year teachers on a regular
basis for check-ins, (c) provide feedback on their mentoring progress as a result of their training
program, and (d) provide feedback on components of the mentor program as part of their
performance evaluation. Table 19 outlines the critical behaviors necessary for the lead teachers
to perform to achieve the desired organizational outcomes as indicated by Preschool AFS
leadership.

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Table 19

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation

Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Lead teachers Checklist of Observation Ongoing, as novice
will mentor first- observable
behaviors
Checklist teachers meet
year teachers on

behavioral goals
performance

daily.

2. Lead teachers

Meeting notes

Checklist

Bi-weekly
will meet with Checklist of Notes

first-year teachers observable
behaviors
Appointments
Calendar

on a regular basis Number of meetings

for check-ins. scheduled

3. Lead teachers

Frequency of

Reflection Journal

Ongoing
will provide reflection journal Attendance of PD Bi-weekly
feedback on their entries

progress as Number of
mentoring

mentors as a result PD attendance

of the program.

4. Lead teachers
will provide
feedback as part
of their
performance
evaluation on
components of the
mentoring
program. (Types
of training,
incentives,
decision making)
Documented
feedback in
evaluation form
Satisfaction survey
participation
Feedback during
PD trainings
Evaluation Form
Satisfaction survey
PD meeting notes
Bi-annual
Bi-annual
Ongoing

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Required drivers. Required drivers are “the systems and processes that reinforce,
encourage, reward, and monitor” and essentially undergird the critical behaviors of stakeholders
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 52). The required drivers can also be further subdivided into
two categories of support and accountability. Support strategies are for stakeholders who try but
may not be successful, and accountability strategies are for stakeholders who don’t even try.
These drivers may be executed by organizational leaders or managers, or they may be performed
by the trainers or program instructors. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), it is
essential to incorporate at least one support structure within each of the reinforce, encourage,
reward, and monitor dimensions. These supports may include one or more of the following: (a)
the use of instructors or peers, for modeling, during training, (b) the use of job aids to support
embedded opportunities to practice metacognitive strategies, (c) the use of instructors or peers to
observe and support learning of the mentor role expectations, (d) the use of instructors or peers
to facilitate dialogue groups for discussion on the personal value and importance of mentoring,
and (e) the implementation of observation and feedback for lead teachers’ learned behaviors
during professional development and in the classroom, as well as for learning procedural
knowledge. All these systems and processes support lead teachers’ attainment of desired
mentoring goals. Table 20 shows the required drivers to engage in and support the critical
behaviors of lead teachers.

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Table 20

Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors

Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3, 4

PD training for lead teacher
discussion on mentoring
roles that include dialogue
groups to discuss the role
and how best to mentor first-
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
year teachers.

PD training for lead teacher
to observe models, practice
self-talk, and engage in
discussion on reflection
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
strategies.

Job aid that details the
organization’s expectations
of the role of mentor.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3

Provide opportunities to
practice procedural
metacognitive
Ongoing
During each PD
1, 2, 3
strategies.

Provide specific, (sometimes
private) feedback for lead
teachers on mentoring
Ongoing
During and after
each PD
1, 2, 3
strategies.

Create dialogue groups that
include discussion on
providing and receiving
feedback, and the personal
satisfaction and enjoyment
of being a mentor.
Ongoing
During
each PD
1, 2, 3

Encouraging
Reinforcing

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Table 20, continued

Create dialogue groups that
include discussion of
rationales and the value of
becoming a mentor.
Ongoing
During each
PD
1, 2, 3

Create opportunities for lead

Ongoing

1, 2, 3
teachers to provide input on
mentor training topics.
During and
after each PD

Rewarding

Provide multi-pronged

Ongoing

1, 2, 3
incentives for lead teachers

who are seeing

improvements in their

mentoring.

Recognize the success of

Ongoing

1, 2, 3
lead teachers who are seeing

improvements in their

mentoring.
Monitoring

Administration will solicit

Quarterly

1, 2, 3, 4
feedback from lead teachers

on the progress of their

mentoring abilities.

Administration will solicit

Ongoing

1, 2, 3, 4
input from lead teachers on During and after

the value of the mentoring each PD

PDs.

Ongoing

Instructors observe lead During each PD 1, 2, 3, 4
teachers in the classroom and

in PD trainings

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Organizational support. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) asserted that
organizational support serves as a necessary measure of accountability to ensure that the
learning is implemented. The direct organizational support of monitoring and enforcing the
implementation of required drivers that in turn support critical behaviors is what is required. As
indicated in the chart, the organization will support the lead teachers’ critical behaviors based on
providing job aids to support learning of the mentor role expectations, providing instructors who
model and offer training to support the opportunities to practice procedural and metacognitive
strategies and formalize the metacognitive process, dialoguing groups to discuss the value and
importance of mentoring, and instructors to observe lead teachers’ learned behaviors in the
classroom and during professional development. The organizational leaders will also routinely
solicit direct feedback from the lead teachers on their progress in their mentoring knowledge
and performance, solicit input on the value of the mentor professional development sessions,
and provide a multi-pronged incentive program.
Level 2: Learning

Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions to the Preschool
AFS mentor professional development program, lead teachers will be able to:
1. Explain the organization’s expectations for their role as mentors (Conceptual
Knowledge).
2. Differentiate the role of an effective mentor. (Conceptual Knowledge).

3. Reflect on their ability to use appropriate mentor strategies (Metacognitive Knowledge).

4. Demonstrate how to provide and receive effective feedback as mentors
(Procedural Knowledge).
5. Believe in their ability to perform their role as mentors (Self-efficacy).

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6. Explain the importance of their role as mentors (Utility Value).

7. Express the personal satisfaction of being a mentor. (Intrinsic Value).

Program. The Preschool AFS mentor training program, as newly designed, will be a
comprehensive professional development program, where lead teachers develop the learning
goals outlined above and practice the knowledge and skills to train first-year teachers in early
education instruction. The instructors in the program will provide job aids, modeling, feedback in
conceptual of the role of a mentor and procedural knowledge on how to provide and receive
feedback, as well as metacognitive reflection strategies. In addition to instructors modeling
metacognitive strategies, ample support and opportunity for self- talk by lead teachers will be
provided to encourage the practice of these skills. Instructors will provide time for discussion in
dialogue groups on the rationales and importance of mentoring, to increase understanding of the
value of mentoring. Additionally, dialogue groups will foster discussion and solicit input on
training topics from the lead teachers. The professional development program is expected to run
throughout the course of one year, with bi-weekly sessions that last 1 1/2 to 2 hours each.
Professional development topics will be added based on the input and needs of the lead teachers.
Additionally, the program will require consistent two-way feedback from the
administration and instructors and the lead teacher participants, to ensure program effectiveness
for the participants. Lead teachers will monitor their own progress by keeping reflection journals
but will also provide suggestions for interesting or needed mentor training topics, feedback on
the value of the program sessions, as well as input on desired rewards and recognition for the
development of the multi-pronged incentives program to administration. All these protocols will
ensure transfer of the new knowledge by lead teachers into the target environment, the
classroom. The lead teachers’ new skills and knowledge will ultimately support first-year

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teachers to learn their jobs based on on-the-job mentoring to improve performance and teaching
instruction.
Evaluation of the components of learning. Five elements by which learning can be
evaluated indicated by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) include the degree to which the
learners acquire the requisite knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment. The
knowledge component is composed of both information (declarative) and skills (procedural)
before stakeholders can be effective in learning and application. The next component is attitude
of understanding of the benefit or value of the new learning or training. Confidence is the degree
of one’s belief in efficacy or ability to perform the new tasks. Finally, commitment is related to
motivation to follow through to perform the new learning. For lead teachers to move toward the
application of the new learning, these acquired knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and
commitment will be evaluated using various methods, such as instructors performing knowledge
checks and use of observation notes, participants’ demonstration of skills that were modeled,
discussions, pre- and post-surveys, and feedback. Table 21 details the complete list of the
evaluation components of learning for the program.
Table 21

Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program

Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing

Knowledge checks of their role as mentors. Periodically during professional
development.

Knowledge checks of the metacognitive
reflection and procedural strategies.
Periodically during professional
development.

Observation notes captured by instructors from Periodically during professional
lead teachers’ discussions on knowledge content. development.
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

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Table 21, continued

Documented observation notes and checklist by
instructors.
Periodically during professional
development.

Demonstration of metacognitive and
procedural strategies in the trainings.
During professional development.

Pre- and post- surveys. Quarterly.

Discussions on the value of mentoring. During professional development.

Assessment of instructors on lead teachers’
engagement and participation.
During professional development.

Post-test assessment items. Following the professional development.

Discussions following practice. During professional development.

Feedback on mentoring reflective strategies. During and following professional
development.

Creation of individual mentor goals and related During professional development.
action plans.

Lead teachers’ assessment of progress. During professional program.

Using delayed assessment items. End of the professional development.
Quarterly

Level 1: Reaction

The three reactions that are measured by Level 1 are engagement, relevance, and
satisfaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Measuring these reactions of the stakeholders
involved with the training are critical to the success of the program. The greater degree of
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

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satisfaction and relevance the lead teachers feel regarding the training, the greater levels of
engagement, relevance, and satisfaction of the learners, subsequently, the greater the chances the
program will yield the results the organization desires. Table 22 details the methods or tools and
proposed timing as the components to measure the lead teachers’ reactions to the professional
development training for the Preschool AFS mentor program.
Table 22

Components to Measure Reactions to the Program

Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing

Attendance During professional development

Instructor Observation During professional development

Immediate evaluation survey Immediately following professional
development

Discussion with lead teachers (ongoing) Following professional developments

Immediate and quarterly evaluation surveys Immediately following professional
development
Every three months

Discussion with lead teachers Following professional developments

Quarterly evaluations Every three months

Evaluation Tools

During and immediately following the program implementation. During each of the
professional development trainings, the lead teachers will be observed and asked by instructors
about their level of engagement, level of satisfaction, and the relevance of the professional
Customer Satisfaction
Engagement
Relevance

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development. The instructor will also ascertain through observation and discussion the lead
teachers’ confidence in their ability to apply what they learned and their level of commitment to
apply their new learning. The instructor will use the observational checklist, which can be found
in Appendix G. Immediately following the professional development, the lead teachers will also
be asked to fill out an online immediate blended evaluation protocol that assesses the degree to
which the professional development trainings met their expectations, relevance, and level of
satisfaction (Level 1). The online immediate blended evaluation protocol will also address both
Level 1 and Level 2 evaluations of the lead teachers using a combination of Likert-type and
open-ended questions. The immediate blended evaluation protocol can be found in Appendix F.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Twelve weeks following the
professional development trainings, and every quarter thereafter, the lead teachers will fill out an
online blended evaluation survey that incorporates all levels including reaction, learning,
transfer, and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The delayed blended evaluation protocol
(see Appendix H) will be a follow-up checklist that addresses Level 1 items such as satisfaction
and relevance; Level 2 items indicating understanding of the knowledge gained, Level 3
assessment of organizational support and successful application of the new learning, and finally,
Level 4 impact on the learning for first-year teachers and level of satisfaction of lead teachers in
their job since taking on their new role as mentors. The delayed blended evaluation protocol can
be found in Appendix H.
Data Analysis and Reporting

In the year following the professional development, the Preschool AFS administration
should prepare quarterly, bi-annual, and annual reports for the teaching staff and parent council on
the results of the internal and external outcomes identified in the implementation and evaluation

169

plan. The internal outcomes goals to be reported will include the increased work performance of
first-year teachers, the retention rate of first-year teachers, percentage of participation of the lead
teachers in the mentor program, and the establishment of a multi-pronged incentives policy for the
lead teachers in the mentor program. The external outcome goals to be reported will include
reduced perceptions of first-year teacher turnover, increased parent satisfaction of the quality of
the school, increased student enrollment rates, and increased community perceptions of the
quality of the school. After the first year, the preschool administration should maintain the
reporting annually on the progress of the mentor program outcome goals. Figure 3 depicts the
sample dashboard for some of the internal and external goals.

Figure 3. Sample dashboard to report progress toward goals.

The Preschool AFS Training Program Overview

The training program will consist of bi-weekly, 1 1/2–2-hour professional development
trainings. Instructors will present materials, model strategies, introduce job aids, facilitate
learned strategies, provide input, and ask questions. The lead teachers will also be required to

170

keep reflection journals on their mentoring progress as well as adhere to a formalized
metacognitive process created with the lead teachers’ input. The lead teachers will be encouraged
to incorporate their learning with first-year teachers in the classroom. Ongoing professional
development over the course of a year will allow lead teachers to try newly learned strategies,
reflect on their effectiveness as mentors, then return to the professional development trainings
with questions and suggestions for subsequent training topics. During bi-annual evaluations, lead
teachers will be asked to provide input on their progress and suggestions for improvements in the
mentor program.
Using the framework of the New World Kirkpatrick Model, the implementation of the
plan will use Level 1 and Level 2 learning evaluations both during the professional development
sessions by having an instructor observe participants using a checklist and directly surveying the
participants using the online immediate blended evaluation protocol after each professional
development session. The two forms of evaluation will assess participant learning of knowledge
(declarative) and skills (procedural) as well as attitude, confidence, and commitment. The
delayed blended evaluation protocol (Appendix H) will monitor all four levels and help keep the
training program on track with measuring its effectiveness in meeting the Preschool AFS
organizational goals.
Summary

The New World Kirkpatrick Model offers a comprehensive framework to maximize
program results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model begins with the predetermined
organizational goals, then works backward from there to identify the requisite learning and
assessment components to systematically realize those goals. Since the framework centralizes
learning of the stakeholders, it is integral to routinely analyze data gained through the

171

assessments to determine if the trainings are working or not. This proactive process ensures a
greater degree of success in meeting the organization’s desired goals, as well as a clear return on
expectations in programming (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This implementation and
evaluation plan, based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model, optimizes the achievement of the
Preschool AFS organizational goal that by December 2022, 100% of first-year teachers will
participate in the teacher mentor program, leading to applying best practices and choosing to
remain working at the center. Likewise, it optimizes the attainment of the key stakeholder goal
that lead teachers will take on the role of mentors, as well as develop and implement the first-
year teacher mentoring program by December 2021. The proposed recommendations in Chapter
Five will facilitate lead teachers’ learning and motivation needs to take on the role of mentors,
promote an effective mentorship program to support first-year teacher retention, foster a quality
school program, and support the evolution of the mentor program for the future.
Future Research

It is hoped that this innovation study will contribute to the research on mentoring in the
field of early childhood education and ECE mentor teacher training. The study was based on the
assumption that once the in-house sustained mentor program is launched in the context of a
private early education program it will positively impact the turnover rate of first-year teachers
within organization. In part, it explored the lead teachers’ conceptualizations of the mentoring
role. Some interesting areas of future research that came to light from the participants in the
study are to compare the lead teachers’ conceptualizations of training versus mentoring.
Another topic that arose is how to address the need for more diversity among mentor teachers to
support a diverse early education workforce. Finally, the participants also thought, in addition to
ascertaining the needs of mentors, it would be beneficial to consider the perspectives of mentees.

172

To develop a more robust first-year teacher mentor program, the lead teachers wanted to gain
an understanding of the mentees’ needs as well as their feedback on the overall effectiveness
of mentors.
Further research in the early education context is also needed to verify whether
mentoring is in fact a significant enough solution to the problem of high teacher turnover from
the perspective of the first-year teachers within the organization. Specifically, updated statistics
on teacher attrition rates in early education programs, both public and private, would be useful.
Further research could delve into whether other likely factors of ECE teacher attrition such as
compensation, organizational culture, or the difficulty of the work itself of an early childhood
education teacher are greater influences impacting their decision to leave the school or the field,
even with the establishment of the mentor program. This might include querying those first-
year or novice teachers, who have participated in a mentoring program, and still have chosen to
leave the school or the field.
Finally, comparing the differences in effectiveness of an in-house program with that of an
externally-hired coaching program warrants some investigation. There are no doubt advantages
and disadvantages of both, however cost might be a determining factor. Though cost
effectiveness of the implementation of the in-house mentor program was not considered in this
study, it likely is an organizational factor that is relevant to consider when deducing the
outcomes of a mentor program on annual turnover.
Conclusion

Children ages birth to eight deserve quality early education and care experiences, and
children thrive when they receive them (IOM & NRC, 2015). This requires a consistent, fully
engaged, qualified, and skilled early education workforce. The early education workforce needs

173

a systemic change to provide the learning opportunities that our children deserve in this country.
This study attempted to assess the needs of lead teachers as prospective mentors of first-year
early education teachers through applying Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework to
help solve the problem of high turnover in a private early education context. It is not a matter of
prospective teachers merely receiving a degree in the field, but also providing the professional
development that will effectively prepare teachers for the amazing but challenging work that is
required to teach children zero to five. Sustained mentoring shows promise to help mitigate
teacher attrition (Halloway, 2001; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). The effectiveness of the mentor
program begins with establishing a team of highly qualified mentor teachers with the requisite
knowledge and skills, as well as motivation. It also necessitates that organizations provide
support and invest the resources that continually builds the capacity of early education teacher
mentors based on research. Such an in-house teacher mentor program may be a viable option for
organizational leaders of early childhood education programs, private or public, looking to
develop, stabilize, and engage its workforce, in an effort to provide quality programs for the
children and families they serve.

174

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Appendix A

Participant Opt-out Recruitment Email

Dear [insert name],

As you may know, I am a candidate for the Doctorate of Education in the Organizational Change
and Leadership Program at the University of Southern California Rossier School of Education. I
am writing to invite you to participate in a research study on mentoring in early education.
You’re eligible to be in this study because of your current employment status at your school and
your lead teacher qualifications in the field of early education.

If you decide to participate in this study, you will be interviewed by a member of my cohort for
approximately one hour about your knowledge of mentoring and the necessary resources needed
to develop a plan for a long-term mentoring program. She will contact you to set up either a face-
to-face interview or an online interview using Zoom. Please choose the format that is most
convenient for you or the one with which you are most comfortable. You may also be asked to
participate in a focus group interview with four participants that will take approximately 90
minutes. No compensation will be offered, but you will be provided release time, if needed, and
a small gift card in appreciation for your participation. I would like the third-party interviewer to
audio record your interview to make sure she accurately captures your thoughts. This study
anticipates direct benefit to the organization and the field of early education as a result of your
participation. This study anticipates that the development of a sustained mentor program at the
school will highly develop new and existing staff and their qualifications, translating to improved
teacher retention and effectiveness. As this is a research study, the benefits are contingent upon
the results.

Remember, this is completely voluntary. No retaliatory action, such as negative performance
evaluations or hindrance in job advancement, will be taken should you choose not to participate
at any time during the study. You can choose to be in the study or not. If you do not wish to be in
the study, please email: uscstudy2020@gmail.com.

Sincerely,
Stephanie Caspian

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Appendix B

Interview Protocol

Research Questions

1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization needs required by lead
teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as to develop and
implement a mentor program for first-year early education teachers based on best
practices?
2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

Welcome

I want to thank you for participating in this teacher mentoring study. I appreciate your
time in answering these questions. The interview should take approximately an hour. Does that
work for you? Please take some time to enjoy some food and beverage while we talk.
Before getting started, I’ll provide you an overview of the study and answer any
questions you may have about participating:
The principle investigator is a doctoral student at the University of Southern California,
here in Los Angeles. Her program is focused on organizational change and leadership and this
study is a requirement for her degree. Through this study, she hopes to better understand the
resources needed to implement a mentoring program for lead teachers working with new
teachers in an early education environment.
For this study, we’ll talk about your perspective on mentoring in early education. The
study will also explore any anticipated successes and challenges involved in mentoring, and what
additional information might be useful in developing an effective mentoring program. My role

197

as the interviewer is not to evaluate you or your role as teachers, but rather to gather information
based on your experience and perspectives. I also will not make any value judgments about how
you answer the questions.
Now that you have received information about the purpose of the study, I’ll remind you
that your participation is completely voluntary, and anything you share should you choose to
participate, will be kept confidential. No retaliatory action, such as negative performance
evaluations or hindrance in job advancement, will be taken should you choose not to participate
at any time during the study. You can choose to be in the study or not. If you do not wish to be in
the study, please tell me now. Do you have any questions or need any clarification about the
study or today’s conversation?
Again, I want to assure you that everything you say here is strictly confidential. If we use
a quote from a lead teacher, we will not use your name, but rather identify it as a quote from a
“Participant.” Also, none of the data we collect today will be shared with other teachers or the
administrator or parents. In the interest of developing new teachers, the formative findings may
be summarized for participants. Should you wish to read these summarized findings, please let
me know after the interview. A copy may be made available once the interviews have been
transcribed and the researcher has summarized them.
Finally, I brought a recorder to accurately capture what is shared. The recorder will allow
me to focus on what you share rather than taking notes. If you wish to stop the recorder and want
to make a comment off the record, you can push this button. Your participation in this study is
completely voluntary. May I have your permission to record and get started?
Begin recording… mention time, date, and interview type, participant using pseudonym.

198

Since you are a lead teacher and a prospective mentor, I would like you to share some
information about yourself, such as your name, your gender, your racial/ethnic background, what
age children you work with, what level of education you have completed, how long you have
been working in early childhood education, and finally how long you’ve worked for this
organization?
Transition to the body of the interview. Thank you for sharing. Now I will give you an
overview of the structure of the interview and the questions. I will start by asking you about your
early experiences as a new teacher. Then I will ask about your knowledge and motivation to be a
mentor teacher, and what the school can do to help to create a first-year teacher mentoring
program for the organization. I may refer to early childhood education, as ECE. If you don’t
understand a question or would like me to repeat anything, please let me know. Please take as
much time as you need to answer the questions. There are no right or wrong answers; the goal is
to gain an understanding of your perspective.
Let’s talk about your early experience as a new teacher.

1. I am curious as to whether you were mentored as a new teacher? If so, could you describe
what that meant to you? Was it a formal or informal experience?
Follow up: Please describe the ways that mentoring experience may have prepared
you as a teacher, if at all?
If not mentored: In your professional career, has anyone with more experience taken you
under her wing to mentor you without being formally assigned the role?
If you were not mentored, describe what may have prepared you for your role as a new
teacher? What skills/qualities does an early education teacher need?

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Next, we’ll talk about your thoughts on what mentoring entails, the expectations, and what your
experience is in training adults.
2. When you think about mentoring, what does the role entail? What are your general
expectations from yourself as a mentor?
Follow up: What are the qualities of a good mentor? Do you feel you have the necessary
skills? If so, where did you develop them?
Follow up: How can the school help better support you in meeting those expectations?

3. Have you ever trained adults? If so, can you share some of your experiences?

Follow up: If you have not trained adults before, how has your current role as a lead
teacher prepared you to train adults?
Now we will explore your ability to mentor and why you choose to mentor.

4. How confident are you in your ability to successfully mentor other ECE teachers?

Follow up: Why do you feel that way? What are your strengths? Any challenges?

5. What might you gain from a mentoring partnership between you and a mentee that will
be beneficial to you? Or the mentee?
Follow up: You’re already working hard as a teacher, why would you choose to be a
mentor? Why invest all the time?
6. Does the school provide recognition or reward for your accomplishments? What
incentives would you like from the school, if any? Please provide some examples.
Follow up: What types of recognition or rewards are important for mentors, if any?

7. What do you do to improve your teaching practice, do you think about how to improve, if
any? In your daily teaching practice, what do you do to improve? Please provide some
examples.

200

8. Do you currently share ideas with colleagues about best practices on teaching practice?

Follow up: How often do you do that? How frequently do you think you would need to
meet to communicate with a mentee about teaching strategies?
Follow up: When would be the best time to meet with a mentee?
Follow up: How could the school help facilitate your meetings, if at all?
9. What percentage of the day do you spend reflecting on your teaching practice, if at all?

Follow up: What do you generally reflect on? Please provide some examples.
Follow up: Do you keep a journal?
Follow up: Explain how you might help a mentee learn to reflect on her teaching
practice?
Finally, we’ll cover how the school can support your experience as a mentor.

10. What professional support or training would help you become an effective mentor, if
any?
Follow up: Is there anything the school can do to help you become an effective mentor?

11. To what extent, if at all, do you think the school empowers you to make decisions as a
lead teacher?
Follow up: How important is it to you that the school places trust in you to make
decisions?
12. Is there anything else you’d like to add before we end?

Closing: Thank you again for taking the time to meet and participate in this interview. The ideas
you have contributed today will help this study. I truly appreciate your time and openness in
sharing.

201

Appendix C

Focus Group Protocol

Research Questions

1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization needs required by lead
teachers of Preschool AFS to take on the role of mentors, as well as to develop and
implement a mentor program for first-year early education teachers based on best practices?
2. What are the recommended solutions to better meet those needs?

Welcome

I want to thank you for participating in this teacher mentoring study. I appreciate your
time in answering these questions. The focus group interview should take approximately an hour
and a half. Does that work for you?
Before getting started, I’ll remind you again of the purpose of this study and answer any
questions you may have about participating:
The principle investigator is a doctoral student at the University of Southern California,
here in Los Angeles. Her program is focused on organizational change and leadership and this
study is a requirement for her degree. Through this study, she hopes to better understand the
resources needed to implement a mentoring program for lead teachers working with new
teachers in an early education environment.
For this study, we’ll talk about your perspective on mentoring in early education. The
study will also explore any anticipated successes and challenges involved in mentoring, and what
additional information might be useful in developing an effective mentoring program. My role as
the interviewer is not to evaluate you or your role as teachers, but rather to gather information

202

based on your experience and perspectives. I also will not make any value judgments about how
you answer the questions.
Now that you have received information about the purpose of the study, I’ll remind you
that your participation is completely voluntary, and anything you share should you choose to
participate, will be kept confidential. No retaliatory action, such as negative performance
evaluations or hindrance in job advancement, will be taken should you choose not to participate
at any time during the study. You can choose to be in the study or not. If you do not wish to be in
the study, please tell me now. Do you have any questions or need any clarification about the
study or today’s conversation?
Again, I want to assure you that everything you say here is strictly confidential. If we use
a quote from a lead teacher, we will not use your name, but rather identify you using a false
name or pseudonym. Also, none of the data I collect today will be shared with other teachers, the
administration, or parents. In the interest of developing new teachers, the formative findings may
be summarized for participants. Should you wish to read these summarized findings, please let
me know after the interview. A copy may be made available once the focus group interview has
been transcribed and the researcher has summarized it.
Finally, I brought a recorder to accurately capture what is shared. The recorder will allow
me to focus on what you share rather than taking notes. If you wish to stop the recorder and want
to make a comment off the record, you can push this button. Your participation in this study is
completely voluntary. Recording is a requirement to participate in the focus group. May I collect
your signed consent forms and have your permission to record and get started?
(Begin recording… mention time, date, and focus group interview. Include the pseudonyms of
focus group participants).

203

Focus Group Interview Questions

Since you are all lead teachers and prospective mentors, I would like you to each share
some information about yourself, such as your name, your gender, your racial/ethnic
background, what age children you work with, what level of education you have completed, how
long you have been working in early childhood education, and finally how long you’ve worked
for this organization?
Thank you for sharing. Now we will begin the main part of our focus group. I will give
you a quick overview of the structure. First, I will pose some questions. Then I would like to
encourage you all to just have a conversation with one another. Feel free to build on each other,
agree or disagree, and offer as many ideas as appropriate. The goal is to bring as many of your
ideas into the conversation as possible; there are no right or wrong answers. Let’s get started.

Body of the Focus Group Interview

1. Since you have knowledge and experience training teachers, I am curious, what
knowledge and skills pertaining to the job of an early educator are better learned in your
early education college courses?
Follow up: Through what other means might you obtain the knowledge and skills you
need to be an effective early childhood educator? Do you consider mentoring an effective
way to obtain the necessary knowledge and skills in ECE?
2. Now let’s discuss how the school can support your role as mentors. What do you think is
important when trying to establish the best match between the mentors and mentees?
Follow up: If being a mentor is required of lead teachers how might it affect the mentor-
mentee relationship, if at all?

204

3. What do you think your role as a mentor is in assessing a mentee? What about assessing
the program overall?
Follow up: Could you make suggestions as to any assessment tools that the organization
might use to assess the mentees? Or the mentor program? What training would that
require, if any?
4. What communication skills do you think are needed for you to perform your role as a
mentor? How comfortable are you in providing feedback to a new teacher?
Follow up: How will you know if the teacher receives and understands the feedback you
offer?
5. How much time throughout the year should the school devote to training prospective
mentors? What top three areas do you think are important to focus on?
6. What do you think are the next steps in developing and implementing the school’s first-
year teacher mentor program? What would an ideal mentor program based on best
practices look like?
Final thoughts: Is there anything else you would like to share with me today that we did not
cover?
Closing: Thank you again for taking the time to meet and participate in this focus group
interview. The ideas you have contributed today will help this study. I truly appreciate your time
and openness in sharing.

205

Appendix D

Interview Participant Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway Los Angeles, CA 90089

SUSTAINING MENTORING OF EARLY EDUCATION TEACHERS:
AN INNOVATION STUDY

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Stephanie Caspian, candidate
for Doctorate of Education in Organizational Change and Leadership under Dr. Cathy Crop at
the University of Southern California, because you are (insert eligibility criteria). Your
participation is voluntary. Please read the information below, and ask questions about anything
you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take your time to read
this consent form. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form, then you
will be given a copy of it.

You may also be invited to participate in focus group as a subsequent interview of the study. If
you choose to participate in the focus group, you will be asked to be part of a 11/2-hour small
group audio-taped interview. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to. If
you do not want to be taped, please let the researcher know.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this innovation study is to identify the necessary recourses for lead teachers to
help develop a plan for a long-term mentoring program. The data will help support the global
organizational goal to retain new teachers while training them in best practices as an early
educator that they learn in the mentor program. The researcher in this study will be looking at
what knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources are necessary to develop and
implement a first-year teacher mentor program in the school.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in an interview
for a one-time period of approximately one hour. The interview will explore questions related
to knowledge, motivation, and organization about mentoring, including your understanding
of the role of a mentor, reflection on teaching practice, time, incentives, and trust and
empowerment in decision making. The interview participants will be selected based on lead
teacher qualifications and status. The interview will be audio recorded. Should you choose to
not have our conversation recorded, please inform the researcher.
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

206

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no foreseeable risks to your participation in this study. You may only be
inconvenienced by the time it takes to participate.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY This
study anticipates direct benefit to the organization and the field of early education as a
result of your participation. This study anticipates that the development of a sustained
mentor program at the school will highly develop new and existing staff and their
qualifications, translating to improved teacher retention and effectiveness. As this is a
research study, the benefits are contingent upon the results.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation; however, release time to attend the
meeting and snacks will be provided for you.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The
members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP
reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.

The data will be coded with a false name or pseudonym; identifiable information will be
kept separate from your responses.

The data will be stored on password-protected computers and held for three years after the
study has been completed and then destroyed. Recorded audio files will be destroyed
immediately upon transcription.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time
and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights
or remedies because of your participation in this research study.

207

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Stephanie Caspian
Phone: 310-346-0330
Email: scaspian@usc.edu

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or
the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to
someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional
Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO

□ I agree to be audio-recorded.

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

208

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

209

Appendix E

Focus Group Participant Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway Los Angeles, CA 90089

SUSTAINED MENTORING OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION TEACHERS:
AN INNOVATION STUDY

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Stephanie Caspian, candidate
for Doctorate of Education in Organizational Change and Leadership under Dr. Cathy Krop at
the University of Southern California, because you are (insert eligibility criteria). Your
participation is voluntary. Please read the information below, and ask questions about anything
you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take your time to read
this consent form. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form, then you
will be given a copy of it.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this innovation study is to identify the necessary recourses to develop a plan
for a long-term mentoring program. The data will help support the global organizational goal
to retain new teachers, while training them in best practices as early educators that they learn
in the mentor program. The researcher in this study will be looking at what knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources are necessary for lead teachers to help develop and
implement a first- year teacher mentor program in the school.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this research study, you will be invited to join a small focus
group and take part in a group interview for a one-time period of approximately one and a half
hours. The focus group will explore questions related to knowledge, motivation, and
organization about mentoring, including understanding of your role as a mentor, reflection on
teaching practice, time, incentives, and trust and empowerment in decision making. The focus
group participants will be selected based on lead teacher qualifications and status. The focus
group will be audio recorded. If you choose to not have our conversation recorded, please
inform the researcher.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no foreseeable risks to your participation in this study. You may only be
inconvenienced by the time it takes to participate.
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

210

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
This study anticipates direct benefit to the organization and the field of early education as a result
of your participation. This study anticipates that the development of a sustained mentor program
at the school will highly develop new and existing staff and their qualifications, translating to
improved teacher retention and effectiveness. As this is a research study, the benefits are
contingent upon the results.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will be not be compensated for your participation; however, release time to attend the
meeting and snacks will be provided for you.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential
and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The members of the
research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The data will be coded with a false name or pseudonym; identifiable information will be kept
separately from your responses.

The data will be stored on password-protected computers and held for three years after the
study has been completed and then destroyed. Recorded audio files will be destroyed
immediately upon transcription.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Stephanie Caspian
Phone: 310-346-0330
Email: scaspian@usc.edu

211

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or
the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to
someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional
Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions.
My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study.
I have been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO

□ I agree to be audio-recorded.

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I
believe that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely
consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

212

Appendix F

Immediate Blended Evaluation Protocol

Instructions: Please rate the level to which you agree for
each item by indicating a choice with an X.
Name:
Date:
Session Number:

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree
1. This professional development held
my interest. E

2. The job aids that were introduced
helped me learn. E

3. The presentation style of the instructor
contributed to my learning experience. E

4. The content of the professional
development is immediately useful to my
role as a mentor. R

5. I am prepared to begin my role as a
mentor. R

6. I would recommend the professional
development to other lead teachers who
are interested in becoming a mentor. CS

213

Instructions: Please provide a short answer to the following questions:
7. Describe one important takeaway you learned in this professional development. R
8. List one important aspect of your role as a mentor that you learned. D-CK
9. Describe a metacognitive strategy you can use as a mentor that you learned. D-MK
10. Share one suggestion you think would improve this professional development. R
Instructions: Please rate the level to which you agree for each item by indicating a choice
with an X.

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree
11. I am confident in my ability to take
on the role of a mentor. SE

214

12. I feel the importance of taking on the
role as a mentor. UV

13. I feel personal value for taking on the
role as a mentor. IV

14. I am committed to completing this
professional development to become a
mentor to first-year teachers.
(Commitment)

15. I will follow through by applying
what I learn daily in the classroom as a
mentor. (Commitment)

16. I am excited by the opportunity to
develop my mentor capability. (Attitude)

17. I feel positive about how becoming a
mentor will impact my career. (Attitude)

215

Appendix G

Instructor Observational Checklist and Assessment Tool

Instructions: The instructor should use this Observational Checklist and Assessment Tool while
observing lead teachers during professional developments to determine the level of reaction and
learning. The instructor should indicate a “1”, “2”, or “3” level of attainment of the targeted
behavior for each participant using the rating scale below. Comments may also be added as
needed that support the rating when assessing lead teachers’ learning needs, interests, and
understanding of mentoring knowledge and skills.

Rating Scale
1= Effective Lead Teacher (LT) targeted behavior
2= Moderate Lead Teacher (LT) targeted behavior
3= No Lead Teacher (LT) targeted behavior

Targeted
Behavior
LT1
Rating
LT2
Rating
LT3
Rating
LT4
Rating
LT5
Rating
LT6
Rating
LT7
Rating
Instructor
Comments
Engaged and
actively
participating

Confident
based on Q
and A
provided

Demonstrate
understanding
of materials

Responses
show material
is relevant

216

Comments
show satisfied
with material/
learning

217

Appendix H

Delayed Blended Evaluation Protocol (Follow-up Checklist)

Instructions: Please rate the level to which you agree
for each item by indicating a choice with an X.
Name:
Date:
Session Number:

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree
Since completing the professional
development trainings, I have had the
opportunity to apply what I learned.

Looking back, the professional
development trainings were a good use
of my time.

I more clearly understand the
expectations of my mentor role.

I now have a better understanding of
various metacognitive strategies for
mentoring.

I have successfully applied the mentor
strategies I learned in the trainings.

Since completing the training, I feel
supported by the organization to apply
what I learned.

Since completing the training, I see the
increased performance of the first-year
teachers I mentor.

I feel more satisfied in my job since
making the decision to become a mentor.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Teacher attrition is a consistent problem of practice in early childhood education settings. This innovation study proposed sustained mentoring of first-year teachers as a viable solution to solve this problem, while also raising the skill level of novice teachers. This study applied the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework to the needs of lead teachers in a private preschool and infant-toddler program. The study explored nine assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of lead teachers to take on the role of mentors, as well as help develop and implement a first-year teacher mentor program. The findings indicated five of the influences were current assets. The findings also revealed a new emergent procedural knowledge need of providing and receiving effective feedback, validated the intrinsic value motivation influence, and three organizational influences of support and training, incentives, and time. The study offered context-specific recommendations rooted in self-efficacy, motivation, and organizational change theory to either reinforce the assets or fill the lead teachers’ existing gaps. Furthermore, an evaluation plan based on The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was proposed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Caspian, Stephanie Ann (author)

Core Title Sustained mentoring of early childhood education teachers: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 05/04/2020

Defense Date 03/12/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag early childhood education (ECE),first-year teachers,infant-toddler center,lead teachers,mentoring,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational change,organizational culture,Preschool,professional development,self-efficacy,teacher attrition,training program,turnover

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Cathy (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Lundeen, Rebecca (committee member)

Creator Email kaasbar@msn.com,scaspian@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-296690

Unique identifier UC11666111

Identifier etd-CaspianSte-8418.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-296690 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CaspianSte-8418.pdf

Dmrecord 296690

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Caspian, Stephanie Ann

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA