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Educational resiliency factors contributing to college success for adolescent mothers
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Content
Educational Resiliency Factors Contributing to College Success for Adolescent Mothers
by
Tammy K. Larsen
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2020
Copyright 2020 Tammy K. Larsen
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my son Joseph K. Elkins. Being an adolescent mother
was not easy, but you made every step of this journey worthwhile. You have inspired and
motivated me to be a better person and to succeed from the moment you came into my life.
Thank you for building character, perseverance, and resiliency in me. I dedicate this dissertation
and my research to you.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my children, Joseph and Audrey, thank you for your love. Thank you for your smiles
and laughter to always brighten up my day. Thank you for your sacrifice and understanding in
knowing that I needed to pursue a terminal degree and always cheering me on. I am so proud of
you both, and I am blessed to be your mom. I hope that you always dream big and strive for the
best! I love you both so much.
To my mother Nam Choi. Despite all the challenges you have faced in life, your tenacity
to survive each day has taught me great value. You have inspired me through your hard work
ethics and your ability to always see life with such positivity. Thank you for showing me how to
persevere and always believing that I could accomplish whatever I set my mind and heart to.
To Elizabeth and Kent Larsen. Thank you for being wonderful grandparents to my kids
and for being the greatest parents to Matthew. You both have raised a good and kind-hearted
man, and I am forever grateful. Thank you for always supporting and believing in me and loving
our family. Your love and words of encouragement always gave me the strength to keep moving
forward.
I am grateful for my colleagues, mentors and friends who have contributed to my
learning and those who have helped shape my personal and professional growth. To my dear
friends: Jeremy Elkins, Dr. Kathleen Elkins, Robert Elkins, thank you for being there for me
through some of the best and worst of times. You have helped shape the woman I am today, and
I truly acknowledge you for that.
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Helena Seli, thank you for your guidance and support in
helping me through the dissertation process and getting me across the finish line. I would also
iv
like to share my appreciation for my committee members, Dr. Jennifer Phillips and Dr. Melanie
Brady whose suggestions and feedback helped me thrive in this study.
One person I could have not completed this without is my husband Matthew. Matthew,
without your unconditional love and support, this all would not have been possible. Thank you
for sharing this life with me and choosing me as your life partner. Thank you for always
believing, inspiring and motivating me to dream big and supporting me in making my goals and
dreams come true.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the women who I had a pleasure of interviewing for
this study. Thank you for sharing your experiences of navigating through college as an
adolescent mother. It was a privilege to listen and write your stories about your educational
journeys and how you overcame many incredible barriers to succeed. Your experiences helped
me create a dissertation I believe is meaningful and important to address. I am confident that the
stories you have shared about your challenges and perseverance will inspire other women to
dream and succeed.
v
Table of Contents
Dedication........................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................iii
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................vii
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................viii
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................ix
Introduction to the Problem of Practice...........................................................................................1
Organizational Context and Mission...............................................................................................2
Importance of Addressing the Problem...........................................................................................2
Organizational Performance Goal....................................................................................................3
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal.........................................................................3
Purpose of the Project and Questions..............................................................................................5
Review of the Literature..................................................................................................................6
Impacts of Adolescent Pregnancy........................................................................................6
Educational Achievement for Adolescent Mothers.............................................................8
Adolescent Student Mothers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences...............19
Knowledge Influences.......................................................................................................19
Motivation Influences........................................................................................................23
Organizational Influences .................................................................................................26
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Adolescent Student Mother’s Knowledge, Motivation
and the Organizational Context.....................................................................................................31
Data Collection and Instrumentation.............................................................................................35
Interviews...........................................................................................................................36
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................37
Findings.........................................................................................................................................38
Knowledge Findings..........................................................................................................40
Organizational Findings.....................................................................................................41
Motivation Findings...........................................................................................................48
Recommendations for Practice......................................................................................................56
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences............................................56
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan................................................................62
vi
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations...............................................................63
Data Analysis and Reporting.............................................................................................71
Limitations and Implications for Future Research.........................................................................73
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................74
References......................................................................................................................................77
Appendices.....................................................................................................................................89
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interview................89
Appendix B: Credibility and Trustworthiness...................................................................92
Appendix C: Ethics............................................................................................................94
Appendix D: Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................96
Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation Instrument Survey....................................................98
Appendix F: Delayed Evaluation Instrument Survey........................................................99
Appendix G: Protocols.....................................................................................................101
vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goal 4
Table 2: Knowledge Influences 22
Table 3: Motivation Influences 26
Table 4: Organizational Influences 30
Table 5: Interview Participants 39
Table 6: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 59
Table 7: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 64
Table 8: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 65
Table 9: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 66
Table 10: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 68
Table 11: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 69
Table 12: Key Performance Indicators 71
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 33
ix
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study examined the beliefs, experiences, and perceptions of adolescent mothers
who were able to graduate from college in order to understand the resiliency factors that
contributed to their academic success. This evaluative study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis and applied the knowledge, motivation and organizational framework to identify the
factors that contributed to or hindered academic success. The study data originated from
interviews with 12 adolescent mothers who successfully graduated from a four-year college in
the United States. Data analysis identified factors in adolescent student mothers’ knowledge,
motivation, and the organizational constructs that supported and hindered an adolescent student
mother’s academic success in college. A critical finding was that a meaningful relationship based
with an empathetic mentor contributed to an adolescent student mother’s wellbeing and created a
positive impact on their academic success. This study includes recommendations for colleges to
support the success of adolescent student mothers with recommendations for institutional
mentorship and implementation of parent support groups.
1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Although teenage pregnancy rates have reduced in the last decade, the United States
continues to have the highest adolescent pregnancy rate of the developed countries (Shugar,
2012). In 2016, 209,809 babies were born to adolescent mothers aged 15 – 19 years in the United
States, with a birthrate of 20.3 per 1,000 women identified in this age group (The National
Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2018). Statistics show that three in ten
girls become pregnant before the age of 20 (Hoffman, 2006; Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2014). 50% of adolescent mothers will receive a high school diploma, and only 2%
of those high school graduates will then go on to achieve a college degree (Shugar, 2012).
It is well recognized that the educational underachievement of adolescent mothers exists
in the United States. However, impactful solutions to this prevalent issue is not documented or
implemented. When compared to non-parenting adolescents, adolescent mothers consistently
underachieve academically than those who give birth later in life (Smithbattle, 2007). The
underachievement of adolescent mothers is important to address because without a high school
diploma and a postsecondary education, adolescent mothers struggle financially, socially, and
psychologically (Hoffman, 2006). These issues also result in larger social implications, and these
adolescent mothers will often have to rely on other forms of state and government assistance
programs to support themselves and their children (Smithbattle, 2007).
An adolescent mother’s educational path is often unstable and overcome by challenges in
life and by their competing demands and responsibilities as a mother (Smithbattle, 2007).
Individuals who graduate high school are more likely to attend college, gain higher paying jobs,
and have children who value education and become better productive citizens (McDaniel &
Kuehn, 2013; Moore, 2014; Shuger, 2012). A study by the American Council on Education
2
(Cook & Pullaro, 2010) found that college graduation rates among non-traditional students
which include adolescent student mothers low. Additionally, only 33.7% of non-traditional
students complete their degree, compared to 54.1 percent of traditional students (Cook & Pullaro,
2010). It is critical to understand the institutional and resiliency factors that contribute to an
adolescent mother’s academic journey in college. In doing so, effective solutions can be
implemented appropriately in order to help adolescent mothers attain academic achievement in
college.
Organizational Context and Mission
This study looked at private and public universities in the United States that have four-
year programs. As higher education organizations, universities commit to offering a supportive
academic and culturally diverse environment for all students. It is important that adolescent
student mothers too have supports that will enable them to overcome their barriers and
successfully graduate. It is essential that universities help develop and cultivate adolescent
student mothers by enriching their minds so that they can contribute to society and the future.
Additionally, it is important for universities to retain their students and support them in
successfully obtaining their degree. Universities need to aim to empower adolescent student
mothers to turn their aspirations into reality and succeed in life. Universities need to seek to
prepare adolescent student mothers for success by strengthening their minds and developing their
potentials while ensuring that they stay in college and graduate.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
There is a gap in the existing research on adolescent pregnancy with identifying
resiliency influences that support adolescent mothers to be successful. Few studies focus on the
factors contributing to the academic success of adolescent mothers (Perrin & Dorman, 2003).
3
The majority of current studies primarily focuses on the impacts of adolescent mothers choosing
to drop out of high school and the consequences from it. It is also well identified in research that
poverty is both a cause and effect of adolescent pregnancy and there are cyclical challenges
related to poverty. However, by identifying and understanding how successful adolescent
mothers who were resilient through their challenges, there can be better recommendations to
improve practice for universities who serve adolescent mothers. Supporting adolescent student
mothers to have better academic performance and successfully graduate from college should be a
priority to evaluate further in order to increase educational outcomes and decrease disparities for
adolescent mothers.
Organizational Performance Goal
The aspirational organizational goal of universities is to graduate 100% of all students
from their organization and this would include non-traditional students who are adolescent
student mothers enrolled at the university. The goal was selected in an attempt to improve overall
institutional graduation rates. A universities’ priority is providing support for continued
education for adolescent student mothers by supporting them to stay engaged in school and
graduate. Success is measured by the graduation rates of adolescent mothers who were able to
graduate from a university despite their barriers. Evaluating the educational resiliency factors of
adolescent student mothers who succeeded in college enables the field of higher education to
improve their services to adolescent student mothers enrolled by building programs, resources
and supports for all parenting students.
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
Universities have many stakeholder groups, but three are particularly relevant to this
study that contribute to an adolescent student mother’s success in graduating college. The first
4
stakeholder group is the Student Support Services Department. The Student Support Services
Department helps undergraduates meet the rigors of higher education and graduate. They are also
designed to support students whose socioeconomic backgrounds, educational records, and
personal situations suggest they may experience challenges at universities that could be
alleviated with use of resources offered by their department. Adolescent student mothers would
fall into this category, and the Student Support Services Department would help provide support
and resources to them. The second group of stakeholders are the school counselors and academic
advisors. They are the stakeholders that provide adolescent student mothers with comprehensive
and ongoing assistance with course selection, graduation plans, choosing majors and careers, test
preparation and decreasing stress. The third stakeholder group are the adolescent student
mothers. Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, the adolescent mothers have been selected as the stakeholder group of focus. It is
critical to understand the experiences and resiliency factors of student mothers who successfully
graduated college, despite giving birth as an adolescent and facing barriers to obtain their degree.
The organizational performance evaluated is related to the larger problem of low academic
achievement rates of adolescent mothers in the United States. This group of stakeholder
contributes to the achievement of the organization’s performance goal by being aligned with the
organization’s mission of becoming educated, successful and valued members of society.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of universities is to transform students' lives through exemplary teaching,
research and service.
Organizational Performance Goal
5
A university’s goal will be in providing support for continued education for adolescent
student mothers to graduate.
Stakeholder Performance Goal
Adolescent student mothers will implement the organizational resources for
educational resiliency made available to them to successfully graduate from college.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to explore the organizational factors that enabled
adolescent mothers to graduate from college. While a complete performance evaluation would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, this analysis focused on adolescent student
mothers who have successfully graduated from college despite being an adolescent parent. The
analysis will focus on their knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that enabled
them to be successful college students and also the influences not identified by the literature
review which were related to achieving the organizational goal.
The questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What is the adolescent mothers’ knowledge and motivation related to implementing the
available organizational resources for educational resiliency?
2. What is the interaction between the organizational culture, context and adolescent
mothers’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommendations for the organizational practice to increase adolescent
mothers’ implementation of organizational resources and through that, improving
graduation rates?
6
Review of the Literature
The purpose of this dissertation was to evaluate the factors to which contributed to
adolescent student mothers’ ability to graduate from college. This section reviews adolescent
pregnancy statistics, the impacts of adolescent pregnancy, challenges that adolescent student
mothers face in college, and support systems that that positively impact them. Following the
literature review, the adolescent student mothers’ role is examined. Next, the theories relating to
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are explained. Following the theoretical
overview, the adolescent student mother’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
are described, and the conceptual framework completes this section.
Impacts of Adolescent Pregnancy
Adolescent pregnancy is known to have consequences that lead to a bleak economic
future for adolescent mothers. Numerous studies link adolescent pregnancy to societal issues
such as poverty and income disparity, and negative outcomes have also been identified for
children born to adolescent parents. These are important factors to address in order to help
overcome these disparities. The following sections overview adolescent pregnancy rates in the
United States, the impacts of adolescent pregnancy on taxpayers, and the impacts to the children
born to adolescent parents.
Adolescent Pregnancy Rates in the United States
In the United States, three in ten girls will become pregnant before the age of 20, and that
is nearly 750,000 adolescent pregnancies each year (Hoffman, 2006; Center for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2014). Although adolescent pregnancy rates have reduced in the last decade, the
United States continues to have the highest adolescent pregnancy rate of the developed countries
(Shugar, 2012). The adolescent pregnancy rate numbers in the United States are three times
7
greater than Russia and 28 times greater than Canada (United Nations Statistical Data, 2011). In
2018, 209,809 babies were born to adolescent mothers aged 15 – 19 years in the United States
with a birthrate of 20.3 per 1,000 women identified in this age group (The National Campaign to
Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2018). 50% of adolescent mothers drop out of high
school due to pregnancy and never go back to obtain their high school diploma (Albert, 2010;
Shugar, 2012). The other 50% persist to receive a high school diploma, and less than 2% of those
adolescent mothers who graduated high school will then go on to achieve a college degree before
the age of thirty (Shugar, 2012).
Financial Impacts
Adolescent pregnancy can have adverse consequences both on society as well as the
economy, and there are high financial costs attached to adolescent pregnancies (Aud, Kewal-
Ramani, & Frohlich, 2011). The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy
reported a minimum of 75% of adolescent single mothers will be on welfare within five years of
the birth of their first child (NCPTUP, 2010). Adolescent pregnancy contributes to poverty levels
and increases the spending of taxpayer’s dollars in funding educational, social, and financial
programs which support adolescent mothers and their children. In 2014, it was estimated that
adolescent pregnancy cost California taxpayers $965 million a year and the United States annual
total was $9.4 billion (NCPTUP, 2014). The estimated costs of adolescent pregnancies were
associated with health care expenses, welfare assistance, incarceration rates, and a loss of tax
revenue (NCPTUP, 2014).
Impacts to the Children Born to Adolescent Mothers
Although negative consequences are known for adolescent mothers, there are also
numerous associated negative consequences for the children born to adolescent mothers (Albert,
8
2010; Banerjee et al., 2009; Suellentrop, 2010, Shore, 2009). The literature on adolescent
mothers has been used to outline an excess of negative consequences. Additionally, negative
consequences for the children of adolescent mothers’ problems have also been noted in
association, and they are equally important to address. Children born to adolescent mothers have
challenges with their health, development, and they compare poorly with their peers (Shore,
2009). Further negative consequences for the children of adolescent mothers include (a) having
health issues and medical conditions (Albert, 2010), (b) incarceration rates being higher (Barrett,
Katsiyannis, Zhang, & Kingree, 2014), (c) becoming adolescent parents as well (NCPTUP,
2014), (d) cases of negligence or abuse (NCPTUP, 2014), (e) placement in foster care (Bilchik &
Wilson-Simmons, 2010), and (f) poor educational achievement (Albert, 2010; Suellentrop,
2010).
Educational Achievement for Adolescent Mothers
It is well recognized that the educational underachievement of adolescent mothers exists
in the United States. However, impactful solutions to this prevalent issue are not documented or
implemented. When compared to non-parenting adolescents, adolescent mothers consistently
underachieve academically than those who give birth later in life (Smithbattle, 2007). These
issues are important to address because these results have major repercussions in the lives of
these adolescent mothers and their children. Without a postsecondary education, adolescent
mothers struggle financially, socially, and psychologically (Hoffman, 2006; Smithbattle, 2007).
This will also result in larger social implications, and these adolescent mothers will often have to
rely on other forms of state and government assistance programs to provide for their family
(Smithbattle, 2007).
9
An adolescent mother’s educational path is unstable and overcome by their competing
demands and responsibilities (Smithbattle, 2007). Adolescent mothers who graduate high school
are more likely to attend college, gain higher paying jobs, have children who value education and
become better productive citizens (McDaniel & Kuehn, 2013; Moore, 2014; Shuger, 2012).
Adolescent student mothers are considered non-traditional students. A non-traditional student is
defined by the presence of one or more of the following seven characteristics: delayed
enrollment into college, attending part time, financially independent, works full-time while
enrolled, has dependents other than a spouse, a single parent, or did not obtain a standard high
school diploma (Horn, 1996). A study by the American Council on Education (Cook & Pullaro,
2010) found that college graduation rates among non-traditional students low. Only 33.7% of
non-traditional students completed their degree, compared with 54.1 percent of traditional
students (Cook & Pullaro, 2010). There are many challenges and barriers that adolescent student
mothers encounter in college. It is critical to understand the institutional and resiliency factors
that can contribute to academic success for adolescent mothers. In doing so, effective solutions
can be implemented appropriately in order to help adolescent mothers attain academic success.
Challenges Adolescent Mothers Face in College
Obtaining a college degree is a practical path to success for adolescent mothers as many
jobs require a post-secondary degree. Without a college degree, adolescent mothers and their
children face struggle in many areas in life (Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007). However, a
multitude of factors contribute to the normative outcomes experienced by many adolescent
student mothers attending college (Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007). Although adolescent
mothers report that they desire and understand that a college degree is an important factor to
improve their lives, they do not feel supported enough to mitigate the responsibilities of college
10
and motherhood (Driscoll et.al., 2003). There are many challenges and barriers that adolescent
mothers must overcome to persist through and to succeed in college. Unfortunately, past and
present literature focus on adolescent mothers’ deficits and emphasize mainly on their
undesirable outcomes.
Psychological Issues That Hinder Educational Achievement. There are many
psychological factors that can hinder an adolescent mothers’ academic success. Most adolescent
mothers are unable to mitigate social, academic, psychological and financial challenges to attain
a post-secondary education (Driscoll et.al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Smithbattle, 2007). Adolescent
mothers can feel intimidated in college as they realize they have many responsibilities, and this
can develop attitudes of helplessness and hopelessness towards their education (Driscoll et al.,
2003). Adolescent mothers can feel overwhelmed and unprepared for adulthood as they balance
student life, parenthood, and work. Balancing parenting and student responsibilities is difficult
(Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007), and pregnancy and parenting are cited as the most
common reason young women drop out of school (Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007).
Furthermore, it is challenging for adolescent mothers to maintain a job while having to balance
work in addition to being a parent and a student (Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003).
An adolescent mother’s emotional health weighs heavily on her educational outcomes.
Adolescent mothers may view themselves as not being able to succeed, and these feelings of
vulnerability and impossibility could lead to developing low self-esteem, low self-expectations
and sometimes depression (Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007). Emotional unpredictability
can be a major obstacle in an adolescent mother’s educational pursuits, and adolescent mothers
may experience an array of emotions including feelings of being overwhelmed, depressed,
fearful, disappointed, isolated, and fatigued (Smithbattle, 2007). Depression is common among
11
adolescent mothers (Talashik, Norr & Dancy, 2003). The ever-demanding roles as parents
contributes to the emotional health and feelings of being overwhelmed which can contribute to
low self-esteem and low aspirations for adolescent mothers (Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003).
Adolescent student mothers are also more likely than their peers to feel isolated on campus,
which can intensify a feeling of lack of belonging in college (Hoffman, 2006). Feelings of
embarrassment or awkwardness at school as being different from their peers can also deter them
from continuing their academics. The impact of psychological dissonance and lack of belonging
can also contribute to adolescent student mothers’ feeling out of place in college (Hoffman,
2006; Driscoll et.al., 2003).
Lack of Support. Adolescent mothers need support in various forms to be successful in
college, and without any support it is difficult for adolescent mothers to succeed. Educational
instability presents a major challenge to adolescent mothers and they report that teachers,
classmates, and school administrators are not supportive or understanding (Driscoll, et.al., 2003).
Adolescent mothers reported that staff in educational settings should be sensitive, responsive and
non-judgmental to their parenting status (Driscoll, et.al., 2003). Financial barriers are the most
commonly cited reasons for why students do not persist in college, and some researchers have
found that students may not perceive the value of the degree as greater than the immediate cost
for attending (Tinto, 1993). Many adolescent mothers need to work in order to support
themselves and their children, which may interfere with their educational priorities. Adolescent
student mothers also need individuals to care for their children during school, work or when
completing homework. However, not all adolescent mothers have that support. Adolescent
mothers often lack childcare support. Additionally, adolescent mothers with lower incomes often
cannot afford to pay for childcare, and they report that they prefer to stay home and care for their
12
child (Smithbattle, 2007). Furthermore, many adolescent mothers are challenged with providing
their children with support and are less able to focus on her own education (Talashek, Norr &
Dancy, 2003).
Factors that Positively Impact an Adolescent Mother’s Academic Achievement
As more non-traditional students enter universities, it is necessary to imbed different
forms of support. New programs to support non-traditional students can possibly increase
institutional costs. However, new programs can also help keep retention rates stable in the face
of the changing population of incoming non-traditional students. Most college retention research
has focused primarily on the characteristics of the students or their external environments.
Unfortunately, little analysis and effort has been given to the way the university experience is
organized and delivered (Barefoot, 2004). Analyzing how the delivery of programs and
institutional interactions impact college adolescent student retention rates would help identify
gaps to have better student outcomes.
Intrapersonal competencies. Herman and Hilton (2017) identified that the most
common predictor of college success was found to be dispositional conscientiousness – the
tendency to be self-controlled, responsible to others, hardworking, persevering, rule abiding, and
achievement oriented. Hermand and Hilton (2017) also identified that having intrapersonal
competencies can lead to college success. Intrapersonal competencies involve being able to
express information to others as well as interpreting others’ messages and responding
appropriately. Intrapersonal competencies and persistence can be enhanced through intervention
that helps increase self-management and the ability regulate their own behaviors and emotions to
reach goals (Hermand & Hilton, 2017). Enhancing these competencies through intervention can
contribute to an adolescent mothers’ ability to persist in college and also help build resiliency.
13
Motivation. Unfortunately, failing grades and disengagement from school were common
traits that were found among adolescent student mothers (Shugar, 2012). However, motivation
was the one key characteristic that was found to play a critical role in engaging struggling
students. Motivation was found to be a key component to resiliency which is the capability to
deal with stressful challenges, acquiring and utilizing coping skills, and becoming more
impactful in dealing with life occurrences in a healthy and productive way (Marzano &
Pickering, 2011; Usher & Kober, 2012). Motivation was also found to be a critical component of
increasing academic achievement, conceptual understanding, school satisfaction, self-esteem,
social adjustment, and school completion (Pajares, 2006; Smithbattle, 2007).
Self-Efficacy. In the context of this study, persistence is of particular interest as
adolescent mothers experience significant challenges in staying in school and obtaining a college
degree. Motivation is directly associated to self-efficacy, as motivation to engage with a task
increases when individuals experience a robust sense of self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006). Self-
efficacy also provides increases in learning as individuals pursue to understand information
related to goal-oriented tasks (Pajares, 2006). Motivation and self-efficacy play a vital role in a
student’s own success and are predictors of resiliency factors that increase the opportunities for
adolescent mothers to attend and graduate from college (Rouse, 2001).
Self-efficacy is a person’s ability to perform and produce a desired action, as well as the
belief that a person can transfer the learning of tasks to similar tasks (Bandura, 1997). Self-
efficacy is categorized as a type of self-belief that is the fundamental foundation of all
motivation that impacts the daily functioning of individuals as they perform tasks and learn new
information (Bandura, 2000). Self-efficacy beliefs work to enhance an individual’s sense of their
expected success, and active engagement and persistence are motivated by value and self-
14
efficacy (Bandura, 2000). When learners personally value what they are learning, they choose to
get involved and persist over time and active choice and persistence are also enriched by
attitudes when learners can learn and apply what is being taught (Bandura, 2000). Being able to
apply knowledge and skills efficaciously and to transfer their knowledge and skills can lead to
student success (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
A person’s self-efficacy would influence their decisions, actions, and life choices and will
influence the course of actions they will take (Bandura, 2006). Bandura (1997) stated that people
experience self-efficacy when they develop the skills to achieve, believe they will succeed, and
receive confirmation from others that they are likely to succeed. Pajares (2006) stated that self-
efficacy beliefs are the self-perceptions that individuals hold about their capabilities and are the
foundation for motivation. Pajares also stated that unless people believe that their actions can
produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of
difficulties. Pajares (2002) stated higher levels of self-efficacy would result in greater effort,
persistence, and resilience. High self-efficacy is associated with undisturbed feelings when
dealing with difficult tasks (Pajares, 2002). People who view themselves as having better self-
efficacy have a more positive outlook, optimistic thought patterns, and positive emotional
reactions when confronted with negative events (Pajares, 2002).
Self-efficacy plays a critical role for adolescent mothers enrolled in college (Hoffman,
2008). Self-efficacy transpires when individuals expect to be successful in their efforts to achieve
a specific goal (Pajares, 2006). Adolescent mothers would exert more effort if they believe their
inputs and increased efforts would result in positive results (Mayer, 2011). Individuals who set
personal goals are more likely to persist in achieving their goals in comparison to the goals that
15
were set for them by someone else (Grossman & Salas, 2011; Hoffman, 2008). Their personal
belief in their capability to achieve their goals will directly impact their effort and performance.
Having Meaningful Relationships in College. Having meaningful relationships in
college can help support the academic success of an adolescent student mother. The types of
support adolescent mothers receive from a trusted adult, school and family members play critical
roles in their wellbeing and academic achievement (Benz et al., 2000; Samel, Sondergeld,
Fischer, & Patterson, 2011). Institutional representatives who can serve as mentors such as
professors, school counselors, and academic advisors can build meaningful relationships and the
necessary resiliency factors that adolescent student mothers need to graduate by providing
individual attention and continued support (Benz et al., 2000). Mentors can play an integral role
in nurturing adolescent student mothers. Mentors can help develop their self-esteem and guide
them to educational success. Mentors can help identify personal goals and foster critical thinking
skills in adolescent mothers. In doing so, it can help produce protective factors that benefit them
academically (Samel, Sondergeld, Fischer, & Patterson, 2011).
Students who do not have a meaningful relationship with a mentor at school were found
to be at a higher risk of dropping out (Roorda et al., 2011). However, by building trusting
relationships with adolescents, supportive mentors have the ability build positive resiliency
factors in adolescent mothers to overcome barriers in life (Luthar et al., 2000). Slater, Mitschke,
and Douthit (2011) analyzed the relationships between at risk students who were parenting or
pregnant and their school-based counselors, and they identified several themes that related to the
relationships. They found that positive relationships were based on the following: (a) emotional
well-being, (b) respectful communication, (c) empathetic listening, (d) reliability, (e) goals, and
(f) academic achievement. Furthermore, the researchers recognized that strong, positive
16
relationships with a counselor were critical to the success of the adolescent mothers. Therefore,
counselors were able to instill resiliency factors in the adolescent mothers that allowed them to
acknowledge the importance of education (Slater et. al., 2011).
It is important for institutional representatives within colleges to provide mentorship and
encourage student achievement and success. Mentors have the ability to reshape a student’s
attitude towards school and impact their academic achievement by encouraging and motivating
students to be life-long learners with a career-oriented framework. Mentors can serve as leaders
in colleges by providing important data and information to promote necessary programs and
educational changes in helping adolescent student mothers succeed in college (Benz et al., 2000;
Luthar et al., 2000; Samel, Sondergeld, Fischer, & Patterson, 2011). Adolescent student mothers
are more likely to complete school when working with mentors to establish goals, and it provides
them with the courage to persist and have educational attainment (Benz et al., 2000; Bryan,
2005; Slater et al., 2011). Having strong, positive relationships with an adult fosters resiliency
and promotes stronger academic growth. The mutual respect and goal setting shared by the
mentor and adolescent mothers result in strong, positive, and supportive relationships through
trust building (Bryan, 2005; Slater et al., 2011).
Utilizing Empathetic Practices. It is the important to create a culture of empathetic
practices and to ensure proper training for institutional staff to become empathetic mentors. It
was found that empathetic practice lowers the student dropout rates, but the lack of empathetic
practice can also increase student dropout rates (Roorda et al., 2011). Adolescent student mothers
are at the high risk of dropping out of college, and they need mentors who they can trust and
relate to in order to stay in school and successfully graduate (McFarland, Murray, & Phillipson,
2016). Mentors help lessen barriers for adolescent student mothers, and they have significant
17
impact on student retention and persistence by utilizing empathetic practices that show that they
are caring, invested and student-centered (Cornelius-White, 2007).
Roorda et. al. (2011) found that empathetic practices that build meaningful relationships
are built by showing empathy for students, creating meaningful connections, and expressing
genuine interests in their personal lives. These empathetic practices promote their self-esteem
and elevate their desires to succeed in their academic achievement (Roorda et. al. (2011).
Supportive mentors who build meaningful relationships through empathy can create resiliency
factors in adolescent student mothers. Ensuring that mentors utilize empathetic practices and
include more training for empathetic practices is significant in the college settings to help
adolescent student mothers who need support to have educational success (McFarland, Murray,
& Phillipson, 2016).
Increasing Student Engagement. There is value found in increasing student
engagement as it helps increase student retention by engaging students and aiding them in feeling
more comfortable in new academic environments. Harper and Quaye (2009) suggested that,
“students develop feelings about their peers, professors, and institutions that give them a sense of
connectedness, affiliation, and belonging, while simultaneously offering rich opportunities for
learning and development.” Abbot (2014) reported that Student Support Services (SSS) is an
example of an effective model for enhancing student persistence and academic achievement by
increasing student engagement and is designed to help disadvantaged students complete
postsecondary education. A key feature of success of this program is outreach advising, where
advisors actively seek out students and engage students (Earl, Earl & Martinez, 1998). It was
found that students who are more positively engaged in their academic environments have higher
academic attainments (Roorda et. al. 2011). For institutions working vigorously to develop
18
student integration strategies and adopt practices to increase student engagement, systematic
changes also correlated highly with positive educational outcomes (Earl, Earl & Martinez, 1998;
Roorda et. al. 2011).
Fostering a Sense of Belonging. Universities are often not prepared to support
adolescent student mothers in developing a sense of belonging on campus. Unfortunately, this
can impact the completion rates of adolescent student mothers. Students who do not have a sense
of belonging or connection to their school are at a higher risk of dropping out (Williams, 2010),
and lower integration leads to students’ commitment to goals such as degree attainment to
decrease (Tinto, 1993). However, a mentor can impact students’ attitude about inclusion, and it
can frame their self-esteem with can in return impact their motivation and academic performance
(Talbert, 2012). DeFreitas & Bravo (2014) found that positive involvement and interaction with
mentors increased student achievement, levels of self-efficacy, sense of belonging, and it also
directly impacted students’ perception that they could be successful. Students can greatly benefit
when institutions emphasize positive and meaningful interactions with their students so that it
fosters a better sense of community and culture (Talbert, 2012; Quaye & Harper, 2014).
Vincent Tinto’s (1987) student integration model theorizes the social integration of
students. It states that by developing relationships with students and faculty, maintaining
appropriate learning environments, and engaging socially in school activities, it will increase
student institutional commitments which help reduce student dropout rates (Tinto, 1987).
Students who have a higher sense of belonging to the academic environment are comfortable
navigating through the college process and have a better chance of obtaining their degree
(Talbert, 2012). Tinto stated that “It is the interplay between the individual’s commitment to the
goal of college completion and his commitment to the institution that determines whether or not
19
the individual decides drops out” (1987). This theory suggests that the relationship with students
and the institution are multifaceted and developing relationships can influence student
persistence by creating a higher sense of belonging.
Adolescent Student Mothers’ Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
The Clark and Estes framework (2008) is a research-based method of improving
organizational performance. It offers an analytical framework that assesses the gaps between the
organizational goals and performance relative to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) resources needed to accomplish goals. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influence can hinder or improve performance within an organization and is also associated with
the success or failure of an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study used a modification of
gap analysis to an evaluation study. The purpose of the evaluation was to understand institutional
and educational resiliency factors that contributed to an adolescent student mother’s success in
graduating college and the capacity to achieve the organization’s goals, and through
recommendations. Gaps and advantages were identified in the adolescent student mother’s
knowledge, motivation, and their experience within the organization’s culture and context. The
following sections describe the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors of the
adolescent student mothers’ academic performance that were considered in this study.
Knowledge Influences
Knowledge is necessary when individuals or organizations are responsible for carrying
out a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008), and knowledge influences support in understanding the
information needed to achieve a goal (Rueda, 2011). In order for individuals to succeed in
reaching their goals, different types of knowledge are required. There are specific knowledge and
skills required for adolescent mothers to obtain their goal of graduating with a college degree.
20
For adolescent student mother to engage in critical thinking and overcome novel challenges, they
must understand the complexities of knowledge and how to apply it (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Having the knowledge and skills of how to be a successful student and utilize the services that
schools provide are positively linked to their academic performance.
There are four knowledge categories in Krathwohl’s (2002) Revision of the Bloom
Taxonomy that help determine if stakeholders have the knowledge needed for performance goal
achievement: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
There are specific knowledge and skills required for adolescent mothers to obtain their goal of
graduating with a college degree. Factual knowledge is the type of fundamental components that
individuals must know to be familiar with to solve problems. It involves knowing the basic
components of a subject and understanding definitions and terminology would fall under this
classification. Conceptual knowledge is the association among the basic elements within a larger
structure that enable them to function together. Conceptual knowledge involves understanding
different categories of a topic and the relationships between the categories. Procedural
knowledge is what is required to know how to do something, and steps, methods, techniques, and
strategies for completing a task would be included in this knowledge type. Lastly, metacognitive
knowledge is being aware of one’s own thinking processes and their own mental performance
(Krathwohl, 2002). This study examined adolescent student mother’s knowledge with an
emphasis on procedural and metacognitive knowledge types. The sections below represent the
different types of knowledge that are assumed to have influenced adolescent mothers’ ability to
be successful.
21
Adolescent Mothers’ Knowledge of Who They Can Go to for Mentorship, Guidance, and
Support
There are specific knowledge and skills required in order for adolescent mothers to
navigate through college. In order for adolescent mothers to be successful in reaching their goals,
different types of knowledge are required. Procedural knowledge adopts how specific knowledge
and skills can be used to accomplish a goal (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge is the
type of knowledge that allows one to know when and why to do something (Rueda, 2011). It can
be difficult for adolescent mothers to ask for help but knowing that they have a support system
and guidance helps adolescent mothers feel supported (Brindis, 2006; Rosenthal et al., 2008).
Having positive social networks in order to obtain knowledge and seek support can empower
adolescent mothers and motivate them towards positive outcomes (Denner, Kirby, Coyle, &
Brindis, 2001). Being able to build rapport with an academic advisor or school counselor is a
contributing factor in their wellbeing and academic success. It is important for adolescent
mothers to understand that the supports and resources at the university will help them achieve
academic success (London, 2006).
Adolescent Mothers’ Ability to Engage with Organizational Supports. The purpose
of education is to give learners the knowledge and skills that will aid them in handling new
situations and challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is important to examine knowledge
influencers relevant to providing information on educational resources and supports for academic
support. Adolescent student mothers who are also first-generation college students may not have
the knowledge of how to navigate through college and understand what supports provided in
college may benefit them. Knowing what academic support and resources are available in
college can help promote student success. There are specific knowledge and skills required for
22
adolescent mothers to obtain their goal of graduating with a college degree. Additionally, the
information must go beyond factual knowledge and include other types of knowledge which are
critical for understanding a subject and applying it (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Adolescent Mothers’ Practice of Goal Setting and Reflecting for Academic Success.
Adolescent student mothers must develop short and long-term academic goals and establish
priorities in order to have the ability to overcome the challenges they face, and they must have a
plan in order to succeed in college. Success and change can only occur when there is learning of
new knowledge and skill (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Adolescent student mothers need to know
how to reflect on their own effectiveness for academic success through mindful regulation of
thinking. They need the knowledge and skills that support the need for metacognition in relation
to strategy and performance development that will benefit their academic performance.
Furthermore, learning new knowledge and skills provide adolescent student mothers
improvements in positive behavior change, understanding, and performance (Clark & Estes,
2008; Grossman & Salas, 2011). However, education must include an opportunity for adolescent
student mothers to demonstrate their understanding and be given feedback through assessment
(Clark & Estes, 2008). It will benefit them to have metacognitive skills to learn from their
success and failures, and through this process they will discover that they are capable of learning
and being successful. There is an expectation that these women must be self-driven and possess
internal motivation and determination in order to succeed (Mapp, 2004).
Table 2
Knowledge Influences
Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Procedural Adolescent mothers need to know how to engage with campus-
based mentorship, guidance, and support.
23
Procedural Adolescent mothers need to know how to engage with campus-
based supports that will help them graduate from college.
Metacognitive Adolescent mothers need the knowledge of goal setting and
reflecting for academic success.
Motivation Influences
In addition to knowledge, motivation is critical in goal achievement and is another source
of gaps in performance and is an important trait of the gap analysis process developed by Clark
and Estes (2008). Motivation influences comprise of deliberating goal achievement, determining
to work towards it and having the mental fortitude to accomplish it (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011). Motivation is a critical component, and even the top performers do not achieve without
having motivation. Motivation is about making an active choice to engage with tasks, electing to
work towards a goal, persisting to staying on task, and investing adequate mental effort towards
the goal to succeed (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Rueda (2011) stated that motivation is
impacted by principles such as: self-efficacy, goals setting, values for tasks and goals,
attributions of success or failure, and emotions. These principles contribute to whether
individuals choose to engage with tasks and invest the necessary persistence and mental effort
(Rueda, 2011). There are various motivational theories and constructs. However, for the purpose
of this study, it considered two motivational influences critical to the organization’s performance
goal: self-efficacy, expectancy value.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person’s ability to perform and produce a desired action, as well as the
belief that a person can transfer the learning of tasks to similar tasks (Bandura, 1997). Self-
efficacy is categorized as a type of self-belief that is the fundamental foundation of all
motivation that impacts the daily functioning of individuals as they perform tasks and learn new
24
information (Bandura, 2000). Self-efficacy beliefs work to enhance an individual’s sense of their
expected success, and active engagement and persistence are motivated by value and self-
efficacy (Bandura, 2000). When learners personally value what they are learning, they choose to
get involved and persist over time and active choice and persistence are also enriched by
attitudes when learners can apply what is being taught (Bandura, 2000). Being able to apply
knowledge and skills efficaciously and to transfer their knowledge and skills can lead to student
success (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
Adolescent Mothers’ Self-Efficacy to Utilize University Resources. Self-efficacy
transpires when individuals expect to be successful in their efforts to achieve a specific goal
(Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy plays a critical role for adolescent mothers enrolled in college
(Hoffman, 2008). Adolescent student mothers must feel as if they have the ability to impact their
academic success by utilizing resources. An adolescent mother’s belief in oneself is the
fundamental key that strengthens their motivation and behavior (Hoffman, 2008; Pajares, 2006).
Adolescent student mothers need to be confident in their ability to utilize the support and
resources at the university. Adolescent mothers would exert more effort if they believe their
inputs and increased efforts would result in positive results (Mayer, 2011). Additionally,
adolescent student mothers will persist and apply effort when they believe it will bring positive
results. Their personal belief in their capability to utilize the university’s resources and supports
to achieve their goals will directly impact their effort and performance.
Expectancy Value
The expectancy value theory sees behavior as a function of the expectancies one has and
the value of the goal which one is working towards (Eccles, 2006). Value is connected to the
importance that individuals place on the task or duty at hand (Rueda, 2011). An individual’s
25
motivation to complete a task is influenced by whether they believe that can perform the task and
if they want to perform the task (Eccles, 2006). Expectancy value theory can be defined as self-
efficacy attitudes developed based off of beliefs and values which contribute to the motivation of
individuals to persist and attain a goal (Eccles, 2006). Expectancy value can be characterized as
attainment, intrinsic, utility, and cost (Rueda, 2011). Attainment value relates to the value that
one places on themselves and on how one should perform in a specific identity, role, or scenario
(Rueda, 2011). Intrinsic value relates to how an individual internally values and therefore how
they would pursue a task that supports their established values or skills (Eccles, 2006). Utility
value relates to how an individual believes that accomplishing a task will support with a
previously recognized goal by the individual and how it would benefit the individual (Rueda,
2011). Lastly, cost value refers to what the individual would have to utilize, such as time or
resources, in order to accomplish the task (Eccles, 2006). In the expectancy value theory, both
expectancy and value play a critical role in predicting an individual's future decisions,
engagement, persistence, and achievement (Eccles, 2006).
Adolescent Mothers’ Value of Obtaining Their College Degree. Adolescent student
mothers should value the impact their academic performance has on their future and find
significance in beginning, persisting, and completing college. Without a high school diploma and
a postsecondary education, adolescent mothers struggle financially, socially, and psychologically
(Hoffman, 2006). An adolescent mother’s motivation will depend on an individual's preservation
of positive expectancies and values. Adolescent mothers who graduate from high school are
more likely to attend college, gain higher paying jobs, have children who value education and
become productive citizens (McDaniel & Kuehn, 2013; Moore, 2014; Shuger, 2012). Adolescent
mothers need to learn that utilizing the university’s resources will help them obtain their college
26
degree. If their goal is aligned with intrinsic and utility value, then the motivation to utilize
resources at the university that improves academic performance will be more readily utilized
(Eccles, 2008). Finding value in utilizing the resources will fit into their long-term goals (Eccles,
2009; Pintrich, 2003). Therefore, understanding if adolescent student mothers finds utility value
in utilizing resources at the university is critical to understanding their educational resiliency
factors.
Table 3 shows the assumed motivational influences for adolescent mothers to of utilizing
the university’s resources and finding value in them to be successful students.
Table 3
Motivational Influences
Self-efficacy Adolescent student mothers need to be
confident in their ability to utilize the support
and resources at the university.
Expectancy Value Adolescent student mothers should value the
impact their academic performance has on
their future.
Organizational Influences
In addition to the knowledge and motivation influences, organizational influences are the
third factor that contributes to organizational success or failure in the gap analysis model (Clark
& Estes, 2008). The study of organizational culture can be investigated through the use of
different methods (Schein, 2004), and organizational culture evaluations are conducted when
stakeholders within organizations recognize a need for change (Kezar, 2001). After recognizing
that change is needed, efforts must be devised to be aligned with organizational culture (Clark &
Estes, 2007). A stakeholder’s ability to succeed or fail may be influenced by organizational
culture or settings. Organizational culture describes the characteristics, values, and beliefs of a
27
group (Clark & Estes, 2008), and it encompasses a group’s shared experiences that come to
define purpose, beliefs, and identity (Schein, 2017). Organizational influences such as resources,
processes, policies, and procedures interact together in supporting organizational goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Organizational goal attainment is principally the outcome of the adjustment and
interaction of organizational, knowledge, and motivational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008).
During gap analysis, organizational issues are identified, and then they are analyzed and
understood comparative to knowledge and motivation influences.
Cultural Models and Settings
Both cultural models and settings can be valuable tools to align change efforts and
organizational culture and both can affect one another (Clark & Estes, 2007). Organizational
culture can result from the cultural settings and cultural models that are active and evident within
an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). While the cultural setting and the cultural
model of an organization are separate, they do not exist in isolation and interact (Clark & Estes,
2008). The cultural model of an organization depicts the fundamental norms and values within a
group and is the foundation of the culture. The cultural settings of an organization are behaviors
used that individuals can see impact the way an organization operates day to day. Cultural
settings may be the policies in place, the structure of an organization, or the training processes
individuals go through in their position, but it can also be the lack of such things. The culture of
a group can be described as the collection of shared learning as it solves its problems of outside
adaptation and internal assimilations (Schein & Schein, 2017). Additionally, when problems are
solved and considered valid and have positive outcomes, it communicates to other individuals
the appropriate way to perceive, think, feel, and perform in relation to those problems. Culture is
complex patterns and a shared system of beliefs, values, and behavioral norms (Schein & Schein,
28
2017). An organization’s culture can be analyzed by observing the cultural setting and cultural
models, and this is a critical part of the gap analysis that help determine the recommendations
and solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008). The various factors of what is learned become a design of
beliefs and values which give implication to the daily actions and effort of the group (Schein,
2017). When a group is successful in accomplishing its purpose and is systematized in doing so,
it will adopt the beliefs and values of the organization along with the complementing behavioral
norms (Schein, 2017). The following section explores the cultural models and settings that are
factors of organizational influence on adolescent student mothers to successfully graduate from
college.
Opportunities for Meaningful and Helpful Interactions. The organizational culture for
university programs that supports adolescent mothers can be erratic due to various goals and
interests. There are various cultural model related factors that may influence organizational
challenges faced by adolescent mothers. One key factor is that there is a general lack of
interactions with adolescent student mothers due to stereotypes and their statistics showing low
achievement (Schwartz, 2016). Universities need to provide opportunities for meaningful and
helpful interactions that contribute advising, connections, and emotional support with adolescent
student mothers. Mentors, academic advisors, student counselors, and professors need to
communicate positive beliefs and attitudes that they can be successful and that they are there for
support. The TRiO Student Support Services at Rutgers-Camden University is an example of a
successful university program that supports adolescent student mothers. TRiO provides enhanced
academic and other support services to undergraduate students who are in the program by
providing a transformative undergraduate experience to a diverse student population who may
come from disadvantaged circumstances, which include first generation students and adolescent
29
student mothers. TRiO’s approach is strength-based, informed by best practices, and focuses on
exceptional service to students, and the success of students is best measured by graduation and
retention rates (Talbert, 2012). Fostering an institutional climate supportive of success in higher
education through meaningful and helpful interactions help disadvantaged students.
Positive Relationships for Adolescent Student Mothers. The cultural setting factors of
the organization’s limited resources and mentors may influence the challenges faced by
universities as they seek to implement programs supporting adolescent student mothers.
Universities needs to provide effective role models and mentors (academic advisors, student
counselors, professors) who have the competence, credibility, similarity and enthusiasm for
adolescent student mothers. These individuals need to value and have strong positive
relationships with their students in order to increase and promote student achievement. Having
strong positive relationships is directly related to the outcome of increased student achievement
(Talbert, 2012). Mentors need to create value in the development of positive relationships with
adolescent student mothers and must link the importance of positive relationships with higher
student achievement because individuals are more likely to engage in an activity when it
provides value to them (Eccles, 2009). Student mentorship programs have highly substantial
impact on the educational outcome for countless students, and study findings support
empowering in these programs is valuable for all (Campbell & Campbell, 1994).
Resources for Supporting Adolescent Student Mothers. Clark and Estes (2008)
proposed that organization and stakeholder goals are often not attained due to a lack of resources
and stakeholder goals not being aligned with organizational mission and goals. The cultural
setting factors of organizational challenges and limited resources faced by student support
services may influence the organizational needs to have resources (e.g., funding, staffing,
30
materials) for adolescent student mothers (Abbott, 2004). There is not enough funding allocated
to programs for adolescent student mothers, and general organizational resistance toward
programs supporting adolescent student mothers are common (Abbot, 2004; Johnson, 2017).
However, universities need to make it a priority to have adequate resources (e.g., funding,
staffing, materials) allocated in order for adolescent student mothers to succeed.
There are social, academic, psychological and financial barriers to accomplishing a
college degree (Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001). There are limited programs found at
universities that provide support to adolescent mothers, and despite the existence of various
programs outside of universities in place to support adolescent mothers, negative outcomes still
persist. The number of adolescent mothers who successfully graduate college and improve their
futures are staggeringly low. However, adolescent mothers who have successfully graduated
college report that having an institutional mentor and access to childcare services were
significant factors in attaining academic success (Eshbaugh, 2008; Hoffman & Maynard, 2008).
Effective accountability systems must ensure that adequate fiscal resources are in place to meet
organizational goals and to drive improvement.
Table 4
Organizational Influences
Cultural Setting Influence 1 Universities need to provide opportunities
for meaningful and helpful interactions with
adolescent student mothers.
Cultural Setting Influence 2
Universities need to have resources for
supporting adolescent student mothers.
Cultural Model Influence 1 Universities need to provide positive
relationships for adolescent student mothers.
31
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation
and the Organizational Context
The purpose of the conceptual framework is to provide a visual representation of the
organization of ideas, expectations, assumptions, philosophies, and theories of how they relate to
each other, and inform elements of research design (Maxwell, 2013). Frameworks provide a
fundamental structure that informs the rest of the study and shapes the methodology of the
research design (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Maxwell (2013) defines conceptual frameworks as a
visual or written product that describes the key factors, concepts or variables studied, and the
recognized relationships between them. An important thing to acknowledge about conceptual
frameworks is that it is mainly a conception of what is out there, what is going to be studied, and
what is going on with these things and why (Maxwell, 2013). The purpose of the framework is to
produce the problem of study, generate specific research questions, data collection and analysis
techniques, and understand how to interpret the findings and all aspects of the study are impacted
by this framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Influences may be presented individually, but
they do not exist in isolation. Each influence can impact the others in numerous directions as the
phenomenon is studied and data is collected. The purpose of this section is to illustrate the ways
these influences are believed to interact with each other within the organizational context in
pursuit of achieving the goal of increasing college graduation rates of adolescent student
mothers.
Education is identified as the most significant distinguishing factor in the success of
adolescent mothers. Adolescent mothers who graduate from college are able to attain better
paying jobs which enable them to become self-sufficient and successful. Adolescent mothers
who drop out of school and enter the work force have a greater chance being on welfare because
32
of their limited skills and training. Harris (2009) stressed that an investment in education will pay
far greater rewards for adolescent mothers in reducing welfare dependency than work experience
without training or education. This study examined the strategies and behaviors of adolescent
mothers who were able to successfully graduate from college in order to address the educational
underachievement experienced by this population. This study focused on women who overcame
challenges and circumstantial barriers in graduating from college despite being adolescent
mothers. Since the United States has high adolescent pregnancy rates (Smithbattle, 2007), the
findings may be useful in providing strategies and building resources which may be shared with
individuals and organizations interested in addressing the issues of adolescent pregnancy at local,
state and national levels (Harris, 2009). Prior research on adolescent mothers concentrated on the
problems and issues related to adolescent childbearing. This study aimed at helping identify
solutions that already exist and also intended to emphasize them.
Stakeholder
Knowledge (i.e.,
knowledge types),
Skills, Motivation
(i.e., self-efficacy,
value, etc.)
33
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Stakeholder Goal
Adolescent student mothers will have
implemented the organizational resources for
educational resiliency made available to them to
successfully graduate from college.
Universities
Cultural Models: Universities need to provide positive relationships for
adolescent student mothers.
Cultural Settings: Universities need to provide opportunities for
meaningful and helpful interactions with adolescent student mothers.
Cultural Settings: Universities need to have resources for supporting
adolescent student mothers.
Stakeholder Knowledge
Procedural: Adolescent mothers need
to know how to engage with campus-
based mentorship, guidance, and
support.
Procedural: Adolescent mothers need
to know how to engage with campus-
based supports that will help them
graduate from college.
Metacognitive: Adolescent mothers
need the knowledge of goal setting and
reflecting for academic success.
Stakeholder Motivation
Self-efficacy: Adolescent student
mothers need to be confident in their
ability to utilize the support and
resources at the university.
Expectancy Value: Adolescent student
mothers should value the impact their
academic performance has on their
future.
Organizational Goal
Providing support for continued
education for adolescent student mothers
to graduate.
34
The conceptual framework in Figure 1 depicts the interaction between the knowledge
motivation, and organizational influences relevant to the adolescent student mothers’ ability to
meet a universities organizational goal of supporting them to graduate college. Specifically, the
knowledge influences include procedural knowledges to connect adolescent student mothers to
know how to engage with campus-based mentorship, guidance, and support, procedural
knowledge to engage with campus-based supports that will help them graduate from college, and
metacognitive knowledge to facilitate their goal setting and reflection for academic success. The
specific motivational influences are self-efficacy theory, which is an individual’s expectation to
be successful in their efforts to achieve a specific goal (Pajares, 2006); and expectancy value,
which is when an individual sees behavior as a function of the expectancies one has and the
value of the goal which one is working towards (Eccles, 2006).
The stakeholder group of focus, the adolescent student mothers, is subject to key
organizational influences depicted in the conceptual model. The organizational influences
include both cultural models and cultural settings. Specifically, the key cultural model is that
universities need to provide opportunities for meaningful and helpful interactions with
adolescent student mothers. A key cultural Setting is that universities need to provide positive
relationships for adolescent student mothers. Another cultural setting is that universities need to
have resources for supporting adolescent student mothers. This figure applies that the interaction
of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences determine goal achievement (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The organizational goal and stakeholder goal are both influenced and reliant upon
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to achieve their goals. They are
integrated to illustrate their interaction with both the stakeholder goal, organizational goal, and
with each other. This dissertation considers that if adolescent student mothers have the necessary
35
knowledge, are motivated and are supported by suitable organizational, they will meet their
performance goal of successfully graduating from college.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
A qualitative narrative research method best suited this study, as this method helped
obtain truthful responses from participants through the descriptive exploration of personal
experiences and event interpretations (Weiss, 1994). Data collection for this study was conducted
through interviews by the researcher. Through qualitative studies, researchers pursue
understanding the behaviors, attitudes, and motivations of individuals by asking participants
questions regarding human or social issues of why they engage in certain actions (Creswell,
2014). Interviews were used to provide the researcher with information that cannot be directly
observed and to enable understanding of the interviewee’s perspective of how they perceive their
world (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). The interview protocol explored adolescent
student mothers’ knowledge of who they can go for mentorship, guidance, and support in college
and as well as inquiries for metacognitive knowledge of their goal setting and reflection about
academic success. In addition, some of the interview questions probed the participants’ beliefs,
perceptions, and experiences as an adolescent mother in college.
The researcher’s interest in this topic stemmed from her own personal experiences. Her
connection to the topic of this study is personal, as she fit the criteria of a participant. She is
familiar with the obstacles that adolescent student mothers are presented with life and education.
The researcher’s own background information was shared with the participants, and it helped
create a unique relationship that supported a safe environment for the participants. The
researcher was aware that the participants’ perspectives were unique, and the study intentionally
aimed to uncover their experiences and perspectives. It was essential that the researcher took
36
precaution to be aware of her bias and used it critically to explore and understand the stories and
experiences of the participants. Although the researcher’s own personal experiences presented
her with valuable insights, it was important to comprehend the participants’ experiences as
objectively as possible. The researcher’s perspectives, knowledge, and experiences guided in
identifying commonalities among the participants and helped construct credibility and
trustworthiness during the data analysis process.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted as the qualitative data collection for this research study.
Interviews were used to provide the researcher with an understanding of the KMO needs and to
help provide recommendations to these needs. Furthermore, the interviews sought to understand
the organizational factors that may contribute to academic success for adolescent student
mothers.
Interview Protocol
A semi-structured interview protocol was used to identify the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that impacted the participants’ ability to graduate from college.
Credibility of data was facilitated through the use of a standardized interview process that was
identical for all participants (Patton, 2002). In order to capture the organizational, motivational,
and knowledge factors of adolescent mothers, 14 questions were used in an open-ended format
designed to encourage in-depth description and detail. Through utilizing open-ended questions,
there was flexibility to probe for specifics and also to explore emerging topics. Having less
structure and utilizing open-ended questions was useful for eliciting detailed responses desired in
qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The nature of interview questions was driven by
the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences identified via literature review. This
37
was done to ensure that they were aligned with the study’s focus. However, there was flexibility
to ask participants to go into detail about specific topics that arose during the interview.
Interview participants were chosen based on their ability to help decipher the research questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The protocol also asked participants to add influences they felt
contributed to their success that the interview protocol may not have probed. The researcher
utilized snowball sampling by reaching out to four individuals that she knew who fit the
participant criteria to interview. Via snowball sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), those
participants then reached out to others they knew who fit the criteria to contact the researcher for
an interview if they would be willing to be participate in the study. The interview protocol is
available in Appendix B.
Interview Procedures. This study included interviews with 12 participants, and all
participants were given opportunities to participate in the interview through video conferencing.
A phone interview option was also made available to increase convenience for the participants.
All interview participants chose the phone interview option, and a one-time 60-minute informal
interview with each participant was conducted. With each participant’s permission, a recording
device was used to audio record the interviews for transcription. Participants were informed that
the recording would be transcribed and anonymized.
Data Analysis
Before conducting interviews, a codebook was developed based on the conceptual
framework. Interview data was collected utilizing an audio recorder, and detailed notes were
taken by the researcher. Member checking was also completed throughout the research process
by asking each participant clarifying questions about their responses. Analytic memos were
written after each interview was conducted. An analytic memo is a short and comprehensive
38
account that documents the researcher’s thoughts about the data by synthesizing them into a
developed level of analytic meanings (Miles, Huberman & Saldaña, 2014). Audio files were
transcribed by the researcher. All information revealing the identity of the participants and
universities was removed to provide anonymity, to protect institutional and individual
confidentiality, and privacy. Upon completion of the transcriptions, the researcher initially read
through each interview and implemented open coding through the KMO framework to analyze
the data. Additionally, the researcher organized themes and patterns that appeared by utilizing
both empirical codes and axial codes originated from the research questions and the KMO
conceptual framework (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). While reading through the transcripts,
empirical codes were developed from the data that was collected and commonality was
identified. Axial codes were derived from examining the commonalities, differences and
relationships of adolescent student mothers’ experience in college during the qualitative data
analysis. Through the process of axial coding, specific words and phrases that linked college
success were utilized as codes to construct linkages between data. The themes that emerged from
the data were also compared to the literature on adolescent mothers. The concepts in the
conceptual framework were utilized to interrogate the data and also used for meaning making
while identifying important factors.
Findings
The findings were originated from interviews with a purposeful sample of 12 adolescent
student mothers who graduated from different universities within the United States. The
following pseudonyms represent the adolescent student mothers who graduated from college and
were used for the interview participants: Amy, Brooke, Christine, Darlene, Emma, Faith, Gianna,
Hannah, Isabelle, Julie, Kate and Lily. University details in the finding were removed in
39
providing anonymity for the interview participants. Table 5 presents the interview participants’
information. The columns present the pseudonym of the participant, if they graduated from high
school or obtained a GED, the age they had their child, who their mentor was in college, and if
they were a first-generation college student. The information in Table 5 presents the
demographics of the adolescent student mothers and identifying what mentors impacted their
academic success. The sampling criteria is in Appendix A.
Table 5
Interview Participants
Name
High School
Diploma/GED
Age when they
had their child Mentor
1st generation
college student
Amy
High school
diploma 18
Mentor: College
academic
advisor
1st generation
college student
Brooke
High school
diploma 17
Did not have a
mentor in
college (her
mother and
sister graduated
from the same
college a few
years prior)
Christine
High school
diploma 16
Did not have a
mentor in
college (her
father was a
professor at the
university she
attended)
Darlene
High school
diploma 18
Mentor: College
school
counselor
Emma
High school
diploma 17
Mentor: College
academic
advisor
Faith
High school
diploma 18
Mentor: College
professor
1st generation
college student
40
Gianna
High school
diploma 16
Mentor: College
professor
Hannah
High school
diploma 18
Mentor: College
school
counselor
Isabelle
High school
diploma 17
Mentor: College
professor
Julie
High school
diploma 16
Mentor: College
professor
1st generation
college student
Kate
High school
diploma 17
Mentor: College
professor
Lily
High school
diploma 15
Mentor: College
academic
advisor
This section presents the findings of the study and is organized by research questions.
Within each research question, the findings are organized by themes that appeared from an
analysis of the interviews. The first research question investigates adolescent mothers’
knowledge and motivation related to implementing the available organizational resources for
educational resiliency. It examined the university supports and resources made available to
adolescent student mothers and their relation to implementation of utilizing them. Additionally,
motivation was examined through the lenses of adolescent mothers’ self-efficacy and expectancy
value related to the adolescent student mothers’ ability of goal setting and self-reflection. Finally,
the findings related to the third research question are presented, highlighting adolescent student
mothers’ perception of how organizational support through having positive relationships and
opportunities for meaningful interactions or the lack thereof impacts success in college. The
findings are organized according to the Clark and Estes (2008) KMO framework in order to
thoroughly address the research questions.
Knowledge Findings
This study’s first research question centered on the adolescent student mothers’
knowledge related to implementing the available organizational resources for educational
41
resiliency and the interview prompts were designed to probe for knowledge. However, in the
process of analysis, it was difficult to differentiate knowledge influences from organizational
influences due to the passage of time between the participants’ experience in college and when
the interviews took place. The data that emerged was related to the participants’ actual
experiences with their higher education institution and reflected organizational influences more
so than knowledge influences. Therefore, the findings are reported in those two categories:
motivation and organizational influences.
Organizational Findings
This study’s second research question focused on the role of organizational influences on
adolescent student mothers’ academic performance and their ability to graduate from college. As
described in the literature review, there are many organizational influences that can support the
educational achievement of adolescent student mothers. This study examined cultural settings to
identify if universities provide meaningful and helpful interactions with adolescent student
mothers to ensure academic success. The researcher also focused on cultural settings in
identifying if universities provided positive relationships and resources to support them. In order
to provide a deeper understanding in relation to the organizational influences, the researcher
interviewed adolescent mothers who successfully graduated from college to bring context to
themes that emerged relating to the participants’ actual experiences with their higher education
institution.
Mentors
Mentors played an integral role for adolescent student mothers during their time in
college. During the data analysis, the researcher identified individuals as mentors as those who
had positive academic influence on the adolescent student mothers. These mentors helped
42
adolescent student mothers navigate through college while providing emotional and instrumental
support to them. The interview participants had individuals who they described as their mentors
within the university who played different roles such as university professors, academic advisors,
and school counselors. University professors taught classes that the adolescent student mothers
took while at the university. Academic advisors worked with the adolescent student mothers and
were responsible for helping them choose a major and ensuring that they met all the
requirements to graduate with a degree in that field. School counselors assisted the adolescent
student mothers through addressing their presenting concerns and promoting wellness. Ten out
of 12 of the interview participants had a mentor from their college who they identified as either
their professor, academic advisor, or school counselor. Two out of 12 of the interview
participants considered their family members as their mentors. Brooke identified her mother and
sister as her mentors as they both graduated from the same university a few years prior. Christine
identified her father as her mentor, as he was a professor at the same university that she attended.
The identified mentors impacted the academic performance and the lives of the adolescent
student mothers, who were often faced with a wide array of choices, opportunities and
challenges.
Mentors Provide Institutional Support for Adolescent Student Mothers to Navigate
Through College. Twelve out of 12 of the interview participants identified the importance of
having a mentor and attributed their mentors, when one was identified, for helping them navigate
through college. Amy, Faith and Julie were all first-generation college students and expressed
that their mentors were essential components in providing them with information and guiding
them through college. For each of these adolescent student mothers, their relationship with their
mentors was critical in providing them with support in college. Faith revealed that her mentor
43
who was her college professor provided her with “next steps of how to be a college student,” by
providing her with various information from where to go on campus for financial aid, grants and
what classes she would need to complete her degree. Five out of 12 of the adolescent student
mothers expressed that they needed support to have educational success; without adult support, it
was very difficult for them to succeed at school. Knowing that they have a support system and
guidance helps adolescent mothers feel supported (Brindis, 2006; Rosenthal et al., 2008). Twelve
out of 12 of the interview participants acknowledged that mentors were essential to their
academic success. Nine out of 12 of the interview participants expressed that mentors have the
ability to influence an adolescent student mothers’ academic performance and to help provide
institutional support. Faith specifically stated that “mentors have the ability to coach and guide
students through every step of the academic process.” Amy, in highlighting the importance of a
mentor stated that “they help build integrated relationships and can have regular communication
to help students stay on track, and when institutions are equipped with adequate staff to service
students, are able to effectively guide students.” Faith stated that having a mentor was her
fundamental connection in helping her navigate through college processes and overcoming
academic obstacles. She said that “mentors have an influential role and are capable of positively
impacting students because of their direct, one-on-one relationship and continuous advisement.”
Meaningful and Positive Relationships Promote Self-Esteem and Impact Student
Achievement. The interview participants described that their mentors offered encouragement,
guidance, and recognition that they as adolescent mothers needed to “beat the odds.” Lily
expressed that it would have been beneficial to have mentors who had “walked in her shoes,” but
that she was thankful in finding mentorship in her academic advisor. It was important for Lily to
have someone in college who “listened and valued” her and helped promote her student
44
achievement. The data indicated that positive relationships and meaningful interactions with
mentors increased student achievement for the interview participants. When mentors developed
positive relationships with the adolescent student mothers, it resulted in higher student
achievement. Having positive social networks in order to obtain knowledge and seek support can
empower adolescent mothers and motivate them towards positive outcomes (Denner, Kirby,
Coyle, & Brindis, 2001). Positive relationships with mentors had a strong positive impact on the
educational outcome for adolescent student mothers by providing support that empowered them.
Faith expressed that “universities need to provide opportunities for meaningful and helpful
interactions that contribute advising, connections, and emotional support.” Isabelle talked about
the importance of meaningful interactions with her college professor and said that it was
important to her that people “communicate positive beliefs and attitudes that they can be
successful.” It was important to Isabelle that staff at the university “were there for support.”
Utilizing Empathetic Practices is an Essential Component to Helping Adolescent
Student Mothers Persist in College. Twelve out of 12 of the interview participants expressed
that empathetic mentors were critical for success and helping them develop goals, coping skills,
and also helping them navigate through life in a multitude of contexts and situations in college.
Ten out of 12 of the interview participants expressed that they did not feel supported enough to
handle all the responsibilities they had. Amy and Faith both shared their struggles as that they
did not have parental or family support when they became adolescent parents. Amy shared that
she was disowned by her parents when she was pregnant, and she had to learn how to “grow up
and be an adult really quick.” Faith expressed that her child was born with special needs, and she
never felt like she had enough support with “all the responsibilities and life that was going on.”
Despite having family and partner support, Brooke stated that she still felt that she didn’t have
45
enough support to “juggle all the responsibilities” she had as a mom and a full-time student.
However, 10 out of 12 of the interview participants described overcoming educational challenges
from having a mentor who helped identify and achieve goals and also helped develop their self-
esteem. Amy shared that her relationship with her academic advisor was a key component of
helping her staying in college when she wanted to drop out due to various reasons. She found her
interactions with her academic advisor valuable for her mental health as she expressed that her
academic advisor was “empathetic and a good listener.” Amy expressed that she “never felt
judged” and was able to open up about her struggles in both her school life and personal life to
her academic advisor.
Seven out of 12 of the interview participants reported enhanced academic success by
having empathetic mentors who helped foster a sense of belonging to their universities. Kate
commented on the importance of needing mentors “who have good interpersonal skills,
leadership, and the ability to continue motivating students to the finish-line.” Twelve out of 12 of
the interview participants described that, although they often felt overwhelmed, they had a
support system through their mentors who advised and guided them in “the right direction” to
persist towards their academic goals. Lily discussed how her mentor helped create a “supportive,
caring environment,” and she provided her with “the recognition for the difficult task of being a
parent and a student.” Mentors provided supportive personal relationships that were critical in
promoting and maintaining engagement of adolescent student mothers with their studies. Lily
stated that it was important that her mentor was “patient and understanding” and that her mentor
“promoted a sense of belonging by showing an interest” in her life.
46
Creating Institutional Resources That Support Adolescent Student Mothers is Needed
Interview data showed that none of the adolescent student mothers interviewed could
identify resources and supports in college that were specifically designed for adolescent student
mothers in helping them navigate through college to be successful. Twelve out of 12 of the
interview participants acknowledged that they had no specific guidance about college resources
that support parenting students from institutional representatives. Additionally, none of the
adolescent student mothers experienced systematic plans or practices created by their universities
specifically made for adolescent student mothers that was utilized during their time in college.
Faith stated that her university “did not have programs to support parents.” Twelve out of 12 of
the interview participants acknowledged that there was a lack of programs, supports, and
resources for parenting students.
Education and Training for Institutional Representatives. The data revealed that six
out of 12 of the interview participants felt as if their mentors had no formal training or
experience with dealing with adolescent student mothers. Amy suggested that this was due to
“teen moms going to college is a rare occurrence and universities are not prepared to support
them.” Six out 12 of the interview participants acknowledged that there are not many adolescent
mothers who go on to college after graduating high school. Brooke recognized that “adolescent
student mothers are rare in college,” however she believed that the “universities should be
prepared and have supports in place” to help them succeed.
Parent Support Groups. When asked what they would have wanted as additional
supports from their college when they attended, 12 out of 12 of the interview participants stated
parent support groups, and they expressed that it would have highly benefitted them. Darlene
stated that she wanted “to feel connected” to other parents and “be able to relate to what they
47
were going through as students and as parents.” Eight out of 12 of the interview participants
wanted to connect with parents who were students and going through similar life experiences.
Brooke stated that parent support groups would have “helped for moral support, to learn useful
child rearing methods, provide childcare opportunities, offer friendships opportunities, and to
discover community resources.”
Onsite Childcare. Data was not collected to identify whether universities provided onsite
childcare and if the interview participants took advantage of the service. However, six out of 12
of the interview participants mentioned onsite childcare made available at their university
campus would have been beneficial to have. Two out of 12 of the interview participants utilized
their university’s onsite childcare and talked about the convenience of having it available. Amy
stated that having her child in childcare on campus gave her a “peace of mind,” and she was glad
to be able to visit her son between classes. However, both interview participants expressed a
difficult process in securing a spot for their child due to lack of openings. Brooke talked about
having childcare onsite at her university for students, professors, university staff, and community
members. She stated that they were not subsidized for students and also had long waiting lists to
enroll her son. She expressed that she received a call from the childcare center saying there was
“an opening two years after I graduated” and acknowledged that “it would have helped if I was
able to utilize it during my time as a student.”
Subsidized Childcare. Nine out of 12 of the interview participants considered childcare
being a top barrier of educational challenges in college. Six out of 12 of the interview
participants considered staying at home instead of going to school because of childcare costs but
persisted in college as they realized that they needed an education if they wanted a better future.
Julie stated, “I had no idea how expensive childcare would be until I became a mom. A good
48
chunk of my paycheck went into paying for childcare.” The data analyzed identified that six out
of 12 of the interview participants believed that subsidized childcare, grants, and/or scholarships
for childcare would have benefited them. Amy expressed that “it would have been favorable if
colleges had childcare grants or scholarships to help pay for childcare.”
Summary
Positive relationships with mentors had a high impact on the educational outcome for
adolescent student mothers by providing support that empowered them. Mentorship was critical
to an adolescent student mothers’ academic success. Meaningful, empathetic, positive, and
helpful interactions with mentors helped encourage and foster self-esteem in adolescent student
mothers and also kept them engaged and persistent in college. Institutional resources lack to
support adolescent student mothers but it was identified that supports like as parent support
groups, onsite childcare and subsidized childcare may benefit them.
Motivation Findings
The study’s first research question focused on motivational influences to identify how an
adolescent student mother’s motivation and goals impacted their ability to utilize the support and
resources at the university. The question sought to analyze their motivation to persist despite the
challenges they faced in college. Findings were derived from interview participants’ responses to
interview questions that probed for their self-efficacy, expectancy value and ability to set goals.
Adolescent Student Mothers are Confident in Their Ability to Utilize the Support and
Resources at the University
Although interview data suggests that there were no supports and resources made
specifically for adolescent student mothers, each of the interview participants described that they
utilized the general supports and resources made available at the university in order to help
49
advantage their academic pursuits. When the interview participants were asked how they felt
about their ability to use the programs, resources or supports in college and their confidence in
their ability to utilize them, the data analysis identified that nine of the interview participants
were confident in utilizing what was available.
Emma, Brooke and Faith recognized that going to college was costly, and they
acknowledged that it was important for them to have an income in order to provide for their
family and to continue to go to college. Brooke stated that she utilized career services at her
university after losing her previous job due to schedule conflicts, and she was successful in
obtaining a new job through their services. Emma and Faith both also acknowledged utilizing
career services to help build their resume and find jobs on campus.
Amy stated that she “checked-in” with her academic advisor every month during her time
at her university and found “great support” in doing so. Eight of the 12 interview participants
asserted that they utilized counseling services at their universities at one time or another. They
understood the importance of having good mental health in order to persist through college.
Christine and Gianna both stated they used counseling services regularly to help cope with life
stressors. Christine stated that she met with a school counselor every week for the four years that
she was in college and that it gave her “emotional stability,” and it helped “boost” her self-
confidence as a student in college to succeed. Christine acknowledged that “counseling services
in college helped me immensely” to talk out her emotions and stressors. She acknowledged that
she “needed someone to listen to her” and “found it extremely convenient” that she could
schedule a session in-between her classes. Christine expressed that her counseling sessions
helped her “feel less overwhelmed with life and helped brave towards her academic goals,” and
it taught her valuable tools to be a better mom and student.
50
Julie stated that she found the food pantry on her campus to be helpful. Julie stated that
“when you’re living paycheck to paycheck, money for essentials can get tight” and she felt
fortunate that she found the campus food pantry. Many local farmers donated fresh fruits and
vegetables to her campus pantry and she stated that “using the food pantry on campus was a
blessing, and one of the factors that helped enable me to continue my education by helping me
not worry about taking on another job to supplement income.”
Adolescent Student Mothers Value the Impact Their Academic Performance has on Their
Future
In analyzing the interview data, it was identified that 12 out of 12 of the interview
participants valued education. Twelve out of 12 of the interview participants understood that
obtaining a college degree was important and valued the impact their academic performance had
on their future. The following section reviews the findings on their motivation to persist and
succeed in college.
When asked what expectations they had for their future once they graduated from
college, 10 of the 12 interview participants stated that their goal was to obtain a “good paying
job.” The biggest motivating factor for completing college was for their children, and eight out
of 12 of the interview participants contributed their persistence to success being “worth it”
despite the barriers they faced. Hannah said she persisted when faced with challenges because
she felt that she had the confidence in her ability and the belief that she “had control of the
outcome.” She was focused on her goals early on and knew that she had a “game plan set” and
had to “work hard” in order to achieve them. Hannah’s main focus was on completing her
education so she could provide financial stability for her child. Amy expressed that her
educational expectations were always high prior to becoming an adolescent mother. She
51
acknowledged that her aspirations were to “have a stable good paying job” and ultimately, obtain
a terminal degree. Amy’s expectations for the future was tied to wanting to “provide a good life
for her child.” She knew that furthering her education would lead to being able to provide “the
right type of life” for both herself and her child.
The data analysis identified that adolescent student mothers’ attitudes and beliefs were
connected to task value. The data identified that motherhood became a catalyst for growth for
adolescent mothers and that encouraged them to become better students. Adolescent student
mothers wanted to succeed for their children, and this encouraged them to overcome struggles. It
also motivated them to seek out the support they needed to find success. It ultimately gave them
the courage to persevere and was the catalyst that transformed them individually.
When asked to share what the interview participants’ attitudes were towards education
and going to college, 12 out of 12 interview participants communicated a belief that education
was an important way to improve their lives and the lives of their children. Specifically, Isabelle
mentioned that having a college degree would lead to better job opportunities and be “the only
way to not be dependent on social programs.” She wanted a better life for her daughter than
being “that mom and family dependent on welfare.” Emma acknowledged that education was
always important to her family. Her parents “engrained the importance and need for a college
degree” early on, and she knew that a college degree would help her get a job in the future to
provide for her son.
The interview participants also remarked that their primary motivations for continuing
their education was to be able to “give a better life for their children and to set good examples for
them.” Gianna stated, “Without my boy, I probably wouldn’t have been going to school. The
only reason I did was because I wanted to give him a better life.” The interview data suggested
52
that the struggle of motivation was directly tied to a fear of failing or disappointing their children
and family. Amy described that despite feeling “spread thin juggling many responsibilities” she
persisted with her academic goals because “failure was not an option.” She mentioned that if she
was to drop out of college, she feared that she would “become another teenage mom statistic
living on welfare,” and she wanted to provide better opportunities for her son.
Although the interview participants acknowledged that school “took a lot of time away”
from their kids, they persisted. They shared the reasons for their persistence as being to be “a
good role model” for their children, to make their children proud, and to provide their children
with “great opportunities” and a “good life.” Hannah who went to school for a business degree
had plans to obtain her MBA after her bachelors. She also stated that she believed that
“knowledge is power” and that a graduate degree would ultimately help set her up for a better
future.
Factors That Hindered Motivation
Barriers to academic success such as financial costs, childcare, and balancing parenting
that hindered an adolescent student mothers’ motivation to persist in college were previously
identified. However, two psychological factors also emerged from the data analysis that hindered
an adolescent student mother’s motivation to persist in college. The two psychological factors
that were identified were self-doubt and feelings of isolation.
Self-Doubt. Ten out of 12 of the interview participants had self-doubts of being able to
juggle school on top of the other priorities they had. Twelve out of 12 of the interview
participants stated that they had self-doubts that they would graduate from college. Four out of
12 of the interview participants also discussed their internal struggles with self-doubt and how
their own perception of their academic performance was often an indicator of whether they
53
would remain in college or not. Amy and Julie described various times of wanting to drop out of
college. Both were first-generation college students and had self-doubts about their place in
college. Psychological health, related to secure identity, is linked to positive educational
outcomes for students (Lin, 2011). Julie said that she struggled with “not feeling smart enough”
and being “disadvantaged as a teen mom and a first-generation colleges student.” Having an
acknowledged and positive self-concept of one’s identity is directly associated with beliefs and
behaviors that lead to college persistence, such as high self-esteem, academic achievement and
feeling empowered (Moore, 2013). Julie and Amy both stated that they used their grades as a
sign to continue their academic pursuits. Amy used her grades an indicator and that if she had
“bad grades at the end of each quarter,” she considered dropping out of college believing that
was an indication of “failing and not succeeding in school.”
Feelings of Isolation. When asked to describe the challenges they faced while working
towards their college degree, a theme that emerged was isolation. Adolescent student mothers
often drop out of school because of the pressures they experience, including isolation from peers
(Smithbattle, 2007). Twelve out of 12 of the interview participants mentioned feeling isolated or
feeling alone during their time in college. They expressed how they were different than the
traditional students and had a difficult time making friends with their peers. Feelings of isolation
can impact academic and emotional needs, and discrimination from peers can discourage and
prevent adolescent student mothers from attending school and furthering their education
(Driscoll, et.al., 2003). Brooke stated that while her peers were out “partying in the college
scene” during the weekends, she was at home parenting and being a responsible adult. Students
who view themselves as outcasts in school consequently develop low self-esteem, which
negatively impacts their motivation and achievement (Helm, 2007). Reflecting on her time in
54
college, Amy stated “I was an outsider in college. I was the only parent out of all my peers, and
my priorities in college were vastly different. It was hard to connect with anyone.” Feelings of
alienation and social rejection are important predictors of persistence for many students and can
indicate outcomes such as change in major, transferring schools or dropping out (Murphy &
Zirkel, 2015). The stigma associated with adolescent pregnancy and being different than their
peers often left them feeling alone and isolated. Isabelle was forthright about her times of feeling
different and “isolated from her peers in college because she was a mom.” Amy expressed how
she struggled as a single mom with two jobs, being a fulltime student, and family
responsibilities. She stated she had “no time for friends and a life outside of juggling priorities”
and “felt completely isolated.” The feelings of isolation contributed to hindering their motivation
to persist in school. Amy stated that she wanted to make friends and “be liberated from all her
responsibilities at times.” She said that college, homework and studying took a lot of time away
from having a social life. Adolescent student mothers wanted to have time to be around their
peers. Brooke acknowledged that during her time in college, she remembered wanting “time to
create and maintain friendships and be around my peers rather than doing homework.”
Factors Contributing to Wanting to Drop Out of College
In analyzing the interview data, a theme emerged in identifying the factors contributing to
adolescent student mothers wanting to drop out of college. For each of these adolescent student
mothers, many challenges and barriers to succeed in college were presented. Various factors that
were identified for adolescent student mothers wanting to drop out of college. However, the top
reasons for wanting to drop out of college were found to be financial barriers and feeling
overwhelmed.
55
Financial Barriers. Having financial barriers was the greatest obstacle for four out of the
12 interview participants. Financial barriers are one of the most commonly cited reasons for why
students do not persist in college and may impact institutional commitment (Tinto, 1993).
Having to pay for college and childcare was a financial hardship for many of the interview
participants. Specifically, Amy mentioned that she would have dropped out of college if she had
to pay for her tuition “out of pocket.” She acknowledged that the price of education was costly
and stated that she was “grateful to have grants and scholarships help pay” for her college
tuition. Julie stated that she lived “paycheck to paycheck” and thought of dropping out of college
multiple times so she could work a second job in order to “get ahead” financially.
Feeling Overwhelmed. Feeling overwhelmed with having to balance work fulltime,
parenting, and school was the biggest factor of wanting to drop out of school for half of the
interview participants. Twelve out of the 12 of the interview participants acknowledged that it
was overwhelming for them to be a student with all the other responsibilities they had. Amy
expressed that she remembered wanting to drop out of school multiple times because she
constantly felt “pulled in a million different directions.” Julie stated that she felt “helpless and ill-
equipped for adulthood,” and she felt “overwhelmed with having to balance student life, mom-
life and work.”
Summary
Adolescent student mothers highly valued education and knew that they needed to have
academic success in order to have a stable job and to provide a better life for themselves and
their children. They believed that their academic success would lead to a better job and life for
themselves and their children. Their persistence was manifested by wanting to provide a better
future for their children. Their persistence was also caused by both their self-efficacy in pursuing
56
the few available resources and the clear value of pursuing a college degree. Twelve out of the
12 interview participants shared that they had the confidence and belief in the value of utilizing
resources at the university and that their future would be positively impacted by succeeding in
their education. The interview data demonstrated that they utilized resources that were available
at their perspective universities, indicating their active choice as the critical component of
motivation. However, adolescent student mothers also communicated the potential benefits of
having appropriate resources made specifically available to support adolescent mothers. As such,
adolescent student mothers’ high level of motivation, manifested in both self-efficacy and value,
supported their success despite the challenges. The data analysis established that adolescent
student mothers believe in the importance of and find value in having resources and supports
because it directly impacts their academic success.
Recommendations for Practice
The purpose of this study was to complete a gap analysis in order to provide a set of
solutions and recommendations to advance the stakeholder and organizational goals. The
analysis of the interview data suggests barriers to performance as well as opportunities.
Recommendations to address these barriers originated from the literature review, theoretical
principles, and qualitative evidence. The recommendations were composed into a program that is
described in the following section.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
A list of the organizational influences with the emphasis of the Clark and Estes (2008)
conceptual framework, a review of the literature, and appropriate learning, motivation, and
organization theories shape this recommendation section. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) guided the construction of this implementation and evaluation
57
plan. This model suggests that it is critical to evaluate training programs in order to be able to
increase and validate their value to an organization.
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), there are three key reasons to evaluate
training programs: (a) to improve the program, (b) to maximize transfer of learning to behavior
and subsequent organizational results, and (c) to demonstrate the value of training to the
organization. The New World Kirkpatrick Model presents the four levels in reverse to keep focus
on what is most significant, the program outcome that is accomplished through improved on-the-
job performance. This model indicates that evaluation plans start with the goals of the
organization. The following sequences are the New World Kirkpatrick Model Levels: (a) Level 4
– Results: The degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training and the
support and accountability package; (b) Level 3 – Behavior: The degree to which participants
apply what they learned during training when they are back on the job; (c) Level 2 – Learning:
The degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and
commitment based on their participation in the training; and lastly (d) Level 1- Reaction: The
degree to which participants find the training favorable, engaging and relevant to their jobs.
Designing the implementation and evaluation plan with this method fosters connections between
the direct solutions and the organizational goals to secure alignment and organizational success
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Recommendations for organizational solutions are provided,
followed by an integrated implementation and evaluation plan of solutions that integrates the
New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organization Recommendations
The organization influences in Table 6 represent the comprehensive list of organization
influences and which are supported by the literature review and the review of organization and
58
culture theory. Clark and Estes (2008) proposed that organization and stakeholder goals are often
not attained due to a lack of resources and stakeholder goals not being aligned with
organizational mission and goals. Clark and Estes (2008) and Schein (2017) agreed that
organizational cultural influences can be determined by investigating an organizations’ implicit
and explicit attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, spoken and unspoken rules, and the alignment or
misalignment between organization policies and procedures and organization goals.
Furthermore, Schein (2017) suggested applying cultural models such as the competing values
model that proposes most organizations operate in the culture dimensions of either control,
collaboration, cultivation or competence, help determine whether the culture is aligned or
misaligned with achieving the goals of the organization.
The interview participants in this study took advantage of resources, programs, and
supports that were available at their universities in order to have academic success. The
interview participants reported that they relied on a supportive mentor who helped them navigate
them through college. The interview participants were able to establish a relationship with
mentors who helped them maintain focus on their academic goals and also provided empathetic
practices. It is recommended that institutions establish institutional representatives as mentors for
adolescent student mothers. Additionally, it is recommended that institutional representatives
learn to build meaningful relationships and utilize empathetic practices with adolescent student
mothers.
Communicating with peers and establishing a connection with other parents can serve as
a strategy to help adolescent student mothers identify support, resources, and opportunities. It is
also recommended that universities provide adolescent student mothers with valuable networks
of peer support by creating parent support groups. It is recommended that adolescent student
59
mothers are informed about counseling services and therapy sessions provided for students at
their university. In order to support adolescent student mothers with the aforementioned
recommendations, it is important to provide institutional representatives with practical
information to ensure adolescent student mothers’ success. It is recommended that institutional
representatives receive education and training to identify their adolescent student mothers’ needs,
build meaningful relationships in order to get to know their students, and utilize empathetic
practices. Furthermore, universities need to create programs specifically geared to adolescent
student mothers. Table 6 presents the recommendations based on theoretical principles.
Table 6
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Organization Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural setting:
Universities need to
provide opportunities for
meaningful and helpful
interactions with
adolescent student mothers.
Effective leaders are aware of
biases and prejudices that
occur in the organization at the
individual and structural
levels.
(Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila
& Wallerstein, 2008)
Educate staff regularly on the
importance of diversity and
inclusion.
Educate staff on building
meaningful relationships.
Educate staff on utilizing
empathetic practices.
Utilize reflective practices to
ensure biases and prejudices
are kept in check.
Cultural setting:
Universities need to have
resources for supporting
adolescent student mothers.
Effective accountability
systems must ensure that
adequate fiscal resources are in
place to meet organizational
goals or drive improvement.
(Hillman, Tandberg & Fryar,
2015).
Establish an effective
accountability system that
ensures adequate fiscal
resources are in place for
adolescent student mothers.
Establish parent support
groups.
60
Funding impacts student
learning.
(Hillman, Tandberg & Fryar,
2015).
Cultural model:
Universities need to
provide positive
relationships for adolescent
student mothers.
Effective leaders are
knowledgeable of
communication processes and
how to use them for effective
organizational change.
Lewis, L. K. (2011) Denning,
Stephen (2005).
Effective leaders have the
skills and strategies needed to
redesign their organization for
effective communication.
(Lewis, L. K., 2011.,
Hattaway, D. & Henson, J.,
2013. Denning, Stephen,
2005).
Establish mentors.
Provide adolescent student
mothers with formal and
informal communications
from mentors.
Use effective communication
strategies to engage key
stakeholders in the change
process.
Cultural Settings. The data indicated that adolescent student mothers experienced staff
at the organization as having negative beliefs and attitudes that adolescent student moms cannot
be successful, which leads to biases and prejudices about adolescent moms. Universities need to
provide opportunities for meaningful and helpful interactions with adolescent student mothers.
Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila and Wallerstein (2008) suggested that effective leaders are aware
of biases and prejudices that occur in the organization at the individual and structural levels. This
suggests that staff need to participate in diversity trainings. It is critical to educate staff regularly
the importance of diversity and inclusion, and also utilize reflective practices to ensure biases
and prejudices are kept in check.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that the most successful organizations are goal driven with
goals that are concrete, challenging and current. They also suggest that an absence of clear and
specific performance goals drives individuals to focus on their personal career advancement as
opposed to helping the organization or work team achieve its goals. Clark and Estes (2008) and
61
Schein (2017) pointed out that organizational cultural influences can be determined by
investigating an organizations’ implicit and explicit attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, spoken and
unspoken rules, and the alignment or misalignment between organization policies and procedures
and organization goals. Furthermore, Schein (2017) suggested that applying cultural models such
as the competing values model that proposes most organizations operate in the culture
dimensions of either control, collaboration, cultivation or competence, help determine whether
the culture is aligned or misaligned with achieving the goals of the organization.
The researcher did not study the funding of programs at universities for adolescent
student mothers. However, the interview participants reported that based on their experience,
there was no funding allocated for programs to support adolescent student mothers. The
interview participants reported the need and importance of parent support groups, onsite
childcare and subsidized childcare. Universities need to have adequate resources (e.g., funding,
staffing, materials) in order for adolescent student mothers to succeed. Effective accountability
systems must ensure that adequate fiscal resources are in place to meet organizational goals or
drive improvement. Hillman, Tandberg and Fryar (2015) found that funding impacts student
learning in community colleges, and this may have implications for universities as well. This
suggests that universities need to make resources available by establishing an effective
accountability system that ensures adequate fiscal resources are in place for adolescent student
mothers.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that there needs to be career development resources to
support faculty career instruction and advising. Furthermore, organizations require sufficient
tangible and intangible resources to achieve their goals. Schein (2017) also suggests that
62
collaboration and cultivation cultures, where new ideas and innovation flourishes and
performance improvement discussions are customary, are prevalent in organizations.
Cultural Model. Universities need to provide positive relationships for adolescent
student mothers. Adolescent student mothers need to be provided with both formal and informal
communications from mentors that promote positive relationships. Lewis (2011) and Denning
(2005) stated that effective leaders are knowledgeable of communication processes and how to
use them for effective organizational change. Furthermore, they suggest that effective leaders
have the skills and strategies needed to redesign their organization for effective communication.
In doing so, effective communication strategies can help engage key stakeholders in the change
process of in better supporting adolescent student mothers.
Rueda (2011) stated that an appreciation and understanding of the influence of cultural
models such as values, beliefs, invisible and automated attitudes, along with their visible,
concrete manifestations in cultural settings is essential to achieving the goals of the organization.
Effective communication of the aforementioned is utilized to help achieve the goals of the
organization. Berger (2014) and Schein (2017) suggested that since leadership is fundamentally a
communication process to convey clear direction about what is important, it is crucial for leaders
to communicate the organization’s goals and priorities frequently and consistently to enhance
clarity in the organization.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was used to guide
the design of this implementation and evaluation plan. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
presents the four levels in reverse to keep focus on what is most significant, the program
outcome that is accomplished through improved on-the-job performance. This model indicates
63
that evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization. The following sequences are the
New World Kirkpatrick Model Levels: (a) Level 4 – Results: The degree to which targeted
outcomes occur as a result of the training and the support and accountability package; (b) Level 3
– Behavior: The degree to which participants apply what they learned during training when they
are back on the job; (c) Level 2 – Learning: The degree to which participants acquire the
intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment based on their participation in
the training; and lastly (d) Level 1- Reaction: The degree to which participants find the training
favorable, engaging and relevant to their jobs. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan
with this method fosters connections between the direct solutions and the organizational goals to
secure alignment and organizational success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The aspirational organizational goal of universities is to graduate 100% of all students
from their organization, and this would include non-traditional students who are adolescent
student mothers enrolled at the university. The goal was selected in an attempt to improve overall
institutional graduation rates. A university’s priority will be in providing support for continued
education for adolescent student mothers by supporting them to stay engaged in school and
graduate. Success will be measured by the graduation rates of adolescent mothers who were able
to graduate from a university despite their barriers. Evaluating the educational resiliency factors
of adolescent student mothers who succeeded in college will enable the field of higher education
to improve its services to adolescent student mothers enrolled by building programs, resources
and supports for all parenting students. This project examined the knowledge and skills,
motivational, and organizational barriers that prevent the success rates of adolescent student
mothers succeeding in college. The proposed solution, a comprehensive mentorship program,
64
applicable resources and supports, should produce the desired outcome – an increase in the
number of adolescent student mothers graduating from college.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 7 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for graduating
adolescent student mothers. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the
training and organizational support for adolescent student mothers enrolled in universities, then
the external outcomes should also be recognized.
Table 7
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase the number of adolescent student
mother graduates
The number of
adolescent student
mother graduates
Create a disaggregated
category to identify
adolescent student mothers
Increase the number of recruitments of
adolescent student mothers
The number of
recruitment events
Solicit quarterly data from
outreach department
Improve mentor acquisition The number of
mentors
Solicit quarterly data from
the HR/recruitment
department
Internal Outcomes
Increase allocation of resources for
adolescent student mothers
The funding
allocation amount
Track funding allocations
Increased adolescent student mothers’
satisfaction with educational
resources/supports/programs
Number of times
the survey is
distributed
Collect data from student
satisfaction surveys
Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors. The adolescent student mothers are the key stakeholders of focus,
and they are the drivers of success, as they succeed in graduating college. The first critical
65
behavior is to assess adolescent student mothers’ usage of educational resources made availed to
them at the university. The second critical behavior is to assess the educational performance of
adolescent student mothers. The third critical behavior is to assess mentorship meetings between
adolescent student mothers. These behaviors can be completed every semester when reviewing
student performance goals. The specific metric, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear in Table 8.
Table 8
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
Adolescent student
mothers’ use educational
resources made available to
them.
Meeting notes/check in
signed by the student
adolescent mothers.
Meeting note/check in
signatures submitted to
the student support
office.
Every
semester
Adolescent student
mothers’ improved
academic performance
Assess grades. Review educational
plan/grades submitted.
Every
month
Adolescent student
mothers’ participation in
mentorship meetings.
Meeting notes/check in
signed by the student
adolescent mothers.
Meeting note/check in
signatures submitted to
the student support
office.
Every
month
Required Drivers. Adolescent student mothers will require university support programs
to provide information and monitor progress of the goals. By providing mentorship and
resources, universities can support adolescent student mothers’ success in college. Institutional
representatives who can serve as mentors such as professors, school counselors, and academic
advisors can build meaningful relationships and the necessary resiliency factors that adolescent
student mothers need to graduate by providing individual attention and continued support for
academic goals (Benz et al., 2000). Mentors can help students identify personal and academic
goals and help foster critical thinking skills which can help produce protective factors that
66
benefit them academically (Samel, Sondergeld, Fischer, & Patterson, 2011). Also, as institutional
representatives’ empathetic abilities increase, this becomes correlated with a better ability to
understand and appropriately respond to students’ needs (Barr, 2011). Table 9 shows the
recommended drivers to support the critical behaviors of the adolescent student mothers.
Table 9
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Create an informational web page will be created to inform
adolescent student mothers of who they can go to for
mentorship, guidance, and support.
Every
semester
1, 2, 3
Create an informational web page will be created to inform
adolescent student mothers of what supports will help them
graduate from college.
Every
semester
1, 2, 3
Create an educational mentorship program for adolescent
moms.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Create an educational mentorship program that has functional
value for adolescent moms.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Provide opportunities for adolescent student moms to check
their progress and adjust their learning strategies and
resources as needed.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Mentors having monthly check-ins with adolescent student
mothers.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Organizational Support. It is critical that universities support adolescent student
mothers to ensure successful graduation rates. The organization will support the key stakeholders
by educating staff regularly the importance of diversity and inclusion. They will utilize reflective
practices to ensure biases and prejudices are kept in check. They will also provide adolescent
67
student mothers with formal and informal communications from mentors. The organization will
utilize effective communication strategies to engage key stakeholders in the change process.
Furthermore, they will establish an effective accountability system that ensures adequate fiscal
resources are in place for adolescent student mothers.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals. After completing the recommended solutions, particularly utilizing the
resources made availed at the university to the adolescent student mothers, the stakeholders will
be able to:
1. Articulate an understanding of where to go for mentorship, guidance, and support (D).
2. Recognize what supports will help them graduate from college (D).
3. Create educational resiliency factors that will help them graduate (M).
Program. The aforementioned learning goals will be achieved with a mentorship
program that communicates in-depth the university resources and supports availed to adolescent
student mothers. Mentors will meet with adolescent student mothers monthly to review their
academic progress and provide them with resources and supports. During meetings with mentors,
adolescent student mothers will be provided an informational website that will provide them with
directions of who to go to for various types of student support. This mentorship program will be
semester long and have monthly in person check-ins and will take place until the student
graduates from college. Monthly check-ins will provide various student resources and student
support so that the adolescent mother will be able to successfully graduate from college. The
types of support that will be provided will be academic support, ensuring positive student
outcomes.
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Evaluation of the Components of Learning. Learning objectives for the stakeholders of
focus will include opportunities to practice and receive feedback, ask questions, and discuss
expectations. Validating declarative knowledge is often the foundation to applying the
knowledge to resolve issues. There is a focus on the adolescent student mothers’ knowledge,
skills and attitudes, and the learning objectives include for opportunities for the them to practice
and receive feedback, ask question, and discuss expectations, which help build their confidence.
Objectives that build commitment include discussions focused on real world issues, barriers or
challenges to implementing the program, and how to address these concerns in a manner that
clears a path and provides value to the stakeholders to apply what they have learned. As such,
Table 10 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.
Table 10
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using examples During the mentorship
meetings
Knowledge checks through discussions During workshops and
documented via mentor
notes
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
During the mentorship meeting using scenarios of when to utilize
the university’s resources and supports
During the mentorship
meeting
Demonstration of utilizing the resources to be a successful
student
During the mentorship
meeting
Feedback during mentor check-ins During the mentorship
meeting
Post mentorship meeting surveys At the end of mentorship
meetings
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Mentor’s observations of student’s statements and actions
demonstrating they are utilizing the resources and supports and
are being successful students
During mentorship
meeting
Discussions about what their expectations are as students During mentorship
meeting
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Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions following utilizing resources/supports During mentorship
meeting
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following classes/check-ins During mentorship
meeting
Creating an individualized academic/action plan During mentorship
meeting
Level 1: Reaction
Level 1: Reaction is to determine if the stakeholders find the training favorable,
engaging, and relevant. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggests that formative evaluation
methods are a modest way to obtain the necessary information. In doing so, there are various
benefits of using formative methods: (a) The mentor receives immediate feedback and will be
able to adjust the teaching approach and/or content to meet the adolescent student mother’s
needs; (b) There can be an increase in satisfaction and engagement when learners see immediate
response to their concerns; and (d) Engagement increases if issues are resolved. Table 11
presents the methods, tools, and timing in order to measure the reactions to the program. Table
11 focuses on formative methods to evaluate the three components of Level 1, which represent
the level of engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction.
Table 11
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Mentorship meeting attendance During the monthly check-ins
Monthly (in person) check-ins Ongoing during the semester
Class attendance Ongoing during the semester/During the monthly check-ins
Academic evaluation During and after the semester
Relevance
Monthly (in person) check-ins Ongoing during the semester
Academic evaluation During and after the semester
Customer Satisfaction
Monthly (in person) check-ins Ongoing during the semester
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Academic evaluation During and after the semester
Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation. During the semester, the
mentors will collect data about the start, duration and completion of classes by the participants.
This data will indicate the engagement with the classes and resources provided at the university.
The mentors will also administer brief surveys after each mentorship session requesting the
participants to indicate the relevance of the resources to their academic performance and their
overall satisfaction with their participation, the content and delivery of the courses and the
mentorship session. For Level 1, during the mentorship session, the mentors will conduct
periodic brief checks by asking the participants about the relevance of the resources and support
to their academic performance. Level 2 will include checks for understanding responding to
questions and scenarios drawn from the content.
The post-training evaluations will measure the participants’ Level 2 learning by inquiring
about the new knowledge, skills, attitudes about the value of what was learned, and their
confidence and commitment to apply what was learned to their academic performance. During
the mentorship meeting, the mentors will log attendance and observe participation to measure
Level 1 engagement, as well as periodically conduct a pulse-check observing training by asking
participants about training content significance and barriers to learning that may be hindering
satisfaction.
Level 2 learning will be assessed using intermittent declarative and procedural
knowledge checks during mentorship sessions. Level 2 attitudes will be measured during
mentorship sessions via mentorship observation of the participants’ reports and actions
demonstrating their perception of value of what is being learned. Lastly, Level 2 confidence and
71
commitment will be evaluated in discussion with participants following mentorship sessions.
Attitudes, confidence, and commitment will also be assessed in a post mentorship session
survey.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation. Approximately four weeks
after the implementation of the training about resources, and then again at eight weeks, mentors
will administer a survey containing open and scaled items to measure satisfaction and relevance
of the resources, supports and mentorship sessions (Level 1), confidence and value of applying
the resources gained from the mentorship sessions (Level 2), application of the mentorship
sessions to the participants’ academic performance (Level 3), and the extent to which their
academic performance has increased due to the resources and supports they receive from the
mentorship sessions (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
A blended approach to analyze and report the key performance indicators will be used
represented by Level 4 leading indicators and results and Level 3 behaviors, listed in Tables 8
and 9. Table 12 lists each of the key performance indicators to be measured, including metrics,
frequency of reporting, and graphic representation in a dashboard. The dashboard will serve as a
tool to communicate the importance of the key performance indicators and connect
accountability. The dashboard representation for the key performance indicators are listed in
Table 12
Key Performance Indicators
Key Performance Indicator
(KPI)
Metric Frequency of
Reporting
Dashboard
Representation
Adolescent student
mothers’ graduation rates
Summary of graduates
from the Office of
Registrar
Every
semester
Bar chart
72
Classes passed Grades Every
semester
Bar chart
Adolescent student
mothers’ engagement and
satisfaction
Adolescent student
mother survey
Monthly Bar chart
Accountability measures
taken
Mentors and Program
Director in counseling
office survey
Every
semester
Bar chart
Mentors focus during
mentorship meetings
Program Director survey Monthly Bar chart
Students’ attendance in
class and for mentorship
session
Student engagement
survey
Weekly Bar chart
Summary
This study’s recommended solutions, implementation strategies, and evaluation plan was
developed utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This
framework facilitated in improving the academic success of the adolescent student mothers at the
university. The four levels in Kirkpatrick’s model are not mutually exclusive. Knowing what
may be influencing the organization's performance, although essential, is not always adequate
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). There are additional critical stages in the problem-solving
progression to address the problems of practice. It is essential to create an action plan to move
towards the goals and also organize resources to implement the plan. Most importantly, there
needs to be a system in place to monitor and assess results.
A Blended Evaluation approach, or one in which multiple levels are evaluated
simultaneously, was used. Evaluation forms and tools were built based on the program’s needs.
In doing so, this approach maximized evaluation resources and prevented survey fatigue.
Questions were learner-centered and worded from the perspective of the learner’s experience in
the mentorship program. Usefulness and credibility guided the types of information gathered in
73
the evaluation. Utilizing the Blended Evaluation approach with a deliberately selected learner-
centered item set increased response rate and usable data. The benefit of utilizing the reverse
levels of the Kirkpatrick Model is in what way it focuses activity at all levels on desired
outcomes as analyzed through the required drivers, which leads to the ultimate predictor for
success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The outcomes determine the combination of all
methods and metrics to lead to the desired results through the positive results on expectation for
implemented solutions. Additionally, continuing formative data collection during and after
implementation of solutions provides flexibility to modify learning throughout the implantation
as needed, and also aides in accountability.
Limitations and Implications for Future Research
The study was regulated to the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
chosen for the conceptual framework. It was also difficult to differentiate knowledge influences
from organizational influences due to the passage of time between the participants’ experience in
college and when the interviews took place. The data that emerged was related to the
participants’ actual experiences with their higher education institution and reflected
organizational influences more so than knowledge influences. The existing research is largely
about community colleges, and the results were limited by the experiences and opinions shared
in the interviews of the universities that the interview participants graduated from. The results
were also limited to the interview participants who graduated from universities in California,
Washington, and Texas. This study is not representative of all universities, as many universities
may have support systems in place. Also, their unique experiences, behaviors and outcomes
cannot be generalized.
74
The KMO framework was not an ideal fit for studying adolescent mothers. However, the
KMO framework may be appropriate for studying institutional agents who work with adolescent
mothers. The researcher suggests future research to complete an in-depth study of institutional
agents such as academic advisors, professors, and school counselors’ capacity to support
adolescent student mothers.
Conclusion
In universities, the positive relationship between a mentor (academic advisors, school
counselors or professors) and adolescent student mothers was found to be fundamental in an
adolescent student mothers’ ability to succeed in college. This study set out to evaluate the
various educational resiliency factors in which contributed to adolescent student mothers
graduating from college. The knowledge, motivation and organizational influences were specific
factors that were evaluated in which contributed to a gap in frequency of fulfilling graduation
rates. Adolescent student mothers who successfully graduated from college were selected as the
primary stakeholders, as they ultimately utilized the supports and resources to attain educational
achievement. In order to assess where a potential performance gap may exist, the Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model was utilized to create and analyze knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on adolescent student mothers and their subsequent use of university
resources and supports. Using this framework, the data revealed that adolescent student mothers
possessed the motivation to utilize the university supports and resources made available to them.
However, there was also a gap in the organizational support required to implement in effectively
supporting adolescent student mothers to thrive in the educational setting. The findings revealed
areas for improvement and growth in supporting adolescent student mothers’ academic
performance and a program was devised to address these opportunities. Recommendations to
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address these organizational issues include an inclusion of mentoring programs and setting aside
more funding for supporting adolescent student mothers. Universities would also benefit from
instilling empathetic practices for professors, academic advisors and school counselors. The use
of empathetic practice supports student academic achievement by promoting student motivation
and self-esteem (Helm, 2007). Empathetic practices which emphasize the importance of building
meaningful relationships have significant impact on student retention and persistence. Students
who perceive institutional representatives as caring, interested, and invested in their school
culture persist in school longer and more successfully (Williams, 2010).
It was also identified that there was a need for improved training, increased resources,
effective communications, and revised evaluation systems in place to ensure success in terms of
addressing the performance gap. The success of minimizing the identified performance gap and
ensuring better educational outcomes for adolescent student mothers were significantly
associated with modifying organizational culture. The study identified gaps in performance
within universities that could be addressed through culture shifts towards more fully recognizing
the importance of positive mentorship. Building relationships between students and institutional
representatives that mitigate dropout rates requires emotional skills comprised by empathetic
practice, such as creating connections and expressing interest in their personal lives (Roorda et
al., 2011).
The results of this study could possibly assist universities across the United States that
struggle with the multifaceted issues of academic underachievement rates with adolescent
student mothers. The associated literature along with the data collected in this study support the
importance of mentorship in university settings are foundational to promote student achievement
and college success. If universities recognize the importance of a mentor’s ability to
76
meaningfully connect with adolescent student mothers, resources and supports can be created to
focus on empathetic and meaningful practices. Universities should focus on trainings to support
and build mentorship programs and include better empathetic practice trainings for professors,
academic advisors and school counselors. Meaningful relationships within the educational
setting have the ability to reshape an adolescent student mothers’ attitude towards school and
impact their academic achievement by fostering resiliency factors in order to succeed.
77
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Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interview
Participating Stakeholders
Adolescent mothers who graduated from college were the primary stakeholders for this
qualitative study. It is important to understand the experiences and educational resiliency factors
of adolescent mothers who successfully graduated college, despite facing barriers. The selection
of a qualitative approach was considered appropriate as research on adolescent mothers, as it
identified a lack of research on adolescent mothers who were successful at obtaining a college
degree. Through qualitative research studies, researchers pursue to understand the behaviors,
attitudes, and motivations of people by examining individuals within society (Creswell, 2014).
The qualitative approach was the appropriate tool to collect and analyze data drawn from the
attitudes, motivations, experiences, and perceptions of the sample. Descriptive and narrative
designs provided valuable data in examining the depth and scope of the issue of adolescent
pregnancy, especially since it is specifically a multifaceted social and cultural issue (Creswell,
2014). This approach allowed the researcher to understand knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that were significant to the academic performance of adolescent
student mothers. In addition, adolescent student mothers provided an understanding of the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that contributed to their success in being able
to graduate from college.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Adolescent mothers who gave birth as a teenager between the ages of 13 and
19 years of age. Interviewing these stakeholders was necessary in bridging the gap in the lack of
literature about supporting and building resiliency in adolescent mothers.
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Criterion 2. Adolescent mothers must have graduated with a bachelor’s degree by the
age of 30, from a private or public university from the United States which they attended in
person in the last 10 years. Interviewing these stakeholders was necessary to understand their
knowledge, motivation, perceptions of organizational influences, and experiences with academic
supports and resources that enabled them to graduate.
Criterion 3. Must be willing to participate in a 60-minute interview. Not all adolescent
mothers may feel comfortable speaking about their experiences as an adolescent mother, due to
some social stigmas associated with adolescent pregnancy. Their unique experiences contributed
to understanding their academic performance supports, resiliency factors, and the challenges they
faced while attending college.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
The issue of adolescent pregnancy addressed in this study can be found in communities
all across the United States. Participants were selected by means of purposeful sampling, which
allow for the selection of a sample to be able to provide rich description on the issue measured
(Creswell, 2014). Recruiting participants for this study was limited due to the social stigmas
associated with adolescent pregnancies. In order to capture a larger sample population, snowball
sampling was be utilized. The sample was established through leads from colleagues, friends,
and family. The researcher reached out to three individuals that she knew who fit the participant
criteria. Those participants then reached out to others who fit the criteria to contact the researcher
for an interview. This approach helped identify cases of interest from people who knew mothers
who successfully graduated college despite being an adolescent mother. A snowball sample is an
effective technique when trying to locate participants of hard to find populations. The
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snowballing technique occurs when the existing study participants recruit future participants
from among their acquaintances (Paton, 1990).
To facilitate this study and to comprise of the criteria above, potential participants were
defined as adolescent mothers who successfully graduated college before the age of 30.
Individuals who identified with the criteria were given the researcher’s contact information and
asked to reach out to the researcher via phone. Once the initial contact was made via telephone,
the researcher determined whether they met the criteria and if they were interested in
contributing personal information to a research study. An explanation of the study and the
criteria for participation was be provided. The researcher also communicated what would be
required of the participant. Interested participants were asked if they would like to be
interviewed. If the individual agreed to participate in the study, she was scheduled an interview.
During the initial phone contact, the researcher also asked if they knew anyone else who fit the
criteria and asked them to give the researcher’s contact information. These adolescent mothers
knew other adolescent mothers who have had similar life experiences. All contact information
remained confidential, and individuals who were interested, who willingly volunteered and who
met the criteria were included in the sample.
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Appendix B: Credibility and Trustworthiness
There are a number of strategies that a qualitative researcher can use to increase the
credibility of the findings. It is important to be explicit about the researcher’s role and their
relationship to those being studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Researchers need to consider and
moderate the specific threats to credibility and trustworthiness within their studies (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Researcher bias and reactivity are substantial threats to credibility (Maxwell,
2013). Strategies appropriate to this study were used to minimize threats and increase the
trustworthiness of the study.
First off, a detailed and peer-reviewed interview guide was utilized to reduce reactivity
during the interviews. The researcher ensured the trustworthiness and credibility of the research
by preventing threats to validity. By safeguarding against threats to validity, the researcher was
be able to ensure that each of the participants was comfortable during the interview process and
decreased the potential for researcher bias. The researcher’s role included making the
participants feel comfortable to answer open-ended questions while protecting their identity and
having confidentiality. Treating the participants with respect was a priority when attending to the
adolescent mothers who shared their intimate stories. Creswell (2014) suggested that the
researcher should include statements about their past experiences, to help build rapport. The
researcher shared that she fit the participant criteria in hopes that the participants would feel
more inclined in sharing their experiences. Trustworthiness is critical in establishing a strong
study (Creswell, 2014). In order to establish trustworthiness, diverse validation approaches of
confirmability, dependability, and transferability were utilized.
The researcher contributed her own personal bias to the study, as she fit the criteria of the
sample and was an adolescent mother who graduated from college. These factors may have
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contributed an increased risk of personal bias to the data collection and analysis process,
affecting the credibility of the results (Maxwell, 2013). However, it was important that the
researcher kept her focus and role as a researcher. The researcher listened carefully to the
participants without interjecting her own perspectives (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). She was aware
of her attempts to analyze the data during the process of collection and prompted herself to keep
her biases separate. Member checks are known as respondent validation, the idea here is that the
researcher solicits feedback on the preliminary or emerging findings from the participants
interviewed (Merriam & Tisdell 2016). The researcher shared the data with participants through
member checks during the interviews to correct errors in her interpretation of their responses and
in order to have opportunities to summarize findings for consistency and themes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
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Appendix C: Ethics
As part of this research there were several significant ethical issues that were addressed:
confidentiality of the participant’s responses and identity; emotional distress caused by
participation; and the participant’s membership in a vulnerable group. There was an explanation
of the nature and purpose of the study that allowed the adolescent student mothers to make an
informed decision regarding their participation. A verbal commitment of participation was asked.
The participants were fully informed about the risks involved in the research and gave their
consent to further participate. Participants were told that they can refuse to participate in the
research, or leave at any time without penalty, censure, or questioning.
Confidentiality was maintained in various ways. Any information that could identify the
participants was altered for added assurance of confidentiality, and the universities of which they
attended were protected with a pseudonym used at the start of the data collection process. All
participants were assured that measures were taken to preserve their rights, that their personal
information would be kept confidential, and that their identities would be kept anonymous. A
permission to record the interview was gained. The researcher explained that both audio and
transcribed data would be stored in a safe and secure location to protect all participants from any
harm or inappropriate usage. All electronic files and data were password protected, and all paper
files were locked in a filing cabinet. In addition, the research study was submitted to the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB), and fulfilled IRB protocols.
This study recruited participants of a vulnerable population. To minimize the potential for
coercion as a vulnerable population, participants were reminded at multiple points in the study
that their participation was voluntary, and they had a choice to stop participating at any point in
the study. The research questions required in-depth analysis and discussion of personal
95
experiences that may have been traumatic to the participants. Participants were reassured several
times that all information and data would be confidential and anonymous.
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Appendix D: Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations occur in all types of research and are outside the researcher’s control, and
they are threats to the study’s internal or external validity (Wiersma, 2000). Limitations can get
in the way of being able to answer specific questions or draw certain types of inferences from
findings. Limitations can also impede the ability to generalize the findings to the larger
populations or in drawing causal conclusions. Therefore, it is critical to acknowledge them
upfront and make note of how limitations restrict the conclusions that are drawn from the study.
Delimitations are factors that can restrict the questions or the inferences a researcher can draw
from the findings (Wiersma, 2000). However, they are based on intentional choices made about
the boundaries of the research project and they define the project’s scope (Wiersma, 2000).
This research study aligns with a qualitative research approach and comprises of the use
of interviews as the primary methods of data collection. The study focused on a rich and
descriptive examination of the college experiences of adolescent mothers. However, there were
limitations to the study out of my control. The limitations of this study included the truthfulness
of the participants in the interviews and what they were willing to share. This study was also
limited by time, since it only represented of a specific timeframe. The study was also regulated to
the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences chosen for the conceptual framework. It
was also difficult to differentiate knowledge influences from organizational influences due to the
passage of time between the participants’ experience in college and when the interviews took
place. The data that emerged was related to the participants’ actual experiences with their higher
education institution and reflected organizational influences more so than knowledge influences.
Delimitation choices made such as the questions asked in the interviews and the limited number
of participants limited the scope of this study. Lastly, the results were also limited by the
97
experiences and opinions shared in the interviews of the universities that the participants
graduated from.
98
Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation Instrument Survey
The following questions will be answered on a 4-point Likert scale from Strongly Disagree to
Strongly Agree.
1. The resource and support training held my interest. (Level 1 Engagement)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
2. This training was relevant to my academic performance. (Level 1 Relevance)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
3. I am satisfied with my mentorship session today. (Level 1 Customer Satisfaction)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
4. I feel confident I understand and can apply the resources and supports in place for
my academic success. (Level 2 Confidence)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
5. I am committed to applying my knowledge to my academic performance (Level 2
Commitment)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
Upon solutions
being introduced,
provide a
compliance-related
debrief to assess
staff perceived
value and collective
efficacy about
improving the
organization’s
compliance.
During weekly staff
meetings, after review
of service agreement
and other training
documents, staff will be
asked to discuss ways in
which they will
implement the
compliance-related
procedures with clients.
6 months after all
solutions have been
implemented, gather
supervisor observations
of staff interaction with
client and conduct
analysis of staff-
generated compliance-
related documents such
as the academic plan for
both quantity and
quality.
One year out of full
implementation of
solutions, collaborate
with Regional Center to
review compliance data
as well as obtain
information about % of
students enrolled in
community college as
evidence of fulfilled
compliance activities.
LEARNING/PERFORMANCE
TRANSFER
99
Appendix F: Delayed Evaluation Instrument Survey
Using the following scale: 1 - Strongly Agree, 2 - Agree, 3 - Disagree, 4 - Strongly Disagree
1. The resource and support information has been applicable to my academic
performance.
(Level 1 Relevance) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
2. What information was most relevant? (Level 1 Relevance)
3. What information was least relevant? (Level 1 Relevance)
4. What information should be added to this training in the future to increase its
relevance to adolescent student mothers? (Level 1 Relevance)
5. What information, if any, do you feel was missing from university’s resource and
support training? (Level 2 Knowledge, Skills)
6. How has your confidence using what you learned changed since the university’s
resource and support training? (Level 2 Confidence)
7. I have successfully applied what I learned to my academic performance at the
university. (Level 3 Transfer) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
8. If you selected Strongly Disagree or Disagree for #7 above, please indicate the
reasons (check all the apply): (Level 3 Transfer)
a. What I learned is not relevant to my academics.
b. I do not have the necessary knowledge and skills.
c. I do not feel confident applying what I learned to my academics.
d. I do not have the resources I need to apply what I learned to my academics.
e. I do not believe applying what I learned will make a difference.
f. No one is tracking what I am or am not doing anyway.
100
g. Other (please explain):
9. What else, if anything, do you need in order to successfully apply what you
learned? (Level 3 Transfer)
10. I feel encouraged to apply what I learned from my colleagues. (Required Drivers
- Encouraging) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
11. I have time with my mentors and peers to share success stories and troubleshoot
challenges and barriers related to what I learned. (Required Drivers - Encouraging)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
12. I am incentivized to apply what I learned. (Required Drivers - Rewarding)
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
13. I have been or will be rewarded for successfully applying what I learned.
(Required Drivers - Rewarding) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
14. I have my own personal goals related to what I learned. (Required Drivers -
Reinforcing, Monitoring) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
15. I am held accountable for applying what I learned and making progress.
(Required Drivers - Monitoring) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
16. I am already seeing positive results from applying what I learned. (Level 4
Results) Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree
17. Please provide one or more examples of positive outcomes from applying these
mentorship sessions: (Level 4 Results)
18. Please share any suggestions you have for improving this training:
101
Appendix G: Protocols
Interview Protocol
Interview Opening Remarks
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I am conducting research as part of my
Doctor of Education Program in Organizational Change and Leadership with the Rossier School
of Education at the University of Southern California. I plan to make specific recommendations
to universities related to improving graduation rates for adolescent student mothers as a result of
this study. The interview will take about 60 minutes and consists of 14 questions. There are no
right or wrong answers, and you may skip any question you do not want to answer. You may
stop the interview at any time. Your responses will be kept confidential, and will only be shared
in summary form, with no identifying information so that no individual participant can be
identified. I would like to record the interview to help remember the responses. Immediately
following this session, the recordings will be uploaded to a secure server and deleted from my
device. Within a week, the session will be transcribed and permanently deleted from the
recording. The transcription will be stored under a pseudonym so that responses cannot be
connected back to you.
Do I have your permission to record the interview?
Do you mind if I write down a few notes?
Do you have any questions, comments or concerns before we get started?
Please remember once again that you can skip any question or stop the interview at any time.
Interview Questions
1. Can you tell me how old you were when you had your child?
2. Can you tell me how old you are now?
102
3. Let’s talk about your educational experiences prior to college.
a. Tell me about your education in high school, did you graduate from high school
or receive a GED, and was it on time or late?
b. Can you share what your attitude towards education and going to college was?
4. Let’s now shift to your time at college.
a. Where did you go to college?
b. Why did you choose the college you attended?
5. What were your primary motivations for continuing your education?
6. Can you describe the challenges you faced while working toward your college degree?
7. Tell me about the factors that were directly related to what the college provided that
enabled you to continue your education.
8. Did you involve yourself in campus other than attending classes? What kinds of
involvement with the campus did you have?
9. What types of programs, resources or supports were available for you at your college to
support you as a college student? How did they help you?
a. If yes, how did you feel about your ability to use the programs, resources or
supports? To what degree, if at all, did you feel confident in your ability to use the
programs, resources or supports?
b. How did you feel like you were treated in the programs, resources or supports?
10. What improvements, if any, would you recommend for the programs, supports and
resources that were available for you?
11. Did the college provide you with a mentor or an academic advisor?
a. How did your mentor or academic advisor support you?
103
b. What did you think their perception of your academic success was?
12. What would you have wanted as additional supports from your college when you
attended?
13. Tell me how you financed your college degree?
14. Can you tell me what expectations you had for your future once you graduated from
college?
Thank you very much for your time.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This qualitative study examined the beliefs, experiences, and perceptions of adolescent mothers who were able to graduate from college in order to understand the resiliency factors that contributed to their academic success. This evaluative study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis and applied the knowledge, motivation and organizational framework to identify the factors that contributed to or hindered academic success. The study data originated from interviews with 12 adolescent mothers who successfully graduated from a four-year college in the United States. Data analysis identified factors in adolescent student mothers’ knowledge, motivation, and the organizational constructs that supported and hindered an adolescent student mother’s academic success in college. A critical finding was that a meaningful relationship based with an empathetic mentor contributed to an adolescent student mother’s wellbeing and created a positive impact on their academic success. This study includes recommendations for colleges to support the success of adolescent student mothers with recommendations for institutional mentorship and implementation of parent support groups.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Larsen, Tammy K.
(author)
Core Title
Educational resiliency factors contributing to college success for adolescent mothers
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
09/18/2020
Defense Date
08/06/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Academic Achievement,academic success,adolescent mothers,college graduation rates,college retention,education,OAI-PMH Harvest,resiliency,teen moms,teen pregnancy
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Seli, Helena (
committee chair
), Brady, Melanie (
committee member
), Phillips, Jennifer (
committee member
)
Creator Email
tammyklarsen@gmail.com,tklarsen@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-372510
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372510
Document Type
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Larsen, Tammy K.
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
academic success
adolescent mothers
college graduation rates
college retention
education
resiliency
teen moms
teen pregnancy