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College-educated immigrants' experiences in adult education career technical education programs
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College-educated immigrants' experiences in adult education career technical education programs
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1
COLLEGE-EDUCATED IMMIGRANTS’ EXPERIENCES IN ADULT EDUCATION
CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS
By
Emma Diaz Curiel
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2020
Copyright 2020 Emma Diaz Curiel
2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my convoy of family and friends who have accompanied me
along this journey - here we are today! It is especially dedicated to the memory of my mother,
Maria Dionicia Curiel (MDC), whose initials were used for the college pseudonym in the study.
Thank you, mom, for instilling in me the love of knowledge and the resilience to never give up
on my dreams.
3
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my convoy of family and friends who
have been a part of this journey from the beginning. To my family who have lived through my
third degree now and offered unconditional support, never questioning “why another degree?”!
To my friends in the O.C., who were excited when I enrolled in the USC program even
when that meant I would not be able to see you as often. You were all so eager to offer
encouragement. Thank you, Julie and Julie, Denise, Yolanda, Stacey, Amabel, Kim, Mary Jo,
Valentina, Karen, campus managers and faculty. Thank you especially to Cheryl, who offered
me encouragement when I needed it most, and wrote me a letter of recommendation to prove it.
Work family in the Inland Empire, Mitch, Cali, Consortium folks, Stephanie, Melissa,
and Vivian, you were supportive from the beginning to the end of my enrollment in this program.
You were all constantly checking in, letting me know you cared, and uplifting me always by
telling me the difference my experience was making. To Maria, Alex, Pete, and Jorge who
entertained my geeky ideas and let me ramble about learning theory. Blanca and Gabriel, my
cheerleaders, always finding ways to reach out and support and encourage me.
Across the state, Diana, Veronica, Neil, Carolyn, Pat, Margaret, and Jane, you were so
willing to engage in meaningful conversation about my topic. You actively shared resources to
support my research knowing that it will make a difference to our adult education population.
I would like to thank my committee members, my chair, Dr. Tracy Tambascia, and
committee, Dr. Paula Carbone, and Dr. Debra Jones. Your passion for education shined through
as you guided me through this process of bringing the stories in my research to life.
4
USC convoy of friends, you made the experience memorable, saving each other seats,
coffee sprints, snack attacks, foraging for dinner, and feeling accompanied. Cristina, Tammi,
Jennaca, Tzoler, Ann, Jose, and Sukari.
Thank you to Rebeca, those “sanity” beach walks were so important over the past three
years; they were the reprieve I needed from schoolwork. Lastly, to every teacher I have had in
my long educational path, you took the time to nurture my curiosity, and showed me that
knowledge is power. Muchas Gracias!
5
Table of Contents
Dedication ____________________________________________________________________2
Acknowledgements _____________________________________________________________3
List of Tables _________________________________________________________________8
List of Figures _________________________________________________________________9
Abstract _____________________________________________________________________10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ______________________________________________11
Immigrant Demographics ____________________________________________________12
Statement of the Problem ____________________________________________________13
Purpose of the Study ________________________________________________________14
Significance of the Study ____________________________________________________15
Limitations and Delimitations _________________________________________________15
Definitions________________________________________________________________16
Conclusion _______________________________________________________________17
Chapter Two: Literature Review _________________________________________________18
History of Adult Education ___________________________________________________18
Federal Involvement in Adult Education _____________________________________19
Federal Vocational Initiatives ______________________________________________19
Separation of Community Colleges and Adult Education ________________________20
Goals of Adult Education ____________________________________________________21
Role of Adult Education in Refugee Resettlement ______________________________21
Job-Training Initiatives ___________________________________________________22
Programs for Amnesty ___________________________________________________22
Adult Education Literacy Programs _________________________________________23
Restructuring Adult Education ________________________________________________23
Academic Programs and Goals of Adult Education _____________________________24
Demographics of the Adult Student ____________________________________________26
CAEP Program Area Enrollment ___________________________________________26
Employment Status Upon Entry ____________________________________________27
Prior Educational Attainment ______________________________________________28
Immigrant Population _______________________________________________________29
Immigrant Demographics _________________________________________________29
Age of Immigrants ______________________________________________________31
Languages Spoken by Immigrants __________________________________________31
Refugees ______________________________________________________________32
Education Levels of Immigrant Population ___________________________________32
Trends in Country of Origin and Skill Level __________________________________33
Immigrant Brain Waste ______________________________________________________35
Labor Market Data on College-Educated Immigrants ___________________________36
Factors Linked to Skill Underutilization______________________________________37
Global Recognition of Foreign Credentials ___________________________________40
Recognition of Foreign Credentials in the U.S. ________________________________41
State Results: California Brain Waste________________________________________41
The Convoy Model _________________________________________________________42
6
Hierarchical Mapping ____________________________________________________43
The Convoy Model Applied to Other Research ________________________________44
How the Convoy Model Supports Immigrant Integration ________________________46
Differences and Similarities Between the Convoy Model and Social Capital _________48
Conclusion _______________________________________________________________49
Chapter Three: Methodology ____________________________________________________50
Research Question _________________________________________________________51
Qualitative Research Design __________________________________________________51
Site Selection _____________________________________________________________52
Population and Sample ______________________________________________________52
Instrumentation ____________________________________________________________53
Data Collection ____________________________________________________________53
Screener Survey ________________________________________________________53
Interviews _____________________________________________________________54
Focus Groups __________________________________________________________55
Data Security ______________________________________________________________55
Data Analysis _____________________________________________________________55
Interviews _____________________________________________________________55
Validity __________________________________________________________________56
Credibility and Trustworthiness ____________________________________________56
Ethics_________________________________________________________________57
Role of Researcher _________________________________________________________57
Conclusion _______________________________________________________________58
Chapter Four: Findings _________________________________________________________59
Participant Demographics ____________________________________________________59
Participant Profiles _________________________________________________________61
Experiences in Adult Education CTE Career Paths ________________________________65
Career Change __________________________________________________________66
Resiliency _____________________________________________________________76
Welcoming Campus Environment __________________________________________83
Conclusion _______________________________________________________________87
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations_____________________________________88
Discussion of the Findings ___________________________________________________88
Accessibility and Inclusivity _______________________________________________89
Career Pathway Exploration _______________________________________________90
Exploration of a Network _________________________________________________92
Conceptual Framework and the Findings ________________________________________93
Convoy Model _________________________________________________________93
Creation of a Network ____________________________________________________95
Socialization ___________________________________________________________97
Recommendations _________________________________________________________102
Recommendation 1: Hire a Counselor Dedicated to Working with Immigrants ______102
Recommendation 2: Develop a Peer Mentorship Program for Immigrant Students ___103
Recommendation 3: Create a Comprehensive Data Bank for Professional Licensure __104
Implications for Future Research _____________________________________________105
Conclusion ______________________________________________________________106
7
References __________________________________________________________________108
Appendix A Recruitment E-mail ________________________________________________118
Appendix B Screening Survey __________________________________________________119
Appendix C Interview Protocol _________________________________________________120
Appendix D Information Sheet __________________________________________________122
8
List of Tables
Table 1 Program Areas for AB104 California Adult Education Program __________________25
Table 2 Objectives for AB104 California Adult Education Program ______________________25
Table 3 Participant Demographics ________________________________________________61
9
List of Figures
Figure 1 2016-17 Gender, Age and Ethnicity of Enrolled Adult Education Students in
California ___________________________________________________________________26
Figure 2 2016-17 Native Language Breakdown _____________________________________27
Figure 3 2016-17 Prior Educational Attainment _____________________________________28
Figure 4 Educational Attainment of U.S.-Born Adults, All Immigrant, and Recently Arrived
Immigrant Residents, 2017 ______________________________________________________33
Figure 5 Cost of Underemployment of Highly Skilled Immigrants _______________________36
Figure 6 Employment and Unemployment Status of College-Educated Adults by Nativity,
Place of Education, and Gender __________________________________________________37
Figure 7 Underemployment and Unemployment of College-Educated Adults in Labor Force,
by Nativity and Undergraduate Degree Field (%) 2009-2013 ___________________________40
Figure 8 Employment Status of Highly Skilled Adults in California and U.S. by Nativity (%)
2009-2013 ___________________________________________________________________42
Figure 9 Hierarchical Map of Convoy Model _______________________________________44
10
Abstract
The adult education system in California was created over 150 years ago as a response to a
growing immigrant demographic in need of basic skills and language acquisition. However, in
recent years a growing number of college-educated immigrants have enrolled in adult education
programs. This qualitative case study explored the experiences of college-educated immigrants
enrolled in adult Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs as a means of acquiring
essential workplace and employability skills. The Convoy Model was used as the theoretical
framework, the study used interviews to investigate how college-educated immigrants created
and used CTE adult education programs to develop social networks. The study found that MDC
College was accessible and welcoming to an immigrant population that had otherwise
experienced rejection and setbacks at other educational sites. Enrolling in CTE programs
provided an environment for career exploration and the creation of a new professional identity.
Participants shared stories of resiliency as they overcame barriers, demonstrating their
commitment to establishing a new life in the U.S. While on the MDC College campus,
participants interacted with students, staff, and instructors, increasing their exposure to network
creation. Lastly, participants highlighted that the greatest sphere of influence on their career
decisions came from interactions with the academic counselors who assisted them with
understanding the American education system. The study results generated three
recommendations that support the integration of college-educated immigrants into the American
culture.
Keywords: Adult Education, College-Educated Immigrants, CTE Career Pathways,
Social Networks
11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Adult education historically has provided adults basic and workplace skills to transition
into employment. Adult education has existed since 1856 in California, with program locations
starting in the North before opening classes in the southern part of the state, where evening
classes were taught in church basements to immigrants. Courses were offered for free with the
goal of providing workplace skills, some of the initial programs included areas of drafting and
bookkeeping.
With immigrants relocating to California, in 1921 school boards established
Americanization classes in neighborhoods with high need to facilitate integration (Lui &
Esparza, 2003). In 1927, a Division of Adult Education was born, and the three initial program
areas were Immigrant Education, Avocational Education and Child Study and Parental Education
(West, 2005).
Federal and State initiatives provided funding for the expansion of adult education
programs. The growth of adult education programs led to a much-needed clarification of
governance in 1970 with the California Master Plan for Higher Education. The California Master
Plan for Higher Education separated the two systems into K-12 Adult Education and noncredit
programming for the community colleges (Lieu et al., 2006). Some communities relocated adult
education to the community colleges, noting that they were adults and not children, while others
cited the education being provided was below college level and retained it as part of the K-12
school districts (West, 2005). Currently, both K-12 school districts and community colleges
offer programs for adults, K-12 Adult Education, and community college noncredit, both provide
the same level of education for the student needing basic and workplace skills.
12
Immigrant Demographics
In the past, adult education has been an avenue for immigrant adults needing basic
language acquisition and skills for workplace employment. Immigrants can be classified as being
naturalized citizens, legal permanent residents, temporary residents, or unauthorized immigrants;
regardless of how they arrive, they comprised 13% of the total U.S. population in 2017 (Zong et
al., 2019). The immigrant population is in a constant ebb and flow, peaking in 1890 at nearly
15% of the total population and at its lowest in 1970 at almost 5% of the total population (Zong
et al., 2019).
Immigrants contribute to a diverse landscape by bringing their cultures and traditions,
language, age range, educational level, and skill. The growth in educational attainment by
immigrants in their native country prior to arriving in the U.S. has been an area of growing
interest as many enroll in adult education Career Technical Education (CTE) programs. The
adult education CTE programs can only offer certificates and skills that are far below the
educational level they already possess. The number of immigrants possessing a college education
increased 89% from 3.1 million to 5.9 million in the decade between 1990 and 2000, and
continued to grow between 2000 and 2014 to a total 10.5 million immigrants having a college
education earned in their country of origin (Zong & Batalova, 2016). In 2014, the state of
California was home to the largest number of college-educated immigrants with 2.5 million
(Zong & Batalova, 2016).
College-educated immigrants are more likely than the overall immigrant population to
have proficiency in English, thus increasing the pathway to employment. In 2014, for those
immigrants with a college-education, only 27% reported they had limited English proficiency as
compared to 50% of the total immigrant population (Zong & Batalova, 2016). The pathway to
13
employment for college-educated immigrants has a focus on the underutilization of their skills
and education. This phenomenon is known as brain waste, which refers to foreign born and
college-educated immigrants that have earned professional qualifications but are underutilizing
their skills on the job or are unemployed altogether (Batalova et al., 2016). The brain waste
phenomenon is important because it impacts an individual and their family across the life-span
and socio-economic standards and productivity. There is a cost associated with
underemployment and underutilization of skills on the economy as immigrants earn less in
wages.
Statement of the Problem
The problem being researched stems from a combination of factors that impact the
trajectory of an immigrant. The adult education system was created as a response to a growing
immigrant demographic that needed basic skills and language acquisition. The Adult Education
system created in 1856 was to provide immigrants a form of integration through language
acquisition, teaching vocational skill, and parenting classes. However, the influx of immigrants
arriving in the U.S. possessing a college-education have a different set of workplace skills, and
therefore have different needs than those provided under the current adult education system. In
2016-17, 9% of the 2.1 million students enrolled in adult education programs across California
reported that they had a bachelor’s degree or higher (WestEd, 2018). The work certificates
offered through adult education CTE programs are a mismatch for college-educated immigrants
who are highly skilled. The outcome for immigrants is they are experiencing the phenomenon
known as brain waste, which has an associated cost to them, their family, and society.
This study examined the experience of college-educated immigrants enrolled in adult
education CTE programs as they acquired essential skills to enter the workforce in the U.S.
14
There is extensive research and information on the immigrant experience as individuals select
English as a Second Language (ESL) as a pathway for language and workplace skill acquisition,
but there is a gap in the literature on the choice of using CTE programs. The study explored how
immigrants may create and use CTE adult education programs to develop social networks as they
connect with other students, teachers, and staff. Additionally, the study explored how they
evaluate their overall experience of objective social network structure or support in the receipt of
services through the types of aid while enrolled in the CTE program, and overall individual
affect and affirmation.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to collect information from participants on
how they engaged in and made meaning of their activities or experiences in adult education as a
means of career preparation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interviews served as the channel
through which the participants shared their experience of being enrolled in CTE adult education
programs and the overall experience of exploring the creation of social networks. The lens of the
Convoy Model served as the theoretical framework for this study, as it has been used to focus on
how social relationships and culture provide different facets of needed support to an individual
(Birditt & Newton, 2018). This model is central to the understanding of connections as
participants expressed their experience as they explored the possible creation of their social
network in the CTE adult education programs.
The following was the research question that guided the study:
1. What are the experiences of college-educated immigrants enrolled in Career Technical
Education (CTE) adult school programs seeking to acquire essential workplace skills to enter
the workforce in the U.S.?
15
Significance of the Study
Research on the experience of the college-educated population of immigrant adults is
important for several reasons. First, having information from the participant perspective on the
adequacy of the social relationships and networks they have or have not acquired while enrolled
in adult education CTE programs is essential. Secondly, the role of social supports and the actual
exchange and receipt of tangible provisions from individuals and aid offered through the
program. Third, at the manager level, this research can inform adult education program
administrators on how to create support systems to bridge pathways for this population to
accelerate their transition seamlessly into the appropriate levels of employment. Lastly, policy
makers can use the information collected to inform how the adult education system can adapt to
better support a population it was not created to serve.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study had potential limitations based on the research design. Some of the limitations
included only collecting research from one site offering adult education noncredit CTE
programs, thus the findings are not generalizable. Participants could have been enrolled in
multiple adult education programs in addition to the CTE program. The research was conducted
over the period of one trimester with participants who were currently enrolled. There was no
possibility of any longitudinal data being collected by including individuals who had already
finished the program.
The delimitations for this study included the decision to use the Convoy Model as the
theoretical framework which has the focus on social networks, not on social capital. The study
did not select college-educated participants enrolled in other programs besides the CTE
curriculum. Additionally, this study was conducted at a community college noncredit CTE site; it
16
did not include a K-12 Adult Education CTE program. Overall, the focus and delimitations for
this study were specific with the selection of a community college noncredit CTE program,
college-educated participants and the nature of their networks and relations.
Definitions
Adult Education (with both a capital A and a capital E) is defined by the
California Education Code (EC) sections 52501, 52502, 52503 and California Code of
Regulations, Title 5 Section 10560 allowing unified or high school districts to establish separate
adult schools.
Alternatively, adult education (without capital letters) provides lifelong educational
opportunities and services to adult learners who are 18 and older. These opportunities and
services are to address the unique needs of individuals and communities by providing adults with
the knowledge and skills necessary to participate effectively as citizens, workers, family
members, and consumers of goods and services (California Department of Education, 2019).
California Adult Education Program (CAEP) is formerly the Adult Education Block
Grant (AEBG) and was signed into law as AB104 in June 2015. This initiative is the new
permanent model of delivery for adult education bringing together K-12 Adult Education,
community colleges and county offices of education in partnership with workforce and
community-based organizations. (California Adult Education, 2018).
Career Technical Education (CTE), also referred to as vocational education, is defined by
the California Department of Education as a “program of study that involves a multiyear
sequence of courses that integrates core academic knowledge with technical and occupational
knowledge to provide students with a pathway to postsecondary education and career”
(California Department of Education, 2019).
17
College-educated immigrant is defined as an immigrant adult 25 years and older with a
bachelor’s degree or higher earned in a foreign country.
Noncredit is defined as “courses for adults that may include basic skills, English as a
second language, short-term vocational programs, parenting, health and safety, home economics,
and specialized courses for immigrants and older adults” (Academic Senate for California
Community Colleges, 2014).
Conclusion
This chapter provided the background on the problem that was researched, the statement
of the problem, purpose for the study, significance of the study, the limitations and delimitations,
and boundaries for the study. All the sections of this chapter focused on the experience college-
educated immigrants had while enrolled in noncredit CTE adult education programs.
This dissertation will be organized in five chapters. Chapter Two will explore the history
of adult education, current system practices, and introduce the Convoy Model as the theoretical
framework. Chapter Three will outline the methodology for the study and include the site
selection, instrumentation, and data collection and analysis. Chapter Four will focus on the
findings of the study, and Chapter Five will cover the discussion of the findings, implications,
and recommendations for future studies.
18
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Adult education programs in the U.S. continue to serve a diverse and growing population
of learners, including immigrants. The focus of this study was on college-educated immigrants
enrolled in CTE adult education programs and data was presented on the demographics of those
arriving in the U.S. and their challenges integrating into workforce. The lens of the Convoy
Model served as the theoretical framework for this study, as it has been used to focus on how
social relationships and culture provide different facets of needed support to an individual
(Birditt & Newton, 2018). This model is central to the understanding of connections as
participants express their experience of the possible creation of their social network in the CTE
adult education programs.
This chapter will provide a history of adult education as it began and grew through the
support of both Federal and State initiatives, its governance structure, goals, and the population it
was created to serve. The chapter will also present information on the restructuring phase of
adult education, the separation of systems currently providing programs, and the demographics
of the students enrolled across the State of California.
History of Adult Education
Adult education in California has its origins in San Francisco and dates back to1856,
when evening classes were taught in the basement of a church to immigrants from Ireland, Italy,
and China (West, 2005). As the need grew, other sites were opened in Oakland, Sacramento, and
Los Angeles (Lieu et al., 2006). By 1870, enrollment at the campus in San Francisco had grown
to more than 1,000 students, where classes were offered for free in subjects such as drafting and
bookkeeping. The Part Time Education Act of 1919 mandated that schools provide basic skills
classes for adults, and in 1921 another law required school boards to establish Americanization
19
classes in neighborhoods with high need. This is still part of California Education Code (Section
52540) today (Lui & Esparza, 2003).
Adult education was officially recognized in 1927 when the Division of Adult Education
was established with three program areas: Immigrant Education, Avocational Education, and
Child Study and Parental Education (West, 2005). Adult Education played a crucial role during
World War II in providing education to both the military and civilians. From 1940-1945, nearly
one million workers in California were trained in classes related to defense, including teaching
principles of flying, while civilians were trained to work in factories, farms, and offices (Lui &
Esparza, 2003).
Federal Involvement in Adult Education
A new structure and oversight for Adult Education emerged in the 1960s. With the Civil
Rights Act of 1964, the goal of the federal adult education legislation was to reduce inequities
for disadvantaged adults who faced barriers to employment (West, 2005). This federal funding
had delineated objectives that included full access to people of all races, national origin and
income level, offering individuals in the target program basic education, citizenship, civic
education, health, and home and family living (West, 2005). The support of federal funding
allowed for the Bureau of Adult Education to expand and grow, and several new initiatives were
passed (Bureau of Adult Education, 1966).
Federal Vocational Initiatives
With the dedicated funding provided by the federal government, three initiatives were
passed to support the growth in enrollment of training programs. The first was the Manpower
Development and Training Act of 1962, which was funded training for unemployed, low-skilled
individuals. The second was the Vocational Education Act of 1963, which today is known as the
20
Carl Perkins Act that supported individuals needing to improve their skills or acquire new ones
(Lui & Esparza, 2003). In 1998, Congress reauthorized the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
Applied Technology Education Act, focusing on integration of academics with vocational and
technical skills to ensure academic learning (Liu & Esparza, 2003). Lastly was the Work
Incentive Program, which referred adults with dependent children who received federal aid to
private educational agencies for assistance in developing an employability plan (West, 2005).
Separation of Community Colleges and Adult Education
The California Master Plan for Higher Education was implemented in 1960 under the
Donohoe Act, recognizing junior colleges as the third provider of postsecondary education in
California (Lui & Esparza, 2003). The California Master Plan for Higher Education separated
junior colleges from unified or high school districts and resulted in establishing Adult Education
in the K-12 system, and noncredit programming as part of the community college system (Lieu
et al., 2006). Senate Bill 765 clarified that school districts should be responsible for adults
functioning below 13
th
grade level, and community colleges would be responsible for 13
th
grade
level and above (West, 2005). Community colleges would offer programs leading to an
Associate in Arts degree, transfer courses, and vocational courses needed for technical skills
acquisition. The adult education segment would provide basic education, literacy, ESL, high
school completion, entry-level vocational, parenting, personal, and cultural development. In
1967, the Board of Governors was established to govern credit and noncredit programs at the
community college level, while the California Department of Education or a county office of
education were tasked to govern Adult Education programs at adult education sites (Lieu et al.,
2006).
21
In 1996, a landmark community college bill was introduced, AB1725, which impacted
how community colleges operated. AB1725 amended Education Code to include adult noncredit
education and community service to the mission and functions of the California Community
Colleges (Lieu et al., 2006). Noncredit programming provided a pathway for both immigrants
and residents of the community to acquire workplace skills by enrolling in short-term vocational
programs, leading to employment or a second chance at completing a high school diploma or
equivalent (Lieu et al., 2006).
Both the state legislation in California and the federal funding for projects added
resources to adult education. This resulted in the expansion of services for adult students lacking
the skills to gain employment. With both systems offering programs, there was a lack of clarity
about governance over adult education. One core reason for this lack of clarity stemmed from the
fact that adult education is not the top statutory mission of either system (Steenhausen & Kuhn,
2012). The core mission for community colleges is to provide academic and vocational programs
at the lower-division collegiate level, while a K-12 school district is responsible for kindergarten
through 12
th
grade (Steenhausen & Kuhn, 2012).
Goals of Adult Education
According to the Bureau of Adult Education (1966), in 1966 the state of California
released the Handbook on Adult Education that outlined the major goals of adult programs. The
program goals for Adult Education included working with refugees, providing job training
through support initiatives, programs for amnesty and programs for literacy.
Role of Adult Education in Refugee Resettlement
In California, adult education played an important role in providing services for an influx
of refugees in the 1970s. Adult education developed special curriculum known today as
22
Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL) to provide language acquisition and to train
students on how to apply for employment and develop enough skills to successfully maintain
employment (West, 2005). The programs were supported by federal government grants offered
to school districts. In addition to teaching language skills and employment skills, cultural
awareness was built into VESL curriculum (Lui & Esparza, 2003).
Job-Training Initiatives
Adult Education supported many new initiatives in response to the Job Training
Partnerships Act (JTPA) of 1983 and the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training Program
(JOBS), a reform of welfare to provide low-income and unemployed individuals job training
and education (West, 2005). These federal and state related initiatives influenced the curriculum
design because a greater emphasis was being placed on teaching skills and language needed for
employment. These initiatives drove the need for accountability for receipt of federal funding
including adopting an instrument for assessment and placement, and attendance in programs that
were previously voluntary but now required for federal assistance and refugee programs (Lui &
Esparza, 2003). The Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS) was adopted
and still used today to measure student progression in skills leading to competency based
designed curricula in adult education programs (West, 2005).
Programs for Amnesty
In 1986, the federal Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) created a need for ESL
programs for undocumented individuals to learn Basic English, and U.S. history and
government. Adult Education saw tremendous growth during this initiative, serving more than
1.6 million of the amnesty applicants who lived in the state of California who were Spanish
speakers (West, 2005). Upon the completion of their requirements for the amnesty, many
23
students who previously were only required to attend 40 hours of instruction were now
introduced to a program that could provide continued improvement in English, provide job skills,
or obtain a high school diploma or equivalent (CASAS, 1992).
Adult Education Literacy Programs
In 1992, the National Adult Literacy Survey found that 25% of adults in California were
performing at the lowest functional level of literacy (Lui & Esparza, 2003). Literacy became a
focal point and legislation was signed in 1998 with the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) which
was later named the Workforce Investment Act Title II, Adult Education and Family Literacy
Act (Lui & Esparza, 2003). This was an important piece of legislation because the intent was for
the program to create a vision where adult education providers, community colleges, community-
based organizations, libraries, churches and other nonprofit organizations collaborated in the
development of a state job-training system (West, 2005).
Restructuring Adult Education
In February 2009, the California Legislature removed the label of categorical program
funding and this allowed districts to use previously dedicated funding for adult programs for any
educational purpose (Steenhausen & Kuhn, 2012). As a result of the Legislative decision, many
districts used the funding for other educational programs and adult education programs were
decimated going from 335 schools in 2007-08 to 300 schools in 2011-12 (Steenhausen & Kuhn,
2012). The restructuring of adult education began with the introduction of AB86 in 2013-14
which provided $25 million dollars to consortia across California tasked to develop regional
plans for adult education to improve and expand services (California Adult Education, 2019). At
the state level, oversight and governance was provided by both the California Community
College Chancellor’s Office and the California Department of Education in partnership. The new
24
governing cabinet was comprised of four members from each agency and they were tasked to
oversee the planning phase of the restructuring.
AB86 began the transition towards a new approach in the delivery of adult education and
AB104 guided the implementation of the new model. California is currently phasing in the
implementation of AB104, formerly the Adult Education Block Grant (AEBG) and now called
the California Adult Education Program (CAEP). AB104 was signed into law in June 2015
(California Adult Education, 2018). The CAEP Office oversees 71 consortia throughout the state
and the new permanent model of delivery for adult education, bringing together K-12 Adult
Education, community college and county offices of education in partnership with workforce and
community-based organizations (California Adult Education, 2018). So far, this state initiative
has dedicated $540 million dollars annually to support the expansion and creation of adult basic
skills programs throughout California.
Academic Programs and Goals of Adult Education
Prior to the restructuring of Adult Education, the core mission was to provide academic
support in basic knowledge and skills needed to participate in civic life and the workforce
(Steenhausen & Kuhn, 2012). Table 1 lists the seven programs that are acceptable for the use of
funding for adult education program delivery by Adult Education sites and noncredit community
colleges. Of the seven program areas, four have a workforce component to support the training
and integration of adults into employment. By design, the funding of the adult education
programs under CAEP are meant to ensure that adults accelerate into employment, earning living
wages and fully engage in society (WestEd, 2017). Under this new initiative, the successful
transition of a student from either an adult education CTE program or a noncredit CTE program
25
to a post-secondary program are measured as the same outcome for consortia data collection
purposes (California Adult Education, 2016).
Table 1
Program Areas for AB104 California Adult Education Program
1. Elementary and secondary basic skills, including programs leading to a high school diploma or high school
equivalency certificate
2. Programs to help immigrants become eligible for educational services in citizenship, English as a second
language, and workforce preparation
3. Adults, including, but not limited to, older adults, that are primarily related to entry or re-entry into the
workforce
4. Adults, including, but not limited to, older adults, that are primarily designed to develop knowledge and skills
to assist elementary and secondary school children to succeed academically in school
5. Adults with disabilities
6. Career technical education that are short term in nature and have high employment potential
7. Pre-apprenticeship training activities conducted in coordination with one or more apprenticeship programs
approved by the Division of Apprenticeship Standards for the occupation and geographic area
In addition to the seven program areas, the AB104 legislation outlines seven objectives
which are listed in Table 2. The objectives provide guidance to consortia on how to build
capacity through collaboration, goal alignment and leveraging resources in their region during
implementation of the initiative. The first two objectives were accomplished early during the
planning phase, while objectives three through seven are designed to integrate a regional delivery
system by providing education and workforce services to underserved adults (WestEd, 2018).
Table 2
Objectives for AB104 California Adult Education Program
1. Evaluation of current levels and types of adult education programs within its region
2. Evaluation of current needs for adult education programs within the Consortium’s region
3. Integrate existing programs and create seamless transitions into postsecondary education or the workforce
4. Activities to address the gaps identified in objective 1 and 2 included in the Updated AB104 3-year Plan
5. Employ approaches proven to accelerate a student’s progress toward his or her academic or career goals,
such as contextualized basic skills and career technical education, and other joint programming strategies
between adult education and career technical education
6. Collaborate in the provision of ongoing professional development opportunities for faculty and other staff to
help them achieve greater program integration and improve student outcomes
7. Leverage existing regional structures, including, but not limited to, with local workforce investment areas
26
Demographics of the Adult Student
The CAEP initiative has a standardized method of collecting student data that began in
2016, with a state mandate that all entities receiving funding to implement the Comprehensive
Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS) TOPSPro Enterprise (TE) software platform. As
reported in the 2015-16 report on progress to the legislature, the AEBG Office reported 2.1
million students were enrolled in adult education programs across the state and included both
noncredit community college data and K-12 district data (California Adult Education, 2016).
Figure 1 summarizes the gender, age and ethnicity for adult education students enrolled in the
seven AEBG programs in California for the 2016-17 academic year.
Of those adults seeking adult education services, females outnumber males by 20%; 77%
of adults are between the age of 20-54 and Hispanics are the largest ethnicity group enrolled, at
60%. Adults older than 30 years of age seeking services comprise 60% of the population, which
is consistent with the previous data on nontraditional students returning to complete programs.
Figure 1
2016-17 Gender, Age and Ethnicity of Enrolled Adult Education Students in California
Adapted from End-of-year report on implementation and effectiveness of the Adult Education
Block Grant program for the 2016-2017 program year, 2018, p. 28.
CAEP Program Area Enrollment
English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction is offered to non-native English
speakers with varied academic, vocational, citizenship and personal goals and has the largest
27
student enrollment of all the CAEP programs across the state (WestEd, 2017). ESL was the
largest CAEP program area in 2016-17 with 43% of all program enrollments, followed by Adult
Basic Education at 11%, Adult Secondary Education at 27% and Career Technical Education at
14% (WestEd, 2018). Sixty-eight percent of students enrolled in the programs across the state
identified a language other than English as their native language (WestEd, 2018). Figure 2
summarizes the breakdown of the native language’s students speak, with Spanish as the largest at
48%; other languages identified were Chinese, Vietnamese, Arabic, and Russian.
Figure 2
2016-17 Native Language Breakdown
Adapted from End-of-year report on implementation and effectiveness of the Adult Education
Block Grant program for the 2016-2017 program year, 2018, p. 28.
Employment Status Upon Entry
Job placement and improved wages are two of the goals of the restructured delivery
method of adult education under CAEP. Data is self-reported by students upon enrollment at the
school site, and the data is entered and collected for reporting by all Consortia members in the
CASAS TOPs Enterprise system. For the 2016-17 school year, 475,331 individuals enrolled in
adult education programs and 42% of the entire population of enrollment identified as
unemployed, while 41% were employed and 17% indicated they were not in the labor force
(WestEd, 2018).
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Prior Educational Attainment
Transition to postsecondary education is an objective of the CAEP initiative; 54% of the
students enrolled in adult education programs reported they did not have a high school diploma
or equivalency (WestEd, 2018). Figure 3 summarizes the different levels of educational
attainment at the time of enrollment: 19% of enrolled students reported having earned a
certificate, have some college, or have an AA/AS or a bachelor’s degree. The 9% with a
bachelor’s degree represents over 42,000 individuals who are college educated enrolled in adult
education programs. The attainment level aligns with reports that significant numbers of
immigrants enrolled in adult education have an earned degree from their country of origin and
may be enrolled in CTE courses to enter the workforce (WestEd, 2018). Adult education is the
support mechanism for undereducated and under skilled adults who choose an academic pathway
to develop English literacy to pass the U.S. citizenship exam, earn a high school diploma,
acquire job skills and become proficient in reading, writing and mathematics to succeed in
collegiate-level coursework (Steenhausen & Kuhn, 2012).
Figure 3
2016-17 Prior Educational Attainment
Adapted from End-of-year report on implementation and effectiveness of the Adult Education
Block Grant program for the 2016-2017 program year, 2018, p. 28.
29
Immigrant Population
The 2017 American Community Survey reported that more than 44.5 million immigrants
resided in the U.S. in 2017, with one in seven U.S. residents being foreign born (Zong et al.,
2019). The immigrants can be classified as naturalized citizens, legal permanent residents,
temporary residents or unauthorized immigrants; regardless of how they arrived, they comprise
13% of the total U.S. population (Batalova et al., 2016). The immigrant population is in a
constant ebb and flow, peaking in 1890 at nearly 15% of the population and at its lowest in 1970
at almost 5% of the population (Zong et al., 2019).
The immigrant population in the U.S. reflects a two percent increase of foreign born
individuals between 2016 and 2017, an increase of 787,000 individuals, resulting in a rate higher
than the one percent growth the year before, but lower than the three percent increase between
2013 and 2014 (Zong et al., 2019). Immigrants and their children born in the U.S. now number
approximately 89.4 million people, or 28% of the overall U.S. population as indicated by the
2018 Current Population Survey (CPS). The projection by the Pew Research Center is that by
2065, the immigrant population will increase to about 36% of the overall U.S. population (Cohn,
2015). One of the largest immigrant populations in the U.S. are Hispanics, with 58.8 million
people in 2017. Of those who self-identified as Hispanic or Latino, 34% were immigrants and
66% or 39 million were native-born (Batalova et al., 2016).
Immigrant Demographics
Historically, immigration patterns have shaped the U.S. as a nation, with early decades
prior to 1880 seeing the arrival of primarily European immigrants, driven by world events such
as industrialization and famine (Hipsman & Meissner, 2013). In the 1850s, after gold was
discovered in California, large numbers of Chinese immigrants began to arrive and became
30
laborers. Between 1880 and 1930, over 27 million new immigrants arrived from a myriad of
countries including Italy, Germany, Eastern Europe, Russia, Britain, Canada, Ireland, and
Sweden (Hipsman & Messner, 2013). During World War II the Bracero Program authorized 4.5
million agricultural workers from Mexico to enter the U.S. to fill farm-labor shortages because of
the military draft and growing demand for factory workers (Rosenblum & Brick, 2011).
Restrictions on Immigration. Even though historically the U.S. has benefited from
different migration patterns to fill much needed labor shortages, there have been instances of
racial exclusion. In 1917, the Immigration Act was passed by Congress prohibited immigrants
entering from British India, Southeast Asia, and nearly all of the Middle East, and expanded
inadmissibility grounds to include anarchists, persons previously deported, and individuals 16
years and older who were illiterate (Hipsman & Meissner, 2013). The Immigration and
Naturalization Act of 1924 established the national-origins quota system, setting limits on
immigrants that could be admitted from each country, though the Act strongly favored Northern
and Western European immigrants (Hipsman & Meissner, 2013). In 1965, the national-origins
quota was replaced with a seven-category preference system based primarily on family
unification (Rosenblum & Brick, 2011).
The large-scale immigration wave we are experiencing today began in the 1970s and is
made up of both legal and illegal flows of immigrants. In 2000, Congress returned to controlling
immigration measures by passing the American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century
Act to meet the demand for skilled immigrants in science, math and engineering and enabled
employers to fill the jobs critical for the economy (Hipsman & Meissner, 2013).
Of the top ten countries of origin in 2017, Mexico was the largest, accounting for 25% of
the largest foreign-born group (Zong et al., 2019). The second and third largest were those
31
originating from India and China (including immigrants from Hong Kong, but not Taiwan) each
contributing close to six percent, followed by Filipinos at five percent (Ruiz et al., 2016).
Age of Immigrants
The age of an immigrant plays an important role in both family and community
participation. The immigrant population that resided in the U.S. in 2017 was older than the U.S.
born population with a median age of 44.8 years as compared to 36.2 years for U.S. born (Zong
et al., 2019). The U.S. born population reflects a younger age because many of the children born
to immigrants are born in the U.S., and a large number are under the age of 18 years (Zong et al.,
2019). In addition to age, the immigrant population was comprised of approximately 52%
females in 2017, with little fluctuation from previous years, hovering around the 50% mark over
the past two decades (Radford & Noe-Bustamante, 2019).
Languages Spoken by Immigrants
The top five states with the highest English Language Learner (ELL) populations are
California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Illinois. Spanish was the language most commonly
spoken by ELL students, but variations exist based on immigrant and refugee settlement patterns
(Ruiz et al., 2015). Of the 306 million people age five and older in the U.S.in 2017, 78% reported
speaking English at home, and the remaining 22% spoke a language other than English (Zong et
al., 2019). Spanish was the top language at 62%, followed by Chinese at 5%, (including
Mandarin and Cantonese), Tagalog at 3% and Vietnamese, Arabic, French, and Korean at about
2% with the remaining languages in the top 15 were Russian, German, Haitian Creole, Hindi,
Portuguese, Italian, Polish, and Urdu all contributing roughly one percent to the total (Zong et
al., 2019).
32
Refugees
Individuals arriving in the U.S. as refugees are placed in communities to accommodate
language needs, housing availability, employment or educational opportunities, and/or family
ties. Refugees are persons outside their country of origin who fear persecution, conflict,
generalized violence or any form of disturbed public order and need international protection
(Kerwin, 2011). In 2018 the U.S. participated in the resettlement of 22,491 refugees, less than
half of the planned admission ceiling of 45,000 for that year because of processing delays and
federal policies (Blizzard & Batalova, 2019). The primary countries of origin for refugees
accounted for 78% (17,565) of all resettlements, and included individuals from the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Myanmar (also known as Burma), Ukraine, Bhutan, and Eritrea (Zong et
al., 2019).
Education Levels of Immigrant Population
Independent of how immigrants arrive in the U.S., they arrive with different levels of
educational attainment. The levels range from needing a high school diploma to having an
earned graduate or post-graduate degree from their country of origin. As shown in Figure 4, in
2017 recently arrived immigrants with a bachelor’s degree or higher was the largest of all
categories at 47%, a total much higher than the 32% for U.S.-born adults. One of the largest
educational disparities is for all immigrants 25 years of age and older who possess less than a 9
th
grade level of education.
33
Figure 4
Educational Attainment of U.S.-Born Adults, All Immigrant, and Recently Arrived Immigrant
Residents, 2017
Trends in Country of Origin and Skill Level
There are many factors that affect the labor force participation in the U.S. Three major
influencers include the demographics of the labor force, automation and alternative staffing and
employment. The current U.S. labor force demographics are influenced by an aging workforce,
the retirement of baby boomers, increased presence of racial and ethnic minorities and continued
immigration (Holzer, 2019). Automation will force workers to make skill adjustments, especially
for those less educated, and alternative staffing is creating a new relationship between employer-
employee relations as the “gig” economy grows and independent contracting is more pronounced
(Holzer, 2019). A major impact on the demographics of the work force is the presence of
college-educated immigrants entering higher skill work, as they concentrate in STEM and
health-care related jobs, while those with lower skill levels start in manual occupations including
nannies, health aides, restaurant workers or gardeners (Orrenius et al., 2019).
34
Trends in the immigration patterns and countries of origin have shifted for new arrivals as
compared to the period between 1980 and 2010. As the research has indicated, recent immigrants
tend to have higher educational attainment than those from previous immigrant generations, and
shifts have occurred in the countries of origin for all immigrants with Asia, Central America and
Africa showing large areas of growth (Zong & Batalova, 2019). From 2010-2017, the immigrant
population in the U.S. increased by 4.6 million, and 15 countries contributed 76% of that growth
came from India, China, Dominican Republic, Philippines, Cuba, El Salvador, Venezuela,
Colombia, Honduras, Guatemala, Nigeria, Brazil, Vietnam, Bangladesh and Haiti (Zong &
Batalova, 2019).
The 15 countries listed above have contributed groups of immigrants with higher levels
of education when compared overall to other immigrant groups in the U.S. Between 50%-75% of
the immigrants from the Philippines, Venezuela, Nigeria and India had at least a bachelor’s
degree; and on the lower end of the spectrum, immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala and
Honduras were less likely to have a college education (Zong & Batalova, 2019). Immigrants
contribute to the different segments of the economy based on their skill and educational level
attainment. The management, business, science and art occupations employed more than half of
the immigrants from China/Hong Kong, Nigeria and India; the service sector employed
immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala and Vietnam; and the natural resources, construction
and maintenance were twice as likely to employ immigrants from Guatemala and Honduras
(Zong & Batalova, 2019).
In 2017, California had the largest population of college-educated immigrants with 10.7
million, Texas had 4.9 million, New York had 4.5 million, Florida had 4.4 million, and New
Jersey had 2.1 million immigrants (Zong et al., 2019). In 2016, 1.9 million of those college-
35
educated individuals experienced unemployment or underemployment by working in low-skilled
jobs (Batalova et al., 2016). The impact of underemployment manifests with lower consumer
spending and lower contribution of tax revenue. The reality is that a lack of economic
participation and contribution from college-educated immigrants lacking economic mobility
contributes to a phenomenon known as brain waste (Batalova et al., 2016). Brain waste has
significant repercussion on immigrants; when an engineer is working as a janitor or a nurse is
employed as a cashier, this reduces the potential to provide for their families (Bergson-Shilcock
& Witte, 2015).
Immigrant Brain Waste
Every country will experience brain waste differently based on the level of educational
attainment immigrants have upon entry and the heterogeneity in educational levels to the host
country (Beckhusen et al., 2013). The term brain waste refers to foreign born and educated
immigrants that have earned professional qualifications but are underutilizing their skills on the
job or are unemployed altogether (Batalova et al., 2016). A distinction is necessary between the
term brain waste and the term “brain drain.” Brain drain refers to the country of origin
experiencing an exodus or out-migration of highly skilled and educated personnel (Ionescu &
Polgreen, 2009). The brain waste phenomenon is the result of a temporary mismatch between an
immigrant’s career development, language skills, and education, due to imperfect information
about the deliberate search for employment (Hartog, 2000). Research conducted by Beckhusen et
al. (2013) in the U.S. between 1980-2009 determined that for highly educated immigrants,
overeducation mismatch rates exceeded 40% for immigrants with a bachelor’s degree, 50% for
those with a doctoral/professional degree, and 75% for those with a master’s degree.
36
Brain waste is an important topic because it can impact families across the individual
lifespan on social-economic standards, and social mobility. In the U.S. between 2009 and 2013,
there were nearly two million college educated immigrants who were either underemployed or
unemployed (Batalova et al., 2016). As depicted in Figure 5, there is a $39.4 billion dollar cost
due to the underemployment of college-educated immigrant’s annual earnings throughout the
U.S. as a result of educational mismatch. The $28.5 billion-dollar gap could be reduced if
immigrants were employed in jobs that paid wages that could bring them into middle or high
skilled jobs, equal to the rate of college-educated, non-immigrant U.S. workers (Batalova et al.,
2016). High levels of brain waste impact federal, state, local government’s economies when
underemployment exceeds $10 billion of unrealized tax revenue across the U.S.
Figure 5
Cost of Underemployment of Highly Skilled Immigrants
Labor Market Data on College-Educated Immigrants
College educated immigrants in the U.S. labor force totaled 7.6 million as reported in the
2009-2013 Census (Batalova et al., 2016). Data in Figure 6 highlights the disparities among
individuals in the U.S. workforce. Foreign educated immigrant men experienced unemployment
37
or worked in low-skill jobs at a higher level than U.S. educated immigrants and U.S. born men.
Foreign-educated immigrant men experienced brain waste at 27% of the labor force, while the
U.S. educated immigrants were at 21% and U.S. born men at 19%. Foreign-educated immigrant
women experienced the highest level of all categories, with 32% of the labor force experiencing
some form of unemployment or underemployment. In all, immigrants experienced brain waste at
25%, seven percentage points higher than U.S. born individuals, who experienced
underemployment or unemployment at 18% of the total population in the labor force.
Figure 6
Employment and Unemployment Status of College-Educated Adults by Nativity, Place of
Education, and Gender
Factors Linked to Skill Underutilization
There are several factors that contribute to skill underutilization of immigrants, including
place of education, English proficiency, legal status or citizenship, place of origin
(race/ethnicity), length of time in the U.S., and level and field of degree earned (Batalova et al.,
38
2016). The first contributing factor, place of education, leads to questions of perceived
differences in the quality of domestic versus foreign education, the access to professional
networks, and recognition of foreign acquired licensing by educational and government agencies
(Ruiz et al., 2016). Both foreign-born and U.S. born individuals reporting very low and medium
levels of English proficiency were three times more likely to experience brain waste than those
who were reported higher levels of fluency and proficiency in English (Bergson-Shilcock, 2015).
Other reasons include the lack of U.S. work experience, the lack of work experience validation
by U.S. employers, and the lack of recognition of foreign-earned credentials (Morse & Chanda,
2018). This is no longer a situation that can be ignored; almost half, 46% of immigrant adults
who entered the U.S. between 2011 and 2014 were college graduates, up from 33% for those
who arrived before the 2007-2009 recession (Sumption, 2013).
The legal status an immigrant has impacts on the level of brain waste experienced. Of
those immigrants in the U.S. workforce in 2016, 57% of college-educated immigrants were
naturalized U.S. citizens, 24% had permanent residency, 8% had temporary visas, and 11% were
unauthorized (Morse & Chanda, 2018). Of this group, those who experienced the most levels of
brain waste were unauthorized immigrants, followed by naturalized citizens and permanent
residents, those with temporary visas faired best because their high skill level is tied to employer
sponsorship and connection (Sumption, 2013).
An immigrant’s place of origin and race or ethnicity play a role in the level of brain waste
experienced. Mexicans, Central Americans, Africans and immigrants from the Caribbean,
European countries outside the European Union and the Philippines experienced more brain
waste than immigrants originating from Canada, the European Union, India, and China (Batalova
et al., 2016). Overall, U.S. educated immigrants experienced lower rates of brain waste than
39
those educated abroad. In addition to place of origin, the length of time an immigrant is in the
U.S. as well impacts the underutilization of skills. The time factor was found in direct correlation
with lower skill underutilization for women who were educated abroad, but surprisingly for men,
the underutilization factor was similar for recently arrived immigrants as with those who had a
longer stay (McHugh & Morawski, 2017).
Lastly, an immigrant’s level of educational degree and degree field influenced the level
of brain waste experienced. In all, the findings indicated that the skill underutilization fell
sharply with additional levels of education, meaning that those with a bachelor’s degree were up
to three times more susceptible to skill underutilization than those possessing an earned doctorate
degree (Sumption, 2013). As shown in Figure 7, the top 12-degree fields are represented in
relation to skill underutilization of college-educated immigrants versus U.S. born degree holders.
The largest disparities exist for those immigrants holding degrees in education and business, and
the least disparity is for those with computer sciences or biological sciences degrees, resulting in
equal underutilization percentages for both groups.
40
Figure 7
Underemployment and Unemployment of College-Educated Adults in Labor Force, by Nativity
and Undergraduate Degree Field (%) 2009-2013
Global Recognition of Foreign Credentials
Credential recognition by a host country is complex because it brings together policy,
immigration, trade, employment, education, and immigrant integration. Education recognition is
a barrier for college-educated immigrants attempting to enter the profession in which they are
trained in when governments and employers are unfamiliar with differences in international
educational qualifications, training and skill level assessment (Sumption, 2013). To assist with
overcoming this barrier of education and qualification recognition, several policies have
emerged, but no industry has solved the problem altogether. Many of the entities involved in the
solution process include employers, regulators and professional associations, national and
subnational governments, and nonprofit organizations such as universities and credentialing
assessment bodies (Sumption, 2013).
Some of the challenges with the recognition of foreign earned credentials also include
defining what “recognition” means, because industries exist both as regulated and unregulated
entities. An additional barrier for some immigrants is access to documentation to prove
41
educational attainment especially if they arrived from a conflict-torn country of origin (Rabben,
2013). One pathway available to immigrants while they are working on having their credentials
recognized is called “career laddering,” where they work in a lower-level position while working
toward professional certification by retraining (Rabben, 2013). Currently both the United
Kingdom and Canada have established special programs built on mentoring, teaching vocational
English, and offering continuing education to ease the integration of professionals into their
respective fields (Rabben, 2013).
Recognition of Foreign Credentials in the U.S.
The U.S. does not have any single structure that governs the qualifications of
professionals who need certification in regulated occupations. Each state has its own rules,
regulations, and fees for professional licensing. Additionally, state-based professional licensing
is often not transferable across states, thus compounding the barrier to recognition, certification
or licensing (Rabben, 2013). For some industries, individuals are required to perform hours on
site at internships, residencies, or apprenticeships to obtain hands-on experience in addition to
academic course work. The gatekeeping role in many instances is held by professional
associations and accreditation bodies, this is representing a vast patchwork of fragmented
articulation between different organizations (Rabben, 2013).
State Results: California Brain Waste
The State of California has one of the largest immigrant populations and is in the top five
states in the U.S. chosen by immigrants to live (Ruiz et al., 2015). California is the sixth largest
economy in the world and home to 11 million immigrants (Ruiz et al., 2016).
As noted in Figure 8, 25% of college-educated immigrants in California experienced
brain waste as compared to 19% of their U.S. born counterparts. Additionally, low-skilled
42
employment is higher by six percentage points for immigrants than U.S. born individuals in
California. College-educated immigrants in California forgo approximately $9.4 billion in annual
earnings by being underemployed, and this translates to California experiencing $694.8 million
in forgone state and local annual tax revenue (Ruiz et al., 2016).
Figure 8
Employment Status of Highly Skilled Adults in California and U.S. by Nativity (%) 2009-2013
The Convoy Model
The theoretical framework that was used for this study involving college-educated
immigrants enrolled in adult education CTE programs was the Convoy Model (Antonucci,
2009). The Convoy Model offered a lens through which the experiences of college-educated
immigrants were viewed as they explored the formation of networks and social relations while
acquiring workplace skills. This section will provide a definition and overview of the model,
how it has been applied in other studies and how socialization is interwoven into the immigrant
experience of integration.
The Convoy Model was created to explain how social relations are affected by the
antecedents and consequences across both the lifespan and life course organizational
43
perspectives (Fingerman et al., 2011). The antecedent influencers of personal and situational
characteristics and are defined by how they impact social relations, health, and well-being both
immediate and long-term (Antonucci, 2009). In this model, individuals are characterized as part
of a network or convoy that moves with them through time and space. The convoy of social
networks serves to protect the individual from stress when working optimally, yet can cause
stress and leave individuals vulnerable when there is dysfunction (Fingerman et al., 2011).
Additionally, the life course perspective of the Convoy Model illustrates the situational
characteristics that provide a contextual experience for the individual who is part of a group or
organization with demands and expectations in the role they occupy (Antonucci, 2009).
Hierarchical Mapping
Known as hierarchical mapping, the Convoy Model is depicted by three concentric
circles as depicted in Figure 9, with the individual in the center being the focal person and the
outer circles representing the closeness and importance in relationships (Fingerman et al., 2011).
Attachment determines the closer relationships which are depicted by the inner circle closest to
the focal person and are usually stable and provide many types of support (Thomese et al., 2005).
The outer circles are defined by role requirements which include coworkers, neighbors and
friends, and are tied to role setting which affects the duration and content of the relationship
(Thomese et al., 2005).
44
Figure 9
Hierarchical Map of Convoy Model
The Convoy Model Applied to Other Research
The Convoy Model has been used in research that involves the study of social
relationships and has been applied in many cultures around the world, including the United
States, Japan, Spain, and Mexico. The focus of these studies was on how social relationships and
culture provide different facets of needed support to an individual (Birditt & Newton, 2018).
The Convoy Model has been used across many studies that include research on culture which is
defined as values, orientations, and norms identified about a group of individuals in society
(Fingerman et al., 2011). The Convoy Model provides a structured framework for delineating
universal and cultural aspects of social relations (Fingerman et al., 2011).
American and Japanese Research. A study by Takahashi, Ohara, Antonucci, and
Akiyama (2002) examined the convoy structure and support exchanges in the American and
45
Japanese cultures. The study included parallel samples of individuals between 20-64 years old
living in America and in Japan. The purpose of the study was to explore three areas of culture:
first, whether the American individualistic culture was more independent in social relations,
second whether the Americans individualistic culture desired to maintain harmonious relations
with other cultures, and finally if the American culture integrated into “in-groups” with particular
attention to family as the Japanese collectivist culture (Fingerman et al., 2011). Their findings
indicated that in about half of the areas compared, the American culture was as much a
collectivist culture as the Japanese (Fingerman et al., 2011).
Immigrant Women in Spain Research. Dominguez-Fuentes and Hombrados-Mendieta
(2012) conducted a study using the Convoy Model in Spain with immigrant women around the
concept of chain migration and the active role immigrants play in the development of survival
strategies while adapting in a new environment. The study included 180 immigrant women living
in Malaga Spain, with ages ranging between 18 to 64 years; where 42% were married, 40% were
single with 14 % divorced or separated and the remainder were widows, with 41% having
completed secondary education and 25.5% having a university education (Dominguez-Fuentes
and Hombrados-Mendieta, 2012). The purpose of the study was to use the Convoy Model
structure to find the association between the frequency, satisfaction, and happiness from the
sources of support (Dominguez-Fuentes & Hombrados-Mendieta, 2012). Participants were asked
for the composition of their social network support and if they included family, friends,
indigenous friends and immigrant associates. The findings indicated that family was the most
relevant source for emotional, instrumental and informational social support, followed by
indigenous friends who facilitated contact with other networks aiding in socialization
(Dominguez-Fuentes & Hombrados-Mendieta, 2012).
46
Research in Mexico. The Convoy Model has also been used to express the relation of
support networks across the lifespan development and contextual needs. A study by Fuller-
Iglesias and Antonucci (2016) examined the social convoys of adults in Mexico, focusing on
social network structure, specifically looking at age, gender, and educational levels of a sample
of 1,202 adults between 18-99 years of age. A hierarchical regression analysis was used and the
results indicated that Mexican social convoys were largely composed of family members with
norms of relying on social support from individuals who live in the same home or in close
proximity, seeing each other daily or weekly (Fuller-Iglesias & Antonucci, 2016). With respect
to educational attainment, the study results indicated that with increased age, lower educational
attainment was associated with having a smaller social network made up by people living nearby
(Fuller-Iglesias & Antonucci, 2016).
How the Convoy Model Supports Immigrant Integration
The Convoy Model was used as a framework to explain the multiple dimensions of
support that social relations provide an immigrant. The notion of a social convoy supports the
aspects of an immigrant’s life as set in their divergent cultural and national contexts (Antonucci,
2009). There are several cross-cultural theories that support the multidimensional aspects of
culture where immigrants derive significance from social relations including
individualism/collectivism, relatedness/separateness, traditional/secular, and self-
expression/survival (Fingerman et al., 2011).
To illustrate how culture informs social relations, a study of Arab families in Lebanon by
Joseph (1993), examined how relations evolve according to age hierarchy. The study focused on
connectivity being a result of activity that was intentional and meant to facilitate closeness which
included the ability to anticipate the needs of another, answer for others, and shape likes and
47
dislikes in accordance with another (Fingerman et al., 2011). The study results showed how
language plays a role in closeness, such as when parents refer to their child using titles, they use
to address their parents. “Mothers may call their child ‘mama’ and fathers may refer to their
child as ‘baba’” (Fingerman, et al., 2011, p. 168). Additionally, the study found that younger
members are seen as extensions of older adults who are expected out of love and loyalty to
comply with the elder’s wishes (Fingerman et al., 2011).
In addition to the cultural aspect of social relations, another area of study has focused on
the how behavior and health phenomena spread across social network members. In a series of
studies using data from the longitudinal Framingham Heart Study, Christakis, Fowler, and
colleagues examined reports of adults’ friends, neighbors, siblings, and spouses over 30 years
and found that happiness, loneliness, obesity and smoking spread across social network
members; in other words, they argue that these well-being outcomes are contagious from one
network member to the next (Fingerman et al., 2011, p. 170). Many of the studies using the
Convoy Model incorporate personal characteristics, situational characteristics, and numerous
characteristics of social relation all with the intention of focusing on the importance of social
relations.
According to Antonucci (2009), the Convoy Model identifies three types of social
relations: social networks, social support and support satisfaction or adequacy. The first, social
networks focused on descriptive social characteristics such as age, gender, relationship, and
length of time known (Antonucci, 2009). Social support refers to the actual exchange, the
provision and receipt of the support which can be in the forms of aid, affect and affirmation
(Antonucci, 2009). Aid is generally known as a tangible support, yet can also be viewed as
advice or information rendered, other examples can include lending money, helping to problem
48
solve, offering advice or information or providing care during an illness (Fingerman et al., 2011).
Affect refers to the non-tangible emotion such as love and affection, and affirmation is about
receiving confirmation of their values, norms and perspectives as an individual (Antonucci,
2009). Lastly, support satisfaction or adequacy is the recognition of the psychological evaluation
of the support received (Fingerman et al., 2011).
The Convoy Model was used as a framework when examining the experience of the
participants in the study. The study explored how college-educated immigrants may create and
use CTE adult education programs to develop social networks as they connect with other
students, teachers, and staff. Additionally, the study explored how they evaluate their overall
experience of objective social network structure or support in the receipt of services through the
types of aid while enrolled in the CTE program and overall individual affect and affirmation.
Differences and Similarities Between the Convoy Model and Social Capital
The Convoy Model highlights the importance of the cumulative effect of social relations;
the quality of relations is more important than the structure or durability as the convoy travels
with an individual through time and space (Antonucci, 2009). Stanton-Salazar (1997)
summarized Bourdieu’s Social Capital theory as being economic in nature, characterized by a
cumulative effect, possessing the capacity to produce profits or benefits in the social world, is
convertible into tangible resources or other forms of capital, and is capable of reproducing itself
in an expanded durable form. A key difference between the Convoy Model and social capital is
the durability of the network. In the Convoy Model, the roles in the network of coworkers,
neighbors and friends are tied to role setting which affects the duration and content of the
relationship (Thomese et al., 2005).
49
Some areas of overlap between the Convoy Model and Social Capital exist in the
building of the networks through connection and bonding. Both view the network as it serves as
a resource to the individual, the personal network of friends, family and neighbors as they
provide support or useful information that can provides access to jobs or other networks
(Thomese et al., 2005). The Convoy Model was selected as the conceptual framework for this
study because the focus was on the contextual experience of the college-educated immigrant
enrolled in a CTE adult education program as opposed to the accumulation of a durable network.
Conclusion
This chapter narrated the history of adult education and its development to serve
immigrants needing basic education and a way to integrate into their communities. The
immigrant demographics have changed over time as more college-educated immigrants make the
U.S. their place of residency. As the demographics of immigrants has changed, the adult
education system has not adapted to serving a demographic needing a different skill set to enter
the U.S. workforce. Many immigrants experience the phenomenon known as brain waste as they
enter employment and underutilize their skill by already possessing a college education.
This study explored the experience of college-educated immigrants enrolling in adult
education Career Technical Education (CTE) programs as they acquire essential skills to enter
the workforce in the U.S. The lens of the Convoy Model served as the theoretical framework for
this study, as it has been used to focus on how social relationships and culture provide different
facets of needed support to an individual (Birditt & Newton, 2018). This model is central to the
understanding of connections as participants express their experience of the possible creation of
their social network in the CTE adult education programs.
50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
More than 44.5 million immigrants resided in the U.S. in 2017, with one in seven U.S.
residents being foreign born, a historical high since census records have been kept (Zong et al.,
2019). Many of the immigrants choosing to move to the U.S. are college-educated, with earned
degrees from their country of origin. According to the 2017 American Community Survey, 31%
of the total immigrant population aged 25 or older had a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to
32 % of U.S. born adults (Zong & Batalova, 2016). College-educated immigrants are more likely
than the overall immigrant population to have proficiency in English, thus increasing the
pathway to employment. In 2014, for those immigrants with a college-education, only 27%
reported they had limited English proficiency as compared to 50% of the total immigrant
population (Zong & Batalova, 2016). For many college-educated immigrants, language
acquisition is not outright a barrier to enter employment. Many studies exist on immigrants
enrolling in English as a Second Language (ESL) courses as a pathway to enter the workforce in
the U.S., but there is a dearth of research on the use of CTE programs as a pathway.
The purpose of this study was to explore the experience of college-educated immigrants
enrolled in CTE programs as they acquire essential skills to enter the workforce in the U.S. This
study explored how college-educated immigrants may create their social networks, and how they
may use CTE adult education programs through connecting with other students, campus staff or
teachers. Additionally, the study explored how they evaluate their overall experience of objective
social network structure or support in the receipt of services, through the types of aid received
while enrolled in CTE programs and the overall individual affect and affirmation.
51
Research Question
The research question for this study was: What are the experiences of college-educated
immigrants enrolled in Career Technical Education (CTE) adult school programs seeking to
acquire essential workplace skills to enter the workforce in the U.S.?
Qualitative Research Design
This study used a qualitative case study research design. According to Merriam and
Tisdell (2016), qualitative research is used when the study is collecting information from
participants on how they engage in and make meaning of their activities or experiences. This
study used interviews to gather information from participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
referred to interviews as a conversation, one with a purpose to obtain a unique kind of
information. The interviews served as the channel through which the participants shared their
experience of why they chose the pathway of enrolling in CTE adult education programs to enter
the workplace and the experience of developing social networks.
As it may be difficult to observe the behavior or feelings of the participants as they
interpret the world and environment around them in a foreign country, the use of interviews
provided an avenue for this expression (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, the use of
interviews allowed for a narration of the participant’s past events and provided the interviewer an
opportunity to glimpse into the participants’ perspective, thoughts, and intentions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
The Convoy Model served as the theoretical framework for this study. This model is
central to the understanding of social connections as participants express their experience of
enrolling in a program to acquire skills to enter the workforce.
52
Site Selection
This study took place at a community college located in Southern California that offers
programs for the adult education population in adult basic education, adult secondary education,
noncredit ESL, and noncredit CTE. A pseudonym for this campus is MDC College, and they are
a part of a Community College District with two sister colleges that offer credit bearing
coursework. MDC College reported 23,000 students enrolled in 2016-17, with 4,971 Full Time
Equivalent Students (FTES). The student population at MDC College is made up of individuals
predominantly 40 years and older, representing 65% of the total student population. Students
come from diverse backgrounds; 14% identify as Asian American, 19% White, 33% Hispanic,
and 30% unknown.
MDC College was an ideal site for this study because it has 11 noncredit CTE certificate
pathways offered to students. In 2019, MDC College awarded over 300 CTE certificates to
students completing programs that range from early childhood education, allied healthcare
programs, business, and electrical. As stated in their mission, MDC College is dedicated to the
success of students and lifelong learning, spanning across the lifespan.
Population and Sample
The study focused on immigrants who were over 18 years old and had an earned
bachelor’s or graduate level degree from their country of origin and were enrolled in a CTE adult
education program. Participants were purposefully selected because they provided information
that was relevant to the research question and otherwise would be difficult to obtain from a
random selection (Maxwell, 2013). This study used Maxwell’s five goals for purposeful
selection, which are achieving representativeness, adequately capturing the heterogeneity of the
53
participants, intentional participant selection, having a comparative design feature if appropriate,
and establishing a productive relationship with participants to answer the research question.
This study used a screening survey to help with purposeful selection of 14 immigrant
students enrolled in CTE adult education programs meeting the set criteria for individual
interviews. The goal was to select participants by selecting a balanced ratio of gender, age, race
and ethnicity, and educational backgrounds. The screener survey allowed for the purposeful
sampling of individuals who represented the larger population.
Instrumentation
A semi-structured interview protocol was used to gather data from participants in this
study. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016) a semi-structured protocol allows for a mix of
structured questions, with some flexibility, with some data being required of all respondents, and
the largest part being guided by the questions or issues to be explored. The interview protocol
guided the conversation as participants share their experience in selecting their CTE program of
choice, employment goals and how they evaluate their experience of objective social network
structure or support in the receipt of services through CTE enrollment.
Data Collection
Screener Survey
To select the purposeful sample for interviewing, a screener survey was used to identify
the participants who matched the criteria for the study. The initial survey collected demographic
information to identify the characteristics of potential participants. The information collected
included gender, age, ethnicity, languages spoken, number of years living in the U.S., country of
origin, degree earned in country of origin, years worked in degree field, CTE program currently
enrolled in and how long they have been in the respective CTE program. This led to the last
54
question that asked, “are you willing to meet with me for 30-60 minutes to participate in my
study?”
Interviews
Fourteen participants who met the study criteria were interviewed. Communication with
selected individuals was via phone and email to schedule interviews at the MDC College campus
held in a private office. The schedule of the interviews was over an 8-week period in the spring
2020 trimester which is in session from January through April. Interviews were scheduled to
accommodate the participant’s work and school schedule. To facilitate note-taking an audio
recorder was used. The semi-structured interview protocol served as a guide for the conversation
on the day of the interview resulting in the collection of essential data from all participants yet
allowing for participants to share their experience.
On the day of the scheduled interview, the process began with an introduction from the
researcher, clarifying her role as a student at USC and giving an overview of the study being
conducted. An information sheet was shared and reviewed with each participant. Permission
from the participant was granted prior to recording the conversation in a private conference
room. Participants were able to skip questions during the interview and were given full control to
stop for any reason any time based on the participant’s experience of the interview. Upon
completion of the interview, the conversation was transcribed, and all information was kept
confidential.
One unspoken element during an interview is the interviewer being aware and not being
judgmental, being sensitive and respectful to the participants as a starting point of the
conversation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The main source of data collection was notetaking
during the interview to allow for more engagement from the interviewer and not create a
55
distraction by using a computer. Participants who were interviewed for of the study received a
$20 Amazon gift card for their time.
Focus Groups
Focus groups had been proposed, but the researcher was unable to recruit any
participants. The data presented will only represent individual interviews.
Data Security
The researcher maintained all data collected in a secure location with password
protection. The interview notes do not show the actual name of the participant; instead a
pseudonym was used to protect the individual’s identity. A table was created in Word with a
matrix housing the personal data collected during the screener survey and the interviews with
participants. The storage of sensitive documents was taken seriously, and protection of the
information was of high importance.
Data Analysis
Interviews
Maxwell (2013) recommends three analytic options for data analysis, they are memos,
categorizing strategies which include coding, and connecting strategies using a narrative
analysis. The researcher took notes and recorded the interviews to preserve everything said for
analysis and to improve on questioning techniques (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As part of the
data analysis, the researcher was responsible for noting for analysis such things as the
interviewee’s health and mood or any other factors that could influence a response such as an
ulterior motive for participating in the study, or biases and perceptions (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
56
After each interview the recordings were sent out for professional transcription, but as
recommended by Merriam and Tisdell (2016) it is still a good idea to listen to the audio to
correct any errors or fill in missing data. Memos were used to not only capture information from
the interview sessions, but also to capture any thoughts or feelings the researcher was
experiencing during the study. A coding system was developed as recommended by Maxwell
(2013) to capture emerging themes the participants shared.
Validity
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Having a validity checklist is one way of increased credibility of data collected; from this
checklist, the researcher used the following two methods, respondent validity (member checks)
and triangulation (Maxwell, 2013). The first method, member checking, involves taking the
initial interpretation of data or findings back to the source of the information and inquiring about
plausibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher asked each participant to review their
respective notes and narration from their interview to ensure clarity and context credibility to
reduce the misinterpretation of information. The researcher communicated with participants via
email or phone to assess the collected data to check for validity.
The second method is triangulation, where using multiple sources of data or data
collection to confirm findings is used (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Collecting data from a diverse
set of participants and environment and using a variety of methods does increase validity.
Trustworthiness of the data is directly related to the trustworthiness of those who collect it,
analyze it and present it (Patton, 2015). Using two methods of data collection reduces the risk of
systemic biases and chance association because of using any one specific method (Maxwell,
2013).
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Ethics
The researcher followed the ethical guidance offered by Glesne (2011), which is to
provide privacy or anonymity, ask for permission before recording the interview and follow the
“no harm” method. When using the “no harm” method, it refers to both the research process and
making public the findings (Glesne, 2011). Because the study participants interviewed were
individuals who have immigrated to the U.S., potential harm can be caused if a participant feels
any disclosure of immigrant status or documentation will be disclosed to the public. To avoid a
situation that may cause harm, the researcher did not disclose any names or identifiable
information that could target any one of the participants thus offering privacy via anonymity not
asking for documentation of legal status.
Role of Researcher
The researcher in this study has more than 20 years of experience in the field of
healthcare and nine in the field of education. Currently in the role of director for an adult
education consortium, the researcher has implemented regional programs to aid adults in
workforce reentry though the AB104 California Adult Education Program legislation enacted in
January 2015. The intent of the AB104 legislation is to create pathways for adult learners who
lack the basic skills to enter the workforce or postsecondary education.
In addition to administrative work, the researcher has taught as an adjunct faculty for
both credit and noncredit allied heath CTE programs for Cerritos College and North Orange
Continuing Education. It is in the role of adjunct professor that the researcher encountered the
phenomena for this study, in which college-educated immigrants were enrolling in the CTE
courses. It is through this experience that the researcher chose this topic of study because many
58
students enrolled in the researcher’s classes would mention the lack of pathways and guidance
for integration into workforce.
The researcher was aware of her personal experience in guiding enrolled students through
the labyrinth that adult education is and trusted and allow the data process to play out as students
were asked for their experience as college-educated immigrants. As the researcher, it would be
difficult to eliminate personal theories, personal beliefs and the perceptual lens through which I
see the world and my environment (Maxwell, 2013). Instead of trying to eliminate my biases, I
must work with integrity, awareness and knowledge of the origin of my biases, it is through
awareness that I can reduce the effect and portray the data as the facts that exist.
Conclusion
The methodology for this study was outlined indicating the purpose of the study and the
research question that guided the exploration of the experience college–educated immigrants had
when enrolled in adult education CTE programs. A screening survey was utilized in the
purposeful selection of participants before individual interviews and focus groups with
participants. Additionally, the process for data collection and analysis, validity and the role of the
researcher biases are outlined in this chapter. Finally, Toni Antonucci’s Convoy Model was the
lens and framework through which the experience of college-educated immigrants is filtered as
they potentially form networks and social relations in acquiring essential workplace skills to
enter the workforce (Fingerman et al., 2011).
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the experiences of college-
educated immigrants enrolled in adult education CTE programs to acquire essential skills needed
to enter the workforce in the U.S. This case study collected information from participants on how
they engaged in and made meaning of career preparation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
chapter presents the data collected from the screener surveys and the interviews with participants
focused on the research question: What are the experiences of college-educated immigrants
enrolled in Career Technical Education (CTE) adult school programs seeking to acquire essential
workplace skills to enter the workforce in the U.S.?
Participant Demographics
During the first 2 weeks of the Winter 2020 academic trimester, participants were
recruited from the MDC College campus. Instructors from 30 courses were emailed in advance,
and 26 granted permission for the 3-minute class presentation to recruit students for the study.
The MDC College campus has a total of 11 CTE certificate pathway programs, and eight of the
11 programs were visited during the recruitment process. A total of 60 screener surveys were
handed out during the multiple class presentations; some instructors kept additional copies of the
screener survey to share with students who fit the study characteristics but had been absent the
day of the recruitment presentation. The information on Table 3 summarizes participant
demographic information.
The initial methodology for this research included the recruitment of participants for
focus groups. Participants did not respond to the recruitment; therefore, no focus groups were
scheduled. A challenge with recruitment occurred when students who were present for the class
presentations misinterpreted the term “primary investigator,” a phrase the MDC College IRB
60
office required the researcher to use on the recruitment documents. A faculty member present
during the recruitment process reached out to the researcher to share that two students had
approached her asking whom the investigation was for and who would have access to their
information. This misinterpretation may be a factor in low recruitment for both interviews and
the focus groups.
Twenty screener surveys were returned via text, email, and hard copy, and 14 participants
met the study’s eligibility characteristics. The interviews were set up over an 8-week period,
scheduled around the availability of the participants. The interviews varied between 35 and 70
minutes each. Each participant was assigned a pseudonym to maintain confidentiality. The focus
of each of the participant interviews was to collect information on their experience while
enrolled in the adult education CTE programs at MDC College.
Each participant had a unique story to share about their experience and journey
immigrating to the U.S. and having a college education upon arrival. Twelve of the participants
were female, and two were male, with 10 between the ages of 36 and 55. There were 11
countries represented by participants, with a range of time in the U.S. varying from less than 1
year to more than 30 years. The college degrees earned also varied amongst the participants: 11
had a bachelor’s, one had a master’s and two had doctorate degrees in medical disciplines.
The allied healthcare programs at MDC College had most participants enrolled, with
three participants enrolled in two programs simultaneously. At the time of the study, nine of the
participants were unemployed, three were employed full time, and two worked part time. Of the
five participants who were employed, two were employed in the healthcare field and were in the
process of finishing their industry certification, one as a medical assistant and the second as a
pharmacy technician.
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Table 3
Participant Demographics
Participant
pseudonym
Gender Age
Range
Country of
Origin
Length of
time in U.S.
Degree
Earned/Area
of study
CTE
Program
Enrollment
Coco Female 36-45 Mexico 12 years Bachelor’s:
Computer
Science
Pharmacy
technician
Isabel Female 36-45 Romania 1.5 years Doctorate:
Pharmacy
Pharmacy
technician
Monica Female 46-55 Turkey 23 years Bachelor’s:
Chemistry
Pharmacy
technician
Norma Female 36-45 Thailand 12 years Bachelor’s:
Hotel
Management
Pharmacy
technician
Sarah Female 46-55 Korea 5 years Bachelor’s:
Business
Medical
assistant
Diana Female 56-65 Peru 25 years Bachelor’s:
Economics
Management
Erica Female 46-55 Philippines 12 years Bachelor’s:
Secondary
Education
Pharmacy
technician
Sofia Female 18-24 India 3 years Bachelor’s:
Civil
Engineering
Management
& Computer
Certificate
Nancy Female 36-45 Palestine 4.5 years Bachelor’s:
Math applied to
Economics
Medical
assistant
Ruth Female 66 or older Mexico 38 years Master’s:
Library Science
Pharmacy
technician
Kevin Male 25-35 Egypt 5 months Bachelor’s:
Biochemistry
Pharmacy &
Management
Michelle Female 36-45 Egypt Less than 1
year
Bachelor’s:
Veterinary
Medicine
Pharmacy &
Management
Lexi Female 36-45 Egypt 10 years Bachelor’s: Art
and Literature
Pharmacy
technician
Miles Male 36-45 Syria 2 years Doctorate:
Medical
Physician
Medical
assistant
Participant Profiles
Coco immigrated to the U.S. 11 years prior to being interviewed, choosing to move from
her native country of Mexico for marital reasons. All her immediate family remained in Mexico.
Early in her educational career, she enrolled in a private school to acquire the English language.
Her college degree was a bachelor’s in computer science, earned 20 years earlier. While in
62
Mexico, she owned a small business in graphic design with her sister before moving to the U.S.
Her goal in enrolling at MDC College was to explore a career option in the healthcare industry.
Isabel earned her degree in Romania, where she was a pharmacist practicing for 17 years
and completed some study in law, performing duties as a legal advisor. She had been in the U.S.
for a year and a half, immigrating for marital reasons. Her family remains in her home country.
At the time of this study, she managed her husband’s business but wanted to return to her passion
of pharmacy, where she enjoyed counseling people. She was enrolled in the pharmacy technician
program.
Monica spoke three languages and had lived in the U.S. for 12 years, immigrating from
Turkey with her husband, living in New Jersey before moving to California four months before
her interview. She earned her bachelor’s degree in chemistry, and has a teaching certificate,
which allowed her to teach in a private elementary school in the U.S. Her future goal was to earn
a master’s degree, and she was enrolled in the pharmacy technician program. Monica also
attended an art program where she learned oil painting. She owned an art studio in New Jersey
before moving to California.
Norma had been in the U.S. for 12 years. After earning her bachelor’s degree in Thailand
in hotel management, she attended California State University Hayward to earn a certificate in
international business. She met her future husband right before she was to return to Thailand.
She decided to settle in the U.S. working for his family business as an accountant for 12 years.
She moved to Southern California a year prior to this study. Her long-term goal was to earn the
certificate in the pharmacy technician program and apply to pharmacy school to become a
pharmacist.
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Sarah had lived in England, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Korea and had lived in the U.S. for 4
years after her in-laws encouraged her to move and join them. In addition to joining family in the
U.S., she wanted her children to attend American schools. She earned her bachelor’s degree in
business administration in Korea 36 years earlier and worked in finance most of her career. Sarah
was making a career change and working on prerequisites to enter a nursing program while
simultaneously enrolled in the medical assistant program.
Diana had lived in the U.S. for over 25 years, initially moving for marriage. She earned
her bachelor’s degree in economics at a university in Peru where all her family still lived. She
had a robust 20-year career in retail management working for many U.S. retail chain
corporations. She began to learn English from the show “I love Lucy” before enrolling in ESL
classes. Her long-term goal was to finish the management certificate program and continue her
career in retail management, connecting her years of experience to her new level of knowledge.
Erica was from the Philippines and immigrated to the U.S. 12 years earlier for marriage.
She earned her bachelor’s degree in the Philippines in secondary education, which she taught for
7 years at a private school. There were seven schoolteachers in her family, but her original career
path was to earn a degree in business because she worked for a bank. However, her family
pressured her to change and enter education as a pathway. At the time of this study, she enjoyed
working in a long-term care senior establishment and was to be promoted once she became a
licensed pharmacy technician.
Sofia had been in the U.S. for three years, moving to California from Texas with her
husband. On their drive to California from Texas, they encountered a massive sandstorm in
Arizona, and that event became a symbol in their journey to always look forward and not focus
on the past. Sofia was originally from India, where she earned her bachelor’s degree in civil
64
engineering. Her long-term goal was to earn an MBA and open her own business. She was
enrolled in two certificate programs, management, and computers, as she studied for the GRE.
Nancy moved to Southern California from San Francisco three years earlier with her
husband and family. Her country of origin was Palestine, where she earned a bachelor’s degree
in mathematics as applied to economics and taught for a year before immigrating to the U.S. Her
long-term goal was to earn a master’s degree in economics and teach for a college or university.
She was enrolled in the pharmacy technician program and chose the career path because of the
mathematics component and potential to find employment.
Ruth earned both a bachelor’s and a master’s in library science in her home country of
Mexico. Before moving to the U.S., she was a librarian in Mexico City and worked on special
projects for the National Council of Science and Technology and the American Embassy. She
also had the opportunity to work in Japan, and Brazil. She immigrated to the U.S. over 30 years
earlier in response to the political meltdown Mexico was experiencing in the 70s. She retired
from a job in the public sector in the U.S. but considered herself a lifelong learner, so she
enrolled in the pharmacy technician program to explore an interest in the sciences.
Kevin was fluent in three languages and had been in the U.S. for less than half a year. He
was originally from Egypt where his parents were retired and lived with the rest of his immediate
family. He immigrated to the U.S. because several close friends encountered opportunities for
life improvement, and he sought a higher standard of living. He earned a bachelor’s degree in
biochemistry and worked for 16 years in pharmaceutical marketing in Egypt. He was enrolled in
the pharmacy technician and management certificate programs and had the long-term goal of
becoming a pharmacist.
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Michelle had been in the U.S. for less than half a year and immigrated from Egypt to join
her parents and sister in California. She moved to the U.S. to feed her ambition to continue her
education and life advancement. She earned a bachelor’s degree in veterinary medicine and
practiced in the field for one year before switching careers and working in pharmaceutical
marketing for 16 years. She was enrolled in two programs, the pharmacy technician, and the
management certificate, with the long-term goal of becoming a pharmacist.
Lexi immigrated to the U.S. 10 years earlier for a marriage opportunity, leaving her home
in Egypt. She was motivated to move to the U.S. to have better opportunities because, at the
time, Egypt was experiencing economic hardship and jobs were scarce. She earned a bachelor’s
degree in art and literature but did not work in her field. After taking ESL classes, she landed her
first job in the U.S., working at a fast food restaurant where she learned the trade of customer
service. She was enrolled in the pharmacy technician program, working on her long-term goal of
becoming a pharmacist.
Miles had been in the U.S. for just under 2 years, moving his family from Syria because
of the war affecting his country. He earned his medical degree and worked as a physician for 17
years before choosing safety and opportunity for his children over his career. He was enrolled in
the medical assistant program as he worked on prerequisite courses to enroll in a master’s
program to practice as a physician assistant.
Experiences in Adult Education CTE Career Paths
This section presents a qualitative analysis of the data collected from interviews with 14
participants enrolled at MDC College. Participants had all completed a minimum of a bachelor’s
degree before arriving in the U.S. and were enrolled in at least one CTE pathway at MDC
College. Participants shared many aspects about their experiences when selecting their education
66
program and discussed challenges and successes across their life and career trajectories.
Emerging from the data were four themes: career changes, resiliency, and a welcoming campus
environment.
Career Change
In the interviews, all participants described experiencing a career change; they were in
transition, and aware that their profession may not pick up in the U.S. where they left off in their
home country. Their professional identity was defined by their education, years of professional
practice in the industry and the degree of attachment to that identity in the U.S. They were asked
to share details about their backgrounds, the type of profession, and career they held before
moving to the U.S., their perceptions of attaining a college education, and about their long-term
career goals.
All the interview participants discussed being aware they were starting over, the early
influences on their career exploration, the impact these had on the degrees they earned, and their
options and access to higher education. They were willing to begin a new career path, as
evidenced by 10 participants selecting a new profession, and four seeking to build and modify
previous ones. Twelve participants expressed mixed emotions and confusion about the degree-
validation process because it involved visiting their past profession and career choice. They
shared many experiences about their career exploration, insights into modifying or selecting a
new profession, and the choice to validate a previous degree. Lastly, interviewees spoke about a
commitment to learning how to integrate into a new work culture.
Dedication to Starting Over
All participants displayed situational awareness of needing to adapt and potentially start
over along a career path. This investment in their future was tied to their choice to stay in the
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U.S. and their resilience in overcoming the anxiety caused by the unknown details of starting a
new career. All the interview participants expressed being aware of their reality in starting over,
yet they were focused on the future and the start of a new profession.
Both Sarah and Norma maintained a positive outlook about their future as they worked
towards changing careers. Sarah was starting over in healthcare after working in the finance
industry. She stated,
I am very aware that the medical assistant job I am studying for now would be a
beginning level, and I did not expect a high salary. I do hope that, one day, once I become
a nurse, that I will make more money.
Norma was starting over in the medical field after working in hotel management and accounting.
She said,
I don’t feel having a degree held me back. I feel like I’m just going and going forward.
So, the same way that I changed from going from hotel management to accounting, I am
now changing from accounting to the medical field. I am ok with starting over because
my plan is to go to a new field now.
Erica had accepted that she needed to start over again by returning to school to earn a CTE
certificate. She said, “I thought I had to always go back to school to start over again. I didn't have
the confidence in my previous training and education, so I thought I had to go back to school.”
All three participants chose to enroll at MDC College to pursue a CTE career pathway
certificate. Both Sarah and Norma accepted their temporary situation of starting over with a
positive attitude, and they noted this was the first step along a path to creating advancement
potential in a new profession. Erica said she lacked confidence in her prior knowledge, resulting
in her perceived need to start over by returning to school.
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Career Exploration and Choices
There were many influences on how participants selected their initial professional career
and area of study. Six participants identified the influence of family members that limited their
career choice. Two participants described a situation where their path was pre-determined by
high school exit exam scores and the availability of programs near their residence. The
remaining six participants commented on not being able to pursue their first career choice and
now revisiting their initial interest to begin a new career path. For example, Erica stated,
I actually did not want to choose education. I love math. I actually wanted to do
something more with banking, like as a bank teller. And, actually, my first job in college
was at a bank as a teller. I actually had started with a bachelor's in business. Out of nine
of us in the family, seven are schoolteachers, so my father did not allow me to stay in the
business program.
Lexi was enrolled in the pharmacy technician program with a long-term goal of
becoming a pharmacist. Her first job was working in the fast food industry, but she did not let go
of her dream of becoming a pharmacist. At the time of this study, she worked as a pharmacy
clerk while enrolled in the pharmacy technician program. She said,
I finished high school and then moved to a different city to start college. I was distracted
in high school, so my college choices were limited. My high school scores were not good
enough for me to go into pharmacy school. My limited choices allowed for me to get a
degree in art and literature. I enrolled here because they had my first choice: pharmacy.
Miles was passionate as he spoke about his 17-year career as a medical doctor. He
discussed the experience of repeating his senior year of high school to earn a higher score to
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ensure he could attend medical school in his home country and his dream of becoming a doctor.
He said,
There are four doctors in my family, dating back when I was in elementary school. I
found I liked medicine. When I was in high school, your senior year, you took an exam.
That score tells you what kind of career you will go to. I did not have a high score the
first time for medical school, so I signed up for engineering. After a couple of months, I
did not find myself. I returned to repeat my senior year and scored higher, so I can enter
medical school.
Sarah had a career in finance for 25 years before moving to the U.S. five years prior to
this study. At the time of her interview, she was employed at a nonprofit medical clinic while she
was enrolled in the medical assistant program. She was interested in pursuing a nursing program
as a long-term goal and cited the early influence of family on her career choice:
My mother is a pharmacist, so I am familiar with healthcare and working with patients. I
am a good person for healthcare. I am not certified yet as a medical assistant but will be
soon. I am still doing my prerequisites to enter a nursing program. I switched from the
finance field to the medical field because they are always hiring, so I like to have [the]
potential to find a job.
All the interviewees spoke about career exploration, choices, and the influences on their
careers. Influence came from close family members who were already in a specific field, and
parents who guided the decisions participants made. In all, all participants shared personal details
of successes and failures that were a part of their journey to MDC College.
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Building and Modifying Their New Career Pathway
All participants expressed a willingness to modify their career paths or build new ones by
incorporating elements of their previous professional experiences. Some participants planned to
build on previous knowledge by enrolling in a master’s degree program as a second step along
their career advancement, as was the case with Sofia and Nancy. Others, like Norma and Erica,
sought to create a new professional career by building on their work experience from jobs in the
U.S. All four of these participants started a new career pathway by enrolling at MDC College,
which advanced them closer to beginning their new profession.
Sofia had her bachelor’s degree in engineering validated in the U.S. and briefly worked in
that field before taking time off to start a family. Instead of returning to work as a civil engineer,
she made a career change to become an entrepreneur:
I am enrolled in the management certificate program here to work on my study skills so
that I could be more successful in my postgraduate studies. I want to do the management
certificate program so that I can prepare to do an MBA. I would like to be an
entrepreneur and establish my own engineering and construction company. That is my
dream.
Nancy was deviating from her previous job of teaching mathematics at a private
elementary school. She chose the pharmacy technician certificate program because she thought it
would be a fast way of getting into the workforce before enrolling in a graduate program. Nancy
said,
I like the rigor of the pharmacy program. It does have lots of mathematics and
memorization. It is helping to build and maintain my study habits. My goal in the U.S. is
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to ultimately get my master’s degree in economics, and I would love to teach in a college
or university.
Norma had 12 years of experience working in Northern California as an accountant in the
family business, but she experienced challenges in finding a job when she moved to Southern
California:
When I was looking for a job here, I was looking for something in accounting because, at
the job I had before, I was considered a junior accountant for a nursing home. But, I can’t
find a job in the area because I did not have a degree in accounting, and my education is
in hotel management. My degree did not match the experience I have. I then decided to
change from accounting to the medical field by enrolling in the pharmacy technician
program.
Erica switched from working with children as an elementary school teacher for 7 years in
the Philippines to working with the elder population. At the time of this study, she was employed
in the long-term care industry at a nursing home. Erica stated,
I like where I work right now, but there is a lot of competition. I want to get promoted in
my job. I work for a nursing home caring for seniors. I got this job as a caretaker, and I
really loved it. I was raised by my grandmother, so I like working with older people. The
way I can get promoted is to get my pharmacy technician license and become a
medication technician.
The theme in these findings is important because career exploration is a part of creating a
new professional identity, and individuals need a place to feed their curiosity that also allows
them to explore areas of interest. Five participants chose to build on existing knowledge and
chose to advance within the same professional field by enrolling in graduate programs. Norma
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decided to remain in the healthcare field after working in accounting at a nursing home, but she
changed careers by enrolling in the pharmacy technician program. Erica went from teaching
elementary school to caring for the elderly and was enrolled in a pharmacy technician program to
qualify for a work promotion. Whether they were building or modifying a professional identity,
participants had a new vision for their careers.
Emotions and Complexity Behind Degree Validation
Through degree validation, foreign credentials are translated and evaluated to receive
equivalency in the U.S. All participants were asked about their level of knowledge about the
degree validation process in the U.S. and if they would consider this process. There were mixed
emotions in response to this. Of the 14 participants, one had her degree in engineering validated,
three said they would consider it if it was not too costly or time consuming, and only if aid was
provided. The remaining ten participants took a long pause when asked about their willingness or
interest in having their degrees validated, then expressed confusion about the validation process,
showed mixed feelings, and exhibited resistance to returning to a professional identity left in the
past. As participants spoke, their voice grew softer and pauses between their words grew longer,
as if they were reliving the emotion of past decisions. Five of the ten participants needed some
time to collect themselves and their emotions before continuing with the remaining interview
questions. Sarah said,
My degree is a bachelor’s in business administration. I got my degree in 1984, a very
long time ago. I feel that what I learned many years ago is not valid anymore. If, maybe, I
had chosen a financial-related career, that degree might be helpful to me. However, it is
hard to get into the business field at my age here because I do not have any experience in
California. For now, I will continue the medical assistant program and enter nursing.
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Coco had been in the U.S. for 11 years and had taken ESL courses at a different college
before enrolling at MDC College. She heard about degree validation from a neighbor, but she did
not know the steps and was embarrassed to admit she was confused. Coco said,
I did not consider to validate my degree because it has been almost 20 years since then
and the program path was not clear. Even though the degree is a bachelor’s in computer
science, it was a mix of subjects. It was three subjects in one. Even some of my
classmates had a hard time finding a job in that field. So, I chose to start with ESL and
then enrolled in pharmacy.
Diana spoke honestly about her decision to move to the U.S. 25 years earlier, sharing that
she did not make the move voluntarily and that it affected her self-esteem. She said that having a
degree helped her to rebuild some of her lost self-esteem because she was able to use her
knowledge of economics while employed in retail. Her degree was important, but she was
misinformed about the process, which caused her to believe she could not validate. Diana said,
I had heard something about validating, but I thought you had to do it within 5 years of
getting your degree, but I am not really sure it is true. I heard that from a friend. That
friend was a medical doctor, and he struggled because he did not speak English, yet he
had support from his family. I do not have that kind of support.
The timing of an event is important. For Ruth, having to provide for her family limited
her opportunity to travel to have her degree validated. As she spoke, her voice took on a tone of
defensiveness about her decision to not validate her degree:
I did seek a validation of my degree, but the schools I needed to go to for library science
closed in the 1980s. There was one school up north in San Jose, but, at the time, I needed
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to be able to provide for my family and that was not a priority. It would have been
difficult for me at the time to try to have my degree validated.
Miles became emotional as he discussed his year-long research on the process to validate
his medical degree. He was frustrated at some universities’ prerequisites for validating his
certificate as a medical doctor. Instead, he opted to not validate the medical degree and said,
I am not very young right now, so, by the time I would finish in 7 years to validate my
medical certificate to practice as a doctor, it would be time for me to retire. So, that is
why my choice [is] to do a master’s degree instead. [That] would take me 2 to 3 years,
and I can still make some good income. All this research took me 1 year. I do not have 7
years to give up with no guarantee at the end.
Learning the American Way
All participants reported having a sense of responsibility to learning the American way of
doing things, either through work experience or through workshops offered on the MDC College
campus. Half of the participants were excited when they spoke of becoming and behaving more
American. They spoke of being committed to integrating into the American culture, and thus
building a new professional identity by learning the professional etiquette and behavior for the
U.S. work culture. Lexi worked as a cashier at a fast food restaurant and described it as one of
the best experiences of her life. She said that every experience taught her life lessons, and this
one taught her about customer service. It also taught her more about the people who live in
America:
I work there to try and understand the country, the culture, the people, how to go here,
how to go there. I needed to update my behavior here in America, and, little by little, I
began to love America more and more.
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Both Ruth and Sofia took advantage of the resources MDC College offers to students to
help prepare them for the workplace. They attended workshops on skills needed to enter the
workforce, such as resume writing, preparing for an interview and how to dress professionally.
Ruth discussed the helpfulness of these resources in learning about American culture:
Well, I do like all the teachers here, they encouraged us to use the Resource Center and I
did. At the Resource Center they helped me to put together my resume and I have
attended many workshops to learn how things are done here in the U.S.
Sofia appreciated the resource center staff’s assistance in preparing for job interviews:
They helped me to put together my resume so that I would be able to apply for jobs here
in the U.S. The resource center also showed me how to talk in an interview and how to
apply and how to fill out the application. They also taught me how I should dress for an
interview and what to say and what not to say in an interview.
All the participants discussed the complexities of shifting their professional careers upon
immigrating to the U.S. They expressed a strong dedication and willingness to adapt and start
over, reestablishing themselves in a new profession. They shared the influences on their career
exploration and long-term goals. Some participants modified careers while others chose an
entirely new career path. Degree validation was an option few participants chose, citing reasons
like lack of knowledge of the process, expense, and length of time since they had earned the
degree. Additionally, there were mixed emotions and confusion over the validation process that
seemed deep-seated and about which participants were reluctant to share. Lastly, participants
stated that they wanted to learn the American way of doing things so that they could contribute
by having successful careers.
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Resiliency
The theme of resiliency emerged in all interviews, particularly in terms of what interview
participants did not say. None said they wanted to leave the U.S. and return to their country of
origin. None of the 14 participants expressed remorse about their decision to move to the U.S. or
voiced a desire to leave. The commitment to staying in the U.S. motivated and pushed them to
overcome challenges and to be resilient. Interview data showed that participants learned how to
cope with not knowing anyone on campus, overcame challenges in learning a new language, and
did not let personal life challenges hold them back. Additionally, participants admitted they were
unfamiliar with how to navigate the education system in the U.S., relying heavily on direction
from academic counselors at MDC College.
Not Knowing Anyone at MDC College
Participants were asked if they knew someone at MDC College prior to enrolling. Twelve
of the 14 participants expressed that they did not. Six participants made friends while enrolled in
courses and kept in touch with them after the courses had finished. Sofia, Michelle, and Lexi
referenced the positive effects of engaging in group work in their programs. None of the three
knew anyone on the campus, but they made some friends during their programs. Their networks
grew as they progressed in their coursework and met more people. Sofia stated,
I didn’t know anybody. Actually, this program really helped me, and I made some
friends, and now I feel I have some support, and, even after the class was done, we would
still talk as friends. Sometimes, we would talk about homework. We would check in with
each other if any of us had any doubts or didn't understand something.
Similarly, Michelle said,
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I did not know anybody when I started the program here. I have friends now, and I do
reach out to them to ask them questions related to quizzes and our classwork. We do meet
sometimes here on the campus to discuss schoolwork.
Lastly, Lexi shared how group work helped her make friends:
I didn't know anybody when I started, and thanks to some of the classwork, we had to do
group work, I was able to meet some people, and they became my friends. I would say
about half the people in the class I made friends with afterward.
Two participants, Miles and Diana, were more hesitant to interact with students,
instructors, and staff at MDC College. Neither of them knew anyone when they started the
program. Miles credited the shyness to his age:
I come here from zero. I did not know anybody, although, when I came here, I also
brought my wife with me, but she enrolled in some ESL classes. I keep to myself. Maybe
because I am older, I don’t have any friends here.
In contrast, Diana noted she tends to be distant, even at work:
When I first arrived here, I worked in a factory, and the Spanish I spoke was a little
different than some of the other people. So, little by little, I felt more alienated, and I
didn't really communicate with people, and, for some reason, I still don't today, even in
the classroom. I don't have any friends on the campus, and I don't reach out to my
teachers either.
Even though 12 of the 14 participants did not know anyone on campus, they were not
deterred from enrolling. Some built relationships with classmates through group work while two
others chose to not interact.
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Acquiring a New Language
Language barriers can lead to isolation and keep individuals from fully participating in
their community. Many immigrants face the challenge of learning a new language upon arrival.
All 14 participants said they had previously enrolled in English classes in their home countries
and spoke some English when they arrived in the U.S. Three participants enrolled in ESL
programs at other community colleges, and four were enrolled in ESL courses at MDC College
alongside their CTE programs. Language fluency allows an individual to engage and become a
part of the community. One participant shared a creative way of learning English by watching
American TV programs. Participants demonstrated their commitment to residing in the U.S. by
making a conscious effort to learn English and integrate into society. Diana stated,
I came to MDC College to practice a little bit more my English. I began to learn English
from watching the show I Love Lucy. What motivated me to learn English was a bad
experience opening an account at the bank. I was discriminated [against] by the bank
manager. He said he did not have anyone to speak in Spanish to me. I told him that I
spoke English, and he said to return when I spoke it better. So, I did, and reminded him of
who I was. He said he did not remember telling me that.
Miles and Isabel both referred to learning English as it is spoken in the U.S. Miles had
traveled the world, working in the Middle East and in England. He was willing to adapt and now
speak English as it is spoken in this country:
I realized that English is different from state to state. I was in England for some time and
even their English is different, so coming to classes here helped me to learn how it's
spoken here. As you practice, you need someone to guide you. I also brought my wife
with me, but she enrolled in some ESL classes because she did not speak any English.
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Isabel was enrolled in her first course at MDC College and was nervous as she spoke because
she was afraid her accent was noticeable:
I don’t speak English very good. I took classes in my country. I speak enough to come
here, but I would like to practice my English with people who speak it here and to get
used to the American system of education.
Nancy and Sofia were both committed to improving their language ability, as they
planned to enroll in graduate programs. Nancy was working on overcoming her fear of being
underprepared for the TOEFL exam:
I knew that if I wanted to be a mathematics teacher here, I was told I needed to do a
credential. Because of this, I need to take the TOEFL exam. I don’t feel confident and I
don’t think I am ready to take the TOEFL exam. So, I need to study more and improve
my language.
Sofia was improving her English proficiency to apply to an MBA program:
My motivation was to both improve my English and to get the management certificate.
My husband encouraged me to come and enroll in the program in the meantime before I
could get into my graduate work. This would help me to understand the business system
in the U.S.
Learning a new language takes time and persistence. Not giving up reflects the
commitment participants had to invest in themselves. Their resiliency is reflected in their
situational awareness as they adapted their communication skills.
Overcoming Personal Circumstances
The commitment of all the participants to reside in the U.S. fueled their drive to
overcome personal circumstances and achieve their goals. Five interviewees reported difficult
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personal life circumstances and challenges, yet they found motivation to move forward.
Interviewees narrated events like overcoming strained financial situations, lack of access to
documentation, and divorce.
Diana and Monica had both explored enrolling at other community colleges and
universities before enrolling at MDC College. The financial cost of those other campuses was
out of reach for them, but neither gave up on their goal of finding an academic program. Diana
said,
At one point, I had also looked at classes at Fullerton College for an accounting program,
but I would have to pay for it, and I didn't have the money to pay for the classes, and,
here, I found out that they were free. My goal was to start a career.
Monica discussed the higher tuition cost associated with her immigration status:
I studied chemistry in English at a very good university in my country, but I came here to
the U.S. So, it will be different for me than for my friends who are also teachers. My first
goal is to get the equivalency in chemistry. I have already applied at UCI, but I'm not a
resident right now, so the cost is too high, so I could not go there yet.
Isabel experienced a setback when she could not obtain documentation from Romania,
where she had been a pharmacist and legal advisor. MDC College provided an option for an
educational program as she worked on getting her documentation. The pharmacy technician
license would allow her to practice in an area in which she was skilled. Isabel said,
I think they were asking me something about the registration for my license for being a
pharmacist in Romania. They needed the proof in a sealed envelope, and I needed it
translated. So, physically, I need to obtain the transcript, but I'm not able to return to my
country for political reasons. I did call the board of pharmacy here in California, and they
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told me I needed to get the documents from my degree in Romania. So, for now, I will
start with the program here.
Lexi had to overcome a divorce after only three years in the U.S. She did not give up on
her long-term goal of working as a pharmacy technician:
I got a divorce, and that's why I needed to start looking for a job. I don't have any family
here, but, in the last four years, I have had some very good friends that support and help
me. So, I have the challenge right now of rebuilding my life by myself. But I think, now,
I'm getting to a stable point in my life here in America where I have my job.
The fact that they were enrolled in programs without knowing anyone, invested time in
learning the language, and were not deterred when challenges arose shows the participants were
resilient and committed to staying in the U.S. They had a positive attitude when sharing how,
despite setbacks, they reached the next step in their long-term career goals by enrolling at MDC
College. Participants spoke of being resilient and not allowing setbacks to limit their progress.
Navigating an Unfamiliar Educational System
The integration of counseling into the transition to postsecondary education or the
workforce is an essential component of adult education. The academic counseling offered to
immigrant students is integral in addressing the gaps they face when navigating an unfamiliar
educational system and acquiring workforce skills. Academic counselors are among the first
points of contact for a student, as they assist with self-assessment, education planning, and
enrollment. All participants expressed a sense of abandonment and feeling lost in an unfamiliar
educational system, but their commitment to reaching their long-term career goals pushed them
to overcoming the fear and enroll at MDC College.
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Monica, Michelle and Lexi had different long-term educational goals, yet all three
expressed concern over not having someone help them navigate the American education system.
Monica was requesting assistance with applying to a university for a master’s program, Michelle
needed assistance with communicating with the pharmacy board, and Lexi needed general
assistance navigating the community. Monica stated, “Nobody actually walked me through the
process. They didn’t give me any advisement. All they told me was that I should go there. I did
not receive any information on how to do it.” To address some of this difficulty, Michelle
offered,
It would be very helpful to have a service that can take copies of our transcripts and walk
us through how we could get them translated. It would be helpful to have someone here
on the campus that can help us communicate about state board questions.
Lexi referenced how the nation would benefit from increased aid to immigrant students:
We start from zero with low class work. If foreigners received this help from academic
counselors, we would be able to help America. We could help the country by being more
productive. We would be effective and efficient, and the country would be a winner.
Both Nancy and Kevin were interested in receiving information on having their degree
validated. They understood the complexity of the situation and needed additional assistance. The
academic counselors did not inform them of the steps or guide them through the process, leaving
them confused. Nancy explained,
So, when the first time I came to MDC College, I told the counselor I had a degree, but
the counselor never asked, and I was only here to enroll in the pharmacy program, and
they gave me some papers. They said, ‘Here are the centers for degree validation,’ but
nobody actually helped me to understand those papers.
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Kevin’s experience was similar:
The counselor gave me a website for the evaluation of foreign transcripts, but she didn't
actually tell me how to do it. She just gave me the website for the translation, but I wasn’t
sure about the evaluation part. I don't know what that process is. Is there somebody here
on the campus that would be able to help me to walk through the system and to know
how to get them evaluated?
Overall, all the participants were resilient when they faced challenges navigating a new
educational system. They discussed feeling confused as they determined what the next steps
were for their career path. Their initial contact with an academic counselor exemplified how
much they did not know about the American education system. However, the limited knowledge
they had about the educational system was only a temporary setback as they worked to inform
themselves about their educational options.
Welcoming Campus Environment
All the participants discussed the emotional and psychological wellbeing they felt on
campus. MDC College accepts all individuals who apply, regardless of their residency status,
socioeconomics, English proficiency, or previous educational attainment. Courses are tuition-
free, reducing the financial barriers for students, and the campus is centrally located in the
community, which decreases transportation issues. The campus does not require proof of
residency. Course information is mailed to the community, increasing inclusivity for those with
limited technology. Lastly, MDC College does not exclude any individual from enrolling,
regardless of their previous educational attainment. Upon enrollment, students are assessed and
placed into the academic level that can best support their learning and goals.
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Emotional and Psychological Wellbeing
All the participants expressed that staff were friendly and positive and that they felt
welcomed at MDC College. Interview participants experienced a sense of wellbeing because
staff were helpful and patient, which contributed to their decision to enroll at the campus. Kevin
said,
[The] location is wonderful, and so is the place. It’s very friendly. People receive you
here, and I feel safe. The people are very kind and helpful. They're very cooperative and
positive. When you love the place, you love what you study and the people here, so I'm
really excited to see what is next. I feel welcome and at ease while I'm here.
Miles had visited three other college campuses to inquire about the degree validation
process. He shared that the staff at MDC College was the most welcoming and friendly of all the
campuses he had visited. Miles said,
Here, the people were very friendly and helpful. I didn’t know what the rules were here,
so people help me to understand. That was the reason why I chose to stay here after I
fixed my papers was because they were very friendly, and they had helped me a lot.
Sarah had attended a different college to develop her English proficiency and finish
prerequisites for a nursing program. Her appreciation and feelings came through as she said,
I really like the education system here. Even though I'm not young, I have had a great
opportunity to study here. I felt very welcome, and I feel like they help me have an open
mind to encourage me to study more. And that's why I'm studying here as a student.
Norma spoke of the student center as a place where she can go to meet classmates, do
homework, seek tutoring or just check in. Norma said,
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I think the program here has been overall really good, the people are very helpful. I go to
the student center because you can talk with others. It's not quiet like the library. Here,
we can discuss our work together, and, if you need to, you can go see a tutor, and, if you
want to keep your privacy, you can go to another room not common. So, I like having a
space as a student to go to.
Campus Characteristics Support Goal Achievement
MDC College addresses inequities in the community for nontraditional students by
eliminating some of the financial barrier students face. Mailing the course catalog to the
surrounding community brings course and program information to those with limited access to
technology. Lastly, because immigration documentation can be a barrier, the campus does not
require it.
Decreasing barriers to enrollment increases equity in education. Five participants said
they had inquired about enrollment at other universities and community colleges, but, because of
residency status, they would have to pay international-student fees. The high cost meant they
could not access those educational institutions, limiting their educational options and career
mobility.
All 14 participants made a reference to the programs at MDC College being tuition-free.
Norma shared she was in disbelief when she learned of that fact:
My husband researched. He went on the internet, and, one day, he told me why you don’t
try and go here. He told me it was free tuition. When he first told me the programs here
were free, I didn't believe him. I thought, “Why would they do that?”
When participants were asked how they became aware of the campus and its programs,
six stated they received the mailer from the campus. Coco, Erica, Isabel, Nancy, Sofia, and Ruth
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all mentioned the free courses as incentive, and all but Coco and Sofia were also swayed by the
proximity of the campus.
Miles and Isabel discussed the benefit of being allowed to enroll in a college program
absent immigration documentation. Miles stated,
I found the program for medical assistant here and it was free, and they didn't ask me if I
had fixed my papers, my documents. When I was about halfway through the program
here, my papers were fixed. Here, the people were very friendly and helpful.
Isabel also faced difficulties related to documentation:
I came to this school because I wanted to get my pharmacy technician certificate because
I want to keep practicing pharmacy here in the U.S. I had issues getting my transcripts
from my country because I changed my name when I got married, so it made it difficult
for me to try to find a school here that will accept me without documents. So, that is why
I started here at MDC College, they did not ask me for them.
Three participants specifically stressed a sense of gratitude for being accepted into a
program that presented an opportunity for them to explore and work on their career path. Ruth,
Monica, and Sarah were appreciative of the options they were afforded for career growth. Ruth
said,
I am one of those people that will keep learning my whole life, and I'm very thankful for
programs like this they give me an opportunity to come and learn a new trade or to earn a
certificate and to feel welcomed.
Monica stated,
Most of the people I know are new here. They don’t know what to do. For example, my
friend is a math teacher, and she does not know where to start. She is at my same level.
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So, I found this place, and I prefer this place. I really like it here. I am so happy and
thankful to be here in school and working on my future.
Sarah compared her experience at MDC College with that in other countries:
Thinking of the American system, more specifically in California, I love it. I think, of all
the places I have been, it's one of the best education systems in the world. And the reason
why California has such a good system is because it allows people like me to study for
free. In other countries, I never had the chance to study for free. I think education is one
of the more important things in life, and I am thankful for this opportunity.
MDC College’s campus characteristics supports goal achievement by providing a
welcoming environment with friendly and helpful staff. Tuition-free courses reduced the
financial barriers, mailing the course catalog increased inclusivity, and not requiring residency
documentation increased access for college-educated immigrants. Participants expressed
gratitude for having access to the programs and feeling included and accepted. MDC College
was accessible and welcoming to an immigrant population that had otherwise experienced
rejection and setbacks at other educational sites.
Conclusion
This chapter presented the findings from the qualitative data collected from interviews on
the experience college-educated immigrants had upon enrolling in adult education CTE
programs. The three themes generated were the career change participants were experiencing,
their resiliency in overcoming setbacks, and how the MDC College welcoming campus
environment supported goal achievement. The next chapter presents a review of the findings and
their implications as well as recommendations for practice to improve support structures for
college-educated immigrants enrolled in these programs.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
For over 150 years, adult education in California has served to address inequities for
underserved populations providing adults basic education and workplace skills to transition into
employment. However, since 1990, there has been a continuous increase in the number of
immigrants arriving in the U.S. who are college-educated. As immigrants’ educational
attainment has changed, the adult education system has not adapted to serve distinct needs of this
population.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to collect information from participants on
how they engaged in and made meaning of their activities or experiences in adult education as a
means of career preparation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The Convoy Model is central to
understanding connections as participants shared their experiences in the creation of their social
network in the CTE adult education programs. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the
findings presented in Chapter Four, drawing on data generated from 14 participants interviewed
over an 8-week period. The chapter will also revisit the findings through the Convoy Model,
present recommendations, and discuss implications for practice.
Discussion of the Findings
The research question that guided the study was, “What are the experiences of college-
educated immigrants enrolled in Career Technical Education (CTE) adult school programs
seeking to acquire essential workplace skills to enter the workforce in the U.S.?” The discussion
of the findings includes sharing the experiences participants had while enrolled in CTE programs
at MDC College as they prepared to enter the workforce.
The first area of discussion is that MDC College was welcoming and accessible to an
immigrant population that had otherwise experienced rejection and setbacks at other educational
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sites. The second area of discussion is the experience participants had in exploring a new career
and profession by enrolling in a program to begin a new career pathway. Participants reported
they had plans for career advancement to accomplish their short-term and long-term goals, and
they were resilient in overcoming challenges and difficult circumstances. The final area of
discussion is the experience participants had while interacting with students, instructors,
counselors, and college personnel as they explored the creation of a network or convoy of people
around them.
Accessibility and Inclusivity
Without accessibility to MDC College programs, participants would not have been
afforded the experience of enrolling in an adult education, CTE certificate program. MDC
College policies ensured all students were accepted regardless of their residency status,
socioeconomics, English proficiency, or previous educational attainment.
MDC College does not require potential students to disclose immigration status, or
present proof of documentation when they enroll. Five participants said they inquired about
enrollment at other universities and community colleges, but, because of their lack of residency
status, they would have to pay international-student fees. The high cost meant enrollment was
out of reach, along with access to those educational options. The tuition-free programs at MDC
removed the financial barrier to enrollment.
Participants reported being welcomed and experiencing psychological wellbeing while on
the college campus because staff were friendly, patient, and helpful. This was a factor that
affected their decision to enroll at MDC College.
As noted in Chapter Two, the current delivery method of adult education programs across
California are funded through the California Adult Education Program, AB104. MDC College is
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following the legislative guidance by providing access to tuition-free programs and not requiring
proof of documentation and residency. The result is the creation of a safe space for all
individuals interested in enrolling at MDC College, and this includes college-educated
immigrants. Having limited choices to enroll elsewhere, college-educated immigrants chose to
enroll at MDC College quite simply, because they could.
Career Pathway Exploration
In the interviews, participants discussed their transition into CTE courses to explore new
career and professional options. Participants expressed needing to maintain flexibility and be
adaptable as they built, modified, or created a new career path. This was evident in the 10
participants who reported they were choosing to start a new profession and were enrolled in a
CTE certificate program to start the trajectory of career advancement.
The healthcare CTE pathways had the highest number of participants enrolled. Twelve
participants were enrolled in healthcare programs. Participants cited the potential for job
availability, growth, and the perception of having a stable income, as motivators to enroll in
healthcare pathways. Participants were aware of the initial income gap in earning a lower wage,
yet they were hopeful that their long-term educational plans would materialize, advancing them
to a higher income level.
Cultural Integration
Participants were looking for ways to integrate into the American culture and learn the
values, orientations, and social norms associated with interactions in the community and in the
workplace setting (Fingerman et al., 2011). They reported being in a transitional stage as they
entered an educational setting to start a new career pathway. Instead of looking to the past,
participants were committed to creating a new future as they resolved feelings of living in two
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worlds, the one left behind, and the new one they were creating. While enrolled at MDC College,
participants expressed that they engaged in activities to increase their awareness of the American
culture by enrolling in ESL courses, socializing on campus, and attending workshops on
professional etiquette and behavior. Eleven different countries were represented by the study
participants, and all 14 said they needed a better understanding of the values and norms upon
which social relations operate in the U.S.
Brain Waste
The term brain waste refers to foreign born and educated immigrants who have earned
professional qualifications but are underutilizing their skills on the job or are unemployed
altogether (Batalova et al., 2016). The brain waste phenomenon is the result of a temporary
mismatch between an immigrant’s career development, language skills, and education due to
imperfect information about the deliberate search for employment (Hartog, 2000). All 14
participants had clear situational awareness that beginning a program at MDC College indicated
they were starting over along a new career pathway that would yield an entry level wage.
The effects of brain waste for college-educated immigrants was evident by the
employment status of the 14 participants in the study: five were underemployed, and nine were
unemployed. All 14 participants referred to future employment being a key motivator for their
choice to enroll at MDC College. Five participants in the study were employed at the time of the
interview, and all five were in entry level positions within their respective fields. The remaining
nine participants were unemployed: two were waiting on residency documentation, and the other
seven were not actively looking for employment. Participants stressed the importance of their
role in providing financial support for their dependents and family members. As noted in Chapter
Two, college-educated immigrants in California forgo approximately $9.4 billion in annual
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earnings by being underemployed, and this translates to California experiencing $694.8 million
in forgone state and local annual tax revenue (Ruiz et al., 2016).
With the opportunity to enroll at MDC College, participants were upskilling, increasing
their potential for employment advancement by completing a certification in a CTE pathway.
Participants were aware of the low wage-earning potential for entry level employment resulting
from the certificate they were earning at MDC College. However, they recognized the certificate
as a step closer to their long-term goals and career advancement and mobility.
Exploration of a Network
Participants shared their stories about immigrating to the U.S., leaving family members
behind in their country of origin. Eleven of the participants said at the time of the interview that
they did not have any immediate family members residing in the U.S. The absence of family
members left a void in their personal support structure but created an opportunity for participants
to explore the formation and creation of a support network, essential to well-being and quality of
life (Fingerman et al., 2011). The interactions with MDC College staff, other students, and
instructors occurred in a safe platform, allowing participants to explore the formation of new
relationships with varying levels of closeness and importance. Absent immediate family
members to offer advice, guidance and support in career decision making, participants had the
opportunity to create alternative relationships.
Twelve participants reported they did not know anyone at the MDC College campus when
they enrolled, thus having to create a new social network. While on the MDC College campus,
six of the participants said they created casual acquaintances and friendships with other students
and did so to discuss schoolwork, though none spoke about disclosing personal information and
interests or about creating a close relationship. In addition, none of the participants reported they
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developed strong connections or attachments to any of their instructors. Participants
characterized these interactions as superficial and related to course work, noting email was the
main form of communication.
Career Advisors
As a requirement of the CTE programs, all students needed to meet with an academic
counselor at enrollment and at set intervals thereafter. Participants said they developed an
inherent trust with the academic counselors and were willing to accept guidance from them. The
participants described their meeting with the counselors as informative and beneficial. All
participants said the counselors presented them with the many career pathway options at MDC
College and enrolled them in the program they chose. However, participants struggled in
understanding the role of the academic counselor. The role of an academic counselor is to assist
students with enrollment, but college-educated immigrants need a different type of support.
All participants discussed having questions beyond the enrollment process at MDC
College and said they needed someone to help them navigate the American education system.
Participants reported having questions outside the parameters of an academic counseling session
about immigrant documentation, transition and enrollment at other universities, and about
licensure requirements for career certification. Participants said they did not have someone in
their immediate circle of family or friends who had attended college in the U.S., so they relied on
the academic counselors for guidance on career decisions.
Conceptual Framework and the Findings
Convoy Model
This section examines the data collected from the study through the framework of the
Convoy Model. The Convoy Model has been used to focus on how social relationships and
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culture provide different facets of support to an individual (Birditt & Newton, 2018). The life
course perspective of the Convoy Model illustrates the situational characteristics that provide a
contextual experience for the individual who is part of a group or organization with demands and
expectations of the role they occupy (Antonucci, 2009). In this model, individuals are
characterized as part of a network or convoy that moves with them through time and space.
Central to the Convoy Model is the focus on the quality of the relations, not the structure or
durability. When working at an optimal level, the Convoy Model becomes critical because it
both protects and socializes the individual, but, when there is a dysfunction, the individual may
experience stress (Fingerman et al., 2011). Socialization is the process by which an individual
receives training or education, learns new habits, or acquires information about their culture
through interacting with individuals who can coach or model new behaviors (Fingerman et al.,
2011).
Hierarchical mapping is an essential component of the Convoy Model and was developed
to define the attachment level within an individual’s social convoy and is depicted by three
concentric circles. The individual is the central focal point and the outer circles represent the
closeness and importance in the relationships. As the focal point in the center (Figure 9), each
individual moves through life surrounded by a convoy, a set of individuals tied by the exchange
of support, defined by their role requirement (Thomese et al., 2005). The second concentric
circle surrounding the focal person is comprised of immediate family members, spouses,
children, parents, and siblings. The third outer circle includes neighbors, co-workers, teachers,
and classmates, which are tied to the role setting by the duration, and content of the relationship.
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Creation of a Network
When applied to this study, each participant represented the central focal person on the
hierarchical map, and the members of their convoy lay in the concentric circles that ripple
outward. The second concentric circle’s membership was impacted and disrupted by the
participants choice to immigrate to the U.S. Immediate family members were left behind in their
country of origin. Eleven participants shared that they did not have immediate family members
in the U.S. While at MDC College, participants were provided a space to reconstruct their
support network absent having immediate family. After enrollment, participants interacted with
campus staff, academic counselors, classmates, and instructors. Each one had a different role
requirement, and level of closeness and attachment in relation to each participant, as they formed
a part of the third concentric circle.
MDC College Experience is One Point in Time
The CTE certificate programs at MDC College are generally completed in 2 to 3 years.
The goal of an adult education CTE certificate program is to focus on skill attainment to
transition individuals into the workforce or other educational settings. At the time of the study,
all 14 participants were in the role of a student and had goals of completing the certificate
programs to either transition to advanced levels of education, or an occupation. Four participants
were enrolled in their first course, while the remaining ten varied in the progression of
completing their certificate.
The interactions participants had while enrolled at MDC College resulted in the
exploration and creation of a new social network, or convoy of individuals. The convoy of
individuals provided support and socialization opportunities during the duration of their
enrollment in the CTE program. Enrollment at MDC College is a point in time and space, once
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participants leave the campus setting, membership in the convoy may be fluid, context dictates
duration.
While enrolled, participants were receiving cultural and workplace socialization through
classroom interactions with students and instructors and by attending workshops. All 14
participants said the interactions with other students were beneficial, they learned study skills,
were exposed to other cultures through classroom potlucks, and interacted with other age groups
for classroom projects. Interaction with instructors was limited to the classroom setting, and all
14 participants shared that they were satisfied with the curriculum being taught, and that it was
preparing them for the workplace setting. Once this part of the socialization is completed,
participants no longer need to repeat the classroom experience.
Research Supporting the Convoy Model and Network Creation
The Convoy Model framework is supported by research dedicated to understanding the
context of network creation as it applies to the experience of immigrants in a new country.
Research conducted with immigrant women in Spain focused on the composition of participants
social network support, and if they included family, friends, indigenous friends, and immigrant
associates (Dominguez-Fuentes & Hombrados-Mendieta, 2012). The findings indicated that
family was the most relevant source for emotional, instrumental, and informational social
support, followed by indigenous friends who facilitated contact with other networks aiding in
socialization (Dominguez-Fuentes & Hombrados-Mendieta, 2012).
Findings in the study at MDC College indicated that participants had the highest level of
interaction and closeness with their spouse and children, followed by academic counselors, staff,
classmates, and lastly instructors. This finding was supported by ten participants who said they
moved to the U.S. for marriage opportunities. Aside from household interactions, all 14
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participants shared that while on the MDC College campus, academic counselors were their most
trusted advisors, providing much needed guidance in career decision making. The MDC College
staff connected participants to resources on the campus that included workshops on professional
etiquette, study aids, and support programs. Six participants said they created casual friendships
with other students, incorporating them into the third concentric circle of the hierarchical map.
Lastly, all 14 participants said interactions with instructors was limited to the classroom setting.
The creation of the new social network by participants indicated different levels of closeness and
attachment within the same concentric circle.
The findings from the study indicated that accessibility to the MDC College campus
allowed participants to explore career options as they enrolled in a CTE certificate programs for
career and social mobility. This gave participants a dedicated space for network exploration and
creation as they interacted with campus constituents.
Socialization
Socialization is essential to the role of the individuals forming the convoy, and it is
interwoven into the immigrant experience, as they adapt to learning new behaviors in a different
country. Central to the Convoy Model are the antecedents and consequences across the lifespan
and the need for resocialization in specific situations (Fingerman et al., 2011). Immigrants do not
often have the opportunity to observe elders across the lifespan to develop situational awareness
and adjust as they integrate into a new culture. Participants in this study described a need to be
socialized into the American and workforce cultures. While at MDC College, participants
expressed having different levels of closeness and attachment with classmates, instructors, and
campus staff, resulting in specific role relations but not necessarily in acculturation. All 14
participants expressed their need for guidance in decision making as they explored career
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options. The academic counselors provided the most tangible form of aid, as outlined by the
Convoy Model support structure.
Resocialization
All participants were adults when they arrived in the U.S., and the youngest participant
was 22 years old. Unique to adulthood is the possibility of resocialization, such as in a situation
that occurs after immigration, or entering the military, where new roles and norms are learned
regarding how to behave in a new setting (Fingerman et al., 2011). This resocialization, or
acculturation involves replacing old behaviors and creating a new image, releasing prior roles
(Fingerman, et al., 2011). Absent having family members to guide resocialization, for
participants of the study, classmates, academic counselors, and instructors at MDC College took
on the role of providing situational context and socialization.
The Convoy Model breaks down the types of role changes by defining normative and
non-normative role changes. The non-normative role change occurs when there is a disruption in
the individual’s life trajectory, such as an international migration or sudden disability
(Fingerman et al., 2011). After a non-normative event in an individual’s life trajectory occurs,
the social convoy needs to be reconstituted to adequately meet their support needs in the new
situation (Fingerman et al., 2011). Participants in the study were experiencing a non-normative
role change as they adapted to living in the U.S., integrating into a new culture, acquiring a new
language, and adapting their behaviors to the situations around them.
Culture
The Convoy Model provides a framework for understanding the cultural aspect of social
relations and socialization through research performed on social convoys in various countries.
Culture is defined as a social group’s values, orientations, and social norms (Fingerman et al.,
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2011). Examples of cultural dimensions that hold significance for social interactions are an
individual’s concern for the self, obligation to the group, obedience, traditional gender roles, and
human choice (Fingerman et al., 2011). The participants in the study represented 11 different
countries, highlighting multicultural diversity and the immigrant’s need to understand culture in
America.
The literature also supports the universality of the Convoy Model across different
cultures and how they form according to various inclusion criteria that may vary by country
(Fingerman et al., 2011). The participants in the study at MDC College did not discuss the
criteria they used in the creation of their convoy or social network on the campus. They did
discuss their reliance on the academic counselors, as they had limited interactions with
instructors and other students outside of class.
Workforce Culture
The Convoy Model also examines individuals’ socialization into new employment roles
and the new knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to effectively perform in them (Fingerman, et
al., 2011). Learning about workforce culture is central to the experience of college-educated
immigrants enrolled in CTE programs because it offers the career preparation and training
needed for the job setting. Participants expressed wanting to learn about the American workforce
culture. This included learning the values associated with an occupation, the manner and attitude
on how it is performed and how to interact with coworkers (Fingerman et al., 2011).
Some of the opportunities MDC College offered for socialization into the workforce
were course preparation, and workshops to prepare students with resume writing, interview skills
and wearing professional attire for an interview. All 14 participants confirmed they were learning
about their chosen profession during class time, citing the comparison to pervious educational
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settings and completion of a degree. Campus staff promoted the workshops and the career
center’s services on campus to inform students of the services offered. Additionally, fliers and
advertisements for upcoming workshops and sessions were posted along hallway bulletin boards.
MDC College does promote the workshops to socialize immigrants in a way that the knowledge
is general enough to apply what they learned to a myriad of job settings alleviating limited job
choices.
Types of Support
Central to the Convoy Model is the formation of social relationships, both the personal
lifespan and the situational life course characteristics, which shape and influence the level of
interactions (Fingerman et al., 2011). While enrolled at MDC College, participants expressed
having the highest level of interaction and attachment to the academic counselors, followed by
campus staff, classmates, and instructors. A key element of the Convoy Model is the type of
social support, the situational characteristics such as the type of exchange in the relationship.
Participants said the greatest level of tangible exchange occurred with the academic counselors
and was absent from interactions with other campus staff.
Three Types of Support. Kahn and Antonucci (1980) outlined three types of support an
individual receives as part of the Convoy Model: aid, affect, and affirmation. Aid is defined as
tangible help (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980). Academic counselors are the first point of contact on
the MDC College campus and assist with enrollment and development of a student education
plan, and their support provided aid. Participants expressed they had many more questions than
the academic counselor could answer, thus leaving the academic session with some insecurity
and confusion about their future. The type of aid received was beneficial, but incomplete to meet
the needs of a college-educated immigrant.
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The second type of support is affective, which refers to emotional support. Participants
expressed feeling welcomed and safe on the college campus. They shared that the counselors
were empathetic to their situation of having multiple challenges and that they felt they could trust
the academic counselors for guidance and direction. One key element of the Convoy Model is
the duration and content of the meeting, and the time and purpose. Meeting with a counselor is
spaced out throughout the semesters, and meetings are about content relevant to their enrollment.
Counselors are not available outside of the campus context, which limits the building of an
emotional bond, but participants did say they received important career guidance in their
sessions.
The third type of support, affirmation, refers to having someone value your values and
beliefs. Academic counseling sessions are limited to students’ sharing academic goals, so the
counselor can develop an education plan. There was limited time for a student to share personal
values and beliefs. Most counseling sessions are limited to 30 to 45 minutes and need to be
scheduled weeks in advance, limiting unscheduled conversation.
Counseling Intervention. Academic counselors interact with students and must interpret
the cultural differences between themselves and the students. Brilliant (2000) developed a
counseling intervention to support immigrants in finding a balance between learning to
understand and functioning in a new environment and simultaneously maintaining their own
identity. An academic counseling intervention consists of a counselor asking questions with
respect to how long a student has been in the U.S., their reason for immigrating, and whether
they are alone or living with family (Brilliant, 2000). This process provides students a place to
discuss challenges and ambivalence regarding their immigration experience, which provides an
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opportunity for the counselor to share that other students go through a similar situation. That
knowledge can alleviate stress.
Additional support by the counselor is important when a student is not a native English
speaker. The counselor must be alert to nonverbal cues about stress, such as a student repeating
the same awkward statement. The counselor must genuinely attempt to comprehend what the
student is trying to express to offer support (Brilliant, 2000). This intervention outlines ways for
the academic counselor to offer different types of aid and support to an immigrant student to ease
stress and help with academic success and integration.
Recommendations
The findings from the case study at MDC College generated three recommendations. The
first addresses a gap in support services when students meet with an academic counselor. The
second addresses socialization and acculturation through mentorship. The third is a to create a
resource to accelerate the progress of an immigrant needing comprehensive occupational
information for licensure. These recommendations were based on the experience’s participants
shared about areas that could be improved.
Recommendation 1: Hire a Counselor Dedicated to Working with Immigrants
MDC should implement support services to assist immigrant students seeking to integrate
into the American educational system. Findings from the study indicate that immigrant students
face many barriers to enrollment in an unfamiliar educational system and rely heavily on the
guidance and advice of an academic counselor. They also need assistance overcoming life
circumstances. Having a dedicated counselor on the campus trained to work with multicultural
international students would alleviate some of the stress students experience during
acculturation, and integration into the American education system.
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This counselor would still perform traditional counseling functions during the
matriculation process for a new student, such as helping with orientation, assessment, and
enrollment. The counselor would create the student’s education plan, considering the need for
integration and cultural sensitivity. The new duties could include helping students navigate the
American educational system, connecting students to government assistance, guiding students
through the degree validation process, and offering continuous support, not only during academic
review meetings. The counselor would be a blend of an academic counselor and a social worker
to help students navigate a new environment.
The California Adult Education Program and the Student Success and Support Program
are two current state-level initiatives funding activities to promote services to nontraditional
adults as they transition into postsecondary settings or the workforce. This would be an
opportunity to use dedicated funding for adult education with a service that could reduce
multiple barriers for immigrant students. Participants noted the need to learn how to navigate the
American education system and the lack of awareness of where to search for valid information.
The MDC College campus can implement having a dedicated counselor available to recent
immigrant and international students.
Recommendation 2: Develop a Peer Mentorship Program for Immigrant Students
MDC should implement socialization and acculturation support for college-educated
immigrants enrolled in CTE courses by providing a peer mentorship program. Findings from the
study suggest that immigrant students want to learn about the American and workplace cultures.
Participants said they needed to learn the nuances of the American lifestyle, including how to
speak English the American way and how to dress and behave like Americans. Participants
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expressed a need to learn proper professional etiquette, including how to write a resume, dress
for an interview, and fill out a job application.
As they interacted with other students on the campus, participants did make friends that
they kept in communication with even after courses were finished. A peer mentorship program
can support immigrants as they transition into the American culture and prepare for the
workplace. MDC College can fund a program dedicated for students who are enrolled in CTE
programs. The college currently has a peer mentorship program for ESL students and opening
the program to students in all programs can benefit all involved. The current peer mentorship
program for ESL students trains and employs students who have already finished the program to
work with new incoming students for two semesters. The goal of the peer mentorship program is
to provide support for academic success and assist with integration into an unfamiliar
educational system. This kind of model would work well for a peer mentorship program for
CTE students.
Recommendation 3: Create a Comprehensive Data Bank for Professional Licensure
MDC should create a dedicated website to house occupational and licensure information
with clear employment pathways. Findings from the study suggest college-educated immigrants
would like to accelerate their progress into a career pathway. The state of California does not
have a comprehensive data bank of professional licensure information. However, the state of
Ohio has four agencies that have created a comprehensive website for skilled immigrants: the
Ohio Office for New Americans, Ohio Department of Higher Education, the Ohio Department of
Education and World Education Services. Their website location is:
(https://development.ohio.gov/newamericans/resources_lac.html) and the website houses an
interactive list of requirements for licensure or certifications for specific occupations in Ohio.
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The information listed includes the occupation, the path to employment, the licensing board, the
fees, and educational level needed to obtain the licensing.
Participants expressed a gap in counselors’ knowledge when they inquired about licensure
information for programs outside of the offerings at MDC College. This would be a resource a
counselor could use to inform students of ways to accelerate their existing licensing or degree
earned which can result in higher earning potential.
Implications for Future Research
The California Adult Education Program is the current state initiative that provides
dedicated funding for adult education programs to provide education and training for adults to
transition into postsecondary or workforce settings. As indicated in Chapter One, there is a gap
in the literature on the experience of college-educated immigrants enrolled in CTE programs and
how they may create and develop social networks.
Research could be extended to include participants who may have already finished one of
the CTE programs. The study participants were all currently enrolled in programs, and some
were enrolled in their first class and only three weeks into the trimester, limiting the amount of
information they could share about their experience in the program. Participants who had already
finished the program would bring a new perspective from someone who had experienced the
program from beginning to end.
Future research could open the research parameters to include multiple colleges with
adult education programs. This was a qualitative case study limited to interviewing 14
participants enrolled in noncredit CTE programs. Thus, the findings are not generalizable. The
experiences were limited to this one campus.
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Lastly, a longitudinal study to gather information across time as participants build social
networks would also be beneficial. The research was conducted over the period of one trimester,
so there was no possibility of any longitudinal data being collected. Relationships take time to
establish. Having participants in the study who had only been on the campus for three weeks
decreased the amount of activity they had been involved in.
Conclusion
In the past, adult education has been an avenue for immigrant adults needing basic
language acquisition and skills for workplace employment. The immigrant demographics have
changed over time as more college-educated immigrants make the U.S. their place of residency.
As a result, college-educated immigrants are enrolling in an education system that was not
created for them. They need a different skill set to enter the U.S. workforce. Many immigrants
experience the phenomenon known as brain waste as they enter employment and underutilize
their skill by already possessing a college education.
The Convoy Model was used as the theoretical framework to understand the connections
and experiences of college-educate immigrants as they interacted with individuals on the MDC
College campus. This qualitative case study provided a glimpse into the interactions of
participants as they engaged in and made meaning of their activities. The study participants were
thankful for an opportunity to continue their education and committed to achieving their goals of
starting a career path and life in the U.S. They overcame language barriers, cultural barriers, and
life circumstances to pursue a new career path.
Two weeks after the research for this case study concluded in March 2020, the delivery
of adult education changed drastically as the world experienced a global pandemic. The COVID-
19 pandemic response prompted school closures and mandatory shelter-in-place guidelines that
107
restricted education to a remote delivery model. As described in Chapter Two, there are 71
consortia in California that deliver adult education programs. The consortia leadership were
tasked with developing strategies for three new sections of their Annual Plan. These strategies
needed to address the remote and virtual delivery of services, how to address the State of
California Budget shortfalls, and how consortia members would address systemic racial injustice
around access to technology and equitable access to education.
The consortia leaders developed strategies to address the distance learning opportunities
and challenges, the virtual delivery of academic counseling, and connecting students to resources
that included food, employment, clothing, health, shelter, and public assistance. Secondly,
multiple budget revisions to the State of California Governor’s Budget resulted in an overall
budget shortfall for adult education funding, the consortia leaders developed strategies to
demonstrate that they were allocating funding strategically in response to changes in the
economy. Lastly, the consortia leaders generated strategies to address how adult education
providers would address systemic racial injustices as they worked with community partners in
the delivery of programs. This included providing programs to traditionally underserved
populations in the areas of basic skills, ESL, and low literacy.
The Annual Plan traditionally was a document that served as a guide of academic
programming activity, with recent events, the strategies needed to reflect the unprecedented
times adult education had been forced into. The global pandemic caused economic shifts in
different industries leading to mass numbers of unemployment with some industries disappearing
altogether. Adult education has an important role in the economic recovery as it has traditionally
been a vehicle to offer basic skills and job training.
108
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Appendix A: Recruitment E-mail
Dear Participant,
My name is Emma Diaz, and I am currently a student enrolled in a doctoral program at the
University of Southern California (USC) finishing my studies in Education. I am conducting this
research as a part of my dissertation, which examines the experiences of college-educated
immigrants enrolled in adult education Career Technical Education (CTE) programs to acquire
skills needed for the workforce. The study will include individual interviews and a focus group.
You are invited to participate in the study if you have earned the minimum of a bachelor’s
degree in your country of origin and are currently enrolled in a CTE program.
If you are interested in participating, please fill out the attached questionnaire and return it to me,
it will take 3-5-minutes. If you have the characteristics for the study, I will contact you to
schedule a time and date for your interview or focus group. The interview will be about 45-60
minutes and the focus group will be 60 minutes.
Both the interview and the focus group activity will be audio recorded. All personal identifying
information from participants in the study will be maintained confidential both during and after
the study. Participation is completely voluntary.
If you are selected to participate in the study, you will receive a $20 Amazon gift card as
compensation for your time for individual interviews, and a $10 Amazon gift card for focus
group participants. The gift card will be sent electronically to participants after full participation
in the interview or focus group.
If you have any questions, please reach out and contact me at emmad@usc.edu or (323) 893-
0849.
Thank you for your consideration,
Emma Diaz
Doctoral Candidate – Rossier School of Education
USC
119
Appendix B: Screener Survey
All responses and information collected will remain confidential. Please answer the following
questions to the best of your ability.
1. Age Range
a. 18-24
b. 25-35
c. 36-45
d. 46-55
e. 56-65
f. 66 or older
2. Gender
a. Female
b. Male
c. Other: _______________ (Fill in the blank)
3. What is your country of origin? _____________________________________________
4. What language(s) do you speak and write? (please list them)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. How long have you lived in the U.S.? ___________________________________
6. Have you completed a bachelor’s degree or higher in your country of origin?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes, what degree did you earned in your country of origin?
_____________________________________________________________
7. What job or profession did you work in before arriving in the U.S.?
_____________________________________________________________
8. Are you enrolled in a CTE program?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes, which one(s)?___________________________________________________
9. Would you be willing to participate in a 45-60 minute interview?
a. Yes
b. No
Thank you for your time. If you are selected to participate, I will contact you to schedule an
appointment.
120
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today and be interviewed for my research. My
name is Emma Diaz and I am a doctoral student at USC in the Educational Leadership program
at Rossier School of Education. I have invited you here today to discuss your experiences while
enrolled here at MDC College in a Career Technical Education (CTE) program to acquire
workplace skills. As mentioned in the initial survey, this will take about an hour.
Any information including your name and content of this interview will be kept confidential and
will not be shared. I will use a pseudonym instead of your real name and I will not share any
identifiable characteristics about you in my findings. I am here to listen to you share your
information and not make any judgements about our dialogue.
Do you have any questions for me about the interview before we get started? I have a recorder to
assist in the proper capturing of information that you will share. I will also take handwritten
notes throughout the dialogue. The recording is only to assist with the transcription of our
conversation and will not be shared with anyone else. Do I have your permission to record our
interview?
Interview Questions
1. Tell me about your background. Tell me about your family and the community you live in.
2. What motivated you to move to the U.S.?
3. How long have you been here?
4. Tell me about the motivation to look for an educational program to enroll in?
5. What CTE program are you enrolled in?
6. How did you hear about this campus and its programs?
7. Tell me about your choice in enrolling here.
8. Did you already know someone here on the campus? (student, teacher, administrator or
neighbor). If so, what relation do you have with them, are they a family member, friend or a
neighbor?
9. If you did know someone prior to enrolling into a CTE program here, what kind of support do
you receive from them?
• Do they listen and talk to you?
• Do they offer material help such as money or transportation?
• Do they offer useful information or advice?
10. How often do you talk or reach out to your teacher(s) or classmates outside of class time to
ask questions?
11. Tell me about your goal(s) in enrolling here.
12. Tell me about your experience in the classroom. Are you acquiring workplace skills?
121
13. Tell me about your overall experience enrolled in a CTE program.
14. Tell me about the earned degree you already have from your country of origin. What field is
your degree in?
15. Why did you choose this field?
16. Are you currently employed in that field of study?
If no, tell me about why you are not working in that field?
If yes, is your salary comparable to what you earned in your country of origin?
17. Is the CTE program you are currently enrolled in in the same field of study your degree is in?
18. Tell me about your current employment.
19. Tell me about your experience in having a college education before arriving in the U.S., has
it helped or held you back in your transition into employment?
20. Tell me about your experience applying for employment here in the U. S., does having a
degree helped or do you feel overqualified?
21. Are you transitioning into an entire new field of work based on the CTE program you are
enrolled in? If so, which one?
22. Have you met with an academic counselor here at the college?
23. Did you tell the counselor at any time that you had a degree?
24. If so, what was their response? Did you proceed to discuss it, or move onto discussing your
SEP?
25. Are you aware that services exist that can translate and evaluate your degree earned in your
country of origin?
If you have, where did you hear about it?
If you have not, would it be something you would consider doing?
26. Is there anything else you would like to add to this conversation?
Thank you for your time and willingness to share, I appreciate it. If I find have a follow-up
question, may I contact you? Thank you so much for your time.
122
Appendix D: Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4033
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
An Investigation of the college-educated immigrant experience enrolled in adult education
Career and Technical Education programs.
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Emma Diaz at the University of
Southern California. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before
deciding whether or not you want to participate.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand the experiences of college-educated immigrants enrolled
in adult education Career and Technical Education programs.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participants that agree to take part in the study will be asked to complete a 3-5-minute survey
and a 45-60-minute audio-recorded individual interview or focus group. After the interview, you
will have the opportunity to review a transcript of the interview and follow up with any changes
or feedback. You are free to end the interview at any time you do not feel comfortable
answering. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will be compensated with a $20 Amazon gift card for individual interviews, and a $10
Amazon gift card for focus group participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
If data are coded or identifiable:
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. At
the completion of the study, direct identifiers will be destroyed and the de-identified data may be
used for future research studies. If you do not want your data used in future studies, you should
not participate.
Required language for either condition:
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Emma Diaz
at emmad@usc.edu or by phone at 323-893-0849.
123
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The adult education system in California was created over 150 years ago as a response to a growing immigrant demographic in need of basic skills and language acquisition. However, in recent years a growing number of college-educated immigrants have enrolled in adult education programs. This qualitative case study explored the experiences of college-educated immigrants enrolled in adult Career Technical Education (CTE) programs as a means of acquiring essential workplace and employability skills. The Convoy Model was used as the theoretical framework, the study used interviews to investigate how college-educated immigrants created and used CTE adult education programs to develop social networks. The study found that MDC College was accessible and welcoming to an immigrant population that had otherwise experienced rejection and setbacks at other educational sites. Enrolling in CTE programs provided an environment for career exploration and the creation of a new professional identity. Participants shared stories of resiliency as they overcame barriers, demonstrating their commitment to establishing a new life in the U.S. While on the MDC College campus, participants interacted with students, staff, and instructors, increasing their exposure to network creation. Lastly, participants highlighted that the greatest sphere of influence on their career decisions came from interactions with the academic counselors who assisted them with understanding the American education system. The study results generated three recommendations that support the integration of college-educated immigrants into the American culture.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Diaz Curiel, Emma
(author)
Core Title
College-educated immigrants' experiences in adult education career technical education programs
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
11/06/2020
Defense Date
08/18/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
adult education,college-educated immigrants,CTE career pathways,OAI-PMH Harvest,social networks
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Tambascia, Tracy (
committee chair
), Carbone, Paula (
committee member
), Jones, Debra (
committee member
)
Creator Email
be-blessed@att.net,emmad@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-393758
Unique identifier
UC11666358
Identifier
etd-DiazCuriel-9102.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-393758 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-DiazCuriel-9102.pdf
Dmrecord
393758
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Diaz Curiel, Emma
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
college-educated immigrants
CTE career pathways
social networks