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Sustaining faith-based organizations through leadership pipelines and programs: an evaluation study

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Sustaining faith-based organizations through leadership pipelines and programs: an evaluation study

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SUSTAINING FAITH-BASED ORGANIZATIONS THROUGH LEADERSHIP PIPELINES
AND PROGRAMS: AN EVALUATION STUDY

by

Bo M. White

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Bo M. White

ii
Acknowledgements
I started investigating academic study at the University of Southern California from afar
due to the influence of two professors whose writings have impacted me for more than two
decades. The late Dr. Dallas Willard (1935-2013), professor of philosophy at USC whose
spiritual writings taught me that formation of the heart involves vision, intention, and means. The
late Dr. Warren Bennis (1925-2014), who was professor of business administration at USC,
taught me, through his writings on leadership, that to influence others effectively, I need to be
someone who learns about himself and his world. I am truly grateful, then, to have been able to
study in person with USC faculty who continue to encourage deep personal inquiry alongside
relevant scholarship that illuminates the world in which I work.
I am grateful for the leadership and mentorship of Dr. Maria Ott whose generosity and
guidance, as my professor and chair, made a difficult journey enjoyable and fruitful. I only hope
my daughter gets to learn from educators like Dr. Ott. I am also truly grateful for Dr. William
Bewley for serving on my committee and for shepherding my writing with graciousness. Dr.
Bewley consistently reminded me that the small things make the big ideas work. I am thankful
for Dr. Monique Datta for serving on my committee as well and who took the time to give me
truly valuable feedback that made me not only want to improve my writing, but she reminded me
about the power of getting out of my own way. I must also acknowledge my gratitude to all the
USC faculty who make the Rossier School of Education a truly meaningful place. A special
thanks goes to Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi who not only was willing to field questions that ranged
from relevant to those displaying my insecurity but who took the time one day to help me hash
out the topic I wanted to spend a couple of years exploring.
iii
I want to thank Mark Childers for the constant encouragement over meetings at local
coffee shops. Mark spent over a decade in the U.S. secret service protecting elected officials, but
I am indebted to his willingness to help me protect my own dreams and aspirations. Cheers to
friends and colleagues from Cohort X (you know who you are). The following men and women
also played a role in helping me finish my terminal degree through perfectly-timed kindness and
wise counsel: Dr. Varon Soni, Tiffany Hogue, Dr. Randy Wood, Dr. Jeffrey Hamilton, Dr. Adam
Henry, Dr. Kimberly Black, Dr. William Pierros, and Dr. Kevin Dougherty. The right word at
the right time matters.
Finally, I am grateful for the sacrifices made by my wife, Tamara, and my two children
Alister and Eliana. On the times I disappeared into another room to research or write, Tami only
expressed patient love. As we invested years of time and money into the completion of my
formal education, Tami only expressed resilient love. On the days when I was grumpy or running
out of gas, Tami, Alister, and Eliana expressed empathetic love. I probably do not thank them
enough for making me a truly blessed man, beyond what I deserve, as we all seek to internalize
the spirit that encourages us to fight on—grace upon grace.

iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................vii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. viii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................... 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................ 2
Organizational Performance Goal .................................................................................... 3
Related Literature ............................................................................................................ 4
Importance of the Evaluation ........................................................................................... 5
Description of Stakeholder Groups .................................................................................. 8
Stakeholder Group of Focus ............................................................................................ 9
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................. 11
Methodological Framework ........................................................................................... 11
Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 12
Organization of the Study .............................................................................................. 13

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature...................................................................................... 14
Why Leading Faith-Based Organizations Matters .......................................................... 14
Importance of Faith-Based Organizations ...................................................................... 14
Importance of Social Service ......................................................................................... 15
Importance of Participation ............................................................................................ 16
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework ................................. 18
Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 40
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 44

Chapter Three: Methodology ..................................................................................................... 45
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .............................................................. 45
Methodological Approach and Rationale ....................................................................... 47
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................. 49
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale..................................................................... 50
Interview Recruitment and Rationale ............................................................................. 51
Rationale for Choices .................................................................................................... 52
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ............................................................ 52
Interviews ...................................................................................................................... 53
Credibility and Trustworthiness ..................................................................................... 55
Ethics ............................................................................................................................ 57
v

Chapter Four: Results and Findings ........................................................................................... 60
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................. 60
Determination of Assets and Needs ............................................................................... 61
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences............................................................. 62
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences ............................................................. 67
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences ....................................................... 75
Summary of Validated Influences .................................................................................. 83

Chapter Five: Recommendations ............................................................................................... 86
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences .......................................... 86
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ........................................................... 101
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 113
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach ................................................................. 113
Limitations and Delimitations ...................................................................................... 114
Future Research ........................................................................................................... 116
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 117

References .............................................................................................................................. 119
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 135
Appendix A: Interview Protocol .................................................................................. 135
Appendix B: Interview Questions ................................................................................ 136
Appendix C: Information Sheet ................................................................................... 139
Appendix D: Evaluation Instrument for Faculty ........................................................... 142
Appendix E: Annual Evaluation Tool .......................................................................... 145
Appendix F: A Sample Balanced Scorecard ................................................................. 147

vi
List of Tables
Table 1 Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals ..................... 9
Table 2 Knowledge Influences as Part of the Gap Analysis ....................................................... 21
Table 3 Motivational Influences as Part of the Gap Analysis ..................................................... 28
Table 4 Organizational Influences as Part of a Gap Analysis ..................................................... 35
Table 5 Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data ............................................... 83
Table 6 Motivational Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data ............................................. 84
Table 7 Organizational Assets or Needs Determined by the Data .............................................. 84
Table 8 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations .......................................... 87
Table 9 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ........................................... 91
Table 10 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ...................................... 96
Table 11 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External Outcomes .......................................... 103
Table 12 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................. 105
Table 13 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................ 106
Table 14 Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ...................................... 110
Table 15 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ................................................... 111

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1 Interactive Conceptual Framework .............................................................................. 43

viii
Abstract
Faith-based organizations face declining participation, and the continued social impact of some
churches, non-profits, and schools assumes that trained leaders are prepared to carry forward
their mission. Faith-based universities often claim to graduate future leaders as part of their
mission, and many of these young men and women may be logical candidates to accept roles at
faith-based organizations. This study evaluated why students at one faith-based university in the
middle part of the United States, who have self-selected into a robust leadership program, plan to
pursue career opportunities outside of faith-based organizations. The stakeholder focus of this
study was senior-level undergraduate students who self-selected into a leadership program that
includes coursework, service hours, residential responsibilities, and mentorship. Clark and
Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was used to understand the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting the stakeholder group. Qualitative data were collected
through interviews. The findings revealed that fewer than one-quarter of those interviewed
planned to pursue career opportunities at faith-based organizations. The findings also revealed
program strengths that include the positive impact of faculty and the pivotal role of access to
mentors. Gaps were identified within the program’s model, and recommendations are offered at
the conclusion of this study utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016). The plans and
program modifications offered fit the university context and can supplement existing
coursework.
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Faith-based organizations have played an active social service role in local communities
and within international development (Bielefeld & Cleveland, 2013b; Clarke, 2006; Clarke &
Ware, 2015). The basic building block of all faith-based organizations is the local congregation,
which is the largest volunteer organization in the world (Putnam & Campbell, 2012). Scheitle
and Dougherty make the point that “to understand religion, then, one must understand the
organizational aspects of religion” (Scheitle & Dougherty, 2009, p. 361). In the United States,
the behavior of religious people is channeled through congregations, nonprofits, seminaries,
schools, and other institutional or organizational models (Scheitle & Dougherty, 2009). Yet,
there are more open leadership positions in churches and faith-based organizations than people
trained and wanting to fill them (Joynt & Dreyer, 2013).
The Pew Research Center (2019) recently stated that there is a decline in church
attendance and membership. The ripple effect of declining participation and struggling training
centers will be felt in the areas of funding, enrollment, and social service support (Yip et al.,
2010). This will impact colleges, churches, high schools, and nonprofits that are often embedded
within a community that relies on consistent funding, faith-based leaders, and active followers
(Yip et al., 2010).
Declining attendance is compounded by a shortage of clergy. Joynt and Dreyer (2013)
state that the lack of trained leaders directly impacts the effectiveness of the work of an
organization. Catholic seminarian numbers have decreased by almost 90% since 1965 (Joynt,
2017). This shortage of leadership extends to Anglicans, United Methodists, and Assemblies of
God groups (Joynt, 2017), while one in four Evangelical Lutheran Churches in America
congregations currently cannot afford a pastor (Hopfensberger, 2018; Joynt, 2017). Low wages,
2
resistance to relocation, and declining participation all contribute to this shortage in leadership
(Hopfensberger, 2018; Joynt, 2017; Joynt & Dreyer, 2013). The decline of faith-based leadership
will have an impact on social service delivery, educational options, charitable giving, and other
outcomes.
This study explored the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence
university students’ decisions to pursue candidacy for faith-based leadership roles and presents
recommendations to address the leadership pipeline coming out of a faith-based university. This
problem relates to the sustainability of faith-based organizations and their influence on social
service ecosystems within the United States.
Organizational Context and Mission
Grace Central University (a pseudonym) identifies as a Christian university in the central
United States serving several thousand men and women annually. The mission of Grace Central
is to be clearly tied to the Christian faith as an organization that educates men and women to be
leaders while serving others effectively. The institution has professional programs that train
business, education, and ministry leaders at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Grace Central draws students from all 50 states and over a dozen countries. The campus
is one of the largest employers in its community and strategically seeks to make Christian
influence one of its hallmarks of institutional identity. Annual leadership events, lectures, and
conferences are held on its campus, and Grace Central remains active in several national
networks as well. Over 200 student organizations exist on campus, and Catholic, Baptist,
Anglican, and Presbyterian students all have their own clubs while other clubs are led by Muslim
and Buddhist students. Most faculty members profess the Christian faith, although Jewish
3
scholars also hold permanent faculty roles. Students are required to take religion coursework and
select Bible verses can be seen in public places on campus.
Grace Central University is in a growing area, not far from a major airport, and, while
chapel is offered to students, attendance is not required for most undergraduates. Several
hundred students participate in service-learning trips annually, and, while the university retains
an intentional tie to a Christian heritage, roughly half of the students do not attend a local church
or faith-based campus club.
Organizational Performance Goal
As a relatively large, private university with a Christian heritage, Grace Central
University is in the middle of a new strategic plan. As part of this plan, the institution’s Christian
identity is emphasized and efforts made to increase its relevance within the broader culture. The
plan seeks to amplify the institutional mission to educate women and men for leadership roles.
Graduate and undergraduate courses in leadership are offered. Undergraduate courses are offered
in tandem with residential cohorts who commit to intentional leadership training. These cohorts
are the focus of the stakeholder goal. The goal itself is as follows: by 2021, increase students
entering faith-based leadership roles by 10% to sustain faith-based organizations’ viability and
community influence. As stated in a recently launched, university-wide plan, the trajectory is to
seek new research initiatives to solve big problems that matter to local and global communities
(Grace Central University Strategic Plan, 2018), integrating leadership, ethics, and human
improvement as part of an interdisciplinary academic plan. Millions of dollars will be raised by
2020 that will be devoted to various facets of the strategic plan. Internal and external projects
will be launched throughout 2019 and 2020. A continued decrease in faith-based leaders
operating in faith-based contexts will begin to have an impact on the institution itself. Enrollment
4
constitutes a steady funding stream and a reliable donor base. To graduate leaders for faith-based
organizations, Grace Central must deliver on its mission and remain viable in a competitive
private university market.
Related Literature
Prominent faith-based institutions have suffered from scandals at the highest level. Bill
Hybels, founder of Willow Creek Community Church near Chicago and the Global Leadership
Summit, which broadcasts to over 600 locations and tens of thousands of participants annually,
was forced to retire early due to sexual misconduct allegations (Pashman, 2018). The Roman
Catholic Church is again dealing with sexual abuse scandals. This time, over 300 priests are
accused of abusing over 1,000 parishioners, mostly young males (Goodstein & Otterman, 2018).
At times, leaders have been accused of abusing future leaders or seminarians (George, 2018).
Investigative reports from the Houston Chronicle in February 2019 revealed over 700 cases of
abuse spanning a 20-year period within the Southern Baptist Church, which is the largest
Protestant denomination in the United States (Downen et al., 2019). How can faith-based
universities help train a rising generation to lead differently?
Research in leadership theory outpaces data grounded in practice, and most leadership
training schemes neglect the context within which leaders live and work (Yammarino, 2013).
Since leaders significantly influence the creation and sustenance of workplace culture (Fry &
Cohen, 2009), each leader is an ethics officer casting light or darkness (Johnson, 2009). Leaders
also have access to more information within an organization than others, so leadership is
simultaneously about power and privilege (Johnson, 2009). While words like “servant” and
“transformation” remain popular and appropriate, there is still a relevant need to match
individual actions, attitudes, and behaviors with organizational values (Tkaczynski & Arli,
5
2018). This need exists particularly in faith-based settings where many leaders often accept
reduced pay or fewer worldly benefits to advance the mission of the organization (Tkaczynski &
Arli, 2018).
In faith-based settings, organizational health and the transference of deeply held beliefs
are both important. Most faith-based organizations are created to serve needs in a certain
community (Schneider, 2013). Faith-based leaders are often asked to be authoritative, spiritual,
and sacrificial (Sanders, 2007). There is an inner voice that matters to and guides the leader to
manage change (Bennis, 2009). Faith-based leadership development often combines traditional
managerial wisdom and context-specific teaching and needs (Schuhmann, 2010). The lack of
attention to these discipline-specific needs has contributed to declining participation, narrow
pipelines, and a rise in religiously unaffiliated men and women (Putnam & Campbell, 2012).
Importance of the Evaluation
A decline in effective leadership at faith-based organizations carries significant social
implications. One example relates to services on which many communities rely\. Annual giving
to religious organizations accounts for 31% of all charitable giving in the United States (Lilly
Institute of Philanthropy, 2017). These donations go to social services, education, and
congregations, and they have gone up in total dollars, but the number of people giving has
declined significantly. Fewer people are making larger donations that are sustaining the current
state of financial health for religious organizations (Lilly Institute of Philanthropy, 2017). One in
six hospitals in the United States is affiliated with the Catholic church, and some rural areas have
a Catholic hospital as the only health care option (Hafner, 2018). If a gap between the faith-based
leaders’ training and decreased participation in faith-based organizations continues, certain
services and organizations may struggle to offer care at their current level.
6
While some people will welcome less religion in their community, the implication of this
trend in terms of talented leaders taking their skills away from faith-based organizations is
important to study. Even in the case of disaster relief, the Lilly Family School of Philanthropy,
based in Indiana, estimates that these organizations consistently assist the Federal Emergency
Management Association (FEMA); 75% of those that respond are faith-based (King, 2017). In
other words, the response to hurricanes and floods would be dramatically different if faith-based
leaders were not mobilizing their people and resources. FEMA alone does not have a large
enough network of people to sustain a long-term, compassionate response (King, 2017).
Secondly, health care services can have direct links to faith-based organizations. In many
rural communities, church-affiliated health care is the only option (Eisenstadt, 2003), while,
nationally, church-affiliated hospitals comprise over 12% of the options. The Catholic church
provides services in over 5,200 hospitals worldwide, and the Salvation Army oversees over 70
hospitals in 124 countries (Spillman, 2016). The World Bank estimates that nearly half of health
care providers in Africa alone are connected to faith-based organizations, and, in countries
recovering from war, faith-based organizations provide most of the education services (Spillman,
2016).
Thirdly, faith-based organizations play a critical role for immigrants and asylum seekers.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees from the United Nations acknowledges nine
organizations that have support in the United States to resettle refugees. Six of these are faith-
based organizations. Four of these are directly tied to specific denominational organizations
(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2019). On multiple fronts and issues, the
health and viability of leadership for faith-based organizations matter to the flourishing of U.S.
neighborhoods and communities. Yet, there remains a gap that needs to be addressed.
7
Organizations are having difficulty finding leaders willing to serve long-term. In addition to
immigration, health care, and disaster relief, over 120 colleges are members of the Coalition of
Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU), and over half of their leaders will retire in the next
5 to 10 years (Barton, 2019). On the one hand, there is a shortage of clergy (Joynt & Dreyer,
2013), and, on the other hand, there is a looming exodus in faith-based college leadership
(Barton, 2019).
Universities that claim to educate men and women to be leaders in faith-based contexts
need to consider the impact of this training not supporting the health of faith-based
organizations. These programs often consist of leadership coursework, assigned mentors, majors
or minors in leadership studies, and student organizations. University leaders, particularly at
faith-based institutions, must navigate between churches and constituents while being adept at
budgeting, fundraising, and sound management to compete for enrollment numbers (Webb,
2008). Since faith-based institutions are private and rely heavily on donors and tuition dollars for
operating budgets, plans to increase enrollment costs may force both the university and families
to pursue affordable options in both operations and school choices (Supplee, 2014). Training that
prepares faith-based leaders to lead organizations must include more than personal growth.
Maxwell (2018) indicates that leadership training is often focused on personal growth and
development, neglecting the interplay between leader and follower. Leaders who understand
their social context must represent the group being guided, champion the priorities of those
groups, and achieve influence through how group identities are shaped (Haslam et al., 2011).
Faith-based leadership development will need to transition from personal to
organizational development. Solutions are complex and varied. Some faith-based organizations
are structurally centralized, like those of Catholics and Muslims, while others are decentralized
8
like those of Buddhists or Protestants (Schneider, 2013). In American communities where faith-
based, especially Christian, colleges, non-profits, and churches play a visible role in social
services, the sustained future of these ventures may be challenging. In the United States, there is
currently no alternative organization with the size and scale of influence that congregations
currently possess (Putnam & Campbell, 2012). Halstead and Lind (2002) add that voluntary
institutions within communities meet local citizens’ needs during difficult times. Healthy
volunteer organizations, religious and secular, are important in meeting our communities’ needs
(Bennis, 2007; Halstead & Lind, 2002).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
As the university is committed to its Christian heritage, the stakeholders are both
intellectually and spiritually invested in the institution and remain connected to its faith-based
values. Three stakeholders who contribute to the execution of a leadership plan and its ongoing
influence are faculty, students, and partner organizations. Faculty members engage students
through teaching in the leadership programming or serving as mentors, advising the Peer Leader
program, and instructing between 150 and 300 students annually in the leadership cohort. While
leaders come from various disciplines, specific initiatives are focused on leadership
development. Some students may complete 18 credit hours and three core courses in leadership.
This leadership minor sits in the college of education and can be combined with various majors.
Students expressing interest in leadership are encouraged to live in similar residential quarters to
form a learning community. Those who do this are expected to pursue leadership opportunities.
The third stakeholder is the organization that may hire graduating students who have been
through the leadership program or the leadership minor. It is through this pathway that these
students prepare to assume leadership roles in faith-based institutions. The future financial
9
security of faith-based organizations will require leadership transitions (Redman, 2006;
Schneider, 2013). Table 1 introduces the stakeholder performance goals and outlines how
distinct goals need to coordinate to meet the overall organizational goal.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission is to prepare women and men, through education, to be servant leaders locally,
nationally, and globally.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2021 increase students entering faith-based leadership roles by 10% to sustain faith-based
organizations’ viability and community influence.
Faculty Goal Students Goal Organization Goal
Leadership program
faculty identifying clear
pathways for
participants linking
principles to career
opportunities by 2021
Increase the number students who
identify leadership opportunities
through university administrators
and external partners so that the rate
of graduates accepting leadership
roles at faith-based organizations
increases by 10% by 2021.
Building a leadership pipeline
to external churches,
nonprofits, schools, and health
care to increase sustainability
and organizational health of
faith-based organizations by
2021

Due to several leadership changes at Grace Central University since this goal was set,
changes to organizational strategies are expected, but the trajectory set by Table 1 remains
relevant and a guide in addressing the stakeholder goals. While some stakeholder and
intermediate goals have yet to be set, a significant campaign to raise funding is underway and
will help resource innovative initiatives that promote student leadership.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
Although a complete analysis would involve all three stakeholder groups, for the purpose
of this study, the researcher focused on students being intentionally trained in a leadership cohort
to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact their decisions
10
related to working at faith-based organizations. The data were used to make recommendations
for improving the faith-based leadership pipeline at Grace Central University. Freedman (2011)
notes that learning and adaptability are the only two traits necessary for success at every level of
leadership. The pipeline concept is relevant because less than 16% of upwardly mobile managers
transition to increased responsibility (Freedman, 2011). One cannot assume that ambitious
students or workers are prepared for leadership without demonstrating success at different levels
(Freedman, 2011). Marion (2001) adds from the world of healthcare that all nursing leadership
pipelines begin with nursing education. A leadership pipeline can be defined as the progression
from education to opportunity that is intentional and visible, resulting in successful transitions at
each level (Freedman, 2011; Marion, 2001).
The pipeline has inherent challenges. Recent curriculum changes at Grace Central
University will offer one fewer leadership course within the residential cohort. While changes to
course offerings are not a primary reason for a decline in student interest, such changes indicate
the internal challenges to achieving the stakeholder goal. Of the 180 students enrolled in the
undergraduate leadership cohorts, the director of the program estimates that fewer than 10
expressed interest in faith-based organizations (T. Holden [a pseudonym], personal
communication, December 15, 2019). Increasing the number of trained leaders who desire to
occupy executive or senior roles at faith-based organizations must be part of the Grace Central
University strategic planning process to address the pipeline issue and produce graduates ready
to work at these organizations. Grace Central University thrives when its network is healthy, and
faith-based organizations are integral to the ecosystem in which the university operates.
11
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to evaluate progress on building a pipeline into faith-based
organizations from a faith-based university. The sustainability of these organizations relies on
young people rising to support and participate in the mission. While a complete gap analysis
would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the researcher focused on students
enrolled in a leadership residential cohort that requires all residents to complete leadership
coursework and a set number of service hours per semester.
To better understand the decline in trained men and women aspiring to lead a church or
faith-based organization, the following questions guided this study:
a. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to Grace Central University
equipping 10% more leaders for faith-based roles by 2021?
b. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
c. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Methodological Framework
The framework for this study was to conduct a gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) to
examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences that impact students’
decisions related to assuming roles in faith-based institutions. This analysis began by examining
the residential leadership cohort and the requirements for students who self-select into such a
program. Consideration of the KMO influences that contribute to performance gaps built upon a
foundational understanding of how the leadership program functions at Grace Central University.
These KMO influences, explored in Chapter Two, identified what students need to know, what
12
students need to be motivated, and what the organization may need to do to build a pipeline for
leadership in faith-based environments. Integrating this research with the performance gaps
identified within the Clark and Estes model resulted in recommendations for Grace Central
University as it seeks to equip leaders for roles at faith-based organizations.
Definitions
This study deals with organizations that are often directly related to a certain community
or even a certain religion. Some of these terms will be used throughout this study and will be
worth understanding up front. Relevant words and their meaning will be listed briefly in this
section and citations may be used to help set these terms within a given context.
Faith-based organization: Organizations created by faith communities to provide
services that reflect their belief system or that advance their convictions (Schneider, 2013).
Leadership Pipeline: A clear entry point (enrollment) and a clear exit point (placement)
from a training course to a leadership position. This can be seen, understood, and pursued in
practical ways because the pipeline is known and visible.
Nongovernmental Organization: A nonprofit, perhaps international in scope, that focuses
its work on specific social services, often those for the poor or for relief efforts (Schneider,
2013).
Religion: While people can be religious about many things, the word religion in this
study will directly relate to the social capital of the five major world religions: Islam,
Christianity, Buddhism, Judaism, and Hinduism (Smith, 2017).
Worldview: A view of reality that is often framed by answering certain questions such, as
the origin of things, where history is headed, the limits of human knowledge, and the problem of
13
evil. This system of reality often frames how decisions are made by individuals and
organizations (Burns et al., 2014).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters, utilizing a specific framework to address a
specific problem. In Chapter One, the problem is introduced. The problem outlined connects an
organizational issue to a wider concern that arises because faith-based organizations rely on each
other for staff and resources. Chapter One also introduces the gap analysis framework from
Clark and Estes (2008) that was used as an organizational guide to address the problem. Chapter
Two is a review of the literature associated with the KMO assumed influences. Chapter Two
grounds the problem and clarifies the implication that there may be a lack of interest in
participating in faith-based leadership if the problem is left unaddressed. Chapter Three
summarizes the methodology of the study and how data were collected. Chapter Four is a
summary of the research findings, and Chapter Five offers recommendations to address the
problem at Grace Central University. Chapter Five is the culmination of the Clark and Estes
(2008) framework and demonstrates that research is important to organizational change. Chapter
Five demonstrates that proposing change involves planning and a program that can be executed
at the organization.
14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The literature review in this chapter begins with exploring the importance of faith-based
organizations and the social service role that these organizations fulfill. Participation in these
organizations is revealed before the literature related to KMO influences is explored. The
literature review explores the data connected to the assumed influences framed by the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis framework.
Why Leading Faith-Based Organizations Matters
Sociologist Christian Smith claims that understanding religion is necessary to understand
the world in which we live (Smith, 2017). Similarly, the role that faith-based organizations play
should be acknowledged and understood. Stout and Carmode (1998) point out that boundaries
are an important part of any culture and guide a hierarchy that is played out in local contexts. For
example, by 2011, 10 of the 25 largest hospital systems in the United States were tied to the
Catholic church (Klaus, 2014), and, within what is commonly labeled the developing world, 70%
of all healthcare is administered by faith-based organizations (Kagawa et al., 2012). There are
over 1,000 faith-based colleges or universities (CCCU, 2015) in the world, and these are often
funded by over 300,000 different congregations in the United States (Brauer, 2017). In fact, more
than 20% of all colleges and universities in the U.S. have a religious affiliation (Barton, 2019).
These realities co-exist in a world where church attendance is in decline and religious affiliation
is also in decline.
Importance of Faith-Based Organizations
Faith-based organizations serve an important role in meeting social needs. Almost all
these organizations have a connection to a church network (Esau, 2005), which makes them
simultaneously local in their influence and global in their footprint. Additionally, churches often
15
function as a major source of funding for faith-based nonprofits and a major recruiting ground
for colleges or universities that claim explicit faith commitments (Esau, 2005). Bielefeld and
Cleveland (2013a) suggest faith-based organizations can be seen through three major assessment
categories: organizational control, expression of religion, and program implementation.
Organizational control can be seen in the funding or power structure, while the expression of
religion can be viewed through the faith elements and worldview of participants (Bielefeld &
Cleveland, 2013a). Most visible to outsiders is program implementation or how the religious
elements of an organization integrate with the delivery of specific services or programs
(Bielefeld & Cleveland, 2013b). These organizations often claim to be driven to make a positive
difference in the world, particularly for those in need.
Importance of Social Service
Faith-based organizations may be viewed through a religious lens and a social service
lens. Davidson and Koch (1998) observe that all nonprofits typically are a combination of
members and non-members or an inward focus plus a public service focus. For many, the
religious lens centers around beliefs, worldviews, or doctrines, and there are significant emotions
and distinct differences expressed in such discussions (Smith, 2017). Through the social service
lens, faith-based organizations are viewed more favorably. There is a unique role that these
organizations play alongside the government in that universities, hospitals, and nongovernmental
organizations also provide services to communities that go beyond those of churches (Bielefeld
& Cleveland, 2013b). Faith-based organizations have historically contributed to assisting those
with disabilities, those with AIDS, those in need of food, and those in need of housing or shelter
(Watson, 2012). These organizations’ social standing has been impacted by the federal laws
enacted under President Bill Clinton and President George W. Bush. Clinton signed into law the
16
Restoration of the Freedom of Religion Act in 1993 as well as what are known as the Charitable
Choice laws in 1996 (Watson, 2012). President George W. Bush set up what is known as the
Office of Faith-Based Initiatives in 2001 (Watson, 2012), which continued under President
Obama.
Importance of Participation
A decline in people participating in faith-based organizations will have consequences for
institutions and services that rely on the funding and faithfulness of these organizations. Historic
ties to the size and influence of congregational giving matter when church attendance declines
(Esau, 2005) since these nonprofit entities rely on those who support them financially and
pragmatically. The United States has used faith-based language and faith-based organizations to
support political and practical projects (Bielefeld & Cleveland, 2013b). The ripple effect of a
decline in participation at the church level will eventually influence entities like hospitals,
universities, food pantries, and disaster relief. Sustainability then, which often focuses on the
three elements of the economic, environmental, and social (Moldavanova & Goerdel, 2018),
should be part of any faith-based organization’s plans. The very existence of an organization is a
precondition for its social impact (Moldavanova & Goerdel, 2018). Increasingly, social capital is
just as valuable to organizational influence as fiscal status or fiscal health (Moldavanova &
Goerdel, 2018). Faith-based organizations seeking to continue to have a positive impact on
communities must consider their self-sustainability.
While interest in spirituality has remained high and is increasingly diverse, participation
in certain institutions has decreased. The trend in Western cultures has been toward less
commitment to groups and organizations (Twenge et al., 2016). There is not only a decline in
participation overall, but there is a change in those who do participate. In almost every faith
17
community, there is a decline in weekly service attendance (Pew Research Center, 2014) and
fewer college students participate in church or any other faith-based organization (Twenge,
2018). Twenge (2018) observes that, in some cases, this disconnect from institutions is
intentional, so the combination of a lack of participation and a lack of engagement has a direct
impact on the sustained health of a group like a church. Institutions rely on the giving and
participation of individual members to survive, and, in many cases, religious services are the
most public indicator of a faith-based group’s health or viability (Pew Research Center, 2014).
For decades, churches have relied on women to provide stability when it comes to young
people’s attendance and participation (Ross, 2011). In fact, women outnumber men in every faith
community except when it comes to positions of leadership (Ross, 2011). Faith-based
organizations will need to consider that empowering women leads to greater economic and social
stability (Alexander & Welzel, 2011).
Faith-based higher education is similar. Over 60% of the students at CCCU institutions
are female, but less than 30% of those institutions have women in senior leadership roles
(Lafreniere & Longman, 2008). Underrepresentation at the leadership level exists for most
students attending faith-based colleges or universities. Smith and Mamiseishvili (2016) point out
that, as of 2014, nearly 90% of the faculty were White while 14% of the students were people of
color. At present, faith-based universities may desire diversity, but they remain predominantly
White institutions led by White leaders. At faith-based churches and institutions of higher
learning, many of those participating do not see themselves represented at the leadership level
(Lafreniere & Longman, 2008).
18
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework
The framework that Clark and Estes (2008) provide involves understanding the impact of
stakeholder KMO influences. Literature reviews provide context and expertise. It is important to
view the literature through the lens of a framework that systemically analyzes research to
improve human performance. Research itself increases the success rate of change initiatives or
performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Bridges (2009) states that people and organizations
deal with transition by letting go or ending something, experiencing a neutral time period, and
then beginning something new. Because solving problems involves change, Clark and Estes
(2008) make the case that change simply does not happen without evidence provided by
research; therefore, performance improvement plans often fall short.
All three factors should be evident for performance improvement to happen (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Knowledge can be viewed categorically through four angles, namely the factual,
procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive angles (Rueda, 2011). “Knowing what people should
know and how people learn,” (Rueda, 2011, p. 33) will help explain the stakeholders’ ability to
achieve their respective goals. Motivation involves active choice, persistence, and mental effort
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Pink (2009) offers a complementary conclusion stating that motivation
involves autonomy, mastery, and purpose. These motivational influences help researchers
understand the barriers facing the stakeholder group as they seek to achieve their goals.
Organizational influences are the third aspect of the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes,
2008). Organizational culture, processes, and policies may be considered in this part of the
analysis. This framework will help outline the context and issues facing students who may
espouse faith-based worldviews but who are opting out of leading faith-based organizations
despite an increase in leadership programs and available opportunities. The following section
19
will follow the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework in order, moving from knowledge
to motivation to organizational influences. This gap analysis connects the research in this chapter
with the methodology and rationale in the following chapter, serving as a framework within
which to better understand the issues and their meaning as they relate to meeting performance
goals.
Knowledge and Skills
To better understand the world today, men and women will benefit from understanding
religion (Smith, 2017). Religion involves more than cognitive beliefs and is a set of practices or
habits (Smith, 2017), which means it involves both knowledge and skills simultaneously.
Religious literacy involves more than retaining basic information; it also includes how that
information is expressed, how it is used for self-understanding, and why this enhances personal
meaning and professional acumen (Gallagher, 2009). The benefits are confirmed in that such
information coincides with the four types of knowledge that students may acquire and utilize to
increase their leadership capacity. These four types are factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive (Rueda, 2011).
Factual knowledge is that which comes to mind quickly and includes terminology,
details, or definitions that allow one to converse effectively with a certain discipline (Rueda,
2011). Examples include the fact that Christians believe the Bible is their true guide and Muslims
believe that daily prayer is essential. In this study, understanding the different types of faith-
based organizations is important if one plans to lead one. Conceptual knowledge tends to connect
the dots for people and involves theories, categories, and classifications relevant to a discipline
(Rueda, 2011). Such knowledge may include knowing the difference between an Episcopal
church and a Presbyterian church or knowing that a church and a nonprofit are distinct.
20
Procedural knowledge refers to the “how” and the methods needed to accomplish a task (Rueda,
2011). An example of such knowledge is understanding how to take communion during mass at
a Catholic church. In leading a faith-based organization, understanding if there is federal funding
involved will be important, and comprehending how an organization sustains its funding will be
crucial. Finally, there is metacognitive knowledge, which is self-awareness or an understanding
of one’s own preferences, reasons, or biases (Rueda, 2011). Metacognition may involve
understanding why one feels uplifted when a choir sings or frustrated when a report of racial
oppression comes over the news cycle. Metacognitive knowledge may also include an
understanding of faith-based organizations in the neighborhood or community in which one
lives.
These types of knowledge form one part of what Krathwohl (2002) calls a revised
taxonomy table with the other part being cognitive processes. As men and women prepare to lead
faith-based organizations, the latter is also an important aspect to consider. Cognitive processes
such as remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Krathwohl,
2002) will be utilized to understand the place of these organizations within a community and the
practices necessary to their success or sustainability.
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences
The varied layers and nuances related to a problem involving leadership development
explain the importance of an analysis of the research related to knowledge acquisition,
knowledge types, and knowledge gaps. Using research increases the chance that a problem can
be properly addressed and improvement initiatives succeed (Clark & Estes, 2008). To recognize
and acquire the tools to lead a faith-based organization, assessing and understanding the
knowledge types with specific attention to key knowledge influences are important to
21
understanding the issues at a deeper level. This understanding is important because perceptions
or hypotheses of reality grounded in data directly impact performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Table 2 illustrates and gives an overview of these knowledge influences and the types relevant to
equipping aspiring leaders within the stakeholder group.
Table 2
Knowledge Influences as Part of the Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission is to prepare women and men through education to be servant leaders locally,
nationally, and globally
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2021 increase students entering faith-based leadership roles by 10% to sustain faith-based
organizations’ viability and community influence.
Stakeholder Goal
Increase the number students who identify leadership opportunities through university
administrators and external partners so that the rate of graduates accepting leadership roles at
faith-based organizations increases by 10% by 2021.
Knowledge Influence
Knowledge
Type
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Stakeholders will need to
know the types of faith-
based organizations and
their connection to one
another.
Factual
Conceptual
Interviews were conducted inviting
students to identify the types of faith-
based organizations and how they are part
of an interconnected system.
Stakeholders will need to
know the pathways to
professional careers in
faith-based organizations.
Procedural
Interviews that draw out the understanding
of the stakeholder in their ability to
identify a network and find a leadership
opportunity
Stakeholders will need to
know their own
understanding of faith-based
organizations in their local
communities.
Metacognitive
Interviews will be conducted to reveal if the
stakeholder understands that the
organization and institution is important,
which moves the stakeholder toward
reflecting on the sustaining impact of faith-
based organizations.

22
Knowledge Influence: Understanding the Types of Faith-Based Organizations. The
religious aspects embedded in certain organizational structures are often oversimplified or
simply ignored altogether (Ebaugh et al., 2003). The complexity in some religious funding
models (Schneider, 2013) demonstrates that deeper thought has been given to them than some
religious stereotypes may allow. For example, stakeholders or donors may say that any faith-
based organization that takes federal money must be pluralistic, while others will see the overlap
in their respective missions (Ebaugh et al., 2003). In this sense, pluralistic simply means that
multiple religious groups have equal access to federal funds. Regardless, different types of
organizations serve differently within the same social system.
MacGregor and Madsen (2013) observe that organizations exist in relational sets within
geographical boundaries. These interconnected relationships form an ecosystem which, in recent
decades, has become one of the more prevalent perspectives in professional social work
(Tangenberg, 2005). Within this ecosystem, organizations with strong ties to faith or religious
groups vary and serve different stated purposes (Tangenberg, 2005). Smith and Sosin (2001)
advocate for faith-related organizations, defining them as social service organizations tied to
funding arrangements to a specific faith community, operational commitments guided by a
religious authority, and a common commitment to work within a common religious viewpoint.
Smith and Sosin (2001) make the distinction between “faith-related” and “faith-based” when
public policy and federal funds are involved, advocating for the former to be more inclusive and
sensitive to others within the same social service ecosystem.
Yet, according to the Working Group on Human Needs and Faith-Based and Community
Initiatives (2003), for social work professionals, there are six additional categories: faith-
permeated, faith-centered, faith-affiliated, faith-background, faith-secular partnerships, and
23
secular (Tangenberg, 2005). Aspiring leaders are often given a more simplistic view, such as
seeing a church or nonprofit as an independent actor when ecosystems involve what Davidson et
al. (2015) label as “orchestration” or “mutuality.” In other words, how an organization
coordinates with others who may share its ideals (mutuality) and collaborates for the greater
good (orchestration) matters (Davidson et al., 2015). Leaders who ascend to influential roles in
churches or nonprofits may recognize that their work is part of a social service ecosystem and
that other types of faith-based organizations exist within the same region. A disruption in this
interconnected system, whether through leadership attrition, organizational failure, or scarcity of
resources, has a ripple effect (MacGregor & Madsen, 2013) that impacts the viability and
sustainability of services and influence.
Cibulka (2009) describes a parallel ecosystem in public education, observing that each
school consists of citizens who have purchasing power, pay taxes, and influence the identity of
communities. Since there is no agreed-upon, standard knowledge base for faith-based
organizations (Cibulka, 2009), any change in leader or disruption to an interconnected system
has an effect that is difficult to predict.
Knowledge Influence: Understanding Faith-Based Organizations in Your Own
Community. Metacognitive knowledge demands personal reflection. Metacognitively aware
leaders are more strategic and reach higher-level performance goals (Schraw & Dennison, 1994).
The most metacognitively aware leaders reflect, understand, and oversee their own learning
(Schraw & Dennison, 1994). While the most attained level of education for a CEO or
organizational head is a master’s degree (Martelli & Abels, 2010), to be effective, those leading a
faith-based or faith-related organization must also reflect upon and understand their own
24
community in addition to the leadership concepts learned in graduate study. External credentials
do not always make up for relational knowledge (Davidson et al., 2015).
Putnam and Campbell (2012) found that over 60% of Americans claim to be members of
a congregation. While this number may be declining, the congregation remains the most
widespread religious organization in the United States (Putnam & Campbell, 2012). Actual
attendance is much lower; most people attend a weekly service less than two times per month
(Pew Research Center, 2019). Since leadership skills are often context-specific, metacognitive
awareness can also facilitate reflection on and move toward understanding how one currently
views religion and faith-based organizations in one’s community (Black et al., 2016).
Faith-based social networks tend to encourage civic engagement, generosity, and inviting
others to join the group (Putnam & Campbell, 2012). These congregations are often part of larger
networks and, though men and women in the United States may switch from one congregation to
another, the prevalence of groups and networks remains integral to faith-based organizations
(Putnam & Campbell, 2012). Any given community will have congregations, nonprofits,
schools, or hospitals, all of which may be connected to a faith-based entity. Metacognitively
aware leaders reflect on their own role within these networks and are in a better position to
encourage others to do some personal reflection of their own (Black et al., 2016). Given the
changing views and commitments to faith-based institutions or organizations, metacognitively
aware leaders will set the tone for others to reflect on how to adapt and even expand their own
learning in a diversifying demographical landscape (Black et al., 2016).
Knowledge Influence: Pathways to Professional Careers in Faith-Based
Organizations. The plans of aspiring leaders may include specific programs but may not include
an intentional pathway. Lack of a clear professional path is a procedural problem. Eich (2008)
25
suggests that high-quality programs may not lead to high-quality opportunities. Faith-based
organizations seek a balance between a purposeful pathway that promotes doctrinal truths and a
practical position to address social issues (Dantley, 2005). Without identifying clear pathways at
the university level, a decline in participation may discourage momentum. Universities often
promote positions in business, health care, and even the academy itself, but faith-based
organizations have historically relied on a growing church network. Robust church participation
is no longer reliable. Faith-based universities may develop leadership programs, but they do not
always develop leadership pathways (Eich, 2008).
Leadership development is also subject to changing student demographics, and different
strategies should be employed for different student groups and different faiths (Kezar &
Moriarty, 2000). In other words, diversity demands more than one approach to leadership
development (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000). In a world where certain types of leadership are
vulnerable to a lack of executive support (Schein & Schein, 2018), the status quo may no longer
yield succession plans. Discernment is necessary to understand when to integrate older practices,
often associated with faith, with new contexts (Dantley, 2005). The combination of faith and
management can be powerful (Dantley, 2005), but universities may want to demonstrate the
value socially, and not just spiritually, for a new generation of students to enter into such
leadership roles. Building a pathway for a more diverse student group requires addressing gaps
in preparing students to lead, particularly within faith-based contexts.
Once a pathway is clearly defined, aspiring leaders can understand the preparation
needed to secure a position in the faith-based field of their interest. Skill development must
accompany theory to help student leaders move toward practical roles with confidence and
competence (Conger, 2013). Cohen (2014) states that Black philanthropic leaders are leaving the
26
field for positions in government and business due to a lack of meaningful leadership roles. The
issue is not training for leadership but access to leadership roles (Cohen, 2014). Leadership
education and leadership experience must complement each other (Conger, 2013).
While universities continue to seek postindustrial modes of education and social models,
these often neglect faith-based elements (Dugan, 2006). Universities are in a unique position to
teach experiential education and applied theology as well as historical beliefs. This can take the
discussion beyond current campus-based training that fill a present need but does not always fill
a contextual demand (Baccei, 2015). Leadership education is more accessible than ever through
technology and new programs, but increased attention also reveals gaps in the system
(Brungardt, 1997). Leadership programs continue to be popular, but leadership opportunities
continue to be elusive for some graduates. Universities can address this by clearly defining both
the coursework and the pipeline that connects graduates to faith-based opportunities.
Stakeholder Motivational Influences
Vague or consistently changing goals may lead to performance gaps and a lack of
motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). Pink (2009) proposes that autonomy, mastery, and purpose are
key factors in motivating people to improve performance. Clark and Estes (2008) add that there
are three facets of motivation: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Both sets of
categories underline the importance of motivation as a critical factor in equipping aspiring
leaders to develop skills to navigate a diverse culture. Each set also makes clear that motivation
is multidimensional and complex.
The first motivation influence involves an aspect of expectancy-value theory described
by Eccles as utility value (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Utility value involves purpose, and aspiring
leaders need to see the usefulness of faith-based organizations to pursue participating in and
27
leading one. The second motivational influence is self-efficacy, which means that a leader must
believe that he or she can perform the required behavior (Bandura, 1977). Finally, cost value as
linked to motivation makes for an important discussion because some leaders struggle to
maintain focus if the perceived benefits are hard to identify. Cost value describes the investment
of time, effort, and other dimensions needed to complete a task (Rueda, 2011). These influences
will provide a portrait of how motivational influences matter to aspiring leaders of faith-based
organizations.
Motivational Influence: Utility Value
Prior to discussing the utility component, it is important to clarify expectancy-value
theory. Assumptions might be made concerning religious beliefs and their link to behavior
generally or, in this case, organizational behavior that comes about as a result of the leader and
his or her convictions. Expectancy-value theory may assume certain beliefs related to specific
tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In this case, beliefs are linked to perception of ability (Wigfield
& Eccles, 2000) and not just what are commonly viewed as religious beliefs. In a diversifying
culture, focusing on the usefulness of a task or the utility value specifically may be helpful.

28
Table 3
Motivational Influences as Part of the Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission is to prepare men and women through education to be servant leaders locally,
nationally, and globally.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2021, increase students entering faith-based leadership roles by 10% in order to sustain
faith-based organizations’ viability and community influence.
Stakeholder Goal
Increase the number students who identify leadership opportunities through university
administrators and external partners so that the rate of graduates accepting leadership roles at
faith-based organizations increases by 10% by 2021.
Assumed Motivational Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Utility value: Students need to value the
usefulness of faith-based organizations to
serve community needs
Written interview item: “Give me an example
where faith-based organizations strengthened
a community?”
Self-Efficacy: Students aspiring to lead faith-
based organizations need to believe that he or
she can lead a faith-based organization in a
culture where such organizations have
declining social capital.
Written interview question: “Do you believe
you can achieve your leadership goals no
matter the difficulties you face?”
Cost Value: Students need to believe that
attaining a leadership position within a faith-
based organization is worth the cost of
training and preparation.
Written interview question: “What motivates
you to pursue or not pursue faith-based
leadership above other opportunities?”

Utility value is one of four components put forth by Eccles and refers to how a skill or
task will be used in the future to achieve a goal (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The other three
components are attainment value, intrinsic value, and cost value, but utility value, which speaks
to the usefulness of a skill or task, will be a motivation influence relevant to aspiring leaders and
helpful to faith-based organizations in meeting social needs (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010). The
usefulness of a skill or the value of its implementation can also be supported by the research of
Pekrun, who saw that an action’s intrinsic value was connected to the importance placed on that
skill by an individual (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In other words, an
individual may deem a skill useful both a personally and a professionally.
29
Ahmad (2009) observes that Muslims have adapted to institutional norms in the United
States, and their religious practice takes on a very different shape than in other parts of the world
by following some cultural norms historically initiated by Christian groups. These include
holding Sunday meetings and Wednesday classes (Ahmad, 2009). Scheitle and Dougherty
(2008) add that, while not all religions fall into a congregational model, the dominance of this
particular organizational style in the United States presents a structure adopted by Hindus,
Buddhists, Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and Muslims. This intentional effort by other religious
groups to adapt to cultural norms while meeting community needs demonstrates the importance
of the utility discussion. Like learning a language in a foreign country, these adaptations or
modifications are useful for religious groups to build social capital.
Motivation Influence: Self-Efficacy
Aspiring leaders of faith-based organizations should cultivate self-efficacy within their
training as religion remains controversial and endurance or coping tools may be effective traits of
the leader (Bandura, 1977). What a leader expects to accomplish is linked to his or her
motivation to accomplish it. While the outcome may be important, leaders must have enough
self-efficacy to remain faithful to internal or spiritual convictions while in his or her role
(Bandura, 1977).
McCormick (2001) connects self-efficacy to the task of leadership and states that an
individual’s self-efficacy is the most important cognition factor for an aspiring leader. Self-
efficacy is the personal belief that one has the competencies and resources to meet the
requirements of a given task or situation (McCormick, 2001). Self-efficacy is the belief that a
person can perform a certain behavior (Bandura, 1977). A distinction is often made between
belief in the ability to perform a behavior and belief in a certain outcome, and the likelihood of a
30
certain outcome is called expectancy (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Self-efficacy, however, has
been a more predictive element in goal achievement than expectancy (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Bandura (2012) adds that people do not live in isolation, that self-efficacy is influenced
by a group, and that many people do not have direct control over many important conditions
impacting their personal and professional lives. Belief in self-efficacy influences how well
people motivate themselves when difficulties arise and are addressed (Bandura, 2012). Using the
process of weight loss, Bandura (2012) illustrates that self-efficacy also differs across domains.
A person can have high self-efficacy in one area but not in others (Bandura, 2012). For example,
a person may be able to regulate their diet and exercise, demonstrating self-efficacy in each of
those domains, while struggling with self-efficacy when it comes to controlling his or her
environment (Bandura, 2012). Similarly, a leader may believe that he or she can lead a faith-
based organization and may pursue training to do it but may not fit well within a certain context.
Since leadership is a primary driver for congregational mission and priorities (Dougherty &
Emerson, 2018), self-efficacy across several domains (Bandura, 2012) helps assess the context of
faith-based organizations.
Eccles (2009) believes that the process of forming individual and collective identities,
“me and we selves” (p. 81), directly relates to the motivation a leader has to attach value and
meet goals. Using a student who declares a college major as an illustration, Eccles (2009)
indicates that the student often sees himself as good at the subject but also sees an individual or
collective benefit to the specific degree plan. The student may feel competent in engineering but
also see a potential job in engineering serving a benefit (Eccles, 2009). Likewise, faith-based
leaders will identify themselves individually as believers in religious organizations but will also
have a collective identity that sees both the role and the organization as important and connected
31
(Steffens et al., 2016). This conviction will be reinforced individually (the me self) and
collectively (by peers and the community) as important and wise (Eccles, 2009; Steffens et al.,
2016), which serves to increase an identity awareness. Leaders tend to stand for the vision and
values of the organization they lead (Steffens et al., 2016).
Motivation Influence: Cost Value
Clark and Estes (2008) observe that few people work only toward a single goal. Instead,
most people have to divide their attention. Students aspiring to lead faith-based organizations
will need to be clear about their goals, but they also need to count the cost of training in terms of
time, effort, and other aspects (Rueda, 2011). The lack of participation and shortage of clergy,
previously mentioned in Chapter One, make cost value relevant in new ways. Students face
headwinds that previous students may not have had to confront.
The good news is that moderately difficult goals often receive the highest level of effort
(Locke & Latham, 2002). Very easy and very hard goals create circumstances that discourage
many leaders (Locke & Latham, 2002). Locke (2000) links knowledge and motivation when he
writes that “cognition answers the question ‘what is?’ then motivation answer the question ‘so
what?’” (p. 411). Locke (2000) goes on to say that, in everyday life, knowledge and motivation
“are never separate” (p. 414). A training program is, therefore, important, and demonstrates why
learning to count the cost will directly impact an aspiring leader’s strategy or ambitions.
The demand for trained leaders is often driven by opportunities and market forces
(Connolly, 2003). While the behavior of leaders may be influenced by their religious beliefs
(Hage & Posner, 2015), work-faith integration seems to impact mature leaders more (Lynn et al.,
2010). Teens are growing up more slowly than their generational predecessors (Twenge & Park,
2019), participating in fewer adult activities such as part-time jobs, going out without their
32
parents, and driving. Watt and Richardson (2007) highlight the power of values and their
influence on choices made. In a study on young adults’ life goals, Twenge et al. (2012) observed
that being a leader in a community related more to a desire for fame than to the flourishing of the
organization. Young adults have ranked a desire for financial stability (Twenge et al., 2012)
ahead of participating in church or their local community. Since economic instability often leads
to increased materialism (Lynn et al., 2010; Twenge et al., 2012), cost value will be nurtured or
challenged during university years.
Matusovich et al. (2010) observed through a survey that engineering majors and non-
engineering majors alike believe that engineering directly benefits society. The challenge
identified through the survey was that many also thought that the demands of earning the degree
and the competition for good jobs discouraged students from pursuing engineering degrees
(Matusovich et al., 2010). Cost value, it seems, is a valuable indicator of persistence as students
grapple with their obligation to the me versus we culture (Clark & Estes, 2008), and enduring
difficulty seems to arise during a person’s university years or, at least, in the training phase.
Results regarding the cost value for engineering students showed that the lack of female
representation in the major seemed to matter (Matusovich et al., 2010). Students added that
preparing to be an engineer and contemplating working on an oil rig are two different cognitive
ideas (Matusovich et al., 2010), resulting in their willingness to endure long semesters if the
promise of a high paying job remains. Students aspiring to be clergy or faith-based leaders, in
contrast, are promised neither high salaries nor cultural prominence (Twenge et al., 2012). Faith-
based university cultures may need to nurture work-faith integration among a rising generation
that attends church less and seeks financial stability more.
33
Stakeholder Organizational Influences
Addressing the stated problem requires analyzing organizational influences in addition to
understanding the knowledge and motivational influences. Organizational influences directly
impact performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008) and typically involve systems and resources.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that true organizational change influences culture and how
people do their jobs. Effectiveness in the workplace depends on reliable systems and adequate
resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). These resources and systems operate within an organizational
culture driven by leadership. Culture and leadership remain the two most influential elements of
any organization and both bring KMO influences together into a shared space (Schein & Schein,
2018).
Organizations do not exist by themselves or in isolation (Schein & Schein, 2018).
Because the organization and the individual must each work for the other (Schein & Schein,
2018), the interplay makes understanding the group and the influences of a given structure all the
more relevant. Scheitle and Dougherty (2009) also argue that each organization is surrounded by
a living environment or, one might say, embedded in a network that involves social capital and
institutional ties. Bolman and Deal (2017) point out that organizations play the dual role of being
a structural constant while consistently changing. As both an anchor and an agitator,
organizational influences in this study served to reveal a context and the challenges relevant to
the student stakeholder group.
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) observe that cultural models (the invisible attitudes or
beliefs in an organization) and cultural settings (which are the visible, concrete reflections of the
models) are limited or constrained by the ecosystem in which the organization lives. Because the
world of most managers is a series of messes (Bolman & Deal, 2017), culture is influential and
34
not always positive or smooth. Clean models, attractive principles, and professional policies may
not lead to a healthy organization because every group is made up of people. Organizations are
human enterprises that are prone to imperfection, trial, and error (Bolman & Deal, 2017). In this
study, university students who aspire to lead or be promoted to lead an organization may not
consider a faith-based organization because the reality rarely lives up to the ideal. Table 4
introduces the organizational influences as part of this gap analysis. The organization needs to
support a culture that values faith-based organizations as well as access to such institutions.
These are the primary two focal points of the cultural influences depicted in
Organizations Need to Support the Social Impact of Faith-Based Organizations.
Previous studies have shown the positive influences of humanitarian organizations. Faith-based
organizations, however, are treated differently or ignored altogether (Smith & Sosin, 2001).
Smith (2017) points out that religion can be intensely personal but can also bring people together
in a strong bond, resulting in organizations formed by strong ties. These organizations can
mobilize in ways that many corporate organizations simply cannot because they operate
simultaneously at the grassroots and institutional levels (Smith, 2017). Faith-based organizations
can be local and global at the same time and can mobilize quickly because what drives the
gathering is a systematic belief system. This is particularly true in the individualistic culture of
the United States (Schein & Schein, 2018) where the group often elevates the performance of a
single leader rather than the success of the whole. Among the results of the social service side of
religious people forming an organization is the impact social service programs may have,
sometimes reaching into the tens of billions of dollars in annual aid (Smith, 2017). For example,
Catholic Relief Services is one of the largest non-governmental charitable organizations in the
world (Smith, 2017). In addition to Christian organizations like Catholic Relief Services,
35
millions of dollars in humanitarian aid and service to the poor are also disseminated by Buddhist
Global Relief, Islamic Relief Worldwide, and World Jewish Relief (Smith, 2017).
Table 4
Organizational Influences as Part of a Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission is to prepare women and men through education to be servant leaders locally,
nationally, and globally
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2021 increase students entering faith-based leadership roles by 10% in order to sustain
faith-based organizations’ viability and community influence.
Stakeholder Goal
Increase the number students who identify leadership opportunities through university
administrators and external partners so that the rate of graduates accepting leadership roles at
faith-based organizations increases by 10% by 2021.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: The organization
needs to support a culture that values the
social impact that faith-based organizations
make.
Interviews can be utilized to assess a baseline,
that is, to understand current attitudes toward
faith-based organizations. Assessing student
life activities and student clubs may also help
gain an understanding of the view of these
organizations.
Cultural Model Influence 2: The organization
needs to support a culture that values
leadership development within a faith-based
context.
Interviews conducted to understand how
leadership is encouraged as a value and as
something connected to faith-based beliefs
Cultural Setting Influence 1: The organization
needs to support access to networks and
pipelines for students seeking a professional
career in faith-based leadership.
Review course outcomes and interview
stakeholders seeking to understand how
opportunities are articulated and approached
Cultural Setting Influence 2: The organization
needs to support access for underrepresented
students seeking a professional career in faith-
based leadership.
Interviews that explore access points and
attitudes of underrepresented students seeking
roles at faith-based organizations

Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) define cultural models as shared views of the world or
a shared agreement about what is considered normal. Organizations come together for various
purposes and may not always function effectively, but even dysfunctional teams have influence.
Often, this influence is due to people coming together or becoming organized. Perhaps faith-
36
based organizations serve as quintessential examples of macro and micro-cultures coming
together (Schein & Schein, 2018) in a way that delivers services but also needs further definition
depending on the context. At present, religious organizations organize first and most often as
congregations, but then also build schools, hospitals, food pantries, homeless shelters, and
training centers (Scheitle & Dougherty, 2008). When religion in the United States is discussed,
research reveals that the reality involves more than talking points about belief and includes many
organizations that remain active employers engaged in a vibrant social service ecosystem.
Organizations Need to Support the Belief in Leadership Development for Faith-
Based Contexts. With the support of federal initiatives and legislation, faith-based organizations
play a key role in providing social services (Vanderwoerd, 2004). There is a distinction,
however, between faith-based organizations and faith-related organizations (Smith & Sosin,
2001). This distinction is typically based on doctrinal fidelity or religious overtones. Historical
distinctions are important to note within the training since organizations are cultures within
cultures (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Schein & Schein, 2018).
On the surface, one issue that has arisen as a culture within a culture is that the religious
traditions that spend the most money on education or training are declining faster than those that
offer less training and education (Markham, 2010). Should investment in training and education
continue? Markham suggests, not unlike what some MBA programs are considering, collapsing
the space between studies and immersive experience. Johnston (2014) states that organizational
sustainability relies on leaders who can develop healthy and productive partnerships. Training
programs offer both skills training and exposure to other people and other networks. As
universities are utilizing new methods of instruction and integrating technology and pedagogy
more intentionally, Markham (2010) says that all training should consider that the leader impacts
37
more than just one local organization. Larger bodies like denominations are key to long-term
funding (Markham, 2010), and, with many students now entering faith-based leadership with
considerable student debt, a program’s cost matters.
Since the influence of a leader or mentor is cited as key to avoiding burnout (Joynt &
Dreyer, 2013), training programs can offer direct access to such support. Many faith-based
leaders note that their formal education did not prepare them sufficiently for dealing with real-
life situations (Joynt, 2017), and, for that reason, most want to reimagine training (Markham,
2010). The literature demonstrates that status quo faith-based education is no longer sufficient to
sustain organizational health or attract new leaders. Training and access to mentors, guides, and
coaches are part of the setting. Because religious beliefs hold some influence on employee
attitudes in the workplace (Park et al., 2014), cultivating a supportive learning environment may
help pass this on to aspiring leaders. Trained leaders and those who have access to mentors,
guides, and coaches are both most effective and most likely to last.
Organizations Need to Support a Visible Path to a Professional Opportunity. In
addition to formal training, students receiving such training should be able to see a pathway
toward utilizing it. If there is access to knowledge and motivation to lead but no opportunities
within organizations, student stakeholders may give up. Organizations have visible processes and
procedures (Schein & Schein, 2018). These often provide stability for workers and employees
within the organization. The same can be said for those outside the organization. Visible artifacts
that allow the culture to be accessible keep the organization from being a closed or a bound
system (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Organizations that seem accessible offer more motivation than
those that may appear closed. At faith-based organizations, the research has shown that women
and people of color understand this all too well.
38
Leadership positions reserved for only one group fail on what Harris and Bensimon
(2007) call the equity scorecard. As stated in Chapter One, since over 75% of the world’s
population claims some belief in religion, participants kept from a leadership role will need to
embrace their own reality in a way that still supports the success of the organization. When this
support is not present, either the belief system or the organization itself will be challenged to
change. The diversifying nature of American culture challenges traditional religious acceptance.
White male Protestants and White male Catholics are fast becoming the minority, and a wave of
diverse religions combined with increased participation by women and people of color are both
the new normal and the bright future (Pew Research Center, 2019). Yet, the pathways for
leadership have not kept pace with the participation of diverse and underrepresented people. In
many respects, this has resulted from the acceptance of how some faith-based organizations have
historically worked. When solutions work over and over, they are often taken for granted (Schein
& Schein, 2018).
Organizations Need to Support Access to Opportunities for Underrepresented
Students. Effective organizations allow different cultures to exist under one roof and
acknowledge that different subcultures must be united by common goals and common purpose
(Schein & Schein, 2018). Succession planning for Christian colleges and universities gives
guidance to the wider faith-based network. Barton (2019) emphasizes the need for training
diverse leaders and moving away from the idea that a single individual can be viewed through a
heroic lens. Heroes rarely seek succession plans, which are nevertheless important for
sustainability (Barton, 2019; Florea et al., 2013). Key to sustainability is connecting human
resource practices with stated values (Florea et al., 2013). According to recent data, nearly half
of all college presidents plan to leave their position within five years (Barton, 2019). The
39
urgency to address leadership succession is that leadership succession is happening rapidly and
often without much planning. The same is true whether the organization is a church or a food
pantry or a Christian university. There must be a shift away from an individual building a legacy
to the organization making an impact (Barton, 2019), and, to do this long-term, intentional
investment in diverse leaders sets up organizational health more effectively. Over 70% of all
faith-based organizations are led by White males (Barton, 2019), and over 80% of these leaders
are older than 35 (Markham, 2010). Maintaining social capital in a demographically changing
world requires the creation of an intentional pathway for all students, including women and
people of color.
Suarez (2017) states less than 20% of all nonprofit executive leaders are people of color
(Suarez, 2017). Women and people of color need further consideration for faith-based
organizations’ leadership since empowerment can be multidimensional (Young et al., 2015).
Alexander and Welzel (2011) add that the subordination of women to men is the most lasting
form of collective discrimination in human history. Organizations are slow to change, and the
example of Yale University can be illustrative of how even the most reputable organizations in
the United States have not always carved out pathways for women and people of color. Yale
enjoys a rich reputation in academic circles, but the university did not allow female
undergraduates until 1969 (Perkins, 2019). Even today, only 26% of tenured faculty are female,
and less than 10% of the student body is Black (Perkins, 2019). Eberhardt (2019) indicates that
change entails going beyond institutional data toward building healthy relationships and
reflecting on our individual and collective bias that is often unconscious and second nature.
Faith-based organizations need to recognize that women outnumber men in college attendance,
40
church attendance, and the number of women in the workforce has increased while the number
of men in the workforce has decreased in the past 10 years (Lafreniere & Longman, 2008).
Faith-based empowerment can occur at the individual, organizational, or neighborhood
level (Young et al., 2015) and widens opportunities across various domains (Alexander &
Welzel, 2011; Young et al., 2015). Increasing access to opportunity for women has been proven
to increase economic development and decrease civic unrest (Alexander & Welzel, 2011).
African American churches and faith-based organizations have historically been instrumental in
providing social services and community support (Young et al., 2015). Observable data
demonstrates that there is institutional bias to address (Eberhardt, 2019), but the data also
suggests that when leadership roles are accessible by women and people of color, economic and
social capital also increases (Alexander & Welzel, 2011).
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework, as the phrase suggests, is a combination of ideas and a system
that either organizes or connects a study’s major themes. A conceptual framework can be
presented in graphic or narrative form (Maxwell, 2013). Such a model or representation sets
ideas within a context and justifies the study so that readers can readily see that the research
builds upon existing expertise (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual
framework is also created and constructed and is not stumbled upon by an author (Maxwell,
2013). Instead, the conceptual framework offers an organized way ideas and theories can be set
forth to represent a specific project.
The conceptual framework for this study is meant to give context to the ideas at work in
sustaining faith-based organizations and their social services that many communities depend on.
The research explores major ideas within leadership development programs built specifically for
41
students and the role they may or may not play in sustaining faith-based organizational
effectiveness, particularly as leadership pipelines are considered. As the rising generation
participates less in churches but maintains an interest in religion, the research indicates potential
impacts on common projects and programs (Smith, 2017). In pursuit of understanding the ideas
of those participating in the study, a constructivist view (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) is
prevalent. Embracing open-ended questions and putting traditional practices and historical
beliefs within a real context only adds to the presence of a constructivist view (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). In a study that engages a topic some consider private, like religion, personal
histories will also be an important aspect of a constructivist view (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
This search for meaning from constructivism is set alongside the social service impact
which reflects a pragmatic approach (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Faith-based organizations
consistently work at the intersection of the pursuit of meaning and the desire to make a
difference in practical ways in the world. The connection to religion in this study demonstrates
that organizations are fragile and demand care and feeding. Even something as enduring and as
personal as a religious organization can decline. Murty (2012) warns that withdrawal from those
networks that promote reciprocity has consequences. Maintaining a facade of formal
membership means that we rarely show up and we are less generous with our time and money
(Murty, 2012). In fact, religious withdrawal can be tied to generational succession, which reveals
not just a reduction in social capital built by helping others but a rapidly declining culture of
generosity as well (Murty, 2012; Twenge, 2018).
The researcher brings experience in faith-based institutions, and these include senior-
level positions in faith-based humanitarian organizations, research universities, churches, and
private high schools. The organization of Christianity in the West is different from similarly
42
named groups in the East or Middle East (Hoffecker, 2007), making the context of the faith-
based organization different in the United States, so generalizations to global contexts should be
limited or avoided altogether. The researcher chose to focus on Christian organizations, and the
mission of Grace Central University identifies it as such an organization.
Within the American educational context, the influence of the Romans and the Greeks
(Hoffecker, 2007) has traditionally been greater than that of teachers such as Confucius or Lao
Tzu. In a diversifying world, traditional views are being challenged not only by new ways of
thinking but by exposure to new communities of faith who are now more mobile than ever. Ideas
and best practices cross borders rather easily today (Hage & Posner, 2015; Twenge & Park,
2019). The researcher should not assume that traditional views are superior to new ideas.
In Figure 1, the conceptual framework is depicted as a cycle since the faith-based
ecosystem works together to build up faith-based organizations. Because this framework sits
within a university context, both faith-based organizations and best practices or new ideas
contribute to the university, yet there are solid borders as well. As Bolman and Deal (2017)
conclude that some institutions have bounded systems, universities have distinctive and branded
identities. Yet, input from the outside is an intentional part of the student experience as well.
The stakeholder goal cannot be achieved without the cycle working. At the center of the
organization is the idea that both the social impact of a faith-based organization and the belief or
attitude that training men and women for service within the context of faith-based organizations
is a sustaining force. Since Grace Central University is a faith-based university, the cultural
model holds the center together. Input from faith-based organizations and outreach to faith-based
organizations is a communication element connecting KMO influences to networks that can aid
in attaining the stakeholder goal.
43
Figure 1
Interactive Conceptual Framework

· Utility value of FBO to serve
needs
· Self-Efficacy: can do the work with
less social capital
· Cost value: leading a FBO is
worth time and effort

· Organization supports access to
networks
· Organization supports access for
underrepresented students

· Know types of faith-based
organizations (factual/conceptual)
· Know FBO influence in his or her own
community (metacognitive)
· Know pathways to professional
careers in FBO (procedural)

Input from
faith-based
organizations
Cultural Model
Organization supports social impact of FBO
and supports a culture of belief in training
leaders for FBO opportunities

Outside ideas

Stakeholder Goal
By 2021, students will identify leadership
opportunities through university administrators
and external partners so that 10% more graduate
to take
faith-based opportunities.
Motivation Influences
Cultural Setting
Knowledge Influences
44
Summary
The literature in this chapter connected the ideas related to faith-based organizations and
leadership development. The fragile sustainability of churches, nonprofits, and some private
colleges is explored through understanding the KMO influences revealed in Clark and Estes’s
(2008) gap analysis framework. Since all organizations are heavily influenced by leadership and
culture (Schein & Schein, 2017), the literature revealed the need for leaders to oversee change
initiatives and for organizations to consistently self-assess both as an institution committed to
learning and as one nurturing a healthy culture (Schein & Schein, 2017). In fact, the type of
leadership tolerated will be tied to the beliefs and norms of the organization’s culture (Schein &
Schein, 2017). Change is not always about something new and can occur within one part of the
organization, revealing active cultures within cultures (Kezar, 2001; Schein & Schein, 2017).
As performance gaps are often interconnected (Clark & Estes, 2008), the literature
showed how separating knowledge and motivation is difficult. While there is more literature
devoted to examining faith-based organizations through a Christian lens, all organizations related
to a specific faith consistently deal with the interplay of connecting the participation of those
within the religion and those in a seat of power or authority.
Stakeholder interviews provided necessary data and were set in their methodological
context in the next chapter where this qualitative approach connected KMO elements to real
students seeking to train for leadership. The KMO elements from Clark and Estes’s (2008)
framework was set alongside the literature to frame the interview questions.

45
Chapter Three: Methodology
The data were gathered through interviews, and this chapter revisits the purpose of the
project to set up the rationale and approach associated with the methodology. Recruitment was
done from a distance, and interruptions from the coronavirus pandemic form part of the
challenges affiliated with the interview protocol and informed the choices made to adjust to
public health concerns. The chapter concludes by affirming the trustworthiness of the
methodology, the awareness of the researcher as an instrument in the study, and the ethics
practiced to support the qualitative nature of the study.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to evaluate progress on building a pipeline into faith-based
organizations from a faith-based university into other faith-based organizations. The
sustainability of a faith-based organization relies on young people rising to support and
participate in the mission. The evaluation of how a faith-based university trains leaders for work
in faith-based organizations was done through an analysis of the KMO influences that relate to
university students’ entering professional opportunities at faith-based organizations. While a
complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the focus of this
study was on students who participated in leadership coursework and in an intentional leadership
cohort. The latter involves residential placements and additional expectations such as student
organizational commitments, which are meant to serve as a laboratory for leadership skill
development.
To better understand the decline in trained men and women aspiring to lead a church or
faith-based organization, the researcher proposed exploring the following questions:
46
1. What are the stakeholder knowledge and motivational influences related to Grace Central
University equipping 10% more leaders for faith-based roles by 2021?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Leadership pipelines do not readily exist for many leadership development programs, so
a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) was utilized in this study to build evidence for
decisions that both organizations and students need to make. The goal set out in this figure is for
the program to lead to a placement. Like functioning spokes in the same wheel or
complementary tires on the same car, a stakeholder’s motivation and knowledge leads
somewhere and is not static.
Faith-based participation is often a precursor to faith-based leadership, yet the research
shows a gap between those who are participating (e.g., women and people of color) and the
positions available to them. In an increasingly diverse culture, Gill (2002) observes that effective
leadership will be more necessary than change management. Gill states that values and
communication are critical for leaders to navigate change and faith-based organizations will need
to be willing to adapt to the current climate of change.
Setting student knowledge and motivation side by side is intentional within the figure
because the two are difficult to separate. For example, unless there is a utility value attached to
either faith or the role of faith-based organizations, many students and rising leaders find it
difficult to sustain participation. Similarly, aspiring leaders must count the cost to navigate the
changing cultural scene in which faith-based organizations operate. The stakeholder goal is
47
reached when a robust cycle within a concrete but open system works collaboratively to speak to
and listen to faith-based organizations.
Methodological Approach and Rationale
In conducting this project, the researcher used descriptive questions during the interviews
to better understand what is happening as a result of investigating the KMO elements. The results
of this research will have real consequences (Maxwell, 2013), as faith-based organizations have
devoted members and can be long-term community members. When one approaches this from a
constructivist posture that has pragmatic implications (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), the
researcher is both a participant and an observer. Because qualitative research moves toward
meaning and seeks to find explanations, they follow words or pictures or clues that may lead to
some interesting places. Utilizing interviews through virtual technology, information was
gathered within time constraints and with more depth than can be done with other methods
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Creswell and Creswell (2018) assert the importance of reflexivity, and, in that vein, the
researcher embraces that experience in previously leading faith-based institutions may present a
personal stake in many of these organizations succeeding. The researcher has also served on
boards that encourage faith-based collaboration and faith-based activity. One board is an
interfaith advisory group made up of women and men who serve in professional positions and
bring their own expertise and represent every major world religion. Since the interviews focused
on a relatively small sample at Grace Central University, namely those self-identifying as
participants in a leadership cohort, the constructivist approach of the researcher was influenced
by his own worldview. Constructivists ask open-ended questions, qualitatively seeking to
understand the current and historical context (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Constructivists
48
assume that each person not only seeks meaning but also seeks to truly understand the world in
which people live and work and socialize. Because ideas have consequences, constructivists also
seek to know the meaning of the ideas that may shape a given answer or situation.
While documents and observations provide important information and vital contributions
to the data, interviewing gives the researcher access to the observations, ideas, and thoughts of
others (Maxwell, 2013). In a study that intersects with faith-based ideas and faith-based
organizations, interviews also provide a more empathetic, relational approach, and an interview
is used to follow up on other data (Maxwell, 2013). In other words, the interview is utilized by
the qualitative researcher not only as a method of inquiry but also as a mode of interpersonal
connection, closing the distance between the researcher and the participant. The relational
connection can be particularly important within faith-based contexts where some worldviews are
held tightly and passed down by family members and loved ones. While some research
conclusions do not translate easily into practice (McEwan & McEwan, 2003), faith-based
organizations often expect that their worldview will have implications in the practical realities of
daily life.
Qualitative research and inquiry is human-to-human in many respects. As Maxwell
(2013) says, the data collection and the design go together. Analysis is not something to be left to
the end, where a pile of notes and transcripts lie in wait of a researcher (Maxwell, 2013).
Analysis is something that goes on along the way (Maxwell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
By taking this approach, the qualitative researcher allows the participant to point the way to
theories (Creswell, & Creswell, 2018) rather than trying to prove a predetermined one.
The researcher operates within a context, and, because documents help to provide history
and existing data, utilizing existing surveys such as the senior exit survey or the first-year survey
49
for entering students provides a well-rounded picture. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) imply that
tracking down new insights and being sensitive when following the data is the same whether the
researcher is interviewing or analyzing documents. Important to the document analysis is
verifying authenticity (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Due to the previous experience of the researcher within faith-based contexts, there is
familiarity with some historical references or theological anecdotes. Because the data need
coding (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) and organizing, a potential bias for familiar terms is
addressed. Qualitative research allows this sense of discovery to happen within a relational
context (Locke et al., 2010). Relationships, by definition, are not always predictable. Qualitative
research allows this review process to inform and intersect not only with the data presented by
participants but with inductive elements that cause the researcher and participant to intersect at
times as well. In the end, qualitative research presents a narrative or story that gives one camera
angle on a particular multifaceted problem. Qualitative research is a contribution to a human
story that is told within a context and within a relationship, and these human stories matter when
it comes to organizations and how each function effectively. Many in faith-based communities
experience the power of connection, and qualitative research aims to bring those connections to
bear on a particular problem of practice.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group that formed the focal point for this was a cohort of undergraduate
seniors who were part of the residential leadership cohort. Since Grace Central University is a
faith-based institution, these students have been exposed to opportunities to integrate faith and
work. The researcher interviewed five male and five female students. The actual group
interviewed consisted of six females and four males. Due to COVID-19 restrictions,
50
appointments were made from a distance. The researcher interviewed the participants who
responded to invitations sent virtually within the time constraints of the academic year. Each
student completed coursework within the leadership development program and lived in a
residential setting that concentrates on offering extra leadership related activity. Additional
activities include service hours, mentoring, and participation within campus organizations. A
more focused approach allowed more exploration and discovery and fits the nature of the study
more effectively. The researcher conducted a qualitative study to understand how the participants
translate their desire to make meaning into actual leadership roles (Maxwell, 2013).
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The method used in this qualitative study elicited not only more nuanced and useful data
but created an environment more conducive to discovery and exploration. As students who are
being trained to lead within faith-based contexts are often lauded for their empathy or pastoral
concern, creating a conversational environment seemed normal and almost necessary. Many
seeking to become leaders of faith-based organizations want to pass along their beliefs or
knowledge, so dignifying this sense of calling and curiosity is important. Each participant logged
on to a digital platform from a familiar place which contributed to increased security and trust.
Criterion 1: Students Seeking Their Next Steps. Students who have already completed
the required leadership coursework and residential requirements were interviewed. Gaining from
their ability to reflect while looking toward life after university provided important data. Students
nearing the end of a program also provided experiential and theoretical counsel to those students
rising in succession. The focus on seniors lent credibility to the study on faith-based leadership
and proved a more in-depth sample as upper-level students reflected on lessons learned and next
steps with more reflection.
51
Criterion 2: Gender balance. Since the literature demonstrates a lack of opportunity for
some due to historically imbalanced roles for women, interviewing six women and four men
came close to an exact balance. While the ratio of participants did not end up being identically
lined up, the sampling reflected the research questions and represented the cohort effectively.
Criterion 3: Representing Different Expressions of Faith. Various contexts and
expressions of faith lead to different opportunities. Students with little or no background in faith
were also interviewed because Grace Central University remains committed to an open stance on
enrollment within a stated Christian mission. Comparative data within the literature review were
helpful since the first-year survey related to interest in faith-based work could be observed across
denominational lines.
Interview Recruitment and Rationale
The interviews were conducted within the leadership cohort or those who recently
completed the requirements, which consists of those who have taken the required coursework
and service hours. Due to the support of the faculty mentors, the researcher was able to send
notes embedded into regular newsletters and emails. The faculty helped to recruit and
encouraged students to participate. The faculty support was critical given the disbursement of
students during the late spring, COVID-19 interruptions that occurred across college campuses.
As students returned to their hometowns, the rapport already built with students by the faculty
became helpful. A sample size of a minimum of 10 out of approximately 100 total stakeholders
was both an adequate size for interview data and a reasonable size given the time limitations of
this study.
52
Rationale for Choices
The most realistic method of data collection to obtain context, meaning, and
understanding was a qualitative study utilizing primarily individual interviews. The sampling
size was 10 out of approximately 100, which was realistic and reasonable. Access to faculty and
program leaders as well as access to students through campus partnerships made communication
and recruitment efficient. The public health interruptions that led to increased email
communication increased the time that it took to conduct the interviews, so the researcher
collaborated with several faculty when there was initial interest expressed by participants, but
with limited follow-up.
While there may be freshmen and sophomores who outnumber upperclassmen in the
residential aspect due to cohort requirements and the independence granted to juniors and
seniors, final-year students represent those students who may be recruited by future employers.
Seniors were able to serve at faith-based organizations through summer work or internships, and
such experience enriched the depth of the study.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews are a systematic and structured activity done within a human context with
human elements (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The aspirational goal of inviting human engagement
in a planned event means that a structure and an unplanned exchange are both meaningful to the
process. Scheduling these during the spring term captured the most likely number to be available
due to the student rhythm of activity in this university context.
Interviews lend themselves to treating those being interviewed as leaders, and in doing
this the research questions addressed how a leadership pipeline may be derived from an
academic course designed to train leaders. The interview method respects their program and thus
53
makes a human connection while simultaneously exploring the motivational influences that may
result in these students’ considering a future in faith-based organizations. Clark and Estes (2008)
assert that active choice, mental effort, and persistence constitute various aspects of motivation.
Interviews
The researcher used a structured approach with interviews for two reasons. First, the
research participants were respected as future leaders, and that preparation honors this reality.
Secondly, discovery happens best within certain boundaries. Without a framework, discovery
may seem like a sophisticated form of wandering, but the structure allows the researcher to
pursue various paths within the same forest. Ultimately, the goal is to connect enrollment to
placement. The researcher sought to understand how to increase faith-based leadership at Grace
Central University given the current cultural trends and variables already described in the
literature. The relationship with the research participants can then change or adjust (Maxwell,
2013) as the researcher progresses through questions that represent KMO influences. Appendix
B outlines the list of questions used.
Representative questions from each KMO area were important since the sustainability of
a faith-based organization relies on knowledge of certain faith elements, the motivation to deem
these important enough to institutionalize, and the organizational dynamic that promotes the
common good (Smith, 2017). Faith can often seem like an intellectual or mystical exercise, but,
within the context of an organization, religious convictions can form the parameters within
which policy, practices, and people operate (Scheitle & Dougherty, 2009). In the case of this
study, faith-based organizations are seen as embedded parts of any given community, and their
sustainability matters to real people. Community dynamics are something that an interview can
54
draw out while embracing the reality that some questions elicit information as well as opinions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Developing rapport is an important aspect of interviews, and, when interjecting
something like religion or faith convictions, this will be particularly important (Smith, 2017).
Because the researcher brings experience within the industry and a similar academic credential,
the hope was to move beyond any credibility questions quickly.
Interview Processes
The researcher conducted interviews with the permission of each participant’s faculty
mentor or leadership professor. An email was sent from faculty mentors that introduced the
researcher and the study so that a bridge was built from a trusted source. Higher-level support
provided credibility for the project and also served as an invitation to participate in a process
already promoted by their unit. Maxwell (2013) states that the selection of participants is
purposeful, and the researcher explored getting a balance of male and female participants. The
goal in doing this is to find a certain representative sample in what could be a more homogenous
group than anticipated due to the already common interest in the same academic course. The goal
for more diversity is part of the planning and creates a heterogeneity that may be needed
(Maxwell, 2013) to demonstrate findings across more diverse lines. Due to the nature of the
program and the students who enroll in it, several responded out of sheer courtesy, and, to some
degree, this was helpful. Specific instructions regarding the nature of the study were
communicated so that students understood that they were participating in a doctoral project that
would result in published research.
Interviews were to be conducted in rooms often used by the leadership cohort to maintain
the focus on the researcher as student and guest in the space of those students involved in
55
leadership study. In actuality, the interviews were conducted via the Zoom digital platform,
respecting the wisdom of public health officials during the coronavirus global pandemic. This
technology increased access (Maxwell, 2013) to participants in unexpected ways.
By the time the interview started, the participant had heard from a leader in their
academic department and from the researcher simply for invitation and rapport purposes.
Building on that, each participant was assured that the start and end times would be honored. The
researcher conducted the interview for an hour to respect schedules and to honor the fact that
most meetings students were invited to last an hour. The digital platform limited the introduction
that many in-person interviews have, and the researcher recorded each session both in audio and
video formats given the capabilities of the digital platform. The researcher used additional time
when offered. The researcher used a legal pad both because it remained a familiar instrument,
but also because the paper was typically reliable, professional-looking, and often associated with
something of higher value than a ringed notebook or bound journal. Transcripts of each
interview were typed out by a graduate student who has served as a transcriber in higher
education for several years. The researcher had the benefit of reviewing typed transcripts, audio
files, and digital recordings.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The issue of credibility in a qualitative study is perceived differently than validity in a
quantitative study. As this is a qualitative research project, the assumption is that reality is
multidimensional and dynamic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), so the data itself lives within a
changing environment that is interpreted by a researcher, who is a holistic person. Because this
study deals with the combination of religious beliefs, business viability, and organizational
sustainability, it involved the intersection of deeply held faith convictions and time-tested
56
business ideas. On the surface, these may seem incompatible, but sustained influence often
involves some systemic success and embedding within a living organization or community or
both. Therefore, reality will often be both aspirational and descriptive.
Since credibility often depends on a reference, scheduling a return letter or follow-up
appointment to allow the participant to comment on the researcher’s understanding of their input
was also be important. Maxwell (2013) asserts that researcher bias and reactivity can be threats
to credibility, so the researcher intentionally refrained from inserting his own worldview. The
risk of the researcher’s personal story simply intersecting with the story of another person and
passing this off as data is one that can be addressed through the acknowledgment of respective
worldviews and how these intersect with current knowledge influences.
The researcher is also pursuing hunches and following off-roads and opportunities along
the way. Therefore, the benefit of a structured interview lies not so much in finding the right
answer, but in capturing the multidimensional picture. Maxwell (2013) alleges that some
researchers falsely pursue objectivity in trying to separate the project from personal lives. Pure
objectivity simply is not realistic, and avoiding expertise is less than ideal (Maxwell, 2013). As
someone who has been in leadership roles in faith-based organizations, the author of this study
brings preexisting contacts and credibility to the cohort, and these relationships supported the
recruitment process. The researcher drew on experience and existing networks, which was both a
benefit and a potential point of caution.
Since the burden of proof is on the researcher (McEwan & McEwan, 2003) to present the
study as credible, this author fully acknowledges that both the personal experience and
professional expertise brought advantages and biases. The advantages include rapport, empathy,
57
and an understanding of where students are in the degree program relative to professional
requirements and academic needs.
To enhance credibility, the researcher utilized the resources available within the setting
itself. Select faculty at Grace Central University offered to give comment and counsel, and the
researcher used these resources as needed. The strategy to check personal biases and work once
the interviews were completed was part of the ongoing review to make sure the narrative written
was as organic as possible and not simply a compilation of narratives the researcher liked. Some
findings were more interesting than others, so embracing this enticement is also a strategic step
toward safeguarding a credible direction.
In conclusion, the researcher must admit that this is only one study and the beginning of
something larger. The researcher embraces the truth that this is not the final word on this
particular study and that the sustainability of faith-based organizations will need analysis from
multiple angles and multiple disciplines. While texts are placed within contexts (Maxwell, 2013),
research is placed within existing research. In the end, contributing to the larger body of
knowledge, motivating leaders to consider new options, and informing organizations to navigate
sustainability will need to be an ongoing endeavor.
Ethics
In a qualitative research project, the research is the main instrument utilized for data
collection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016,). While the focus is on understanding meaning and what
the participants think or experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), there is always a direct role
played by the researcher that has consequences. Understanding how participants will respond to
the research or interview (Maxwell, 2013) is of primary importance.
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Maxwell (2013) helps frame the research participation as a relationship. Like any
relationship, there will be boundaries and the establishment of trust and nonverbal cues as well as
verbal cues to navigate. Purposeful sampling can be a helpful lens categorically (Maxwell, 2013)
since being intentional is important to qualitative research going well. As opposed to a random
group, interviews are a human-to-human endeavor that demands care and respect. This respect is
not given simply to express gratitude to the participant; it also helps lead to the interview being
substantive and worthwhile.
The research was conducted in the context of a higher education institution where the
researcher serves in a director capacity within a hierarchical organizational structure. The
researcher has no role in assigning grades or influencing student programs on campus. The
researcher maintains influence only within overseas initiatives and has no direct role in academic
outcomes for students. Because the relational equity is important and the higher education
context is regulated, informed consent obtained through forms is acceptable and considered
normal (Glesne, 2011). Utilizing a widely acknowledged protocol that is within a singular
university helped communicate that the researcher was serving as a learner in this process.
However, knowing a method is not the same as knowing the researcher. At this point, the
researcher has sought to build a relationship with the director of the leadership courses to build
credibility as a researcher and not just a Grace Central University peer. The professional
connection is important because the relationship between researcher and participant typically
requires analysis and definition (Glesne, 2011). Friendships or advocates (Glesne, 2011) can be
fruitful relationships, but clarity on the research topic must exist to press the study forward, and,
sometimes, friendships make analysis difficult.
59
Weiss (1994) claims that qualitative interviewers will often know much about their topic,
and, in this case, that is true. However, the researcher learned from the counsel of mentors,
faculty, and friends to create an environment that truly drew out the experience of others who
anticipated playing certain roles.

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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the KMO factors that influence university
students who are potential candidates for faith-based leadership roles and provide
recommendations to address the leadership pipeline coming out of a faith-based university. To
sustain the viability of the faith-based social service ecosystem in the United States, this study
sought to understand why participants would consider or not consider leadership opportunities at
faith-based organizations. The results and findings are organized according to Clark and Estes’s
(2008) gap analysis framework and categorized according to the KMO assumed influences.
Qualitative interviews were conducted over 6 weeks from late April to mid-June 2020. The
researcher utilized digital technology that facilitated face-to-face conversations. The digital
platform became necessary to use as a result of restrictions put in place locally due to COVID-
19. Facilitating the interviews face-to-face, but through a digital platform, maximized the tools
available and honored the public health guidelines set forth by local public health officials.
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders were students from Grace Central University who self-
selected into a leadership program. All participants were seniors or students serving within
internships to satisfy final year requirements for the leadership program. The sampling was
modified from the original subset of five females and five males to six females and four males as
a result of adjustments that were necessary due to COVID-19 interruptions and the response rate
within the time constraints of this study. While the leadership coursework represents an
interdisciplinary cross-section of students, interview participants were students who also chose to
participate in service hours and required campus peer leadership roles, distinguishing the
participants as those willing to engage in additional requirements. These students’ experience
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was outlined in Chapter Three and demonstrated that a self-selected group of students was
willing to do more than coursework to distinguish themselves as candidates for leadership roles.
All participants were 22 or 23 years of age, and, of the 10 participants, three identified as
not coming from traditional religious backgrounds for Grace Central University. One student
identified as coming from a Buddhist background, one identified as coming from a Muslim and
Catholic mixed background, and one identified as coming from no religious affiliation. The rest
of the participants identified as Protestant Christians who represented the most common religious
affiliation on campus.
Determination of Assets and Needs
Using research to make practical improvements within an organization is part of Clark
and Estes’s (2008) framework, which was used in this study. The primary data source was
interviews conducted using the same format and facilitating technology. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) list four types of triangulation: variances in data sources, methods, theories, or
researchers. Triangulation, in this study, came in the form of varied data sources. These
variations came from interviews of students who were in different locations and follow-up
questions in multiple formats such as phone, email, or digital platforms.
The researcher used reflective memos and a notebook where handwritten notes were
logged to capture relevant themes and to document the researcher as a dynamic instrument in the
study. Interviews reflected an accurate picture and were stopped when repetition occurred within
at least half the respondents which demonstrated enough traits of saturation to build confidence
in data sets.
Assets and needs were based on diagnostic guidance outlined by Clark and Estes (2008).
Knowledge gaps were identified when less than half the students expressed a lack of
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understanding of factual, conceptual, or procedural influences. A motivational gap was identified
when participants expressed some form of delay, disagreement, or disinterest when responding to
questions posed about their pursuit of faith-based leadership roles. Organizational gaps were
identified when stakeholders expressed concern or dissatisfaction with processes, procedures, or
access to resources. Three additional key themes emerged from the interviews that are presented
in summary fashion following the analysis of the KMO influences in Chapter Five of this study.
These themes were considered influential enough to be discussed, but were not previously
identified as assumed influences and may form the foundation for further research related to this
study.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences
The following sections outline the results of the interviews as they relate to the research
question regarding the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to Grace Central
University equipping 10% more leaders for faith-based roles by 2021. This research question
addresses why students who attended faith-based universities, who emphasize and prioritize
faith-based traits, are not placed into faith-based organizations after intentional leadership
training.
Students who may be placed at faith-based organizations should demonstrate factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge types to increase leadership participation
that builds a pipeline from the faith-based university to opportunities at faith-based
organizations. This section presents the results in order from factual/conceptual to metacognitive
to procedural knowledge influences. This represents a progression from knowing something to
reflecting on that knowledge to understanding how knowledge is used in a process or procedure.
Results and findings are addressed by knowledge types and assumed causes, section by section.
63
Influence One
The first influence analyzed was that stakeholders need to know the types of faith-based
organizations and their connection to one another.
Interview Findings: Factual Knowledge. The interviews demonstrated that
participation in and knowledge of a church setting were most common, as eight participants were
attending some service regularly, and all had participated in a church event at least once in the
past 12 months. Six respondents cited family influence as the primary reason for introducing
them to faith-based organizations. For example, Participant 3 said that the organization she
participated in “just happened to be what my brother got involved with, so it’s what I got
involved with too.” Participant 1 concluded that “the church and faith-based organizations
basically raised my family and me” while Participant 5, in contrast, stated that her family taught
her that “if you don’t want to go to church, if the vibe of the church doesn’t work for you, then
we won’t make you go.” Family influence was greater than any external indicator across all
participants. No institution outperformed family influence when it came to basic participation.
The next most common type of organization mentioned were non-profits and each
represented an individual interest in a cause. Participants, though, often volunteered or served in
different organizations. Only two students served in the same organization which was a local
community group focused on the homeless and poor. When asked about how these organizations
relate to each other or interact with one another, participants did not see many connections.
Participant 5 said that, in her experience, “most function separately.” Participant 6 added that
“most organizations operated separately from one another,” and he did not see them connect.
Summary. Analysis pertaining to the assumed influence that stakeholders understand
both the types of faith-based organizations and how they connect to one another revealed some
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definitive strengths and weaknesses in factual knowledge. Three students mentioned that their
church announced participation in other organizations, which added to factual knowledge of their
existence. All 10 participants mentioned an organizational fair that first-year students could
attend in which the university invited local, faith-based organizations to come to campus and
advertise their services. Since this organizational fair happened annually, all first-year students
received at least some exposure to different types of faith-based organizations. Factual
knowledge of the types of organizations, according to the interview data, is considered an asset.
The interviews revealed a gap in the understanding of how some faith-based organizations may
connect to one another within the community. Five of the 10 expressed no knowledge of such a
connection. This aspect would be considered a need.
Influence Two
The second influence analyzed was that students need to understand their own experience
with faith-based organizations and why some organizations remain influential to them or their
community.
Interview Findings: Metacognitive Knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge addresses
the context, reasoning, and timing for when or how something should be done upon personal
reflection and self-awareness (Rueda, 2011). Students were asked to go beyond factual
understanding or conceptual observation to reflect on the influence of faith-organizations and
how it intersects with their own experience of faith-based organizations.
Interview participants described experiences that varied, but these experiences conveyed
an understanding of the value of connecting experience to influence. Participant 1 said that
“influence comes from the church leadership” while Participant 4 said that she “felt like just a
number so stopped going for a while.” Participant 3 stated, “Those organizations that have been
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particularly influential in the communities in which I live have been very outward-facing. The
most influential are the organizations that are the most accessible to people who are not raised
Christian.”
Five of 10 participants concluded that influential faith-based organizations are ones that
meet physical and spiritual needs and not just one or the other. Participant 5 said that all positive
influence “starts with meeting needs at a basic level.” Three of the 10 students said that building
relational trust mattered most for sustained influence. Participant 4 described this as “a place
where people are able to express their curiosity and ask questions.” Four of the 10 students
described programs designed to attract college students as effective but also concluded that these
were usually larger organizations, and Participant 10 added that “they should have tangible
impact for the less fortunate...not solely tailored to a college kid.” Politics played a role for three
participants. If a church supported the Black Lives Matter movement or not made a difference
for two of the participants.
Summary. The connections made between awareness and influence lend themselves to
this being considered an asset. This is a qualified asset, though, as Participant 4 gave a summary
comment that encapsulates the data effectively when she stated,
I had a conversation with a professor that was helping me a lot about making my personal
statement for graduate school applications and he told me that even the Provost had once
said that the way that the university fails students most is failing to help them tell their
story.
The student’s awareness demonstrated metacognition, which is an asset. The reference to
faculty conversations with Senior Administration reflected metacognition at the macro level.
These findings reflect potential momentum to address the precarious strengths in a coordinated
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manner. The asset remains qualified due to the confession that part of the awareness
demonstrated shortcomings and necessary work that would help meet the organizational goal.
Influence Three
The third influence analyzed was that stakeholders need to know the pathways to
professional careers in faith-based organizations.
Interview Findings: Procedural Knowledge. Procedural knowledge is the process
involved in doing something or an inquiry that examines methods, namely answering the
question of how a task gets done (Rueda, 2011). Seven of 10 students expressed that Grace
Central University helped to onboard them to college life and opportunities during their first
year, but that help faded as they progressed through their degree plan. Participant 2 said that
there was “lots of structure the first year, but by your senior year, you’re expected to be a self-
starter.” Participant 4 added that “after your first year, there is no more push of religion or faith-
based organizations.”
Students subsequently described their understanding of leadership opportunities and of
finding these opportunities on their own. Since students described finding leadership
opportunities apart from a structured university approach, the answers varied. Participant 1
stated, “I think it starts from the bottom, right, getting involved. Take some time to be
experienced.”
While the word “passion” was used more than a dozen times in the answers, Participant 3
added that students should respond to being asked more than pursuing career opportunities, and
they “should just be willing to do the things that other people don’t want to do.” In addition to
the frequency of the word “passion,” the word “service” also was used more than a dozen times
by respondents. Participant 5 revealed this connection when she stated: “I found that when you
have a desire to help people, leadership kind of comes naturally from that.”
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Connecting service and leadership opportunities came up often in defining leadership as
well. While faith-based organizations may do this intentionally through religious language,
interview participants found service to be a way to find opportunities. Participant 6 said, “I
would describe leadership opportunities as a place where we can serve and help those in need.”
Since students expressed the gradual decline in intentional help beyond the first year,
finding their own opportunities to practice leadership was expressed primarily through service
and passion. Participant 10 summarized this connection when he advised to “find something that
you find meaning in to do and then sign up.”
Summary. The emphasis on the first-year connections and onboarding experience into
the faith-based university context demonstrated that the potential exists to help students make
connections. Yet, the progressive change in this part of university programming meant that
students had to find their own leadership pathways. The interviewees’ responses identify both
positive and negative factors, so the researcher categorized responses as both needs and assets.
At present, this has been identified as both a need and an asset. Interviewees were willing to
pursue opportunities in clubs and within various community organizations. This meant that such
placements existed, and this is an asset. Students expressed the feeling that the structure
introduced to them in their first-year experience faded away in subsequent years making the
process more unpredictable and at times, difficult. This aspect is a need to be addressed.
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences
The interview responses demonstrated participants found their work and faith-based
organizations to be useful, worthy of time and effort, and increased the likelihood of achieving
the goal of increasing participation in faith-based leadership opportunities. Clark and Estes
(2008) identify three parts to motivation: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. The
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findings provide evidence that active choice and persistence in particular were represented
effectively in the respondent data. The findings revealed that students can be motivated to
achieve their goals and that this energy can be harnessed by the organization if intentional steps
are taken. In the section that follows, utility value, cost value, and self-efficacy were revealed to
demonstrate that, while students may not be immediately drawn to roles at faith-based
organizations, they have seen the usefulness in their own community through visible work done.
While knowledge of this usefulness has not been translated into increased cost value, the raw
material is present as evident in the resilience and growth of self-efficacy. The following sections
address each motivational category and whether the finding is an asset or need in relation to
meeting the stakeholder goal.
Influence One
The first influence examined was that students need to value the usefulness of faith-based
organizations to serve community needs.
Interview Findings: Utility Value. Utility value is defined by Rueda (2011) as the
usefulness that one believes an activity or action has in the achievement of a goal. Students were
asked to comment on how they have seen faith-based organizations strengthen a community.
Students were then asked why they believed some men and women desired to lead a church or
non-profit but ended up taking another leadership role outside of the faith-based ecosystem. The
second part was meant to follow up on a positive response. For example, if a student believed
that an organization was strengthening their neighborhood, why not seek to work within such an
organization?
Half of all those interviewed said that, when faith-based organizations met the physical
needs of men and women, they were strengthening their community. Participant 7 said that
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corporate institutions are “more about hiring and firing and how they’re going to survive” and
added that “faith-based groups seem to be the ones going to low-income areas.” Respondents
cited other examples like the construction of a community garden, microenterprise loans, and
disaster relief. Participant 8 followed by saying she believed that “only one student organization
on campus had a consistently good reputation.” The reputation, according to this interviewee,
was based on the consistent service members engaged in. The participant went on to illustrate her
point by saying that the student organization she mentioned had sought to address food insecurity
by giving away fruits and vegetables once a month. The strength of a faith-based organization
seemed to be linked to acts of service and the meeting of basic needs.
Interview participants spent more time discussing why some graduating students would
find faith-based work appealing but do something else. The top two answers were the lack of
money and the public shame or stigma currently associated with faith-based organizations. Half
of all respondents claimed that money was a significant barrier to taking a role in a faith-based
organization.
Participant 6 said that “it seems easier for a lot of students if their family has a lot of
money.” Participant 1 added that “money plays a primary role, too” while Participant 7 stated
that “money is the reason why students don’t do it.” Participant 10 concluded, “Accepting less
pay and also embracing the acceptance of staying small is a factor.” Participant 4 added that
“unselfish ambition” was a hard thing to do and added, “I like to keep religion and my job
separated.” Participant 5 stated that “Life gets in the way,” and concluded, “I guess people don’t
realize how hard it is to lead a faith-based organization.”
The second most common answer was the stigma or shame associated with leading a
faith-based organization in the current cultural moment. Participant 8 said that she did not want
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“the overall group’s reputation,” while Participant 3 adds that “people are probably scared
because he or she lacks wisdom or experience to deal with the stigma of faith-based
organizations.” Four of the 10 respondents mentioned stigma or shame as common reasons to
avoid taking opportunities at faith-based organizations. Participant 10 reflected on his answer for
a while and then said, “I think sometimes there’s a stigma behind faith-based work because it is
more idealistic and I think because of the self-sacrificing nature of it.”
Three of the 10 respondents cited calling as instrumental to working at faith-based
organizations. The concept of call was explained in strictly spiritual language and evoked the
idea of emotional conviction. Participant 9 said that “if God is calling then they will do it.”
Calling was also referenced in uniquely individual terms. Certain people were said to be called,
while others were not. Participants did not mention whether or not groups or teams could be
called together.
Summary. The findings revealed that students admired organizations that addressed
physical needs and who served neighborhoods through social service. Students even cited
specific examples of activities that were useful to the community. Yet, students stated that the
lack of money and the presence of stigma or shame prevented many, in their observations, from
pursuing faith-based opportunities. Some students, then, concluded that idealism and sacrifice
were often necessary and unappealing to others. Brown (2012) has described shame as a person
being afraid of being disconnected.
For some people, the lack of money may even be a point of shame while others may be
slow to admit the presence or existence of shame. Half of the respondents indicated that the
prospect of money or shame was a factor for considering future career opportunities. Brown
(2012) referenced a study done by the National Institute of Mental Health in collaboration with
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the National Institute on Drug Abuse which concluded that physical pain and social rejection are
treated the same way by the human brain. Because respondents cited real examples of usefulness,
this assumed influence can be considered an asset based on the established criteria.
Influence Two
The second influence analyzed was that students need to believe that attaining a
leadership position within a faith-based organization is worth the cost of training and
preparation.
Interview Findings: Cost Value. Students were asked what motivated them to pursue or
not pursue faith-based leadership opportunities for themselves. Rueda (2011) stated that cost
value relates to the time and effort that individuals or groups are willing to invest in an activity to
reach a goal. A faith-based university may offer leadership tools and preparation, but students
should believe that such activity is worth their time and investment to stay motivated enough to
pursue roles within similar contexts.
One of the 10 respondents planned to pursue an opportunity in faith-based organizations
and agreed to work in the same organization as his mother. Participant 9 attributed this to the
example set by his mother, whom he stated, “has worked in ministries for over 20 years.” The
other nine respondents do not plan to pursue opportunities with faith-based organizations. The
most common response given had to deal with calling. Six students referenced calling as part of
their decision-making process.
Participant 1 said, “the calling is just not there” while Participant 8 said that “since I
don’t claim a religion outside this university, just not interested.” Participant 4 said that “calling
is important” and she feels a burden to do other work. Calling, as previously mentioned, is
portrayed as an emotional conviction. Yet, the interviewees also gave more pragmatic responses.
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Participant 3 responded by stating, “A lot of people said to me, ‘you’re going to go work for next
to nothing? That’s just stupid.’ I don’t have clear career aspirations yet, so I plan to remain
engaged to faith-based organizations less formally.”
The latter part of the response from Participant 3 was echoed by two other students who
planned to attend church but wanted to work within the field that most closely tied to their major.
Three respondents cited the influence of their mothers on their connection to faith-based
organizations while Participant 7 claimed that “my mentor taught me way more than I ever
learned in school.” Six of the participants listed an individual who influenced their decisions
more than others. All six of these fell into three categories: a faculty member, a mentor, or their
mother.
Summary. While cost value relates to the investment of time and money, the relational
investments seemed to surface in these findings as carrying more weight. What kept some
students connected to faith-based organizations was the influence of someone older. While peers
may impact participation, the participants cited faculty, mentors outside the university, and their
mother as uniquely important. The researcher noted that fathers were never mentioned. Students
claimed that calling was important, but this did not ultimately move them toward roles at faith-
based organizations.
Since the leadership program required time and effort to complete, the researcher became
aware that students referenced individuals more than university programs or coursework as
reasons to pursue leadership roles. The impact of individual coaching and mentoring should be
noted and this will be worth further exploration. The lack of students interested in working at
faith-based organizations, revealed in this assumed influence as just one of the 10 participants,
meant that this is a need.
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Influence 3
Students need to believe that they can lead a faith-based organization in a culture where
such organizations have declined in their social capital.
Interview findings: Self-Efficacy. Rueda (2011) makes the important distinction
between self-esteem and competency beliefs. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform a
behavior. Students were asked to select which best describes their belief in reaching their goals
and were given three options: (a) I will be able to achieve most of the goals I have set for myself,
(b) compared to other people, I can do most tasks well, and (c) even when things are tough, I can
reach my goals. This question was meant to elicit stories and more reflective answers (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
No respondent selected the second response nor expounded on answers that may have
been related to the second option. Two respondents explained the first option best described their
belief about reaching goals, and the remaining eight explained how the third option best
described their beliefs. The link between enduring difficulties and developing self-efficacy can
be linked in this study. What also developed regarding this influence was a picture of what
university students faced prior to completing their course of study.
Seven of the respondents gave specific examples of challenges they faced and how those
struggles led to more confidence and greater resilience. Participant 1 stated that she “was
fighting with depression and social anxiety, and social anxiety was not something that was on my
radar, and it literally snuck up on me.” She concluded, “I did not feel very good about the things
I was doing.” After she discussed her decision to do several months of counseling, Participant 1
said, “One of the biggest things I learned is that you will not know what is on the other side all
the time and sometimes you just have to make a decision.”
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Participant 4 expressed that she felt like an outsider for the first couple years due to her
Buddhist background, but she made friends who invited her into their fellowship. Participant 3
said that “my internship was so hard...I have just had to change my expectations and change my
view of success.” Participant 6 had to deal with her mother getting sick and “then having
financial issues and getting two jobs while going to school made things more difficult.” Yet, self-
efficacy surfaced when she said,
It was really difficult to kind of ask for help just because I am the first--or my parents
didn’t go to college. They’re saying you’re the smartest in the family, but, here at the
university, I’m not the smartest person by a long shot, and everything is really difficult. I
finally told a professor I was really tired. I was going home every weekend to help my
mom who was sick. That kind of made it easier. And then my last year at Grace Central
was my best with some of the hardest courses just because I learned to balance
everything, and now, when I’m faced with a difficult obstacle, I just take a step back,
really look at it, and really decide how I would go about it because I’m going to be
successful.
Participant 8 is financially independent of her family and stated that, in the beginning, “I
was here all alone.” She has since drawn encouragement from engagement in student clubs.
Participant 5 credited her family for teaching her a good work ethic and she added, “I believe in
the inherent ability of all things to come out good if someone puts in enough work and enough
time.”
The students who affirmed the first option may be best represented by Participant 6’s
response: “The job market for me is very bad, but I have set my mind to the goal I want, and I
know I’m going to accomplish it.” While resilience may be different than belief in competencies,
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the findings demonstrated the important role that endurance played for students when they
considered their own work. Evidence indicates that self-efficacy seemed to have grown on the
other side of conflict and personal challenges.
Summary. Respondents’ affirmative statements demonstrated growth in self-efficacy.
The majority of students experienced real struggles ranging from family health to finances to
personal mental health. All students who articulated challenges that they faced were positive
about what they learned and expressed more confidence in their ability to be successful in their
future work. Students who decided to speak about their commitment to goals through what they
described as a strong mindset also indicated that they believed in their ability to be successful in
the future. Based on the interview data, self-efficacy is considered an asset. Graduating students
who articulated resilience in personal ways indicate that Grace Central can draw encouragement
in the pursuit of organizational and stakeholder goals.
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) state that processes, procedures, and the resources within an
organization impact the achievement of goals and the ability to address performance gaps.
Cultural models and settings provide a context in which the organizational work gets done.
Cultural models consist of the mental framework that informs, at Grace Central University,
students, faculty, and staff of how the world should work based on a shared understanding of
what is considered normal, acceptable, and even desirable (Rueda, 2011).
Cultural settings can be seen as the journalistic eye on everyday organizational life where
the concrete details of who, what, where, and how can be observed (Rueda, 2011). The findings
in the following sections demonstrate the impact of culture on performance gaps. This study
sought to identify how the context of Grace Central University could provide support students
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who self-selected into faith-based leadership programming so that they, in turn, pursue
leadership roles at faith-based organizations. Since universities exist to benefit others through
teaching, research, and engagement, faith-based universities often play an impactful role in
serving constituents within an organizational ecosystem that may include churches, non-profits,
and other schools or institutions. As Clark and Estes (2008) observe, all cultures exist within
other cultures. The leadership program that exists within Grace Central University to equip and
send out leaders is a culture within a culture as well. The interview findings demonstrated the
important role that faculty play in the process and documented the potential growth areas for the
organization as a whole. Each section that follows ends with identifying the assets and needs
within the cultural models and settings identified.
Cultural Model Influence 1
The organization needs to support a culture that values the social impact that faith-based
organizations make.
Interview Findings: Cultural Models. When asked how the university promoted faith-
based organizations in positive ways, respondents replied with some unanimous answers and
several clarifying criticisms. Many of the findings in this section echo earlier findings that
mentioned the emphasis on structuring the first-year experience and building connections for
freshman students. Since external stakeholders often rely on the University to provide expertise,
the findings help paint an organizational picture of the context in which this expertise is grown.
All 10 participants mentioned that Grace Central University invites faith-based
organizations to campus for events and fairs. These events may bring a couple of dozen
organizations to campus, but participants said that these served primarily as exposure.
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Participant 3 said that the promotion of faith-based organizations “stops with Christian
organizations, which is really frustrating.” While this may be expected conduct by a university
that identifies with a Protestant, Christian mission, the rhetoric around justice, inclusion, and
diversity sent mixed signals to students. Participant 10 said that “the student body is closer to
50/50 Christian and non-Christian more than anything else,” which affirmed the observation of
another student who said that, while engaged with a campus ministry club, she learned that
nearly half the student body does not attend a church. Participant 4 said that the university does
poorly with outsiders, and she explained, “I wouldn’t go so far as to say that the university as a
whole has contributed positively to the spiritual lives of people.”
Participant 10, in contrast, said that the university tries to accommodate many groups, but
this has made its faith-based emphasis confusing. Participant 7 commented that “it’s mainly
faculty,” not the organization that has promoted other faith-based groups.
While all students identified fairs and events as evidence of the positive promotion of
faith-based groups, five students stated they knew of no other way that faith-based groups were
given attention. Participant 5 said that it was “incidental if at all,” and Participant 6 added that
one found out through “word of mouth” or “found out through individuals, not the organization.”
Summary. These results were difficult to analyze. On the surface, the unanimous
promotion of faith-based organizations through events, fairs, and annual meetings would affirm
this as an asset, but the respondents painted a more colorful picture. The shared worldview of a
Protestant Christian mission is compared to the respondents’ experience of more positive
promotion of faith-based organizations through individuals. One possible explanation is the
impact of more personal relationships than the wider impact of a larger university. In other
words, an invitation to view something with a friend may be perceived differently from a general
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announcement. Through literature and outward signs, codes of conduct, and online materials, the
university has consistently promoted faith-based organizations. However, according to the
interviews, the answer is more nuanced. The researcher presented evidence that this is an asset,
but that further evaluative studies may focus on how widespread the cultural model may be when
a significant part of the student body may not affiliate with faith-based groups to the extent that
the university has communicated is happening.
Cultural Model Influence Two
The organization needs to support a culture that values leadership development within a
faith-based context.
Interview Findings: Values Leadership Development. The existence of the leadership
program is evidence of a modicum of support. The findings revealed that the leadership
coursework resembles a macro-level cultural commitment. When asked how faith-based
organizations were presented in the leadership coursework, three students replied, “they were
not.”
Half of the respondents said that they learned the most about faith-based organizations
through conversations with individual faculty. Participant 3 said she now believed that “small
groups and one-on-one meetings are the most important things as far as helping people.”
Respondents seemed to compare the effectiveness of individual meetings with the broad appeals
made at a macro level.
Participant 9 concluded that the leadership coursework was geared more toward self-
reflection than a focus on other groups or institutions. Participant 4 added that “we didn’t
necessarily talk a lot about faith-based organizations, but that could have been really helpful.”
No doubt the leadership coursework, residential cohorts devoted to leadership development, and
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leadership programming all reflect a university commitment that values leadership development.
Yet, the findings identified that meaningful connections to faith-based organizations are
happening outside the coursework and remained more common in individual discussions with
mentors or faculty.
Summary. The findings allude to something that Stanford professor, Jeffrey Pfeffer
(2015) observes, which is that leadership principles taught to individuals do not always translate
to leadership discussions about organizations. The findings revealed the impact that a
pedagogical approach can have on a university’s culture. The coursework, according to the
interviews, is focused more on developing leaders without much thought to the organization or
the context in which they may find themselves. The macro-level approach has left the students
hungry for individual conversations and at least half of those interviewed engaged with a faculty
member who ended up being the one who introduced faith-based organizations more than the
university. The events sponsored by Grace Central may be best described as achieving exposure
for faith-based organizations, but not necessarily engagement with faith-based organizations.
Cultural Setting Influence 1
The organization needs to support access to networks and pipelines for students seeking a
professional career in faith-based leadership.
Interview Findings: Cultural Setting. The findings related to this influence focused on
networks that the student was already linked to and networks that the university introduced to the
student. Respondents were asked to identify how these networks helped give them access to
leadership pipelines or pathways. While networking may be classified as a skill to some people,
the focus here is on the organizational culture where networks can be accessed. Clark and Estes
(2008) observed that networks involve coordination and relational trust to work effectively.
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Four students out of 10 identified a faculty member as more helpful in identifying steps
after graduation. Additionally, Participant 2 said he leaned on his parents for help, while
Participant 8 revealed that their friendship circles were more impactful than the university.
Therefore, 60% of the participants sought help with single individuals. Participant 10 said, “I
know a professor who can introduce me to someone else.”
The respondents affirmed earlier discussions when they referenced the need to find
additional networks on their own. Participant 4 said that “it is your job to self-advocate and
figure out how to do it yourself” while Participant 7 stated, “they honestly did not add to my
network.” Participant 5 concluded by saying, “So, the university kind of helps me to know where
to find the resources then it’s up to us to pursue them.” Participant 8 added, “Access to faculty
meant more than attending any events.” This last idea is fleshed out a bit more by Participant 9
who said, “I think the faculty have done such a good job of being kind of an in-between man or
woman in the job search process.”
Summary. The findings in this section presented a portrait of who graduating students
found helpful when considering steps after their undergraduate work. The support system often
associated with a university may be a career office or an alumni group, but the majority of
stakeholders identified older, individual mentors and faculty as the most helpful allies in their
next steps. Access to faculty is overwhelmingly viewed as positive and one of the most important
conversations to the students. As far as the organization facilitates such faculty access, this
influence, according to the interviews, is considered an asset. Should Grace Central change the
faculty load or make adjustments that may limit faculty engagement with students, according to
the interviews, a key part of the perceived support system that helps connect students to new
opportunities would be lost. The interviews also showed that students seemed to desire
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relationships with men and women who are older than their peers. Respondents spoke positively
about either a mentor, a faculty member, or a parent in 70% of their replies regarding
organizational causes.
Cultural Setting Influence Two
The organization needs to support access for underrepresented students seeking a
professional career in faith-based leadership.
Interview Findings: Access for Underrepresented Populations. The findings in this
section build upon earlier observations that said that faith-based universities could be difficult
places for outsiders or those who consider themselves to be unaffiliated religiously or who may
not be traditionally part of the dominant culture. The intent of this study was to have the voices
of both men and women represented so that the data would reveal potential clues to gender
disparities among other observations.
Participant 3 stated that “we might demonize other religions in our minds, but we don’t
really take the time to look at the things we have in common.” Respondents who represented a
faith perspective other than Protestant Christian groups expressed that they were all treated like
outsiders until settling into their respective majors.
Female respondents said that they did not feel that they lacked access to leadership roles
they were interested in, but one student credited recent hires of female administrative leaders as
encouragement that had changed who students see out front at meetings or giving speeches at
events. Participant 9, though, addressed the treatment of African American groups and the
LGBTQ community in two separate observations. She spoke first of the LGBTQ community
and, upon reflection, added observations related to the African American community. Putting the
comments in order, they are as follows:
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It is widely known here that people in the LGBTQ community cannot have their own
group or club through the university. Funding is very different for groups of multicultural
or ethnic, poor proportions versus our predominantly White groups. I do know the White
groups get more money than multicultural groups to do their activities.
Participant 4 expressed concern that Grace Central University may be “trying to
compromise their values to meet the needs of being a large business,” but she concluded by
saying, “if one person decides to do something different from those around them and they realize
that it results in something positive, I think there could be a domino effect.” Six of the
respondents cited individual relationships with a mentor or a faculty member as the most helpful
support when considering their next steps. Participant 9 put it this way: “the university helps with
knowledge growth more than connections.”
At the macro level, the university prohibits certain groups from being recognized as
legitimate, and, according to the interviews, it is becoming common knowledge that
organizations led by White students receive more resources than those led by African American
or multicultural groups. The majority of respondents, who represented various ethnic groups and
social classes, affirmed the observation made by Participant 10 when he said that “it’s up to you
if you want to be invested in getting better; faculty are willing to help.” The interviews revealed
that faculty were also cited as advocates, and some served as active sponsors for LGBTQ
students and African American or multiethnic groups. Students suggested that the distance
between the administration and the faculty and the students was felt within the culture. Access
for underrepresented students, therefore, was often viewed as something individual faculty may
help with, but no respondent said that the administration was prioritizing such access.
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Summary. Faith-based organizations have been known to define themselves by either a
code of conduct or by certain religious convictions. In this section, the findings demonstrated
that, while some women felt like they are gaining access to roles and resources, LGBTQ, African
American, and multicultural students had difficulty identifying a support system on campus apart
from individual faculty members. The inequality present within student clubs matters because of
what those interviewed observed in earlier sections of this study, namely that, often, students’
clubs provide entry-level leadership roles and experiences that help build confidence and
competencies. Without access to these positions, the interviews concluded that these students
would need to find access points either through individual advocates or outside of the Grace
Central University network. Based on the interviews, this influence is considered a need.
Summary of Validated Influences
Tables 5, 6, and 7 show the KMO influences for this study and their determination as an
asset or a need.
Table 5
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Factual Knowledge Asset or Need
Understanding the different types of faith-
based organizations

Understanding how faith-based organizations
connect to one another
Asset

Need
Metacognitive Knowledge Asset or Need
Reflecting on own experience with faith-
based organizations

Why some remain influential while others
diminish
Asset

Need
Procedural Knowledge Asset or Need
Know pathways to professional opportunities
at faith-based organizations
Asset and Need
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Table 6
Motivational Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Utility Value Asset or Need
How have faith-based organizations been
useful to their community. If positive, then
why do some people express desire to work
within them, but do not follow through?
Asset/Need
Cost Value Asset/Need
Are faith-based organizations worth the
training and preparation to lead?
Need
Self-Efficacy Asset/Need
Belief that they can lead a faith-based
organization in a challenging cultural climate
Asset

Table 7
Organizational Assets or Needs Determined by the Data
Cultural Models Asset or Need
Organization supports culture that values
social impact of faith-based organizations

Organization supports a culture that values
leadership development with faith-based
contexts
Asset

Asset and Need
Cultural Settings Asset or Need
Organization supports access to leadership
pipelines and pathways connecting to faith-
based opportunities

Organization supports access of
underrepresented men and women to
leadership roles
Asset

Need

In Chapter Five, the researcher offers recommendations and proposed solutions to assist
Grace Central University in addressing the gaps identified through the literature review and
interviews. The recommendations will be proposed based on empirical evidence to address the
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influences identified and explored in the interview findings. Chapter Five addresses the
consequences of the study for stated stakeholder groups. The next chapter concludes by offering
recommendations for further research in this area of study with attention given to emerging
themes that arose during data collection.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
The findings in Chapter Four frame the recommendations in this chapter suggesting
meaningful action steps to address the gaps identified. Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO
framework was utilized to connect the research to evaluation models to help the organization
attain its goals. The functional plan was built upon the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In this chapter, the recommendations are presented in
sections guided by the KMO framework and each assumed influence. This analysis is followed
by proposed evaluation steps that form an actionable plan to address the problem of practice and
move toward achieving the goals. The focus is no longer on whether an assumed influence is an
asset or a need; rather, the emphasis is on the transition into a plan of action. The four levels of
the Kirkpatrick model help to clarify a systematic plan that can be replicated at the organization.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) observe that change happens when there is an active research-
based evaluation. This section introduces recommendations that form a research-based plan for
addressing gaps in increasing students’ interest in faith-based leadership roles. The
recommendations follow the order of the KMO framework.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 8 represent the complete list of
assumed knowledge influences and their probability of being validated based on the issues that
most commonly surfaced in the interviews and supported by the literature review, Clark and
Estes’s (2008) gap analysis model, and conversations with university stakeholders. Since the
combination of poor communication and misinformation can be considered common knowledge
problems, proper concepts and clarified procedures (Clark & Estes, 2008) are important prior to
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confirming any recommendations. Within this context, Table 8 presents these as a priority, and
these influences have been validated toward achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 8 also shows
the context-specific recommendations based on literature review, current theory, and learning
principles for highly probable influences, affirming Rueda’s (2011) assertion that teaching and
learning are necessary to achieving concrete goals.
Table 8
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Note. *Indicate knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations: (F) Factual,
(P) Procedural, and (M) Metacognitive.
Assumed Knowledge
Influence*
Validated Priority Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Stakeholders will need to
know the types of faith-
based organizations and
their connection to one
another (F).
Yes Yes
How individuals organize
knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2009).

Integrating auditory and
visual information
maximizes working memory
capacity (Mayer, 2011).
Provide a job aid that
uses visual and written
material to help
stakeholders.
Stakeholders will need to
know their own
understanding of faith-
based organizations in their
local communities (M).
Yes Yes
Learning and motivation are
enhanced through clear
goals, performance
monitoring, and evaluation
(Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011)

Metacognitive strategies
facilitate learning (Baker,
2006).
Provide opportunities
and check-ins through
meetings and written
updates to monitor
progress and adjust as
needed.

Specific activities may
include a reflective
journal.
Stakeholders will need to
know the pathways to
professional careers in
faith-based organizations
(P).
Yes Yes
Learning and motivation are
enhanced when learners set
goals, monitor their
performance and evaluation.
(Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011)

Learners acquire new
behaviors through
demonstration and modeling
(Denler et al., 2009).
Provide students with
scaffolding that aids in
building a network and
bridge to faith-based
roles.

Pair stakeholders with
a mentor who can
model best practices
and coach through
them.
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Knowing the Types of Faith-Based Organizations. Results indicated that participants
grasped the different types of faith-based organizations, but gaps remain in connecting the
organizations to one another. Since participants are building upon existing knowledge, the
starting point is considered more of an asset than a need. Participants, though, demonstrated a
need to close the gap in understanding how organizations connect within a community. Schraw
and McCrudden (2009) found that how individuals organize information matters in retention. To
improve retention, Mayer (2011) observed that integrating auditory and visual information helps
maximize working memory capacity. The recommendation is to provide information through a
job aid that uses visual and written material to help stakeholders internalize the connections
between types of organizations. Integrating more than one learning method will help
stakeholders who are unfamiliar with religious organizations but very familiar with multiple
channels of technology in an increasingly interconnected culture.
Organizing material increases relevance and the likelihood that the knowledge will be
remembered (Schraw & McCrudden, 2009). Rueda (2011) makes the point that different learning
methods vary in their effectiveness, so offering more than one way to take in information is
important. Rueda goes on to say that many people forget facts or learning that relies on
memorization alone. The lack of repetition and the sheer volume of information inhibits such
internalization, so how one organizes information can either enhance or inhibit the perceived
relevance of the material (Rueda, 2011). Schraw and McCrudden (2009) put forth a model that
leads from relevance instructions (phase 1) to goal focusing (phase 2) to resource allocation
(phase 3), which ends in learning (phase 4). They concluded that, without a more comprehensive
approach like using visual aids that enhance the familiar, material seems less relevant and
learning is more challenging.
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Pathways to Professional Opportunities are Needed. The findings revealed that the
majority of students were exposed to faith-based organizations within the coursework itself, and
students indicated that identifying opportunities was something done on their own. The priority
for stakeholders is not just training for leadership but access to leadership roles (Cohen, 2014).
Building upon this research, the recommendation has three aspects. First, the organization should
provide students with scaffolding that aids in building a network and bridge to faith-based roles.
Secondly, the organization should create opportunities for people to work in partnership with
others inside and outside of their own organization. Thirdly, the organization should provide
opportunities for stakeholders to be paired with a mentor who can model best practices and the
coach through them as well.
Faith-based universities often develop leadership programs but not always leadership
pathways (Eich, 2008) as a result of a lack of modeling and monitoring goals. Schraw and
McCrudden (2009) discussed that information learned meaningfully and connected with prior
knowledge is stored more quickly and remembered more accurately because it is elaborated with
prior learning. Additionally, learners acquire new behaviors through demonstration and modeling
(Denler et al., 2009). Clark and Estes (2008) also add that, since much of knowledge can be
unconscious, the assumption may be that those roles are inaccessible. This assumption may be
particularly relevant for women and people of color. As stated earlier, most faith-based
organizations are led by White males, but the majority of participants are not White males
(Cohen, 2014). Modeling can be more powerful in the case of those who feel marginalized.
Goals, by definition, are measurable and progress toward leadership roles can be assessed. Since
most faith-based organizations are tied to other faith-based organizations, creating pathways that
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the next generation can access can have a long-term positive effect that can also multiply outside
of a single organization to a wider network.
Stakeholders’ Understanding of Their Local Communities. Data analysis revealed
that students who attend Grace Central University do not always reflect on the role that religion
plays within an organizational setting. The use of metacognitive strategies facilitates learning
(Baker, 2006). The recommendation is that stakeholders utilize a journal reflecting on their own
experience with faith-based organizations and then take part in guided coaching sessions in light
of these reflections. Learning and motivation are also enhanced when learners set clear goals,
monitor their performance, and evaluate their progress towards achieving their goals (Mayer,
2011; Rueda, 2011). The recommendation adds a check-in to provide opportunities through
meetings and written updates to monitor progress and adjust as needed.
Coaching sessions will also benefit the knowledge transfer because metacognitively
aware leaders reflect upon their own role within these networks and are in a better position to
encourage others to do some personal reflection of their own (Black et al., 2016). Since
leadership skills are often context-specific, metacognitive awareness can also help reflect on and
move toward understanding how one currently views religion and faith-based organizations in
their community (Black et al., 2016). Metacognitive knowledge cannot be assumed, however,
since the average church-goer attends two services or less a month (Pew Research Center, 2019).
Therefore, based on the research, it follows that coaching and the provision of tools to increase
metacognition are proven in the literature to help close the existing gap.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The table below represents the complete list of assumed motivational
influences related to this study. Clark and Estes (2008) observe that men and women typically
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have to divide their attention between competing goals. To achieve stated goals, gaps must be
addressed through active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 9
outlines three assumed motivational influences that will help stakeholders reach their goal. Self-
efficacy, cost value, and utility value are priorities to close motivational gaps toward stakeholder
achievement and all three have a high probability of being validated through existing document
analysis and interviews. Table 9 shows context-specific recommendations based on the literature
review, interview data, and the investigation of existing survey data within a document analysis.
Since motivational influences can vary by activity, Table 9 will seek to connect context-specific
recommendations with applicable motivational principles (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
The principles will set up recommendations that will advance momentum toward closing
necessary gaps related to reaching the stakeholder goal.
Table 9
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence*

Validated

Priority

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendatio
n
Utility value:

Students need to value the
usefulness of faith-based
organizations to serve
community needs.
Yes Yes Rationales that
include utility
value of the work
or learning can
help learners
develop positive
values (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich,
2004).

Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner values the
task (Eccles,
2006).
Provide
opportunities for
dialogue to
discuss the
importance and
utility value

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Assumed Motivation
Influence*

Validated

Priority

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendatio
n
Self-Efficacy: Students
aspiring to lead faith-based
organizations need to believe
that he or she can lead a faith-
based organization
Yes Yes Feedback and
modeling increase
self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977;
Usher & Pajares,
2006).
Pair Stakeholders
with models or
mentors who
exemplify and
advocate for the
work.

Cost Value: Students need to
believe that attaining a
leadership position within a
faith-based organization is
worth the cost of training and
preparation
No Yes Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner values the
task (Eccles,
2006).
Provide rationales
that help
stakeholders
connect personal
interests to faith-
based work.

Cultivate Self-Efficacy for Leadership at Faith-Based Organizations. The findings
demonstrated that participants often believed in their ability to do the work and to even
overcome obstacles and challenges. The challenge was sustaining interest beyond first-year
onboarding within faith-based networks. The literature on motivation suggests that modeling and
feedback are effective means to build self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Usher & Pajares, 2006).
Models demonstrate in specific ways that the work can be done well, utilizing coaching sessions
and examples that encourage self-efficacy within the same field, thereby identifying avenues of
agency. Therefore, the recommendation is two-fold. First, pair stakeholders with models or
mentors who exemplify and advocate for the work. Second, mentors will lead coaching sessions
and provide examples to encourage self-efficacy development. This may take the form of senior
seminars or mentored capstone projects that create a bookend experience that follows up on the
initial first-year investment. The key aspect of this recommendation is intentional coaching or
mentoring sessions.
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The findings reiterate that the role of a faculty member is considered a leading factor in
career decisions. Identifying faculty who can be mentors may be an important step to making the
recommendation effective. Bandura (1977) suggests that seeing others successfully perform
difficult activities can generate positive expectations that he or she can also complete the task.
Further, Bandura (2012) recognizes that self-efficacy can vary through factors such as agency
and type. McCormick (2001) connects self-efficacy to leadership and explains that leaders need
to self-regulate their motivation, their knowledge, and behaviors to be effective and self-efficacy
underscores an ability to know both strengths and limitations. Individuals who believe they can
do the work and then believe they can self-regulate effectively can influence strategically.
Also, self-efficacy flourishes under different conditions (Bandura, 2012) and becomes a
greater predictor of positive performance results over time. Therefore, mentors who provide
rationales and help stakeholders make connections help increase performance by helping
stakeholders find meaningful outlets, agency, and favorable conditions in which self-efficacy can
grow. Bandura (2012) confirms in his research that self-efficacy does indeed impact leadership
results, which McCormick (2001) highlights, but Bandura also points out that self-efficacy is an
influential factor among many conditions and should be considered in concert with other
elements. These elements may include goals, systems, or cultural factors, all of which influence
self-efficacy in positive and negative ways. Given the findings, self-efficacy paired with
intentional coaching could help draw closer to realizing the stakeholder goal.
Students Need to Value the Usefulness of Faith-Based Organizations to Serve
Community Needs. Utility value is closely related to choices of activity and movement toward
increased individualism also confirms the reality of this gap (Pintrich, 2004). Twenge and Park
(2019) concluded that stakeholders are not only avoiding participation in religious organizations,
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but prolonged adolescence has meant avoidance of some decision-making roles. Since learning
and motivation are enhanced if the learner values the task (Eccles, 2006), the recommendation is
to use formal and informal interviews to build positive rationales for the utility value of the work
of faith-based organizations.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that people tend to choose and exert the most energy on
activities that they believe have the most impact. While faith is often connected to what a person
does for work (Lynn et al., 2010), religion is not a reliable indicator of viewing work as
integrated with faith. In fact, researchers have observed that a bigger indicator of work-faith
integration was belonging to a group that shared similar beliefs and practices (Lynn et al., 2010).
The findings revealed that students expressed the impact of money on their motivation. The
desire to belong to a certain economic class or the desire to pay down student debt outweighed
the value of leading a faith-based organization. Providing formal opportunities to discuss these
matters during the final year may be helpful.
Clark and Estes (2008) add that the environment and access to resources within a given
context influence self-motivation or the personal drive to feel good about the work. The findings
demonstrated that many students simply do not see resources sufficient enough for greater
enthusiasm for participation. Addressing this perception through intentional dialogue will be
important in helping students voice and confront both the monetary fears, but also the economic
aspirations expressed in the findings.
Students Need to Value the Cost of Doing Training and Preparation for Leadership
at Faith-Based Organizations. Students seeking roles at faith-based organizations must
embrace the cost value of the process and believe that such work is worth the effort. Rueda
(2011) summarizes cost value as that which a stakeholder says the activity costs in terms of time,
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money, amount of hard work, and other factors. Learning and motivation are enhanced if the
learner values the task (Eccles, 2006). Additionally, a discussion of the importance and utility
value of the work or learning can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich,
2004). Therefore, the recommendation is connecting the work at faith-based universities to
professional careers t faith-based organizations. These connections will be reinforced through
rationales that help stakeholders develop positive values.
The greater a person values an activity, the greater he or she will be willing to endure the
cost. Learners value tasks with a personal connection that is reinforced by positive outcomes or
expectations. Rueda (2011) notes that the expectation of positive outcomes influences
perseverance. Such expectations help frame rationales used to influence both personal
connection to the work and reinforce the development of personal values that can be precursors
into expectant results. The dialogue can be formalized within the curriculum or informal through
coaching. The recommendation suggests, though, that creating a feedback loop is necessary to
growing utility value.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. In any work culture, conscious and unconscious elements lead to visible
and invisible patterns that drive an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultural models are the
shared values within an organization. Cultural models frame or describe what values the
organization embraces. Cultural settings are the visible patterns of the cultural models. Since
most people are members of more than one culture, there is usually alignment in one area and
potential performance problems in another area (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 10 represents all
the assumed organizational influences analyzed.
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Table 10
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence*
Validated
as a Gap
Yes, or No
(V or N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs to
support a culture that values
the social impact that faith-
based organizations make.

Yes

Yes
Leaders whose
espoused values are
not in sync with the
organization’s
culture will have
difficulty leading
(Schein & Schein,
2017).
Align organizational
practice with stated
values.

Create a check and
balance process to
review alignment of
practice and values
Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs to
support a culture that values
leadership development
within a faith-based context.
Yes Yes Effective change
efforts use
evidence-
based solutions and
adapt them, where
necessary, to the
organization’s
culture
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Create initiatives that
revisit the effectiveness
of program design.

Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to
support access to networks
and pipelines for students
seeking a professional career
in faith-based leadership
Yes Yes
Cultural models
and settings are
brought to the
organization (from
family, etc.) and
are created within
the organization
(Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001)
Organizational
effectiveness
increases when
leaders ensure that
employees have the
resources
needed to achieve
the organization’s
goals. (see also
Rueda, 2011, p.
65).
Identify internships or
apprenticeship
placements for
stakeholders at faith-
based organizations.

Create a job board that
can be accessed online
that connects to
stakeholders’
curriculum.

Create access points
where materials that
connect stakeholders
with faith-based career
resources are
practically used.

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Assumed Organization
Influence*
Validated
as a Gap
Yes, or No
(V or N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to
support access for
underrepresented students
seeking a professional career
in faith-based leadership
Yes Yes One of the subtlest,
most potent ways
leadership values
get embedded in a
culture is the
process of selecting
new members
(Schein & Schein,
2017)
Conduct a review of the
procedures, policies,
and external messaging
with a focus on
addressing the
communication to
underrepresented
groups.

Strengthen the Social Impact of Faith-Based Organizations. The findings validated
that faith-based organizations were presented in a positive light, but students also often
experienced a disconnect in the alignment of values. Leaders whose espoused values are not
coordinated with the organization’s culture will have difficulty leading (Schein and Schein,
2017) and lower organizational effectiveness. The first recommendation, then, is to align
practices with stated values. Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) posit that effective
organizations ensure organizational policies and procedures align with and are supportive of
organizational goals and values.
A study of mission drift in Italian social enterprises reveals a principle relevant to faith-
based organizations. Stakeholders who perceive drift away from the social-minded aspect of an
organization are difficult to regain (Ramus & Vaccaro, 2017). Innovations can be viewed on a
continuum from highly disruptive to incremental or minor disruption (Wong-MingJi & Millette,
2002). High innovation often seeks to dramatically change the existing organization (Wong-
MingJi & Millette, 2002), so researchers suggest that values that allow such change should be in
place before wholesale cultural shifts are attempted. The highest levels of inertia within any
organization are when innovation creeps closer to core values and traditions (Wong-Ming Ji &
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Millette, 2002). In theory, such change is proposing a fundamentally new organization and not
just a shift in doing things. Altering an organization is evidence of a lack of a check and balance
system. Schein and Schein (2017) add that values also contribute to success, so dismissing values
as a way to change behavior can be coercive. Maintaining alignment of values within a system
that protects core organizational elements can lead to healthier change.
Supporting Leadership Development Within a Faith-Based Context. The findings
illustrate that leadership coursework is often only one part of leadership development. Effective
change efforts use evidence-based solutions and adapt them, where necessary, to the
organization’s culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, the recommendation is to provide
stakeholders the ability to address leaders and advise policy to not only build up experience
which can impact the culture (Clark & Estes, 2008) but to demonstrate the value of evidence-
based solutions. Addressing the gap will mean that an intentional review of the impact of
coursework and the program must be connected to the architecture of the program itself. The
recommendation to focus on connecting evidence to program design seeks to prevent principles
that are taught without a review of their application or effectiveness.
Hage and Posner (2015) suggest leadership heavily influences organizational culture, but
they also claim that religion can play a significant role in the values and decision-making habits
of a leader. In a study of religion in Lebanese organizations, researchers sought to understand
how Islamic leaders and Christian leaders apply their religion and best practices to the
workplace. The results were that leaders within Islamic contexts were more collectivist in their
approach and tended to be more distant in their leadership style when committed to their faith. In
contrast, Christian leaders tended to be more individualistic in their priorities but were more
engaged with the team when committed to their faith. In each case within the Lebanese study,
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commitment to faith changed the behavior of the leader (Hage & Posner, 2015). Connecting
leadership training to a faith-based context matters if the gap will be addressed to place rising
leaders in faith-based organizations. Using evidence gathered in examples like the Lebanese
study from Hage and Posner (2015) confirms the connection between useful data and
organizational change. This example also illustrates how a system, in this case framed by a
shared belief, can create a culture that is either open or closed to leadership growth.
Increased Access to Professional Opportunities in Faith-Based Leadership Roles
May Make a Difference for Stakeholders Pursuing Leadership Roles. Matching resources to
opportunities for stakeholders will matter if this gap will be addressed. The findings indicated
that most participants were left to themselves to expand their network. Using higher education as
a comparative example, Kezar (2001) describes universities have been particularly political, and
hierarchies are slow to change, thus limiting access to leadership roles to those well connected or
properly placed. Some faith-based organizations function similarly, and, often, leaders are
promoted for skills used in current roles, not for skills needed in the next role (Griffith et al.,
2019). Thus, research confirms that cultural models and settings are brought to the organization
and are created within the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Furthermore,
organizational effectiveness increases when leaders ensure that employees have the resources
needed to achieve the organization’s goals (Rueda, 2011).
Therefore, the recommendation is to create access points where materials that connect
stakeholders with career resources for faith-based organizations are practically available. The
recommendation includes an accessible job board, apprenticeships with seasoned leaders, and
clear access points built into leadership development.
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A lack of access can also produce what Schein and Schein (2017) calls a change target.
This may produce cultural anxiety, and when there is fear, resistance to change increases (Schein
& Schein, 2017). According to Alexander and Welzel (2011), empowerment involves the
acquisition of resources, public activity, and attainment of certain positions within an
organization. Matching materials to these three categories can theoretically accelerate the access
points desired in the recommendation.
Increased Access for Underrepresented Students. Schein and Schein (2017) observe
that leadership values get embedded into an organization through the selection of new people.
The challenge is that the findings revealed that faith-based groups can be difficult for those
considered outsiders. If the same demographic gets prioritized repeatedly, that becomes a subtle
way to embed a lack of diversity into a culture. Effective organizations ensure that organizational
messages, policies, and procedures that govern its work are aligned with or are supportive of
organizational goals and values (Clark & Estes, 2008). The recommendation to address this is to
conduct a formal review of the procedures, policies, and external messaging with a focus on
promoting underrepresented groups.
For example, over 80% of all non-profit leaders are White males (Suarez, 2017). Yet, as
mentioned in Chapter Two of this study, there is not a single country in the world where women
do not outnumber men in faith-based participation. This disparity also exists when reviewing
policies, procedures, and external messaging to LGBTQ students or African American students.
The findings demonstrated that Grace Central University has a lack of equity in policies related
to several distinct groups of students.
An exit interview study on African American philanthropic staff conducted in 2013 by
the Association of Black Foundation Executives found that the number of Black professionals
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leaving the field increased due to the lack of access to meaningful roles (Cohen, 2014). Despite
50% of Blacks wanting to be in non-profit leadership roles, less than 20% actually attain such
positions (Suarez, 2017). In theory, increasing access for all stakeholders will increase the
interest of those stakeholders who may desire a career in a church, school, or non-profit. Schein
and Schein (2017) notes that most organizations operate their hiring practices without conscious
thought, so an organization’s natural resistance to change gets perpetuated. The same is often
true of policy related to policies and messaging. Consistent habits reinforce and inconsistent
habits are often ignored (Schein & Schein, 2017), so a periodic review will be important to
expanding equity through policy or procedure.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized the need to support organizational change with
evidence and research. Research grounds proposals, and when analyzing KMO influences, such
thought supports the results as well. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), building upon the
original New World Kirkpatrick Model, suggest that training programs sustain rigorous
evaluation as well. The model has four levels progressing from reaction (Level 1) to learning
(Level 2) to behavior (Level 3) and, finally, to results (Level 4). Each level is part of an overall
evaluative posture and process that seeks to move from a “monitor and adjust phase” which
constitutes the work of levels three and four, to a reaction and learning phase where skill,
knowledge, and attitude leads to increased engagement and relevant stakeholder satisfaction
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Beginning with the goal in mind, the progression goes from
Level 4 to Level 1 in its application moving toward a singular level four target (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The implementation plan created in this study seeks to build upon the
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research, connect to the organizational goal and mission, and remain flexible enough to
continuously improve.
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
Grace Central University identifies as a faith-based university that seeks to graduate
emerging leaders who influence through service around the world. The focus of this study was to
explore the connection between the sustainability of faith-based organizations and rising leaders
trained within a faith-based university context. The stakeholder group of focus was students who
specifically entered and completed leadership coursework at this campus. These students self-
selected into a leadership program that promoted faith-based ideals, service hours, and required
leadership coursework. Because faith-based universities are connected to faith-based ecosystems
that include churches, schools, and nonprofits, this study sought to reveal the impact on the
network should students abstain or avoid taking leadership roles at faith-based organizations.
This study sought to understand how a faith-based university may create a leadership program
focused on faith-based ideals, yet graduate students uninterested in pursuing these leadership
roles. This study explored the KMO influences at Grace Central University and their impact on
the goal of increasing attainment of these roles. The recommendations outlined in this study are
grounded in the literature and informed by data that, together, close organizational gaps.
The stated stakeholder goal is to increase the rate of graduates who accept leadership
roles at faith-based opportunities by 10% by 2021. Since leadership succession and sustainability
involve developing a pipeline and since faith-based organizations rely on generational support,
analyzing the effectiveness of placing graduates in faith-based contexts directly relates to the
health of the organization and the viability of Grace Central University itself.
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The implementation plan in this study offers recommendations to strengthen existing
leadership development efforts as well as clarify pathways for students to view faith-based roles
as viable, accessible, and instrumental. Faith-based universities should equip and encourage
students to invest in faith-based organizations as part of their mission wider role in a religious
network.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 11 describes the internal and external outcomes with corresponding metrics and
evaluation methods to tell the story of Grace Central University’s progress in graduating more
leaders interested in faith-based organizations. These observations and measurements are leading
indicators that demonstrate how the university is performing in its own industry (external
outcomes) and how it is addressing issues that arise from within (internal outcomes).
Table 11
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased inquiries from
faith-based organizations to
recruit on campus
Number of organizations making
appointments to meet with students
Career services monitors inquiries
and collects interest information on
frequency
Increased influence within
faith-based networks
Number of opportunities for
faculty and staff to speak, advise,
or serve within other faith-based
organizations by invitation

Perception within the network as a
leader confirmed through
messaging and opportunity
Communication and departmental
leaders track through calendar
creation and check-ins

Communication staff tracking
trending messages and reach of
social media footprint through
analytics

Marketing and development
tracking through survey data.
Increased financial support
from graduating students to
faith-based organizations
Regular giving to faith-based
organizations by Grace Central
grads
Development officials tracking
giving through survey and dollars
invested

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Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
Internal Outcomes
Improved student
understanding of the existing
faith-based network
Number of senior leaders actively
and visibly involved in promoting
faith-based values on campus
Event calendar reflects
participation through chapel and
events
Increased interest in
vocational degrees
Admissions data and departmental
reports
Increase number of students
seeking faith-based
leadership roles by 10% by
2021 (stakeholder goal)
Number of graduate students
coming from CCCU schools
Number of collaborative programs
with CCCU schools
Admissions data and departmental
reports
Executive reports from senior
leadership in the form of
announcements and institutional
agreements
Alumni data

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors. Table 12 reflects three critical behaviors indicative of students self-
identified as rising leaders at Grace Central University. Their self-identification stems from their
self-selection into a leadership program whose mission is to graduate leaders seeking to serve
and influence organizations around the world. The first critical behavior is that students will
participate monthly at on- and off-campus faith-based organizations before graduating. The
second critical behavior is that students will seek leadership roles outside of leadership
coursework. These roles can be in student organizations, community service, or others, but
students take the initiative. Finally, stakeholders build an active and relevant faith-based
network.

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Table 12
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
Students
participating in
faith-based
organizations on
and off campus
Time invested in
organization outside
of programmed
activity
Reporting from student
org list and survey data
Monthly
(reporting)/weekly
participation
Students seek
leadership roles
outside of
coursework on
their own initiative
Number of student
leaders in identifiable
roles
Student Life staff
reports and survey data
Quarterly
Students build a
faith-based network
that is active and
relevant
Number of Linked-In
connections with
faith-based
organizations

Number of references
from faith-based
organizations
Review of Linked-In
profile

Review of resume with
career services
Monthly

Quarterly

Required Drivers. The stakeholder group of focus consisted of students who self-
selected to a leadership cohort. Since students seek experience and opportunities to apply their
learning in a work setting upon graduation, the required drivers in the table below will transfer
critical behaviors toward the goal of working at faith-based organizations. The critical behaviors
will be reinforced through a combination of job aids and access to formal training. Tangible
experience and regular coaching encourage stakeholders, as professional connections and access
to scholarship or fellowship monies reinforce critical behaviors. Success is monitored through
meetings and check-ins that build upon prior coaching. Table 13 outlines the recommended
drivers that support the development of critical behaviors needed to increase the pursuit of
leadership at faith-based organizations.

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Table 13
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3
Reinforcing
Provide information through a
job aid that uses visual and
written material
Develop for first quarter for
new stakeholders; Twice year
for review
1, 3
Pair stakeholders with models
or mentors who exemplify and
advocate for the work
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Provide opportunities for
people to work in partnership
with others inside and outside
of their own organization

Ongoing 1
Encouraging
Provide opportunities to meet
with peer coaches to build
self-efficacy through feedback
and modeling
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Provide opportunities to gain
experience inside and outside
the university for faith-based
leadership

Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Provide connections with
organizational contacts that
can be visibly seen
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Create scholarships or
fellowships for students
exhibiting success and
expressing a desire for faith-
based work, specifically
aimed at seniors

Annual 1, 2
Monitoring
Provide opportunities and
check-ins through meetings
and written updates
monthly 1, 2, 3

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Organizational Support. As outlined in the table above, the organization will support
developing critical behaviors through reviewing the current curriculum and becoming intentional
in building the bridge from university coursework to leadership roles at faith-based
organizations. University leaders are encouraged to view their work as part of a faith-based
ecosystem since the focus of level three is transfer to the stakeholders (Rueda, 2011). Grace
Central University is one part of this ecosystem and the use of job aids, mentors, written
documents, and expanded coursework will serve to position the organization as a resource that
helps to build pathways and pipelines. Leaders are built from learning and knowledge related to
the implementation of a plan is evaluated for its sustainability (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
and ongoing usefulness.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals. Once the organization has implemented the recommended solutions and
the actions proposed as outlined in previous tables, stakeholders will be able to
1. Differentiate the types of faith-based organizations within the current organizational
ecosystem in which they function (Conceptual)
2. Design the leadership curriculum to include internships at faith-based organizations
(Conceptual)
3. Implement a program to connect faith-based organizations with rising leaders, creating
pipelines for churches, non-profits, and schools (Procedural)
4. Design a leadership development system that matches graduating students to specific
skills unique to faith-based contexts (Procedural)
5. Students will be able to reflect on their ability to provide leadership and to propose
strategic plans for faith-based organizations within the related ecosystem (Metacognitive)
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6. Students need to value the usefulness of faith-based organizations to serve community
needs (Utility Value/Motivation)
Program. The training program recommended will close the knowledge gaps identified
in this study and have internal and external components. The internal component annually will
train the executive leadership of Grace Central University to embrace the role of the university in
the faith-based ecosystem. The university has been a loosely affiliated member of some faith-
based groups and due to leadership changes and has remained vocal in its faith-based identity,
but at a distance, when participating in uniquely faith-based affiliations. This program is
designed to increase and reenergize these connections now that stable leadership has been in
place for the past couple of years. Reconnecting with its place in the faith-based ecosystem will
reinforce to stakeholders the importance of leadership at faith-based organizations.
Annual strategic meetings that lead to tangible senior-level engagement will lead to an
elevated profile and a more expansive leadership development curriculum. Weekly social media
messaging that elevates the connections between Grace Central University and select schools,
non-profits, and churches will reach stakeholders who trust digital marketing and who
increasingly build relationships on digital platforms. Stakeholders will be exposed to the inner
workings of faith-based organizations through coursework and credit-bearing experiential
learning. The latter, as part of the program implementation, will be an integrated part of the
leadership development curriculum. Experiential opportunities will be varied and will be
mentored experiences that solidify the conceptual knowledge conveyed through written and
visual material.
The external component will be the combination of two elements. The first is solidifying
core organizations that become well connected faith-based partners. The second element is to
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invite these partners to campus to offer applied learning workshops that further close the gap
between present learning and future opportunity. Partnership events on campus happen once
each semester. Combining internal and external components of this program will further
integrate stakeholder learning, building a culture that values faith-based organizations due to
ongoing investment from mentors and partner organizations. As this is meant to drive behavior
and goals relevant to the leadership development cohort, the program to be implemented
involves interviews with faculty and staff in addition to surveys related to stakeholder
participation. Each component will be built into the leadership track as an ongoing means of
continuous improvement.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning. Rueda (2011) reiterates that the most
effective evaluation systems collect better information from direct assessment than surveys or
instruments that yield only self-reported data. Evaluation tools, covered in Table 14, will help
build a system that is sustainable and nimble enough to be refined. Evaluation methods
demonstrate a commitment to continuous improvement. Table 14 also demonstrates that cultural
and organizational change can be incremental, as many levels within a single organizational
structure are seeking to learn simultaneously. Organizations that take learning seriously may also
work to create evaluative systems that assess growth and progress (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011).

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Table 14
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Conceptual Knowledge “I know it.”
Understanding the importance of connections
between organizations through curriculum
assessments
During and ongoing
Stakeholders able to explain and construct a
visual aid that demonstrates knowledge of faith-
based ecosystems
After (part of senior survey)
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Analyze needs of faith-based organizations,
outlining a proposal to be delivered to faculty
mentors or university leadership
After coursework, as part of internship
capstone
Reflect on progress with mentor using journal
and guided questions to monitor progress
through guided feedback

During and ongoing
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Integrating learning and leadership through
dialogue and outlining an understanding of the
place of faith-based organizations in community
life

During and ongoing
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Coordinate check-in with individual students and
cohort leadership to monitor confidence in
building deeper connections with other
organizations.
During and after the program
Monitoring social media feedback to understand
feedback with public followers

During and after program
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create concrete plans for graduating students to
stay connected to partner organizations
During and ongoing
Coordinate feedback loops to monitor progress During and ongoing

Level 1: Reaction
While the previous evaluation methods focused on knowledge initially, Table 15
emphasizes motivation and outlines methods used to measure reactions to the program
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implemented. Understanding stakeholder reactions assesses the energy level toward the program
which may indicate long-term benefits (Rueda, 2011).
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observations of stakeholder responses and
self-reflection on researcher’s own reaction
as well to limit bias
During and later same day
Interviews of individuals from stakeholder
group and interviews with cohort faculty
During and after
Participation rate when activities not
required

During and after
Relevance
Coaching sessions within the leadership
cohort
During and ongoing
Engagement with university leadership After (annually)
Customer Satisfaction
Check-in with stakeholders During and after (seeking to vary methods to
gauge diversity in learning methods)
Monitor social media interactions through
online groups
During and after

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) state evaluation needs to be part of planning and not an afterthought. In this study,
addressing only students as the primary stakeholders neglects the environment, which has
faculty, coursework, and administrators. The evaluation tools are meant to capture feedback from
both stakeholders at Grace Central University and those who directly influence stakeholders or
who are creating the environment within which formation will occur. The survey used following
program implementation will complement the group interview done the morning of the first day
of training and will also build on a brief survey done the first day. The former will be a group
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interview conducted with the faculty and administrators involved in the leadership cohort, while
both surveys, the initial brief survey, and the follow-up after the program will be given to
students. The interview questions and survey are in Appendix D.
Delayed for a Period After Program Implementation. While the previous surveys are
administered at the end of each term, this one is done annually for stakeholders within the cohort.
The only comparable surveys within the organization are a senior survey done annually and a
survey done for all entering students on vocational calling. This survey will be unique to the
leadership cohort seeking to impact stakeholder knowledge and motivation while encouraging
the organization to utilize the feedback to consider policy and programmatic changes. The survey
brings together students’ enthusiasm (Level 1), knowledge of the skills they are acquiring (Level
2), application of learning inside and outside the organization (Level 3), and the number of
students attaining roles within faith-based organizations (Level 4). The latter, particularly for
students early in the cohort, may measure trajectory as much as roles attained. Appendix E
presents the proposed instrument for this annual evaluation.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Assessing the impact of a leadership cohort within the overall mission of Grace Central
University is important. Since the university is part of a faith-based ecosystem, the executive
leadership will be interested in the external reach of the graduates within a system where one
faith-based organization influences all the others. To tie strategy to results, a balanced scorecard
approach will be used to fit the leadership development initiatives within an overall context since
the program is a microcosm of the overall mission of the university. The balanced scorecard is
more useful in this situation since executive leadership will likely not read a lengthy report and a
graphic needs context. The researcher of this study is also trained in using the balanced
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scorecard, so the tool can be used more tangibly. A graphic depicting the balanced scorecard will
help simplify the reporting and create a memorable guide from which to build upon. This graphic
in Appendix F and is illustrative of its potential use and in sample form.
Summary
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was used to clarify a concrete problem
that needed to be addressed in a way that used evidence-based solutions. To gather evidence,
KMO influences were examined to form a holistic and more enduring approach to move the
university to improvement. Building on this, the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) provided a framework for driving the research and evidence toward desired
results. The Kirkpatrick model moved the university leadership to go beyond reaction and
learning, which are Levels 1 and 2, respectively (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). These two
levels are often what an educational institution may settle for, as knowledge transfer is such a
part of the daily work. The Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is useful as the
focus is on results beyond knowledge transfer to behavior change and ultimately desired
collective results. Identifying critical behaviors that drive organizational change is part of the
model and creates clear markers for future implementation as well (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework and the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) provided a logical and clear outline to address an
organizational problem. The strength of the approach is in its clarity and ability to identify
evidence that can lead to a functional plan in addressing an organizational issue. Both models
were clear enough to implement, yet nimble enough to allow creativity. Organizations, though,
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are not static, and Grace Central University undergoes frequent leadership transitions at the
administrative or departmental levels. The framework seems to work best when given the time to
implement. The KMO framework, though, can consistently be utilized by leadership in both
formal and informal ways. Investigating any given problem through its KMO aspects can be
done as a practice both in formal and informal ways.
Like any model, though, the framework can become an unintentional focal point. If a
qualitative researcher is a kind of detective pursuing clues (McEwan & McEwan, 2003), then
such a pursuit seems constrained when the framework is not served. At times, the researcher
spent as much energy ensuring alignment within a framework as evaluating the data itself.
Models serve research, but the potential for the research to be subservient to the framework, in
this case, may limit depth.
The consistent reminder that a problem may have KMO elements makes this tool
applicable to higher education institutions that may err on assuming that knowledge and learning
are always occurring. The drive toward action steps and the evidence-based approach sets the
framework apart from others since leadership studies often divorce principles from practices.
Leadership is as much an activity as it is a description of a role or responsibility, and this
framework, while it can get in its own way, offers a way to identify and address organizational
problems.
Limitations and Delimitations
The researcher acknowledges that there are both limitations and delimitations to this
study. The short time within which the data were collected restricted the number of interviews
that could be conducted. The focus on a specific group of students who self-selected into a
program provided inherent limitations in scope. Leaders can, of course, be identified from
115
various majors and disciplines, and there is real-world and anecdotal evidence that affirms
leaders arise from various formal and informal backgrounds. The researcher embraces that faith-
based universities aim to preserve certain traditions and teachings while seeking to be relevant,
so this tension is often not addressed.
COVID-19 and the reality of a global pandemic altered the planned in-person interviews,
and the shift to virtual interviews prevented some observations. Yet, the potential comfort level
that distance and being able to answer questions from a comfortable setting may have been
unintentionally helpful to transparency. The researcher set up the interviews through digital
means and a season interrupted by COVID-19 restrictions delayed data collection at times. The
delay meant that some interviews were conducted at different awareness points regarding the
impact of the pandemic. Since students were from various states, the pandemic itself was
experienced differently in terms of restrictions.
This study also entailed several delimitations. While interviews brought the most depth to
the study, additional surveys may have been helpful. A more potent delimitation is that not all
faith-based universities have formal leadership programs, which would limit the replication of
the research to certain institutions. The data might be better compared to peer initiatives rather
than curricular tracks. The term faith-based, in the United States, also has been historically seen
as an emphasis on those identifying as Christian. Researchers of different faiths, unfamiliar with
the inner workings of a Christian organization, may find some aspects difficult to replicate such
as the influence of chapel or the primacy of the servant leadership model. The researcher
acknowledges that his own professional experience within faith-based organizations provides
potential biases in the way some questions may have been framed in tone. While every effort
was made to be consistent, the researcher acknowledges that students often react to non-verbal
116
cues such as voice inflection, enthusiasm, or a look of surprise or concern. Any discrepancy in
power, a high-ranking professional interviewing a final-year undergraduate in this case, may
have brought unintentional emotion or even hesitation to the conversation.
Future Research
While many topics at the intersection of religion and higher education could be explored,
three opportunities for further research emerged from the findings in Chapter Four that could
prove beneficial across disciplines and organizational structures. First, the outsized role that
faculty play on the decision-making process as indicated by participants in this study can lead to
further research exploring the influence faculty have on student career choice. Faculty may be
unaware that they directly and regularly impact students’ decision-making processes. Further
studies could analyze the formal and informal influences faculty play within faith-based higher
education and this can be set against faculty roles at non-religious schools for comparison.
Secondly, the role of money in the lives of students aspiring to be leaders may be
investigated further. As findings in Chapter Four indicate, financial stability is a factor in
participation within faith-based organizations, and understanding what this means for the future
of religious colleges is important. For example, do students attend college for more spiritual or
values-driven reasons than counterparts at state institutions? Understanding whether the purpose
of higher education is any different within certain student groups may help faith-based
universities recruit and retain their students.
Thirdly, within Grace Central University, do students who do not participate in a
leadership program share similar views than those within the program itself? Certainly, each
group would understand some of the same cultural models and cultural settings, but does the
leadership program create a bubble that students are afraid to leave or a cohort that encourages
117
leadership development? The findings in Chapter Four indicate that the program itself is
satisfying a discussion of leadership more than the development of future leaders within faith-
based organizations.
The researcher identified an unpublished 2018 report from the Barna group that addresses
faith-based higher education and has explored sociological studies from a peer professor that
offer fertile ground for these elements of future research to be explored. The researcher sees
collaboration with other faculty and researchers as key to any future research being utilized by
Grace Central University as well as other faith-based universities.
Conclusion
Grace Central University seeks to graduate servant leaders who will contribute to the
wider world by carrying faith-based values into their vocation. This evaluation study sits at the
intersection of the changing participation rates of young people within churches and faith-based
organizations as well as the changing job markets available to graduates at the university level.
The economic realities stemming from the 2008 recession and the most recent COVID-19
shutdown and recovery efforts impact outlooks and viewpoints of students and organizations.
Investigating a specific group of students who have self-selected into a leadership intensive
where faith-based ideals, service hours, community requirements, and leadership coursework
within a faith-based university provided a specific lens from which to view both current trends
and organizational priorities.
The Clark and Estes (2008) framework provided a robust guide toward not only the
problem of equipping future faith-based leaders but set up the research for a functional
evaluation plan. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) provided
the outline for building the evaluation plan that could be sequential and systemic. Faith-based
118
groups have historically been effective in discussing doctrinal or cultural stances, but have not
always been viewed as providing evidence-based solutions to their own spheres of influence. The
frameworks utilized in this study sought to provide the platform from which problems can be
addressed.
The problem of focus in this study, namely the lack of students seeking to work and lead
within faith-based organizations, exists within a cultural and organizational ecosystem. Churches
at a denominational level may support colleges or universities, and part of this support is in
marketing to and encouraging students to attend schools that reflect the beliefs or convictions of
a certain faith. Non-profit organizations rely on skilled workers to advance their mission and
these may be social workers, health care workers, teachers, and microenterprise experts. Since a
large percentage of the social service assistance within a community, such as disaster relief or
food security, comes from faith-based organizations, there are real-world implications for the
pipeline or ecosystem breaking down. Faith-based universities play a role in sustaining workers
within churches, non-profits, and even other faith-based colleges themselves. In studying one
aspect of this ecosystem, the goal has been to address the shortage of interested leaders through
evaluating a specific program designed to encourage leadership. In many respects, the work of
this study needs to continue as financial hardship, political uncertainty, and the rise of
unaffiliated spirituality leaves a once-thriving faith-based ecosystem searching for help to sustain
its existence.

119
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol

The interview itself as the primary source of data collection will be in person and as guided by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), I will outline all elements of motives, confidentiality, recording
permissions, understanding that this is a study, and the desire to follow up if clarity is needed.

I will begin by reading the following:

My name is Bo White and I am a student in the Rossier School of Education at the University of
Southern California, conducting research as part of a capstone dissertation within the OCL
doctoral program.

I want to learn from you both as someone who is a researcher and student and as someone who
participates within and believes in the positive influence of faith-based organizations.

Thanks for agreeing to meet with me and for allowing me the privilege to learn from you. This
study will evaluate how universities like this one can prepare graduates to enter leadership roles
within faith-based organizations. These organizations may be churches, schools, or non-profits.

I want to first ask if it is ok that I record this session. I do not want to miss anything and I want to
capture your answers accurately and in a way that I can review later. I will be the only one who
will listen to the recordings and the information gathered will be used solely for research
publications Will this be ok?

I want to also reiterate that what you share will remain confidential. While some of the ideas may
find their way into a written research paper, your participation remains confidential.

Do you have any questions? Ok, we will get started.

Conclusion

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me and to engage with these questions.

Before we end and before I turn off the recorder, Is there a question I did not ask that you think I
missed that may be important to consider?

Did you want to revisit any questions I asked where you may either want to change your answer
or add to it?

I just want to say again that I am truly grateful for the time you took to meet with me and for
teaching me new things. I am here to learn and your input means a great deal.

136
Appendix B: Interview Questions

Demographic questions:

What is your major and what made you decide to attend this university?

Tell me how the Christian mission of Grace Central University impacted you during your time
here.

Factual/Conceptual Knowledge:
Stakeholders will need to know the types of faith-based organizations and their connection to
one another

Q1: What types of faith-based organizations have you experienced? This could be a church, non-
profit, school, etc.

Q2: How are these organizations connected to one another in your community?

(probe) How has Grace Central influenced your stance on this?

Metacognitive Knowledge:
Stakeholders will need to know their own understanding of faith-based organizations in their
local communities.

Q 3: Reflect on churches and your experience with them. Why do some remain influential and
others do not?

Q4: When a faith-based organization is working well in your community, what does that look
like?

(P) What would you say to a person who thinks churches are not helpful?

Procedural/Conceptual Knowledge:
Stakeholders will need to know the pathways to professional careers in faith-based
organizations

Q5: How have you identified a leadership opportunity and how would you advise another student
to find one?
137
Utility Value:
Students need to value the usefulness of faith-based organizations to serve community needs

Q6: Give me an example where faith-based organizations strengthened a community?

Cost Value:
Students need to believe that attaining a leadership position within a faith-based organization is
worth the cost of training and preparation.

Q7: Tell me about faith-based leadership and how it compares to other careers. What would
influence you to consider taking a leadership role in a faith-based organization?

(P)What motivates you to pursue or not pursue faith-based leadership roles above other
opportunities?

(P) why do you think some people say they desire to lead a church or non-profit, but end up
doing something else?

Self-Efficacy:
Students aspiring to lead faith-based organizations need to believe that he or she can lead a faith-
based organization in a culture where such organizations have declining social capital.

Q8: I am going to list three responses and I want you to tell me which best describes your answer
to this question: Do you believe you can achieve your leadership goals no matter the difficulties
you face?
a. Yes, I will be able to achieve most of the goals I set for myself
b. Compared to others, yes I can do most things well
c. Even when things are tough, I can do well toward achieving goals.

Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs to support a culture that values the social impact that faith-based
organizations make.

Q9: How does this university promote faith-based organizations in positive ways?

(p) what new faith-based organizations were you introduced to while a student here?

Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs to support a culture that values leadership development within a faith-
based context

138
Q10: Tell me how faith-based organizations were presented in your leadership course

Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to support access to networks and pipelines for students seeking a
professional career in faith-based leadership

Q11: Tell me how Grace Central has increased your access to leadership pipelines or have added
to your network.

Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to support access for underrepresented students seeking a professional
career in faith-based leadership

Q12: I want to build on the last question. What networks has Grace Central University
introduced you to and how are these helping you pursue work?

(p) How has Grace Central University increased your opportunities for work?

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Female Male White Person of
Color
attends a
church
Total
Participant Demographic
139
Appendix C: Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: Sustaining Faith-Based Organizations: An Evaluation Study
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Bo White
FACULTY ADVISOR: Maria Ott, PhD.

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that may result in an increased number of graduates pursuing leadership positions in faith-based
organizations. Building professional pathways and leadership pipelines that connect students to
opportunities within faith-based organizations may lead to more sustainable churches, non-
profits, schools, and universities. The focus is on students who have taken leadership courses in
particular and who have participated in formal leadership training to better understand how faith-
based universities serve a wider faith-based ecosystem. We hope to learn if universities are
intentionally training students for roles within faith-based organizations. You are invited as a
140
possible participant because you have completed leadership coursework and have self-selected
into a leadership community within a faith-based university.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you decide to take part, you will be asked to do a 60-90 minute interview on Zoom unless a
different platform or mode is easier. Given the current circumstances, the Zoom call proves to be
the easier format. If an in-person interview makes sense, then that will be pursued, but given
current cultural restrictions, the Zoom format would suffice. You will be asked to answer a
dozen questions and there may be follow up through email for clarification. With your
permission, each session will be recorded to ensure accuracy when the researcher incorporates
relevant findings into the overall dissertation. The goal is to interview 5 female and 5 male
participants.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
The recordings of our interview will be kept in a password protected file on the researcher’s
computer and all transcripts will be kept in a locked file cabinet in the researcher’s personal
study.

The data will be for use in a paper related to the study of sustaining faith-based organizations. As
this is part of a study to meet the requirements of a dissertation, it is estimated that the data will
be kept for up to three years in service of the research.

All audio/video recordings will be transcribed into a written format as well in service of the
study. No personal identity markers will be used, except for gender, participation as a student,
141
and as part of a faith-based university leadership course. Access to the recording or transcript is
possible through the researcher and can be easily arranged.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please Bo White at bowhite@usc.edu or by phone at
217.607.6201.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

142
Appendix D: Evaluation Instrument for Faculty

Interview Questions for Faculty and Administrators on Day One
Context: This interview is designed to gain information related to critical behaviors and carrying
out the mission of the leadership cohort. This participant group was conducted at the beginning
of the program and is designed to build a baseline for future programs related to course design
and to avoid mission drift if possible. This will be administered at the beginning of each semester
as the leadership cohort engages in coursework, internships, and applied learning each term.
1. What is your name, title, and academic unit?
2. What, in your opinion, are the primary reasons we train leaders for faith-based
organizations?
3. Please comment on how the university does the following:
a. partners with faith-based organizations
b. promotes the importance of faith-based work
c. encourages participation within faith-based organizations
4. In what ways do faculty and administrators create an environment that cultivates leadership
within faith-based organizations?
Stakeholder Survey at the end of each leadership offering
Context: While course offerings are done for each faculty, there is currently no evaluation
method done to intentionally measure whether students are progressing into leadership roles
within certain contexts. To achieve the goal of increasing leadership within faith-based
organizations, this survey will be given to all who are participating in the cohort at the end of
each term separate to other surveys. There is a danger of survey fatigue which is understood by
143
the researcher, but the uniqueness of this both models the importance of evaluation (Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick, 2016) and treats the stakeholders as leaders who can handle the work.
Please check the box that best indicates your agreement to the statement.
Strongly
Agree
Agree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
This course
content was a
positive step
forward for
my leadership
development

The
coursework
and/or
experience
gained
affirmed the
importance of
faith-based
organizations

I believe that
my skills and
knowledge
can benefit
faith-based
organizations

I understand
and
appreciate
that faith-
based
organizations
can be
connected to
other faith-
based
organizations

144
I have learned
to engage
with faith-
based
organizations
through
social media
and am active
doing so

I am
considering
faith-based
work long-
term

145
Appendix E: Annual Evaluation Tool

Strongly
Agree
Agree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
I would
recommend
the leadership
track to other
students

The
leadership
cohort
connects with
my major and
my career
goals

I know the
different
types of faith-
based
organizations
in our
community

I understand
how faith-
based
organizations
connect to
Grace Central
University

I am currently
participating
in a faith-
based
organization

I meet with
faith-based
partner

146
organizations
when they are
on campus
I promote the
work of faith-
based
organizations
on social
media

I have applied
to work with
a faith-based
organization

147
Appendix F: A Sample Balanced Scorecard

Objectives

Metrics

Targets

Action Steps

Financial

Students

Internal Systems

Learning and
Development

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Faith-based organizations face declining participation, and the continued social impact of some churches, non-profits, and schools assumes that trained leaders are prepared to carry forward their mission. Faith-based universities often claim to graduate future leaders as part of their mission, and many of these young men and women may be logical candidates to accept roles at faith-based organizations. This study evaluated why students at one faith-based university in the middle part of the United States, who have self-selected into a robust leadership program, plan to pursue career opportunities outside of faith-based organizations. The stakeholder focus of this study was senior-level undergraduate students who self-selected into a leadership program that includes coursework, service hours, residential responsibilities, and mentorship. Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was used to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting the stakeholder group. Qualitative data were collected through interviews. The findings revealed that fewer than one-quarter of those interviewed planned to pursue career opportunities at faith-based organizations. The findings also revealed program strengths that include the positive impact of faculty and the pivotal role of access to mentors. Gaps were identified within the program’s model, and recommendations are offered at the conclusion of this study utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016). The plans and program modifications offered fit the university context and can supplement existing coursework.

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Asset Metadata

Creator White, Bo Michael (author)

Core Title Sustaining faith-based organizations through leadership pipelines and programs: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 11/15/2020

Defense Date 10/06/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag clergy shortage,Congregations,faculty influence,faith-based organizations,leadership pipelines,leadership programs,OAI-PMH Harvest,Students

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Bewley, William (committee member), Datta, Monique (committee member)

Creator Email 221bwhite@gmail.com,bowhite@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-393914

Unique identifier UC11666558

Identifier etd-WhiteBoMic-9125.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-393914 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WhiteBoMic-9125.pdf

Dmrecord 393914

Document Type Dissertation

Rights White, Bo Michael

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA