University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Heritage conservation to rebuild cities after crisis case study: the Old City of Aleppo

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Heritage conservation to rebuild cities after crisis case study: the Old City of Aleppo

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Content Heritage Conservation To Rebuild Cities After Crisis
Case study: The Old City of Aleppo

By

Dalia Mokayed

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF HERITAGE CONSERVATION

May 2021

Copy right 2021 Dalia Mokayed

ii

Acknowledgments
It's Finally the day that I was waiting for a long time. The day when I finish a research
paper about my beloved city Aleppo. Since the beginning of the war in Syria, I was
helplessly watching the destruction of our cultural heritage. I felt always guilty because I
couldn't do much to help. I finally feel less guilty and more satisfied to provide
something that may add value to the work that is being done in Aleppo.
Although this topic was new and challenging because it wasn't easy to collect the data
and interview people, I found all the support and encouragement from my committee.
I would like to thank my committee chair Kenneth Breisch, and my committee members
Faiza Moatasim and Vinayak Bharne for their assistance, guidance, and patience through
this journey. I would also like to thank Trudi Sandmeier, the director of our program for
the continuous support.
I would especially like to thank my husband Basel, for the great support and help
throughout the years, and for believing in me and wishing me the best in my career path.
Many thanks to my family and friends who have always cheered me up to go on. Special
thanks to all my old friends and colleagues in Aleppo who helped me collect the
information, answered my questions professionally and provided all what they can to
support completing my thesis.

iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................ii
List of Figures.....................................................................................................................iv
Abstract................................................................................................................................v
Introduction .........................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1: The Destruction of Cultural Heritage During Conflicts
Why destroying cultural heritage........................................................................................4
Review of the international laws for protecting cultural heritage......................................12
Chapter 2: The Old City Of Aleppo
The historic background, a World Heritage Site, and the social structure of the city.......21
Aleppo during the conflict and damage assessment..........................................................25
National and international efforts and the role of the local community............................35
Chapter 3: Examples of cities that suffered from war destruction and their recovery
experience and process
Case study1: Rebuilding Beirut City District (Downtown Beirut)....................................37
Case study 2: Warsaw post-conflict .................................................................................40
Case study 3: Cultural heritage in the Bosnian wars.........................................................42
Chapter 4: Aleppo, the post-war phase.........................................................................47
Learning from history........................................................................................................47
Old Aleppo from 2016 to 2020.........................................................................................50
The challenges of the post-war recovery in Aleppo.........................................................57
The cultural identity..........................................................................................................60
Chapter 5: What's Next?................................................................................................63
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................71
Appendix A........................................................................................................................72
Appendix A........................................................................................................................73
Bibliography......................................................................................................................76

iv

List of Figures

Figure 0.1: A picture is of the devastation in Old Aleppo traditional market....................1
Figure 1.1: Figure 1.1: Master plan scheme of Aleppo by Andre Gutton (1954)............10
Figure 1.2: Master Plan of Aleppo 1974............................................................................11
Figure 2.1: Great Mosque of Aleppo before and after the destruction............................ 28
Figure 2.2: Destruction in the Ancient City of Aleppo......................................................28
Figure 2.3: The picture shows where the Al-Khusrawiyya complex formerly stood.......29
Figure 2.4: The three pictures show the destruction in the area around the citadel..........30
Figure 2.5: The picture shows the destruction in the AlJdaydeh neighborhood...............33
Figure 2.6: A heat map of damage to the Ancient City of Aleppo....................................35
Figure 4.1: The historic timeline of destruction and reconstruction in Aleppo during the
last 1000 years....................................................................................................................48
Figure 4.2: The Old City of Aleppo, The three pilot conservation areas..........................52
Figure 4.3: Souq Al-Saqatyeh, after the destruction and before restoration.....................53
Figure 4.4: Souq Al-Saqatyeh in Old Aleppo after restoration.........................................53
.

v

Abstract
Earthquakes have rattled cities to rubble, fires have burned them to ashes, and wars have
destroyed and flattened cities.Each tragedy has its silver lining, however faint that may
be. When a city is destroyed beyond recognition, the need to rebuild providesa new
opportunityfor the community to accept the change and redraw the physical landscape, to
make it stronger than it was before. War isconsidered the most violent shape of
destruction, which in addition to human loss, they commit devastating violence against
the urban fabric of cities. Parties of conflict are intentionally destroying each other's
culture, violating international laws of heritage protection, and ignoring the importance of
heritage as a witness of history and is a valuable asset of important resources for future
generations. Managing the post-war heritage sites is considered countries’ first step for
rebuilding cities. Also maintaining post-disaster heritage sites will extend their life for
sustainable use by the community and will help to rebuild identities.
The research aims to find the tools to rebuild cities after conflicts, which affect cities'
assets, resources, and identities, considering the discussion of challenges and limitations
for implementation. A specific case study of the Old City of Aleppo, as an ancient
heritage location and a UNESCO World Heritage site from 1996 which recently suffered
the destruction of its old town during the conflict in Syria will be part of the major
discussion. will be supported by a comparison between different heritage sites which
experienceda similarsituation in the recent past and their ways to heal and recover. The
research will include a historic background about the city to understand the nature of its
heritage and the importance of it as a world heritage site, and the damage assessmentof its
fabric and historic monuments, efforts of the national and the international societies to
save and mitigate the damage. The lack of policies and clear directed rebuilding strategy,
a review of the ICOMOS Guidance on Post Trauma Recovery and Reconstruction to base
our guidelines for the rebuilding of the old city of Aleppo and protecting the identity of
the people.

1

Introduction
"The Only Way Out is Through"

Figure 0.1: A picture is ofthe devastation in one of the Souqs in Old Aleppo traditional market during the
conflict. Source: World Monument Fund Website.

Robert Frost in his poem Servant of Servants wrote"The only way out is
through."
1
Every journey has its twists and turns. You may not be able to see where you
are heading around the next turn, but you know that the truth could be there. The path is
the journey, you won't be out until you pass through. I always recall this saying when I
think about Aleppo when I see the damage in the city as a result of the war in Syria since
it started in 2011. Aleppo experienced nine years of conflict that affected the people and
devastated the infrastructure and sites of cultural heritage in the city, a kind of damage
that makes us feel that it will never come back to life again. But, everything changes
when you visit the city. I have visited Aleppo twice since 2016 when the Old City of

1
Robert Frost, A Servant to Servants, North of Boston 1915
2

Aleppo was free of conflict and was surprised to see how the ancient heritage of a city
can come back to life as the city heals itself. I spent the days of my visit to Aleppo
wandering its ancient streets, jumping over the rubble, taking pictures, talking to people,
and thinking! Why would the sites of cultural heritage be targeted during the war and
armed conflict? Why despite all the international laws, can't the world still protect an
important heritage site?
"The term "Cultural Heritage" is a modern concept with an ancient
past."
2
"Through history, cultural heritage has been defined to include all the old
traditions, treasures, symbols, artifacts, values and habits inherited from our ancestors. It
included paintings, drawings, prints, books and sculptures, historical monuments,
buildings and archeological sites."
3
These things and more all come under the criteria of
tangible heritage. While the intangible heritage was defined as all the immaterial cultural
heritage like music, dance, cuisine, craftsmanship, traditional costumes, oral heritage and
more.In 1965, the White House Conference was held in Washington DC, where
architectural historians, archaeologists, technologists and nature conservationists all
gathered to the World Heritage Trust to be responsible for the conservation of the cultural
diversity of the earth.
4

Throughout history, urban areas were sometimes avoided in conflicts, because
they were a complex battlefield. Wherein other cases, cities were invaded and destroyed
to be conquered. During the last and the current centuries, since the early twentieth
century with the adaption of aerial bombing, cities and the artifacts and the heritage sites
in urban areas were explicitly targeted, painfully damaged and destroyed.
5
Examples of
cities which was destroyed in wars during the past century and recently are many,
Mostar, Sarajevo, Warsaw, Berlin, Beirut, and recently Mosul, Palmyra and finally
Aleppo. But, does the destruction of heritage often hurt more than the loss of human
lives? The Croatian writer SlavenkaDrakulic suggested that we feel more pain when we

2
James Fisher, Heidi,"Violence Against Architecture: The Lost Cultural Heritage of Syria and Iraq" (2017).
CUNY Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1898
3
Allais, Lucia. Designs of Destruction: the Making of Monuments in the Twentieth Century. Chicago, IL:
The University of Chicago Press, 2018.
4
Allais, Lucia. Designs of Destruction: the Making of Monuments in the Twentieth Century. Chicago, IL:
The University of Chicago Press, 2018.
5
Sandes, Caroline A. “Urban Cultural Heritage and Armed Conflict: The Case of Beirut Central District.”
Leiden. Boston: Brill, 2013.
3

look at the image of a destroyed monument, more than when we see another image of a
genocide.
6
I don't think that we feel less pain witnessing the murder of people and the
genocides during conflicts, we feel extremely sad watching people experiencing the loss
of loved ones, lacking the essential daily needs, and fleeing their homes due to conflict.
But we also see ourselves and our personalities and roots in historic buildings. "We
recognize our place in the world by an interaction with the built environment and
remembering these experiences and by being informed of the experiences of others, the
creation of social identity in time and place."
7

6
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
7
Ibid
4

Chapter1: The Destruction of Cultural Heritage During Conflicts.

Why destroying Cultural Heritage
Over history, cultural heritage destruction was a tool of invaders to dominate
cities, and erase the trace of humanity and the value of human lives.
8
Ancient and rich
sites were targeted to weaken the physical and social infrastructure of the country. In
many other cases, the destruction of cultural heritage is becoming a part of the political
agendas to affect identities and memories and change the history by building a new
heritage instead of the heritage of the land's native owners, like the case of the Native
Americans who were targeted as a nation to erase their heritage and memory.
9
In some
other cases,destruction is not intentional,it happens collaterally whenthe conflict goes out
of control, cities become the battlefield, buildings areused as shelters for fighters, and are
attacked or destroyed because they are in the path of the military troops.During the civil
war in Lebanon (1975-1990), the center of Beirut was the place where government
buildings used to be, it was where everyone used to come for shopping and to spend time
in cafes or cinemas. The location of downtown Beirut was devastated, attacked and
damaged during this war. Beirut became a battlefield, it was divided into two parts, and
the historic buildings suffered from shelling, bombarding and street fighting. Street fights
led to the destruction of many buildings in Beirut. "Using the technique of moving
through walls, fighters made holes in building walls to move forward without going out
in the streets, reflecting the relationship between armed conflicts and the built
environment."
10
"In conflicts, there are always confusing motives. Destruction of cultural
sites can serve many purposes, terror, propaganda, conquest, genocide."
11
Culture and people during the conflict are facing the same danger and the same
destination, they are together in the tragedy. The cultural heritage under attack is the
heritage of the people, their identities and memories. Robert Bevan in his book
TheDestruction of Memory, Architecture At War explains the difference between two

8
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
9
Ibid
10
Weizman, Eyal. “Walking through Walls Soldiers as Architects in the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict.”
PUBLIC SPACE, 2006. https://www.publicspace.org/multimedia/-/post/walking-through-walls-soldiers-as-
architects-in-the-israeli-palestinian-conflict.
11
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
5

kinds of heritage attacks;"vandalism, where the attacker or the invader destroys a cultural
pattern of one group, including their traditions, language, memories of oral and written
heritage by destroying libraries and archives; and cultural genocide, when the cultural
heritage of one land or one nation is being cleared with its people."
12

Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492 in the Americas, the date which was
always known as the date of discovering the Americas. After his arrival, one of the
darkest and most brutal genocides was inflicte upon native Americans, the owners of the
land. They were either murdered, killed by the disease brought by the invaders, or
enslaved to serve the newcomers and build their cities. The new occupiers destroyed the
culture, changed the language and the religion of the people, to create the new world.
They even brought their habits and their architecture. Survivors of the genocide were
forced to build houses and religious buildings based on the vision and the style brought
by the invaders. And the newcomers became the new owners of the land. "There was to
be no backsliding and no memories of the past."
13
Sometime after that, people will forget
who they are and whom they used to be.As Milan Kundera notes:“The first step in
liquidating a people,' said Hubl, 'is to erase its memory. Destroy its books, its culture, its
history. Then have somebody write new books, manufacture a new culture, invent a new
history. Before long the nation will begin to forget what it is and what it was. The world
around it will forget even faster.”
14
During the past ten years, Da'esh destroyed many of
the ancient sites. They destroyed Palmyra's archaeological remains in Syria, also the
shrine of Jonah, and the ancient sites of Nineveh and Nimrud in Iraq. They have the
short-sighted view that they wanted to destroy all imageries and idols that contradict their
religious beliefs, to create the Islamic State in Syria and Iraq, a new nation on land with
no heritage or memory.
15
If that were true, then early Muslim nations would have
destroyed it a long time ago in times of greatness and prosperity. But, the destruction was
actually to support their efforts to achieve power in the region and to purge the region of

12
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
13
Ibid
14
Kundera, Milan, and Aaron Asher. The Book of Laughter and Forgetting. London: Faber & Faber, 2019.
15
James Fisher, Heidi,"Violence Against Architecture: The Lost Cultural Heritage of Syria and Iraq"
(2017). CUNY Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1898

6

its rich and diverse history by carrying out a cultural genocide against past cultures and
religions.
Caroline A. Sandes, also argued in her study for the case of Beirut Central District that
"there is a lack of understanding of the wider connection of destruction of cultural
heritage and its essential link to urbicide or genocide, which suggests that this link is fully
understood by that intent on carrying out such destruction."
16
The term "Urbicide" which
was suggested in the study represents the cases of intentional extreme destruction of the
urban environment, including the destruction of heritage. It is as painful as the human
genocide.
17
The most recent example, during the 20th century, is the Balkan wars of the
1990s, when Bosnia was targeted by the Serbs who intentionally killed people and
destroyed their city, houses and monuments with the intent of destroying the civic value
embodied with it.
18
"By destroying the cultural heritage of one country, it's hoped to
demoralize the enemy or local population under attack and to deprive them of the
evidence of existence both physically and historically, and simply erase the past identity
of a community."
19
Jerusalem has been an Arab multi-ethnical city for more than a
millennium. Since the beginning of the Palestinian -Israeli conflict, the Israeli
government is demolishing the existing Arab assets, houses and monuments gradually to
create new Israeli settlements. This Planned destruction for years has transformed the city
into a Jewish majority city. Both the Muslim and the Christian communities have less
presence in the demographic structure of the city, many of them fled the city over the
years, thinking that may return to their homes, but they never came back.
20
The
Palestinian activist Amr Zaher, argued on social media the idea of how the state of Israel
was built overland with a rich heritage and a long history. How they are trying to change
the facts to manipulate the history and make it feel that it's their heritage. Lots of Israeli
families are literary still living in the houses of Palestinians who fled the country after
1948. They are using Arabic music in their songs without referring it to the Arab
Palestinians. They are using some of the Palestinian traditional recipes and assigning

16
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
17
Ibid
18
Ibid
19
Ibid
20
Ibid
7

them to their culture. It is the case of a newly emerged state which is trying to build
culture over the deeply rooted foundation of an ancient nation.
21

Another type of heritage loss comes from the destruction caused by the neglect,
the looting and trafficking of objects and artifacts. In Iraq in 2003, the Iraqi National
Museum was looted and thousands of objects and artifacts from the Iraqi heritage were
looted. Also, the Iraqi national library was burned, which included hundreds of priceless
manuscripts dating back to the 16th century. All of that had happened due to the neglect
of the occupying U.S. forces after the invasion of Baghdad and the fall of Saddam the
former president of the country.
22
"Deliberate or neglectful destruction of heritage has
long been a key strategy of war, and perpetrators are rarely prosecuted for it."
23
In all
cases,the destruction of heritage during conflicts causes a huge humanitarian loss besides
the loss of cultural heritage.
Aleppo, which was another city that suffered destruction during the conflict,
could be one of the most crucial cases of cultural heritage destruction in the twenty-first
century. It combines cultural and human destruction in one of the most ancient places on
earth. "The name of Aleppo raises emotions, the image of a glorious past, and attractive
historic city with the architecture of world renown on a legendary trading route."
24
"The
ancient city of Aleppo is located at the crossroad of several trade routes from the 2nd
millennium BCE, Aleppo was ruled successively by the Hittites, Assyrians, Akkadians,
Greeks, Romans, Umayyads, Ayyubids, Mamelukes and Ottomans. The remaining
monuments in the city are witnesses to the prosperity of the city. These include the 13th-
century citadel, 12th-century Great Mosque and various 17th-century madrasas, palaces,
caravanserais and hammams that all forma part of the city's cohesive, unique urban
fabric."
25
The city of Aleppo is built over layers of ancient civilizations, which proves that
these sites and monuments have witnessed many destructive events over history.

21
Zahr, A. (2020, July 02). Palestine... Fully Furnished. Retrieved December 18, 2020, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UX8oChavStk
22
Dr. Stephennie Mulder and Dr. Debora Trein, Dr. Stephennie Mulder, and Dr. Debora Trein. “Cultural
Heritage ‘in Crisis.’”Smarthistory. Accessed September 2, 2020. https://smarthistory.org/cultural-heritage-
in-crisis/.
23
Ibid
24
DP
25
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Ancient City of Aleppo.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Accessed September 4, 2020. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21.
8

Aleppo is considered one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.
It was for a long time the cultural and commercial center in north Syria. The commercial
role of Aleppo started as early as the 2nd millennium BCE. It was an important trade
center and a destination of trade caravans on the famous silk road which connected the
east and the west. It reached its peak between the 16th and the 18th centuries CE. The
most significant monument in the city of Aleppo is the citadel. It is located in the center
of the old city and rises 50 meters above the surrounding area.
26
"The citadel stands on
the remains of Hittite, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and still includes remains of
Seljuk, and Ayyubid and Ottoman period buildings."
27
"Syrian-German archaeology
excavations between 1996 and 2004 in the citadel of Aleppo discovered one of the great
religious centers of ancient times, the sanctuary of the storm god Adda. Research proved
that it was first constructed by Early Bronze Age peoples, then rebuilt by a succession of
cultures, including the Hittites and the Indo-European empire-builders whose domain
spread from Anatolia to northern Syria in the 14th century BCE."
28
The traditional fabric
extends horizontally around the citadel to cover an area of 465 Hectares. It includes suqs,
mosques and madrasas of the old city.
29
The Chess street layout especially in the area
where the Omayyad mosque recently stands provides evidence of the early Graeco-
Roman street layout. The area also still contains remains of the medieval gates and
structures of different historical periods like the "6th-century Christian structures, Roman
period street plans, Ayyubid and Mamluk mosques and schools, and many Ottoman
period homes and palaces."
30
One of the most well-known cultural sites in Aleppo is the
Great Mosque, which was founded in the Umayyad period, the Seljuk minaret dated to
CE 1090. Next to the Umayyad Mosque is a Byzantine cathedral that later became the al-

26
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Ancient City of Aleppo.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Accessed September 4, 2020. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21.
27
Ibid
28
Lawler, Andrew. “Temple of the Storm God. A 5,000-Year-Old Sanctuary Emerges from beneath
Aleppo's Medieval Citadel.” Archeology Archive. A publication of the Archaeological Institute of
America. Archaeology Magazine, 2009.
https://archive.archaeology.org/0911/features/syria_aleppo_temple_storm_god_citadel.html.
29
Ibid
30
American Association for the Advancement of Science “Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing
the Current Status of Syria's World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery.” Advancing
Science Serving Society, September 2014.

9

Halawyah Madrassa, recently a Quranic school.
31
Following the success of Salah El-Din
against the Crusaders, the Ayyubid constructed more defensive and military structures.
"The encircling ditch of the citadel and the defensive wall rises above a massive, sloping,
stone-faced glacis, and the great gateway with its machicolations comprises a major
ensemble of military architecture from the height of Arab dominance."
32
Aleppo became
an example of the Ayyubid 12th century city. During the 13th-14th centuries, the great
towers were added to the citadel and the stone entry bridge reinforced the architectural
quality of this ensemble.
33
During the 20th century, as a result of the urban modernization
plans in the city, fundamental changes affected parts of the traditional fabric of the old
city. Similar to conflicts, heritage can also be destroyed in peace times. Government top-
down approaches and decisions that are based on hidden political or economical agendas
under the name of modernization plans and beautification, intentionally and
systematically destroyed ancient cities. In Aleppo, these plans were proposed to connect
the old city to the modern city and provide automobile access to different neighborhoods
in the old city. (Figure 1.1) The plans were implemented during the French mandate
period from 1920 to 1946.
34
"Two Master Plans were prepared for the city, which shared
many features in common. The plan of R. Danger (1932-34) and the plan of M.Ecochard
(1938), both of which led the development of the city outside the ancient walls based on
the modern French urban style. (Figure 1.2) This affected the old city indirectly and
separated it from the modern expansion. In 1954, Andre Gutton submitted a proposal for
a master plan to regulate the growth of the city up to 1975. The plan also proposed
connecting the old city to the surrounding areas to break down the isolation that the
traditional fabric creates. This proposal is based on creating rings of circulation around
the old quarter and connecting these rings with major axes. Similar to Haussmann’s
modernization of Paris between 1853 and 1870, which was based on the destruction of
60% of the existing medieval city, the partial implementation of Gutton's Master plan led
to the destruction of approximately one-tenth of the old fabric, and many neighborhoods

31
Ibid
32
Ibid
33
Ibid
34
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Ancient City of Aleppo.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Accessed September 4, 2020. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21.
10

were demolished."
35
Later in 1974, Andre Gutton's plan was followed by another plan
which aimed to protect the neighborhoods in the old city from any further interventions.
This plan also wasn't fully implemented. Despite the changes in the historic fabric, the
city still maintains its traditional urban character as an Islamic urban area with a rich
heritage and long history.
36
The Ancient City of Aleppo was inscribed on the World
Heritage list of UNESCO in 1986.

Figure 1.1: Master plan scheme of Aleppo by Andre Gutton (1954), showing the main road pattern. Source:
Rehabilitation Project of the Old City of Aleppo/ Brochure 2004

35
Ibid
36
Ibid
11

Figure 1.2: Master Plan of Aleppo 1974. Source: Rehabilitation Project of the Old City of Aleppo/
Development Plan

12

Review of the international laws for protecting cultural heritage
Threats to cultural heritage in wars come in two main shapes, the first in the form
of physical destruction of the historic built environment, while the second is the looting
and trafficking of the treasured artifacts and the archaeological discoveries. Efforts of
heritage protection are as old as the destruction of cultural heritage sites and artifacts. "In
the second century BCE., the ancient Roman author Polybius criticized the Roman
plunder of Greek sanctuaries on Sicily. A century later, the Roman orator, Cicero,
prosecuted the Roman governor of Sicily, Gaius Verres, for excessive looting of Sicilian
cities. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius and the
international legal theorist Emmerich de Vattel established principles stating that, as
works of art were not useful to the military effort, they should be protected."
37
The first
decision in history to protect cultural properties during conflicts was taken at the end of
the nineteenth century by the Brussels Declaration held in 1874. In times of war, "All
seizure or destruction of, or willful damage to historic monuments, works of art and
science should be made the subject of legal proceedings by the competent authorities."
38

Fifteen European countries agreed on the action.
During the Civil War in the United States, cultural heritage also was affected by
the conflict. As a response, the Lieber Code was drafted to protect the heritage of the
United States. This code was an inspiration for the First Hague Peace Conference in 1899
that adopted heritage protection laws regulating the conduct of war and encouraging
lasting peace. According to this convention: "In sieges and bombardments, all necessary
steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art,
science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, provided they are not
being used at the time for military purposes. It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the
presence of such buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which shall be
notified to the enemy beforehand."
39

37
Gerstenblith, Patty. “Frameworks for Cultural Heritage Protection: from Ancient ...” Khan Academy.
Accessed September 4, 2020. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/special-topics-art-history/arches-
at-risk-cultural-heritage-education-series/xa0148fd6a60f2ff6:documenting-and-protecting-cultural-
heritage/a/frameworks-for-cultural-heritage-protection-from-ancient-writing-to-modern-law.
38
Fiankan-Bokonga, Catherine. “A Historic Resolution to Protect Cultural Heritage.” UNESCO.
WWW.UNESCO.ORG, January 9, 2020. https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-
protect-cultural-heritage.
39
Ibid
13

"Another initiative started in 1919, was known as the League of Nations, which
was created to regularize, and bureaucratize international relations and, among other
things, was devoted to the protection of monuments. A small committee in Geneva used
the phrase "Cultural" to describe the historic monuments like buildings, bridges, or any
kind of international physical structures, and later it was called "World Heritage" by the
Athens Charter. This was written at the first international conference in Athens in 1931
and evolved in the 1930s as a transitional blueprint to protect monuments. In 1938 a
manual was created to protect cultural monuments. It was meant to meet the destructive
effects of war with defensive measures equally as effective."
40
This manual worked as a
guide for countries to avoid the destruction of heritage by taking extra precautions, also
by practicing methods and techniques of the physical protection for historic buildings
including sandbags, scaffolds and barriers of brick and other materials.
26
After the release
of the manual for protecting cultural monuments, many countries started using the
suggested tools. European museums and cultural institutions started making lists of
important objects and planned for the evacuation of these objects as part of long-range
planning for war times.
41
The speech of General Dwight D. Eisenhower at the beginning
of World War II explains a lot about the priorities in protecting the built heritage during
the war:
"Today we are fighting in a country which has contributed a great deal to
our cultural inheritance, a country rich in monuments which by their creation
helped and now in their old age illustrate the growth of the civilization which is
ours. We are bound to respect those monuments so far as war allows. If we have
to choose between destroying a famous building and sacrificing our men, then our
men’s lives count infinitely more and the building must go. But the choice is not
always so clear-cut as that. In many cases, the monuments can be spared without
any detriment to operational needs. Nothing can stand against the argument of
military necessity. That is an accepted principle. But the phrase “military
necessity is sometimes used where it would be moretruthful to speak of military
convenience or even of personal convenience. I do not want it to cloakslackness
or indifference. It is the responsibility of higher commanders to determine through
A.M.G. Officers the locations of historical monuments whether they be
immediately ahead of our front lines or in areas occupied by us. This information

40
Allais, Lucia. Designs of Destruction: the Making of Monuments in the Twentieth Century. Chicago, IL:
The University of Chicago Press, 2018.
41
Wegener, Corine, and Marjan Otter. “Cultural Property at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed
Conflict.” Newsletter 23.1 Spring 2008. The Getty Conservation institute, 2008.
https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/23_1/feature.html.
14

passed to lower echelons through normal channels places the responsibility of all
Commanders of complying with the spirit of this letter."
42

This command and efforts of all the governments in Europe during the war to plan
for the protection of their cultural heritage weren't enough to avoid destruction in all
countries involved in the Second World War. As a response to the events of destruction
during this war, the Hague Convention of 1954 in the Netherlands was initiated for the
protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. This new initiative focused
on the protection of heritage and the prevention of the destruction of cultural heritage and
looting of artifacts during conflicts, It also considered the destruction of cultural heritage
to be a reason to convict and punish those who violated the laws causing intentional
destruction of cultural heritage during conflict.
43

The Hague Convention of 1954 after WWII defined cultural property asmovable
or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every
people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or
secular; archaeological sites; groups of buildings which, as a whole, are of
historical or artistic interest; works of art; manuscripts, books and other objects of
artistic, historical or archaeological interest; as well as scientific collections and
important collections of books or archives. . . ; buildings whose main and
effective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable cultural property , , ,such
as museums, large libraries and depositories of archives, and refuges intended to
shelter, in the event of armed conflict, the movable cultural property. . . The two
core principles of the Convention are safeguarding of and respect for cultural
property.
44

According to the Hague convention of 1954, countries who signs the agreement to
be part of the convention should be prepared to protect their cultural heritage and
historical properties in times of peace, even before the war starts. This could be done by
taking extra precautions to ensure the protection of the historic properties, and to make
sure that artifacts are in a safe place. Suggestions were made to avoid placing military
objects near historic places and respect the historic properties by prohibiting the use of
these properties for any military purposes. Parties in the Hague convention we prohibited

42
Gerstenblith, Patty. “Frameworks for Cultural Heritage Protection: from Ancient Writing to Modern Law
(Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed September 11, 2020.
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/special-topics-art-history/arches-at-risk-cultural-heritage-
education-series/xa0148fd6a60f2ff6:documenting-and-protecting-cultural-heritage/a/frameworks-for-
cultural-heritage-protection-from-ancient-writing-to-modern-law.
43
Ibid
44
Ibid
15

from targeting cultural heritage and historical properties, "unless there was a military
necessity that required breaking this rule to achieve an imperative military goal. The
international law also prohibits the destruction of cultural property as a means of
intimidating people under occupation or as a reprisal."
45
While the convention was very
strict in imposing the implementation of this rule, they didn't define the meaning of
military necessity, which allows for many violations of this law under this
wavier.Conflicts were not the only reason to motivate the world to develop safeguards for
the protection of cultural heritage. In 1954 the Egyptian government decided to build
Aswan Dam to create a huge artificial lake that would cover the Upper Nile Valley area
extending from Aswan in Egypt to Dal Cataract in Sudan. The Upper Nile Valley area
which was known as Nubia is a very rich area with cultural heritage and artifacts. In
1959, the Egyptian and the Sudanese Governments requested UNESCO to assist their
countries in the protection and rescue of the 3000-year-old monuments in Nubia from the
flooding. As a reaction to the call for the protection of Nubia, UNESCO established a
campaign in 1960 to do excavations and record hundreds of sites, which was the first step
to establish The World Heritage List later. The campaign also worked on the relocation
of several important temples to higher ground, including the famous temple complexes of
Abu Simbel and Philae.
46
"In 1972 in Paris, the General Conference of UNESCO in its
seventeenth session adopted the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage, as a result of what was known as the Nubia Campaign."
47
Despite all the
efforts of the international community to protect the world's cultural heritage during
conflicts, the destruction continued and violations happened again. In 1991, the old town
of Dubrovnic in Kroatia was destroyed under the command of the former Yugoslav naval
officer, Miodrag Jokic. For two months mortars were fired on the city between October
and the end of December of the same year.
48
As a result of these violations, the Hague

45
“Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” ICRC, October 29, 2010.
https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/war-and-law/conduct-hostilities/cultural-property/overview-cultural-
property.htm.
46
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Monuments of Nubia-International Campaign to Save the
Monuments of Nubia.” World Heritage Centre. Accessed September 11, 2020.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/172/.
47
Ibid
48
“A Historic Resolution to Protect Cultural Heritage.” UNESCO, January 9, 2020.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage.
16

Convention Second Protocol was adopted in 1999. This protocol introduced new rules to
increase the cultural protection measurements and required the punishment of those who
break the protocol and commit violations that lead to the destruction of cultural heritage
and historical properties.
49
"It gave enhanced protection for the cultural property of the
greatest importance for humanity adding to the earlier categories of general protection
and special protection."
50
"In consequence, Jokic was the first individual ever convicted
for war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal."
51

Cultural heritage destruction followed during the Twenty-First century, violating
international laws and protocols. In 2012, ten religious and historical monuments were
destroyed in Timbuktu in Mali, which were inscribed as World Heritage sites in 1988.
The operation was directed by Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi while the city was under the
control of Ansar Dine, a group suspected of having ties to al Qaeda. In consequence,
cultural heritage destruction was considered a war crime for the first time, and Al Faqi Al
Mahdi was convicted by the International Criminal Court for directing the attack.
52
"The
international community wanted to make sure that crimes like this against culture would
not go without punishment."
53

During the last ten years, more of these violations have happened to World
Heritage sites in Syria and Iraq, including historical monuments destruction and looting
of historical artifacts. In 2015, Nimrud, a precious 3200-year-old site in Iraq, was
bulldozed by ISIS, who viewed anything predating the Islamic era and includes statues of
gods in the shape of humans or animals as idolatrous, and must be destroyed. The famous
Ancient City of Palmyra suffered a similar fate. "Palmyra is mentioned in the archives of
the kingdom of Mari in the 2nd Millennium BCE. and is located on the caravan route
connecting the Roman Empire with Asia. The city enjoyed prosperity during the rule of

49
Ibid
50
“Hague Convention and Its Two Protocols.” HERITAGE FOR PEACE: We believe that cultural heritage
is a common ground for dialogue and a tool to build peace. Thus, we support heritage workers in the
protection of cultural heritage for future generations. Accessed September 11, 2020.
https://www.heritageforpeace.org/heritage-for-peace/legal-framework/hague-convention-and-its-two-
protocols/.
51
“A Historic Resolution to Protect Cultural Heritage.” UNESCO, January 9, 2020.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage.
52
Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi: “I plead guilty” [Interview by 1138205816 857398829 A. Barrak]. (2017,
October/November). The UNESCO Courier. Retrieved December 18, 2020, from
https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017-october-december/ahmad-al-faqi-al-mahdi-i-plead-guilty.
53
Ibid
17

its famous queen Zanobia early in the 2nd-century CE.. before it was conquered and
destroyed by the Roman army, which rebuilt it. Due to the importance of the city, it
became in the 20th century an important tourist attraction in Syria and was inscribed as a
World Heritage Site in 1986."
54
In 2015, the city was captured by the Islamic State in
Iraq and Syria. ISIS wanted to draw the attention of the international world, and they had
the best opportunity in Palmyra, they used the heritage of Palmyra to serve their
propaganda purposes. In August of the same year, they destroyed the temple of
Baalshamin, a 1900-year-old Roman building which was followed by the destruction of
the temple of Bel, another ancient building in Palmyra. A series of other destructions of
ancient monuments in Palmyra including the tower tombs followed later that year.All
these sites were World Heritage sites, yet they were not protected by UNESCO or any
other international organizations, and no one could stop the destruction of these
treasures.
55
Only Khaled Al-Asaad, a Syrian Archeologist and the director of the
antiquities of the Ancient Site did not leave the city. He spent his life studying and
preserving the antiquities and artifacts of Palmyra until the last minute of his life and he
made sure that all the artifacts of the museum of Palmyra were transported out of the city
and put in a safe place. Khaled Al-Asaad was horrifically executed by ISIS.
The Cultural Heritage in Syria was involved in the conflict since its beginning in
2011 and was directly targeted and destroyed for multiple reasons. Every group of those
who were involved in the conflict have their agenda. Some of them concern the
prevention of the location's political use, accidental collateral damage in armed clashes,
targeting structures to clear a path, and targeting these buildings because of the
association with specific cultural or religious groups.
56
These agendas resulting in
destruction are directly affecting the social infrastructure of the city and targeting the
people's identity and memory. That was the case in Syria,as a result of the continuation of
cultural heritage destruction in Syria's six World Heritage sites during the conflict,

54
Ibid
55
Ibid
56
Cunliffe, Emma, Nibal Muhesen, and Marina Lostal. “The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian
Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations.” Cambridge Core. Cambridge University Press, March 3,
2016. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-cultural-
property/article/destruction-of-cultural-property-in-the-syrian-conflict-legal-implications-and-
obligations/5B81E9C84C7F9B24FA0C4F1E9FA50CAF/core-reader.
18

UNESCO wanted to draw attention to the risks they are facing, and placed these cities on
the List of World Heritage in Danger. The purpose of this action was to gather all the
support for the safeguarding of these World Heritage sites.
57
"Syria contains some of the
most globally varied and important civil, religious tangible and intangible heritage
cultural heritage in the Mediterranean. Also, it has a rich national and local heritage,
reflecting the diversity of its population, this local heritage is mostly what contributes to
its sense of identity."
58
The interest and concern for the protection of cultural heritage
should include both of these meanings.
International initiatives, laws and conventions including the Hague convention
protocols were all adapted and passed to protect human and world heritage during
conflicts. Also, to make sure that any violations should be considered a war crime. In
Syria, the situation was different. The legal framework of protecting cultural properties in
conflicts wasn't completely applied. The main reason was due to the confusing difference
between Treaty laws and Customary laws. "Treaty laws are the international conventions
which are adopted by states, but they rarely cover non-international (internal armed
conflicts) except for the destruction caused by ISIS."
59
"These Treaty laws will not be
applied in the territories of a country if they haven't been signed and ratified by the state,
while Customary Laws are binding on all states, which is of crucial importance in today’s
armed conflicts because it fills gaps left by treaty law in both international and non-
international conflicts."
60
Syria has already ratified and signed many of the international
conventions, including the first protocol of the Hague convention in 1954, which obliged
parties to respect the cultural property which prohibits using the cultural property for
military purposes and never targeting cultural properties, unless there was a military
necessity that required breaking this rule to achieve an imperative military goal. The rules
in this protocol cover only the cases of international conflicts, which doesn't apply to
most Syrian sites including the city of Aleppo. Syria had also signed but didn't ratify the
second protocol of the Hague Convention in 1999, which gave enhanced protection for
cultural properties and historical properties, and covered the cases of internal conflicts. In

57
“Syria's Six World Heritage Sites Placed on List of World Heritage in Danger.” UNESCO, June 21, 2013.
https://en.unesco.org/news/syria’s-six-world-heritage-sites-placed-list-world-heritage-danger.
58
Ibid
59
Ibid
60
Ibid
19

the case of Syria, the international covenant on Economic, Social and cultural rights was
also ratified by Syria. This covenant obligates the protection of mankind's Cultural
Heritage and should be a reason to protect the inscribed World Heritage sites by
UNESCO in Syria.
61
Also, the 1995 convention on stolen or illegally exported cultural
objects, which would provide a more detailed protection framework, wasn't signed by
Syria. All the previous tools and protocols which are intended to help safeguard cultural
property by preventing its destruction or use for military purposes guided to help
countries be ready for the consequences of the conflict, by taking extra precautions,
preparing the ancient sites and moving the historic artifacts to a safer place. They also
focused on convicting parties who violate the rules more than preventing the violation in
the first place.
62

The ancient city of Aleppo was inscribed on the World Heritage list of UNESCO
in 1986. This was followed by an increased awareness for the need to preserve the unique
cultural heritage of the Old City which encouraged further local and international
initiatives and cooperation to preserve the authenticity of culture, tradition and social life
as well as a comprehensive and original urban fabric which is still almost intact. At that
time it was proposed that a complete cycle of restoration and rehabilitation of buildings,
monuments and infrastructure of the estimated area of 465 Hectares of the built
environment in Ancient Aleppo will take at least 30-40 years, provided that sufficient
funds-public and private, local and international can be mobilized. The most important
initiative and the longest in the modern history of the preservation of the city of Aleppo
was the cooperation between the Syrian authorities, represented by the Municipality of
Aleppo with Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ)- previously
known as the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ). The approach for preservation and
development included the renewal of infrastructure, traffic, management, financial
incentives for the rehabilitation of houses, environmental protection, social and cultural
facilities, community development, promotion of tourism, restoration of monuments and
economic development. The project also worked on the development of strategic
planning tools as well as institutional structures and financial settings to achieve the

61
Ibid
62
Ibid
20

improvement of the living conditions of the residents, reinvigorating the economy of the
old city and the continuity of the living aspects in the city, besides the main goal of
preserving and protecting the city's historic fabric. The German contribution included
technical advice and financial support from 1993-2008.
A Development Plan (DP) was issued in 1999. This outlines the integrated
approach adopted for the comprehensive rehabilitation of the Old City of Aleppo and
became the guideline for planning and developing the old city. The project also provided
a land-use plan which reserved specific zones in the Old City of Aleppo for specific uses.
It also allows for residential uses, business areas, and commercial uses, mixed uses of
residential and commercial activities, open and green spaces and tourist districts.
Additionally, a special building code was provided to regulate maintenance and
rebuilding activities in the old city with specific criteria related to proportion, height and
materials. The participation of the local community in the Old City of Aleppo is essential
to complete the harmony of the cultural fabric. The project of the Rehabilitation of the
Old City of Aleppo targeted the different categories of the local community to cover their
needs to maintain their presence in this place and their interaction in it. Also, cultural
activities such as concerts, lectures, and art exhibitions are organized or sponsored in the
Old City. As part of the social and cultural development, some historic buildings and
monuments in the old city were preserved, developed and reused to be cultural and social
centers providing spaces for art exhibitions, cultural and neighborhood events and other
activities. Tourism was also an important aspect of the development process. The Old
City of Aleppo has immense potential for cultural tourism. Five thousand years of history
and unique urban fabric was almost intact, in addition to vivid social, cultural and
economic traditions. As a result, UNESCO declared it as a "World Cultural Heritage
Site" and this is what tourists look for.
63
In all aspects of development, the preservation
and restoration of the historic monuments were essential to the process. There were at
least 240 classified historical monuments located in Old Aleppo which required
maintenance, restoration and rehabilitation. People were specially trained in restoration
techniques through specific programs during the lifetime of the rehabilitation project.

63
The Rehabilitation of the Old City of Aleppo, Brochure 2004
21

Chapter 2:The Old City Of Aleppo

The historicbackground, a World Heritage Site, and the social structure of the city

Abu Al-Tayyib Al-Mutanabbi, the famous Abbasid Arab poet, was known also as the
poet of Sayf Al-Dawla (Sword of the Dynasty) the founder of the Emirate of Aleppo in
944. Al Mutanabbi loved Aleppo, he lived there for more than nine years and composed
his greatest pieces while in Aleppo.
64
Al- Mutanabbi said describing Aleppo:
"Every time gardens welcome us, we said to them, Aleppo is our aim and you are merely
the route."
65

Aleppo, at times in history was considered one of the oldest, the largest and the
most picturesque cities in its region. Lying between the desert and the sea, the mountains
of Anatolia and the banks of the Euphrates, it was Arab and Turkish; Kurdish and
Armenian; Christian, Muslim and Jewish. An Arabic-speaking city with a Muslim
majority, under the Ottoman Empire. Aleppo also became a center of French culture and
Catholic missions. Like many other cities in the region, it mixed East and West, Islam,
Christianity and Judaism.
66
Over history, the city of Aleppo had an important location It
was built upon four hills. The castle was built in the center over the highest hill, it was a
holy location and was used for worship. Later in history, the location of the castle served
defensive purposes. The location of the city made it a target for invaders. Aleppo has
been occupied and ruled by different empires including Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian,
Persian Seleucid, Roman, Muslim Arab, Turkish, and the French. In 1946, Aleppo
became part of the Syrian Arab Republic after independence. "The remains of most of
these civilizations are still witnesses to the history of Aleppo. Also a ring of classical
ruins in the surrounding countryside, known as dead cities, demonstrates its prosperity
under the Roman empire: among them Sigilla, Chalcis, Saint Simon, and many others,
which date from the fifth and sixth centuries."
67

64
Ghazal, R. (2014, April 27). 10th-century poet is a special guest. Retrieved December 21, 2020, from
https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/10th-century-poet-is-a-special-guest-1.686092
65
Abu Al-Tayyib Al-Mutanabbi A poetry describing Aleppo, circa 944
66
Mansel, P. (2018). Aleppo: The rise and fall of Syria's great merchant city. Londres: I.B. Tauri
67
Ibid
22

The ancient city was given different names. One of the famous names which is
the current name Aleppo, Halab in Arabic, means the act of milking. The legend says that
Abraham 'the prophet' milked his flocks there and dispensed the milk to people as alms.
Some other names include Hierapolis and Beroea during the Roman Christian period.
Aleppo became an Arabic city after the Muslim Arabs conquered the city in 637 AD. The
city after that was a Muslim majority with religious diversity. People of all religions were
able to live in the city and share it peacefully. It was ruled by Damascus during the
Ommayad rule, then by Baghdad during the Abbasid rule, until it became the capital
under the Hamadanids during the 11th century E.C.That was when Aleppo became a
trading city. It gained its importance due to the important location of the city on the
famous Silk Road. The silk road was a trading road that connected countries of the East
with the West, from China to Europe. Aleppo was in a central location and very close to
Iskenderun which was an international seaport of the Ottoman Empire on the
Mediterranean sea. A large number of European merchants used to come to Aleppo and
stay in its khans (caravansarai) which were prepared to host people with their caravans.
Aleppo gained more importance during the Ottoman rule, and soon it became the third-
largest city in the Empire, and British, Dutch and French consulates and trading offices
were established in the city.
68"
For centuries, Chinese silk and porcelain, Central Asian
cotton, spices from India, Italian crystal and glassworks, metal products from Persia and
Iraq, fragrances from Zanzibar and the Far East as well as local products such as soap or
fabrics were imported into Aleppo’s Bazaar, and then transferred bazaars in other regions
by caravans."
69
Aleppo Bazaar was one of the world's longest souks, which extended for
13 km and may have been the second-longest covered bazaar after the great bazaar in
Istanbul. The famous vaulted souk in Aleppo hosted a wide variety of merchandise,
industries and crafts. "It was said that a blind man could make his way by following the
smell of the merchandise."
70
Because of the city's location on the trade road, Aleppo
flourished differently compared to Damascus which was located on the Pilgrim Road to
Mecca. Trade became the official business of the people of Aleppo, whobecame more

68
“Aleppo.” Accessed August 31, 2020. https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/aleppo.
69
“Aleppo, the Disappearing Memory of the Silk Roads.” Accessed August 31, 2020.
https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/aleppo-disappearing-memory-silk-roads.
70
Mansel, P. (2018). Aleppo: The rise and fall of Syria's great merchant city. Londres: I.B. Tauris.
23

open to travelers and visitors of all nationalities and religious backgrounds. Besides the
traditional market (souks), khans or caravanserais served as inns to welcome traveling
merchants and caravans to rest before they completed their journeys on the famous Silk
Road. The old city was historically classified into two main parts, the city inside the walls
and the city outside the walls. For a long time, the old city of Aleppo like most ancient
cities was surrounded by defensive walls that are supported by towers and accessed by
gates. Aleppo had sixteen gates, most of which were destroyed by urban development.
The walls which are still standing go back to different Islamic periods, some of these
remains rest over the ruins of earlier walls from the Roman and Greek periods. The walls
have changed a lot over history and were renovated a couple of times. The stones that the
walls are made of are organized in layers that vary in shapes and sizes. Although some
existing walls in Old Aleppo fully belong to a single period in history, many consist of
three main parts, but are still in good structural shape, The lower part goes back to the
pre-13th century CE, and was built with enormous stones. The middle section consists of
smaller stones and the third part dates to the Mamluk period between the 14th and the
15th centuries and some restoration work during the Ottoman era between the 16th and
the late 19th century. Ten of the sixteen historic gates of Aleppo have vanished, while
those standing include: Bab Qenesreen, which is the oldest and goes back to the year
1256 CE. This gate historically led to Qenesreen Village, which had the Greek name
'Kalsees' during the Roman times and was a location for the army and defense. Bab
Antakia, located at the west wall of the city was destroyed by the Romans around the
ninth century CE and was rebuilt by Salah Aldeen in the 12th Century, it leads to the city
of Antakia, recently inside the Turkish borders. Bab Al Naser or the Victory gate was
built in the 13th century over the ruins of an older gate and used to be known as the gate
of the Jews, because it led outside the walls of the city to the Jewish cemeteries, and was
also in the neighborhood of the Jewish community in the city. Bab Al Maqam was built
in the 13th century. It is located in the south wall and leads outside the city to the shrine
of Ibraham. It was renovated in 1493 and was characterized by its defensive details. Bad
Al Jenan, was built in the early 16th Century and used to lead to the gardens outside
Aleppo. The north tower was demolished but it still maintains its south tower. Bab Al
Hadeed was also built in the 16th Century.
24

The first expansion of the city of Aleppo outside the walls took place in the 15th
century CE when the wealthy Christians started building their homes in the northwest
corner outside the historic walls of Aleppo calling it Al Jdeedah, which means the new. It
continued to expand and improve during the late Mamluk and the Ottoman periods. This
new neighborhood had its gates with a comprehensive defensive system and a majority of
Christian and Armenian inhabitants, where they had their services, markets, and
religiousbuildings.
The traditional buildings of Aleppo introduced a unique architectural school based
on and affected by its social structure and diversity. The rich base of thousands of years
of ancient civilizations adds to it the unique look created by the use of local raw stone
that gave architects and builders the ability to create beautiful architectural features.
Despite the organic look of the old city of Aleppo, its fabric was developed sensitively to
provide privacy, environmentally friendly spaces and all services within a walking
distance from residents through secure and pedestrian-friendly accesses.
During the time of prosperity as a trade city and one of the important trade
destinations and a certain stop on the silk road, Aleppo became a city of consuls where
the business is done. Venice, France, England and the Netherlands had their consuls in
Aleppo. The people of Aleppo spoke Arabic, although it was under Ottoman rule. "It was
a Levantine city characterized by its location near the Mediterranean, the prominence of
international trade and foreign consuls, the use of international languages, such as lingua
franca or broken Italian, and later French; relative tolerance, and balance between
different communities. No single group was exclusively dominant."
71
Muslims, Jews and
Christians, all lived in their communities, near a mosque, church, or synagogue. Until
2012 Aleppo was distinguished by its peaceful character, and over history, the people of
Aleppo had lived together in harmony and peace. The diversity in Aleppo, and the
openness to other cultures, made the people more flexible and enriched their culture.
Aleppo is famous for its good food and rich cuisine which was influenced over time by
other cuisines in the world and was also able to influence other cuisines. The people of
Aleppo were able to improve their unique recipes to compete with the best cuisines in the

71
Mansel, P. (2018). Aleppo: The rise and fall of Syria's great merchant city. Londres: I.B. Tauris.

25

world. They are famous for creating recipes with unusual combinations and unique
savors, like cherry with meat (Kabab Karaz) and the sweet and sauer cooked quince with
meat and wheat (Safarjalyeh). "Aleppo people think that they have the best food in the
world, and recipes are a heritage that is inherited from one generation to another."
72
In
2004 Haim Sabato wrote in his book published in 1997 Aleppo Tales, that “The people of
Aleppo, extol the food of their city and its delicacies. They don't eat to excess but they
expend inordinate effort and employ meticulous precision in the preparation of dishes.
The saying goes: " If you want to judge the quality of someone from Aleppo, uncover his
pot and inspect his food."
73

Aleppo during the Conflict and Damage Assessment
Aleppo has always been a target of invaders due to its important location, it was
destroyed many times over history. The first documented destruction of Aleppo was in
the mid-sixteenth century BCE by Hittites. Then in 333 BCE it was conquered and
destroyed by Alexander the Great during his military campaign to invade southwestern
Asia. Aleppo has rebuilt again by the Hellenic empire according to a regular
Hippodamian plan which can still be observed in the western section of the city near Bab
Antakya and the area of the Great Umayyad Mosque,this area used to be known as
"Agora" in the Hellenic city and served as a location for gathering.
74
After years of
prosperity under Byzantine rule, it was again invaded and burned by the Persians in 540
CE.
75
Aleppo was peacefully integrated into the Muslim Arab rule in 636 CE and
flourished again for three centuries before it was destroyed again for the first time in the
Islamic period by the Byzantine invasion in 962 CE. It was rebuilt in 1146 by Nur Al-
Din Zengi and the city witnessed prosperity during the Ayoubid period. The city was
invaded and destroyed again twice by Mongolians during the Mamluk period before it
was finally conquered by the Ottoman. Aleppo flourished as a major regional

72
Mansel, P. (2018). Aleppo: The rise and fall of Syria's great merchant city. Londres: I.B. Tauris.
73 Aleppo Tales, by Haim Sabato. A book about The Jewish community of Aleppo, Syria
74
“FIVE YEARS OFCONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
75
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors. Aleppo. (1998, July 20). Aleppo. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo

26

commercial center during the Ottoman period. In 1822, Aleppo was struck by a strong
earthquake that had a massive impact on the built environment of the city. Sixty percent
of the urban fabric was destroyed and the citadel was severely damaged.
76
Since it
became a World Heritage site in 1996 Aleppo was receiving national and international
attention and many initiatives and financial support under the umbrella of the
Rehabilitation Project of the Old City of Aleppo produced impressive results. The
selection of the Old City of Aleppo to become a World Heritage Site in 1996 was based
on different criteria including the fact that the Old Aleppo reflects the rich and diverse
cultures of its successive occupants, and because it represents an outstanding example of
an Ayyubid 12th century city with an emphasis of military architecture under the Arab
domination. The defensive walls, the great gateways, the enormous citadel of Aleppo
with its great towers, and the stone entry bridge are all characteristic of the architectural
quality of this ensemble. The urban character of the souqs and residential streets and
lanes, all contribute to the city’s outstanding universal value.
77
"Also the layout of the Old
City with the dominant Citadel has remained unchanged."
78
"By early 2011, Aleppo was
again prospering and was in the process of modernizing. The authorities linked their
interests with those of city businesses, and tourism investment was rapidly
growing."
79
Also, Aleppo signed agreements for cooperation with two twin cities; Lyon in
France and Ghazi Entip in Turkey. In July 2012, a date that marked the second year of
conflict in Syria, Aleppo became part of the war, with the result that it very quickly
became the most disastrously affected city. Aleppo had the largest share of damage to its
built environment, the loss of human lives, and mass migration and relocation. The Old
City of Aleppo was one battlefield out of many in the city, which caused the major
destruction of the urban fabric as a result of bombardments, underground bombs,
shelling, fires, and street combats. Since the beginning of the conflict in 2011, damage to
Syria’s cultural heritage has been widely reported in the news and social media. The city
of Aleppo was heavily damaged along with the other five World Heritage sites in

76
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Ancient City of Aleppo.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21.
77
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Ancient City of Aleppo.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21.
78
Ibid
79
“FIVE YEARS OFCONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
27

Syria.
80
Following the end of the conflict in the city of Aleppo in December 2016, the city
became accessible, although it was laying largely in ruins. The emergency assessment
mission of UNESCO was able to enter the old city in January of 2017, and in early
March 2017, UNESCO hosted the first international coordination meeting for the
recovery of Aleppo’s cultural heritage. During this meeting, it was agreed that UNESCO
will be coordinating all the efforts to rebuild the old city of Aleppo.
81
According to the
General Company for Engineering Studies in Syria (GCES) Assessment report published
in 2017, the damaged in the Old City of Aleppo was listed on three different categories;

1. 20.5% of the city’s fabric is severely damaged and needs rebuilding, 9.8% of it is
destroyed.
2. 58.8% of the city’s fabric is slightly damaged, and can be rehabilitated.
3. 20.7% of the city’s fabric is not damaged.
“In spring 2013, it was reported that the minaret of the Great Mosque of Aleppo
(Omayyad Mosque) had been destroyed during the fighting (Figure 2.1). The magnificent
minaret which was built in 1090 during the rule of the local Seljuq dynasty (1080–1117)
testified to the artistic quality and high skill of the local stonemasons was destroyed on 24
April 2013.During this same year, more damage and destruction took place inside the
Great Mosque and the area around it”
82
(Figure 2.2).The surrounding area including the
nearby Suq Al Madina was heavily damaged. The National Hamidi Hospital (later the
Carlton Hotel) a very unique building from the Ottoman period and the first modern
hospital in the city, was also targeted on July 14 of 2014 and was destroyed by tunnel
bombs. The monument was part of the citadel perimeter area, which was before the
conflict a tourist destination in the city. This area suffered the heaviest damage in the old
city. "This area contained government buildings, such as the Ministry of Justice
headquarters, a police headquarters, and the Grand Serail of Aleppo, which was the main
government building in the city under the French Mandate."
83

80
American Association for the Advancement of Science. “Ancient History, Modern Destruction:
Assessing the Current Status of Syria's World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery.”
American Association for the Advancement of Science. https://www.aaas.org/resources/ancient-history-
modern-destruction-assessing-current-status-syria-s-world-heritage-sites.
81
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
82
Ibid
83
Ibid
28

Figure 2.1: Great Mosque of Aleppo (Omayyad Mosque) before and after destruction. Source:© PHOTO
AFP GEORGE OURFALIAN REUTERS KHALIL ASHAWI

Figure 2.2: Destruction in the Ancient City of Aleppo and Matbakh al-Ajami, the area next to Omayyad
Mosque. Source: © UNESCO, Picture date: 2014

29

The whole area was targeted and heavily damaged mostly by underground tunnel bombs,
including HammamYalbougha an-Nasry (public bath), and Almadrassah Al Sultanya
(mosque and Islamic school) which represents the Ayyubid religious architecture. While
the Ministry of Justice building and police headquarters had been almost destroyed, The
Al Khusrawiyya Mosque (mid-16th century) left a crater of forty meters in diameter
where the building formerly stood.
84
The Al-Khusrawiyya Complex was another
structure in the series of buildings around the citadel that was targeted by tunnel bombs in
2014 and demolished by explosives. It included a mosque, a school, a mausoleum, a
public kitchen, and guest rooms. The complex was also supported by a khan
(Caravanserai), and asouq with a large number of shops.
85
(Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: The picture shows where the Al-Khusrawiyya complex formerly stood. The picture was taken
by the creator, Picture date: 2017

The Al-Khusrawiyya complex was built by the Ottomans in 1565 by the famous
architect Mimar Sinan, who became later the architect of the Ottoman Empire. Al-
Khusrawiyya complex had exceptional historic importance as the first Ottoman-style

84
Ibid
85
Ibid
30

religious complex in Aleppo.
86
"The architectural and decorative elements of the mosque,
the magnificent portal, the ceramic tiles above the windows, the mihrab and the minbar in
the prayer hall were all valuable examples of this combination of styles. Taking these
points intoconsideration, the overall historical loss is categorized as critical."
87

During the conflict, the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) showed a high concern about the damaged heritage of Syria, the built
environment, and the historic artifacts. In 2014 they started an assessment of Syria’s
World Heritage sites using high-resolution satellite imagery to determine the current
status of each site and the locations of historic artifacts looting especially in locations that
have access limitationslike locations under the control of ISIS.
88
In Aleppo, Satellite
images released by AAAS showed the destruction in the previously mentioned areas,
besides the destruction in the roofs of the traditional Market (Al Madina Souq) starting
from (Souq Alzarb) which can be accessed from the main street around the citadel and
extending west towards Bab Antakia at the western wall of Old Aleppo. The traditional
market (Al Madina Souq) also suffered great damage including fires, roof and shop
destruction. Also, between 2014 and 2016, a similar documentation technique was used
by UNITAR-UNOSATwho published Satellite-Based Damage Assessment to Cultural
Heritage Sites in Syria. Similar to the AAAS, this assessment of high-resolution satellite
images of the World Heritage property. “They used specialized remote-sensing
techniques that resulted in an in-depth analysis of the destruction and damage to
numerous architecturally and historically significant buildings."
89
These multiple
assessments played an important role in documenting the damage on a significant and
critical level of the structure. Unfortunately, none of them was able to show more detailed

86
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
87
Ibid
88
American Association for the Advancement of Science. “Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing
the Current Status of Syria's World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery.” American
Association for the Advancement of Science. https://www.aaas.org/resources/ancient-history-modern-
destruction-assessing-current-status-syria-s-world-heritage-sites.
89
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
31

destruction levels to facades and architectural features, especially in the dense residential
areas
90
(Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: The three pictures show the destruction in the area around the citadel 'Between 6 December
2011 (top), 14 July 2014 (middle), and 10 August 2014 (bottom). Images ©2014, DigitalGlobe, NextView
License | Analysis AAAS. Coordinates 36.19N, 37.16E.' Source: AAAS, “Ancient History, Modern
Destruction: Assessing the Current Status of Syria's World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite
Imagery.”

90
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
32

The categories in the damage assessment done by UNITAR-UNOSAT satellite
imagery differs from the categories in the assessment done by the GCES. In their report,
UNESCO used five different levels to assess the physical situation of the historic
properties inside the Old City of Aleppo and documented a detailed list of damage at 518
cadastral-plotted building, including the citadel of Aleppo, and each souq as a single
entity. Among these buildings, damage levels were identified as follows: 56 destroyed,
82 severely damaged, 270 moderately damaged, 20 possibly damaged, and 8 with no
visible damage.
91
The damage in the citadel was classified based on the UNITAR-
UNOSAT assessment as moderate damage, although one of the structures in the citadel
was destroyed and three are severely damaged, the rest of the structures were moderately
damaged. The walls and the towers were safe except for two locations where the towers
were severely damaged.
92
Different religious buildings in the Old City were also
damaged, including Muslim and Christian worship buildings, a total of 175 buildings
were assessed in the UNITAR-UNOSAT report, seventeen of them were destroyed and
twenty-one religious buildings were severely damaged, and the rest were moderately
damaged.
93
The Al-Adiliyya mosques was another Ottoman building and an important
example of the architectural style that was brought by them, designed by the architect
Mimar Sinan and completed in 1553. The mosque was damaged during the conflict, the
western side including the roof, the columns and arcades were damaged in 2012, while
the minaret was damaged later in 2013.
94

The Al Jdaydeh quarter which is located in the north part of the city and was
originally part of the expansion outside the ancient old city walls during the early
Ottoman period, "noted for its winding narrow alleys and richly decorated houses from
the Ottoman period. These houses belonged to the Aleppine bourgeoisie, who creatively
decorated them."
95
The Forty Martyrs Armenian Orthodox Church was built in 1491 to
replace a small chapel in the old Christian cemetery, the bell tower of the church is

91
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
92
Ibid
93
Ibid
94
Ibid
95
Busquets, Joan. “Review of Busquets, Joan, Ed., Aleppo: Rehabilitation of the Old City.” www.h-net.org.
H-Levant, 2007. https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=13582.
33

considered a unique example of baroque architecture in Aleppo.
96
Before 2011, the area
experienced great tourism growth and prosperity when a lot of its great houses were
reused as restaurants and hotels. The Al Jdaydeh had a great share of the destruction
during the conflict, part of this neighborhood was flattened to earth (Figure 2.5).The
Maronite Church and the Forty Martyrs Armenian Orthodox Church were also between
the religious building that was targeted and damaged during the conflict. The Museum of
Popular Art and Traditions (Bayt Ajiqbash), which was built in 1757. It is famous for its
rich stone decorations and is one of the examples of the impact of the European baroque
ornamental forms. The house was damaged first as a result of the implementation of the
new master plans in the mid-twentieth century. The rooms on the eastern side were
demolished to widen the street that connects Awjat al-Kayali and al-Hatab square. In
1967, the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums (DGAM) expropriated the
house and restored it to house the Museum of Popular Art and traditions in 1982. The
museum and the architectural elements have been severely damaged or destroyed during
the conflict.
97

Figure 2.5: The picture shows the destruction in the AlJdaydeh neighborhood. The picture was taken by the
creator, Picture date: 2017

96
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
97
Ibid
34

The role of Aleppo as a trade center had an impact on the architecture of the city.
It included a large number of buildings associated with trade. The traditional covered
linear market (Al-Madina) extended from the citadel in the east to Bab Antakya in the
west. It consists of shops on two sides of the parallel, narrow paved streets. This complex
contains around 35 souqs, 20 khans and several qaysariyas.
98
The damage assessment
reported 31 destroyed points inside the souq complex, 43 severely damaged points, and
82 moderately damaged points. The most damage is in the parts of the souq which is
closer to the citadel and the great mosque where most of the battles occurred.
99

In general, the grand gates of the Old City were less damaged than other
monuments in the city, except for Bab Almaqam which looks severely damaged. The
gate of Bab Almaqam is located at the southern boundaries of the Old City and was built
in the twelfth century CE. Other gates look in a better shape, like Bab Qinnasrin which is
located in the southwest corner of the Old City. The defensive gate of Bab Qinnasrin was
built in an L-shape which leads to one of the largest and most dense residential
neighborhoods in the Old City of Aleppo. This neighborhood includes many monuments
and beautiful large houses, traditional Aleppo soap factories, public bathrooms and
important historic mosques like Al Eskafi (1147 CE) and Al Tarsousi (1154CE). It also
includes Bimaristan Arghun al-Kamili which was moderately damaged. "The Bimaristan
was built in 1354 by Arghun al-Kamili who represented the Mamluk sultanate in Aleppo.
It is considered one of the most important traditional hospitals built in the Islamic world.
The hospital was used as Aleppo's main health care institution with the Mamluk sultanate
providing it with complete funding for medicine, instruments and research."
100
The area
of Bab Qinnasrin and the residential neighborhood with all the services in the
neighborhood was the location of the pilot project for the rehabilitation of Old Aleppo
and the first area to be preserved and rehabilitated as part of the Development Plan, and
the first case study that was followed by many rehabilitation projects that covered the Old
City of Aleppo before the war. The residential neighborhood behind the gate of Bab

98
“FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.” PDF.js
viewer, 2018.
99
Ibid
100
“BimaristanArghun Al-Kamili.” Archnet. https://archnet.org/sites/1801.
35

Qinnasrin is severely damaged in some locations and moderately damaged in others
(Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6: A heat map of damage to the Ancient City of Aleppo. Source: UNOSAT

National and International Efforts and the Role of the Local Community
It was almost impossible to access many areas in the old city of Aleppo during the
conflict. While the conflict continued, and the destruction targeted the heritage of the
city, only militant forces from both sides were able to record the damage and publish it in
the media. In December 2014, the DGAM (Directorate General of Antiquities and
Museums) started digitizing the records and plans of Castles, museums, archaeological
sites and mosques in the province of Aleppo in general including the citadel of Aleppo
and the monuments of the ancient city as part of the campaign to save the archive of the
old city.
101
More than a thousand files of the built cultural heritage were digitized.
102
Also,

101
Perini, Silvia. “Towards a Protection of the Syrian Cultural Heritage: A Summary of the International
Responses Volume II.” www.heritageforpeace.org, October 2014. http://www.heritageforpeace.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/Towards-a-protection-of-the-Syrian-cultural-heritage_Oct-2014.pdf.
102
Ibid
36

historic buildings of neighborhoods that are located outside the boundaries of the old city,
in areas like Jamelyeh and Azizyeh which had buildings dating back to the French
mandate in Aleppo, were surveyed and documented.The DGAM worked in Aleppo in
cooperation with local communities and stakeholders including the Municipality of
Aleppo, the Directorate of the Old City of Aleppo, the University, the GCES and
international organizations like UNESCO, ICOM, ICOMOS, ICCROM, the Arab
Regional Center for World Heritage (ARC-WH) in Bahrain and the World Monument
Fund (WMF) in exchanging visions and data, raising awareness and building capacity in
the city. The local professionals of Aleppo showed an incredible dedication in the
documentation work, undertaking mitigation actions during the conflict, as well as
emergency measures for the recovery phase by participating in the working meetings
with the Aleppo City Council, the DGAM and NGOs to identify adequate proposals and
coordinate action.
103
"During these consultations, it was proposed to declare the Ancient
City of Aleppo an emergency zone."
104
"International efforts were spent to improve laws
and legislations to protect world heritage. Most of the laws and resolutions were created
to limit crimes of looting and illegal removing of historic items and tackled illicit artifacts
trafficking."
105
Also staff and individual training and rapid recording of at-risk cultural
heritage was led collaboratively by ICOMOS, CyArk and the UNESCO Beirut office.
Emergency safeguarding to the Syrian Cultural Heritage Project, was targeted by the
DGAM staff and focused on rapid recording.
106
In 2017 UNESCO organized a meeting
(Corporative workshop) to unify the different efforts and visions of stakeholders and
international organizations involved in the interest and the process of rebuilding the Old
City of Aleppo, its urban environment, economy and social infrastructure. They worked
on planning for the damage assessment, intervention priorities and creating the best work
environment to achieve these goals and provide the needed financial and technical
support. The meeting was the milestone for collaboration on the national and the
international level, and more detailed actions and projects were suggested during this
meeting.

103
Ibid
104
Ibid
105
Ibid
106
Ibid
37

Chapter 3: Examples of Cities that Suffered from War Destruction and Their
Recovery Experience and Process.

Case study1: Rebuilding Beirut City District (Downtown Beirut)
"Aleppo and Beirut are some of the oldest continuously occupied urban areas in
the world. Situated on the ancient trade routes from the east, Aleppo in particular was at a
crossroads. The legacy of these long and distinguished histories is a wealth of cultural
heritage and multi-cultural and -denominational inhabitants."
107
The two cities also shared
the same fate, when they both fell victims to long and devastating conflicts, that affected
their economy, social and technical infrastructure, built environment and cultural
heritage. "Lebanon is a small country located on the Eastern Shore of the Mediterranean
Sea creating an extension of the Syrian sea borders. Lebanon and Syria once were one
country and together with Palestine and Jordan were part of Greater Syria. Beirut, which
is the capital of Lebanon, is situated on a narrow coastal strip surrounded by mountain
ranges. Beirut's urban fabric evolved throughout its rich history and nowadays presents a
layering of various cultures. Due to its strategic location for the maritime trade, the city
of Beirut has functioned as a major port since the Phoenician era in 550 BCE. The
development of the city plan and architecture was enriched during the Hellenistic Roman
and Byzantine periods. Later in the 7th century, under the Omayyad Islamic dynasty, the
city of Beirut became the military port of Damascus. During the crusades, the city
changed its rulers at various times. Then the Mamluk ruled from 1291 to 1516 CE, before
the Ottomans made it just a minor city in their vast empire. The importance of the city
was revealed again in the 19th century when the railroad connected it to Damascus.
During the 20th century, the city improved economically and demographically, followed
by urban renovation during the French mandate. Lebanon gained independence in 1943
to become an important example of the modern financial center in the middle east before

107
Sandes, Caroline. “Remembering Beirut: Lessons for Archaeology and (Post-)Conflict Urban
Redevelopment in Aleppo.” Ex Novo Journal of Archaeology, December 2017.
https://www.academia.edu/35532930/Remembering_Beirut_lessons_for_archaeology_and_post-
_conflict_urban_redevelopment_in_Aleppo.
38

it fell into the civil war in 1975."
108
Beirut’s downtown center was heavily damaged
during the civil war that lasted from 1975 to 1990. The war divided the country in general
and the city of Beirut in particular between the two conflict parties, the Christians
occupied the east and the Muslims were in the west of Beirut.
109
The downtown of Beirut
became a battlefield and the historic buildings in the downtown were engaged in the
fight. Aleppo and Beirut shared a similar history of physical and social division during
the conflict, Aleppo was also divided into neighborhoods under the control of the Syrian
regime in the west, and other neighborhoods under the control of the government
opponents in the east.
110

"Plans for new projects in Beirut and modern interventions started when the
Lebanese born, but Saudi based billionaire Rafiq Hariri, returned to visit Beirut in the late
1970s even before the war was ended. In 1983, Hariri's engineering company proposed a
master plan for the development of central Beirut."
6
The destruction of Beirut continued
even after the conflict has ended, the plans for the redevelopment required more
destruction to reconstruct the new project of Beruit Central District. The project which
was carried out by Solidere real estate company beginning in 1991 created an area aimed
to attract tourists and wealthy overseas business people, while residents tended to move
elsewhere.
111
The Solidere was able to expropriate all the land in the city center and
control the rebuilding process, it was responsible for the implementation of the urban
plan and the promotion, marketing, and sale of properties to an individual or corporate
developers. The area which was called for rehabilitation after the conflict was mostly
damaged beyond repair. As a result, some of the most significant parts of the urban
fabric, such as the traditional souks, were erased.
112

108
Nardella, Bianca Maria, and Yasmin Abbas. “Conservation and Reconstruction in the Beirut Central
District.” MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Accessed October 3, 2020.
http://web.mit.edu/akpia/www/AKPsite/4.239/beruit/beirut.html.
109
Ibid
110
Sandes, Caroline. “Remembering Beirut: Lessons for Archaeology and (Post-)Conflict Urban
Redevelopment in Aleppo.” Ex Novo Journal of Archaeology, December 2017.
https://www.academia.edu/35532930/Remembering_Beirut_lessons_for_archaeology_and_post-
_conflict_urban_redevelopment_in_Aleppo.
111
Ilyes, Ilona Ilma. “Rebuilding Downtown Beirut.” The Aleppo Project, February 11, 2016.
https://www.thealeppoproject.com/papers/reconstructing-downtown-beirut/.
112
Ibid
39

The rebuilding of central Beirut was a highly complicated affair politically,
financially, socially, practically.Its aim was to be restore it as the commercial center it
had been before the war. For a variety of reasons, this has not happened, one of the
reasons was the political decision to erase what was considered a painful memory for the
people of Beirut.
113
"Except for the twenty-six religious and government buildings that
were to be retained from the beginning, the majority of buildings conserved are Ottoman
and French Mandate buildings. The buildings demolished included much of the
architecture of Lebanese architects built between the 1940s and 1970s; in other words
that which had helped to construct an identity for a young post-colonial republic."
114
The
proposed plans for the development of Downtown Beirut didn't consider the importance
of cultural heritage. Some changes were later done to the plans as a result of people and
professionals' protests, which end up by adding historic preservation and some
archeological excavations, But this was not enough to return the city to the way it used to
be before the war. Although the preservation plans of some of the historic buildingshad
faced the same politicization problem, it helped somehow to encourage people to move
back to the city center and join the rebuilding process.
115

The area of downtown Beirut is now a polished mix of restored buildings, ancient
ruins and glass towers with empty luxury stores and unoccupied apartments, a destination
for international money and tourists, it was considered an attempt to erase Beirut’s
history. The area is no longer the heart of Beirut where the Lebanese used to gather in
souqs (traditional market), cafes, cinemas, and hotels. "The project also isolated the area,
outside the Beirut City District, the city of Beirut suffered from the deep failure of
governance. Public transportation almost doesn't exist, there is no social housing, and a
half comfortable life relies on generators for electricity and private tankers to bring in
water. The city often ranks low in international livability surveys."
116
Planning for the

113
Sandes, Caroline. “Remembering Beirut: Lessons for Archaeology and (Post-)Conflict Urban
Redevelopment in Aleppo.” Ex Novo Journal of Archaeology, December 2017.
https://www.academia.edu/35532930/Remembering_Beirut_lessons_for_archaeology_and_post-
_conflict_urban_redevelopment_in_Aleppo.
114
Ibid
115
Ibid
116
Ilyes, Ilona Ilma. “Rebuilding Downtown Beirut.” The Aleppo Project, February 11, 2016.
https://www.thealeppoproject.com/papers/reconstructing-downtown-beirut/.

40

rebuilding of downtown top-down was a fundamental reason why it was considered a
failure. Lebanese people's desires were not considered in the decision-making process.
The decisions concerning the rebuilding and how it was going to be undertaken was a
completely political one.

Case study 2: Warsaw Post-conflict
"Warsaw was gradually destroyed throughout World War II. By September 1939,
tenpercent of its buildings had already been destroyed. In 1941, the city suffered Soviet
bombings and in 1943, the destruction was brought to an unprecedented level with the
liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto. In the aftermath of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, the
entire district of northern Warsaw was literally wiped from the surface of the earth,
Including large parts of the Old Town, the city center and the Powiśle and Wola
districts."
117
The total destruction in the urban architecture of Warsaw was around 84% of
the built environment, with 72% destruction of residential buildings. People fled the city
and left their houses, and only a few thousand were living in the city by the end of
1945.
118
The systematic destruction of Warsaw was significantly obvious, especially after
the end of the war, it was for some reason the wish of Hitler to destroy Warsaw as an act
of revenge,his forces made sure to flatten the city before they left.
119

"Warsaw had one of the earliest human settlements in the region. This goes back
some 12,000 to 10,000 years BCE. It was only in the early 14th century CE that Warsaw
acquired its typical medieval plan with a grid street pattern extending around the central
market square where the cathedral and duke's castle were located. This was called Jazdów
was the seat of the dukes of Mazovia for over 250 years."
120
Over the years, The city of
Warsaw gained political importance in Poland, due to its important location. It attracted
many architects and artists. One of them was theVenetian painter Bernardo Bellotto
(1722-1780), who drew the famous portrait of the city, This was the main source of

117
Gliński, Mikołaj. “How Warsaw Came Close to Never Being Rebuilt.” Culture.pl, February 3, 2015.
https://culture.pl/en/article/how-warsaw-came-close-to-never-being-rebuilt.
118
Ibid
119
Kuznicki, Kacper. “The Authenticity of the Reconstructed Old Town of Warsaw.” e-conservation,
November 2013. http://e-conservation.org/issue-1/16-the-authenticity-of-the-reconstructed-old-town-of-
warsaw.
120
Ibid
41

information for how Warsaw looked before the war, and it was used to rebuild postwar
Warsaw.
121
At the beginning of 1945, Warsaw was very close to never being rebuilt
again and to become a memorial of war location and the capital was moved to Lodz.
Luckily.These plans were changed and Warsaw continued because of its people, former
residents who were displaced during the war started to return to the city to rebuild their
homes again, also it was the political desire of Stalin to keep the capital in Warsaw.
122

The discovery of many surviving original architectural elements in the ruins guided the
decision to recreate the historic city’s late 18
th
century appearance by using the available
reliable archival documents and the detailed documentary historical records from that
period.
123
The work of Bernardo Bellotto was the main source of information to imagine
the city in the 18th century. The portrait provided by Belloto included 22 street scenes,
that depicted the beautiful streets and buildings of Warsaw at that time.
124
"Bellotto’s
paintings, along with the expertise of Polish architects, art historians andconservators,
enabled the reconstruction of the Old Town to take place in animpressively short time.
Most of the work was finished before 1955, The rebuilding of the Old Town continued
until the mid-1960s. The work was mostly done by the hands of the residents themselves,
who were dedicated to rebuilding the city, and they used the rubble of the destroyed
buildings.The entire process was completed with the reconstruction of the Royal Castle,
although additional construction continued into the 1980s."
125
During the process of
debris removal and the preparation for reconstruction, some medieval buildings were
discovered to have surviving elements. Besides the original chessboard street pattern, the
medieval plan was the perfect solution to merge the old town with the rest of the city.
126

On the other hand, the newly constructed town which wasn't a replica of the 18th-century

121
Ibid
122
Gliński, Mikołaj. “How Warsaw Came Close to Never Being Rebuilt.” Culture.pl, February 3, 2015.
https://culture.pl/en/article/how-warsaw-came-close-to-never-being-rebuilt.
123
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Historic Centre of Warsaw.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Accessed October 3, 2020. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/30bis.
124
Mersom, Daryl. “The Story of Cities | Cities.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, April 2016.
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/series/the-story-of-cities.
125
Ibid
126
Kuznicki, Kacper. “The Authenticity of the Reconstructed Old Town of Warsaw.” e-conservation,
November 2013. http://e-conservation.org/issue-1/16-the-authenticity-of-the-reconstructed-old-town-of-
warsaw.
42

city required the demolition of many of the 19th and 20th-century buildings that survived
the war.
The reconstruction of the old town of Warsaw aimed mainly to bring back the
residential area to continue performing the same purposes as before the war. A strong
tourist potential was put in the master plan of Warsaw for the same area, which required
special work in the infrastructure to attract more people to come to the old town without
affecting the main historical residential purpose.
127
The experience of rebuilding
Warsawindicates that cities can rise from ruins, and cultural heritage is one important
factor in the reconstruction process,although it could be manipulated and used to serve
political agendas. It also reflects the importance of people in rebuilding cities. The Polish
writer Leopold Tyrmand said: "One must love one’s city to rebuild it at the cost of one’s
own breathing. It is perhaps for this reason that, from the battlefield of rubble and ruins,
Warsaw became once more the old Warsaw, eternal Warsaw ... Varsovians brought it to
life, filling its brick body with their own, hot breath."
128

Case study 3: Cultural Heritage in the Bosnian Wars
"The Federation of Yugoslavia was created after the First World War in 1918 and
consisted of six republics; Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia
and Macedonia. In 1943 the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was established
under the rule of Josip Broz Tito, who ruled until his death in 1980. This left the country
with conflicting powers that led Yugoslavia into a series of devastating wars. These
‘Yugoslavian Wars’ started in the 1990’s as a long series of conflicts fought in the
Balkans, and lasted until 1999."
129
The richness of the Balkan cultural heritage is founded
in its complex history of being a meeting point between different cultures of great
empires. Much of the Balkan's cultural history consists of places of religion: churches,
cathedrals, mosques, monasteries, and graveyards. The diversity of culture and religion
played an important role in sparking ethnic disputes in the Yugoslav Wars.
130
The conflict

127
Ibid
128
Mersom, Daryl. “The Story of Cities | Cities.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, April 2016.
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/series/the-story-of-cities.
129
Boom, Krijn H.J. “Rebuilding Identities: The Difficulties and Opportunities of Rehabilitation through the
Reconstruction of Cultural Heritage in Post-War Yugoslavia,” June 2013.
130
Ibid
43

in Balkan was a historical one, going back to the 15th century with the Ottoman conquest
the region and defeat of the Serbs, who did not forget this humiliation even after more
than five centuries. It emerged again after the death of Tito who was secretary-general of
the Communist Party in the country and was able for 41 years to keep a balance of
peace.
131

"The level of destruction during the Bosnian war far exceeded the country's
architectural heritage losses in the Second World War. It included ethnic cleansing, and
the wiping out of the historical presence and the memory of Sarajevo's targeted
community. The city's rich heritage of Ottoman buildings was flattened."
132

The city of Sarajevo was a multi-cultural city. During the Balkan war,thousands
of Muslim monuments in Sarajevo from the Ottoman period were destroyed or severely
damaged including libraries, museums, tombs, and Islamic schools. It also included the
Roman Catholic cathedral and the central Gazi Husrev Beg mosque which were also
damaged. Sarajevo's main mosque and the Mostar bridge were completely destroyed.The
devastation by the Serbian forces against the built environment of the Ottoman (Muslim)
part of Sarajevo was aimed at destroying the unique multicultural character of the city
and the bonds of peaceful existence between the different ethnicities, and also targeted
Muslims in the other part of the city as revenge for the historical defeat by the
Ottomans.
133
Pre-war Mosterians were proud that the city had the highest rate of mixed
(Croat, Serb or Muslim) marriages in the country. The Stari Most bridge was built by
MimarHajruddin, who is a pupil of the great Ottoman architect Sinan, was a symbol of
the city and a living space where people came together.It took the Croat gunners some 60
shells, to bring down the sixteenth-century bridge and collapse it into the water. "The
name Mostar means bridge-keeper, and the structure itself connected the Ottoman old
town on the east side of the city with the more heterodox west. The attack on the bridge
was an attack on the very concept of multi-ethnicity and the co-joined communities it had
come to embody."
134

131
Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion books, 2016.
132
Ibid
133
Ibid
134
Ibid
44

The Dayton Peace Agreement,which ended the war in Bosnia-Herzegovinaaimed
to reverse the effects of ethnic cleansing and restore the country to its prewar diversity.
Cultural heritage was considered essential to the peace process, the Dayton Peace
Agreementprovided for the formation of a Commission to Preserve National Monuments,
the task of this commission was to receive and decide on petitions for the designation of
property having cultural, historic, religious, or ethnic importance as National
Monuments.
135
The preservation structure also consists of a national entity that receives
the list of designated national monuments by the commission and is given permission to
do the preservation. The national entity is responsible for taking the required measures to
protect the designated historical properties. Although the Dayton Peace agreement
included the recommendation for the return of the Saraejo's displaced residents and
emphasizing the important role of people in the recovery process, the commission
maintained a top-down approach, which affected the choices of rebuilding the historic
monuments. The commission had a counseling role between the national authorities and
the international organizations which wereinterested in rebuilding Sarajevo.
136
The
Mostar Bridge in Mostar and the Aladza Mosque inFoča were two of the monuments that
were heavily destroyed during the war and they both were prioritized in the
reconstruction process. The reconstruction of these two monuments reflected two
different approaches in this process.
137

Stari Most Bridge, Mostar:
"Reconstruction of the town of Mostar commenced almost immediately after the
war. Because of the Bosnian War for Independence, the city of Mostar and Bosnia in
general, had little money. Furthermore, communication between Mostar’s rival
politicians remained difficult. Help was found in international bodies, such as the
European Union, UNESCO, the World Heritage Fund, the World Bank, War Child, the
Aga Khan Trust for Culture, and others. The construction of the Bridge was planned to
create a copy of the same previous historical bridge. The same materials from a Turkish

135
Walasek, Helen. “Another War's Cultural Cleansing and Rebuilding: Bosnia and the Destruction of
Cultural Heritage.” ARCAblog, March 14, 2016. https://art-crime.blogspot.com/2016/03/another-wars-
cultural-cleansing-and.html.
136
Boom, Krijn H.J. “Rebuilding Identities: The Difficulties and Opportunities of Rehabilitation through
the Reconstruction of Cultural Heritage in Post-War Yugoslavia,” June 2013.
137
Ibid
45

material company were used in the rebuilding and the same Ottoman building techniques
resulted in a replica of the old bridge."
138
The decision to choose this particular monument
to be the first in the rebuilding process was due to the importance of this bridge in
reconnecting the two parts of the city. The international commission saw the Mostar
Bridge as a symbol that canbring the various ethnic groups together after years of
conflict. On the other hand, it was for the people of Mostar a place of memory and they
have an emotional relationship to this structure which has no religious aspect.This
approach in rebuilding the Mostar bridge was criticized, first because of the assumption
that the two ethnic groups in the city may not be ready to reconnect and return to their
normal life of harmony and coexistence. The argument also was about the international
money that was dedicated to the reconstruction of the Mostar Bridge. The money would
be more useful if it was to be used for rebuilding the residential neighborhoods to
accommodate the returning residents to the city.
139
"This complexity of identities and
meanings in cultural heritage was overlooked by the international community, who
through the reconstruction of the bridge, sought to overcome inter-ethnic disputes. The
failure of the international community to identify the underlying memories and meanings
to this bridge and ignorantly stick to their reconstruction strategy wasthe reason this
reconstruction project is so heavily debated."
140

Aladza Mosque, Foča:
Foča was a Muslim majority city and had an important history. Things have
changed after the beginning of the Second World War when the Muslim population was
targeted and murdered by the Chetnik forces, many people were killed in the city and
others were displaced. In 1992, the Muslim population in Foča suffered again when the
city was controlled by the Serbian forces. Houses and religious monuments were
destroyed including 13 important mosques,the Aladza mosque was one of them. "Aladza
Mosque was seen as one of the most important buildings in Bosnia, it was built in the
1550s and is an outstanding example of a single-space domed Mosque built in the
classical Ottoman style."
141
The mosque was completely destroyed, and its fragments

138
Ibid
139
Ibid
140
Ibid
141
Ibid
46

were buried with human bodies. The symbolic power of Aladza mosque to the Muslim
community in the city, besides the artistic and historical value of the monument, led to
the reconstruction decision. The reconstruction was done with the help of local craftsmen
using the original materials,people of Foča had an important role in the reconstruction of
the building besides the cooperation between the local government and the international
organizations.
142
"The re-use of these materials for the reconstruction of the mosque
added to the authenticity of the project. Authenticity plays an important role in the high
level of standards needed for archaeological reconstruction."
143
The case of rebuilding
post-war Bosnia represented both the national and international involvement in the
reconstruction. Although the international involvement in decision making was obvious,
similar to the case of rebuilding downtown Beirut, it was also considered a role model in
the participation of the population in the process.

142
Ibid
143
Ibid
47

Chapter 4: Aleppo, the Post-war Phase
"Each tragedy has its silver lining. when cities are destroyed in conflicts beyond
recognition, the need for rebuilding presents an opportunity for the community to redraw
the physical landscape, to make it stronger and grander than it was before."
144
The phase
of rebuilding differs from one city to another and it's mostly affected by the political
system in the country. In the previous chapter, we learned about cities that found that
rebuilding is a priority, yet each one of them had its path, tools and outcome which at the
end had an important role in drawing the future of the city. We may be wondering if the
city of Aleppo once the heart of both commercial success and historic preservation in the
country, would ever return to its glory days, but the fact is that in the end ruined cities
don't stay wastelands forever, and Aleppo will find its own path.

Learning From History
The city of Aleppo has suffered damage over history for many reasons. It was
invaded many times and destroyed by enemies as well as by earthquakes, andwas built
again. "Knowing these events, and the repeated destruction that the city faced will help to
understand the nature of the historic authenticity of Aleppo."
145
This will also help us
understand the phases, and events that shaped the city.
The reconstruction of the city was always happening based on different
conditions, and choices for reconstruction vary based on the development requirements of
each era. One type of rebuilding was by urban modernization,which happened afterthe
destruction caused by the implementation of several master plans during the 20th century.
These master plans aimed to connect the old city of Aleppo with the modern city and
allow for traffic circulation, which was very damaging to the built heritage in the city
anddestroyed the urban fabric, leading to the construction of some of the foreign multi-
floor buildings in the old city of Aleppo. The traditional fabric of the old city was based
on the idea of providing privacy to residents in their own houses when the multi-floor

144
Poon, Linda. “The Cities That Have Risen From Ruins.” Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, February 18,
2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-02-18/six-cities-that-have-rebuilt-after-devastation.
145
Lafi, Nora. “Building and Destroying Authenticity in Aleppo: Heritage between Conservation,
Transformation, Destruction, and Re-Invention.” halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr, July 11, 2017.
https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01560321/file/Lafi_Aleppo-Heritage-Authenticity_2017.pdf.
48

buildingsresulted in forcing people to flee the old city due to the lack of privacy in the
neighborhoods where the new built were built.
146
During other times, the city was
transformed differently, and the process of reconstruction involved an interpretation of
the past and a depiction of monuments before the destruction. Following one of the
deadliest earthquakes in the history of the city in 1138, theZengid followed by the
Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties adapted rebuilding using the ruins. This program
reserved the original materials of the ancient buildings and added to the authenticity of
the buildings. The construction at that time included many of the famous medieval
Islamic buildings in the city like BimarstanArghuniAlkamali, Khan Al Qadi, Hammam
Aljuhari and Al Tarsus mosque.
147
"Aleppo, the city that we know today, or we knew
before the Syrian conflict is the result of traumatic destruction and layers of
reuse."
148
(Figure 4.1)

Figure 4.1: The historic timeline of destruction and reconstruction in Aleppo during the last 1000 years.
Source: “FIVE YEARS OF CONFLICT. The State of Cultural Heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo.”
PDF.js viewer, 2018.

146
Ibid
147
Ibid
148
Ibid
49

Enacting ordinances for protecting historical buildings started as early as 1884
with the Ottoman Code. Most of this legislation wasmainly limited to the protection of
monuments and archaeological materials, such as artifacts and buildings of historical
nature. The next law was issued in 1938, which was considered the first Syrian antiquities
law, together with this law a catalog of classified individual monuments was
released.
149
"According to the law, historic materials must be more than 200 years old to
be accepted as heritage and therefore to be placed under protection. Exemptions from the
age statute are possible on a decision of Antiquities authorities for materials of particular
historical and artistic significance."
150

The next shift in the historic preservation ideology in Aleppo came with the
Rehabilitation Project of the Old City. After the registration of the old cities of Damascus
and Aleppo in the World Heritage List in 1986, and the response to the debt payment
agreement between the Syrian government and the German government, the municipality
of Aleppo in cooperation with the German institution GTZ (Gesellschaft
fürTechnischeZusammenarbeit) started the directorate of the old city of Aleppo officially
in 1993. The project introduced the district conservation concept together with historical
building preservation.
151
Local community participation was strongly introduced as part of
the rehabilitation process, which included interactive workshops and meetings with the
residents before and during the work in every ActionArea. "During this phase, heritage
protection and preservation was the main purpose, with the integration of tourism
development in specific places. Special attention was given to artisanal workshops in
these locations to attract tourists. Everything was formulated in the DP (Development
Plan), which was a book that organized the phases of the rehabilitation work in the old
city. That includes master plan and land use also the suggestion of initial three action
areas in the old city.

149
Ibid
150
“Traditional Syrian Architecture Corpus Levant .” Avignon, France : Ecole d’Avignon for the CORPUS
Levant, 2004.
151
Ibid
50

Old Aleppo from 2016 to 2020
In February of 2016, the city of Aleppo was free of conflict and was accessed by
people, the work started to clear the rubble and assess the damage. The government, the
people of Aleppo and the international organizations were all ready to offer knowledge,
experience, time, and efforts to rebuild old Aleppo. During my visit to Aleppo in the
summer of 2019 I had the chance to meet and interview different people who were part of
the ongoing post-war process of reconstruction and heritage preservation. I met with
People from the Municipality of Aleppo, the directorate of the old city, the University of
Aleppo, the directorate of tourism, the directorate of archeology and museums, and
representatives of different international organizations.
In this chapter, I will provide a summary of the work that has been done towards
the recovery of old Aleppo during the past four years. The information that will be
introduced is based on my observation, data collected from social media and the oral
interviews that I did with people involved in the process during my 2019 visit to Aleppo.
The reconstruction in old Aleppo began in 2016 on different levels with the
participation of many stakeholders,
1. The government and local authorities, which are represented by the
Municipality of Aleppo, the directorate of the old city of Aleppo, the directorate of
antiquities and museums and the General Company for Engineering Studies in Syria
(GCES). The local authorities carried out surveys in the neighborhoods of the old city to
provide the damage assessment and provide a report about the size of destruction. They
were responsible for clearing the rubble to provide access to damaged areas, and also to
sort the original stones and the architectural features. This work was supported by the
UNESCO representation office in Aleppo. The directorate of the old city of Aleppo with
the directorate of antiquities and museums is responsible for the observation and
monitoring of the reconstruction projects that areimplemented by all the involved
stakeholders. All proposed rebuilding, restoration and preservation projects require the
approval of the General Safety Committee of the old city which consists of government
representatives and professional experts in historic preservation.
2. The local community, including property owners who participated in the
rebuilding process in the absence of adequate governmental, and international financial
51

support, also because of the immediate need for intervention in some cases to preserve
and protect the damaged buildings from deterioration and collapse. Many of the residents
and the shop owners in the damaged neighborhoods and traditional souqs wanted to
return to the old city after years of displacementin other areas. The local community
members are financing the reconstruction work, and hiring contractors to do the
restoration in many cases.
3. Theinternational organizations including the Aga Khan Cultural services and
the UNESCO representation office in Aleppo joined the national authorities and the local
communities in the reconstruction process. UNESCO in this phase is providing
consultation, staff training, and monitoring of the reconstruction work to make sure that
the reconstruction and restoration are happening based on the approved restoration
guidelines. Failing to restore the historic buildings inside the world heritage site of the
old city of Aleppo may result in the city losing its classification as a World Heritage Site.
The Aga Khan Cultural service is considered the only international body that is
intervening in the reconstruction work of the old city of Aleppo. They are working with
other stakeholders including the government representedby the municipality of
Aleppo,also the Aleppo governorate is involved in decision making. The Aga Khan
Cultural Services implemented their survey and damage assessment and created an
intervention plan for the old city that is based on strategic working phases of the
restoration and rebuilding of the damaged historic resources. The intervention plan
covered three main areas in the old city (Figure 4.2).
1. The traditional souqs, the Omayyad mosque and Al Shibani school.
2. Aleppo citadel and the surrounding area.
3. Bab Al Ahmar and Al Bayadah neighborhood.
The three intervention locations were chosen because they include buildings with
a variety of uses, including commercial, residential, tourist attractions, public and
religious services. The three areas were documented by aerial photographs and field
surveys. Buildings in these three area were classified based on use, the data collected was
analyzed and damage was assessed. The intervention map defines priorities based on the
historic importance and the damage extent.

52

Figure 4.2: The Old City of Aleppo, The three pilot conservation areas, Source: Aga Khan Cultural
Services (Syria)," Plan of Reconstruction and Recovery Of The Ancient City Of Aleppo"

The intervention plan helped in choosing pilot projects to be implemented which
were based on the historic importance, the size of the damage, and potential economic
impact. The first pilot project was Souq Al-Saqatyeh, which was awarded the ICCROM-
Sharjah Award given by the ICCROM-ATHAR, a regional conservation center founded
by ICCROM and the Government of UAE in the Emirate of Sharjah. The Aga Khan
Trust for Culture (AKTC) received the award in November 2020.
152
The souq is part of
the traditional market in the old city of Aleppo and includes around 106 shops. This part
of the souq is located in the central area of the traditional market (Al Madina), at the
southern boundary of Omayyad mosque. It used to be the meat market. A senior expert in
the Aga Khan Cultural Services mentioned that the reason for choosing this particular
souqwas because it is moderately damaged and not heavily destroyed like other locations,

152
“Aga Khan Trust for Culture Receives ICCROM-Sharjah Award for Best Practice in Conservation of
Islamic Heritage: Aga Khan Development Network.” AKDN, December 2, 2020.
https://www.akdn.org/press-release/aga-khan-trust-culture-receives-iccrom-sharjah-award-best-practice-
conservation.
53

which means lower budget and faster implementation. People can recognize immediate
improvement and quick achievements. Souq Al-Saqatyeh is supposed to serve a daily
need and can be easily accessed, despite its central location in the traditional souqs. The
restoration ofSouq Al Saqatyeh was completed in July of 2019 (Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.3: Souq Al-Saqatyeh in Old Aleppo after the destruction and before restoration. Source: Agha
Khan Cultural Services Syria (Facebook page). Picture date: Cerca 2016

Figure 4.4: Souq Al-Saqatyeh in Old Aleppo after restoration. Source: Agha Khan Cultural Services Syria
(Facebook page). Picture date: 2019

Other pilot projects followed the preservation of souq Al Saqatyeh like the
preservation of souq Khan Al Harir which included 60 shops and three khans (Inn for
travelers, Caravanserai), they are khan AlHarir, Khan Janki, and Khan Al Bandkah. The
54

souq was also in a central location, in the area that surrounds the Omayyad mosque. It has
also straightforward access which will make it easy for people to enter the souq. Working
on this project was more challenging because it included rebuilding destroyed parts as
well as the restoration of the damaged parts, the restoration of the stone elevations and
the replacement of the heavily damaged or the missing stones with similar stones of the
same material, also the replacement of shop doors with wooden doors that simulate the
old traditional doors. The project was finished in the summer of 2020 and was ready for
the merchants and the people to return.
Other projects were implemented in the old city of Aleppo in the last few years
since the post-war recovery phase has started, these projects were undertaken by the local
community under the supervision and monitoring of the government. In July 2019, I
visited the Maronite Eparchy (St.Elijah) of Aleppo. The monument is located in Al-
Jdaydeh which is the Christian neighborhood in old Aleppo. During the conflict between
2012 and 2016, the Cathedral suffered at least three extensive mortar attacks. The worst
damage happened in 2013, when the ceiling was severely damaged, also the dome and
the walls. In 2016, twelve days after Aleppo was free of conflict, the community decided
to celebrate Christmas in the Cathedral despite its bad condition at that time. The
community wanted to send a message of hope.
153
Similar to all other post-war recovery
examples, damaged religious buildings in Aleppo, attracted the most interest of the
national and the international community due to the spiritual importance to the
community, including mosques and churches in Aleppo. Two hundred and forty mosques
in the old city of Aleppo were damaged during the conflict, some of them are devastated
and the rest are moderately or slightly damaged. During the last two years, fifty of these
damaged mosques were renovated. The contractor who is responsible for the
reconstruction of these buildings assured that religious buildings had the priority in the
process, also rebuilding some of these buildings were highly supported financially by the
public and private sector, local community, and the international organizations.
According to the contractor, work on rebuilding the damaged buildings was emotionally

153
Lozano, Maria. “Gravely Damaged in War, Cathedral of St. Elijah in Aleppo Rises from the Ashes.” Aid
to the Church in Need - ACN United States. Aid to the Church in Need , July 21, 2020.
https://www.churchinneed.org/gravely-damaged-in-war-cathedral-of-st-elijah-in-aleppo-rises-from-the-
ashes/.
55

driven, and later it became more organized. The religious buildings were a priority in the
recovery process because of the desire of the community to re-practice their religious
rituals, especially those who are donating money for this purpose. Also, the priority was
for the buildings that are moderately or lightly damaged because it requires lower budget,
besides the great support of the religious sects' in Aleppo.
"The restoration and reopening of the Maronite Eparchy (St.Elijah), has both a
symbolic and a practical meaning" stated Maronite Archibishop of Aleppo. "It's a
message for the Christian and the world that Christians are still in Aleppo and they are
partners in this city and country", he continued.
154
Christians of Syria suffered during the
war, together with all of the population. In Aleppo, 180,000 Christians used to live in the
city before the conflict, while after the war only 30,000 Christians have remained in the
city. The ACN (Aid to the Church in Need) is the international body that funded the
restoration of the cathedral, they also supported a large number of other projects in Syria
between 2011 and 2019.
155

A similar project was the restoration of the Great Umayyad Mosque in Aleppoand
the rebuilding of its destroyed minaret. The mosque was originally built by the first
imperial Islamic dynasty, it has been the center of many battlefields throughout history.
"The Crusaders, Fatimids, Ayyubids, Mongols, and Mamluks all took part in destroying
the mosque, and rebuilding it afterward."
156
The mosque was also a battlefield during the
recent conflict in Aleppo and was severely damaged, its most significant element, the
11th-century Seljuk minaret was targeted and totally destroyed in a very emotional
moment for all the people of Aleppo. The citizens of the city grieved the minaret of Al-
Omawi more than any other monument, It was a historical, ethnic and artistic icon for the
city. The minaret stood on the northern side of thestructure, "it was covered with
moldings and calligraphic bandeaus of Kufic and Naskhi scripts."
157

154
Ibid
155
Ibid
156
Stouhi, Dima. “The Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo: from Historic Islamic Monument to War
Battlefield.” ArchDaily. ArchDaily, July 24, 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/921640/the-great-umayyad-
mosque-of-aleppo-from-historic-islamic-monument-to-war-battlefield.
157
Ibid
56

"During the conflict, the fighters against the government’s regime continuously
laid siege to the site."
158
More architectural elements were either destroyed or stolen from
the mosque, including the unique tiles of the courtyard which were taken off and
arranged in a defensive wall to close the eastern entrance of the mosque. After the end of
the conflict inside the old city of Aleppo, the Umayyad mosque received a lot of attention
nationally and internationally. The intervention plans aimat rebuilding the destroyed and
damaged parts to bring the mosque back to the condition it was before the conflict. "The
restoration project was assigned to Syrian engineer Dr. SakherOlabi, who has already
commenced work on this project in 2017 and expects the mosque to be completed within
two to three years, with plans for new decorative stonework and a framework made from
local and imported wood. Funding for the mosque’s restoration has reached more than six
million dollars, donated by philanthropists in the Chechen Republic."
159
After the
destruction of the minaret, experts called for the protection of its remaining stones, so
they can be reused in the reconstruction, all stones were numberedlater and laid all over
the mosque, and the courtyard yard tiles are now being preserved and examined by
engineers to be reused again.
160
The destruction of the minaret of the UmmayadMosque
in Aleppo was one of the most painful events for the majority of the people of Aleppo
during the war. After the conflict, the decision for reconstruction was taken at the highest
level. Similar to the Mostar Bridge and Aladza Mosque, priority was given to the
reconstruction of religious buildings and the iconic and most significant historic
monuments. These monuments are receiving a lot of funding to help to bring them back
to their glory.
Many residential neighborhoods were devastated, some of them were flattened to
the ground like Al Aqaba, Al Farafra, and the entrance of Al Jdaydeh in the area
thatconnects Al khandak street with Al Hatab square. Even though these areas of the old
city are in urgent need of reconstruction, most of the interest in the reconstruction and the
largest efforts are going to the reconstruction of the religious buildings and the traditional
markets. Rebuilding the residential neighborhoods is necessary for the return of the
residents of the old city. It is as important as rebuilding the identity of the people by

158
Ibid
159
Ibid
160
Ibid
57

bringing back their dearest places and most meaningful symbols. The residents of the old
city can help in deciding where to start and what to rebuild, this may bringa bottom-up
decision-making strategy to the table, instead of the top-down strategy that is already
being considered since the beginning of the post-war rebuilding process.

The Challenges of the Post-War Recovery in Aleppo
Some of the experts who are recently involved in the reconstruction process
emphasized the idea that the post-war reconstruction in Aleppo lacks a clear strategy,
which should be part of a more comprehensive strategy for the rebuilding and the
development of the greater city of Aleppo. Challenges to the recovery process may also
include:
1. The centralization of the decision making in the country, and the absence of the
role of the local community in making decisions, identifying the needs and determining
priorities.
2. The absence of complete documentation for all the buildings in the old city,
including details of the architectural features.
3. The lack of resources that identify the typology of all types of buildings, and
the detailed architectural features that belong to different historical eras.
4. The absence of a post-war vision for the Old City as part of the larger city of
Aleppo.
5. The absence of a comprehensive strategy for the reconstruction process.
6. The building code of the old city of Aleppo that is being used for the
reconstruction is not designed to serve cases of complete destruction. It was designed to
serve cases of the preservation of the existing city before the war. For the same reason,
the building code doesn't solve the problem of rebuilding the multi-story buildings that
were destroyed during the conflict. The building code prohibits a new building of more
than two stories and imposes a specific percentage for the built-up area, which will make
it hard to rebuild the multiple story buildings the way it used to be before the conflict and
to accommodate all the residents and the businesses inside.
58

7. The properties' ownership challenge which had emerged as a result of the
devastation in some neighborhoods of old Aleppo, especially in cases where property
owners are not anymore living in Aleppo.
8. In many cases, as a quick response to the critical situation of devastated
buildings in the old city, People rushed to save the buildings from total damage due to
neglect. The results weren't always satisfying and rebuilding in many cases was done by
unprofessional people.
9. The absence of coordination between different stakeholders.
10. The limited funding, due to many reasons including the political and the
economic situation in the country and the international sanctions.
11. The limited role of the international organizations like UNESCO and
ICOMOS.
12. The absence of the handcrafters, stonemasons, carpenters, and painters who
left the country during the conflict. Traditionally, building materials in Aleppo,
particularly stone, sand, earth and wood were sought in nature near the construction site.
Limestone especially was used in construction: it is a hard material that resists well to
strain and compression.
161
Working with limestone and lime plaster traditionally needs a
specific manual and a special experience.
One of the main concerns is to use a similar approach to the one
thatwasconsidered in thereconstruction of Palmyra’s Arch of Triumph. In 2016, a replica
of Palmyra’s Arch of Triumph was reconstructed in Trafalgar Square in London under
the supervision of the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums in Syria
(DGAM), the highest national authority of archaeological sites in Syria, in collaboration
with the Institute for Digital Archaeology (IDA). This was one of the reconstruction plans
that continued applying a ‘top-down’ approach to archaeology in Syria. The replica
project has been widely criticized for numerous reasons, one of which was this top-down
approach which neglected the viewpoints of local stakeholders.
162
Using this approach

161
“Traditional Syrian Architecture Corpus Levant .” Avignon, France : Ecole d’Avignon for the CORPUS
Levant, 2004.
162
Munawar, Nour A. “Rebuilding Aleppo: Public Engagement in Post-Conflict Reconstruction.”
Academia.edu. ICOMOS University Forum, 2018.
https://www.academia.edu/36248866/Rebuilding_Aleppo_Public_Engagement_in_Post-
Conflict_Reconstruction.
59

besides the continuous ignorance of the viewpoints of other stakeholders and partners in
the city will fail to bring back the same city that survived all these years. The old
neighborhoods were always the heart of the city of Aleppo, whichwas nominated and
later classified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its unique traditional
fabric that maintained the elements of the traditional city, including a majority of
residential neighborhoods. People of Aleppo are looking forward to Old Aleppo being
brought back to the way it used to be and getting back to their houses and shops and
enjoying the spontaneous lifestyle they used to have. What they don't want is another
post-war Beirut, If there is anything to learn from the experience of rebuilding Beirut, it
would be the failure ofthe top-down approach. But, where are the people of old Aleppo?
"The Syrian war has displaced more than half of the country's population. In the
case of Aleppo, people fled the city, and the city also witnessed newcomers from other
cities, and the suburbs, people who may not appreciate what they have in Aleppo."
163

When heritage sites are neglected, ownerships are mixed and informal buildings are built,
the social structure will also change. In Old Aleppo, many people left their houses
looking for a safer shelter, some of them don't know the destiny of their homes since they
left, and no one knows if they will be back after the war. "While the focus of media and
donors is on the measurable outputs that have immediate and visible results and quick
impacts on the short term, the rebuilding plan should become a long term commitment in
which awareness can be raised, the capacity of the displaced population and institutions
can grow, and the society will recover on the political, economic, institutional, and social
levels."
164
On the other hand, professionals in Aleppo are calling for a quick response to
the emergency cases that suffered from neglect during the last few years. One of the
professionals shared his opinion on social media, emphasizing thatthe destruction left
exposed sensitive parts of the buildings to weather and climate changes, which led to the
deterioration of the building mass in many cases, besides the lack ofstatistical balance in
some damaged buildings. This will cause more damage and further destruction in historic

163
Qudsi, Jwanah. “(PDF) Rebuilding Old Aleppo | Postwar Sustainable Recovery ...” www.academia.edu.
Accessed December 8, 2020.
https://www.academia.edu/26963608/Rebuilding_Old_Aleppo_Postwar_Sustainable_Recovery_and_Urba
n_Refugee_Resettlement.
164
Ibid
60

buildings. Emergency intervention in these cases must be a priority to preserve and
protect the remaining damaged buildings.

The Cultural Identity:
"A culture brings meaning to the lives of its members and gives them a sense of
belonging, a sense of identity through having a common history, language and other
cultural attributes. Culture is thus a unifying force for its members. When faced with new
and incompatible demands, members of a culture may need to alter some of their cultural
attributes to accommodate the new challenges, thereby also changing their cultural
identity."
165
Over history, the people of Syria maintained a lot of their cultural attributes,
although some of these attributes were lost, some others were changed to comport with
modern times. One of these attributes is the cultural costume, You can hardly find a
nonspecialist in Syria who knows what were the traditional costumes in every Syrian city
or geographic area, the people in urban areas and cities abandoned these traditions a long
time ago. On the other hand, the people of Syria especially in Aleppo, have a lot of
traditions and cultural attributes that they proudly maintain such as Aleppo cuisine, music
and traditional Aleppo songs, and oral heritage (the traditional proverbs). Many aspects
of Aleppo's intangible heritage were affected in a way by the conflict, the displacement
and migration of the residents who were replaced by a new population from the other
cities or the countryside. They changed the demography in the city. "The disappearance
of many knowledgeable holders is resulting in the disappearance of some oral traditions
and skills as well as a break in transmission of this knowledge, thus depriving present and
future generations an essential part of their culture. Artisans have seen a considerable
number of their workshops, tools and materials destroyed and burnt. Activities related to
the transmission of these skills have been suspended."
166

After the beginning of the war in Aleppo, the people of Aleppo especially those
who fled the city, started sharing on social media and expressing how much they miss the
city, and how they feel sorry for what's happening there. They were watching their

165
Price, Nicholas Stanely. “Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery - ICCROM.” www.iccrom.org, 2005.
https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/files/ICCROM_ICS06_CulturalHeritagePostwar_en_0.pdf.
166
“Oral Traditions and Expressions Including Language as a Vehicle of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.”
UNESCO. UNESCO. Accessed December 8, 2020. https://ich.unesco.org/en/oral-traditions-and-
expressions-00053.
61

dearest monuments and architectural iconic buildings being destroyed one after the other
and wanted to revive the heritage of the city. At that time they only could protect their
intangible heritage. Many actual and virtual events and initiatives were established to
maintain and refresh the memories of the people about their culture, traditions, and
heritage inside and outside Syria. Musical events were organized, cuisine books were
written and published. A national team also started the initiative of collecting the oral
heritage of the city. All these efforts reflect high awareness about the importance of
heritage in preserving cultural identity. People have taken it upon themselves to salvage
their heritage, one of the groups that were created on Facebook with more than 52,000
Aleppians of different faiths and ethnicities sharing memories of their traditions and way
of life before the war. “I am afraid that we will lose a lot of our traditions and vocabulary
because of the immigration,” says the group’s head administrator referring to the
thousands of people who have left Aleppo since the Syrian war broke out in 2011. For
example, many craftspeople have now left the country, she explains. These kinds of
initiatives made people more connected to the city andpeople who left the city are
dreaming of getting back to Aleppo, they are attached to that place, and feel that their
souls are still there, another member explains.
167
More of these activities and initiatives
are taking place recentlyto support the preservation of the identity of the people. It's the
belief that the correlation between people and heritage will heal the city after these years
of displacement and destruction. Targeting people as part of the rebuilding process,
educating them and raising their awareness of the value of their heritage is important.
Also, making them involved in the process is a key factor. They can heal the heritage and
heritage can heal them.
"The reconstruction of cultural heritage in the aftermath of war could play a major
role in rebuilding a healthy post-conflict society."
168
The work of different stakeholders
in rebuilding old Aleppo during the last few years is very impressive. The partnership and
the involvement of international agencies and the local authorities in different projects
like Souq Al Saqatyeh, Omayyad Grand Mosque and the Maronite Eparchy (St.Elijah),

167
Mackenzie, Laura. “Rebuilding Aleppo: 'We Cannot Preserve the Place but We Can Save Our
Memories'.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, July 15, 2019.
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/jul/15/how-war-shattered-aleppo-is-preserving-its-culture.
168
Price, Nicholas Stanely. “Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery - ICCROM.” www.iccrom.org, 2005.
https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/files/ICCROM_ICS06_CulturalHeritagePostwar_en_0.pdf.
62

all have brought back hope that the city of Aleppo will rise from ruins. It's the future that
is going to be more challenging, with the lack of public involvement and the absence of a
comprehensive plan for the reconstruction. The love of the city and the dedication to
rebuilding it will serve the right path with specific guidance and a comprehensive long
term plan.

63

Chapter 5: What is next?
The previous chapters discussed how many cities were reborn from ashes, each
city did it differently. Many cities used the top-down approach and the decision for
rebuilding was politically made, like the case of downtown Beirut and the rebuilding of
the Mostar bridge in Bosnia. In the reconstruction of the old town of Warsaw, the process
aimed mainly to bring back the residential area to continue performing the same purposes
as it used to be before the war. The outcome in these cases proved the importance of the
involvement of the local community in cities' post-war recovery and made it clear that the
political factor had a forcing effect in this process. These examples should serve as
lessons for the recovery process in the city of Aleppo.
In this chapter we will discuss the following questions:
1. What is the potential of engaging people in the process of rebuilding?
2. Who are the actors that help to shape this kind of populist practice? Aleppo was
brought to ruins in a country were ethics and politics are different than what is in the
West. This fact may suggest that regulations and protection laws could be applied
differently;
3. How effective is the social-political kind of practice in the case of Old Aleppo?
4. What steps might be taken to initiate and enhance the effectiveness of apractice like
this?

The Social Change that Resulted from the Destruction of the Traditional Built
Environment, and the Potential of Public Engagement in the Post-War Rebuilding
Process in Aleppo.
Reconstruction of cities post-war is not a new concept, It has always been more
than rebuilding the destroyed monuments and bringing back cities to how they looked
before the conflict. The years of conflict in Aleppo have changed the people in many
ways, and the city witnessed a huge demographic transformation. Aleppo people suffered
from displacement and lack of resources, they lost their houses, jobs, and in many cases
family members. As a result, their requirements and priorities have changed.
Understanding people's needs for the post-war recovery phase is very important, it
becomes a priority in this process to help decision-makers planning for the city and help
64

them know what is needed to be restored or rebuilt in old Aleppo. The conflict in Aleppo
destroyed and damaged many historic monuments that used to serve the community
daily, people were emotionally connected to many of them. Also, the conflict caused
huge destruction in residential neighborhoods, and people were forced to leave the old
town, they were displaced either outside or inside the city of Aleppo and lived where they
don't belong. Every day in real life and social media, we see nostalgic people, who are
expressing their sorrow for what happened to the old city and enforcing memories of the
city as a way to keeping it alive. They miss the old city, but do they want to go back to
live in it after rebuilding?
Many of the residents of the western neighborhoods in Aleppo which were less
targeted and less affected by the destruction fled the city and left their houses, they didn't
want to leave their houses empty while they live abroad, they made sure that someone
will be occupying the house, so they put the house for rent or gave it to someone they
know. This resulted in a demographic shift, when residents of the old city and the eastern
neighborhoods moved west in the city, seeking safety and shelter. The fact that
neighborhoods in western Aleppo have a higher quality of life and services, means many
of the residents of the old town who moved to the modern city, are now living in
neighborhoods with larger houses, wider streets, and better services. Four years after the
end of the conflict in the old city, most of these families are still occupying the houses in
west Aleppo, even when they know that their neighborhoods are now safe to go back to.
The displacement of people has also affected the western neighborhood, the residential
areas are now overwhelmed, and the commercial streets are overcrowded. A
comprehensive strategy that includes returning people of the old city to their houses
becomes a need in order to provide a demographic balance in the city, this can't be
achieved by planning to rebuild the historic part without considering the housing needs of
the people.
As a World Heritage site, old Aleppo received a lot of interest, the international
community started early in the conflict to provide guidelines to protect the historic
buildings, after the conflict they provided more support to start the recovery process. The
rehabilitation project of the old city of Aleppo before the conflict supported the
participatory approach for fifteen years by reaching out to people and getting them
65

involved in planning for their city and by financing the citizens' small projects and
housing preservation. While the international intervention is now strongly present in the
post-war decision of rebuilding the old city, the approach has become a top-down one so
far, "this approach must be opposed and concurrently replaced by the bottom-up
approach wherein decisions and action can be generated from the wider society."
169
It can
be reversed by reaching out to people again, those who are still in the old city and others
who were displaced and settled in the western neighborhoods, to participate in the
decision making. The national authorities and the international community are focusing
on the huge loss of the World Heritage site, they have a legitimate reason which is the
fear that historic monuments may fall into neglect. The early actions, efforts, and
financial resources were all invested in the projects of rebuilding the historic landmarks.
"The attempts were primarily directed to reconstruct and preserve the physical
construction of the built heritage to maintain the identity of those sites, which is
embodied in religious and historical monuments."
170

Conflicts are one of the reasons for the change in the urban and social structure in
the city, it should be a reason to generate a new way of thinking and new strategies. The
consequences of conflict and change are part of the life cycle of the city and the history
of any heritage site.When a transformation occurs and the change happens in the urban
built environment and the social structure of the city, the city can't simply return to what
it exactly used to look like before the conflict. The reconstruction process could be the
key to solve the problems in the old city which were a resultof earlier interventions, like
the multi-story buildings in many neighborhoods. The rebuilding should bring
opportunities to improve the quality of social life, and serve in the reconstruction of the
wounded communities. "Post-war reconstruction should be used as a tool for
reconciliation to help ensure that the wounded community is considered and all identities
should be presented in the post-war city."
171

169
Munawar, Nour A. “Rebuilding Aleppo: Public Engagement in Post-Conflict Reconstruction.”
Academia.edu. ICOMOS University Forum, 2018.
170
Ibid
171
Ibid
66

How Effective is the Social-Political Kind of Practice in the Case Of Old Aleppo?
Most of the challenges that will be facing the rebuilding process are related in
many ways to political decisions in the country , international intervention and deciding
who is going to be allowed to participate in this phase. Yet, there is a chance to find a
balance in rebuilding Aleppo, where actors from the local community can participate in
this practice. Those actors could be a group of representatives from the local community
who care about the old city and many of them have the experience. This group includes
historians, preservationists, architecture historians, craftsmen, merchants and shop
owners who can enrich the decision-making process. Many of the commercial and
touristic property owners took charge of restoring their properties to bring back life to the
old city including antique, crafts shops, restaurants and hotel owners. Commercial and
tourist property owners served a very important role in the past. Restaurants and hotels in
renovated and reused traditional houses in the old city of Aleppo helped to flourish some
neighborhoods. The improvement in the infrastructure and the rehabilitation projects in
the old city that followed the designation as a World Heritage site attracted investment
from the wealthy Aleppians. The last few years of the twentieth century and early years
of the twenty-first century marked the growth of modern sensibilities through the
embrace of new leisure practices in Syrian cities like Aleppo and Damascus, and the
desire to enjoy the nostalgic feeling provided by the old traditional houses in these old
cities thet were once an integral part of communal life. These activities attracted the elite
mostly, those who don't live inside the old city. It also attracted tourists who enjoyed the
experience of dining and spending the night in the old town just like merchants did in old
times on the Silk Road.
172
Investors purchased some of the big houses in the
neighborhoods close to the citadel and many courtyard houses in Al-Jdaydeh, the
historically Christian neighborhood in Old Aleppo. Houses were renovated, decorated,
maintained their authentic feeling, and served the best traditional recipes of Aleppo
cuisine. Those investors have the same desire now after the war to help raise Old Aleppo

172
Salamandra, C. (n.d.). THE NEW OLD CITY Nostalgia, representation and gentrification in historic
Damascus [PDF].

67

from ruins, this is why any decision regarding the future rebuilding process would mainly
affect them, and they should be involved in the decision making for the recovery of the
old city.
Since the end of the conflict, many residents, and wealthy people financed the
restoration of the moderately damaged religious buildings in the old town's
neighborhoods. Over fifty religious buildings were completely restored in the old city of
Aleppo during the last three years. Religious buildings have a role in bringing life back to
the old city as people will feel more connected when they know that they will be able to
visit their mosque or church when they come back home. Many representatives of local
organizations, activists, and university professors are also volunteering since the end of
the conflict in Aleppo in the historic documentation, damage assessments, and providing
archives if available like plans and pictures to help in restoring and maintaining the
authenticity of the historic buildings. The collaboration between all the actors and
stakeholders in the city including the local authorities, the international organizations,
citizens and property owners, experts, and developers is necessary to shape the future
populist practice.

The Steps that Might be taken to Initiate and Hence the Effectiveness of the Social-
Political Practice.
The project coordinator at UNESCO in post-war Cambodia said "We must focus
not just on stone, but on men, women, and children."
173
Besides involving people in the
planning for the future of their city, people especially the youth should be educated about
the importance of the culture in maintaining their identity, and also raise their cultural
awareness. Although this process is a long term process, it's important to make sure that
people won't leave their heritage behind. Tey can't just let the destruction which is
followed by neglect erase the heritage. This can be achieved by the involvement of
cultural and educational facilities like museums and the university in the educational
process and raising awareness. Building trust bridges between political decision-makers

173
Riding, A. (2004, February 03). After the Nightmare, Saving Cambodia's Treasures. The New York
Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/03/arts/after-the-nightmare-saving-cambodia-s-
treasures.html

68

and people in this phase is an important approach, people should believe that they are part
of the process and the reconstruction is happening to serve them and their city. A city like
Aleppo may not be rebuilt to serve tourist attraction goals only, tourism has always been
an important component in Old Aleppo, but it wasn't the main component. The city
survived over history because of its residents, It has always been attractive because of the
spontaneity of life in it. The approach that was implemented for years in Aleppo since
the initiation of the Rehabilitation Project of the Old City was participatory, it reached
out to people in the old neighborhoods through social surveys, small businesses surveys,
and regular meetings during the planning phase and throughout the implementation
process in every action area in the old city. After analyzing the results of the surveys, a
proposal of the reconstruction and renovation plan of the built environment in phases
should be announced to the public, many people from the public including residents of
the old city will feel involved in the plans. Small meetings in the shape of participatory
workshops could be handled in each neighborhood, which will make it easier to collect
feedback. Organizing the work by a coordinating entity is important. So far, UNESCO is
playing this role, which may require splitting roles between stakeholders and the public to
avoid duplication and waste of resources. Providing financial motivations and legal
facilitation will encourage people to do their part in the renovation of their properties.

What is Next? Shaping the Current Efforts and Guidelines to Successfully Serve
the Recovery of the Historic Part of Aleppo.
The old city of Aleppo has witnessed some progress in the recovery process
compared to the huge efforts and interest in rebuilding the city by the national and
international community but the lack of financial resources is one essential reason for not
going faster in this process. Many publications were provided by international
organizations like ICOMOS, Agha Khan, also by national and local representatives
incorporation with UNESCO and many scholars who provided studies and suggested
guidelines for post-war recovery. Some of these guidelines are very important, detailed
and some of them are already in the implementation phase. Unfortunately, all these
studies are not being reviewed and considered for a comprehensive plan for the recovery
of Aleppo. It is important not to rush the post-war process. Cities like Warsaw were
69

completely rebuilt fortyyears after the destruction, but it's important to ensure that the
city won't fall under neglect, which may result in more problems like poverty and legal
problems and the city may lose its authenticity.
In modern history, cities that were raised from ruins after the war had different
approaches, some cities like Dresden in Germany retained most of the original look,
others like cities in Britain were reconstructed entirely in a different way, while some
other German cities mixed the modern and the old as a result of debates between the
people and the authorities. Finding the balance between the planning for historic and
modern areas will help provide more orientation and a sense of identity. All the
documents and studies that were provided in the shape of plans and recommendations
agreed on the idea that old Aleppo should be rebuilt to be returned to the way it looked
before the war, especially regarding the famous buildings and landmarks. This will help
maintain the city’s' authenticity and to save its status as a World Heritage site in
UNESCO. On the other hand, Aleppo shouldn't forget what happened, destruction is part
of the history of the city, and we have to allow history to send a message to avoid future
wars. This idea can be adopted in the general rebuilding strategy of the city and could be
considered in the detailed rebuilding projects, by providing examples that show the
building or part of it destroyed or not completely built.
The strategic planning for the recovery of the old city should ensure:
1. The coordination between all the involved stakeholders and collect all the professional
and financial efforts to develop a shared vision for the old city as part of a comprehensive
vision of the whole city.
2. The collection of all the damage assessment data which was done by certified and
trustworthy organizations all in one reference.
3. The prioritization of the repopulation of the old city to preserve the social living
atmosphere.
4. The need to enforce of new regulations and legal framework to solve the problems and
the property chaos that resulted from the destruction in some areas, and facilitate
renovation procedures and reconstruction permits.
5. The allowing for more involvement of developers and the private sector in the
rebuilding process by providing motivations under direct supervision.
70

6. The re-evaluation of the destroyed buildings in the old city and designing clear criteria
of what's historic and needs to be rebuilt.
7. The provision for treatment standards and a detailed manual for the restoration of the
historic architectural features in buildings, and ensure that the restoration should be based
on these standards.
8. The provision of the required training for the national staff who will be responsible for
permit approval and implementation supervision.
9. The raising of the people's awareness of the importance of cultural heritage in
preserving the identity of generations in the future.

71

Conclusion
The old city of Aleppo is an Ancient city that survived invasions and destruction
many times over history and has risen from ruins every time, as the people and the
historic places faced the same destiny. This thesis discusses the fact that cultural heritage
was always targeted in conflicts to affect the technical and the social infrastructure of the
city and make it easy to control. It also discusses that the relationship between the people
and their heritage as a sword with two sides, where the loss ofheritage can affect people’s
presence and identity. Heritage itself can heal communities and they can heal it. The city
of Aleppo is one of many cities that was devastated during conflicts, especially in modern
history.This thesis exploresexamples about cities that suffered from destruction in
previous events and explores the approaches and the results of the post-war
reconstruction, like that in Beirut after the civil war, Bosnia after the Balkans war,
Warsaw, and Germany. These examplesshould be considered as lessons to plan for the
recovery process.The city of Aleppo should also learn from its own history about how to
rise again. This paper looks historically at the destruction that happened in Aleppo
followed by reconstruction, in order to learn from the experience as to how these events
have shaped the recent city. It also accepts that the change that comes with the
destruction and rebuilding will be a historic record for the future.
During the last few years in Aleppo, a lot of work has been done to rebuild the old
city, many reconstruction projects were implemented and many guidelines were provided
by experts and scholars aiming to help the recovery of the old city. This thesis does not
provide more guidelines, it is an attempt to encourage the collection of all the efforts and
guidelines to help serve the recovery of the historic part of Aleppo and make sure that
Aleppo can become a good example for the recovery of cities from disasters in the future.
A major lesson, where a World Heritage Site like the old city of Aleppo has been
devastated as a result of the conflict in a world that widely understands the importance of
cultural heritage for humanity, is that there must be more efforts to protect cultural
heritage from destruction during conflicts. The international world should come together
to protect its heritage.

72

Appendix A
UNESCO Criteria for Site Selection

UNESCO provided ten criteria for site selection; six of which are cultural properties and
four for natural areas. They are selected
i. To represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;
ii. to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture and technology, monumental
arts, town-planning or landscape design;
iii. to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization
which is living or which has disappeared;
iv. to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological
ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;
v. to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use
which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the
environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible
change;
vi. to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with
beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance;
vii. to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and
aesthetic importance;
viii. to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the
record of life, significant on-going geographical processes in the development of
landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;
ix. to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological
processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine
ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;
x. to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in situ conversation of
biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.

73

Appendix B
National and iInternational Groups that wereWorking during the Conflict.
174

- Arab British Centre (ABC), International Team. From 11th to 16th of June
2014, ABC organized a cultural event called “Syria Speaks. Art and Culture from the
Frontline”, which gathered the work of over fifty artists and writers who are challenging
the culture of violence in Syria.
- The American School of Oriental Research (ASOR), On the 4th of August 2014,
ASOR entered into a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of State (DoS) to
monitor cultural heritage in Syria. The project, called the “Syrian Heritage Initiative”
(SHI), aims to document the current condition of historical and archaeological sites in
Syria and assess their preservation, protection and future restoration. ASOR is producing
weekly reports to assess the damages in the Syrian heritage sites.
- Association for the Protection of Syrian Archaeology (APSA), this group was
established as a response to the crisis. : APSA continues to document and update about
the damage to Syria’s heritage on their website, Facebook page and YouTube account. In
collaboration with the Institut du Monde Arabe and the Louvre Museum.
- BrandenburgischeTechnische Universität (BTU), Friends of the Old City of
Aleppo (FOCA)*, Group of Friends of the Syrian People (Working Group on Economy
Recovery and Development) (FOSP), and the Deutsche Gesellschaft
fürInternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ). Four different bodies organized a workshop
called “Aleppo Archive in Exile” organized at the BTU in January 2014 to discuss
conservation, refurbishment and digitally updating the existing Old City of Aleppo
historic documents (i.e. cadastral maps), as well as the creation of a new cadastre of
damage, and measures for the renewal of the ancient monuments in the Old City.
- Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Aleppo. the
students of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Aleppo have created a
group on Facebook which aims to discuss the current status of the city, and the team is
Syrian.

174
Perini, Silvia. “Towards a Protection of the Syrian Cultural Heritage: A Summary of the International
Responses Volume II.” www.heritageforpeace.org, October 2014. http://www.heritageforpeace.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/Towards-a-protection-of-the-Syrian-cultural-heritage_Oct-2014.pdf.
74

- Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums (DGAM), The DGAM is
continuing its efforts to preserve and protect the country’s cultural heritage and preparing
lists for damage assessment in the Syrian locations.
- Heritage for Peace (HfP), organized a symposium, “Lessons learned to
safeguard cultural heritage in conflict situations”, on 23rd and 24th April 2014, in
Santander. HFP are sending biweekly updates to interested parties about the damage to
Syria’s heritage through the HfP Damage Mailing List, designing a Task Force on
Antiquities and Museums with funding from The Dutch Government, training damage
assessment for Task Force staff; and training and conservation program for the Aleppo
Museum with a grant from the Honor Frost Foundation.
- Ila Souria (IS), established as a response to the crisis. IS is an association whose
aim is to organize events for the rebuilding of Syria, such as seminars, workshops,
exhibitions, publications and the creation of a Syrian Popular University, and the team is
French and Syrian.
- Monuments of Syria (MoS), Monuments of Syria is the title of a book published
by Ross Burns in 1992. It is now on its 3rd edition and in 2011 a website was created by
the author to promote Syria’s heritage. In particular, he created a page to track damage
occurring to heritage during the conflict. Damages updates are available also as a pdf
document.
- Smithsonian Institution (SI) and Penn Cultural Heritage Center (Penn CHC),
from 2014 they have been working together towards the protection of the Syrian Cultural
Heritage. In particular, SI and Penn CHC worked together in July 2014 to create an
emergency workshop, training, and support for Syrian museum collections.
- Syrian Association for the Preservation of Archaeology and Heritage (SAPAH).
The Syrian team of the SAPAH is an independent, non-governmental organization that
supports the protection of the Syrian heritage.
- Syrian Heritage Pages (SHP), is a Facebook group that aims to raise awareness
on the status of the Syrian heritage, networking information from the many other
Facebook groups. The team is international.
75

- US Department of State (DoS), The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
(ECA) of the US Department of State is committed to helping Syrians preserve their
heritage through a program called Syria Cultural Heritage Initiative.
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
UNESCO is continuing to work towards the protection of the Syrian cultural heritage.

76

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Earthquakes have rattled cities to rubble, fires have burned them to ashes, and wars have destroyed and flattened cities. Each tragedy has its silver lining, however faint that may be. When a city is destroyed beyond recognition, the need to rebuild provides a new opportunity for the community to accept the change and redraw the physical landscape, to make it stronger than it was before. War is considered the most violent shape of destruction, which in addition to human loss, they commit devastating violence against the urban fabric of cities. Parties of conflict are intentionally destroying each other's culture, violating international laws of heritage protection, and ignoring the importance of heritage as a witness of history and is a valuable asset of important resources for future generations. Managing the post-war heritage sites is considered countries’ first step for rebuilding cities. Also maintaining post-disaster heritage sites will extend their life for sustainable use by the community and will help to rebuild identities. ❧ The research aims to find the tools to rebuild cities after conflicts, which affect cities' assets, resources, and identities, considering the discussion of challenges and limitations for implementation. A specific case study of the Old City of Aleppo, as an ancient heritage location and a UNESCO World Heritage site from 1996 which recently suffered the destruction of its old town during the conflict in Syria will be part of the major discussion. will be supported by a comparison between different heritage sites which experienced a similar situation in the recent past and their ways to heal and recover. The research will include a historic background about the city to understand the nature of its heritage and the importance of it as a world heritage site, and the damage assessment of its fabric and historic monuments, efforts of the national and the international societies to save and mitigate the damage. The lack of policies and clear directed rebuilding strategy, a review of the ICOMOS Guidance on Post Trauma Recovery and Reconstruction to base our guidelines for the rebuilding of the old city of Aleppo and protecting the identity of the people.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mokayed, Dalia (author)

Core Title Heritage conservation to rebuild cities after crisis case study: the Old City of Aleppo

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Heritage Conservation

Degree Program Heritage Conservation

Publication Date 03/05/2021

Defense Date 01/20/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag conflicts,heritage,OAI-PMH Harvest,rebuilding

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Breisch, Kenneth (committee chair), Bharne, Vinayak (committee member), Moatasim, Faiza (committee member)

Creator Email daliamokayed@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-424186

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Identifier etd-MokayedDal-9306.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-424186 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MokayedDal-9306.pdf

Dmrecord 424186

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Rights Mokayed, Dalia

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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