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Effective services provided to community college student-athletes: a gap analysis

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Effective services provided to community college student-athletes: a gap analysis

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EFFECTIVE SERVICES PROVIDED TO COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENT-ATHLETES:
A GAP ANALYSIS
by
Darnell L. Bing

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2021

Copyright 2021 Darnell L. Bing

ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Rachal, and my two amazing little girls, Daia
Rae and Drea Rose. Your patience, love, and encouragement was a key component in getting to
this point. Rachal, thank you for believing in me and keeping me focused on the mission. Daia,
thank you for being my study buddy/officemate. Even though you made a ton of noise, I
appreciated the fact that you wanted to be close and work on things in the room with me. Drea,
you are far too young, but knowing that you were coming to join us in this world soon definitely
helped me finish.
To my mother Michelle and my brothers Shawn and James, you all have played a key
role in my entire life. I want to thank you for always speaking life into me and making me feel as
if I had the ability to take on the world.
To my nieces and nephew (Ashley, Anylah, Shania, Shaylee, Lil Shawn) and my younger
cousins, I have done this for you. I hope you are inspired to reach the full potential inside of you.
In memory of my great grandmother Novell, my grandmother Mattie, and my cousin
Willie James Pigram III (Willie Boy). Thank you for the role each of you played in my life. I
miss you tremendously and I hope this has made you proud.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee (My Dream Team): Dr.
Adrian Donato, Dr. Monique Datta, and Dr. Jeremy Hart; your professional experience, attention
to details, and continuance words of encouragement are invaluable. I desire to be to students
what you were to me. Thank you!
To the entire Cohort 9, thank you for welcoming me with open arms and making me feel
that together, we would all succeed. From immersion 1 I felt the bond and community from you
all. Thank you for being such wonderful human beings.
Finally, to my entire family. There are so many things that I can say right now, but l will
keep it short and sweet by saying “WE DID IT.” The support you all have provided me, holding
me accountable, and simply you all just being who you are. Thank you! This is something we
can celebrate for a long time.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

Abstract viii

Chapter One: Introduction 1
Organizational Context and Mission 3
Organizational Performance and Goal 4
Importance of Addressing the Problem 5
Stakeholder Group for the Study 6
Purpose of the Project and Questions 6
Methodological Framework 7
Definitions 7
Organization of the Project 9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 10
Community Colleges 10
Students Demographics 10
Remedial Courses 11
Mentoring 12
Support Programs for Student-Athletes 13
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework 14
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 14
Knowledge and Skills 14
Motivation 17
Organization 20
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and the Organization 23
Conclusion 26

Chapter Three: Methods 28
Participating Stakeholders 28
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 29
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale 29
Data Collection and Instrumentation 30
Interviews 30
Data Analysis 31
Credibility and Trustworthiness 31
Ethics 32
Conclusion 33

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Chapter Four: Findings 35
Participating Stakeholders 36
Findings 37
Knowledge Findings 37
Motivation Findings 41
Organizational Findings 44
Summary 47

Chapter Five: Recommendations 49
Knowledge Recommendations 49
Factual Knowledge: Barriers 50
Conceptual Knowledge: Support Services 51
Factual Knowledge: Educational Requirements 52
Motivation Recommendations 53
Self-Efficacy 54
Expectancy-Value 54
Organizational Recommendations 55
Cultural Model Recommendations 56
Cultural Setting Recommendations 57
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 58
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 58
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 59
Level 3: Behaviors 60
Level 2: Learning 62
Level 1: Reaction 64
Evaluation Tools 65
Data Analysis and Reporting 66
Summary 68
Strengths and Weaknesses 69
Limitations and Delimitations 69
Future Research 70
Conclusion 70

References 72

Appendix A: Interview Protocol 91

Appendix B: Immediate Evaluation Tool 96

Appendix C: Delayed Evaluation Tool 97

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Stakeholder Performance Goals 4
Table 2: Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Influence Assessment 17
Table 3: Assumed Motivation Influence and Motivational Influence Assessments 20
Table 4: Organizational Framework for Success of Community College Student-Athletes 23
Table 5: Respondent Demographics 37
Table 6: Knowledge Influence Data Collection 38
Table 7: Motivation Influence Data Collection 42
Table 8: Organizational Influence Data Collection 44
Table 9: |Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 50
Table 10: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 53
Table 11: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 56
Table 12: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 59
Table 13: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 60
Table 14: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 61
Table 15: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 64
Table 16: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 65

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for Success of Community College Student-Athletes. ............ 25
Figure 2: Proposed reporting graphic. ........................................................................................... 67
Figure 3: Gap closure on student-athletes. .................................................................................... 68

viii
ABSTRACT
This study utilizes Clark and Estes’s gap analysis framework to examine knowledge, motivation,
and organization elements that interfere with student-athletes reaching degree completion rates
of 100%. Interview data were analyzed and coded to identify factors obstructing student-athletes
from completing their associate degree. The findings revealed both assets and needs for all three
facets: knowledge, motivation and organizational influences. The gaps identified that student-
athletes need to have more knowledge regarding their degree requirements, understand the value
of their education, and the organization as a whole need to work together campus-wide to
effectively support student-athletes. Recommendations address the gaps and the application of
New World Kirkpatrick Model converts the recommendations into a plan to assist student-
athletes in the pursuit of their academic goals.

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The National Student Clearinghouse (2017) indicated 46% of first-time community
college students enrolled full-time had not completed their degree or were no longer enrolled for
courses within six years. Over 2.1 million students are in a California community college (CCC),
and 75% entered underprepared for college-level coursework (California Community Colleges
Chancellor’s Office [CCCCO], 2015). A large segment of this population is made up of students
from low socioeconomic status (SES) communities, and they are less likely to complete their
degree (Grimes, 1997; Walpole, 2003). Student-athletes, in particular, often come from low-SES
communities and are first-generation college students who need remedial courses in English
and/or mathematics, causing them to be considered at-risk students (Boswell, 2004; Cox et al.,
2009; Leonard, 2002; McCurdy, 1994; Person & LeNoir, 1997; Shulock & Moore, 2005). These
students require academic support programs to assist in degree completion. Therefore, the
Community College of Southern California (CCSC), a pseudonym, developed a support program
for student-athletes to make the necessary adjustments to increase these students’ degree
completion rates.
Student-athletes often attend community college to continue participating in athletics for
numerous reasons. Some students are considered qualifiers by the NCAA when they graduate
from high school but seek a community college route in hopes of receiving better opportunities
or funding to attend a four-year institution later. A qualifier is a student-athlete who has
graduated from high school and completed the core curriculum with a certain grade point
average (GPA) and SAT or ACT score (NCAA, 2011). The core curriculum requirements consist
of 16 courses (Broughton & Neyer, 2001). Individuals are considered non-qualifiers if they
either did not graduate from high school or did not complete the core curriculum with a certain

2
GPA and SAT or ACT score (NCAA, 2011). These individuals must attend a community college
if they wish to later compete in their sport at a four-year institution (Iino, 2014).
It is important for community college student-athletes to be aware of their qualifying
status, as it helps the athletic counselor and coaches serve them appropriately regarding course
selection and recruitment. As a qualifier, student-athletes are eligible to receive an athletic
scholarship and transfer after completing one semester as a full-time student with 12 transferable
units (Community College Counselor/Advisors Academic Association for Athletics [3C4A],
2019). Additionally, a non-qualifier must earn an associate degree to receive an athletic
scholarship and transfer. An associate degree requires a minimum of 60 units in general
education, elective, and major preparatory courses.
1
All community college student-athletes hope
to achieve their academic and athletic goals.
Research has found students from low-SES communities are often labeled as
educationally disadvantaged and needing remedial courses (Boswell, 2004; Cox et al., 2009;
Leonard, 2002; McCurdy, 1994; Person & LeNoir, 1997; Shulock & Moore, 2005). Additionally,
Bettinger and Long (2009) found remedial courses negatively affect progress towards degree
completion, as such courses are often non-degree applicable. In general, community college
student-athletes are first-generation students who have never been exposed to higher education
(Comeaux & Harrison, 2007). These students deal with psychological barriers, such as emotional
distress, poor sense of belonging, low self-efficacy, and lack of motivation (Jury et al., 2017), in
addition to dealing with educational barriers. Several studies found these students will benefit
from effective support services to assist with their holistic development and help navigate
towards degree completion (Banbel & Chen, 2014; Daniel & Davidson, 2014).

1
Information retrieved from organizational documents and websites not cited to protect anonymity.

3
Organizational Context and Mission
CCSC is a community college in California. The mission of CCSC’s Student-Athlete
Support Program (SASP) is to provide support to enhance student-athletes’ well-being. This
proactive program motivates and assists student-athletes in transitioning to college life while
achieving and maintaining satisfactory academic performance. The SASP focuses on fostering
the student-athlete’s total development, both personally and professionally, to enable them to
develop the leadership skills to succeed in the classroom and in the real world. The SASP has
two full-time faculty members, one full-time staff member, and one part-time staff member
serving over 350 male and female student-athletes. To meet the program’s mission,
collaborations with instructional faculty members in subjects such as English, mathematics,
guidance, history, physical education, psychology, philosophy, and nutrition help student-
athletes complete general education and degree-specific courses. In general, the students in the
support program are between 17 and 26 years old and self-identify as African-American, Latinx,
White, Asian, Pacific Islander, Filipino, Native American, and multiracial. The participants are
generally low-income or middle class, and some have dealt with a learning disability,
homelessness, or have been a part of the foster care system.
Stakeholder Group Performance Goals
The primary stakeholders at the center of this study are the athletic counselors and
student-athletes. Although the stakeholders must work together to achieve CCSC’s
organizational performance goal of reaching 100% degree completion for student-athletes, each
stakeholder is responsible for meeting individual goals in support of CCSC’s effort. Table 1
highlights the mission as well as the organizational and stakeholder goals.

4
Table 1
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of CCSC’s SASP is for student-athletes to develop the skills needed to persist
towards degree completion, become leaders within the community, and lead successful and
productive lives.
Organization Performance Goal
By May 2021, CCSC seeks to reach 100% in degree completion rates among its student-
athlete population.
Athletic Counselors
By May 2021, the athletic counselors of the
SASP will have made the necessary
collaborations with instructional faculty
members to assist student-athletes in
increasing degree completion rates to 100%.
Student-Athletes
By May 2021, student-athletes will dedicate a
minimum of 10 hours per week to utilizing
services offered to them within the SASP.

Organizational Performance and Goal
CCSC has made strides to provide students support to progress through higher education
and achieve their educational goals. Student-athletes often seek to complete their associate
degree, transfer to a four-year institution, and continue their athletic careers. CCSC’s persistence
rate exceeds its degree completion rate. Persistence is defined as when a student has enrolled in
consecutive semesters at the same institution. Degree completion (graduation) is defined as when
a student has successfully completed all general education, elective, and major preparatory
courses to satisfy degree requirements. As an institution, over a six-year tracking period from
2011–2012 to 2016–2017 academic years, the persistence rate among all students was 76.2%,
and the graduation rate was 43.2% (CCCCO, 2018). However, the Student Success Scorecard
(CCCCO, 2018) indicated 38.5% of CCSC students were placed into remedial math and 45.7%
into remedial English. Also, per CCSC’s 2018–2019 annual program review, 78% (168 of 215)
of student-athletes persisted during the Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 semesters. CCSC’s athletic
department seeks to increase its student-athlete degree completion rates to 100%.

5
Since 2011, the SASP’s goal has been to increase student-athletes’ degree completion
rates. In the early stages, the SASP had only one part-time faculty member who served as an
athletic counselor, and now it has two full-time faculty members doing so and two classified staff
members: one full-time coordinator/mentor and one part-time tutor.
By May 2021, the SASP aims to reach a 100% degree completion rate among all student-
athletes. The goal is to be achieved by the work and support of CCSC’s athletic director and the
athletic counselor as they work towards the institution’s overall goal. To track this goal, the
SASP will issue progress reports to each student-athlete, monitor study hall hours, monitor
grades each semester, offer several short-term college success courses per semester, offer
specialized tutoring, offer crisis, educational, and career counseling, and collaborate with faculty
members in specific subjects for additional support.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The student-athlete degree completion rates during the 2011–2017 academic years were
lower than desired, and support programs are needed to help reach the goal of 100% degree
completion. Horton (2009) noted that community colleges should invest in athletics academic
support staff to ensure student-athletes remain on track to reach their goals. Additionally, Storch
and Ohlson (2009) expressed these programs’ focus should be to further the personal,
educational, and career development of the student-athlete. However, a lack of leadership efforts
to address equity issues has negatively affected underrepresented students’ performance
(Rodriguez, 2015).
Having the majority of a particular student population is not progressing through college
to earn a certificate, degree, or transfer to a four-year institution should be a significant equity
concern (Bragg & Durham, 2012; Greene et al., 2008; Horton, 2015; Lee & Ransom, 2011;

6
Wood & Williams, 2013). Research indicates that lower-achieving, underprepared, lower-
income, Black and Latinx students have a persistence failure rate of 50% or higher (Barth, 2001;
NCES, 2001). The student-athlete population should be considered in the Student Equity and
Achievement (SEA) Plan, as they are often underprepared for the rigorous work of higher
education. Monetary support from SEA to implement services can increase completion rates
(Muir, 2015). SEA is a combination of three programs formally known as Basic Skills Initiative
(BSI), Student Equity Plan, and Student Success and Support Plan.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
This study will focus on student-athletes. The student-athlete has the best knowledge of
the type of student they are and the areas in which they may need additional help to complete
degree requirements. Focusing on student-athletes provides a better understanding of their needs
and the quality of the services currently offered.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine knowledge,
motivation, and organization elements that interfere with reaching a 100% student-athlete
degree-completion rate at CCSC. While a complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholder focused on in this analysis were the student-athletes. Three
research questions guided this study:
1. What are student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to the CCSC’s SASP
goal of increasing the degree completion rates to100% for student-athletes?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and the
student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation?

7
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for increasing organizational performance to 100%
degree completion?
Methodological Framework
This study employed Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis model. This model is
important to making real change at the organization and was used to determine the change
necessary to reach the organization’s goal of 100% student-athlete degree completion a. In
efforts to reach the organization’s goal, knowledge, motivation, and organizational support must
be in place and aligned.
Additionally, a qualitative case study was conducted to study the impact of the SASP at
CCSC. Student-athletes’ needs were determined through one-on-one interviews. While analyzing
the data, it was important to identify themes or findings in the responses. Common themes or
findings are important to identifying the participants’ needs to help reach the organizational goal.
Definitions
Degree completion: Completion of general education, elective, and major preparatory
courses to satisfy degree requirements.
Educationally disadvantaged: Individuals who, because of their home, community, and
educational environment, are subject to language, cultural, economic, and other disadvantages
are unlikely to graduate from high school and go to college unless special educational programs
and services supplementing the regular school program are made available to them.
First-generation student: A student whose parents have no postsecondary educational
experience.

8
Low socioeconomic status: Refers to household income, earners education, and
occupation. Students of low SES are often from families with lower income, lower levels of
education, and lower-ranked jobs.
NCAA non-qualifier: A student-athlete who has not graduated from high school, has not
earned the GPA in the core curriculum, or has not achieved the SAT/ACT score required to be an
NCAA qualifier. An NCAA non-qualifier cannot practice, play, or receive financial aid for one
academic year after high school.
NCAA qualifier: A student-athlete who has graduated high school, completed the core
curriculum, has met the specified GPA in the core classes, and has met the specified minimum
SAT/ACT score. An NCAA qualifier can practice, play, and receive financial aid as soon as they
graduate high school.
NCAA: A non-profit organization that regulates athletic programs at 1,268 member
colleges and universities. The NCAA populates and enforces all rules and regulations related to
athletics eligibility at its member institutions.
Remedial courses: Courses required to help a student build their skills in math and/or
English prior to enrolling in college-level courses.
Student persistence: For this study, student persistence is defined as occurring when a
student enrolls in two consecutive semesters.
Student-athlete: A student participating in an intercollegiate sports team.
Underprepared student: A underprepared student is a student who is required to take
remedial courses based on low assessment scores, not completing high school, a high school
GPA below 2.5, having previously enrolled in a remedial course in high school or college, or
being a first-generation student.

9
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the key concepts and
terminology commonly found in a discussion about community college student-athletes’ degree
completion rates. The chapter provided the organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as
well as a review of the promising practice framework. Chapter Two provides a review of current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of degree completion rates among
community college student-athletes will be addressed. Chapter Three details the choice of
participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are described and
analyzed. Chapter Five provides recommendations for practice, based on the data and literature,
as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will begin with general information on the background of the CCC,
including students’ SES backgrounds. The next section will discuss remedial course placement.
Next, the review will discuss the importance of mentoring for student-athletes. Lastly, the review
will present how these factors connect and why support programs are important.
Community Colleges
The CCC system is the largest higher education system in the country, serving over 2.1
million students seeking certificates, associate degrees, or transfer (CCCCO, 2019). The system
is a gateway to a four-year institution for all students. Student-athletes attend community
colleges for numerous reasons. However, the main reason is to allow them to meet the
requirements to allow them to earn an athletic scholarship at a four-year institution. Community
college students are often considered underprepared.
Students Demographics
Several researchers indicated difficulties in gaining admission to four-year institutions for
first-generation college students, children from immigrant families, and those from low-SES
communities (ACT, 2004; Choy, 2001; Haycock & Huang, 2001; Martinez & Klopott, 2005;
Noeth & Wimberly, 2002; Warburton et al., 2001). Swanson (2009) and Kim (2012) reported
students from low-income communities are less likely to graduate from high school and attend
college on time as compared to those from higher-income communities. Individuals who come
from disadvantaged communities face psychological barriers, such as emotional distress, poor
sense of belonging, low self-efficacy, and lack of motivation (Jury et al., 2017). These factors
can hinder a student’s desire to pursue higher education; if they do attend higher education, they
may hinder their academic success.

11
Olszewski-Kubilius and Clarenbach (2012) share the notion that students from low-income
communities struggle to reach their full academic potential because they are less likely to receive
validation on their academic strengths. They often lack human, institutional, and social capital to
assist in navigating through obstacles to success (Fauth et al., 2007; Sampson et al., 2002).
Routon and Walker (2015) found that low high school GPA, low SAT and or ACT scores, and
self-rated academic ability are all indicators of the difficulty student-athletes will face in college.
Lotkowski et al. (2004) found that high school GPA is a reliable determinant of a student’s
ability to succeed in their educational endeavors. These researchers suggested that male football
and basketball student-athletes are more likely to be from lower-SES communities, and low-SES
communities are associated with low scores on standardized tests.
Remedial Courses
The CCCCO (2015) stated that 75% of students enter community college underprepared
for rigorous coursework, which indicates a need to support them. Conger et al. (2009) found that
high schools in low-income communities often do not provide services or advanced coursework
at the same rates as high schools in high-income communities. Many institutions of higher
education attempt to serve and retain these students through remedial courses (Bettinger & Long,
2009). Roderick et al. (2009) found that 63% of students from low-SES communities are advised
to take remedial or developmental courses as they begin college as compared to 25% of students
from high-SES communities. These courses are mandatory but do not earn the student credits
towards degree completion (Demas, 2017). Thus, Bettinger and Long (2009) noted remedial
courses hinder students’ persistence because they prolong time to degree completion. Remedial
courses must be completed before the student can advance into transfer-level courses (Hodara &

12
Jaggars, 2014). This information is important, as it is one of many reasons student-athletes do not
earn degrees.
Research indicates students who begin their educational journeys in remedial courses are
less likely to earn a degree than those who do not take remedial courses (Bailey & Cho, 2010;
Quint et al., 2013). Barth (2001) and NCES (2001) found the success rate is low for lower-
achieving, underprepared, lower-income, and Black and Latinx students. Parker (2012) and
Johnson (2012) also documented that individuals enrolled in these courses are mostly low-
income, first-generation students of color. These students will face additional challenges to
degree completion (Salas, 2011). The increased number of required courses and extended time to
graduation can be intimidating (Bettinger & Long, 2009). Students’ success depends on
integration into the college, which can be fostered through mentoring (Pope, 2002).
Mentoring
Mentoring is vital in student-athletes’ academic success (Campbell & Campbell, 1997;
Kahveci et al., 2006; Sorrentino, 2007). Mentoring is also positively correlated to GPA and
degree completion (Campbell & Campbell, 1997; Kahveci et al., 2006; Pagan & Edwards-
Wilson, 2003; Salinitri, 2005; Sorrentino, 2007; Wallace et al., 2000). Research indicates
students from historically underrepresented racial and ethnic groups and students from lower-
SES communities benefit from mentors (Erickson et al., 2009), as observed in increased
academic performance (Hurd & Zimmerman, 2014). Additionally, mentorship has been stated to
successfully support student-athletes and their holistic development (Howard-Hamilton & Sina,
2001).
Students considered socially, financially, or academically underprepared or under-
supported can benefit from mentorship (Vivian, 2005). Additionally, Rhodes and Dubois (2006)

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indicated mentor programs with structure and support are most effective for student-athletes.
Sato et al. (2018) stated role models are important for student-athletes’ success in academics,
socialization, and athletics. While many institutions focus on athletic eligibility, neglecting
academic and personal development (Broughton & Neyer, 2001), a support program with a
multiplicity of services enhances students’ holistic development (Carodine et al., 2001;
Comeaux, 2010).
Support Programs for Student-Athletes
Linderman and Kolenovic (2013) shared that support programs can enhance student-
athletes’ higher educational journey by providing academic, personal, and professional support.
At CCSC, the SASP is staffed by two athletic counselors who offer academic, personal, crisis,
and career counseling, along with teaching college success courses. The SASP also has two
classified staff members whose primary responsibilities are tutoring, mentoring, assistance with
time-management, and teaching proper study habits along with helping students navigate the
campus. The SASP is funded through the BSI Program, a grant-funded initiative that began in
2006 through the CCCCO as part of a strategic planning process with a goal of improving
student access and success. Santa Rita and Bacote (1996) stated student-athletes with weaker
academic abilities should be supported by a team of individuals in their first year of college. This
student population requires academic support, counseling, and life skill development (Carodine
et al., 2001). Daniel and Davidson (2014) noted student-athletes face obstacles different from
those other students might encounter. However, support services early in their educational
journey bolster their persistence and course completion rates (Burleson, 2013).

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Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a framework for examining stakeholder’s knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on performance gaps. Krathwohl (2010) identified four
types of knowledge that touch on knowing specific details, theories, techniques, and self-
knowledge. The knowledge types are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. In
addition, Clark and Estes explained motivation is what induces individuals to begin a particular
undertaking, provides encouragement to progress, and determines the amount of effort needed.
When there is a lack of motivation, there is a lack of direction, persistence, and effort to
complete a task. In terms of organizational influences, Clark and Estes discuss work processes,
material resources, and the culture of the workplace as factors to increase stakeholder
performance.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Relevant research provides insight into efforts to meet the stakeholder performance goal.
First, factual knowledge will be discussed in terms of what barriers community college student-
athletes encounter as they work to completing their associate degree. Secondly, conceptual
knowledge will be discussed regarding what support services they are offered and how these
increase degree completion rates. Lastly, pertaining to factual knowledge, this section will
discuss the importance of the student-athlete being cognizant of the requirements to earn their
degree and transfer. These components are important, as they assist in these students’ holistic
development.

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Identifying Barriers
Previous studies indicate many community college student-athletes first-generation,
learning disabled, and undecided on their majors. These students often come from low-SES
communities, are considered at risk, and are typically in need of remedial English and math
courses (Boswell, 2004; Cox et al., 2009; Leonard, 2002; McCurdy, 1994; Shulock & Moore,
2005). Remedial courses impede progress towards degree completion (Bettinger & Long, 2009).
Additional barriers are associated with their athletics participation, as they face time and
financial constraints due to training and practice (Melendez, 2006). These barriers hinder their
persistence to degree completion, but knowledge and skill enhancements may assist in achieving
the stakeholder performance goal.
Knowledge and Skill Enhancement
To meet performance goals, organizations seek to enhance knowledge and skills through
information, job aids, training, and education (Clark & Estes, 2008). Central to knowledge and
skills enhancement is information. Pertaining to this study, when student-athletes are unsure of
how to accomplish their performance goals, they seek information on strategies or procedures to
help (Clark & Estes, 2008). Once they receive the information, they can implement change based
on it. Clark and Estes (2008) stated information is constructive for individuals facing uncertainty
when striving to accomplish performance goals.
Support Program for Student-Athletes
The second knowledge type is conceptual knowledge. Student-athletes should be aware
of dedicated space and services offered to them through, as these play an instrumental role in
student development (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Brooms (2018) stated a dedicated space plays
an important role in the development of coping strategies and enhances a sense of belonging on

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campus. Student-athletes’ challenges at community colleges stem from a lack of the life skills
needed for academic success, lack of knowledge regarding balancing academics and athletics,
the inability to maintain athletic eligibility, and difficulty following the rules of the CCCAA, the
NCAA, and the NAIA.
Student-athletes who are aware of support programs and utilize them in their first year of
college can alter negative habits to assist in their academic success (Santa Rita & Bacote, 1996).
There is a need for programs that help them understand learning experiences, develop strategies
leading to new skills, interests, work habits, and personal beliefs in addition to academic and
career counseling, tutoring, and mentoring (Gaston-Gayles, 2004; Shurts & Shoffner, 2004).
Utilizing support services during the first year and being aware that contact with faculty
members outside of the classroom can increase student retention would be of benefit to
underprepared and underserved students (Tinto, 2006).
Understanding the Requirements
The last knowledge type is factual. It is as important to be aware of the requirements for
earning a degree as it is to be aware of what student-athletes are required to complete. Student-
athletes must be aware of the transfer issues that can deter their athletic eligibility once they
transfer (Storch & Ohlson, 2009). As a student-athlete, satisfying requirements will vary
depending on the individual and the institution to which they transfer. Requirements differ for
student-athletes considered NCAA qualifiers and those considered non-qualifiers. The
requirements also vary according to the institution to which the student will transfer, as NCAA
DI, DII, DIII, and NAIA schools have distinct requirements that must be met prior to transferring
(NCAA, 2011).

17
Table 2 illustrates an overview of two of the knowledge influences related to increased
student-athlete degree completion. The table also presents the influences’ corresponding
knowledge types and methods used to assess knowledge.
Table 2
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Influence Assessment

Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) explained that motivation creates a general desire for individuals
to begin a task, encourages them to see it through, and dictates the amount of effort needed.
When there is a lack of motivation, there is a lack of direction, persistence, and effort.
CCSC student-athletes require conditions that support the three types of motivational
processes: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Clark and Estes (2008) stated active
choice occurs when an individual is actively pursuing a goal. Remaining focused and actively
working towards a goal is persistence. Regarding student-athletes, they must know how much
energy they must exert to meet their goals. Mental effort has two components: under-confidence
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Student-Athletes need to
know what barriers they
can encounter that can
prevent them from
persisting to degree
completion.
Factual
Have you been affected by having to
complete additional courses that does not
count towards the completion of your
degree?
Student-athletes need to
know the support services
offered to them through
the support program.
Conceptual
What are different ways you use support
services in completing your degree?
Student-athletes need to
become familiar with the
requirements needed to
satisfy their educational
goals.
Factual
Do you know the requirements needed
for completing your degree?

18
and overconfidence. Under-confidence is when an individual lacks the confidence to succeed at a
task, so they exert limited effort. Overconfidence is when one believes the task will be easy and
they misjudge their abilities. These students will need to be fully aware of the amount of mental
effort needed to persist towards degree completion.
The motivation influence theories discussed to aid in reaching the student-athletes’
performance goal are self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory. The following sections
will discuss how these motivation influence theories can be applied to help increase degree
completion rates among CCSC student-athletes.
Self-Efficacy Theory
The first motivational influence theory related to student-athletes’ success in reaching
their performance goal is self-efficacy theory. Pajares (2006) described self-efficacy as one’s
beliefs in one’s own abilities. There is a difference between self-efficacy beliefs and outcome
expectations. Self-efficacy promotes the anticipated outcomes (Pajares, 2006). Outcome
expectations are an individual’s thoughts of the results their behavior may bring. The student-
athlete must believe they can successfully navigate through their educational journey and exhaust
the resources and connections offered to them.
Student-athletes are subject to many of the same transitional and developmental
challenges as their non-athlete peers (Kissinger et al., 2011). In terms of academics, they have
been tagged by students (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1989) and faculty (Baucom & Lantz, 2001) as
dumb jocks or student-athletes who lack the intellectual aptitude for higher education (Leach &
Conners, 1984; Simons et al., 2007; Zingg, 1982). However, Abaili (1997) shared personal
motivation and cognitive factors are associated with student success. Individuals with a strong
sense of self-efficacy can produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977).

19
Self-efficacy forms by four primary sources: mastery experience, vicarious experience,
social persuasions, and physiological reactions. First, mastery experience is one’s interpretation
of results on a particular task. Completion of a task increases self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006). As
student-athletes recognize positive results from work completed and submitted, their confidence
can increase, and they can begin to actively seek additional assistance or support. Second,
vicarious experience occurs through observation of a task being performed (Pajares, 2006). As
student-athletes observe other athletes utilizing services and seeing or hearing of positive results,
they can become more inclined to utilize services more frequently as well. Third, effective
communication is encouraged as verbal confirmation of work completed properly or of improper
results in the development of skills and personal efficacy (Pajares, 2006). Effective
communication entails praise for positive results, assistance when required, and offering
solutions when needed. Communication perceived as negative can lower an individual’s self-
efficacy. Lastly, it is important to maintain an optimistic or a positive mood as they are key to
retain high self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006).
The primary sources are beneficial for both the faculty/staff members and the student-
athletes they serve. It is important that all parties maintain high levels of self-efficacy. Given the
barriers this population faces, high self-efficacy can help them remain calm through challenges
(Pajares, 2006). High self-efficacy can contribute to goal attainment.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Bandura (1986) indicated individuals extend little effort on activities that are meaningless
to them. It is important to understand the unique set of challenges student-athletes will encounter
as they enter higher education (Ferrante et al., 1996), but it is even more important to get them to
believe they can be successful and understand the value of their education. Many are confident in

20
their athletic abilities but may enter classrooms with a defeatist mindset about their academics.
An individuals’ ability and expectancy beliefs are a critical component in expectancy-value
theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Values are significant for starting a particular activity, while
expectancies are prominent in continuing it (National Research Council, 2004). Students who
believe they have the ability to succeed in academia are more driven to apply the effort needed as
well as be more persistent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pintrich, 2003). Once the expectancy-value
theory is applied to the student-athletes’ educational journey, degree completion rates will rise as
CCSC seeks to reach 100% student-athlete degree completion rates.
Table 3 illustrates an overview of self-efficacy and expectancy-value regarding student-
athlete motivation with reaching the goal of 100% degree completion.
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Influence and Motivational Influence Assessments
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Motivation Type Motivation Influence Assessment
Student-athletes need to
believe they have the
ability to affect change in
their educational journey.
Self-Efficacy
Do you feel you have the ability to
affect change in your educational
journey?
Student-athletes need to
place value and have high
expectations for
themselves in regards to
their academics.
Expectancy-Value
Do you feel your education is of any
importance?

Organization
Through the organizations’ cultural models and cultural settings, student-athletes can
receive effective support and mentoring to assist in their development as students and as young
men and women. The organization needs to fund effective support programs that cater

21
specifically to this population and where they will receive crises, career and educational
counseling, tutoring, and learn coping strategies to enhance their sense of belonging. A key
component to student-athletes’ success in their academic journey is the presence of a strong
support program (Gaston-Gayles, 2004; Shurts & Shoffner, 2004). In addition to funding, the
organization needs to implement an effective mentoring program campus-wide, as it helps
establish a sense of identity across campus (Sato et al., 2018).
Organizational cultural model. Many students attending community colleges are first-
generation, underrepresented, and educationally disadvantaged. Lack of college knowledge and
the inability to productively concentrate, study, and manage their time while at a higher
educational institution are reasons at-risk students experience failure (Schmidt, 2003). Success
for student-athletes derives from the presence of a strong student support program (Storch &
Ohlson, 2009). Institutions must evaluate how they provide services to at-risk students and
determine ways to effectively assist them in reaching their goals (Cohen & Brawer, 2002).
Funding must be in place to serve the needs of the student-athlete population, and those working
with this special population must be properly trained in their area of expertise to ensure effective
support (Broughton & Neyer, 2001).
Student-athletes deal with the negative side effects of being students and athletes. They
may encounter adversity in higher education (Helmcamp, 2010), and being athletes may only
increase adversity and affect academic performance (Storch & Ohlson, 2009). A strong support
service can keep them from withdrawing from courses and increase their success. Students who
tend to withdraw or drop out to attend another institution feel they are unable to receive support
specific to themselves (Bundy & Benshoff, 2000). Student-athletes who receive support services

22
and develop relationships on campus have higher retention rates than those who have not
received support or developed relationships (Lee et al., 2009).
Organizational cultural setting. The actions of the individuals at the institution should
reflect the beliefs of the organization, meaning all employees should be in accord when it comes
to supporting student-athletes. Each student’s needs will depend on factors such as race,
upbringing, ethnicity, and gender (Bimper, 2015), so it is important that faculty and staff be
trained to serve all students appropriately. Comeaux and Harrison (2007) expressed the
importance of addressing issues relevant to student-athletes. The interactions they have with
faculty and staff members can impact their mindset personally and academically. Brooms (2018)
explained that connections with faculty, staff, administrators, and other institutional personnel
affect students’ collegiate experience. Efforts to retain student-athletes consist of faculty-student
mentoring opportunities, academic assistance, and peer group collaborations (Brooms, 2018).
Need for mentoring. Social engagement leads to relationship building, such as between
mentor and mentee or with peers outside of athletics. Mentoring student-athletes can help them
establish a strong sense of identity on campus (Sato et al., 2018). Mentoring positively affects
outcomes such as academic performance, intellectual and critical thinking skills, self-confidence,
latent abilities, self-actualization, expectations and future aspirations, and persistence (Astin,
1999; Bank et al., 1990; Campbell & Campbell, 1997; Freeman, 1999; Girves et al., 2005;
Johnson, 1989; Kahveci et al., 2006; Mangold et al., 2003; Pagan & Edwards-Wilson, 2003;
Roberts, 2000; Ross-Thomas & Bryant, 1994; Salinitri, 2005; Sorrentino, 2007; Wallace et al.,
2000). Mentoring offers further support in psychosocial encouragement, career exploration,
campus resource assistance, non-athletic identity enhancement, and spiritual guidance (Cooper,
2016). Harper (2012) found mentors offer access to networks, guide mentees to student

23
organizations and clubs, and serve as guides throughout mentees’ entire educational journey.
Brooms (2018) indicated access to mentors helps mitigate stressors in transitioning and
persisting in higher education.
Table 4 illustrates the organization's cultural models and settings and how these pertain to
reaching the stakeholders’ goal of 100% student-athlete graduation. The cultural model is to
develop a trusting relationship with the student-athletes, and the cultural setting is the mentor
program and expanding it to help reach a graduation rate of 100% among student-athletes.
Table 4
Organizational Framework for Success of Community College Student-Athletes
Assumed Organizational
Influence
Organizational Type Organizational Influence Assessment
Student-athletes need to
trust the SASP and the
services offered to assist
in degree completion.
Cultural Models
Interview questions regarding effective
communication strategies among the
administration, faculty, and staff
members to support student-athletes.
Student-athletes need
mentoring throughout the
entire academic year to
make sure they remain on
track.
Cultural Settings
Survey questions regarding if faculty
and staff members provide ongoing
mentorship opportunities for student-
athletes.

Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and the Organization
The purpose of the conceptual framework is to offer a visual and written description of
key components studied for this research (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The framework is
primarily a conception or model of what concerns or issues will be studied and major factors
underlying these concerns or issues (Maxwell, 2013). The potential influencers will be described
independently; however, it is important to note that these influencers are not isolated from one

24
another. The following sections will show how these influencers interact to reach the
organizational goal.
The research problem of practice for this dissertation is the degree to which the
organization is attaining its goal of degree completion for all student-athletes. Figure 1 provides
the visual narrative of the key components studied for this research that will assist in reaching
that goal. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
related to achieving the organizational goal. While a complete performance evaluation would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders of focus in this analysis are the
CCSC student-athletes.
The knowledge influence comes from the work of Jury et al. (2017) regarding
psychological barriers affecting the educational outcomes of students from low-SES
communities, such as emotional distress, sense of belonging, self-efficacy, and motivation. To
address some of the psychological barriers, student-athletes can benefit from being involved in a
community of their own and receiving mentorship and support from administration, faculty,
staff, and peers. The benefit of campus-wide mentorship is that it allows the student-athlete to
establish a strong sense of identity outside of the athletics department and extend it to the entire
campus (Sato et al., 2018). These ideas are presumed to benefit stakeholders and connect with
the influences on their motivation.

25
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for Success of Community College Student-Athletes

Clark and Estes (2008) described motivation as what moves an individual, keeps them
focused, and determines the effort they will exert. When an individual is not motivated, they are
GLOBAL GOAL:
Increase persistence and
graduation rates among
student-athletes.
ORGANIZATION
INFLUENCE:
Mentorship and support
offered across campus
from administration,
faculty, and staff
members.
MOTIV ATION
INFLUENCE:
Self-Efficacy gained
through implementation
of effective supportive
strategies for student-
athletes.
KNOWLEDGE
INFLUENCE:
Knowledge of
supportive strategies to
assist the academic
efforts student-athletes.

26
less likely to persist or complete a task. As the organization offers student-athletes support and a
location considered a safe space, they develop self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is described as the
belief one has in oneself, and positive results from task completion will increase one’s self-
efficacy (Pajares, 2006). Therefore, obtaining the knowledge to assist student-athletes is key for
increasing their motivation to continue the process. Additionally, the knowledge and motivation
influencers are both aligned with the organization’s influencers.
The organization’s influencers consist of student support, continuing mentorship, and
offering facilities across campus to aid student-athletes. Investment by administration, faculty,
staff, and students creates an opportunity to build a community to offer alternative images of
what it means to be student-athletes and provides a safe space for self-expression, which
increases support for these students’ educational endeavors (Brooms, 2018; Brooms et al., 2018;
Strayhorn, 2008). Support from administration, faculty, staff, and students helps student-athletes
create micro-communities on campus, enhancing their higher education experience (Brooms &
Davis, 2017). The organization’s efforts assisting in achieving the goal of degree completion for
all student-athletes.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to highlight the level of support offered to student-athletes
to increase their degree completion rates at CCSC. The literature identified barriers, knowledge
and skill enhancements, self-efficacy, cultural models, and cultural settings. These areas express
the organization's knowledge regarding student-athletes, the motivation the organization has to
assist this group, and the structure the organization has in place to help. The conceptual
framework offers a visual guideline of how knowledge, motivation, and the organization work

27
together to serve student-athletes effectively. Chapter Three presents the study’s methodological
approach.

28
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect student-athletes as they seek completion of their associate’s degree. This
study examined a CCC athletic support program, the services it offers, and the additional support
it can offer. This study gathered information from student-athletes in their second year at the
institution. The study was guided by three research questions:
1. What are student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to the CCSC’s SASP
goal of increasing the degree completion rates to 100% for student-athletes?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and the
student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for increasing organizational performance to 100%
degree completion?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were the student-athletes at CCSC. The participants met
the following criteria: at least in their second year at CCSC and seeking transfer to a four-year
institution. These stakeholders were selected because of their time at CCSC and their desire to
continue their education at a four-year institution. To ensure confidentiality, pseudonyms were
utilized.
The student-athletes’ role as stakeholders is important, as these individuals were able to
identify areas in which the SASP has assisted them during their educational, career, and personal
exploration. The SASP athletic director and athletic counselor established a goal to effectively
serve student-athletes. These students are supported by the SASP’s coordinator, counselor,

29
tutors, and mentors. The student-athletes were the focus, as their transition to higher education
plays a role in whether they transfer to a four-year institution. If the transition into higher
education is not successful, the student-athlete can miss out on an athletic scholarship to a four-
year institution, which may have lifelong repercussions. The organization's goal is to reach 100%
student-athlete degree completion by May 2021.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The first criterion for participation was that potential interviewees be at least
in their second year at CCSC. These students would offer in-depth knowledge about their
experiences.
Criterion 2. The second criterion was that they had used the support program at least
once after attending a summer student-athlete workshop. These student-athletes will be fully
aware of the support program and its services through the workshop and their visits. These
individuals could share why they did or did not use the program.
Criterion 3. The third criterion was that participants must be working towards
transferring to a four-year institution and continuing their athletic careers. Individuals who
wished to transfer to a four-year institution could offer insight into what can be added to the
program to provide a holistic support system.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
A purposeful sampling approach was used to select interviewees. There were 10
interviews with participants who met the criteria outlined above. A recruitment email was sent
on behalf of the researcher to all eligible CCSC student-athletes. As individuals expressed
interest in the study, they were selected based on the amount of time spent in the support
program utilizing services. Once participants were identified, they received an email that

30
contained a date, time, length of the interview (60 minutes), and a zoom link. A reminder email
was sent one to three days before the interviews.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study used video-conferencing software for interviews. Patton (2015) stated
qualitative data includes direct quotations from individuals regarding their experiences, opinions,
feelings, and knowledge. Additionally, Patton (2002) stated studies using one method of data
collection are vulnerable to errors associated with the method, indicating that multiple methods
are best to reduce systematic bias and distortion and increase the study’s quality, validity, and
credibility.
Interviews
Interviewing provides rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (2002) indicated
interviewing allows the researcher to enter into the interviewee’s perspective. The interviews
consisted of semi-structured open-ended questions, allowing for the best possible data collection.
The semi-structured method allows the researcher to elicit deeper insight or clarity using an
approach similar to an everyday conversation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Kvale & Brinkmann,
2008; Patton, 2002).
The researcher held all interviews during business hours via Zoom. A private Zoom link
was created using a password and host approval to enter the session to prevent interruptions or
distractions. The interviewees were purposefully selected from the group of individuals who met
the study’s criteria and agreed to participate. The researcher held 10 interviews, each lasting 60
minutes. The interview questions were structured to support the factors identified in the
conceptual framework regarding knowledge, motivation, and organization. Prior to the interview,
participants received an information sheet explaining the purpose of the study. The information

31
sheet notified them that the researcher would record and take notes during the interview. After
the interview, the audio-recording was transcribed using Rev.com and Zoom transcription. As
transcription took place, participants were asked if they were open to being contacted to confirm
or clarify aspects of the interview (i.e., member-checked).
Data Analysis
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. Analytic memos were
designed at the conclusion of each interview. The researcher documented their thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and
research questions. Once the researcher ended the interview sessions, interviews were
transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis, the researcher used open coding, looking for
empirical codes and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. Coding was
designed by word designations, phrases, as well as a combination of both to identify information,
allowing the researcher to construct categories or themes. In the second phase of analysis,
empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase, the
researcher identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual
framework and research questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
This study was held via Zoom due to circumstances created by the impact of COVID-19.
The researcher discussed their role as a counselor for athletics as well as another program on
campus. The researcher also holds the position of associate professor. To establish and maintain
credibility and trustworthiness, the researcher remained mindful of personal research biases and
his role as an athletic counselor working in the SASP at CCSC. The researcher was also mindful
of their experience of being a former student-athlete and utilizing a similar support program.

32
Despite being an athletic counselor at CCSC and having experience as a former student-athlete,
the researcher made a conscious effort to prevent their role and experience from influencing the
data.
Participants were informed of the researcher’s role with the organization and the
reasoning behind the study to increase credibility and trustworthiness. As an additional
credibility measure, the researcher conducted 10 interviews and triangulated data around the type
of sport. Probst and Berenson (2014) expressed the importance of being upfront with participants
for credibility purposes. Rubin and Rubin (2012) suggested the researcher advise the participants
of their option to withdraw from the study at any point, which will increase credibility and
trustworthiness. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated alignment between the research and reality
fosters credibility of the research. Creswell (2008) and Merriam (2009) indicate triangulation is a
way to refrain from researcher bias and maintain the study’s credibility.
Ethics
The researcher was interested in learning more about degree completion for students
participating in the SASP at CCSC. Additionally, other members of the organization were
informed of the research and the fact that the researcher would provide information on how to
increase degree completion for other populations and programs as well. Individuals who met the
criteria to participate in the study were advised that their participation was voluntary and their
decision to participate or not would not harm them in any capacity. Participants had the right to
opt out at any point without penalty (Glesne, 2011).
The researcher ensured participants understood his role as researcher by informing them
that their information would remain confidential. Privacy is a critical concern when discussing
research participants’ rights (Glesne, 2011). Pseudonyms were used to withhold participants’

33
identities. Additionally, no personal identifying information was used. To maintain
confidentiality, no information was placed onto any work equipment or stored at a work location.
The gathering of information took place on the researchers’ personal computer, personal journal,
and audio-recording device. The data-collecting devices will remain in the researcher’s vehicle
inside a briefcase that requires a combination for access whenever the materials are not in use.
When the researcher is not on campus, the data-collecting devices will remain in a locked storage
cabinet at the researcher’s place of residence.
Probst and Berenson (2014) wrote that assumptions and biases must be addressed, as the
researcher holds multiple roles within the organization. The researcher must also address his own
upbringing in a low-SES community, as a student-athlete at a four-year institution, and as having
utilized services similar to the SASP. Triangulation will ensure the researcher examines only the
provided and refrains from personal preconceptions (Creswell, 2008; Merriam, 2009). Lastly, the
researcher will abide by all rules and regulations forced by the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board to conduct an ethical study.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect student-athletes’ journey to degree completion. The study was guided by
three research questions regarding student-athletes knowledge and motivation of the SASP and
its goal of 100% student-athlete degree completion, the organization’s culture and content, and
the recommendations for reaching the organization’s goal. The stakeholders for this study were
the student-athletes. Student-athletes were selected to participate using criteria requiring them to
be in their second year of enrollment and working towards transferring to continue participating
in their athletics careers at four-year institutions. Participants were made aware of the

34
researcher's role as an athletic counselor at CCSC in the support program and were advised that
their decision to participate was voluntary and would not harm them in any way. The researcher
was aware of the limitations of focusing on only one stakeholder group but aimed to receive
honest and truthful responses.

35
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect student-athletes as they seek completion of their associate degree.
Specifically, the research focused on a CCC athletic support program, the services it offers, and
the additional support this population requires. This study gathered information to improve
practice from student-athletes in at least their second year at the institution. The following
questions guided this study:
1. What are student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation related to the CCSC’s SASP
goal of increasing the degree completion rates to 100% for student-athletes?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and the
student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendation in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for increasing organizational performance to 100%
degree completion?
The study used semi-structured interviews and the associated qualitative data to
understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting student-athletes’
ability to reach degree completion. The participants met the following criteria: (a) in at least their
second year at the college, (b) utilized the support program, and (c) sought to transfer to a four-
year institution. These criteria helped to identify individuals with the greatest potential
understanding of the services offered and how these services can help them attain their
educational goals.
In the efforts to gather information pertaining to the student-athletes, for assumed
knowledge, the student-athletes need to (a) know the barriers that can prevent them from

36
persisting to degree completion (factual knowledge); (b) be aware of the support services offered
to them through the support program (conceptual knowledge); and (c) be familiar with the
requirements needed to satisfy their educational degree (factual knowledge). The assumed
motivation influence sought to know if student-athletes (a) believe they can effect change in their
educational journey (self-efficacy) and (b) place value and have high expectations for themselves
in regards to their academics (expectancy-value). The study also examined the organization’s
cultural models and cultural settings. The study sought to learn if (a) student-athletes trust the
SASP and the services offered to assist in degree completion (cultural model) and (b) if student-
athletes need mentoring throughout their entire academic year to make sure they remain on track
(cultural setting).
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder of focus for the data collection was the student-athlete. There were 10
student-athletes (four females and six males) in four sports interviewed for this research. Each
met the criteria for the study and was entering at least their second academic year and potentially
their last season of eligibility at the community college. Three respondents were from the
women’s volleyball team, one from women’s soccer, three from men’s basketball, and three
from men’s football. All sought to transfer to a four-year institution; however, four sought to
transfer as general students. The remaining six were seeking athletic scholarships for transfer,
but only two of them had four-year institution coaches expressing interest in them, according to
their current coaches. The threshold set for determining the influence to be an need or an asset
was that 70% of participants responded similarly.
Table 5 provides an overview of the participants and includes general demographic data
relating to gender, sport, and transfer status (student-athletes in two-year institutions often seek

37
athletic transfers to continue playing at the collegiate level as well as general transfers for
academic purposes).
Table 5
Respondent Demographics
Respondent Gender Sport Transfer Status
1 Male Football Seeking athletic transfer
2 Male Football Seeking athletic transfer
3 Male Football Seeking athletic transfer
4 Male Basketball Seeking athletic transfer
5 Male Basketball Seeking general transfer
6 Male Basketball Seeking athletic transfer
7 Female Volleyball Seeking general transfer
8 Female Volleyball Seeking general transfer
9 Female Volleyball Seeking general transfer
10 Female Soccer Seeking general transfer

Findings
Knowledge Findings
To identify the knowledge influence, the study focused on two categories: factual and
conceptual. The factual knowledge factors refer to knowledge of the barriers student-athletes
may encounter and their understanding of degree requirements to complete their educational
goal. The conceptual knowledge factor refers to the knowledge the student-athlete has regarding
the support services offered through the SASP. Table 6 summarizes the findings for knowledge
factors as either an asset (knowledge element appears to be present within student-athletes) or a
need (knowledge element appears to be absent among student-athletes). Influences were

38
identified as an asset or need when the threshold of at least 70% of interviewees providing
similar answers regarding those factors was met.
Table 6
Knowledge Influence Data Collection
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Type Asset or Need
Student-athletes need to know what barriers they can
encounter that can prevent them from persisting to
degree completion.
Factual Asset
Student-athletes need to know the support services
offered to them through the support program.
Conceptual Asset
Student-athletes are familiar with the requirement needed
to satisfy their education goals.
Factual Need

Factual Knowledge: Barriers
The participants were asked to identify critical information they needed to know
regarding degree completion. This offered the participants an opportunity to share what they felt
they needed to know to be fully prepared for their educational journey. Seven respondents were
able to identify the information they needed to assist them early in their educational journey.
Five respondents who were able to identify this information shared their desire to have been
provided time-management tools to better balance the athletic and academic requirements.
Respondents revealed the need for proper time-management skills early in their journey.
Respondent 5 shared,
I wish I had known the level of difficulty school would be. It is much different from
high school. I have to dedicate more time to studying to get good grades, and, for my
sport, the intensity level is increased, so I have to properly manage my time to be
effective.

39
Respondent 8 and 9 had to travel a great distance for practice, requiring them to rise even earlier
than others on the team to make it to practice on time. With the earlier rising, Respondents 8 and
9 stated they had to properly manage travel time, practice, homework, study time, and games.
Respondent 9 shared, “I needed to know that I would be taking on a more progressive load and
will be busy, and will need to make time to put education and my sport as a priority.”
Respondent 2 shared, “I was not ready for the level or amount of work college provided. I had to
learn how to manage my time better with studying, class, and my sport.” The participants’
responses identified factual knowledge as an asset, as the 70% of participants who were able to
identify factors that could have assisted them as they entered higher education meets the
threshold.
Conceptual Knowledge: Support Services
Nine participants stated the support services were instrumental in their academic success.
These individuals expressed they were using counseling, tutoring in math and English, computer
assistance, free printing, and the book loan program. Respondent 6 shared, “I don’t think a lot of
us would be on track to graduate or even remaining athletically eligible if it was not for the
support program.” Nine participants expressed they were using more than one of the resources
regularly to persist to degree completion. The nine participants were from three of the four sports
represented in this study.
Respondent 2 stated, “I use the support program for books, Wi-Fi, counseling, and free
printing. I do not have a printer at home, so this helps a lot. I come in the morning and print my
homework before classes.” Respondent 4 expressed,

40
I use the support program for assistance with writing assignments. They provide
me an extra set of eyes on my assignments. The counselors keep me on track with
my courses, and the air-conditioning is always great during the summer.
Respondent 7 followed up by sharing,
I use the support program for assistance with writing a lot. I thought my writing was
strong. Then, on my first writing assignment, I received a grade of a C, and I was
shocked. I also use the counselors in the support program for personal and
educational purposes. I got injured and was dealing with a lot, and the counselors
really helped me.
Although participants stated that the services were beneficial, the results somewhat
contradicted comments from some respondents who shared their lack of knowledge of the
services offered earlier in their educational journey. Respondent 2 shared, “Freshman year, I only
used the Learning Resources Center [LRC], as I was unaware of what the support center offered.
I thought it was simply a study lab and counseling.” Respondent 1 followed up, stating, “I would
go to the LRC for assistance with my statistics work and for writing support. I did not know the
support program offered help in these areas early on.” As such, conceptual knowledge regarding
support service was identified as an asset, as the 90% of similar response exceeds the 70%
threshold.
Factual Knowledge: Educational Requirements
Seven respondents indicated they were unaware of the actual academic requirements (60
units) for degree completion. The seven individuals stated that they simply followed the
educational plan their athletic counselor mapped out for them. Respondent 4 stated, “I knew I
had to go see my counselor, and they would give me a guide with courses I needed to graduate.”

41
It is important that the student-athletes become aware of graduation requirements and not rely
solely on athletic counselors’ guidance. Respondent 2 expressed, “I don’t have the biggest
understanding of what I need. I know I have to pass the classes the counselor suggests I take
each semester. That’s about it.” Respondent 3 communicated, “the counselor gave my dad and I
the plan I needed to successfully graduate. It is the guidance of the counselor that helps me. I just
follow the map to complete what is needed.” Additionally, Respondent 8 shared, “I am not
familiar with what I need. I know my counselors mapped out my plan of courses for me, and I
just follow that.”
Although seven of the 10 respondents stated they were unaware of the unit requirement,
five of the 10 shared they were aware they needed to complete courses in English composition
and critical thinking, transfer-level math, and public speaking. These courses are important,
especially for NCAA Division I and Division II non-qualifying student-athletes, as both English
courses and a transfer-level math course are a part of the transfer requirement. The three
individuals who indicated knowledge of these requirements were in three of the four identified
sports. Respondent 1 shared, “I know I need 60 units to complete my degree and transfer out.”
Additionally, Respondents 6 and 10 were also aware of what was required, with Respondent 10
stating, “I need 60 units, but I follow the course outline the counselors provide me.” Individuals
with knowledge of what is required to earn a degree can monitor their progress to degree
completion. The factual knowledge here is identified as a need, as 70% of respondents’ not
knowing the degree requirements met the 70% threshold.
Motivation Findings
In addition to knowledge influences, this study also has two categories of assumed
motivation: self-efficacy and expectancy-value. Self-efficacy refers to the belief an individual

42
has pertaining to their own abilities. Expectancy-value has two particularly important
components. An individuals’ ability and expectancy beliefs are important in expectancy-value.
Values and expectancies are the driving force that allows a person to begin and continue to
completion of a particular task (National Research Council, 2004). Table 7 provides an
assessment of the motivation findings.
Table 7
Motivation Influence Data Collection
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivation Type Asset or Need
Student-athletes need to believe they can affect change
in their educational journey.
Self-Efficacy Asset
Student-athletes need to value their education. Expectancy-Value Need

Self-Efficacy
Pertaining to self-efficacy, the participants were asked how they could grow in
confidence to engage the support available to them to affect change in their educational journey.
Seven of the 10 participants indicated being mindful that support services were available to assist
in their education. Respondent 7 shared, “Everyone is very helpful. They make you feel like
they’re trying their best to make sure that you are going to succeed.” Respondent 1 expressed, “I
want to get good grades, and I know the support program can offer me the support I need.”
Respondent 5 provided, “I feel confident to seek the support because everyone there is open to
helping. They make me feel like they’re trying their best to make sure I succeed.” Additionally,
Respondent 9 stated, “I am very confident in seeking assistance. They [support services] helped
me keep my mind straight and in order to graduate.” However, Respondent 4 stated, “I probably
would not seek help or feel comfortable seeking help unless I have seen others do it first.”

43
Student-athletes’ developing the confidence to engage in support esd deemed an asset, as
the 70% similarity in responses meets the 70% threshold. However, it is understood that all
student-athletes need to develop this confidence, as the goal is to have all of them graduate.
Therefore, increasing all student-athletes’ confidence in seeking support is important in helping
them reach their goal.
Expectancy-Value
Participants were asked about growth in commitment to completing their degree since
actively participating in the support program to better understand the value they place on their
education. Unfortunately, participants expressed their commitment was hindered due to COVID-
19, and they now struggled to see the end of the tunnel. Respondent 5 shared, “COVID-19 has
made things difficult. I have given up a few times.” However, five of 10 respondents stated
having a self-determined increase in commitment since actively utilizing SASP resources.
Respondent 1 shared, “I feel like we are held to high standards as student-athletes. We
are pushed to be great students first, then athletes. This has encouraged me to continue to strive
to be better.” Respondent 5 responded to the question by saying, “The support center does a great
job at pushing us and making sure we stay on top of our classes.” Respondent 10 shared,
When you are doing things on your own you can lose motivation, but when you use
the support program, you are motivated by those in the program [counselors, tutors,
and other athletes] to finish through. Plus, as an athlete, I want to make good grades
and remain eligible and possibly receive a scholarship.
These students shared the support program boosted their commitment; however, the expectancy-
value influence was identified as a need based on the 50% of similar responses not meeting the

44
70% threshold. Although the participants see value in the support program, there can still be
greater efforts to help them grow their commitment to complete their degree requirements.
Organizational Findings
Lastly, through organizational influences, participants were asked to discuss the
organizational models and organizational settings. They shared their experience and what they
had seen regarding the institution’s support for the student-athlete population. Cultural model
alludes to the institutional culture for facilitating change to help student-athletes meet their
educational goals. The cultural setting highlights the institution's efforts to provide student-
athletes all they need to be successful juggling dual worlds of academics, athletics, and personal
life. Table 8 highlights the organizational influences.
Table 8
Organizational Influence Data Collection
Assumed Organizational Influence Organizational Influence Asset or Need
Student-athletes must trust the SASP and
the services offered to assist in degree
completion.
Cultural Model Need
Student-athletes need mentoring
throughout the entire academic year to
make sure they remain on track.
Cultural Setting Asset

Cultural Model
Interviewees were asked about effective communication between administration, faculty,
and staff members regarding the support they receive. Effective communication among these
stakeholders highlights that all institutional components are in accord and working to provide
services to student-athletes. The responses indicate a need, as seven of 10 student-athletes were
not sure of the effectiveness of the communication among these parties. Respondent 3 disclosed,
in terms of the classrooms, “I don’t know if there was any extra support offered. I feel as though

45
we were treated as just another body in the seat.” Respondents 4 and 10 revealed a similar
sentiment, stating they did not see significant collaboration and desired the additional support.
Respondent 10 communicated,
I did poorly on an essay, but, on the next one, I did really well. This caused some
issues. Had everyone been working together, the professor would’ve known that the
support program offers tutoring, and the professor would’ve known that I spent more
time there working on it. Therefore, they would not have had to assume I cheated.
Furthermore, Respondent 6 disclosed,
It is kind of hard when you have two campuses. I took most of my classes at the
CCSC West Campus, while practice and the majority of the student-athletes were at
the CCSC East Campus. I would head to the East campus for practice then head to the
West campus for my classes, and many professors did not care that I had to travel
from one campus to the other. A few professors told me the travel was not their issue
and that they only handle problems that take place on this East campus, not the other.
Three participants saw firsthand how dedicated other members of the institution were to
providing student-athletes the necessary tools to be successful. Respondent 5 shared,
For the most part, everyone is on the same court. The dean of career education on the
East campus has been very helpful, and he comes to our practices and speaks to us to
check in and see how we are doing and if we need anything.
Additionally, Respondent 1 stated, “I think everybody tries to give us all the tools that we need
to be successful.” Having all parties in accord to the point where the student-athletes recognize
the services offered is important and leads to unity among the athletic community and the
campus at large. The lack of knowledge of the connection between the different components of

46
the institution defines this as a need, as the 70% threshold was met. There is a lack of trust in
support services outside of the SASP, as student-athletes did not see efforts in other areas to
support their degree completion.
Cultural Settings
To reveal the cultural setting of mentoring across campus, interviewees were asked how
faculty and staff members provide mentoring to student-athletes. Seven respondents were aware
of mentoring happening by administrators, faculty, or staff member in a way that motivated and
encouraged them to continue striving for success personally, academically, and athletically.
Respondent 4 communicated, “Mentoring has benefited me in terms of having someone pour
into me and hold me accountable for my actions.” The remaining three participants indicated
they were not aware of mentoring taking place on campus.
The goal is to ensure all student-athletes receive all available resources to cultivate
academic success. Those aware of the mentoring offered were participants in three of the four
identified sports. These individuals disclosed the benefit of having a mentor, and Respondent 5
shared, “Mentoring gives student-athletes inspiration and hope. They also provide comfort in
times of hardship. Mentoring is very important, and it is something that is expedient and can help
people progress a lot faster.” It is important to offer all student-athletes mentoring, as it can
positively alter their life trajectory and guide them to their academic goal. Respondent 7
expressed, “Our mentors help us figure out our life beyond sports.” Respondent 10 shared, “A lot
of athletes do not know what they want to do outside of their sport and having a mentor can offer
them an opportunity to develop more options outside of their sport.” Seven of 10 participants
indicate their awareness of mentoring offered, making this component an asset, as it met the

47
threshold of 70%. However, there is a strong need to make sure this opportunity is provided to
all student-athletes.
Summary
Chapter Four presented analysis and validation of the assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences for this study. The first factual knowledge was deemed an asset
along with the conceptual knowledge influences. The second factual knowledge was identified as
a need. The research identified barriers student-athletes faced as they began their educational
journey (factual), whether they were aware of the support program and used it (conceptual), and
if they understood the academic requirements for degree conferral (factual). The results indicated
the influences as needs or assets based on the threshold of 70%.
Regarding the program’s usefulness, 90% of respondents shared that it had been
instrumental in their success, marking this influence as an asset. Additionally, the student-
athletes need to be aware of the requirements to complete their degree programs, as 70% stated
they simply follow the plan mapped out for them by the counselor. The 70% marks this influence
as a need, as only 30% of participants knew what was required of them, and this does not meet
the threshold of 70%. Student-athletes must be made aware of these requirements as well as have
their own understanding of them.
The research also sought to determine the interviewees’ self-efficacy and expectancy-
value levels. The respondents were asked how they might grow in confidence to effect change in
their educational journeys. Seventy percent of the respondents shared they were open to
whatever it took to help them grow in confidence to effect positive change. The threshold of 70%
means this influence was an asset. Respondents were then asked if they noticed any change in
commitment to complete their degree, and 50% indicated a self-determined increase in

48
commitment. The 50% response does not satisfy the threshold of 70%, making this influence a
need.
To gather organizational data, the research looked at the organization’s cultural model
and cultural settings. The respondents were asked about communication among administration,
faculty, and staff members and if it were effective in terms of everyone being in accord to
support student-athletes’ educational goals (cultural model). The responses demonstrated that
70% of them were aware of effective communication between the institution's different
components, marking this influence as a need as it meets the threshold of 70%. As we seek the
cultural setting influence, student-athletes were asked about mentoring and the benefits of it.
This influence was identified as an asset, as 70% of participants responded in the way of
mentoring being a benefit, which meets the threshold of 70%.
Chapter Five provides recommendations and what should be implemented to reach the
goal of 100% student-athlete degree completion. All recommendations address the needs as
established by the data analysis regarding these confirmed influences in knowledge, motivation,
and organization.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this study was to explore the influences that affect student-athletes at
CCSC as they seek to earn an associate degree. The participants presented several knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences that shaped their experiences. Ten interviews
revealed four assets and three needs, as discussed in Chapter Four. This chapter discusses the
findings related to the influences and provides recommendations categorized by knowledge,
motivation, and organization.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) informed the
recommendations and integrated implementation and evaluation plans presented in this chapter.
The Kirkpatrick Model is a reverse engineering process that allows for dictating design structure
to achieve the organizational goal. The chapter concludes with discussions around the strengths
and weaknesses of Clark and Estes’s (2008) framework, the study's limitations and delimitations,
and future research in the field.
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influences in Table 9 represent an itemized list of potential knowledge
influencers based on the anticipated responses from the data collection and literature review.
Clark and Estes (2008) indicate education is any situation in which people acquire “conceptual,
theoretical, and strategic” (p. 59) knowledge and skills that might help them handle novel and
unexpected future challenges and problems. Krathwohl (2010) identified four types of
knowledge dimensions, which touch on knowing specific details, theories, specific techniques,
and self-knowledge. The knowledge types are factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive. Table 9 provides an overview of the validated and priority recommendations for
the knowledge influences.

50
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge Influence Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Student-athletes need to know
what factors can assist them in
persisting to degree completion.
(Factual)
Information learned
meaningfully and connected
with prior knowledge is stored
more quickly and remembered
more accurately because it is
elaborated with prior learning
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Help student-athletes
understand the different
resources available to them
for their specific needs by
providing information sheets
of the different resources.
Student-athletes need awareness
of the support services offered
to them through the support
program.
(Conceptual)
Increasing germane cognitive
load by engaging the learner in
meaningful learning and
schema construction facilitates
effective learning (Kirschner et
al., 2006).
Help student-athletes
understand the different
resources available to them
for their specific needs by
providing information sheets
of the different resources.
Student-athletes need
familiarity with the
requirements needed to satisfy
their educational goals.
(Factual)
Integrating auditory and visual
information maximizes working
memory capacity (Mayer,
2011).
Within SASP and the entire
athletic department,
graduation requirement tip
sheets will be posted to
remind student-athletes of the
requirements needed to
complete their educational
goals.

Factual Knowledge: Barriers
Student-athletes need assistance to identify the factors that can assist them in persisting to
degree completion. Data collected for this study indicated student-athletes attending CCSC have
a persistence and retention rate of 78%. Carodine et al. (2001) suggest there is a need for
academic support programs, counseling, and life skills development at the SASP. Student-
athletes who seek the services of support programs can receive the tools to be successful. The

51
recommendation is to help student-athletes understand the different resources available to them
for their specific needs by providing information sheets for the different resources.
Helping student-athletes identify factors that can prevent them from persisting or
completing their degree is important. Student-athletes are expected to navigate the dual world of
academics and athletics (Bimper, 2015), which can be particularly hard for the average student
but even harder for student-athletes who already struggle with their academics. Student-athletes
face obstacles that the non-student-athlete population may never encounter (Daniel & Davidson,
2014). Therefore, guidance for this population should be intentional in its efforts. Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) shared that it is important to help individuals connect new knowledge to prior
knowledge to construct meaning.
Conceptual Knowledge: Support Services
Student-athletes must be aware of the support services offered through the SASP. Less
than 80% of student-athletes are aware of and utilize these services. Student-athletes need
effective support services that will assist with their holistic development to increase persistence
and graduation rates (Banbel & Chen, 2014; Daniel & Davidson, 2014). Student-athletes who
actively engage in the support services can increase their chances of success in their educational
journey. The recommendation is to help them understand the different resources available to
them for their specific needs by providing information sheets of different resources.
Student-athletes must be aware of the services they will need and the services available at
the SASP. Routon and Walker (2015) found students from revenue-generating sports struggle
more than those from non-revenue-generating sports. Additionally, Routon and Walker (2015)
explained low high school grade point averages, low SAT and or ACT scores, and self-rated
academic ability indicate potential educational difficulties during their collegiate tenure. Students

52
with weaker abilities should be utilizing support programs in their first year of college. Support
services can be very beneficial to student-athletes’ success by adjusting negative habits they may
hold (Santa Rita & Bacote, 1996). Kirschner et al. (2006) discussed the importance of increasing
germane cognitive load by engaging the learner in meaningful learning and schema construction.
Factual Knowledge: Educational Requirements
Student-athletes need familiarity with the requirements to meet their educational goals.
Comeaux and Harrison (2011) explained that many community college student-athletes are first-
generation students who have never been exposed to higher education. Support programs should
guide them on the requirements for transferring to a four-year institution as well as on becoming
successful college students. In terms of the tools to complete degree requirements, the following
should also be considered for implementation: life management, goal setting, career decision
making, educational planning, college expectations and opportunities, instructor-student
relationships, cultural diversity, health maintenance, stress management, campus resources,
learning styles, note-taking, and concentration. The recommendation is that the SASP and the
entire athletic department post tip sheets about academic requirements.
Student-athletes need to understand what is necessary for their goals. However, lower
academic abilities and limited knowledge of higher education mean that some of these students
will need additional guidance and structure. Storch and Ohlson (2009) suggested they may need
more than academic support and may require personal and professional development assistance.
Support programs help student-athletes navigate their way through their collegiate journeys
(Linderman & Kolenovic, 2013; Storch & Ohlson, 2009). These programs can help student-
athletes through their collegiate journey by integrating auditory and visual information to
maximize working memory capacity (Mayer, 2011).

53
Motivation Recommendations
The motivational influences in Table 10 represent an itemized list of assessed gaps based
on the data analysis and literature review. Clark and Estes (2008) indicated motivation gets us
going, keeps us moving, and helps identify the amount of effort needed for a given task. Three
common motivation indicators are active choice, persistence, and effort (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Schunk et al., 2009). As the assumed motivation influences applied are self-efficacy and
expectancy-value, the recommendations address SASP actions to improve student-athletes’
perceived motivation. Table 10 illustrates an overview of the validated and priority
recommendations for the motivation influences.
Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Student-athletes
need to believe they
can affect change in
their educational
journey.
(Self-Efficacy)
Individuals with higher self-
efficacy, greater belief in
their own competence, and
higher expectancies for
positive outcomes will be
more motivated to engage
in, persist at, and work hard
at a task or activity (Rueda,
2011).
Student-athletes will register for the
college success course and will learn
about college expectations as well as
learn and practice how to effectively
manage their time and take class notes.
The student-athletes will be provided
feedback weekly to create a positive
change and assist them through their
educational journey.
Student-athletes
should place value
and have high
expectations for
themselves in
regards to their
academics.
(Expectancy-Value)
An individuals’ ability and
expectancy beliefs are an
important component in
expectancy-value theory
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Provide student-athlete training by
student-athlete role models who exhibit
enthusiasm, utility value, interest, and
positive values related to successfully
setting and executing credible academic
expectations for oneself.

54
Self-Efficacy
Student-athletes deal with many barriers, and high self-efficacy helps maintain calm
when approached with difficult challenges (Pajares, 2006). Individuals with higher self-efficacy,
greater belief in their competence, and higher expectancies for positive outcomes will have
increased motivation to engage in, persist at, and work hard at a task or activity (Rueda, 2011).
This would suggest that, as they recognize positive results from work completed, they may have
more confidence and seek help as needed. The recommendation is to have all student-athletes
take a college success course. The course should be taught by an athletic counselor and present
the tools for success.
The organization’s goal is to have all student-athletes take a college success course taught
by their athletic counselor in which they will learn about college expectations. In the course,
students will learn and practice how to effectively manage their time and take class notes. Each
week, they will receive feedback to cultivate positive change and assist them through their
educational journey. It is preferred that student-athletes register for this course in their first
semester. If they cannot complete the course during their first semester, they should be required
to take it during their second semester. This course can help them navigate their tenure at CCSC.
The course can help develop self-efficacy, which promotes the anticipated outcomes (Pajares,
2006). High self-efficacy contributes to meeting goals.
Expectancy-Value
An individuals’ belief about their abilities on an activity and the extent to which they
value the activity can positively influence their choice, persistence, performance, and effort in
that activity (Eccles et al., 1983). Student-athletes need to be aware of their ability and desire to
complete a task and correct it when they notice a lack of motivation pertaining to their education.

55
Bandura (1986) contends little effort goes into activities viewed as meaningless. Community
college student-athletes seeking an athletics scholarship and those wishing to transfer as general
students should place value and have high expectations for their education. Specifically, those
deemed by the NCAA as non-qualifying must meet the athletic requirements to receive an
athletics scholarship. Qualifiers, too, must meet the transfer requirements. More importantly,
these individuals should be valuing their education far beyond athletics, and the tools they can
receive from college success courses are beneficial for both academics and athletics.
Student-athletes should register for college success courses with athletic counselors, as
these are catered specifically for the student-athlete population. The course helps the student
become a better individual holistically. The following components represent areas that can help
the student-athlete place higher value in themselves and their education: life management, goal
setting, career decision making, college expectations, instructor-student relationship, health
maintenance, and stress management. Expectancy-value can be influenced directly or indirectly
by one’s perception of others’ attitudes and expectations, interpretations of previous achievement
outcomes, cultural environment, and distinctive historical events (Trautwein et al., 2012).
Organizational Recommendations
The organizational influences in Table 11 present the organizational influences with gaps
based on the interviews and literature review. Organizations are characterized by cultural models
and cultural settings (Rueda, 2011). Cultural models help understand invisible aspects, while
cultural settings help with the visible aspects (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011). Table 11
provides an overview of the recommendations for the validated and prioritized influences.

56
Cultural Model Recommendations
Study results suggest not every student-athlete is aware of the SASP. Additionally, many
are aware but do not know all that they can receive from the program. It is important that the
organization connect with them on a regular basis to build rapport and offer information on the
resources available. The organization needs to ensure employees can properly support this
student population by providing training (internal or external) on the knowledge and skills to
serve student-athletes (Broughton & Neyer, 2001).
Table 11
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influences
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Student-athletes must
trust the SASP and the
services offered to assist
in degree completion.
(Cultural Models)
Students who believe they have
more personal control of their own
learning and behavior are more
likely to do well and achieve at a
higher level than those who do not
(Pintrich, 2003).
The organization must be
intentional in affording students’
personal control of their own
learning via the amplification of
SASP support services.
Student-athletes need
mentoring throughout
the entire academic year
to make sure they
remain on track.
(Cultural Settings)
Social interaction, cooperative
learning, and cognitive
apprenticeships (such as reciprocal
teaching) facilitate construction of
new knowledge (Scott & Palincsar,
2006).
The organization must develop a
more progressive mentoring
program for student-athletes to
assist in a holistic development
of the student.

Success for student-athletes derives from a strong student support program (Storch &
Ohlson, 2009). The SASP has resources to help student-athletes reach their personal,
educational, and career goals. However, the program must connect with all student-athletes to
make sure they utilize these services. As support program staff members connect with more
student-athletes, it is important that they are supported with training through workshops and
conferences to learn effective ways to support student-athletes. As rapport builds between

57
students and staff, the institution must evaluate how services are provided and determine ways to
help these students reach their goals (Cohen & Brawer, 2002). Additionally, the support program
will need to be expanded, as it currently has the space to serve 20 to 25 people at one time. A
larger program will serve more student-athletes.
Cultural Setting Recommendations
It is difficult to pinpoint why a student fails to earn a degree. However, to change the
trajectory and get student-athletes on track to graduate, components of Dixon’s (1994) six types
of support will be implemented. Step Three will be the focus, which is to communicate
constantly and candidly to those involved about plans and progress. During implementation, it is
important that all students be attentive and adapt to the culture. The recommendation is to offer
mentoring to all student-athletes, as connections with faculty, staff, administrators, and other
institutional personnel positively affect the collegiate experience (Brooms, 2018).
The actions of the individuals at the institution should reflect the beliefs of the
organization, meaning all employees should be in accord when it comes to supporting student-
athletes. The support program should implement a more robust mentor program beginning in a
student’s first academic year. As there is no real time for preparing or sorting out information
prior to the students’ arrival to the campus, providing a general mentor in the first semester
should prevent the student from falling behind academically or socially. Later, program staff can
pair the student with a mentor best suited to the student’s needs. Comeaux and Harrison (2007)
expressed the importance of addressing relevant issues to student-athletes. Each student’s needs
will depend on factors such as race, upbringing, ethnicity, and gender (Bimper, 2017), so it is
important that faculty and staff members receive training to serve all students appropriately. The
institution should make sure that mentoring is provided to the student-athlete throughout their

58
entire tenure at the institution. Brooms (2018) verbalized the importance of student-athletes
having access to a mentor to alleviate stressors and increase persistence.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Preparation to implement additional factors at the SASP requires the institutionalization
of the changes to maximize effectiveness and value for the organization, programs, and
evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The three phases consist of planning, execution,
and demonstration of value. As the evaluation strategy is developed, Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four levels of evaluation are recommended. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) suggested planning should begin with results (Level 4), followed by behaviors (Level 3),
learning (Level 2), and, lastly, reactions (Level 1).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
A component in CCSC’s mission is to help student-athletes develop the skills to persist to
graduation, become leaders in the community, and lead successful and productive lives. By May
2021, CCSC seeks to reach a 100% graduation rates among its student-athletes. In January 2019,
SASP faculty and staff collaborated with instructional faculty, staff members, and coaching staff
to better assist student-athletes increasing their graduation rate to 100%. The global goal aligns
with the organization’s mission, as it is to increase graduation rates.
The analysis produced assumed needs that helped focus the direction for
recommendations. While a complete set of recommendations would focus on all stakeholders,
for practical purposes, the primary stakeholders are the athletic counselors. By May 2021, the
athletic counselors will create and incorporate a system to assist in increasing the student-athlete
graduation rate to 100%.

59
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Observations and measurements are a critical behavior for a positive impact on the
desired outcomes and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Leading indicators contribute to
organizational results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 12 highlights the external and
internal outcomes, metrics, and methods. Specifically, three internal and two external measures
provide trackable data points for CCSC to monitor in support of student-athletes’ academic
progress.
Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased rate of student-athletes
utilizing SASP and other
resources across campus.
Percentage of students
using 10+ hours of
services each week.
Track hours and services each
student-athlete uses by inputting
in SARS.
Increased number of student-
athletes who successfully
complete their degree
requirements.
Percentage of students
who we assist in
completing the degree
completion form.
Monitor and maintain a
spreadsheet to identify which
student-athletes and from which
sport has submitted their degree
completion form.
Internal Outcomes
Increased understanding of what
additional services across campus
can assist student-athletes
persistence towards degree
completion.
The percentage of
students attending the
workshops semesterly.
Provide sign-in sheets at each
workshop and have coaches
identify which of their players
attended the workshop.
Encourage student-athletes to
utilize the support services
offered through the SASP to
assist to degree completion.
The percentage of
students signing in to
use services within the
SASP.
Use of SARS to determine
which student-athletes has
utilized the services in the
support program and when they
have used them.
Educational plans created for
student-athletes that identify the
courses to satisfy their
educational goals.
The percentage of
completed student-
athletes educational
plans.
Use student database (Eagle
Advisor) to review educational
plans.

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Level 3: Behaviors
Critical Behaviors
As the stakeholder seeks to achieve the desired outcome, a few critical behaviors must be
in place to follow. First, the student-athletes will attend the athletic workshops that are held
every semester to receive information pertaining to the different resources available to them.
Secondly, student-athletes will utilize the different resources at their disposal to receive the
support needed to assist them in their journey to successfully completing their degree. Lastly, the
student-athletes will put to practice their time-management, note-taking, and study skills on a
weekly basis and will create a planner and goal list weekly. Table 13 highlights the critical
behaviors.
Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Student-athletes will
attend athletics
workshop to ensure they
receive information about
beneficial resources.
Percentage of students
who attended workshop
and follow up within
one months of the
workshop attended.
Athletic counselors
will conduct
workshops and keep
track of which
athletes attended.
Semesterly
2. Student-athletes will
utilize SASP and other
available resources for
assistance to degree
completion.
The number of
available resources used
by student-athletes.
Use database to track
student-athletes usage
of services.
Weekly
3. Student-athletes will
incorporate time-
management, note-taking
and study skills into their
weekly studies.
Completion of weekly
goal list and planner.
SASP staff and
coaches will
collaborate to monitor
student-athletes
weekly goal list and
planner.
Weekly

61
Required Drivers
To drive the achievement of the stakeholder outcomes, required drivers must be utilized.
Table 14 highlights the required drivers.
Table 14
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors of Student-Athletes
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
Reinforcing
Student-athletes use job aids related to
participation in athletic workshops for
refresher of available resources campus-
wide.
Per semester 1
Student-athletes use job aids related to
accessing support services.
Weekly 1, 2
Student-athletes use job aids related to
putting into practice effective study,
note-taking and time-management skills.
Weekly 2, 3
Encouraging
Mentor observations Weekly 1, 2, 3
Peer modeling during usage of SASP Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Recognition in athletic workshop
presentation.
Per semester 1, 2, 3
Recognition on SASP’s wall and on
athletic website.
Monthly 2, 3
Monitoring
Monitor hours used receiving support. Weekly 2

By reinforcing, monitoring, encouraging, and rewarding, required drivers assist with the
achievement of the stakeholder outcomes. Required drivers are categorized as either “support” or
“accountability” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated
reinforcing reminds training graduates of what they are supposed to do and provides additional

62
training and guidance. Monitoring gives the impression that what is not measured is not
important and that important factors are measured. It is important to encourage others to keep
them motivated. However, the goal is to plan ways for encouragement to occur more formally
and regularly to support the identified critical behaviors. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
declared good performance equate to rewarding and receiving recognition.
A support system should hold all parties accountable for understanding and working
toward the SASP’s goal. To help the stakeholders achieve desired outcomes, the athletic
department’s culture should offer students consistent and intentional services. The SASP is
motivated to offer current student-athletes the services needed, as it helps with the institution’s
overall goal of increasing graduation rates. However, there is extrinsic motivation behind
wanting these students to succeed, as their achievements enable SASP staff to seek larger
facilities in which to operate and serve a larger population.
Organizational Support
The athletic department will seek permission to implement a strategy to reach the
student-athletes’ goals. The organization agreed to the guidelines the 3C4A institutionalized for
all CCC athletics-participating institutions. CCSC has accepted the mission statement of the
athletic departments, which aligns with the overall organization mission statement. The
organization has offered the SASP space to operate many of its services to its student-athlete
population.
Level 2: Learning
The following learning goals define the Level 2 assessment:

1. Accurately summarize resources to eliminate barriers (Declarative Knowledge).
2. Select courses that meet degree completion requirements (Declarative Knowledge).

63
3. Design a strategy to utilize resources to support my needs (Procedural Knowledge).
4. Create a quarterly SASP service use plan (Metacognition Knowledge).
5. Value the importance of identifying courses for degree requirements (Value).
6. Reflect on academic strengths and weaknesses to dictate which areas need improvement
(Metacognition).
7. Peer-to-peer collaboration to share effective strategies and offer feedback (Cultural
Setting).
Program
The stakeholder goal will be achieved by offering a SASP that is intentional and
deliberate. The SASP must set high standards for both employees and student-athletes. The staff
at SASP can offer many services, but they must also be mindful that they cannot solve all
student-athlete problems. To provide quality service, the SASP staff must collaborate with other
groups to create a holistic support system. The SASP staff must use other support services when
needed, such as Disabled Student Program and Services, Extended Opportunity Program and
Services, the California Work Opportunity and Responsibility to Kids, and others as students
need them. Directing students to these sources can help them overcome some of the barriers they
face.
All external programs mentioned above should participate in the3C4A’s 3-day semesterly
training. Additionally, SASP faculty members should provide monthly training to make sure all
parties remain in accord when serving student-athletes. Through the training, all program staff
will apply techniques and strategies in their conversations and meetings with student-athletes.
With all parties trained, the student-athlete can utilize the necessary resources and receive the

64
skillset and direction to remain on track to complete their degree requirements. Table 15
highlights the evaluation of learning.
Table 15
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Identify factors that can assist in persisting to
degree completion.
Monthly in counseling appointments.
Brief pulse check.
Weekly
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration of weekly planning that includes
10 hours of SASP usage.
Weekly
Demonstration of usage of resources needed to
support goal of degree completion.
Monthly in meetings.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discuss resources and techniques to assist in
achieving the educational goal with peers.
Weekly
Discuss the importance of knowing degree
requirements.
Ongoing
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Peer-to-peer discussions to discuss effective
strategies and offer feedback.
Weekly
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discuss commitment to utilizing SASP to others
while seeking degree completion requirements.
Ongoing

Level 1: Reaction
To determine the student-athletes’ reaction to the workshops held before each semester,
they will be encouraged to participate in the presentation’s interactive portion. Poll Everywhere
or Kahoots will be used to instill knowledge of the many support factors available. These
activities will serve as an educational tool to allow the participants to answer questions about the
presentation. Table 16 highlights the components to measure.

65
Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
During workshops, encourage audience participation through electronic
activities (Polls Everywhere/Kahoot).
Per semester
workshop
Encourage student-athletes to follow up with athletic counselor to discuss
planned courses.
Per Semester
(Three times per
semester)
Encourage student-athletes to utilize all available resources to assist with
assistance towards degree completion.
Weekly
Relevance
Encourage student-athletes to determine how mapped courses work towards
their intended educational or career goals.
Semester
(Three times per
semester)
Encourage audience participation through electronic activities (Polls
Everywhere/Kahoot).
Per semesterly
workshop
Customer Satisfaction
Encourage feedback from student-athletes on performance of the SASP. Per semester
Encourage audience participation through electronic activities (Polls
Everywhere/Kahoot).
Per semester
workshop

During the semester, student-athletes will be encouraged to visit an athletic counselor a
minimum of three times per semester for monitoring and follow-up purposes. Having the
student-athletes return allows the counselor to know if they registered for courses as planned.
Follow-up lets the counselor know if they follow through with utilizing services either in the
SASP or with another provider.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
During the workshop offered through the SASP, participants will analyze the materials
offered to determine the workshop’s effectiveness. The athletic counselors will maintain and

66
identify the learners’ knowledge of the workshops. Throughout the workshop, student-athletes
will participate in electronic activities to engage them and ensure they acquire knowledge of the
program. Surveys will be distributed at the end of the workshop with questions regarding the
workshop's organization and delivery. The surveys allow for collecting participants’ reaction
(Level 1) to the program and its relevance. During the electronic activities, the athletic
counselors will pose questions regarding the relevance of the content received. The electronic
activities help identify whether participants learned (Level 2) the workshop material.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Approximately two months after the workshop, the athletic counselor will follow up with
participants and provide the second round of surveys to be completed. These surveys will help
monitor the workshop material’s effectiveness by having the participants reflect o what they
learned and discuss how it helped them work towards their goal of degree completion.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Capturing the results of the workshop through the SASP is the goal of Level 4. Survey
and report data will be tracked and monitored for immediate and delayed responses on the
surveys to review for errors and confirm accuracy. The co-coordinator/mentor at the SASP will
collect data and confirm accuracy prior to reporting. Once all data are reviewed, they will be
presented in a chart to display the workshop’s effectiveness. Figure 2 highlights a projected chart
following the workshop. Similar charts will be created for Levels 1, 2, and 3.

67
Figure 2
Proposed Reporting Graphic

68
Figure 3
Gap Closure on Student-Athletes

Summary
To achieve CCSC’s stakeholder and organizational goal, the Kirkpatrick Model served as
an effective tool. The Kirkpatrick Model encompasses Four Levels: reactions (Level 1), learning
(Level 2), behaviors (Level 3), and results (Level 4). The four levels are used to maximize
implementation and outcomes. With the implementation of the Kirkpatrick Model, the
expectations are that the SASP will increase support across campus from other faculty, staff,
administrators, and programs. The increased support will help increase graduation rates among
all student-athletes, helping to meet the stakeholder and organizational goal. To capitalize on
return of expectation, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) share that effective training and
development begins before the program does and with the end state (Level 4) in mind during
training development. Thus, the implementation of the four levels begins with Level 4 and works
its way to Level 1 to establish the most effective results.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mens
Basketball
Womens
Basketball
Womens
Volleyball
Mens Golf Womens
Golf
Womens
Soccer
Mens
Football
Mens
Baseball
Womens
Softball
Mens
Tennis
Percentage of Student-Athletes Dedicating 10 hours Per Week In
SASP By Sport.
Teams

69
Strengths and Weaknesses
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was the conceptual framework for this
study. This model aids in making positive changes in an organization. This framework and study
can be beneficial for many two-year institutions with athletic support programs and with a
similar number of sports offered and active student-athletes. The gap analysis framework (Clark
& Estes, 208) identifies the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps and informs
solutions to help narrow the identified gaps. Although gaps were identified, this study focused on
one stakeholder only instead of all parties, giving a detailed understanding of one perspective.
A weakness was that only one stakeholder groups’ views are presented here. The CCSC’s
athletic program has many stakeholders who play a vital role in the student-athletes’ journey to
degree completion, such as the athletic director, coaches, enrollment services staff, and many
others. As this study focused on the student-athletes, data from the other stakeholders regarding
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were never collected. Data from all
other stakeholders could offer a holistic study.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study focused on one stakeholder, which excludes the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational aspects other stakeholders may offer. The researcher made great efforts to
encourage honest and truthful responses from the participants but was unable to validate their
truthfulness. Additionally, the researcher collected data over a two to three-month period, which
is not an extensive timeframe for data collection.
Delimitations are the decisions the researcher makes that may affect the study. The
researcher interviewed 10 participants. The institution itself houses 11 sports and has over 250

70
active student-athletes who may call the study into question. Although this study used a small
sample, other community colleges with a similar student population may benefit from this study.
Future Research
With the information received in this research study, there are four recommendations for
future research on this topic. First, as Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework focuses
on one stakeholder group, it would be useful to gather data pertaining to knowledge, motivation,
and organizational gaps from a separate stakeholder group. Secondly, a larger population among
whom to collect data would be helpful as well. Third, this study focused on interviews, but future
studies can include additional data collection processes such as surveys, focus groups, and
observations. Lastly, research at a larger athletic program would allow future researchers to bring
different perspectives to support student-athletes, would include more participants, might use
surveys and observations to decrease participants’ time commitment, and generate new
perspectives not present on the smaller CCSC campus and its athletic department.
Conclusion
While community colleges offer athletics, they are not NCAA institutions, and the
funding and services offered to their student-athletes differ greatly. Community college student-
athletes deal with numerous factors that halt their progress to degree completion. On many of
these campuses, support programs offer limited services, are unable to work with all students, or
do not exist at all. There is a need to increase and/or create support programs to help community
college student-athletes navigate their dual role of student and athlete. This study was conducted
to ensure student-athletes at CCSC receive the support they need to reach a 100% degree
completion rate.

71
This study aimed to identify these factors and to implement or increase services and
support to student-athletes to increase degree completion rates. To gather information directly
from those affected, this research focused on the student-athletes as the main stakeholder group.
The study followed Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis model and focused on knowledge,
motivation, and organizational gaps from the student-athletes’ perspective. Based on
participants’ responses, four assets and three needs were identified. The recommended
implementation and evaluation plan was designed using the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model, working backward, begins with the
organizational goal and identifies the necessary learning and assessment components to
continuously work on to meet the goal.

72
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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Hello and thank you for taking the time to talk with me today. Before we begin, I would
like to provide you with a brief overview of what the study will be discussing. This study is
looking to identify ways the SASP can assist in improving degree completion rates among the
student-athlete population here at the CCSC. The goal is to get 100% of student-athletes to
complete their associate degree. Your time spent at the institution, your usage of the support
program, and your goal of transferring to a four-year institution have all solidified you as a
beneficial resource for the purposes of the study – so I truly appreciate your participation.
My plan is to record detailed and accurate data. Therefore, I plan to audio record our
conversations and write notes as we move along the way. I have a personal audio recorder that I
would like to use, I would also like to use the voice memos audio recorder that is accessible
through my laptop, and I will be taking notes as well if that is okay with you.
It is important that I note that the information received through the data collection process
will remain confidential and your identity along with other participants will remain secured.
Pseudonyms have been created for the institution and will be used for the participants within the
data collection as well. Furthermore, no personal information will be used that will allow your
identity to be known. In the efforts to maintain confidentiality no data collecting information will
be used or saved on any CCSC equipment or stored at the location. All data will be collected on
my personal equipment such as a personal laptop, audio recording device, and a journal to take
notes. When at work and not collecting data, but will have a one-on-one interview this day, all
equipment will be stored in my vehicle inside of a briefcase that requires a combination to open.
When I am not at work or when I am at work and will not have any meetings with participants,
all equipment will be stored at my place of residence in a key entry storage cabinet. If for any

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reason you no longer wish to proceed with your participation within this study, please note that
you are free to withdraw at any point without any penalty.
There are no wrong answers to my questions. Please feel free to share your point of view
openly. Keep in mind that I’m just as interested in negative comments as positive comments.
Before we proceed, I need you to please sign this consent form that states everything I just
explained.
Let’s Begin!!!
Questions
Interview Background
Tell me a little about yourself.
1) Why did you decide to attend CCSC?
2) What sport do you participate in?
3) How many semesters have you completed here at CCSC?
4) What is your major or intended major?
5) Do you have plans of attending a four-year institution
It is definitely nice getting to learn a little bit about yourself. Thank you for sharing.
Knowledge
6) What are some critical things you need to know about persisting toward your degree
completion?
7) What ways do you use support services to help you persist toward degree
completion?
a. Probe, if needed – how beneficial have the services you have received been in
helping you persist toward degree completion?

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8) What is your understanding of the requirements needed to satisfy your degree?
Wow, you are providing some very inciteful information. You seem very accustom to the
services provided to you here at CCSC to assist you. That is really good.
You have offered your knowledge on the services provided through the support program, now I
would like to hear about you and what’s keeping you motivated.
Motivation
9) How might you grow in your confidence to engage the support programs available to
you to affect change in your educational journey?
10) How committed are you to seeking support to assist toward degree completion, even
if the support is difficult to find?
11) Have you noticed any growth in commitment to persist to degree completion since
actively participating in the support program?
a. Probe, if needed – if so, what services are you using that has assisted the
growth?
b. Probe, if needed – have you learned any new skills since you have begun
participating in the support program?
Interesting facts. I can see why you use the support services faithfully. You seem to really benefit
from what is offered here.
I would like to switch things up again. I am aware of your knowledge pertaining the support
program. I am also aware of your motivation to actively seek usage of the support program. I
would like to see what you are aware of in terms of the campus wide support.

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Organization
12) Are you open to the administration, faculty, and staff members campus-wide
supporting you, the student-athlete through their programs?
a. Probe, if needed – in what ways have you noticed the efforts of campus-wide
support for you as a student-athlete?
13) How would you describe how effective communication is between administration,
faculty, and staff members in regards to supporting you, the student-athlete?
14) What adjustments would you make to improve services offered to you as the student-
athlete?
a. Probe, if needed – Would you change anything about the current space
availability?
15) In what ways do faculty and staff members provide ongoing mentorship of student-
athletes either on campus, off campus, or at other institutions?
a. Probe, if needed – are you currently being mentored this way?
16) Do you believe that having a mentor has helped you create an identity outside of
athletics?
17) How do you think having a mentor has benefited you?
You have been really great, and I truly appreciate the information you have provided me with. I
have one last question for you.

18) Throughout your time here at CCSC so far, what do you believe is the most
important thing to assist student-athletes in persisting towards graduation?
19) Are there any last things you would like to share that you feel is important?
20) Do you have any questions for me?

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Once again, I would like to say thank you and express my gratitude for you taking the time out of
your busy schedule to meet with me. I know you have many other things you could be doing, but
you decided to be here with me to answer these questions, and I am very appreciative of that.
The information you have provided is very inciteful and will be of great use for this study. As we
close, I would like to remind you that the information will be kept in a safe place. Thanks again.
And now I will end my recording.

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APPENDIX B: IMMEDIATE EVALUATION TOOL
The following outlines how each survey item is appropriately aligned to the Kirkpatrick (2016)
model.

Strong Disagree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5 4 2 1

Level 1:

Engagement
1. I actively participated in the electronic activities during the workshop.

Relevance
2. I learned how mapped courses work towards my intended educational goal.

Customer Satisfaction
3. I would encourage my fellow student-athletes to participate in this program.

Level 2:

Declarative
4. I can identify factors that can assist in persisting toward degree completion.

Procedural
5. I can create weekly planners which ensure I spend a minimum of 10 hours in SASP per
week.

Attitude
6. I believe it is worthwhile to discuss resources and techniques that assist in my degree
completion.

Confidence
7. I am confident that I can implement effective planning strategies to take advantage of
SASP available resources.

Commitment
8. I am committed to using the resources SASP has available to me.

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APPENDIX C: DELAYED EVALUATION TOOL
The following outlines how each survey item is appropriately aligned to the Kirkpatrick (2016)
model.

Strong Disagree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5 4 2 1

Level 1:

Engagement
1. I actively participated in the electronic activities during the workshop.

Relevance
2. How course mapping works toward my intended educational goal continues to be
relevant to me.

Customer Satisfaction
3. I have recommended SASP program training to my peers.

Level 2:

Declarative
4. I continue identifying factors that assist me in persisting toward degree completion.

Procedural
5. I continue to create weekly planners which ensure I spend a minimum of 10 hours in
SASP per week.

Attitude
6. It is still worthwhile to me to discuss resources and techniques that assist in my degree
completion.

Confidence
7. I continue to have confidence in using effective planning strategies to take advantage of
SASP available resources.

Commitment
8. I am committed to using the resources SASP has available to me.

Level 3: Behaviors

9. I continue to use resources within SASP.

10. I continue to manage my time around using SASP for 10 hours a week.

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11. I continue to improve my time-management skills.

12. I continue to improve my note-taking skills

13. I continue to improve my study skills.

Level 4: Results

14. I am competent in using the available resources to me in SASP.

15. I dedicate a minimum of ten hours per week to utilizing services offered to me within the
SASP

16. I am on track for on-time degree completion.

Abstract (if available)

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bing, Darnell Leon (author)

Core Title Effective services provided to community college student-athletes: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 03/22/2021

Defense Date 02/18/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Athletics,CCCAA,community college,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,Sports,student-athlete,student-athlete support,support program

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Donato, Adrian (committee chair), Datta, Monique Claire (committee member), Hart, Jeremy (committee member)

Creator Email darnell_bing@yahoo.com,dbing@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-430129

Unique identifier UC11666672

Identifier etd-BingDarnel-9342.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-430129 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BingDarnel-9342.pdf

Dmrecord 430129

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bing, Darnell Leon

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA