Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
Impact of bamboo materials on indoor air quality
(USC Thesis Other)
Impact of bamboo materials on indoor air quality
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
IMPACT OF BAMBOO MATERIALS ON INDOOR AIR QUALITY
by
Vidya Chowdary Chundru
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
May 2021
Copyright 2021 Vidya Chowdary Chundru
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regard to my thesis chair,
Assistant Prof. Dr. Bhavna Sharma, whose dedication is largely responsible for the completion of
my work. Her meticulous scrutiny and scholarly advice have helped me to a very great extent to
accomplish this task. I would also like to thank my second & third thesis committee members,
Professor Marc E. Schiler and Associate Professor Dr. Joon-Ho Choi for their valuable
comments and feedback which are of utmost importance to this research.
I also take this opportunity to express my thanks to the Professors at the University of Southern
California for their kind help and cooperation throughout my course period. I especially express
my gratitude to Professors Douglas E Noble & Karen Kensek for their guidance and support. I
would also like to thank William Stuart Dols from National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) for providing me with the information related to IAQ simulation tool and
user guide. I thank all my friends for their stimulating discussions and for all the fun we had in
the last two years. Finally, I would like to thank my family for supporting emotionally and
encouraging me all the time.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Indoor Air Quality .............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Indoor Environmental Quality .......................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Indoor Air Quality....................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Thermal comfort ......................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Bamboo ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Bamboo as a sustainable building material ................................................................. 9
2.1.1.1 Chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of bamboo ............................ 10
2.2.2 Environmental impact of the building material ........................................................ 11
2.2.3 Bamboo in construction ............................................................................................ 13
2.2.4 Engineered bamboo in construction.......................................................................... 17
2.2.5 Embodied Energy and Operational Energy in bamboo and conventional building
materials ................................................................................................................................ 18
2.3 Bamboo .......................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Impact of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from non-conventional building
materials on indoor air quality .............................................................................................. 20
2.3.2 Evaluating VOCs by Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) simulation tools ............................. 21
2.3.3 Modeling of VOCs from building materials ............................................................. 23
2.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 24
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 26
3.1 Case study: Baseline Building ..................................................................................... 27
3.1.1 Case Study 1: Residential Light-Frame Wood Construction .................................... 27
3.1.2 Case Study 2: Modified Residential Light-Frame Wood Construction .................... 29
3.2 Structural Model .......................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Indoor Air Quality Simulation .................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Data inputs and material selection ............................................................................ 31
3.3.2 Simulations ............................................................................................................... 32
iv
3.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 33
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... 34
4.1 Modelling....................................................................................................................... 34
4.1.1 Revit Model and Material Take-Off ......................................................................... 34
4.1.2 Validation .................................................................................................................. 37
4.2 Case Study 1: Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Gypsum Board .......... 40
4.2.1 Case Study 1.1: Removal of Cork Flooring .............................................................. 44
4.2.2 Contribution of Flooring ........................................................................................... 46
4.3 Case Study 2: Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Laminated bamboo
Panel.. ....................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3.1 Case Study 2.1: Removal of Cork Flooring .............................................................. 49
4.3.2 Case Study 2.2: Different adhesive in the exterior walls .......................................... 51
4.3.3 Case Study 2.3: MUF Panel with Adhesive Bamboo Flooring ................................ 53
4.4 Further Exploration of Identified Parameters .......................................................... 55
4.4.1 Case Study 3: Change in mechanical ventilation rate ............................................... 55
4.4.2 Case Study 3.1 & 3.2: Influence of indoor temperature ........................................... 57
4.5 Comparison of case studies ......................................................................................... 62
4.5.1 Comparison of case studies 1 to 2.3.......................................................................... 62
4.5.2 Comparison of case studies 2.3 to 3.2....................................................................... 65
4.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 68
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ........................................................................ 70
5.1 Research Hypothesis and Objectives .......................................................................... 70
5.1.1 Research Objective 1 ................................................................................................ 70
5.1.2 Research Objective 2 ................................................................................................ 71
5.1.3 Research Objective 3 ................................................................................................ 71
5.2 Future Work ................................................................................................................. 72
5.2.1 Thermal Comfort ...................................................................................................... 72
5.2.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics Model ..................................................................... 73
5.2.3 Experimental testing of TVOC emissions in buildings ............................................ 73
5.3 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 75
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: List of materials used in the CONTAM Material Database for Case Study 1 ............ 36
Table 4.2: Summary of Average airflow rates and TVOC concentrations in ............................... 63
Table 4.3: Summary of Average airflow rates and VOC concentrations .................................... 66
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1:Energy consumption by building material (Manandhar, Kim, and Kim 2019) .......... 12
Figure 2.2:Different species of bamboo used for construction ..................................................... 14
Figure 2.3:Bamboo used for scaffolding, bridges, buildings ........................................................ 14
Figure 2.4:H&P’S Bamboo home prototype homes in Vietnam .................................................. 15
Figure 2.5:Bamboo and timber housing during & after construction, El Salvador ...................... 16
Figure 2.6:Bahareque construction detail ..................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.7:Development of laminated bamboo ............................................................................ 17
Figure 2.8:Two story laminated bamboo houses .......................................................................... 18
Figure 2.9:3D airflow and VOC concentration levels in-office study CFD model ...................... 24
Figure 3.1: Research methodology diagram ................................................................................. 27
Figure 3.2:Floor plans & elevations of Single-family house used as a case study ....................... 28
Figure 4.1: Revit model of case study building ............................................................................ 34
Figure 4.2:Average airflow rates & VOC concentrations for high emitting material .................. 39
Figure 4.3:Average airflow rates & VOC concentrations for low emitting material ................... 39
Figure 4.4:Wall section of Case Study 1 ...................................................................................... 41
Figure 4.5: Average Dry Bulb Temperature and Relative Humidity ............................................ 41
Figure 4.6:2D Layout of the Case Study 1 in CONTAM ............................................................. 42
Figure 4.7:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 1 ....................................................................... 43
Figure 4.8:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 1 .................................................................. 44
Figure 4.9:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 1.1 .................................................................... 45
Figure 4.10:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 1.1 ............................................................. 46
Figure 4.11:Wall section of Case study 2 (Timber with OSB & Laminated bamboo panel) ....... 47
Figure 4.12:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2 (Timber with OSB & Laminated bamboo
panel with a soy-based adhesive) .................................................................................................. 48
Figure 4.13:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2 (Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB
& Laminated bamboo panel with soy-based adhesive .................................................................. 49
Figure 4.14:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.1 (Removal of Cork Flooring) .................... 50
Figure 4.15:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.1 (Removal of Cork Flooring) ............... 51
Figure 4.16:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.2 (Different adhesive in exterior walls) ...... 52
Figure 4.17:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.2 Different adhesive in exterior walls) . 53
Figure 4.18:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.3 (Bamboo Flooring) .................................. 54
Figure 4.19:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.3 (Bamboo Flooring) ............................. 55
Figure 4.20:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.0 (Change in mechanical ventilation rate) .. 56
Figure 4.21:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 3.0 (Change in mechanical ventilation) .... 57
Figure 4.22:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.1 (Increase in Temperature) ........................ 58
Figure 4.23:Average VOC emissions in Case Study 3.1 (Increase in Temperature) ................... 59
Figure 4.24:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.2 (Decrease in Temperature) ...................... 60
Figure 4.25:Average VOC emissions in Case Study 3.2 (Decrease in Temperature) .................. 61
Figure 4.26:Average airflow rates in Case Studies 1 - 2.3 .......................................................... 64
Figure 4.27: Average TVOC emissions in Case Studies 1 - 2.3 ................................................... 65
Figure 4.28:Average airflow rates in Case Studies 2.3 - 3.2 ........................................................ 67
Figure 4.29:Average TVOC emissions in Case Studies 2.3 - 3.2 ................................................. 68
vii
ABSTRACT
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is one of the components of indoor environmental quality that needs
considerable attention from building designers. Currently, people spend 90% of their daily
routine in indoor spaces. It is not only necessary to be aware of the role of indoor environmental
quality on wellbeing, but also the impacts from buildings components. Research has shown that
IAQ can be controlled by mechanical systems, however the impact of building materials on IAQ
is emerging as an important area of research. Building materials are one of the sources of indoor
air pollution which can be improved by using “green” materials that achieve certification, such
as no or low emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC), indoor environmental quality
enhancement, waste reduction, and improved energy efficiency. Bamboo is an eco-friendly
material that is evolving in the construction of sustainable housing, however the influence on
IAQ has yet to be explored.
The presented research explores the influence of building materials on VOC emissions. A two-
story residential house is used as the case study to assess the impact from materials in the
building envelope on IAQ by using the CONTAM indoor air quality simulation tool, an open
source software available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The
initial case studies explored included the use of laminated bamboo panels and flooring, as well as
the influence of the type of adhesive in the laminated panel. Additional analysis explored the role
of mechanical ventilation rate and indoor air temperature on the VOC concentrations. The results
from the CONTAM simulation indicated that the laminated bamboo surface materials with low
or no VOCs, reduced the VOC concentrations compared to the conventional materials in the case
viii
study building. The research highlighted the need for additional modelling parameters,
developed through experimental testing, to assess VOC concentrations and IAQ.
KEYWORDS: Bamboo, Indoor Air Quality, Sustainability, Built environment.
HYPOTHESIS
Bamboo as a building material can provide better indoor air quality in a building than
conventional materials.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This research investigates the impact of bamboo material on the indoor air quality and the
objectives regarding achieving research goals are:
• Develop a material database based on published literature, reports, and manufacturing data.
• Model the performance of bamboo materials by using the CONTAM software tool.
• Assess the impact of bamboo building material on indoor air quality.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
The built environment contributes to climate change and impacts human health by the choice of
materials in buildings. The construction industry is one of the main consumers of materials and
energy and for a better sustainable environment. To reduce these impacts, it is important to use
natural and environmental-friendly resources. The built environment is undergoing rapid
urbanization due to the increasing population in urban areas. The result of increased urbanization
is the growing use of materials, mostly from non-renewable sources (Khoshnava et al. 2020).
Climate change can be addressed on a smaller or larger scale, and in the construction industry
large scale refers to macroclimate and small scale means microclimate. The microclimate in
urban areas shows a direct and indirect impact on people's lives due to temperature in the
outdoor (e.g. level of dust, humidity) and in the built environments due to human activities and
health issues caused by high use of cooling equipment. The impact of increased temperature can
have different causes which can be explained and influenced by various aspects such as the built
environment in the urban areas mostly comprises of tall and highrise buildings that have glass
envelopes the reflect and concentrate sunlight, use of building and construction materials like
concrete, steel, asphalt that can assimilate energy and have an increase in warming up effect on
the ambient air, transportation, and other human activities that produce greenhouse gases.
Sustainable buildings are the ongoing trend in the construction industry to reduce the concerns
related to the building sector. It is beneficial in three aspects that include environmental concerns
related to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air pollutants, and the environment are reduced
which results in improving air and water quality, an increase in conserving renewable resources,
2
and economical concerns like increasing the life span of the building, waste reduction, reducing
risks, operating and maintenance costs, an increase in occupant productivity, energy-saving and
so on (Hussin, Rahman, and Memon 2013). Additional to these are the social concerns related to
improving occupant health and comfort, better indoor air quality, reduces health risks from
building pollutants.
Affordable, safe housing is key to building sustainable and healthy communities in rural and
urban areas that supports the health of occupants. Houses are considered to provide shelter and
can ensure safety from outside pollution. Most of the communities lack housing guidelines and
regulations on building related health issues. Retrofitting the structures to meet the standards can
be expensive which can be avoided by incorporating these codes during the first phase of
construction of new buildings or substantial rehabilitation of damaged structures (Institute of
Medicine 2015).
According to the UN Environment Global Status Report 2017, embodied carbon from buildings
is almost 11% of the global greenhouse gas emissions and 28% of global emissions in the
building sector (Abergel, Dean, and Dulac 2017). The embodied carbon emissions are mainly
from building materials, building elements, and during the construction phase of the buildings.
The carbon from building operations can be addressed by improving lighting, mechanical
systems, however, unless a concrete floor or tiles are built, the carbon released during the
production and transportation of those materials is never retrieved (Cortese 2020). Regarding
climate change issues more architects, designers and manufacturers are anticipated to explore
low carbon building materials.
3
1.1 Indoor Air Quality
The architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry is aware of the concerns related
to the outdoor environment like climate change, global warming, deforestation, air and water
pollution, natural resource depletion, and energy consumption. The energy consumption of
buildings is one of the important issues which has been addressed by using energy-efficient
systems and materials. The focus on air-tight building envelopes to increase energy efficiency
has led to issues of poor indoor air quality. In addition, architectural sources related to the indoor
environment include building materials, furnishings, and ventilation systems. Building materials
and furnishings contain different types of pollutants especially from components like wood
adhesives, paint finishes, fire retardants for furniture, flooring finishes. Ventilation systems
utilize air ducts, filters, and humidifiers to provide good airflow movement in indoor areas.
These pollutant sources release different types of particles and gases from the material product
itself or are caused when two products come in contact with each other. Air temperature,
ventilation rate, activities in the area, the time and consistency of the pollutant exposure can
influence the impact on indoor air quality (IAQ). Poor indoor air quality has been associated with
certain human health problems like irritation of eyes, nose, throat, nausea, headaches, serious
respiratory diseases like asthma, lung cancer, and heart disease, etc. Indoor particulate matters
that are present in the indoor air are the main source of pollutants that affect occupant's health
(National Research Council 1981).
In addition to human health problems from poor IAQ, the intensity of pollutants in air quality
can be affected by odors, temperature, ventilation, furnishings. To address these issues related to
4
the indoor environment, architects have applied some passive design and energy-efficient
strategies however research on the impacts from building materials on indoor air pollution need
to increase. The solutions that are being applied for the latest buildings and proposed solutions
are discussed in the sections below.
The current strategies to control the level of pollutants in the indoor air are space planning,
energy-efficient HVAC systems, equipment maintenance, use of air cleaners, ventilation with
combination of required mechanical ventilation and natural ventilation which is done by
increasing outdoor air to indoor areas through openings. The advanced strategies for the latest
buildings are providing mechanical systems that can allow outdoor air inside the building.
Energy-efficient heat recovery ventilators are one of the advanced design strategies that reduce
energy loss while providing a disciplined way of ventilating a space (Baldwin et al. 2015).
Proper shading and ventilation can control the temperature indoors and make occupants
comfortable. Designers and architects are encouraging the use of sustainable, eco-friendly, low
emitting building materials to conserve energy, minimize waste, to provide a healthy and
comfortable space (United States Environmental Protection Agency 1997).
Due to the increase in demand across the globe for sustainable, low carbon building materials
and concerns related to indoor air quality in a building, research is required to assess the impact
of building materials on indoor air quality. By considering bamboo as a building material, its
impact of bamboo on indoor environmental quality needs to be studied. A preliminary study is
required to develop a database of contaminant concentrations with a focus on their part in indoor
air pollution to assess impact on IAQ.
5
1.2 Summary
This chapter summarizes global challenges and current trends in the built environment to
develop sustainable solutions in the AEC industry. The increased focus on IAQ also highlights
the gaps in studies on building material and indoor air quality performance in buildings. The
background literature on IAQ and bamboo as a construction material is presented in Chapter 2.
6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Materials are essential components of buildings. The selection of building materials for indoor
space and structural components may affect the indoor air quality which is explored in detail in
the sections below.
2.1 Indoor Environmental Quality
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is defined as the quality of the environment in a building,
related to the health and wellbeing of the occupants. A better IEQ will increase occupant’s
satisfaction, performance, and productivity, reduce operation and maintenance costs (Öz and
Ergönül 2015). Factors and the role of indoor building materials are explained in detail in the
sections below.
According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), people typically spend
90% of their daily routine in indoor spaces and getting exposed to pollutants from office
equipment, building materials, and furniture. These materials often contain a higher variety of
contaminants than pollutants in the outdoor environment. The main factors of IEQ are indoor air
quality, thermal comfort, lighting, and acoustic quality and other minor factors include
ergonomics, electromagnetic field, and radiation (Al horr et al. 2016).
2.1.1 Indoor Air Quality
The problems related to air quality in the built environment are mostly from sources inside the
building. Building materials and other indoor materials (e.g. furnishings, interior surface finishes,
paints) are identified as sources of indoor contaminants. Currently, data about the potential risk
7
from exposure to chemical compounds is provided in product specifications and includes restrict
while there are some standards and controls to reduce or stop exposure, some risks remain in
products.
There are other potential indoor risks from building materials such as asbestos fibers from
building insulation or chemical off-gassing from pressed wood products. Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are defined as toxic substances seen in products used in buildings (e.g.
carpets, flooring, particle boards, paints, sealants, adhesives, composite wood products, and
furnishings), that are released in indoor spaces, thereby reducing the air quality. Formaldehyde
is an organic compound that is used in wood-based products (e.g. oriented strand board (OSB),
high-density fiberboard (HDF), plywood, and particleboard), insulation materials (e.g. glass
wool or mineral wool), and flooring (e.g. cork). Building materials used in indoor spaces
generally contain substances that can show an impact on indoor air quality.
To investigate that the VOC emissions and choice of construction materials are related to indoor
air quality, two timber-based commercial panels; medium-density fiberboard (MDF) and
chipboard (CH) were tested and compared material from coriander biorefinery (COR) (Simon et
al. 2020). In an environmental chamber, VOC emissions were measured over a 28-day duration
using three temperature readings. MDF, CH, and COR emitted 74,146 and 35 micrograms per
square meter per hour (μg m
-2
h
-1
) of VOCs including carbonyl (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,
acrolein, and acetone) on day one. Other VOCs, such as terpene, emitted 12, 185, and 37 μg m
-2
h
-1
. VOC emissions were higher in higher temperatures that reduced overtime, except for the
formaldehyde. Formaldehyde emissions were 300 to 600 times lower from coriander boards with
8
a value < 0.2 μg m
-2
h
-1
, indicating it is more environmentally friendly than MDF and chipboard
(Simon et al. 2020).
2.1.2 Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is defined as the state of the human mind that shows fulfillment with the
thermal environment. It depends on various environmental factors such as air temperature,
relative humidity, air velocity, and important human factors are clothing and metabolic rate. If
80% of the occupants are comfortable with the thermal comfort level inside the building, it is
acceptable (Djongyang, Tchinda, and Njomo 2010).Thermal comfort depends on physiological
factors that deal with the work of the human body in relation to the environment, physical factors
include air temperature, humidity which are the main parameters of the environment in which
thermal energy is transferred through building elements by convection, conduction, and
radiation. The choice of building materials affects both the thermal comfort and thermal
performance of the buildings. Buildings of traditional material have a better performance in
attaining the required thermal comfort and reducing energy costs (Gezer 2003).
Thermal comfort in the indoor environment can be simulated by using EnergyPlus which is an
energy building simulation tool to model and evaluate the energy performance with a focus on
HVAC, lighting, occupant behavior. Evola et al. (2011) used Energy Plus to evaluate the
improvement of thermal comfort in a real office building during summers. Honeycomb Phase
Change Material (PCM) was installed on the inner side of the internal gypsum board walls with
glass wool insulation and concrete external walls with required specifications, night mechanical
ventilation rates. The results show that there was a drop of about 0.5°C- 1°C in peak surface
9
temperature and 2°C in peak indoor temperature in the test room with PCM compared to the
rooms with its absence (Evola et al. 2011).
2.2 Bamboo
Bamboo is a non-timber forest product and is classified as a giant grass that has multiple uses
from food to building materials. The sections below describe in detail about bamboo as a
sustainable building material, its environmental impact, and its current use in construction.
2.2.1 Bamboo as a sustainable building material
Bamboo is known for its fast-growing and easy harvesting with basic treatment. Although the
form and shape of bamboo might give a hard time to craftsmen during the construction phase, its
structural and mechanical properties along with environmental advantages make it the most
important building material for sustainable construction. When compared with modern building
materials, bamboo in pole form has a compression strength that is almost twice that of concrete
and similar tensile strength to steel (Nguyen 2018).
As a fast-growing plant, bamboo is known for its mechanical properties and can also combine
with other materials to create new building materials. Bamboo has been used as reinforcement in
concrete structures. Archila et al. (2018) proposed split bamboo(round strips) for reinforcement
instead of steel in reinforced concrete to control the cost and increase the use of sustainable
materials in the construction industry. Evaluation of bamboo reinforced concrete based on
structural, mechanical, and environmental behavior was performed by taking a prototype of a
three-bay, two-story portal frame with steel reinforcement and nominal load and the functions
applied to the bamboo reinforced concrete frame. Life Cycle Analysis of bamboo or steel
10
reinforcement in concrete was done by using the portal frame. Archila et al. (2018) summarizes
that bamboo is a great material but its use as reinforcement in concrete is not a great alternative
being durable and strong as it doesn’t meet environmental requirements (Archila et al. 2018). But
its practical applications like bahareque construction which is widely recognized as one of the
modern methods of utilizing bamboo for construction is explained in detail in Section 2.2.4.
Architect Simon Velez built a pavilion in Columbia that used bamboo to support overhangs of up
to 7 feet. The joints are reinforced with concrete to improve the traction strength of the bamboo,
and the roof was made of bamboo fiber reinforced cement material, increasing the use of
traditional and non-conventional materials together.There have been proposals to use bamboo as
reinforcement for structural members like columns, beams, and slabs. Silos made of bamboo
reinforced concrete is one of the examples which has made a path for further research in
combining bamboo with modern materials (DeBoer and Bareis 2018).Iyer (2002) performed
tensile testing to decide the ultimate and permissible values for bamboo culms or splints and
Bond tests to evaluate the quality of bonding between bamboo, mortar, and bricks were used to
assess bamboo reinforcing.The results concluded that it is advisable to use a larger area of
bamboo splint for better shear resistance and a lesser splint area for better bonding to for
reinforcing in masonry structures (Iyer 2002).
2.1.1.1 Chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of bamboo
The main chemical components of bamboo are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin. There are other
constituents like resins, inorganic salts, etc. depending on the growth, species, and part of the
culm (Li 2004). The use of bamboo as structural components is supported by the material’s
11
mechanical and physical properties. Durability is an important property that is restricting its use
in building products. If untreated, the life span of bamboo is shorter than other species of wood
(Kamble and Subramaniam 2019).
The properties vary from species to species; however, the general physical properties of bamboo
include that it is lightweight, tensile, hard, and flexible. Like any natural material, to utilize
bamboo in construction, the material needs to undergo treatment and testing to ensure durability.
Bhonde, et al. (2014) have studied the physical and mechanical properties of Dendrocalamus
Strictus bamboo which is extensively found in India. Tests were performed to access the specific
gravity, water absorption, and moisture content. The results show that this bamboo is porous
with an absorption water range of 33% and with a moisture content of 6.92% in summers.
Additionally, it also has good mechanical properties with an average tensile strength of 95.78
MPa, compression strength of 77-79 MPa, and shear strength of 85.2 MPa to 99.71 MPa
(Bhonde et al. 2014). Dendrocalamus Strictus can be a sustainable, environmentally friendly
material based on its mechanical and physical properties. Its application in the construction
industry needs to be increased for sustainable development.
2.2.2 Environmental impact of the building material
Bamboo serves as a carbon sink which contributes to the sequestration of CO2 emissions.
Bamboo is considered a sustainable material because of its processing technique, which has a
lower environmental effect than other building materials (Nguyen 2018).Bamboo can be grown
in areas that have been ruined due to deforestation or floods. Due to the ability to absorb and
sequester carbon in the growing phase of the material, bamboo-based products are considered to
12
be low carbon and embodied energy materials. The below table shows the energy requirements
for conventional construction materials (Lugt and Vogtlander 2015).
Figure 2.1:Energy consumption by building material (Manandhar, Kim, and Kim 2019)
As bamboo grows, it takes in carbon dioxide through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon is
stored within the biomass and when the material is harvested, the carbon is sequestered in the
product until the end of use and disposal. Examples of carbon storage and sequestration rates for
bamboo are 30–121 megagram per hectare (Mg ha
-1
) and 6–13 megagram per hectare per year
(Mg ha
-1
yr
-1
), respectively (Nath, Lal, and Das 2015).
Apart from renewability, embodied energy, and carbon emissions as a building material, the
other aspect that plays a key role in understanding its environmental impact is Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA). As part of the end-of-life scenario, it is assumed that 90% of the natural
material products such as bamboo are burned as biomass in an electrical power plant with the
rest 10% disposed in landfills, which is a real situation in the Netherlands and Western Europe
(Lugt and Vogtlander 2015).
Using environmental-friendly building materials has been recognized as a possible way of
decreasing the consumption of non-renewable resources and negative impacts on the
environment. For example, using bio-based building materials, such as bamboo, can provide an
alternative to conventional high impact materials to satisfy the demand for housing sustainably.
Escamilla et al. (2018) conducted a life cycle assessment (LCA) of building materials (bamboo,
13
brick, concrete hollow block, and engineered bamboo) to measure their environmental impact in
Colombia, South America. The parameters that are considered for the LCA process are
extraction, production, transport, and use of the building materials which was done by the IPCC
2013 evaluation method. The results explained that engineered bamboo has the lowest
environmental impact, in contrast to transportation and reinforcing materials higher contribution
(Escamilla et al. 2018).
2.2.3 Bamboo in construction
Bamboo, despite being a 100% natural material and producing low embodied energy, is not used
widely in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The AEC industry is
one of the main consumers of materials and energy and for a better sustainable environment, it is
important to use natural and environmental-friendly resources. There is a wide range of bamboo
species grown across the globe and each has its own mechanical and structural properties. The
geometry differs between and within species, which results in the variation of building materials.
To explore the construction of high-quality and long-lasting buildings, the bamboo plant species
should be considered.
Examples of bamboo species typically used in construction include Guadua angustifolia Kunth,
Dendrocalamus giganteus, Dendrocalamus asper, Phyllostachys pubsecens, and Phyllostachys
aurea. Guadua angustifolia Kunth is considered the largest, strongest, and most cost-effective
bamboo species that can be used for all building uses and also the strongest bamboo in the world
(Mena et al. 2011).
14
Figure 2.2:Different species of bamboo used for construction (Mulatu, Alemayehu, and Tadesse 2016)
Bamboo is used in non-load bearing surface applications (e.g. furniture, flooring, countertops),
however is also utilized as scaffolding for tall buildings, pedestrian bridges, and affordable
housing as shown in Figure 2.3. In the areas where it is locally available, the material is mostly
used for shelters, single dwellings, and structures in low-income communities. Bamboo is
considered as one of the good options for roofing as it is light, flexible, and has a crucial role in
the growth and evolution of rural areas (Sharma, Dhanwantri, and Mehta 2014).
Figure 2.3:Bamboo used for scaffolding, bridges, buildings (Lugt, Dobbelsteen, and Janssen 2005)
Bamboo has been used extensively for affordable housing in Vietnam. To provide shelter for
people with lower-income and to protect them from disasters like floods, landslides, the floating
15
bamboo home concept was introduced by H & P Architects. The prototype is a monolithic
structure made of bamboo as shown in Figure 2.4 (Bb Home / H&P Architects 2013).
Figure 2.4:H&P’S Bamboo home prototype homes in Vietnam (Bb Home / H&P Architects 2013)
Bahareque architecture is a type of construction adapted by the native people of Columbia for
low-cost vernacular homes. Since 2012, Arup and an El Salvador NGO have researched at the
intention of creating low-cost dwellings with more affordable and local materials in order to
reduce their environmental effects and help the economy. The design was considered to be
accessible to utilize in both long-term construction and post-disaster situations to replace current
or destroyed housing in rural and urban areas in El Salvador (Kaminski et al. 2016).
The single-story residential building located in El Salvador, Columbia demonstrates the use of
bamboo in construction. Bahareque is a construction method that consists of structural timber or
bamboo frame, cast in a matrix of split bamboo, cane, or timber strips plastered with mud
manure or cement mortar as shown in Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6. The wall matrix can be single or
double-sided, with a gap in between often filled with rubble. It is raised on concrete or brick
upstand to reduce the risks of dampness and roof of tiled or sheet metal roof with overhangs
16
(Kaminski et al. 2016). For protection from termites and insects, boron was used for the chemical
treatment of bamboo for its low toxicity for people, cost, and availability (Liese and Kumar
2003).
Figure 2.5:Bamboo and timber housing during & after construction, El Salvador(Kaminski et al. 2016)
Figure 2.6:Bahareque construction detail(Kaminski et al. 2016)
17
2.2.4 Engineered bamboo in construction
Laminated bamboo is an example of engineered bamboo. It is made from flat rectangular strips
from the bamboo stem which are glued together horizontally or vertically as shown in Figure 2.7.
It is used for wall paneling, flooring, roofing, furniture, staircase, and structural elements.
Figure 2.7:Development of laminated bamboo (Mahdavi, Clouston, and Arwade 2011)
The adhesives used in laminated bamboo are urea-formaldehyde (UF), melamine-formaldehyde
(MF), resorcinol formaldehyde (RF) (Frihart and Hunt 2010),phenol formaldehyde (PF) (Sharma et
al. 2015), soy-based resin (Sharma, Gatóo, and Ramage 2015) and polyvinyl acetate (PVA)(Correal
and López 2008).The commonly used adhesives from the above are UF, PF, and soy-based resin. In
the manufacturing of laminated bamboo panels, phenol formaldehyde is used regularly as known for
its affordable cost and durability in exterior applications. For interior lamination, UF is used for
commercial laminated bamboo. Soy-based resins are being to be preferred concerning the use of low
formaldehyde formulations (Sharma et al. 2015a).
Experimental testing was done on both laminated bamboo and bamboo scrimber to evaluate their
mechanical properties and capability for structural applications. The results from the tension,
compression, shear, and bending testing indicated that both the engineered bamboo materials,
18
laminated bamboo, and bamboo scrimber have similar mechanical properties compared to timber
and can be a replacement for timber (Sharma et al. 2015).
Xiao et al. (2010) constructed two-story single-family houses with laminated bamboo in China
utilizing wood construction methods. The structural members beams and girders were made of
glubam, a type of engineered bamboo, with plywood or laminated bamboo sheathing. Three
modern bamboo houses were with areas of about 250 m
2
, 120 m
2
and 100 m
2
were built with
basic design requirements by following the codes for light -frame timber buildings as shown in
Figure 2.8 (Xiao et al. 2010).
Figure 2.8:Two story laminated bamboo houses (Xiao et al. 2010)
2.2.5 Embodied Energy and Operational Energy in bamboo and conventional
building materials
The definition of embodied and operational energy and their significance is estimated with the
help of LCA. Embodied Energy (EE) is defined as the total energy consumption during the
construction of a building that includes transportation energy, embodied energy of building
materials, and construction energy. Embodied energy of building materials is the primary source
of the building’s total embodied energy. Operational energy (OE) is the energy consumption
19
from the mechanical and electrical sources of the buildings that depend on the climate of the area
and the comfort of the occupants.
A bamboo residential prototype and brick concrete building was investigated to study material-
based energy use and carbon emission over the life cycle of the materials. The results show that
the bamboo-based building requires less energy and CO2 emissions. Furthermore, according to
LEED guidelines, it is possible to save 11.0% (18.5 %) of embodied energy (carbon) by using
recycled-content building materials and 51.3% (69.2 %) by recycling construction and
demolition waste (Yu, Tan, and Ruan 2011).
A study on vernacular dwelling in India, located in a warm humid climatic zone is considered to
examine the impact of change in building materials, climatic zone, and thermal comfort models
on embodied and operational energy. The results show transitions concerning building materials
used for walls and roofs have a negative impact on embodied and operational energy
consumption. The findings have showed that modifying the wall material has an effect on the
structure's embodied and operational energy, with substitution of rubble stone masonry with
burnt clay brisk and reinforced soil block masonry raising the embodied energy by 9.7 and 2.8
times, respectively (Praseeda, Monto, and Reddy 2013).
2.3 Bamboo
Human health issues and environmental problems have encouraged architects and engineers to
provide design strategies for a healthy and productive life. With focus on reducing environmental
impacts from the built environment, there is increased interest in natural and renewable building
materials, resulting in the use of sustainable materials like bamboo. There are standards such as
20
Green Seal, Cri Green Label Plus, Floor Score to certify environmentally friendly building
materials (Bratkovich, Fernholz, and Howe 2008).
The relationship between IAQ and the building material of a building is an unfocused topic even
though some parameters of IEQ are considered in the rating systems but building material’s role
in giving a rating for the IEQ of a space or building is not explored in detail. For example,
building rating system like LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) has
information about IEQ that includes its definition, importance in buildings, factors, air
contaminants, and proposed strategies to improve occupant’s satisfaction and productivity but
there is no detailed information about building materials.
There have been studies on pollutants released by building materials and their impact on indoor
air quality and ventilation-related needs (Albadra et al. 2018).Full scale chamber experiments
were performed to explore the influence of VOCs on the indoor environmental quality (Liang,
Yang, and Yang 2015) (ASTM-D6670 2018). The testing is resource intensive and occurs over a
long period of study (e.g. months) to investigate the influence of changing climate throughout a
year. While bamboo is used in household products, such as furniture and surface applications,
the effect of the material on IAQ has yet to be fully investigated.
2.3.1 Impact of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from non-conventional building
materials on indoor air quality
Formaldehyde is a colorless, flammable VOC that is used commonly in building materials,
insulation products, adhesives for hardwood, and bamboo flooring. It is dangerous to human
health when found at high levels. The amount of formaldehyde in bamboo flooring mostly
21
depends on where the products are produced and sold across the globe. The most detailed indoor
air standard in the world in CARB (California Air Resources Board) Phase II. Both CARB and
European standards endorse that formaldehyde concentration should be 0.01ppm or below
(Octavia 2016).
Most of the bamboo flooring brands that produce high-quality flooring products contain
minimum or no formaldehyde. These products meet the indoor off-gassing standards of
formaldehyde levels no higher than 0.05 ppm from CARB Phase II. Bamboo high-quality
flooring products contain about 0.02 ppm which is lower than the CARB standard. Commercial
products may report the VOC concentrations based on standardized experimental testing.
2.3.2 Evaluating VOCs by Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) simulation tools
To evaluate VOCs by building materials and check their effect on the IAQ of the building,
researchers are installing airflow monitoring equipment for the required time and using those
values as inputs for the IAQ simulation tools. There are simulation tools available to model
buildings, indoor airflow, materials, the concentration of contaminants, and other parameters
related to indoor air quality. IAQ-X, IA-Quest, and CONTAM are some of the IAQ simulation
tools which are used for evaluating IAQ, energy impacts of ventilation (Guo 2000) (Kraus and
Senitkova 2019) (Emmerich 2012).
Dols and Polidoro (2015) CONTAM compared to other simulation tools can provide better
simulation results of airflow rates, contaminant concentration to investigate the indoor air quality
performance of the building based on building materials selection and personal exposure. The
simulation tool is also used to investigate smoke management in a building design. It is also used
22
along with energy simulating and analysis programs like Energy Plus and TRNSYS (Transient
System Simulation Tool) to develop a coupled model to capture the correlations between airflow
and heat transfer by co-simulation (Dols, Emmerich, and Polidoro 2015).
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) constructed a Net-Zero Energy
Residential Test Facility to promote the evolution of affordable net-zero energy design concepts
and innovations (Ng et al. 2018). A two-story house that was unoccupied with limited cabinetry
and no furniture was used to evaluate indoor air quality and the energy impacts of ventilation.
Electrical and water consumption, metabolic heat, and moisture production were all simulated
for a family of four. In a full-scale experiment for 15months VOCs such as formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde were measured inside and outside of the study house on a weekly basis (Ng et al.
2018).
To simulate the emissions from materials, small chamber tests were used to calculate the
emission rates from wood sample products taken from the house. Blower door testing were used
to determine whether the structural materials, such as the building envelope, flooring, and grilles,
were leaking through the floors. VOCs like formaldehyde and acetaldehyde indoor and outdoor
emission calculations along with the laboratory values were used to derive the emission rate
inputs for a coupled CONTAM-Energy Plus model of the house. Additionally, the model was
also used to measure the effect of various outdoor air ventilation rates on indoor contaminants
and annual energy usage (Ng et al. 2018).
Chen, et al. (2014) used CONTAM to model 83 single-family detached homes to evaluate the
IAQ impacts of the building materials and to improve the standards of the products for the VOC
23
s emission testing. The main attributes that were emphasized for the IAQ modeling and health
assessment of the emissions from building material products are the loading ratio and area-
specific airflow rate (Chen et al. 2014).
2.3.3 Modeling of VOCs from building materials
To evaluate the indoor conditions and airflow, Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling (CFD)
is used to model the air movement, which evaluates the indoor environment and its conditions
during the design phase and before the structure is built, to test various options and select the
effective ventilation strategies. Various scenarios are simulated with different occupancy levels,
climatic conditions, building services, to assess the performance of the building under normal
and extreme conditions. In addition, the distribution of VOCs is simulated by applying the
emission factors to the geometry in the CFD model.
D’Amico, et al. (2020) researched Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models to study the
VOC concentrations in the indoor spaces of the buildings and created a guide proposal for the
IAQ-oriented building design concerning the indoor TVOC emissions from the building
materials. A meeting room and office space CFD models were simulated with constant
temperature and pressure as initial conditions and later openings were closed all the time in
correlation with the VOC sample conditions. The results were explored with emphasis on the
role of ventilation and even discussing the connection between monitoring limits of the building
material’s emissivity and Indoor Air Pollutant guide values for the pollutants concentrations. The
3D visualization of the CFD model of the office box is shown in Figure 2.9 (D’Amico et al.
2020). The methodology followed was to verify the CFD tool for further use by designers and
24
architects to evaluate the design choices and to visualizes the VOC concentrations in the 3D
view.
Figure 2.9:3D airflow and VOC concentration levels in-office study CFD model during winter conditions (D’Amico et al. 2020)
2.4 Summary
This chapter reviewed indoor environmental quality with focus on indoor air quality and thermal
comfort, and its relationship with building materials, and human health. The use of bamboo in
construction including the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties, environmental impact
was discussed. Assessment of embodied and operational energy of low carbon buildings suggests
that they would be an alternative in comparison to conventional buildings. An area of research
that is not yet fully explored is the impact of building materials on indoor air quality. Full-scale
and small-scale experiments determined that the VOC emissions and choice of construction
materials are related to indoor air quality resulted that the pollutants from building materials
might show a negative effect on IAQ. To explore additional parameters, such as ventilation and
temperature, simulation tools can be used to investigate the influence on indoor air quality in
addition to associated VOC emissions from building materials.
25
One of the concerns related to the built environment is indoor environmental quality and its
impact on human health and wellbeing. There are knowledge gaps that need more in-depth
research and one of the areas requiring further research is building materials and the impact on
the indoor air quality. This chapter discussed the issues and challenges with indoor air quality in
a global context, issues with indoor areas, current and proposed solutions focusing more on
indoor air quality. The research indicates a need for an assessment of the parameters that
contribute to building material emissions and the overall impact on indoor air quality, which is
the focus of this thesis. The methodology for the research is presented in Chapter 3.
26
3. METHODOLOGY
The methodology selected to assess the indoor air quality (IAQ) in buildings utilized a deductive
approach. The research combined quantitative and qualitative techniques to provide a broad
understanding of the relationship between building materials and indoor air quality as shown in
the methodology diagram (Figure 3.1). Evaluating the IAQ of a building is a challenging topic
and is typically assessed using a combination of experimental testing, air quality monitoring, and
simulation software tools. For the presented research, IAQ simulation was the focus of the
investigation.
The standard method used by researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) to assess the indoor air quality of a building involves collecting data from the air sensors
placed in the building for a standard time, creation of a model layout of the building, and running
simulations by using the IAQ tool (Dols and Polidoro 2012).The current research focuses on
simulation only and the methodology framework is shown in Figure 3.1. The methodology is
divided into three parts: the selection of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) case study building,
modelling of the case study building, and the CONTAM simulation. The first stage provides
detailed information about building materials and is used as a replacement of a physical building
and testing. In the second stage, the case study building is modelled and modified in REVIT to
calculate the material surface areas. In the final stage, CONTAM, an IAQ simulation tool, is
used to assess the indoor air quality in all case studies, investigating different scenarios and
parameters concerning emissions from building materials. The details for the case studies are
explored in the following sections.
27
Figure 3.1: Research methodology diagram
3.1 Case study: Baseline Building
The baseline case study focused on residential light-frame wood construction. The material
database required for the IAQ simulation tool was obtained from a life cycle analysis and case
study (Coelho et al. 2014).The second case study will modify the baseline building with the
addition of laminated bamboo on the interior to replace conventional indoor wall panels and
flooring, which is discussed in Section 3.1.2.
3.1.1 Case Study 1: Residential Light-Frame Wood Construction
The case study from Coelho et al. (2014) is based on a single-family 180 m
2
(1938 ft
2
) house
constructed in Kiruna, Sweden in 2014. The building’s area is divided into two floors with the
28
main façade facing south and the house is detached from other buildings. Figure 3.2 presents the
floor plans and elevations. The building is constructed with light-frame timber construction. The
interior materials included cork parquet flooring and gypsum board walls and ceilings. The
exterior roof consists of Oriented Strand Board (OSB) with asphalt shingles. The external wall
consists of OSB panels on the exterior and a gypsum board on the finished interior. The internal
walls include wood stud walls with an air gap filled with cellulose insulation and a gypsum board
on the finished surface.
Figure 3.2:Floor plans & elevations of Single-family house used as a case study (Coelho et al. 2014)
Coelho et al. (2014) conducted the life cycle analysis (LCA) using the BEES (Building for
Environmental and Economic Sustainability) tool developed by NIST to assess the life cycle
analysis of the construction materials used in the case study building. The BEES database
includes data on raw materials acquisition, transportation from the manufacturing factory to the
29
building site, the construction process, whole life-span maintenance, and end-of-life. The energy
consumption assessment includes all the mechanical, passive strategies, plumbing activities in a
typical residential building with excluding lighting and domestic appliances. The impact
categories examined in the environmental assessment are Global Warming Potential,
Eutrophication Potential, Indoor Air Quality, Human Health Particulates, Fossil Fuel Depletion,
and Ozone Depletion Potential (Coelho et al. 2014).The research summarized the indoor air
quality as a metric, however did not include an in depth discussion on the contribution of VOCs
from materials. The general building layout and building materials are taken from the baseline
building to use for further research in the IAQ simulation as explained in the later sections.
3.1.2 Case Study 2: Modified Residential Light-Frame Wood Construction
The second case study utilized the baseline building described in Section 3.1.1, with an alteration
to the interior wall panel from OSB with gypsum to a laminated bamboo panel. The panels are
commercially produced with a variety of adhesives, from bio-based adhesives such as soy-based
adhesive to conventional synthetic adhesives utilizing polyurethane and formaldehyde. The input
parameters required for emission values of laminated bamboo are not well-studied. The IAQ
input data will be based on a combination of available published experimental and manufacturer
data. The case study buildings were modeled in REVIT to obtain the material quantities for the
IAQ simulation.
3.2 Structural Model
After collecting the required data from case studies, a structural model is created in REVIT, a
building information modelling software. To extract the total surface and volumes used for walls,
30
floor, roof, it is necessary to assign material to the building elements. The outputs of the surface
area values of materials from the Revit schedule are used as the inputs to calculate contaminant
emission values of the materials used in the case study building in the IAQ simulation. After
analyzing different IAQ simulation tools, CONTAM was concluded as a suitable for the
research. The simulation workflow, data inputs, and outputs are explained in detail in Section
3.3.
3.3 Indoor Air Quality Simulation
To assess emissions from building materials and their effect on IAQ, CONTAM was used for the
simulation of the two case studies. Dols and Polidoro (2016) described CONTAM as multizone
indoor air quality, ventilation, and material contaminants movement simulation tool that shows
airflow rates, contaminant concentration to check the indoor air quality performance of the
building based on building materials selection, and personal exposure. It is also used for smoke
management design and examination in a building (Dols and Polidoro 2016).
CONTAM can estimate the contaminant concentrations which is essential to control the indoor
air quality performance of buildings before construction and occupancy, to examine the impacts
of choices related to building ventilation systems, building material selection, and to assess
indoor air quality control technologies. Personal exposure is the other feature that is estimated
based on the predicted contaminant concentrations and the occupancy schedules. The data inputs
required for the simulation tool and how they are collected is explained in detail in the sections
below.
31
3.3.1 Data inputs and material selection
To evaluate building contaminant concentrations and personal exposures, input parameters, are
required. CONTAM includes input databases for the IAQ simulation. A standard data format
called ContamLink was created by NIST to allow for use of the database to establish the values
for building material emissions and to build a CONTAM input library. These databases serve as
a base for expanding the collection of input parameters, evaluating the quality and perfectness of
existing data sets, and allow for the discovery of important data gaps.
The case study LCA provided the input parameters that were validated through comparison with
EPA Sources of Indoor Air Emissions & NRC Material Emission Database in ContamLink. The
input values that are not available on ContamLink are addressed through the use of publicly
available manufacturer data, published research, or the selection of building materials
comparable to those used in the baseline case study.
After collecting all the input data required for the simulation, a 2D layout of the case study
building was created utilizing the layout discussed in Section 3.1.1. The model requires the
geographical location for weather data, which was set to Sweden. Next, additional detail was
added to reflect airflow elements like windows, doors, and ducts, based on the baseline study
building (Coelho et al. 2014). The model includes specification of wind pressure profiles,
mechanical ventilation rate, occupancy schedules based on standards values for residential
buildings, contaminants/species, sources, or sinks from the building materials. Species is defined
as a general term used by CONTAM to identify components that can be used as contaminants for
simulation (Dols and Polidoro 2016). Sources and sinks are used to generate contaminants and
32
simulate building materials such as plywood flooring, carpet, ceiling, and furniture. To perform
the simulation, it is necessary to define which species, the source, or sink needs to be associated
with.
3.3.2 Simulations
After providing all the required values for the inputs in CONTAM to run the simulation, the
parameters are established and reviewed. Parameters include run control properties to set the
type of simulation, dates, times, output results of airflow and contaminant simulation results,
airflow and contaminant numeric values. The output results are exported in both text and graphs
format for further analysis.
To assess the impact of building materials on indoor air quality, various simulations are
conducted and compared. The first simulation focuses on the first case study on light-frame
timber construction. The study will establish the baseline for the method of construction. The
second simulation will utilize the baseline study and alter the interior building material to include
laminated bamboo to explore the contributions and impacts on IAQ.
Identified parameters are explored in Case Study 1 and 2 in CONTAM. To investigate how the
material impacts the total volatile organic compound (TVOC) levels in the baseline building,
Case study 1.1 and 2.1 were modelled by removing the high emitting material (cork parquet
flooring). Case study 2.2 explores the influence of the adhesive in the wall paneling to assess the
effect on indoor air quality. Case study 2.3 incorporates bamboo flooring to assess the impact of
bamboo materials on TVOC concentration levels. Case study 3 explored some of the identified
parameters, such as change in mechanical ventilation rate and indoor temperature, to explore the
33
influence on the indoor air quality and TVOC indoor levels. The results from all the case study
simulations are analyzed and discussed in Chapter 4, to explore the impact of building materials
on IAQ.
3.4 Summary
The research aim will be achieved using the methodology described in the previous sections. An
existing building is used as a baseline case study, which was modeled to obtain material
quantities and identify contaminants. The output from the structural model provided the basis for
the input parameters in the IAQ simulation, along with material data from the software libraries
and other published sources. The IAQ performance of the baseline light-framed timber building
is assessed. Additional case studies utilizing laminated bamboo were explored, as well as
additional parameters such as ventilation and temperature to determine the influence on the
indoor air quality. The results from the case studies are presented and discussed in Chapter 4.
34
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The modelling and simulation methods, as well as the results from the case studies presented in
Chapter 3 are presented and discussed in the sections below.
4.1 Modelling
The baseline building was modeled in Revit to obtain the material take-off and identify input
materials for the CONTAM library. The case study building was modeled in Revit as shown in
Figure 4.1. The detailed Revit model provided the material volume for the walls, floors, and roof.
These quantities served as input to the CONTAM library.
Figure 4.1: Revit model of case study building
4.1.1 Revit Model and Material Take-Off
The material take-off obtained from the Revit model was converted into the surface area,
representing the interior surfaces within the building. In addition, a database of materials, based
on the case study, was created in ContamLink to establish the material library that is used in the
35
CONTAM simulation. The ContamLink material database does not include values for all the
building materials from the case study building. The materials not included in the existing
database were added to the library including the volatile organic compound (VOC) emission rate
reported from manufacturer data and published literature. The materials added to the database
were: cedar siding, cellulose insulation, polyurethane coating, aluminum siding, and asphalt
roofing shingles. All the material VOC input values are shown in Table 4.1.
Based on the input values, cork flooring was identified to have the highest TVOC value and
cellulose insulation has the lowest TVOC (Table 4.1). The material library was imported into the
CONTAM model to run the simulation and analyze the contaminant concentrations and airflow
rate to validate the indoor air quality performance in the case studies. The modeling of the case
studies with a change in materials and parameters are discussed in detail in the following
sections.
36
Table 4.1:List of materials used in the CONTAM Material Database for Case Study 1 with their surface areas & emissions rates
based on (Coelho et al. 2014)
Building
Element
Materials Surface Area(m
2
)
Contaminant -TVOC
emission rate from
CONTAM
External
&
Internal
Walls
Cedar Siding 266 0.032
a
Generic Cellulose
insulation
614 0.0614
b
Generic Gypsum
Board
431 0.451
OSB panel (11mm) 532 0.521
Polyurethane Coating
266 0.327
c
Timber structure 348 1.252
Ground &
First
Floors
Aluminum
Siding(8mm)
106 0.063
d
Generic Cellulose
insulation
194 0.0614
b
Natural Cork parquet 194 1.5
Generic Gypsum
Board
89 0.451
OSB panel (11mm) 389 0.521
Timber structure 194 1.252
Roof
Asphalt roofing
shingle
258 0.183
e
Generic Cellulose
insulation
517 0.0614
b
Generic Gypsum
Board
289 0.451
OSB panels(11mm) 120 0.521
Timber structure 90 1.252
a
(NIST 2018)
, b
(Chin et al. 2019),
c
(European Environment Agency 2019),
d
(Energetic,
Inc. 1997),
e
(Khare et al. 2020)
37
4.1.2 Validation
To validate the methodology, a box with a volume of 100 m
3
was created to explore the material
library and simulation process in CONTAM. Two simulations were run, one with a known high
emitting material (i.e. cork flooring) to establish a baseline and a low emitting material (i.e.
gypsum board). In the first simulation, the parameters required for the CONTAM model are
considered the same for both the materials. The results showed a difference in VOC
concentrations for the model with the same airflow rates for both materials. Mechanical
ventilation rate is one of the parameters in the CONTAM model which required additional
exploration.
Mechanical ventilation systems are designed to provide better indoor air quality for buildings to
pull out the air and/or supply fresh air to the indoor areas. The ventilation rate is measured in
liters per second (l/s) or cubic feet per minute (cfm).The mechanical ventilation rate was
obtained from published studies and used in the simulations (Ng et al. 2018). A ducted heat
recovery ventilation (HRV) system was assigned to the box with minimum ASHRAE 62.2-2010
standard ventilation requirements (ASHRAE 2010).Based on the published works, mechanically
ventilated buildings have low VOC emissions compared to naturally ventilated buildings. A field
study was conducted to investigate 62 energy-efficient and 61 conventional buildings to assess
that the indoor air quality, VOC emissions, and indoor climatic conditions. The results showed
that the total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) concentration in mechanically ventilated
buildings was 19% lesser than the naturally ventilated buildings indicating that energy-efficient
houses have better indoor air quality (Wallner et al. 2015).
38
The box was modelled in CONTAM by assigning a high emitting material for all the interior
surfaces of the box. For mechanical ventilation, the HRV system was assigned to provide 38 l/s
of the outdoor air (Ng et al. 2018). The simulation was run with the high emitting material (i.e.
cork flooring).The outputs from the simulation which are used for the study are airflow rate
which is expressed in terms of mass flow rate of air in kilograms per second (kg/s) and VOC
concentrations measured in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m
3
)(Dols and Polidoro 2016). The
mass flow rate was converted into volumetric flow rate in liters per second (l/s) for clarity. The
result shows the average airflow rate is between 0-80 l/s and the average VOC concentration is
between 0.6 mg/m
3
- 1.2 mg/m
3
as shown in Figure 4.2.
The interior surface material of the box was changed to a gypsum board as it is low emitting
material. The HRV system was assigned to deliver 47 l/s of outdoor air as it is the minimum
requirement for energy-efficient and high-performance buildings (Ng et al. 2018). The results
show that the average airflow rate is between 0-100 l/s and the average VOC concentrations
were 0.0 - 0.6 mg/m
3
as shown in Figure 4.3. The results from both the materials demonstrate
that the TVOC concentrations inside the building reflect the input parameters and are influenced
by the change in mechanical ventilation rate, as expected.
39
Figure 4.2:Average airflow rates & VOC concentrations for high emitting material (cork flooring)
Figure 4.3:Average airflow rates & VOC concentrations for low emitting material (gypsum board)
To verify the values from the CONTAM simulation, the results were compared with other
published studies. Horn et al. (1998) conducted experimental testing on various composite cork
products for indoor use. The study found that VOC emission factors were high, especially from
cork parquet used in flooring. The results from the study of the VOC concentrations ranged
between 0.2 to 0.86 mg/m
3
(Horn, Ullrich, and Seifert 1998). In comparison to the CONTAM
simulation, the VOC concentrations ranged between 0.6 to 1.2 mg/m
3
from cork flooring
(Figure 4.2), which indicates that the results are near the range of expected emissions.
40
Similarly, Que et al. (2013) conducted experimental tests on the gypsum board and the TVOC
concentrations from the gypsum board to be 0.14 mg/m
3
(Que et al. 2013). The maximum
simulated VOC concentrations was 0.6 mg/m
3
(Figure 4.3) which is within range of the
experimental values. The results from the 100 m
3
box simulation were comparable to published
values from experimental testing, which validated the methodology used.
4.2 Case Study 1: Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Gypsum Board
Case Study 1 is the existing baseline building (Coelho et al. 2014). The building envelope is
composed of a timber light-frame structure with Oriented Strand Board (OSB) and gypsum
board as shown in detail in Figure 4.4. As discussed above, the building is modeled in CONTAM
by assigning the required inputs and materials library. The simulations are run by considering the
existing location as Sweden and linked Energy Plus Weather data file to load the outdoor
weather conditions. The average temperature and relative humidity data was plotted to
understand the change in dry bulb temperature, relative humidity over a year as shown in Figure
4.5. All the VOC emissions from materials in the existing building are taken into consideration,
mechanical ventilation rate as per ASHRAE (2010) standards and created a schedule for
openings in which all the doors and windows on the envelope are open from 7 am to 12 pm and
closed the rest of the day to investigate the indoor air quality during the hours of occupancy.
41
Figure 4.4:Wall section of Case Study 1(Timber wall frame structure with OSB & Gypsum board)
Figure 4.5: Average Dry Bulb Temperature and Relative Humidity from Sweden Energy Plus Weather data
The CONTAM model is a 2D layout and assigning required parameters like zone, VOC emission
sources, openings, mechanical systems, outdoor environment specifications as shown in Figure
4.6.
42
Figure 4.6:2D Layout of the Case Study 1 in CONTAM
All the materials are used in the CONTAM model for simulation, but only materials with higher
than 0.5 mg/m
3
(the acceptable TVOC ASHRAE (2010) Standard) VOC concentrations are
shown. In Figure 4.6, the average airflow rate over the 12-month year is shown. After running
the first simulation, the fluctuation in air flow rate was due to the weather and climate data that
was imported indicating that more ventilation is needed in the summer months, which is related
to the setup of the model in terms of the ventilation system. The average airflow rate values for a
year are above the ASHRAE standard (i.e., 28.32 l/s for a 2 to 3 bedroom residential building) as
shown in the dashed line in Figure 4.7.
43
Figure 4.7:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 1(Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Gypsum Board)
Figure 4.8 summarizes the average VOC concentration over the year, with the TVOC from each
material, as well as the total TVOC for all the materials. The highest amount of TVOC is from
formaldehyde in the cork flooring and the lowest TVOC is from the gypsum board with some of
the values falling between good and acceptable standard ranges as shown in Figure 4.8.
Moreover, the TVOC value from all the materials is much higher than the ASHRAE standard
values for VOCs.
44
Figure 4.8:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 1(Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Gypsum Board)
4.2.1 Case Study 1.1: Removal of Cork Flooring
In recognition of the high TVOC contribution of the cork flooring, Case Study 1.1 removes the
flooring to analyze the case study without any flooring to determine the overall building
envelope with no change in any other parameters or materials. The results indicate that there was
no change in average airflow rate compared to case study 1, which is expected as the mechanical
ventilation rate is the same. All the average airflow rates for every month are and above the
ASHRAE standard (i.e. 28.32 l/s) as shown in Figure 4.9 indicating that it is a high-performance
building.
45
Figure 4.9:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 1.1(Removal of cork flooring from Case study 1)
Figure 4.10 shows that after removing the cork flooring the highest amount of TVOC is from the
timber studs and the lowest TVOC is from the gypsum board. Moreover, the TVOC value from
all the materials showed a significant decrease in comparison to Case Study 1, which indicates
that the cork flooring was the major contributing factor in terms of that total VOC concentration
in the building. is the contribution from the cork flooring is approximately 4.5 times higher than
the ASHRAE acceptable standard values for VOCs.
46
Figure 4.10:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 1.1 (Removal of cork flooring from Case study 1)
4.2.2 Contribution of Flooring
As discussed in Section 4.2.1, the cork flooring was identified to have a high VOC and therefore
was removed to obtain the actual contribution of the other materials Case Study 1.1. There was
about a 30% reduction in the average TVOC values over a year in Case Study 1.1 when
compared to values in Case Study 1. In Case study 2.1, a laminated bamboo panel replaced the
gypsum board on the interior wall surface. Two types of adhesives were explored, a panel
laminated with a soy-based adhesive and a panel laminated with and melamine urea
formaldehyde (MUF) for comparison. To explore a fully constructed house, laminated bamboo
flooring was implemented into the model to see the contribution, if any, to the TVOC, and so, in
47
comparison to the cork flooring and consideration of the type of adhesive in flooring is explained
in detail in the sections below.
4.3 Case Study 2: Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Laminated
bamboo Panel
Case Study 2 explored the use of laminated bamboo on the interior wall paneling replacing the
gypsum board. The laminated bamboo panel is installed on the interior as shown in Figure 4.11.
The laminated bamboo panel solely doesn’t have any associated VOC concentration hence soy-
based adhesive was considered as a good option (Frihart and Hunt 2010). As in the previous case
study the building is modeled in CONTAM by assigning the required inputs, materials library
and ran the simulations by considering TVOC emissions from all the materials.
Figure 4.11:Wall section of Case study 2 (Timber wall frame structure with OSB & Laminated bamboo panel)
48
As the layout of the building was unchanged, the CONTAM model 2D layout is the same as in
Case Study 1 (see Figure 4.6). In CONTAM, the change in materials parameters are not
visualized. For Case Study 2, the average airflow rate is the same as the values in Case Study 1
and 1.1 since the mechanical ventilation rate is taken as the same following the ASHRAE
standard, as shown in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2 (Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Laminated bamboo panel with a
soy-based adhesive)
Figure 4.13 illustrates the results from Case Study 2, with the change in interior paneling for the
wall from gypsum board to the laminated bamboo panel with soy-based adhesive and includes
cork flooring. The results show that there was an increase in TVOC from all materials from Case
Study 1.1 but there is a slight drop compared to values in Case Study 1. The highest emission is
of formaldehyde from the cork flooring and the lowest TVOC is from the laminated bamboo
49
panel with soy-based adhesive and most of the values are falling between good and acceptable
range compared to gypsum board emissions as shown in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.13:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2 (Timber Wall Frame Structure with OSB & Laminated bamboo panel with
soy-based adhesive
4.3.1 Case Study 2.1: Removal of Cork Flooring
In Case Study 2.1, the cork flooring was removed to assess the VOC emissions in the indoor
environment of the case study building. For Case Study 2.1, the average airflow rate is the same
as the values as the mechanical ventilation rate is the same as the previous case studies, as shown
in Figure 4.14.
50
Figure 4.14:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.1 ( Removal of Cork Flooring)
Case Study 2.1 removed the cork flooring and illustrated a decrease in the TVOC concentrations,
as expected based on the results from Case study 1.1 in which the flooring was removed. The
highest concentration of TVOC is from timber with all values above the acceptable range and the
lowest amount is from the laminated bamboo panel with soy-based adhesive falling below the
acceptable standard value as shown in Figure 4.15.
51
Figure 4.15:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.1 (Removal of Cork Flooring)
4.3.2 Case Study 2.2: Different adhesive in the exterior walls
Case Study 2.2 explored the influence of the adhesive in the laminated bamboo panel and
considered a panel laminated with melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF). The airflow rates
remained unchanged, as expected (Figure 4.16).
52
Figure 4.16:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.2 (Different adhesive in exterior walls)
In the VOC emissions graph, there was a slight increase of approximately 0.5 mg/m
3
in the
TVOC from all the materials due to the change in the adhesive from soy-based to melamine
formaldehyde. The emissions from timber and laminated bamboo panel with melamine-
formaldehyde are above the acceptable range while the emissions from OSB are fluctuating
between good and acceptable standard values as shown in Figure 4.17.
53
Figure 4.17:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.2 ( Different adhesive in exterior walls)
4.3.3 Case Study 2.3: MUF Panel with Adhesive Bamboo Flooring
Case Study 2.3 investigated the inclusion of laminated bamboo flooring to investigate the VOC
concentrations with a laminated bamboo-clad interior space. The emissions rate and emission
factor value of laminated bamboo flooring were obtained from a publicly available commercial
product report that provided experimental testing values (CB 2017). As in the previous case
studies, the average airflow rate is the same as there is no change in mechanical ventilation rate
(Figure 4.18).
54
Figure 4.18:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 2.3 ( Bamboo Flooring)
In Figure 4.18, the emissions from bamboo flooring are lower than the acceptable and good
TVOC standard, however, the addition of bamboo flooring has increased the TVOC value from
all the materials compared to Case Study 2.2. The increase is expected as the previous case study
included no flooring material. As in the previous case study, the timber studs and MUF
laminated bamboo wall panel are above the acceptable range indicating that the highest VOC
concentrations are from these both materials as shown in Figure 4.19.
55
Figure 4.19:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 2.3 ( Bamboo Flooring)
4.4 Further Exploration of Identified Parameters
Additional exploration of the modelling parameters was conducted to assess the influence of the
mechanical ventilation rate and temperature on the TVOC. The results from the simulations are
discussed in the sections below.
4.4.1 Case Study 3: Change in mechanical ventilation rate
After assessing the impact of the materials, modelling parameters like mechanical ventilation
rate, temperature, ventilation rate values were explored to assess the impact on the VOC
concentrations in the case study building.
In Case Study 3, the mechanical ventilation rate is set as 47 l/s (Ng et al. 2018) which is greater
than the value (i.e., 38 l/s)
used in the previous case studies. After simulating with the change in
56
the ventilation, there was a minute increase in the airflow rate. This verified that the change in
mechanical ventilation rate impacted the airflow rate in the building, as expected. The average
airflow rate values for a year between 80 - 140 l/s are above the ASHRAE standard (28.32 l/s) as
shown in Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.20:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.0 ( Change in mechanical ventilation rate)
For this case study, there was a decrease in both the TVOC emissions from all the materials.
From Figure 4.20 and Figure 4.21, it is seen that the airflow rate increased and the TVOC
concentration decreased. This means that the increase in mechanical rate improves the indoor air
quality due to the increase in ventilation which dissipates the TVOC concentrations. The highest
emissions are from timber and laminated bamboo wall panel with melamine-formaldehyde while
57
the least VOC concentrations from bamboo flooring and OSB (Oriented Strand Board) with most
of the values between acceptable and good ASHRAE standard range as shown in Figure 4.21.
Figure 4.21:Average VOC Emissions in Case Study 3.0 (Change in mechanical ventilation rate)
4.4.2 Case Study 3.1 & 3.2: Influence of indoor temperature
Case Study 3.1 investigated the increase in temperature. The ambient temperature was given
20
°
C considering the Sweden climate and weather data for the baseline building, as discussed in
Case Study 1 to Case Study 3. The temperature was increased to 40
°
C with no change in any of
the other parameters. The airflow rates remain the same as the values from the increased rate
explored in Case Study 3 as shown in Figure 4.22.
58
Figure 4.22:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.1 ( Increase in Temperature)
Figure 4.23 illustrates that there was an increase in the TVOC concentrations from all the
materials. The TVOC values increased by approximately 15% in comparison to the results from
case study 3. The results indicated that the increase in temperature increased the TVOC
concentrations in the building. The highest emissions are from timber and laminated bamboo
wall panel with melamine-formaldehyde and on the other hand, the emissions from OSB which
were falling below the acceptable range in the previous case studies are now above the range.
The lowest emissions are from bamboo flooring falling between good and acceptable TVOC
standard value range as shown in Figure 4.23.
59
Figure 4.23:Average VOC emissions in Case Study 3.1 ( Increase in Temperature)
In Case Study 3.2, the temperature value was decreased to explore the effect of colder
temperatures on the indoor air quality of the building. The temperature was decreased to 15
°
C
with no change in the other modelling parameters. The airflow rates remain the same as the
values from the two previous case studies (Case Study 3 and 3.1) as shown in Figure 4.24.
60
Figure 4.24:Average Airflow Rate in Case Study 3.2 ( Decrease in Temperature)
With a decrease in temperature, there was a decrease of about 19% in the average TVOC
concentrations of each material over a year, in comparison to Case study 3.1. The highest
emissions remain from the timber and laminated bamboo wall panel with melamine-
formaldehyde whose values are slightly above the acceptable range. The lowest VOC
concentrations from bamboo flooring and OSB (Oriented Strand Board) with most of the values
between acceptable and good ASHRAE standard range as shown in Figure 4.25.
61
Figure 4.25:Average VOC emissions in Case Study 3.2 ( Decrease in Temperature)
The results indicate that the change in temperature influences the VOCs, with the TVOC
concentration levels higher when the temperature is high (40
°
C) and the concentration level has
dropped down when the temperature is reduced to 15
°
C. The relationship between air
temperature, humidity, ventilation rates, and VOCs from building materials has been previously
explored. Wolkoffa (1998) utilized emission testing on five building products in ten different
climatic conditions with three temperatures and two relative humidity values to assess the effect
of air velocity, temperature, and relative humidity on the VOC emissions from the building
products. The study found that even though the temperature and relative humidity impacted the
emission rates it firmly dependent on the type of building product and VOCs in it (Wolkoffa
1998).
62
Haghighat and Bellis (1998) investigated samples of paint and varnish in a stainless-steel test
chamber to assess the effect of indoor temperature and relative humidity on the emission rates of
building materials. The results show that both temperature and relative humidity have a
considerable impact on the VOC emissions and that the concentration profiles for the VOCs
should be determined independently (Haghighat and Bellis 1998). The influence of the
temperature on the emission of individual compounds from building materials requires further
exploration.
4.5 Comparison of case studies
The simulation results of airflow and contaminants obtained from all the case studies were
compared. The comparison of these results explored how using bamboo materials impacts indoor
air quality of the building better compared to other conventional and non-conventional building
materials. The results also provided additional factors for indoor environmental quality (IEQ), as
discussed in the sections below.
4.5.1 Comparison of case studies 1 to 2.3
The case studies from 1 to 2.3 were compared to assess the impact of building materials on the
TVOC concentrations in the case study building over a year. Case Study 1 was the baseline
building and utilized the materials from the original case study building. The remaining case
studies included changes to the baseline building as summarized in Table 4.2.
63
Table 4.2:Summary of Average airflow rates and TVOC concentrations in Case Studies 1 to 2.3
Case Study
Average airflow rate
(l/s)
Average VOC
concentration (mg/m
3
)
Case Study 1
(Existing building)
87.17
2.95
Case Study 1.1
(Removal of Cork Flooring)
1.91
Case Study 2
(Removal of OSB, replacement with
Soy-based Laminated Bamboo Panel)
2.89
Case Study 2.1
(Removal of Cork Flooring)
1.83
Case Study 2.2
(Change to a MUF Laminated
Bamboo Panel)
2.17
Case Study 2.3
(Inclusion of Vinyl Bamboo Flooring)
2.57
Note: Representation of TVOC from all the materials in the Case Study
For all of these case studies (1 to 2.3), there was no change in the airflow rate as the mechanical
ventilation rate value was the same (Figure 4.26). The values are above the desired ASHRAE
standard 28.32 l/s, indicating that it is a high-performance building.
64
Figure 4.26:Average airflow rates in Case Studies 1 - 2.3
In Case Study 1, the average TVOC concentrations were high ranging between 2 to 4 mg/m
3
with
the formaldehyde in cork flooring contributing the most to the total emissions. With the removal
of the flooring in Case Study 1.1, the concentration values are reduced to 1 to 2.5 mg/m
3
. In Case
Study 2, the existing building was modified with the interior gypsum board replaced with soy-
based laminated bamboo. The results indicated the inclusion of the cork flooring remained a
major contributor. To explore the influence, in Case Study 2.1 the flooring was removed and the
TVOC was within the same range as in Case Study 1.1. This suggested the change from the
gypsum board to the soy-based laminated bamboo panel had reduced the TVOC concentrations
by only 2% and most of the TVOC contribution was from the cork flooring which was removed
as explained above. The adhesive in the wall paneling was changed to melamine urea
formaldehyde in Case Study 2.2 which resulted in approximately a 20% increase in the average
65
TVOC concentrations. In Case Study 2.3, bamboo flooring was added to the model to compare it
with the TVOC values in baseline or the existing Case Study 1. When compared from Case
Studies 1 to 2.3, there was about a 30% decrease in the average TVOC concentrations indicating
that the bamboo materials release lower VOC concentrations into the indoor areas than other
conventional building materials as shown in Figure 4.27.
Figure 4.27: Average TVOC emissions in Case Studies 1 - 2.3
4.5.2 Comparison of case studies 2.3 to 3.2
After comparing the impact of the change in materials on the TVOC concentrations, additional
simulations were conducted to explore the modelling parameters of mechanical ventilation rate
and temperature which is summarized in Table 4.3.
66
Table 4.3: Summary of Average airflow rates and VOC concentrations in Case Studies 2.3, 3, 3.1 & 3.2
Case Study
Average airflow
rate (l/s)
Average VOC
concentration (mg/m
3
)
Case Study 2.3
(Inclusion of Vinyl Bamboo Flooring)
87.17 2.57
Case Study 3
(Change in mechanical ventilation rate)
98.28
2.37
Case Study 3.1
(Increase in temperature)
2.75
Case Study 3.2
(Decrease in temperature)
2.22
Note: Representation of TVOC from all the materials in the Case Study
In Case Study 3, the material parameters are maintained from Case Study 2.3, however, the
ventilation rate value was increased to 47 l/s, which was based on a published case study (Ng et
al. 2018). The simulation results showed that there was a slight increase in the average airflow
rate. These results indicated that the increase in mechanical ventilation rate increases the airflow
rate in the case study building, as expected. The increased airflow reduced the TVOC in the
building by 7% (0.2 mg/m
3
). The influence of temperature was explored in Case Studies 3.1 and
3.2, utilizing the same increased mechanical ventilation explored in Case Study 3 (Figure 4.28).
67
Figure 4.28:Average airflow rates in Case Studies 2.3 - 3.2
Comparison of Case Studies 2.3 to 3.2 indicated that there were fluctuations in the average
TVOC concentrations. In Case Study 2.3, VOC concentrations ranged between 2 to 3.5 mg/m
3
,
which was reduced approximately 7% after the mechanical ventilation rate was increased in Case
Study 3. For Case Study 3.1, the increase in temperature has a 10% increase in the VOCs, and
with a decrease in temperature in Case Study 3.2, the average TVOC concentrations have
dropped down to the range 1.5 to 3 mg/m
3
as shown in Figure 4.29.
68
Figure 4.29:Average TVOC emissions in Case Studies 2.3 - 3.2
4.6 Summary
This chapter investigated the impact of change in materials, ventilation rates, airflow, and
temperature on TVOC concentrations in the case study building. Nine case studies were
modelled and simulated in CONTAM to analyze the influence of various parameters. Case
Studies 1 to 2.3 explored the impact of laminated bamboo building materials on the TVOC
concentrations. The results show that the average TVOC concentrations were higher in case
studies that included cork flooring. The replacement of gypsum board with laminated bamboo
panels had a positive impact on the TVOC, which indicates that bamboo materials reduce the
VOC emissions in indoor areas. Further simulations explored the influence of the mechanical
ventilation rate and temperature on the TVOC. The results indicate that the change in
69
mechanical ventilation reduced the TVOC, which is expected as required ventilation is provided
when compared to Case Study 1. The increase in temperature resulted in increased TVOC
concentrations, whereas a reduction in temperature resulted in a reduction in the TVOC. Overall,
the modelling and simulations indicated that the bamboo materials show the potential for
positive impact on the indoor air quality by reducing the TVOC concentrations, when combined
with good airflow rate and mechanical ventilation rate. The results also highlighted the impacts
of indoor temperature on the VOC emissions from building materials.
70
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In summary, the presented research explored the influence of building materials on indoor air
quality. The research objectives and hypothesis of this study are discussed below along with
conclusions from the results and future work.
5.1 Research Hypothesis and Objectives
The research hypothesis explored the impacts of bamboo as a building material on improved
indoor air quality in comparison to conventional building materials. Case studies were conducted
varying modelling parameters and conducting simulations to investigate the influence of
laminated bamboo building materials on indoor air quality in comparison to conventional
materials. The results from the study support the hypothesis as discussed below.
5.1.1 Research Objective 1
To explore the research hypothesis, the first research objective aimed to develop a material
database to establish the modelling parameters required for the simulations. The objective was
achieved through the use of identification of a case study building, which provided a baseline for
comparison. In addition, a material library was created by finding the materials VOC emissions
from the existing materials database in ContamLink. Additional values were obtained from the
published research and commercial product specifications. All the required information about the
materials, VOC emissions were achieved which formed the backbone for the research.
71
5.1.2 Research Objective 2
The second objective was to analyse the performance of the bamboo materials by using an
indoor air quality simulation software. CONTAM was compared to other software and was
identified as an appropriate method to conduct the simulation and analysis. The baseline case
study identified in Research Objective 1 was modelled and served as the building for all
subsequent analyses. Additional simulations were conducted exploring the use of laminated
bamboo wall panels and vinyl bamboo flooring to investigate the influence on the indoor air
quality. Further simulations explored the influence of design parameters such as mechanical
ventilation and temperature on the VOCs. The results indicated that CONTAM provided the
capability to simulate the impacts of building materials, including bamboo materials, on indoor
air quality.
5.1.3 Research Objective 3
The third research objective was to assess the impact of bamboo building material on indoor air
quality. All of the case studies were compared to explore the average TVOC concentrations.
From the comparison of the simulated results, it was evident that case studies with bamboo
building materials have lower VOC concentrations. The further analysis explored the change in
mechanical ventilation rate, which indicated the increase in ventilation reduced the VOC levels.
Increase temperature resulted an increase in VOC levels. Overall, the simulation results indicated
that the use of bamboo materials with no or low VOCs reduced the TVOCs in comparison to
conventional materials, however, a good mechanical ventilation rate and indoor temperature
need to also be considered.
72
5.2 Future Work
Additional areas for further research were identified. Further exploration of all the factors of the
indoor environmental quality, such as thermal comfort, lighting, and acoustic quality, would
investigate bamboo’s suitability as a building material. In addition, the development of a
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model would investigate the impact of the building design
and components on airflow as well as provide a comparison of the simulated and future
experimental data as discussed in detail in the sections below.
5.2.1 Thermal Comfort
The thermal comfort in the indoor environment has been highlighted as an important area of
investigation and the presented work has highlighted the potential impact on the IAQ of the
building. Further work to explore the influence of indoor temperature, change in the occupancy
schedule, and the openings schedule would allow for investigation on the relationship between
indoor air quality and the thermal comfort of the building. In addition, experimental and full-
scale testing would provide an assessment of thermal comfort between bamboo-based and
conventional construction materials. In addition to full-scale building envelope testing without
occupants, additional testing including occupants would provide a further understanding of
comfort through exploring parameters such as indoor temperature, air quality, humidity level,
clothing, and metabolic rate.
73
5.2.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics Model
A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model would provide further exploration of the impact of
ventilation rate and temperature on indoor air quality. The VOCs level and airflow movement
inside the building would be explored in detail in a CFD model. Comparison of various
modelling parameters would further explore the influence of these parameters on indoor air
quality.
5.2.3 Experimental testing of TVOC emissions in buildings
To fully explore the CONTAM simulations, scaled or full-scale testing should be conducted.
Through experimental testing and the use of instrumentation to monitor air quality, more detailed
modelling parameters can be identified. The required testing is long-term testing and monitoring
to capture the influence of varying climates throughout the year. This method would provide
additional information on the influence of building materials on indoor air quality.
5.3 Summary
In summary, the presented research explored the influence of bamboo building materials on
indoor air quality. The results of the simulations suggest that bamboo-based materials may lower
the emissions in comparison to conventional building materials. Additional exploration of the
mechanical ventilation rate and temperature emphasized the influence on the VOC
concentrations. Overall, the research suggests that further study is required to understand the
impacts of ventilation and temperature, with low carbon materials such as bamboo, on the indoor
air quality of buildings. This research supports the hypothesis that no or low VOC bamboo
building materials can contribute to better indoor air quality in a building in comparison to
74
conventional materials, however, the results from the simulation should be further explored with
additional experimental and full-scale testing, with additional building features in the form of
mechanical ventilation and indoor temperature.
75
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abergel, Thibaut, Brian Dean, and John Dulac. 2017. “UN Environment and International
Energy Agency (2017): Towards a Zero-Emission, Efficient, and Resilient Buildings and
Construction Sector. Global Status Report 2017.”
Al horr, Yousef, Mohammed Arif, Martha Katafygiotou, Ahmed Mazroei, Amit Kaushik, and
Esam Elsarrag. 2016. “Impact of Indoor Environmental Quality on Occupant Well-Being and
Comfort: A Review of the Literature.” International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 5
(1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.03.006.
Albadra, Dima, Carla Da Silva, Daniel Maskell, and Richard Ball. 2018. “Air Quality in Oxfam
Superadobe Community Building, Zaatari Camp, Jordan.” University of Bath.
https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/air-quality-in-oxfam-superadobe-community-
building-zaatari-camp-j.
Archila, Hector, Sebastian Kaminski, David Trujillo, Edwin Zea Escamilla, and Kent A. Harries.
2018. “Bamboo Reinforced Concrete: A Critical Review.” Materials and Structures 51 (4): 102.
https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-018-1228-6.
ASHRAE. 2010. “Standard 62.2-2010, Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-
Rise Residential Buildings.”
ASTM-D6670. 2018. “D6670 Standard Practice for Full-Scale Chamber Determination of
Volatile Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials/Products.”
76
Baldwin, Samuel F, Gilbert Bindewald, Eric Miller, and William Joost. 2015. “Quadrennial
Technology Review 2015 : An Assessment of Energy Technologies and Research
Oppurtunities.” Review Report.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/09/f26/Quadrennial-Technology-Review-
2015_0.pdf.
Bb Home / H&P Architects. 2013. “Bb Home / H&P Architects.” Arch Daily. 2013.
https://www.archdaily.com/431271/bb-home-h-and-p-architects.
Bhonde, Dinesh, Dr. P. B. Nagarnaik, Dr. D. K. Parbat, and Dr. U. P. Waghe. 2014. “Physical
and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo,” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering
Research, 455–59.
Bratkovich, Steve, Kathryn Fernholz, and Jeff Howe. 2008. “Green Building Programs in the
United States:A Review of Recent Changes Related to Designation of Environmentally
Preferable Materials.”
Chen, Wenhao, Andrew K. Persily, Alfred T. Hodgson, Francis J. Offermann, Dustin
Poppendieck, and Kazukiyo Kumagi. 2014. “Area-Specific Airflow Rates for Evaluating the
Impacts of VOC Emissions in U.S. Single-Family Homes.” Building and Environment 71
(January): 204–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.09.020.
Chin, Kyle, Aurelie Laguerre, Pradeep Ramasubramanian, David Pleshakov, Brent Stephens, and
Elliott T. Gall. 2019. “Emerging Investigator Series: Primary Emissions, Ozone Reactivity, and
Byproduct Emissions from Building Insulation Materials.” Environmental Science: Processes &
Impacts 21 (8): 1255–67. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9EM00024K.
77
Coelho, A.C., A. Lopes, J.M. Branco, and H. Gervasio. 2014. “Comparative Life-Cycle
Assessment of a Single-Family House: Light Steel Frame and Timber Frame.” In Towards
Forest Products and Processes With Lower Environmental Impact, 31–41.
Correal, Juan F., and Luis F. López. 2008. “Mechanical Properties of Colombian Glued
Laminated Bamboo.” In Book: Moderm Bamboo Structures, 121–27.
10.1201/9780203888926.ch13.
Cortese, Amy. 2020. “THE EMBODIED CARBON CONUNDRUM: Solving for All Emission
Sources from the Built Environment.” New Building Institute (Nbi). February 26, 2020.
https://newbuildings.org/embodied-carbon-conundrum-solving-for-all-emission-sources-from-
the-built-environment/.
D’Amico, Alessandro, Agnese Pini, Simone Zazzini, Daniela D’Alessandro, Giovanni Leuzzi,
and Edoardo Currà. 2020.“Modelling VOC Emissions from Building Materials for Healthy
Building Design.” Sustainability 13 (1): 184. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010184.
DeBoer, Darrel, and Karl Bareis. 2018. “Bamboo Building and Culture.” Deboer Architects.
Recuperado de http://jubilee101.com/subscription/pdf/Bamboo-Construction/Bamboo-Building-
and-Culture---27pages.pdf
Djongyang, Noël, René Tchinda, and Donatien Njomo. 2010. “Thermal Comfort: A Review
Paper.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (9): 2626–40.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.040.
78
Dols, William Stuart, Steven J Emmerich, and Brian J. Polidoro. 2015. Using Coupled Energy,
Airflow and Indoor Air Quality Software (TRNSYS/CONTAM) to Evaluate Building
Ventilation Strategies.” Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 37 (2): 163–75.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0143624415619464.
Dols, William Stuart, and Brian J. Polidoro. 2012. “CONTAM SOFTWARE.” NIST. March 13,
2012. https://www.nist.gov/services-resources/software/contam.
Dols, William Stuart, and Brian J. Polidoro. 2016. “CONTAM User Guide and Program
Documentation Version 3.2.” Technical Report.
Emmerich, Steven. 2012. “Airflow and Indoor Air Quality Models of DOE Reference
Commercial Buildings.” Technical Report.
Energetic, Inc. 1997. “Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Aluminum Industry.”
Escamilla, Edwin Zea, Guillaume Habert, Juan Francisco Correal Daza, Hector F. Archilla, Juan
Sebastian Echeverry Fernández, and David Trujillo. 2018.“Industrial or Traditional Bamboo
Construction? Comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Bamboo-Based
Buildings.” Sustainability 10 (9): 3096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093096.,” Sustainability, 15.
European Environment Agency. 2019.EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook
2019: Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories.
https://op.europa.eu/publication/manifestation_identifier/PUB_THAL19015ENN.
79
Evola, Gianpiero, Novella Papa, Fabio Sicurella, and Etienne Wurtz. 2011. “Simulation of the
Behaviour of Phase Change Materials for the Improvement of Thermal Comfort in Lightweight
Buildings.” Proceedings of Building Simulation 2011: 12th Conference of International Building
Performance Simulation Association, Sydney, 1299-1306.
http://www.ibpsa.org/proceedings/BS2011/P_1452.pdf
Frihart, Charles R., and hristopher G. Hunt. 2010. “Adhesives with Wood Materials Bond
Formation and Performance.” In Wood Handbook : Wood as an Engineering Material, 24.
Gezer, Nevin Aydin. 2003. “The Effects of Construction Materials on Thermal Comfort in
Residential Buildings; An Analysis Using ECOTECT 5.0.” Thesis, Orta Doğu Teknik
Üniversitesi (Ankara, Turkey). Department of Architecture.
Guo, Zhishi. 2000. “Development of a Windows-Based Indoor Air Quality Simulation Software
Package.” Environmental Modelling & Software 15 (4): 403–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-
8152(00)00020-7.
Haghighat, Fariborz, and Lisa De Bellis. 1998. “Material Emission Rates: Literature Review, and
the Impact of Indoor Air Temperature and Relative Humidity.” Building and Environment 33
(5): 261–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(97)00060-7.
Horn, W., D. Ullrich, and B. Seifert. 1998. “VOC Emissions from Cork Products for Indoor
Use.” Indoor Air 8 (1): 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.1998.t01-3-00006.x.
80
Hussin, Jamilus Md, Ismail Abdul Rahman, and Aftab Hameed Memon. 2013.“The Way
Forward in Sustainable Construction: Issues and Challenges.” International Journal of Advances
in Applied Sciences 2 (1): 15–24. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijaas.v2i1.1321.
Institute of Medicine. 2015. “Healthy Housing.” In Healthy, Resilient, and Sustainable
Communities After Disasters: Strategies, Opportunities, and Planning for Recovery, 369–412.
Iyer, Sreemathi. 2002. “Guidelines for Building Bamboo-Reinforced Masonry in Earthquake-
Prone Areas in India.” Thesis, Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California.
Kamble, Amol Ashok, and Suppiah Subramaniam. 2019. “Recent Application and Preservation.”
In Proceedings of ICDMC 2019, 111–121.
Kaminski, Sebastian, Andrew Lawrence, Katherine Coates, and Louise Foulkes. 2016. “A Low-
Cost Vernacular Improved Housing Design.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers -
Civil Engineering 169 (5): 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00041.
Khare, Peeyush, Jo Machesky, Ricardo Soto, Megan He, Albert A. Presto, and Gentner. 2020.
“Asphalt-Related Emissions Are a Major Missing Nontraditional Source of Secondary Organic
Aerosol Precursors.” Science Advances 6 (36): eabb9785.
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abb9785.
Khoshnava, Seyed Meysam, Raheleh Rostami, Rosli Mohamad Zin, Dalia Streimikiene, Abbas
Mardani, and Mohammad Ismail. 2020.“The Role of Green Building Materials in Reducing
Environmental and Human Health Impacts.” International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health 17 (7): 2589. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072589.
81
Kraus, Michal, and Ingrid Juhasova Senitkova. 2019. “Material VOC Emissions and Indoor Air
Quality Simulation.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 603 (5):
052082. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/603/5/052082.
Li, Xiaobo. 2004. “Physical, Chemical, and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo and Its Utilization
Potential for Fiberboard Manufacturing.” Thesis. Louisiana State University.
Liang, Weihui, Shen Yang, and Xudong Yang. 2015. “Long-Term Formaldehyde Emissions
from Medium-Density Fiberboard in a Full-Scale Experimental Room: Emission Characteristics
and the Effects of Temperature and Humidity.” Environmental Science & Technology 49 (17):
10349–56. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02217.
Liese, W, and S Kumar. 2003. “Technical Report 22: Bamboo Preservation Compendium.”
Beijing, China: International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation(INBAR).
Lugt, Pablo van der, A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen, and J.J.A. Janssen. 2005. “An
Environmental, Economic and Practical Assessment of Bamboo as a Building Material for
Supporting Structures.” Construction and Building Materials 20 (9): 648–56.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.02.023.
Lugt, Pablo van der, and Joost Vogtlander. 2015. “The Environmental Impact of Industrial
Bamboo Products - Life-Cycle Assessment and Carbon Sequestration.”
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.20797.46560.
82
Mahdavi, Mahyar, P. L. Clouston, and S.R. Arwade. 2011. “Development of Laminated Bamboo
Lumber: Review of Processing, Performance, and Economical Considerations.” Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering 23 (7): 1036–42. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
5533.0000253.
Manandhar, Rashmi, Jin-Hee Kim, and Kim. 2019. “Environmental, Social and Economic
Sustainability of Bamboo and Bamboo-Based Construction Materials in Buildings.” Journal of
Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 18 (2): 49–59.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2019.1595629.
Mena, Josué, Sergio Vera, Juan F. Correal, and Mauricio Lopez. 2011. “Assessment of Fire
Reaction and Fire Resistance of Guadua Angustifolia Kunth Bamboo.” Construction and
Building Materials 27 (1): 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.08.028.
Mulatu, Yigardu, Asabeneh Alemayehu, and Zebene Tadesse. 2016. Bamboo Species Introduced
in Ethiopia: Biological, Ecological and Management Aspects.
Nath, Arun Jyoti, Rattan Lal, and Ashesh Kumar Das. 2015. “Managing Woody Bamboos for
Carbon Farming and Carbon Trading.” Global Ecology and Conservation 3 (January): 654–63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2015.03.002.
National Research Council. 1981. “Effects of Indoor Pollution on Human Welfare.” In Indoor
Pollutants, 419–49.
83
Ng, Lisa, Dustin Poppendieck, William Stuart Dols, and Steven J Emmerich. 2018. “Evaluating
Indoor Air Quality and Energy Impacts of Ventilation in a Net-Zero Energy House Using a
Coupled Model.” Science and Technology for the Built Environment 24 (2): 124–34.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2017.1401403.
Nguyen, Thi Bich Vân. 2018. “Bamboo - the Eco-Friendly Material – One of the Material
Solutions of the Sustainable Interior Design in Viet Nam.” Edited by A. Mottaeva and B.
Melović. MATEC Web of Conferences 193: 04014.
https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819304014.
NIST. 2018. “BEES Product Lists.”
Octavia, Zeleniuc. 2016. “Standards and Regulations Concerning the Formaldehyde Emissions
from Wood Panels.” https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Standards-and-Regulations-
Concerning-the-Emissions-Octavia/dec4f67aa25e508f56ddba485429c1c0d3663187.
Öz, Ayşe Müge, and Sema Ergönül. 2015. “Improving Occupant’s Satisfaction and Productivity
in Sustainable Building Design.” Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering 13
(4): 39–48. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.sace.13.4.13048.
Praseeda, K. I., Mani Monto, and B. V. Venkatarama Reddy. 2013. “Assessing Impact of
Material Transition and Thermal Comfort Models on Embodied and Operational Energy in
Vernacular Dwellings (India).” Energy Procedia 54: 342–51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.07.277.
84
Que, Ze-Li, Fei-Bin Wang, Jian-Zhang Li, and Takeshi Furuno. 2013. “Assessment on Emission
of Volatile Organic Compounds and Formaldehyde from Building Materials.” Composites Part
B: Engineering 49 (June): 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.01.008.
Sharma, Bhavna, Ana Gatóo, Maximilian Bock, and Michael Ramage. 2015.“Engineered
Bamboo for Structural Applications.” Construction and Building Materials 81 (April): 66–73.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.01.077.
Sharma, Bhavna, Ana Gatóo, and Michael H. Ramage. 2015. “Effect of Processing Methods on
the Mechanical Properties of Engineered Bamboo.” Construction and Building Materials 83
(May): 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.048.
Sharma, Bhavna, Ana Gatoo, Maximilian Bock, Helen Mulligan, and Michael Ramage. 2015a.
“Engineered Bamboo: State of the Art.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers -
Construction Materials 168 (2): 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1680/coma.14.00020.
Sharma, P., K. Dhanwantri, and S. Mehta. 2014. “Bamboo as a Building Material,” International
Journal of Civil Engineering Research, ISSN 2278-3652 Volume 5, Number 3 (2014), pp. 249-
254.
Simon, Valerie, Evelien Uitterhaegen, Anais Robillard, Stephane Ballas, Thierry Veronese,
Gerard Vilarem, Othmane Merah, Thierry Talou, and Philippe Evon. 2020.“VOC and Carbonyl
Compound Emissions of a Fiberboard Resulting from a Coriander Biorefinery: Comparison with
Two Commercial Wood-Based Building Materials.” Environmental Science and Pollution
Research 27 (14): 16121–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08101-y.
85
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. “An Office Building Occupant’s Guide
to Indoor Air Quality.”
Wallner, Peter, Ute Munoz, Peter Tappler, Anna Wanka, Michael Kundi, Janie F. Shelton, and
Hans-Peter Hutter. 2015. “Indoor Environmental Quality in Mechanically Ventilated, Energy-
Efficient Buildings vs. Conventional Buildings.” International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health 12 (11): 14132–47. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121114132.
Wolkoffa, Peder. 1998. “Impact of Air Velocity, Temperature, Humidity, and Air on Long-Term
VOC Emissions from Building Products.” Atmospheric Environment 32 (14–15): 2659–68.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00402-0.
Xiao, Yan, Guo Chen, Bo Shan, and Liyong She. 2010. “Two-By-Four House Construction
Using Laminated Bamboos.” In Proceeding of Wood Conference of Timber Engineering,
(Trento, Italy, 2010).
Yu, Dongwei, Hongwei Tan, and Yingjun Ruan. 2011. “A Future Bamboo-Structure Residential
Building Prototype in China: Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Use and Carbon
Emission.” Energy and Buildings 43 (10): 2638–46.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.06.013.
Abstract (if available)
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
Indoor air quality for human health in residential buildings
PDF
Impacts of building performance on occupants' work productivity: a post occupancy evaluation study
PDF
Impacts of indoor environmental quality on occupants environmental comfort: a post occupancy evaluation study
PDF
IEQ, sleep quality, and IoT: meta-analysis on improving IEQ and sleep quality using IoT
PDF
Indoor environmental quality and comfort: IEQ adaptation and human physiological responses in commercial buildings
PDF
Exploration for the prediction of thermal comfort & sensation with application of building HVAC automation
PDF
Considering occupants: comprehensive POE research on office environment of Southern California
PDF
Natural ventilation in tall buildings: development of design guidelines based on climate and building height
PDF
Design and modeling of an engineered bamboo stud wall in SolidWorks
PDF
Streamlining sustainable design in building information modeling: BIM-based PV design and analysis tools
PDF
Vegetated facades as environmental control systems: filtering fine particulate matter (PM2.5) for improving indoor air quality
PDF
Impact of occupants in building performance: extracting information from building data
PDF
A proposal for building envelope retrofit on the Bonaventure Hotel: a case study examining energy and carbon
PDF
Embodied carbon of wood construction: early assessment for design evaluation
PDF
Enhanced post occupancy evaluation (POE) for office building: improvement of current methodology to identify impact of ambient environment
PDF
Developing environmental controls using a data-driven approach for enhancing environmental comfort and energy performance
PDF
Human-building integration based on biometric signal analysis: investigation of the relationships between human comfort and IEQ in a multi-occupancy condition
PDF
Real-time simulation-based feedback on carbon impacts for user-engaged temperature management
PDF
Developing a data-driven model of overall thermal sensation based on the use of human physiological information in a built environment
PDF
Human-environmental interaction: potential use of pupil size for office lighting controls
Asset Metadata
Creator
Chundru, Vidya Chowdary
(author)
Core Title
Impact of bamboo materials on indoor air quality
School
School of Architecture
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Publication Date
04/15/2021
Defense Date
03/15/2021
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Bamboo,built environment,indoor air quality,OAI-PMH Harvest,sustainability
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Sharma, Bhavna (
committee chair
), Choi, Joon-Ho (
committee member
), Schiler, Marc (
committee member
)
Creator Email
chundru@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-442841
Unique identifier
UC11666646
Identifier
etd-ChundruVid-9465.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-442841 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-ChundruVid-9465.pdf
Dmrecord
442841
Document Type
Thesis
Rights
Chundru, Vidya Chowdary
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
built environment
indoor air quality
sustainability