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Mama learns: examining factors that influence intent to persist in student mothers

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Mama learns: examining factors that influence intent to persist in student mothers

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Mama Learns: Examining Factors that Influence Intent to Persist in Student Mothers
by
Veronica Eyo

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Veronica Eyo 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Veronica Eyo certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Mary Andres
Yolanda Jauregui
Ruth Chung, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
Student mothers are a growing population in higher education institutions across the United
States. Student mothers are often grouped as non-traditional students and thus, are often invisible
in the discussion of their needs and how best to support academic success and persistence.
Traditionally, women are pursuing higher education at higher rates than men and pursuing
academic goals at different life stages and with different motivating factors. This study examined
the factors that influence academic success with the hopes of identifying specific gaps and/or
resources that can be provided to student mothers. More specifically, this study explored the
relationship between sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-being on the
intent to persist of student mothers attending higher education institutions. Participants included
70 self-identified student mothers who were currently attending or recently graduated, within six
months, of a higher education institution. Results of this study showed correlation between
psychological well-being and sense of belonging faculty and isolation. In addition, this study
found self-reported answers from participants that highlighted the importance of social support
and financial support in pursuit of academic goals. The findings of this study have practical
implications for higher education institutions seeking to improve academic persistence and
success among student mothers.
Keywords: Student, Mother, GPA, Sense of Belonging, Intent to Persist, Social Support,
Psychological Well-Being

v
Dedication
To my family who encouraged me throughout this journey and most importantly, provided me
with the much-needed support for this student mother: watching my baby so I could attend class.
Thank you to my mom for telling me and showing me with lived experience that mothers make it
work and can-do hard things. Thank you to my sisters, Dani Eyo and Alicia Sanchez who are the
best Godmothers my daughter could ask for and who spoiled her while I went to class, did
homework, and attended to my student responsibilities. I truly couldn’t have done it without you
both.
To my sister from another mother-Kristeen Jackson. I truly would not be in this program without
you. You have encouraged me from the beginning by writing my letter of recommendation for
this program and the biggest contribution you have given is calling me after I told you I was
considering not starting this journey because I was pregnant and telling me that I had to do it. I
thank you for all the counsel, encouragement, crying with me, and praying with me
and for me. I truly would not be finishing this program without you. God knew what he was
doing putting you in my life. I am forever grateful for our friendship.
To my loving husband Marco Sanchez-The pursuit of this journey has been a roller coaster and I
am glad you were by my side. I couldn’t have done it without you. Finally, thank you to my little
cubs, Esmeralda, Alessandro, and Baby Leonardo in my tummy. All three of you have literally
walked with me during this journey. All this is for you. I love you.

vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my dissertation committee members for choosing to walk with me
during this journey. I appreciate you all taking time out of your lives to edit, provide feedback
and encourage me throughout this whole journey. Thank you so much, Dr. Ruth Chung, Dr.
Mary Andres, and Dr. Yolanda Jauregui.
I would also like to thank all the members of USC Rossier community from the faculty
who I learned from throughout this program and to the amazing students who I had the pleasure
of getting to know and walk with during this journey. Thank you so much for the wonderful
experience. I am so proud to have completed the EdD program. Additionally, I would also like to
thank all the student mothers who participated in my research. I am forever grateful.
Veronica Eyo, USC Rossier School of Education
Contact: eyo@usc.edu

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vi
List of Tables x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 5
Purpose of the Study 5
Importance of the Study 6
Definitions of Terms 8
Chapter Two: Literature Review 9
Sense of Belonging 10
Social Support 14
Psychological Well-Being 19
Summary of the Literature Review 22
Purpose of the Study, Research Questions, and Hypotheses 24
Chapter Three: Methodology 26
Participants 26
Instruments 30
Procedure 33
Chapter Four: Results 35
Correlational Analyses 35
Analysis of Research Question 1 37

ix
Analysis of Research Question 2 37
Analysis of Research Question 3 38
Analysis of Research Question 4 38
Additional Descriptive Findings 39
Barriers for Student Mothers 40
Conclusion 41
Chapter Five: Discussion 42
Discussion of Significant Correlations 42
Discussion of Research Questions 43
Implication for Practice 43
Limitations of the Study 45
Directions for Future Research 45
Conclusion 46
References 48
Appendix A: Survey Consent Form 54
Appendix B: Survey Demographic Questions 55
Appendix C: Intent to Persist Scale 57
Appendix D: Social Provisions Scale 58
Appendix E: Sense of Belonging Scale 59
Appendix F: Psychological Well-Being Scale 60

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Student Participants (N=70) 27
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Student Race (N=70) 28
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of Student Degree Level, Status, Type of School,
and GPA 29

Table 4: Frequency Distribution of Major of Study 30
Table 5: Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured
Variables 35

Table 6: Frequency Distributions of Childcare Access and Lactation Room Access 40

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Motherhood has been an evolving journey for American women in the last few decades.
Traditionally, women have been the primary caregivers of their children and have stayed home
to do this role while their husband would work outside the home. This has been changing as
more women have entered the workforce (Tingey et al., 1996).
World War II was a time of sudden increase of women entering the workforce due to men
being in war and also, the call from Rosie the Riveter (Bellou & Cardia, 2016). She inspired a
social movement that increased working American women from 12 million to 20 million from
1940 to 1944. This increase in women's employment has continued to rise. This phenomenon has
influenced working moms trying to balance their roles at home and in the workplace. The
balancing of how women manage multiple roles, has been a topic of discussion ranging from the
benefits to the losses that women and their families experience.
Despite the increase in mothers working outside the home, women are still considered the
primary caretakers of their children. This means that women are primarily still responsible for
housework, childcare, and any tasks to keep the household effectively running (Choi et al., 2005;
Hays,1996; Lynch, 2008). While partners, family members, institutions such as daycare are
utilized and helpful in managing caretaking responsibilities, research demonstrates that mothers
primarily carry the load of having to plan, execute, and ensure that their child(ren) are taken care
of (Lynch, 2008). A traditional example would be, a partner is able to care for the child, but
mother may organize everything that is needed (food, schedule of activities, cleaning the home,
etc.) to lessen the load for the partner. The research then demonstrates that while mothers are
receiving help, there is a mental load that is not able to be reduced completely (Robertson et al.,
2019). This applies to student mothers, as they are adding another role expectation to their lives.

2
Student mothers are defined as individuals who identify as female, who are currently caretakers
to their identified child(ren) and are currently actively enrolled in a higher education institution
(Pare, 2009). Academic work can be considered as a full-time job for student mothers. Previous
research has noted that student mothers have considered their academic work as an additional
shift in their balancing of roles (Springer et al., 2009).
Arlie Hochschild and Annie Machung describe the notion of the “second shift” among
working mothers (1989). This term is used to describe the feelings that working mothers
experience when they get off work, “first shift” and go home to do housework, child rearing etc.,
“second shift”. Research has coined a term called “intensive mothering” that depicts mothers as
“child centered, expert guided, emotionally absorbing, labor-intensive” caretakers of their
children (Hays, 1996). This primarily applies throughout the formative years but can continue for
longer. Intensive mothering puts additional stress on mothers to meet the expectations of
parenting from their family and themselves (Douglas & Michaels, 2004). The idea of intensive
mothering for student mothers puts them at a disadvantage emotionally and mentally in
comparison to their other peers (Anaya, 2011).
Student mothers could argue that their academic work is a “third shift” (Hochschild &
Machung, 1989). These women are trying to balance their multiple role expectations at the best
of their ability. Academic work can be rigorous and cause additional stressors towards females
than males (Hodgson & Simoni,1995). As an increasing number of female students become
mothers this applies to their roles as students. In the addition of the “third shift”, there is the
mental and/or emotional load that arises with ensuring family needs are met.
As an increasing number of women pursue higher education and as they pursue higher
levels such as graduate school, the possibility of becoming a student mother increases. The

3
median age of women completing their doctoral studies is 33.6 years and this coincides when
higher education is pursued (Springer et al., 2009). While student mothers experience higher
levels of stress in comparison to males, they also have inadequate resources to assist in balancing
and meeting multiple role expectations. Graduate student mothers are more likely to choose
paths in their academic journey such as going part time, taking a break from school, and/or
leaving their higher education program due to struggles in motherhood (Springer et al., 2009).
These are examples of where resources from higher education institutions could assist in
decreasing having to make that decision.
As mothers are pressured whether internally or externally from family to balance their
mother and student roles more efficiently; student mothers feel the burden of not achieving the
goal of the perfect balancing act. This shows up in either student mothers attempting to reduce a
role expectation such as adjusting work schedule or adjusting school responsibilities. Once
student mothers begin to lessen the academic load whether intentional or not, the likelihood of
the imposter syndrome to occur happens.
Imposter syndrome is defined as “individuals who are unable to internalize
accomplishments, have a fear of failure, and attribute success to external factors rather than their
internal characteristics” (Gibson-Beverly & Schwartz, 2008). Imposter syndrome has been found
to impact psychological wellbeing in occupational and academic goals (Hayes & Davis, 1993;
Kumar & Jagacinski, 2006; September et al., 2001). It has been noted to impact anxiety related
to confidence in intellectual ability (Kumar & Jagacinski, 2006). Imposter syndrome can be one
of the factors that contribute to the challenges of student mothers.
Female students in higher education, specifically graduate school have a higher
likelihood of experiencing imposter syndrome than their male counterparts attributed to the

4
impact of gender role stereotypes (Gibson-Beverly, & Schwartz, 2008; Lynch, 2008). As student
mothers navigate their dual roles, there is pressure from both roles to give full attention. Mothers
are frequently the primary caregiver for their children. Mothering is time consuming and so is
trying to keep a balance of parenting and academic goals. Mothers have a higher likelihood of
experiencing imposter syndrome due to the push and pull of both roles. It is difficult to feel
confident in a role such as a student role if there are constant sacrifices in putting all effort in that
role. For example, not being able to attend class or dedicate as much time to a degree as would
like; contributes to feelings of being an imposter in academia for student mothers.
Student mothers are more likely to feel dissatisfied in academic settings than student
fathers (Gardner, 2008). Dissatisfaction in academic settings contributes to the attrition rates;
student mothers are at a higher risk of attrition compared to other groups (Gardner, 2008; Lynch,
2008). There are multiple factors that contribute to dissatisfaction. Research notes, student
mothers are more likely to feel invisible in academic settings (Springer et al., 2009). Some of the
feelings of invisibility are attributed to lack of support and feelings of belonging among campus.
This is communicated by lack of lactation rooms on campus, inadequate resources for childcare
on campus, and/or comments of lack of commitment in academic goals due to being a parent
(Brown & Nichols, 2013). Financial aid and childcare are the two highest stress factors for
student mothers (Anaya, 2011; Lynch, 2008).
According to Lynch, there is difficulty in mothers being able to separate both identities
(2008). There is a phenomenon that occurs called maternal invisibility in which mothers chose to
not disclose their motherhood identity in order to appear as more committed students. Jiron-King
(2005) discusses the maternal bias that occurs in academic settings and its impact on student
mothers feeling accepted in higher education institutions. The accumulation of all these stressors

5
and the lack of representation or access to other role models continues to student mothers feeling
not accepted in higher education (Springer et al., 2009).
Statement of the Problem
As the number of women enrolling in higher education continues there is increasing
likelihood of family life integrating with academic life. Women are entering higher education in
different life stages and with different motivating factors (Springer et al., 2009). The various role
expectations student mothers are trying to meet impact their experiences at higher education
institutions, negative or positive (Gardner, 2008; Lynch, 2008).
Student mothers are experiencing a variety of different stressors and their impact on the
success of student mothers is clearly seen by their decision to stay and complete their goal or
take a break (Gardner, 2008; Lynch, 2008). Attrition rates are highest among student mothers
despite women more likely to enroll in higher education institutions than men (Lynch, 2008).
The balancing of dual roles (student and mother) contributes to stressors in both areas of
student mother lives. While each role is in need of resources, student mothers enrolled in higher
education institutions have limited offered resources at their institutions to balance the role
expectations of motherhood. This can be a call to higher education institutions to find out the
factors that contribute to success among student mothers and implement resources to be offered.
This study adds to the body of research on women student mothers of color, which is
limited and mostly qualitative, by conducting a quantitative study examining specific factors that
may contribute to their success in higher education.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to examine the relationship of sense of belonging, social
support, psychological well-being, to intent to persist among student mothers.

6
Importance of the Study
As the number of student mothers increases in higher education institutions, it is of
importance to develop resources to support their success in completing their academic goals. A
contributing factor in women continuing to pursue academic endeavors is job opportunity (Weiss
et al., 2003). Job advancement is often strongly tied with education, either broadly, for example,
receiving a specific degree or more focused, like attending a specific class for a job. As the
number of women in the workplace increases, there is a higher likelihood of seeking continuous
education opportunities to promote job advancement. As these opportunities arise, the likelihood
of higher education pursuits and starting or maintaining a family increase (Choi et al., 2005). It is
expected for women to continue to enroll in higher education and this will most likely coincide
with family planning (Brown & Nichols, 2013).
As the number of student mothers increases, there is more that is needed to be understood
of what factors contribute to their success (Gardner, 2008). Student mothers are balancing their
roles as mothers, students, partners, and if they work outside of the home, employees (Choi et al.,
2005). Despite the increase in role responsibilities that mothers play, there are noted imbalances
in how they meet their role expectations in comparison to student fathers (Springer et al., 2009).
Mothers battle societal and internal pressures in what is the best way to balance the myriad of
roles and often feel that expectations are not being met (Gardner, 2008; Hochschild & Machung,
2012). There is research that supports how stressful balancing work and family life can be for
mothers. Student mothers could argue that the academic workload is another “shift” that is
started after meeting the needs of the other roles. While the struggles of student mothers are
similar to those of working mothers especially around the balancing of responsibilities, the added

7
responsibilities of the academic workload on mothers and their success in accomplishing
academic goals is still in need of more research.
Higher education institutions can provide a myriad of resources and by finding out what
is needed for the success of student mothers they are able to implement changes for success.
Family friendly policies can be put into place that would be of benefit for student parents such as
mentoring, affordable childcare, and better financial support (Williams, 2012).
This study hopes to expand on literature on student mothers and provide additional
knowledge as to what are the contributing factors to their success in higher education. The goal
of this study is to examine the relationship between sense of belonging, social support, and
psychological well-being on the intent to persist of student mothers attending higher education
institutions. Once completed, this study hopes to contribute to informing policy change in higher
education institutions to support student mothers in their academic journey.

8
Definitions of Terms
• Intensive mothering refers to the belief that good mothers should first be caregivers and
should invest time, money, energy, and emotional labor in intensively raising children.
(Hochschild & Machung, 1989).
• Imposter syndrome refers to individuals who are unable to internalize accomplishments,
have a fear of failure, and attribute success to external factors rather than their internal
characteristics (Cope-Watson & Betts, 2010).
• Mom guilt refers to the feeling of guilt, doubt, anxiety, or uncertainty experienced by
mothers when they worry, they are falling short of expectations (Sutherland, 2010).
• Rosie the Riveter refers to the cultural icon during World War II who represented women
who worked in factories often taking the place of men who were actively serving in the
military (Bellou & Cardia, 2016).
• Second shift refers to the labor performed at home after completing paid work at
workplace (Ryff, 1989).
• Student mother refers to the individual who identifies as female who is currently
caretaking to identified child(ren), and currently enrolled in a higher education institution
(Pare, 2009).

9
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The balancing of multiple roles and expectations for women specifically working
mothers is a frequent conversation topic. There are noted articles academic and not, discussing
the ways that mothers balance splitting their time and resources in attempting to accomplish all
the necessary tasks. There is countless information discussing the ways to simplify certain facets
of responsibility or suggestions of how to organize time to optimize efficiency.
Working mothers receive pressure internal and from others on how to meet expectations
of both roles. In the United States, education, especially post-secondary education is encouraged
not solely for learning but also often for advancing in career. When considering societal
expectations of women as mothers, there is a noted imbalance between men and women on
whose shoulders the majority of the parenting responsibilities (Gouthro & Grace, 2000). Women
are still considered the primary caretakers. Student mothers then are at a disadvantage when
examining time constraints in meeting expectations of both roles. While there are some resources
available for student parents as they navigate their academic journey, those available are not
always enough or may not be the ones needed to provide the necessary support to meet their
academic goals.
The following review of literature will examine the influences of sense of belonging,
social support, and psychological well-being on the intent to persist of student mothers in
postsecondary education. First, the contextual framework of sense of belonging based on
Hurtado and Carter (1997), definition will be discussed. Secondly, the influence of social support
on academic success will be discussed. Finally, psychological well-being will be discussed and
its influence on the intent to persist in higher education institutions by student mothers. This
chapter will conclude with research questions and corresponding hypotheses.

10
Sense of Belonging
According to Hurtado and Carter (1997), sense of belonging in academic institutions is
defined as a student’s perception of belonging on campus. The feeling of sense of belonging has
been found to influence academic experiences and overall success in completing academic goals
(Hurtado & Carter, 1997; O’Keefe, 2013, Tovar et al., 2009). A student’s first year experience
on campus can influence perceptions of a student’s third year on campus (Hurtado & Carter,
1997; Maestas et al., 2007). How a student defines experiences on campus are different based on
the student's perceptions and experiences.
Participation in college activities has been found to foster a sense of belonging among
students and positively influence success. Hurtado and Carter (1997) discuss that students of
color may not participate in college activities in the ‘traditional’ or ‘mainstream’ manner. The
authors expand the definition of sense of belonging by adding the interplay between the student
and the institution, more specifically in how a student is welcomed into the collegiate institution.
The welcoming of students in higher education institutions applies to students of color because
traditionally, higher education was not accessible. While this is changing, understanding that
context gives more understanding as to why a student’s feelings of sense of belonging are
important to their success in reaching academic goals.
Tinto’s theory emphasizes that a student's persistence in academic settings is highly
dependent on their integration into the school’s academic and social structures (Cabrera et al.
1993). Tinto discusses formal and informal ways that students integrate into the structures such
as involvement in co-curricular activities which is defined as formal and relationships with
faculty and peers which is defined as informal. Tinto emphasizes that without successful

11
integration into the institution, particularly in the first year, there is less likelihood to persist than
those who successfully integrate.
Critics of Tinto’s theory discusses that it does not take into consideration under-
represented students and their experiences of attending higher education institutions that were
built on systems of oppression and how that impacts a student’s ability to integrate into an
academic institution (Rendón et al., 2000). A further argument is made that Tinto’s theory makes
the generalization that students from all backgrounds integrate into academic institutions the
same and therefore are able to foster academic success the same. It does not take into
consideration how students from different backgrounds interpret or interact with academic
institutions differently than those of the dominant background. Hurtado and Carter (1997) further
develop the definition of sense of belonging by incorporating the experiences of Latino students
on university campuses and taking into consideration how their background impacts how they
relate to the university campus.
Research demonstrates that persistence and degree attainment is linked to a student’s
perception of belonging among a peer group and positive relationships with faculty (Johnson et
al., 2007; Komarrju, 2010; Myers, 2004; O’Keeffe, 2013). O’Keeffe (2013) continues to discuss
that positive peer and faculty interaction has been linked to positively influence a sense of
belonging among students as it speaks towards students feeling more socially and academically
supported at their academic institutions. These relationships can be fostered through involvement
in co-curricular activities and participation in campus membership activities. Komarriju (2010)
discusses that a relationship built with at minimum one faculty member can make a difference in
a student’s sense of belonging and academic self-efficacy. This relationship can provide the
student with an opportunity to communicate and develop a positive working relationship with

12
faculty; therefore, increasing likelihood of persisting in academic goal achievement. Oppositely,
Komarrju (2010) discusses that negative interactions with faculty members can negatively
impact the motivation of a student to work towards academic goals.
While involvement in campus activities and interactions with faculty can facilitate
feelings of sense of belonging on campus, these same interactions can impact opposite feelings
based on students' perceptions of racial climate. Academic institutions can work on creating
positive perceptions by increasing opportunities for diversity. Diversity experiences have been
found to positively impact openness to diversity and contribute to feelings of sense of belonging
(Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005).
Heisserer and Parette (2002) highlight that students' sense of belonging is impacted by
the student’s feelings of rejection or of not belonging and this impacts ability to adjust to
academic stressors. These feelings are influenced by lack of attachment to something on the
academic campus. While research demonstrates that peer group and faculty support is one factor
of establishing a sense of belonging an additional factor to consider is the impact of advisors
(Heisserer & Parette, 2002; Hoffman et al., 2002). Advisors are in positions to help students
make the best academic decisions. Advisors provide support academically as well as able to
provide resources offered at academic institutions. Non-traditional students such as student
mothers may not have traditional interactions with peer groups and so academic advisors would
be a gateway in being introduced to the happenings on campus.
Some of the work regarding sense of belonging, focuses on the experiences of traditional
students. While there is increasing research on non-traditional students; there is limited research
regarding the experiences of student mothers. Student mothers are defined as female students
who are parenting one or more children during their participation in a post-secondary education.

13
A considerable struggle of non-traditional students is the inability to see themselves as students
because of other factors or roles in their lives (Keefe, 2013). The inability to see themselves as
students greatly impacts feelings of sense of belonging in the academic institution and impacts
academic self-efficacy and intent to persist in academic studies (Thunborg et al., 2013).
Hurtado and Carter (1993) emphasize the importance of participation in social activities
with others as a strong predictor of sense of belonging among students and this does not
necessarily apply to student mothers. As they are balancing additional roles, the availability of
their time and resources is finite and may not have room for participation in social activities on
campus. The lack of participation may then impact how student mothers see themselves as
belonging on campus. While there has been an increase of campus groups and activities for
diverse student populations, student mothers are likely to not be included in those activities.
Non-traditional students add to the diversification of the campus environment
(Meeuwisse et al., 2010). In examining diversity on campus, students of color academic success
are impacted by factors not affecting White students on campus (Hausmann et al., 2007;
Hausmann et al., 2009; Johnson et al., 2007). Students of color are more likely to report a lesser
sense of belonging on campus than White students (Johnson et al., 2007; Museus & Maramba,
2011). This is more prevalent in the first year. In researching student mothers, there is limited
research on women of color student mothers. While student mothers are impacted by similar
stressors as White/Caucasian mothers, women of color students’ mothers may experience
additional stressors due to their racial identity.
The literature regarding sense of belonging describes the impact on a student's intent to
persist. A student’s intent to persist on their academic goals is defined as the desire to want to
continue to work towards and accomplish these set goals. Student’s sense of belonging can be

14
greatly impacted by the connection with one individual on an academic campus and it is not
solely confided to people in academic positions (Heisserer & Parette, 2002; Hurtado & Ponjuan,
2005; Keefe, 2013). A connection with another student can also make a significant impact on
increasing feelings of sense of belonging on campus. Student’s with a higher sense of belonging
demonstrate an intent to persist to accomplish academic goals.
While research demonstrates the importance of a sense of belonging in accomplishing
academic goals, there is limited research when applied specifically to the population of student
mothers. A strong tenet of a sense of belonging is feeling connected to the university and/or peer
groups (Tinto, 1992). This can be hard for student mothers to develop as their time is limited in
comparison to traditional students. Additionally, while the number is increasing of student
mothers enrolled in higher education, they are still in the minority and may not connect with
someone who understands their situation. Research demonstrates that student mothers may not
disclose their identity as a mother as to be perceived negatively among their peers or faculty
(Lynch, 2008). The lack of disclosure may also be impacting the lack of discussion among this
population of needs and/or factors that contributes or hinders the feelings of belonging on
campus. There is a need to develop a sense of belonging at higher education institutions in order
to continue to work towards accomplishing academic goals.
Social Support
Social support has been found to be closely tied with a student’s success in academic
institutions and increasing feelings of sense of belonging in higher education (Dennis et al.,
2005; Gloria & Robinson-Kurpius, 2001; Heisserer & Parette, 2002). For the purpose of this
dissertation, social support is defined as both informal, peer, or formal, faculty, support. Social
support is found to be a positive powerful resource for students in managing academic stressors

15
and by extension adjusting to university standards (Misra et al., 2003; Tovar, 2014). Social
support can be accessed at the university or at home. A primary source of social support for
students of color has been found in familial support (Gloria & Robinson-Kurplus, 2001). The
support has positively influenced academic persistence and a student's perception of how they
are adjusting to university life. Based on the research, students with social support are more
likely to accomplish their academic goals (Gloria & Robinson-Kurplus, 2001; Tovar, 2014)
While the research shows how students can benefit from having consistent social support,
when examining students based on their demographic background, students of color are
particularly positively influenced by social support (Gloria et al., 1999). Social support,
especially faculty or advisor support has been found to increase a student's sense of belonging on
campus (Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Students who are able to connect with support on or off
campus are increasingly more likely to continue academic pursuits.
While there is research that demonstrates the impact of social support on traditional
students, there is limited research on non-traditional students, especially student mothers. Student
mothers are facing two important identity roles: student and motherhood. Both roles require
extensive attention and effort. Students regardless of parenting are charged with meeting
academic responsibilities to meet academic goals. Research looking at the responsibilities of
mothers described an added pressure called “intensive mothering” (Hays, 1996, p. 6). This is
described as “child centered, expert guided, emotionally absorbing, labor-intensive” caretaking
most often assigned intentional or not on the mother (Hays, 1996, p. 6). As part of that notion, is
the idea that a mother is to place the needs of her child before her own (Elliot et al., 2015; Lynch,
2008). In examining research on mothers of color, it is found that there are elements of

16
“intensive mothering” as well as an added layer of parenting in a racist society (Collins, 2005;
Elliot et al., 2015).
This research regarding mothers is contradictory to what is found to be needed for
success in meeting higher education goals: social support. As student mothers, there needs to be
a blend of both roles and social support is needed to succeed in both roles. Student mothers then
must work to try and meet academic goals as well as child rearing responsibilities. The need for
support, particularly social support, may be a key factor in the success of student mothers.
According to Springer et al. (2009) student mothers have found that lack of support can cause
feelings of isolation and by extension, impact lack of success in meeting academic goals. Student
mothers thrive from mentorship from faculty that understand their dual identities and provide
support whether verbal or through resources in attempting to blend both identities. Academic
institutions that have embraced student mothers by developing scholarships to address childcare
needs or faculty providing flexibility if childcare is not met for student mothers to succeed has
been found to be a positive indicator of feeling accepted and belonging in academic institutions.
Formal relationships are not the only method for student mothers to feel supported; this can also
be found in academic peers of friendships and family outside of academic institutions (Williams,
2007).
Student mothers are a minority in the population of typical students attending academic
institutions (Gardner, 2008). Gardner found that academic student success can be found in
“fitting the mold”, and student mothers do not meet normative student mold (2008). This
information can be useful in understanding the importance of bridging the dual identities of
student mothers. Part of ‘fitting the mold’ is the unintentional positive reinforcement of looking
around and seeing other individuals that look or are doing the same as you and are succeeding.

17
Research by Lynch (2008) reports of the phenomenon where student mothers withhold sharing
that they are mothers as to not be seen as less committed by their peers or faculty members. This
phenomenon can interfere with student mothers ‘fitting the mold’ as by not disclosing this
significant part of themselves this limits the opportunities of getting to know others that are in
the same situation. Student mothers can experience the internal guilt of feeling a ‘bad mother’ or
‘bad student’ and this guilt cannot be seen by others (Anaya, 2011; Williams, 2007). Student
mothers benefit from meeting other individuals that speak of this guilt or provide positive
reinforcement in combating it.
Parents particularly mothers may experience a phenomenon called “mom guilt”. This is
defined as not feeling adequate in meeting the responsibilities of motherhood (Liss et al., 2012;
Rotkirch & Janhunen, 2010). While it is often referred to as ‘mom guilt’ a more adequate
description would be “mom shame” as often the feelings or thoughts that arise after not meeting
expectations is the conclusion of being a ‘bad mom’ and not necessarily feelings or thoughts of
reflection of the assigned expectations. Nevertheless, this can greatly impact how a mother views
herself with her peers, family, and her children in how adequate she is at meeting motherhood
expectations. While there is research that speaking about this shame or guilt with other mothers
can drastically decrease the feelings and begin to develop social support, often the internalization
of “mom guilt” can keep mothers from openly discussing this with other mothers. This research
can be beneficial for higher education institutions in acknowledging the “mom guilt”
phenomenon and developing ways to connect student mothers with each other.
In examining the role of motherhood, social support can be defined to include the
resources used to meet parenting responsibilities (i.e., childcare, positive support from other
student mothers). Financial strains and limited financial support can impair mothers from

18
accessing resources specifically childcare costs (Lynch, 2008). Student mothers often look
towards university financial aid, partners, or working to meet childcare responsibilities. This can
be an additional role strain to student mothers (Grenier & Burke, 2008). Additionally, finding
adequate childcare support, not just financial but also trusting of the care of children, with the
allotted resources can be a struggle for student mothers to navigate through and put into place for
them to meet all academic expectations (Liss et al., 2012). Student mothers are often faced with
time dilemmas when childcare is offered as academic responsibilities may not always fall in the
traditional 7-6pm time frame of daycares and/or child’s school (Lynch, 2008).
Outside of meeting childcare needs there is also the added stress of spending time at
home with family and meeting household expectations (Hays, 1996). Spending time at home is
defined as doing the tasks that maintain a home such as housekeeping, cooking, planning of
activities for the family, keeper of family memories, scheduling health appointments, and the list
continues. Additionally, there is the important responsibility of caring for the growing child.
These responsibilities are defined as “unpaid” meaning that it does not bring financial income
into the family unit (Duncan et al., 2003). When division of labor is defined as unpaid and paid
work, there is a notable lean towards mothers doing more of the unpaid work in addition to paid
work (Duncan et al., 2003). Again, with meeting expectations, self-assigned or not, how these
expectations are met can leave room for feelings of guilt in not managing all responsibilities
adequately (Liss et al., 2012). Social support can not only be in connecting with other like-
minded individuals but also in assisting in completing tasks to meet the myriad of responsibilities
of student mothers (Williams, 2007).
While research demonstrates the importance of social support in achieving academic
goals and completing motherhood tasks; there is limited research on the importance of social

19
support in specifically the population of student mothers. Up into recent years, parenthood did
include more support specifically from family in meeting the various responsibilities of child
rearing (Plantin & Daneback, 2009). This has decreased as children have moved away from
their immediate families and started their own families. As this continues to happen, parents are
left with managing more responsibilities than the previous generations. This greatly can impact
the social support student mothers receive in adequately meeting all responsibilities in their
multiple roles. According to Brown (2007), student mothers struggle with balancing their roles
of students and mothers. This is a focused population that is in need of social support in various
ways and can ultimately benefit from receiving it on a consistent basis to accomplish all goals.
An understanding of it and where student mothers receive support and/or how best to provide
this support by higher education institutions can greatly impact their psychological wellbeing and
their intent to persist in as they work towards completing their academic goals.
Psychological Well Being
The psychological well-being of students influences their intent to persist throughout
their academic years. For this dissertation, psychological well-being will be defined using Carol
Ryff’s theory (Ryff, 1995). The theory encompasses six factors that contribute to a student’s
psychological well-being. The six factors are: self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life,
environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others. A balance of these factors
throughout life events configures an individual’s psychological well-being and will be
emphasized in looking at how it influences students in higher education.
Psychological well-being has been discussed in the literature with emphasis on how
academic stress influences it (Stecker, 2004). Stress in student life is inevitable and the
development of healthy coping skills have been found to positively influence psychological well-

20
being. The opposite is true, that poor coping skills can negatively impact how an individual
combats stress in academic life. Psychological well-being can also be used to describe depression
and anxiety symptoms in students. Mental health symptoms influence how students pursue their
academic goals and how they perceive their academic journey. Stress can increase symptoms and
difficulty in seeking support that is necessary if coping skills are not used by students (Eisenberg
et al., 2007).
The literature demonstrates that stress can be experienced by students throughout
academic journey but there is a notable increase at the start of the academic journey (i.e.,
freshman year) in comparison to the end (i.e., senior year) (Bewick et al., 2010). This noted
increase may be due to a variety of different factors, including familiarity with school workload,
increase in self-awareness of skills needed, taking rigorous courses at the start of academic
journey instead of end, etc. Academic stress can be managed in a variety of ways, healthy or not;
the way that it is handled impacts psychological well-being (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010).
In looking at the literature describing psychological well-being in motherhood, studies
suggest that there can be a negative influence (McLanahan & Adams, 1987). In comparison with
non-parents, mothers are more likely to feel less satisfied at home and experience higher levels
of anxiety and depression. This can be attributed to a variety of different constraints such as
financial and time. Research demonstrates that both parents are affected by the constraints, but
mothers are impacted at a higher negative level in their psychological well-being. Psychological
wellbeing can be greatly influenced by perceived support from others and can impact how
mothers view themselves in handling their responsibilities (Barnett, 2004).
When examining psychological well-being by measuring anxiety and depression levels, it
is noted that shortage of having time to oneself, directly impacts these levels (Mattingly & Sayer,

21
2006; Nomaguchi et al., 2005). There are time constraints when attempting to balance work and
parenthood. There is encouragement to spend time with oneself outside of these other identities,
however, it is often the first place where time is cut (Barnett, 2004). Parents experience higher
levels of pressure and stress in their roles than in previous generations. When combined with
work life, there is stress in trying to be successful in both roles.
In particular, mother's experience an additional level of stress both coming from society
and internal struggles (Sutherland, 2010). A frequent phrase used to describe it is ‘mom guilt’.
This stress arises from trying to meet and balance the expectations of what a good mother is and
how they are currently mothering (Rotkirch & Janhunen, 2010). Traditionally, mothers have
been the primary caretakers of children and is still a continued societal pressure to do just that.
While there has been a shift in caretaking responsibilities due to mothers entering the workforce
at higher rates than before, mothers still are seen as primary caretakers despite the added
workload stress (Lynch, 2008). This has a direct negative effect on psychological well-being in
the balancing of the dual roles.
Psychological well-being is an important factor when considering the success of student
mothers in meeting their academic goals. In meeting the role expectations of being a student and
parent, mental health is an important factor in how and if responsibilities are met as well as how
the individual perceives meeting the tasks at hand. The research demonstrates that psychological
well-being can be positively influenced by social support and so there is an opportunity for
higher education institutions to understand how it is impacted and how to provide if possible, to
the student population of student mothers.
Mothers are affected in various ways because of trying to manage both roles specifically
in their career options and goal setting. Mothers are more likely to make less income than their

22
male counterparts in the same field (Springer et al., 2009; Sutherland, 2010). One attribution to
this is mothers are seen as less serious about their work because of family life.
This same phenomenon can be seen in academia in mothers trying to seek tenure status
(Gardner, 2008). This has direct implications on how mothers feel in their career role and thus
their psychological well-being in that role.
While there is abundant research on how work and parent life impact psychological well-
being, there is limited research on examining the effect of parent, work, and student life on
student mothers. A healthy psychological wellbeing has been tied with achieving academic
goals. Research demonstrates that there is a negative impact on psychological well-being on
managing dual roles and in managing stress as students (Brown, 2007; Gardner, 2008). A
negative level of psychological well-being directly impacts how a student’s intention to persist in
accomplishing academic goals. Student mothers and the higher education institutions they attend
would benefit from understanding the psychological well-being of student mothers to implement
change in assisting with accomplishing academic goals.
Summary of Literature Review
This chapter has examined the existing literature on three major constructs for this study:
sense of belonging, social support, and psychological being. While these constructs can be used
to understand how students achieve their academic goals; there is little known on how these
constructs apply specifically to student mothers. The number of women enrolling in higher
education will continue to rise and therefore, the likelihood of family and student life integrating
during this time continues to increase especially as women continue to enter higher education for
various factors and in different life stages (Springer et al., 2009).

23
According to the National Center of Education Statistics (NCES) there were over 12
million non-traditional students enrolled in higher education in 2013. The number of students is
expected to rise to 14 million students by 2024. Student mothers are nontraditional students, and
they are impacted by their own set of academic and role expectation issues. The balancing of
dual roles contributes to feelings of stress in both areas of student mothers' lives and therefore,
the need for resources is becoming more apparent in assisting student mothers in accomplishing
academic goals.
While research demonstrates that nontraditional students have the desire to persist and
complete their studies more than half enrolled were not able to continue (Capella, 2002). A cited
reason for why they were unable to continue was due to struggle with balancing multiple role
responsibilities (Brown & Nichols, 2012). Despite women enrolling in higher education in
numbers greater than men, student mothers have the highest attrition rates in comparison (Lynch,
2008). Of the 12 million nontraditional students enrolled in higher education, fifty three percent
support more than one dependent (Capella, 2002). While each role, student or mother, has its
own set of challenges, mothers face societal and internal pressures to how best to balance their
roles and often feel like they fall short (Gardner, 2008; Hochschild & Machung, 2012). The
internal feeling struggles can impact the mental health of student mothers and can impact the
decisions made and academic performance.
As the number of student mothers in higher education increases there is a need for higher
education institutions to become more aware of the factors that contribute to their success in
order to implement support to facilitate their academic success.

24
Purpose of the study, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
The purpose of the study is to examine the relationship that sense of belonging, social
support, and psychological wellbeing has on the intention to persist in higher education among
student mothers enrolled in higher education institutions. This study hopes to bridge the gap in
the current literature by investigating the relationship of these constructs among student mothers
in achieving their academic goals.
The following research questions have been posed for this study:
Research Question 1: Do sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-
being predict intent to persist in women of color student mothers taking into account the
number and age of children?
Hypothesis 1.1. Sense of belonging will predict intent to persist
Hypothesis 1.2. Social support will predict intent to persist
Hypothesis 1.3. Psychological well-being will predict intent to persist
Research Question 2: Are there differences in sense of belonging, social support, intent to
persist, and psychological well-being by race and education level?
Hypothesis 2.1. There will be group differences in sense of belonging based on
race and education level.
Hypothesis 2.2. There will be group differences in social support based on race
and education level
Hypothesis 2.3. There will group differences in intent to persist based on race and
education level
Hypothesis 2.4. There will be group differences in psychological well-being based
on race and education level

25
Research Question 3: Are there differences in sense of belonging, social support, and
psychological well-being by number of children?
Hypothesis 3.1. There will be group differences in sense of belonging based on
the number of children.
Hypothesis 3.2. There will be group differences in social support based on the
number of children.
Hypothesis 3.3. There will be group differences in psychological well-being based
on the number of children.
Research Question 4: Do sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-
being predict GPA in women of color student mothers taking into account the number
and age of children?
Hypothesis 4.1. Sense of belonging will predict GPA
Hypothesis 4.2 Social support will predict GPA
Hypothesis 4.3. Psychological well-being will predict GPA

26
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter will review the methods utilized for this study in investigating the
relationship between sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-being on the
intention to persist among student mothers enrolled in higher education institutions. First, the
demographic characteristics of the participants will be discussed. Second, the instruments used to
collect data will be examined. Finally, the data collection procedures will be explained.
Participants
Student mothers were recruited during a two-month period during the summer of 2020.
Student mothers were primarily recruited utilizing word of mouth and social media as the
primary source of advertisement of the study. A noted global pandemic was occurring during the
time of the study and may have influenced participation in the study by student mothers.
The student mothers’ age ranged between 19 for the youngest and 46 years old for the
oldest. The average age was 32 years of age with a standard deviation of 6.43. The participants
ranged from having one child to the highest number identified in this study being 3 children had.
The relationship status of the participants varied from single, in a committed relationship,
married, or divorced/separated with a majority of the women responding being married, in a
domestic partnership, or engaged. Table 1 provides an overview of participant characteristics.

27
Table 1
Frequency Distribution of Student Participants (N = 70)

N Percentage
Age
19-24 10 14
25-30 20 29
31-36 22 31
37-42 14 20
43-48 4 6

Relationship Type
Single 7 10
In a committed relationship 14 20
Married,
in a domestic partnership,
or engaged 48 69
Divorced or Separated 1 1

Family Income
Under $50,000 20 29
$50,001-$99,999 31 44
$100,000-$149,999 12 17
$150,000-$199,999 7 10

Number of Children
One Child 35 50
Two Children 27 39
Three Children 8 11

The race of the student mothers captured was primary White (n=21) with Black or
African American and Hispanic or Latinx following closely (n=18; n=17). Table 2 describes the
frequency distribution of the student race. The student mother family income varied from under
$50,000 (n=20; 28.6%), $50,001-$99,999 (n=31; 44.3%), $100,000-149,999 (n=12; 17.1%), and
$150,000-$199-999 (n=7; 10%). Table 1 demonstrates the frequency distribution of student
family income.

28
Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Student Race (N=70)
N Percentage
Race
White 20 30
Black or African
American 18 26
Hispanic or Latinx 17 24
Asian 5 7
American Indian or
Alaska Native 4 6
Biracial 5 6
Native Hawaiian or
Pacific Islander 1 1

Student Mothers came from a pool of education levels of 10 associate level, 12
undergraduates, 35 master level, and 13 doctoral level for a total of 70 participants. Table 3
demonstrates the frequency distribution of degree levels among student mothers asked. Student
mothers were asked about their current student status with a majority enrolled Full time (50
participants) in their higher education pursuits. Table 3 demonstrates the frequency distribution
of their student status. The student mothers pursued higher education through various types of
school: on campus, online, and hybrid (online and on campus). A majority of the student mothers
attended schooling on campus. Table 3 demonstrates the type of school frequency distribution.
The cumulative GPA of the student mothers were asked with a majority of student mothers
accomplishing a GPA between 3.0-3.99. Table 3 demonstrates the frequency distribution of GPA
among student mothers. Table 4 demonstrates the frequency distribution of the primary major of
the student mothers who participated in this study.

29

Table 3

Frequency Distribution of Student Degree Level, Status, Type of School, and GPA

N Percentage
Degree Level
Associate Degree 10 14
Undergraduate Degree 12 17
Master’s Degree 35 50
Doctoral Degree 13 19

Student Status
Full-time 50 71
Part-time 20 29

Type of Schooling
On Campus 53 76
Online 8 11
Hybrid (Online & On Campus) 8 11
Unknown 1 2

Cumulative GPA
4.0 or higher 9 13
3.51 - 3.99 30 43
3.0 - 3.50 24 34
2.50 - 2.99 4 6
2.0 - 2.49 2 3
Unknown 1 1

30

Table 4

Frequency Distribution of Major of Study

N Percentage
Primary School of Study
Accounting 1 1
Applied Linguistics 1 1
Business 5 12
Business Administration 3 4
Community Development
and Planning 1 1
Educational Leadership 6 24
EdD-Ed Psychology 1 1
English 2 3
Math 1 1
MBA 4 14
Mental Health Counseling 1 1
MFT 5 7
Mild/Moderate Disability
Teaching Credential 1 1
MSW 11 25
Pharmacy 2 3
Psychology 6 9
Public Health 1 1
Sociology 7 8.5
Undecided 1 1

Instruments
Prior to taking the survey, participants were provided with a consent form (Appendix A)
informing that all responses are confidential, and that participants could opt out of the study at
any time. The survey was divided into six sections: 1) demographic and background information
(Appendix B), 2) Intent to Persist (Appendix C), 3) Social Provisions Scale (Appendix D), 4)
Sense of Belonging Scale (Appendix E), and 5) Psychological Well Being (Appendix F). Each
instrument is described in the following sections.

31
Sense of Belonging Scale
Sense of belonging is a construct used to measure a student’s feelings of closeness. It has
been adapted to incorporate students’ perceptions of how they feel on campus (Hurtado &
Carter, 1997). The variable of sense of belonging was measured in this study by two subscales of
the Sense of Belonging instrument two subscales: Perceived Isolation Scale and Perceived
Faculty Support Scale (Hoffman et al., 2003). The perceived isolation scale is a 4-item scale that
was developed to measure a student’s sense of support among classmates. Responses to items are
recorded on a five-point Likert scale (with 1=completely untrue; 5=completely true). A sample
statement from the instrument is “It is difficult to meet other students in class.” The Cronbach’s
alpha for the perceived isolation items is .82 (Hoffman et al., 2003). This study found a
Cronbach’s alpha of .87 for perceived isolation items.
The perceived faculty support scale is a 10-item scale that was developed to measure a
student’s sense of support among faculty members. Responses to items are recorded on a five-
point Likert scale (with 1=completely untrue; 5=completely true). A sample statement from the
instrument is “I feel comfortable talking about a problem with faculty”. The Cronbach’s alpha
for the perceived faculty support items is .87 (Hoffman et al., 2003). Based on the participants in
this study, Cronbach's Alpha was .96.
The Sense of Belonging scale was selected for the usage of the subscales for measuring
student mothers’ perceptions of belonging on campus. This instrument was chosen due to its
validity and reliability and the established record of being able to assess a sense of belonging
among various groups of students in higher education (Johnson et al., 2007).

32
Social Provisions Scale
The social provisions scale was developed to measure the relationship between social
support and health across a variety of factors (Cutrona & Russell, 1987). The instrument was
developed based on Robert Weiss’ model of social provisions which originally measured the
factor of loneliness, but the factors can be applied to social support (Cutrona & Russell, 1987).
Each provision described by Weiss can be obtained from relationships with others. The social
functions or provisions are as followed: attachment, social integration, reassurance of worth,
reliable alliance, guidance, and opportunity for nurturance. The instrument is a 24-item scale
that is recorded on a four-point Likert scale (with 1=strongly disagree; 4=strongly agree). A
sample statement of the instrument is “There are people I can depend on to help me if I really
need it.” Cronbach's alpha for the items is .92. Based on the participants in this study, Cronbach's
Alpha was 88.
The Social Provisions scale was chosen for the breadth of describing different social
functions as well as the instrument has been utilized with new mothers in assessment of their
transition into parenthood and perceptions of social support during the transition (Cutrona &
Russell, 1987).
Psychological Well Being Scale
The psychological well-being scale was developed to assess an individual's wellbeing
across six dimensions (Ryff, 1989). The six dimensions measured in this instrument are as
follows: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others,
purpose in life, and self-acceptance. The instrument has two versions available, a 42-item scale
and an 18-item scale. This study will use the 18-item scale that is recorded on a seven-point
Likert scale (with 1=strongly agree; 4=neither agree nor disagree; 7=strongly disagree). A

33
sample statement of the instrument is “When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with
how things have turned out so far” (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Cronbach's alpha for the six
dimensions ranges from 0.26 (purpose in life) to 0.52 (self-acceptance). Based on the participants
in this study, Cronbach’s Alpha was .63. The Cronbach’s Alpha for the subscales are as follows:
Purpose of Life .22, Environmental Mastery .64, Positive Relations with Others .76, Personal
Growth .67, Autonomy .73, and Self-Acceptance .53.
The psychological wellbeing scale was chosen because the instrument is appropriate in
assessing student mothers’ perceptions of their life as a whole.
Intent to Persist Scale
The intent to persist scale was developed to develop an understanding of student’s
persistence in academic settings (Cabrera et al., 1993). The instrument is a 5-item scale that is
scored on a six-point Likert scale (with 1=strongly disagree; 3=somewhat disagree; 6=strongly
agree). A sample statement of the instrument is “I will continue to take courses at [university
name] until I earn a degree.” The alpha coefficient is .73. Based on the participants in this study,
Cronbach’s Alpha was .98.
The intent to persist scale was chosen because it can be applied to student mothers on
their persistence of wanting to complete their degree and the scale has been found to have high
validity (Cabrera et al., 1993).
Procedure
To participate in the survey, participants had to be currently enrolled or have recently
graduated, within six months of graduation, at a college or university institution. All participants
identified as a mother of at least one child.

34
Various techniques were used to recruit participants. One of the primary means was to
post online flyers and that were sent out to social media platforms on Instagram. Social media
groups (i.e., Mami goes to school, Mothers of Color in Academia, etc.) have been formed by
student mothers who are seeking support that is not offered on campus. The flyer included
information about the study and provided a hyperlink to access the survey and primary
investigator for additional information. The hyperlink opened a description of the survey, the
survey, and notice on confidentiality. To encourage participation, the flyers informed participants
that they were entered to win one of three $25 gift certificates to Amazon. Flyers stated that
neither participation in the study nor completion of the survey was required to win. Another
means of advertisement was through email solicitation and word of mouth for completing the
survey. A few participants, n=13, provided an email address in order to be eligible for the gift
card raffle. The contact information of the participants was stored separately from the responses
to the survey items. After publication on social media platform (Instagram), the University of
Southern California Public Health School advertised the survey and encouraged “Trojan Mothers
to Support this Trojan Mother” to complete the survey. Upon closing the survey, three students
were selected at random and were awarded via email.

35
Chapter Four: Results
The following chapter provides a comprehensive review of the results of the study
including the correlational analyses and analyses of the research questions. Before the start of
analyses, the data was cleaned, coded, and examined to ensure accuracy and completeness of
answers. For data analyses, Intent to Persist and GPA were the main dependent variables. The
other variables, Sense of Belonging, Social Support, Psychological Well-Being Race and
Education Level were both independent and dependent variables depending on the hypothesis
being tested. Lastly, findings about support for student mothers specifically childcare and access
to lactation rooms on campus will be discussed. The SPSS software program was used for all the
data analyses.
Correlational Analyses
Pearson product correlation analyses were conducted to analyze the relationships between
the study variables: psychological well-being, social provisions, sense of belonging, intent to
persist, and GPA. Table 5 shows the correlations along with the means and standard deviations
for each of the study variables.
Table 5

Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variables

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Psychological Well-Being 3.55 .353 -- .08 .61** -.57** .02 -.19
2. Social Provisions 4.57 .428 -- .21 -.17 .02 -.14
3. Sense of Belonging Faculty 2.40 1.03 -- -.83** .002 -.07
4. Sense of Belonging Isolation 3.67 1.03 -- -.07 .10
5. Intent to Persist 4.01 .525 -- -.18
6. GPA 5.51 1.19 --

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

36
For this study, psychological well-being was directly correlated with sense of belonging
faculty (r=.61, p=0.01) and sense of belonging isolation (r=-.57, p=.01). This is supported by
research from Hurtado and Carter (1997) that found faculty support can positively influence
feelings of sense of belonging on campus and positively influence academic success and
persistence. The authors elaborate by specifically describing participation in activities on campus
as a strong indicator of developing sense of belonging. These activities can decrease feelings of
isolation on campus and can serve as the welcoming of students into higher education institutions
(Hurtado & Carter, 1997). In addition to participating in school activities, faculty may be
accessed through office hours or before/after class and those interactions can influence a
student’s sense of belonging on campus.
Psychological well-being described the developing of healthy coping skills to manage
symptoms and be able to cope in a productive manner (Ryff, 1995; Stecker, 2004). Stress in any
role, student or mother, is an inevitable part of life and psychological well-being is evaluated
whether positive or negative coping skills are utilized to resolve stressors. The ability for student
mothers to identify feelings of isolation or need for faculty support would be described as
healthy coping skills and thus would support a positive psychological well-being (Eisenberg et
al., 2007).
Social support from faculty has been found can decrease feelings of isolation on campus
(Dennis et al., 2005; Gloria & Robinson-Kurpius, 2001; Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Sense of
belonging faculty was directly correlated with sense of belonging isolation (r=.83, p-.01). A
minimum of one relationship with a faculty member was found to make a difference in a
student’s sense of belonging and academic self-efficacy (Komarriju, 2010). The findings support
the importance of students to seek out faculty support as well as the responsibility higher

37
institutions have in facilitating the easy access of this support for student mothers (Elliot et al.,
2015; Lynch, 2008).
Analysis of Research Question 1
Research Question 1: Do sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-
being predict intent to persist in women of color student mothers taking into account the number
and age of children?
Hypothesis 1.1. Sense of belonging will predict intent to persist
Hypothesis 1.2. Social support will predict intent to persist
Hypothesis 1.3. Psychological well-being will predict intent to persist
A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of the three
predictor variables on outcomes variable of student mothers’ intent to persist in academic
journey. The results were not significant and none of the hypotheses were supported.
Analysis of Research Question 2
Research Question 2: Are there group differences in sense of belonging, social support,
intent to persist, and psychological well-being by race and education level?
Hypothesis 2.1. There will be group differences in sense of belonging based on race and
education level
Hypothesis 2.2. There will be group differences in social support based on race and
education level
Hypothesis 2.3. There will be group differences in intent to persist based on race and
education level
Hypothesis 2.4. There will be group differences in psychological well-being based on
race and education level

38
A 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) were conducted for the independent variables of race and class standing with sense
of belonging, social support, and psychological well-being as dependent variables. There were
no significant main effects or interactions, and the hypotheses were not supported.
Analysis of Research Question 3
Research Question 3: Are there differences in sense of belonging, social support, and
psychological well-being by number of children?
Hypothesis 3.1. There will be group differences in sense of belonging based on number
of children
Hypothesis 3.2. There will be group differences in social support based on number of
children
Hypothesis 3.3. There will be group differences in psychological well-being based on
number of children
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) were conducted for the independent variable of number of children (1 child, 2
children, or 3 children) with sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-being as
dependent variables. There were no significant main effects or interactions, and the hypotheses
were not supported.
Analysis of Research Question 4
Research Question 4: Do sense of belonging, social support, and psychological well-
being predict GPA in women of color student mothers taking into account the number and age of
children?
Hypothesis 4.1. Sense of belonging will predict GPA

39
Hypothesis 4.2. Social support will predict GPA
Hypothesis 4.3. Psychological well-being will predict GPA
A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of the three
predictor variables on outcomes variable of student mothers’ GPA. There were no significant
main effects or interactions, and the hypotheses were not supported.
Additional Descriptive Findings
While this study’s research questions, did not find significant main effects and the
hypotheses were not supported, responses to the open-ended questions of this survey provided
additional context into the support student mothers accessed and their impact on accomplishing
their academic goals.
Student mothers were asked about their access to support in childcare and if needed,
access to a lactation room on campus. Of the 70 participants, 60 answered yes to accessing
childcare as a source of support. Research of student mothers has found that there is a need for
support on the blending of both roles, parent and student (Dennis et al., 2005; Heisserer &
Parette, 2002). The lack of this support can influence feelings of isolation in roles and can impact
academic performance (Springer et al., 2009). The access to childcare to attend to student
responsibilities as well as access to a lactation room can positively influence student mothers’
perception of sense of belonging and social support on campus as they are specific resources
accessed (Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Table 5 demonstrates the frequency distribution of childcare
access and lactation room access.

40
Table 6

Frequency Distribution of Childcare Access and Lactation Room Access

N Percentage
Access to Childcare
Yes 60 86
No 10 14

Access to Lactation Room on Campus
Yes 10 14
No 57 81
Unknown 3 4

The answers from the open-ended questions provided insight onto support that was
accessed in pursuit of academic goals by student mothers. Financial support was identified as a
contributor to progress in academic programs and was listed in the open-ended questions as a
needed and accessed support (Lynch, 2008). Student mothers identified their employers,
financial aid, personal savings, and contribution from their spouses as the sources of their
financial support.
Additionally, emotional support was identified in the answers of the student mothers in
playing a positive support in their academic pursuits. Emotional and social support has been
supported to positive impact academic success (Dennis et al., 2005; Heisserer & Parette, 2002).
The answers from the student mothers identified the support from immediate family, neighbors,
colleagues, childcare institutions, and friends as the accessed support and how it provided the
ability to continue to pursue academic success.
Barriers for Student Mothers
Student mothers were asked an open-ended question regarding perceived barriers to
success in their educational pursuits. The first identified barrier was navigating responsibilities

41
during the COVID 19 pandemic. Specific examples were provided such as the additional
juggling of responsibilities, the change in the learning environment for children and student
mothers, and the increase in emotional toll during the COVID 19 pandemic. These specific
examples have been cited in previous research of obstacles that student parents are needing to
navigate to accomplish their goals (Anaya, 2011; Lynch, 2008).
Lastly, student mothers described lack of financial support as a barrier in continuing to
pursue academic goals and/or the identified weight of navigating getting adequate financial aid.
The lack of financial support has been a cited reason in previous research and has been identified
as a resource that is needed to continue the enrollment of student parents in higher education
institutions (Anaya, 2011; Lynch, 2008). The specific answers from the student mothers
identified the utilization of loans and/or family savings in pursuit of academic goal and identified
that more resources are needed in overcoming this barrier.
Conclusion
This chapter reviewed the findings from the data analysis of the research questions.
While, no main effects or significance was found in the four research questions, the open-ended
responses provided insight into the supports and barriers faced by student mothers in higher
education institutions from this study.

42
Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship that sense of belonging, social
support, and psychological well-being has on the intention to persist in higher education among
student mothers enrolled in higher education institutions. This chapter will be a discussion of the
main findings of this research study. Additionally, this chapter will discuss implications for
practice, discuss limitations of the study, and will conclude with recommendations for future
studies.
Discussion of Significant Correlations
The correlational analyses showed significant relationships among the key study
variables. Specifically, students’ GPA was correlated with sense of belonging and psychological
well-being. Research demonstrates that a strong sense of belonging on campus and psychological
well-being has been found to positively influence academic success in accomplishing goals
(Hurtado & Carter, 1997; O’Keefe, 2013, Stecker, 2004, Tovar et al., 2009). A sense of
belonging on campus can be cultivated through participation in activities on campus as well as
through the development of faculty relationships (Johnson et al., 2007; Komarraju, 2010; Myers,
2004; O’Keeffe, 2013). The cultivation of a sense of belonging through relationships has
demonstrated that as students feel more socially and academically connected to the academic
institution, academic success occurs (O’Keefe, 2013). Psychological well-being influences how
students are able to manage the stressors that they feel in their academic programs. Stress is
inevitable, but students are able to use coping mechanisms to manage; positive coping
mechanisms have been found to positively influence overall academic performance (Hunt &
Eisenberg, 2010).

43
Additionally, students’ intent to persist was correlated with psychological well-being. As
mentioned above, psychological well-being influences how students manage academic stressors
and utilize positive or negative coping skills to accomplish tasks. Students who continuously
utilize positive coping strategies have been found to have a higher intention to persist in their
academic endeavors (Stecker, 2004).
Discussion of Research Questions
The findings of the research questions for this study did not find any significance. In prior
research for this study, the variables chosen did find significance in their findings. The sample
size of student mothers for this study was low and limited. Data gathering for this study began as
a global pandemic altered how jobs and specifically education was conducted. There was a
societal shift to working from home and/or students began to conduct their education remotely.
One of the survey questions asked student mothers to identify a barrier to their success in
their educational pursuits and the COVID-19 pandemic was listed numerous times in addition
with time constraints. The gathering of the data during a global pandemic has a probable cause in
influencing participation in the survey as other demographic differences in student mothers
shifted during the pandemic.
Additionally, the method of data collection, convenience sampling, was the primary
method of gathering data. Word of mouth and connection to the University of Southern
California made up a majority of the participants. A different method of data collection could
have produced a larger and diverse sample size.
Implications for Practice
While there were no significant findings from the survey data, student mothers
additionally were asked open ended questions regarding the sources of support they were able to

44
access to benefit their academic journey. Thirty six percent of student mothers described
financial support as a contributor to their progress in their academic programs. Financial support
was described as spouse income, grants, and scholarships from university or employment. When
looking at the responses in barriers experienced by student mothers lack of financial support was
a frequent response. This finding has significance for higher education institutions as this can
provide insight on how better to serve student mothers juggling multiple responsibilities This
provides additional context to higher education institutions of the need for increased financial
resources to student mothers whether for acquiring reliable childcare or taking into consideration
the added expenses of caring for dependents while pursuing academic goals. While this study did
not capture whether the offering of financial support would impact the completion of the
academic program, past research does support that implication (Liss et al., 2012; Lynch, 2008)
Additionally, sixty seven percent of student mothers described emotional/social support
as a contributor to their progress in their academic programs. Student mothers listed a variety of
social support including spouse, parents, childcare centers, colleagues in the program, and
friends. The findings from the correlational analysis demonstrated the positive impact faculty
support have on developing a sense of belonging on campus. This is an indication to higher
education institutions of the need to facilitate faculty relationships whether through mentorship
programs identified for student mothers or providing opportunities to access faculty that would
best benefit student mothers through their academic journey.
Additionally, student mothers described the social support as having reliable care to
watch their child(ren) while attending to academic responsibilities. This study was not able to
capture whether social/emotional support impacted a sense of belonging in academic programs
through the research questions; however, the open-ended questions provided insight into how

45
this support can be a contributor to feeling supported. This again is an indication to higher
education institutions of the need to support access to reliable childcare whether through
financial assistance or access on campus to encourage the facilitation of sense of belonging on
campus and best benefit student mothers pursuing academic goals.
Limitations of the Study
This study had limitations that should be taken into consideration, including issues of
study design and sample size. Firstly, in regard to the study design, student mothers were
recruited using a convenience sampling method. The researcher invited student mothers from
classes in EdD programs as well as asking networks of mothers to reach out to participants who
also would fit the requirements. The researcher used a network at the University of Southern
California in the School of Social Work and School of Public Health to gather participants for
this survey. A more robust sampling method would have been a random sample of student
mothers who met the parameters of the study. Additionally, this study had a small sample of
participants and a larger sample could contribute to a more robust study.
Directions for Future Research
Future research should further examine the relationship that sense of belonging, social
support, and psychological well-being has on the intention to persist in higher education among
student mothers enrolled in higher education institutions. While this study was not able to find
significance, student mothers continue to be a growing population in higher education
institutions and therefore would benefit from finding out more of what contributes to their
success in their academic programs. The limitations of this study as well as the timing of when
the study was conducted, during the COVID 19 pandemic may have influenced the ability to

46
participate in this survey due to time constraints or the unidentified consequences of being a
student mother during a global pandemic.
Additionally, it would be of interest to examine the relationship between being in an
academic program, juggling parenting and work responsibilities, while experiencing the COVID
19 pandemic. It was a noted phenomenon in the open-ended responses of an identified barrier
experienced by student mothers at the time of taking this survey. One significant factor of the
COVID 19 pandemic was that it made education switch from in person offering to online and it
would be interesting to see how that impact if any did it have on continuance in pursuit of
academic goals.
The data collected for this study demonstrated that while the research questions were not
supported, information was able to be gathered through the responses from the open-ended
questions. A future study may want to combine self-reported surveys with interviews to provide
more of an understanding of the participants and their academic journey as student mothers
(Creswell, 2014).
Lastly, the responses from the open-ended questions sparked curiosity in regard to how
single parent households juggled their roles as student mothers. A future study may want to
explore the relationship between social support and sense of belonging among this subpopulation
of student mothers.
Conclusion
The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between sense of belonging, social
support, and psychological well-being on the intention to persist in academic goals among
student mothers. While this study did not find significant findings, this is a student population
that continues to grow and will impact higher education institutions. Therefore, higher education

47
institutions and educators who wish to support academic success of student mothers are
encouraged to gain a stronger understanding of what factors influence academic success and how
they may be applied into improving practices.

48
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Appendix A: Survey Consent Form

Information and Consent Form

You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Veronica Eyo, M. S., and Ruth H.
Chung, Ph.D., from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California.
The results will contribute to the completion of Veronica Eyo’s doctoral dissertation. You were
selected as a possible participant in this study because you self-identify as a student mother.
Your participation is voluntary.

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Ruth Chung,
Ph.D. at rchung@usc.edu, or Veronica Eyo, M.S. at eyo@usc.edu.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to explore factors that may influence the academic performance and
persistence in student mothers currently attending higher education institutions. This study hopes
to expand on literature on student mothers and provide additional knowledge as to what are the
contributing factors to their success in higher education.

PROCEDURES
You are asked to complete the following online questionnaire that will take about 10-15 minutes
to complete. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to. You will not be able to
save progress and return to the website to complete the survey. Please complete the survey in one
sitting.
However, you can choose not to answer specific questions or to end your participation without
penalty.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
By participating in this survey, you are eligible to enter a raffle to win one of three $25
Amazon.com gift certificate. In order to participate in the raffle, you will need to provide your
name and e-mail address at the end of the survey, which will be stored separately from your
survey responses. You will be notified at the e-mail address you provide if you are chosen as a
raffle winner.

STATEMENT BY PERSON AGREEING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY
I have read this informed consent. I understand each part of the document, all my questions have
been answered, and I freely and voluntarily choose to participate in this study.

55
Appendix B: Survey Demographic Questions

Please provide the following information:
1. What is your age?

2. How many children do you have and what are their ages?

3. What is your major of study?

4. What is your best estimate of your household income?
1. ____less than $25,000 ____$75,001-100,000
2. ____$25,001-50,000 ____$100,001-150,000
3. ____$50,000-75,000 ____Over $150,000
5. What is your cumulative GPA?

6. Which race/ethnicity best describes you? (Please choose only one)
American Indian or Alaskan Native Hispanic or Latinx (not White)
Asian/Pacific Islander White/Caucasian
Black or African American Multiple ethnicity/Other (please
specify)
7. Which best describes your partner type?
Married Separated
Widowed Never married
Divorced

8. Which of the following categories best describes your current degree level?
Undergraduate Degree Doctoral Degree
Master’s Degree Graduated
9. Which is your student status?
Full time Part time
10. What are your sources of support? Please check all that apply
Family Daycare
Friends Online parenting support networks
Paid in Home Care
11. Which of the following resources do you access to attend school?
Lactation Room Childcare

56

12. Which of the following describes how you attend school?
Online Hybrid (Online & On Campus)
On Campus
13. What are the barriers to continuing and doing well in school?

14. How did you hear about this survey?

57
Appendix C: Intent to Persist

1=Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Somewhat Disagree 4=Somewhat Agree 5=Agree
6 = Strongly Agree

Please answer the following questions from your perspective as a student mother:
1. I will continue to take courses at [university name] until I earn a degree.
2. I have thoughts about leaving [university name] prior to earning my degree.
3. I intend to earn a degree from [university name].
4. Sometimes I think about dropping out.
5. It is likely that I will re-enroll at [university name] next semester. (If you are graduating
after this semester, leave blank)

58
Appendix D: Social Provisions Scale

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4

Please answer the following questions from your perspective as a student mother:

1. There are people I can depend on to help me if I really need it
2. I feel that I do not have close relationships with other people
3. There is no one I can turn to for guidance in times of stress
4. There are people who depend on me for help
5. There are people who enjoy the same social activities I do
6. Other people do not view me as competent
7. I feel personally responsible for the well-being of another person
8. I feel part of a group of people who share my attitudes and beliefs
9. I do not think other people respect my skills and abilities
10. If something went wrong, no one would come to my assistance.
11. I have close relationships that provide me with a sense of emotional security and well-being
12. There is someone I could talk to about important decisions in my life
13. I have relationships where my competence and skill are recognized
14. There is no one who shares my interests and concerns
15. There is no one who really relies on me for their well-being
16. There is a trustworthy person I could turn to for advice if I were having problems
17. I feel a strong emotional bond with at least one other person
18. There is no one I can depend on for aid if I really need it
19. There is no one I feel comfortable talking about problems with
20. There are people who admire my talents and abilities
21. I lack a feeling of intimacy with another person
22. There is no one who likes to do the things I do
23. There are people who I can on in an emergency
24. No one needs me to care for them

59
Appendix E: Sense of Belonging Scale

Completely Untrue Mostly Untrue Equally True and Untrue Mostly True Completely True
1 2 3 4 5

Please answer the following questions from your perspective as a student mother:

Perceived Isolation
1. It is difficult to meet other students in class
2. No one in my classes knows anything personal about me
3. I rarely talk to other students in my class
4. I know very few people in my class

Perceived Faculty Support
5. I feel comfortable talking about a problem with faculty
6. I feel comfortable asking a teacher for help if I do not understand course-related material
7. I feel that a faculty member would be sensitive to my difficulties if I shared them
8. I feel comfortable socializing with a faculty member outside of class
9. I feel that a faculty member would be sympathetic if I was upset.
10. I feel that a faculty member would take the time to talk to me if I needed help
11. If I had a reason, I would feel comfortable seeking help from a faculty member outside of
class time (office hours etc.)
12. I feel comfortable seeking help from a teacher before or after class
13. I feel that a faculty member really tried to understand my problem when I talked about it
14. I feel comfortable asking a teacher for help with a personal problem

60
Appendix F: Psychological Well-Being

Instructions: Circle one response below each statement to indicate how much you agree or
disagree. Please answer the following questions from your perspective as a student mother:

1. “I like most parts of my personality.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
2. “When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out so
far.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
3. “Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
4. “The demands of everyday life often get me down.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
5. “In many ways I feel disappointed about my achievements in life.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
6. “Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
7. “I live life one day at a time and don't really think about the future.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
8. “In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree

61
9. “I am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
10. “I sometimes feel as if I've done all there is to do in life.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
11. “For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
12. “I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how I think about myself and
the world.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
13. “People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
14. “I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
15. “I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
16. “I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
17. “I have confidence in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way most
other people think.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree

62
18. “I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is
important.”
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
A little
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
A little
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree

Abstract (if available)

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Eyo, Veronica (author)

Core Title Mama learns: examining factors that influence intent to persist in student mothers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/04/2021

Defense Date 01/15/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag GPA,intent to persist,mother,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychological well-being,sense of belonging,social support,student

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Andres, Mary (committee member), Jauregui, Yolanda (committee member)

Creator Email eyo@usc.edu,veronicaeyolcsw@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-419228

Unique identifier UC11666652

Identifier etd-EyoVeronic-9262.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-419228 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-EyoVeronic-9262.pdf

Dmrecord 419228

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Eyo, Veronica

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA