Barriers encountered by women entering K-12 headships in California private schools

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Content Running head: BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 1
Copyright 2020
Barriers Encountered by Women Entering K-12 Headships
in California Private Schools
by
Sarina Fierro
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Sarina Fierro
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge and thank my dissertation chair and professor, Dr. Rudy
Castruita, who provided me with the steady guidance, encouragement, and confidence to
progress through this vigorous dissertation process. The writing and completion of this
dissertation would not have been possible without Dr. Castruita's support and championship. I
am eternally grateful for the opportunity to work with such an authentic and loyal mentor.
Dr. Castruita has forever altered my lens of leadership for the better, and I am thankful for every
moment I spent under his tuition.
It is with utmost respect and deep appreciation that I acknowledge and thank my
dissertation committee members, Dr. Larry Picus and Dr. Artineh Samkian. This dissertation
would not have been possible without their inspiration and guidance. Thank you for giving me
your time, patience, and gifted mentorship. Special acknowledgement is expressed for Marie
Painter for her expedient editing, which brought this dissertation to life.
It is with admiration and gratitude that I thank Dr. Meera Ratnesar, the most inspiring
head of school, for her unparalleled confidence and faithful cheerleading of my endeavors in
leadership; without her support, none of this would have been possible!
I would like to express deep affection and gratitude for my BABs: Tamara Quinn,
Gricelda Espinoza, and Susana Santa Cruz. They are pillars of trust and camaraderie. I am
tremendously thankful for their collective strength, spirit, and sense of humor!
2
I am honored to recognize my incredibly patient, caring, and supportive husband, Angelo
Fierro, who tirelessly listened to my laments over unforeseen challenges, cheered for me when I
grew weary, and helped shuttle our beautiful daughter around town when I couldn't. Moreover, I
am deeply appreciative of our daughter, Isabella, whose patience was stretched far more than
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 3
anyone's, as she competed regularly for attention with mommy's 'college work.' Izzy, all of this
hard work is for you.
Lastly, I am most privileged and grateful for the 26 anonymous heads of school who
assisted in the data collection for this research by contributing to the survey, and for the five
heads of school who bravely shared their stories and experiences in the interviews. The
information obtained from their participation will forever inspire and motivate me to be more
like they are: courageous leaders and agents of change.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Angelo, and our daughter, Isabella Mia.
Their everlasting encouragement and unconditional love allowed me to commit countless hours,
beyond my work responsibilities and my role as mother and wife, toward this accomplishment.
Thank you for stepping-up and taking on our priorities so I could focus on my studies. Your
compassion and strength gives me the confidence to take on my next act. This dedication is all
for you!
4
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 5
Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 12
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ................................................................................. 13
Background of the Problem ......................................................................................... 19
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 20
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 21
Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 21
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 21
Application of Theory .................................................................................................. 22
Limitations and Delimitations ...................................................................................... 23
Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 23
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................ 24
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature .................................................................................. .25
Demographics .............................................................................................................. 25
Historical Perspective .................................................................................................. 27
Discrimination Patterns: Women in Educational Leadership ................................ 27
Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliffs ............................................................................... 29
Surviving the Head-of-School Role ....................................................................... 31
Common Characteristics .............................................................................................. 33
Ways Women Lead: The Female Leadership Advantage ....................................... 34
Trait-based Perspective of Leadership ................................................................... 36
Independent School Culture and Organizational Structures .................................. 39
Career Mobility for Women in Independent School Leadership ................................ .40
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 6
Career Moves within a Labyrinth: Female Leaders in the Pipeline ...................... .40
Gendered Leadership in Private School Culture ................................................... .43
Barriers to Mobility ................................................................................................ 44
The Gatekeepers: Boards of Trustees in Independent Schools ................................... .48
Hiring ..................................................................................................................... 50
Succession Practices and Improvements ............................................................... 52
Head-of-School Search Consultants ...................................................................... 56
Feminist Perspective and Attitude Theory ................................................................... 57
Feminist Theory ..................................................................................................... 5 8
Feminist Perspective .............................................................................................. 58
Attitude Theory ...................................................................................................... 59
Where Are We Today? ................................................................................................. 59
National Reports on School Leadership ................................................................ 59
Studies Specific to California ................................................................................ 61
Implications of Research ........................................................................................ 61
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 3: Methods ............................................................................................................ 63
Sample and Population ................................................................................................ 64
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................ 65
Quantitative Instrument ......................................................................................... 66
Qualitative Instrument ........................................................................................... 67
Reliability and Validity .......................................................................................... 68
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 69
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 7
Data Collection Procedures .......................................................................................... 70
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 71
Sununary ...................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter 4: Research Results and Findings ......................................................................... 74
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 74
Presentation of Findings .............................................................................................. 76
Organization of Data Analysis ..................................................................................... 78
Descriptive Characteristics .......................................................................................... 79
Survey Participants ................................................................................................ 79
Interview Participants ............................................................................................ 79
Research Question 1 .................................................................................................... 80
Findings for Research Question 1: Survey Participants Analysis .......................... 81
Findings for Research Question 1: Interview Analysis .......................................... 82
Managing Emotions ......................................................................................... 82
Handling Budget and Finance .......................................................................... 83
Having Business and Political Savvy .............................................................. 85
Sununary of Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................... 86
Research Question la ................................................................................................... 87
Findings for Research Question 1 a: Survey Participants Analysis ........................ 88
Findings for Research Question la: Interview Analysis ........................................ 89
Assumptions about Women and Family Life ................................................... 89
Fraternity Culture ............................................................................................. 92
Sununary of Findings for Research Question la ................................................... 94
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 8
Research Question 1 b .................................................................................................. 96
Findings: Survey Participants Analysis ................................................................. 96
Findings for Research Question 1 b: Interview Analysis ........................................ 97
The Confidence Gap .............................................................................................. 97
Summary of Findings for Research Question lb ................................................... 99
Research Question 2 .................................................................................................... 99
Findings for Research Question 2: Survey Participants Analysis ........................ 100
Findings for Research Question 2: Interview Analysis ........................................ 101
Be Outwardly Supportive in the Community ...................................................... 101
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 ................................................... 103
Discussion and Chapter Summary ............................................................................. 103
Chapter 5: Conclusions .................................................................................................... 106
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 107
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................. 107
Research Question 1 : Barriers ............................................................................. 108
Research Question 1 a: Hiring .............................................................................. 108
Research Question 1 b: Self-Imposed Barriers ..................................................... 109
Research Question 2: Board of Trustees' Role in Head's Success ...................... 110
Implications for Practice ............................................................................................ 110
Future Research ......................................................................................................... 112
Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................. 113
Ref erences ........................................................................................................................ 114
Tables ............................................................................................................................... 131
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 9
Figures .............................................................................................................................. 136
Appendix A: Introductory Letter .................................................................................... 144
Appendix B: Survey ......................................................................................................... 145
Appendix C: Recruitment Request .................................................................................. 152
Appendix D: Interview Protocol ...................................................................................... 15 3
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 10
List of Tables
Table 1: Survey and interview selection criteria of female heads of school.. .................. 131
Table 2: Survey design ..................................................................................................... 132
Table 3: Likert scales in survey design ............................................................................ 13 3
Table 4: Barriers indicated in the highest mean range ..................................................... 134
Table 5: Number of female heads reporting gendered questioning during
their hiring process ............................................................................................. 13 5
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
List of Figures
Figure A: Independent school heads by gender, 2017-2018 ............................................ 136
Figure B: Triangulation of the data .................................................................................. 137
Figure C: Conceptual fr amework ..................................................................................... 138
Figure D: Extent to which discriminatory hiring/promotional practices
are a problem in limiting the head-of-school career opportunity
fo r women ........................................................................................................ 139
Figure E: Degree of stress female heads perceive about the position prior
to acquisition ................................................................................................... 140
Figure F: Conceptual framework 2. 0 ............................................................................... 141
Figure G: Female heads' perceptions about gendered evaluation practices .................... 142
Figure H: Female heads' perceptions about trustees' ability to develop a female
head of school .................................................................................................. 143
11
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 12
Abstract
This study explored the barriers women face when attempting to achieve and maintain the head
of-school position in California independent schools. The following research questions guided
this study: (1) What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to
obtain a position as a head of school? (1 a) How does private school culture reproduce a
gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process? (1 b) What are the self-imposed
barriers women place on themselves when attempting to access a head-of-school position? (2)
What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their success in
the head-of-school position? The methodology for this study was a mixed-methods design.
There were quantitative and qualitative data collected and analyzed. Surveys were sent to 41
female heads of school in California. From the 26 surveys returned, five heads of school were
selected from the volunteers, for one-on-one interviews. This study informs the practice of
aspiring female heads of school by shedding light on the aggregated data which indicated major
barriers to accessing the position, and which pointed to the significance of self -imposed barriers
on women's success. This study informs the hiring practices of independent school 'search
committees' by illuminating the data collected on the inaccurate assumptions made ( e.g. during
interviews) about a female candidate's perceived lack of balance between familial
responsibilities and a head-of-school position, and by pointing out the subconsciously-gendered
perceptions search committees possess as a result of the historic origination of the private school
headmaster. This study informs the practice of private school boards of trustees by pointing to
the data on what role the board of trustees plays in the success of female heads of school.
Keywords: Assumptions, Barriers, Board of Trustees, California Independent Schools,
Female Heads of School, Gendered Perceptions, Head-of-school Position, Hiring Practices,
Private School Culture, Self-Imposed Barriers
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 13
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
In a time of increasing school choice, paired with monetary supports like financial aid,
voucher systems, and scholarships, independent schools are becoming a more viable option for
families (Nechyba, 2000). Unlike public schools, independent schools have the ability to operate
under a unique and specific mission and philosophy, where learning objectives and goals are
established by the administration at the school. In an independent school, the board of trustees
has the fiduciary responsibility for the financial reporting of the school, the moral duty to uphold
the integrity of the school's mission, and the operational responsibility of hiring and evaluating
the head of school (National Association oflndependent Schools, NAIS, 2010).
The head of school is the chief leader in an independent school and is accountable for all
major decisions affecting the school and all its constituents. The responsibilities of the head of
school are far reaching, and can include duties such as budgeting, fundraising, admissions, and
outplacement; human resources; program development; community outreach; work with the
board of trustees; and legal matters. As a 21st century instructional leader, the head of school is
charged by the board of trustees with the job of not only stewarding the school's mission, but
also of maintaining the school's viability and relevancy in a 21st century independent school
milieu situated in today's fluctuating economic climate (Melvoin & Thompson, 2005 ). Heads of
school are more involved now, than they were in 2002, in managing the school's overall financial
health, strategic planning, and fundraising. In fact, current heads of school report that in addition
to having a strong mentor and prior administrative experience, that background in financial
management is essential for their success as head of school (NAIS, 2010).
The head-of-school role is different than that of a public school principal or a
superintendent. It exists in more hybrid terms: the head of school is both superintendent and
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 14
school principal. The role of a head of school is multi-faceted and primarily consists of
providing vision and leadership, managing the school's climate and values, and working with the
board of trustees (NAIS, 2010). On a daily basis, commitments can range from establishing
policies, fundraising, strategic planning, and working with parents and families, to greeting
students at drop-off, leading focus groups, attending student performances, and occasionally,
teaching lessons. As we look at 21st century leadership, multiple stakeholders are wondering if
the role of head of school is sustainable to producing long-term headships (Melvoin &
Thompson, 2005 ). School communities crave consistency, momentum, and more than just a
short-term commitment from a head of school. Boards of trustees are in a central position to
attract leaders of both a high caliber of experience and a high quality of character for our
independent schools. But, are we searching for, encouraging, and supporting the right kind of
people into headships in California independent schools?
As of 2009, the National Association oflndependent Schools (NAIS, 2010) reported that
67% of head-of-school applicants are male. There are 228 member schools in the California
Association oflndependent Schools (CAIS, 2018). In the 2017-18 school year, less than half
( only 90!) of those schools were led by female sitting heads. Recent data from the 2009 National
Association of Independent Schools School Leadership Survey indicated that the pool of women
seeking head-of-school positions is large. So, why are these women not being hired as readily as
their male counterparts for head-of-school positions? Feibelman and Haakmat (2010) posed the
question: Is it because independent schools traditionally prefer a male-gendered style of
leadership? Even today, a female applicant is still considered a 'non-traditional candidate.' Is
there a perception that this is 'men's work'?
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 15
It is perplexing that there are so many women in senior administration in independent
schools, however, so few achieve the position of head of school. In 2010, the National
Association of Independent Schools released its Report of Survey Research about school heads
and administrators. The research found that women tend to fill the majority of the leadership
positions in schools, such as, department heads, division heads, or academic deans, yet women
only make up a third of sitting heads. This evidence suggested that the pipelines are filled with
female leaders who demonstrate their executive leadership capacity on a daily basis at their
independent schools (Feibelman, 2013). These women are primed for the position of head of
school. As of 2009, the heads of independent schools are overwhelmingly Caucasian, male, and
in their 50s; and, little has changed since the 2002 NAIS leadership survey (NAIS, 2010). In
2009, 79% of sitting heads reported to the National Association of lndependent Schools (2010)
that one of the reasons more women are not in head-of-school positions is because there is
reluctance on the side of search committees to hire non-traditional candidates.
In 2010, NAIS forecasted that in the next decade there would be a shortage of applicants
for head-of-school positions. There is evidence of an aging population of sitting heads of school
(NAIS, 2010). This information provides an opportunity to investigate the role itself and the
barriers independent school culture places on the position for women (Pernambuco- Wise, 2014 ).
It is also worth considering the types of pressures women feel obstruct their access to headship
the most, as well as, which pressures hinder their ability to remain in the position, once
achieved. As independent schools face large-scale leadership transitions, beginning in 2020, we
must address the perceptions about the head-of-school role (Pernambuco-Wise, 2014) and the
barriers to the participation of women in the head-of-school leadership position.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 16
Among past participants from the NAIS Aspiring Heads Fellows program who decided
not to pursue headships, over half reported "family commitments" as the main reason for
deciding not to pursue a headship. This statistic calls into question: are the perceived stresses
and demands of the head-of-school role one of the factors affecting the pipeline for women? As
the job of a 21st century head of school changes, the National Association of Independent
Schools (2010) reported that the perceived stresses are greater than the actual stresses reported.
It is important to consider that those reports are coming predominantly from male heads, whose
personal responsibilities may not also include child rearing. It is also important to note that of
the sitting heads surveyed in 2009, men and women perceive different aspects of their roles as
demanding, and furthermore, different aspects of their role as their primary duty.
The process of head-of-school succession is not widely studied and little is known about
the women who choose senior leadership as a career path. There is limited information that
exists about women pursuing school leadership positions in independent schools and the
potential barriers and gendered perceptions about leadership that they face in doing so. The
National Association oflndependent Schools (2010) has communicated an urgent need for
schools to improve their search protocols and succession practices for the head-of-school
position, as well as, a desperate call for schools to focus on the barriers affecting women's
participation in head searches. As school heads retire in growing numbers, the National
Association of Independent Schools recognized this as a potential crisis looming for independent
schools. There is no clear reason why women should not be considered for the large majority of
head-of-school vacancies that are on the rise. Since 2002, the number of female sitting heads has
not increased beyond 31 % of the National Association oflndependent Schools' member schools
(NAIS, 2010).
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 17
More recently, there is a growing body of qualitative research on the strategies female
educators utilize and/or seek out to gain access to formal leadership positions in schools. In a
2013 research study, Feibelman examined the gendered nature of leadership roles in independent
schools, the disproportionate rate that women achieve head-of-school positions, and the cultural
contexts that inform women's preparation for leadership positions in independent schools.
Feibelman's (20 13) research further contributes to the growing discourse regarding the role that
gender plays in the normalization of independent school leadership. According to Feibelman,
there is the presence of a "new boys club" that supports the continuation of a disproportionate
number of women effectively making it through the mainline, into becoming heads of school.
In a grounded theory study conducted in 2011, Pernambuco-Wise investigated the
relationships that affect the attainment and sustainment of women in head-of-school
positions. Pernambuco-Wise (2011) explored the theory that women must prove 'beyond a
doubt' that they are highly competent in all aspects of headship and that their preparation for
leadership is perfectly aligned, in order to be considered for a private school headship alongside
their, often times less prepared or qualified, male colleagues. Furthermore, Pernambuco-Wise
analyzed the phenomena of being a female head of school with the hopes of providing results
that are informative for current and aspiring female heads and for those who hire them.
In 201 7, a study conducted by Gallagher produced results pointing to some of the biggest
barriers to women assuming head-of-school leadership positions in California independent
schools. Gallagher (2017) studied 10 female administrators working in CAIS accredited schools.
The participants strongly indicated that the barriers to their leadership as women were strongly
influenced by their perception that independent schools have a gendered expectation of
leadership, and are even more run like businesses. In Gallagher's study, women reported a
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 18
preference for a more collaborative leadership approach and are unclear about what that looks
like when working with independent school boards. Gallagher's research pushed deeper by
exploring whether the culture of independent schools has influenced the under-representation of
women in head-of-school positions; and, whether women are contributing to the structure via
their perception of the barriers.
The researcher believes this study is important and valuable to the women who
contemplate entering head-of-school positions and to those who are already in positions and seek
support to remain successful in head-of-school positions. The gaps in the research reveal a need
for more information about, what contributes to the phenomena of male-dominated school
headships; what women perceive to be the current barriers to pursuing, achieving, and
succeeding in head-of-school positions; and, what role independent school trustees pl
ay
in the
success of a female head of school.
This research will contribute several conclusions to the field of female leadership in
independent schools. This study will uncover the perceived major barriers women encounter
when attempting to achieve the head-of-school position; identify the ways independent school
culture reproduces a gendered perception of leadership (Feibelman & Haakmat, 2010) during the
hiring process; examine the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting
to achieve a head-of-school position; and explore the belief s of female heads of school regarding
the role the board of trustees plays in their success (Schechtman, 2004). Overall, this dissertation
examined the role that gender plays in the promotion of women into headship positions in
California independent schools.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 19
Backgr ound of the Problem
Workforce turnover is a natural part of any organization; however, schools are unique,
complex organizations where chronic, seemingly arbitrary changes can potentially disrupt morale
and climate (Glendinning & Hoffman, 2010). In 2013, the NCES reported that 38% of school
principals retired and 20% of public school principals are leaving their positions each year. Two
contributors to the acceleration of principal succession, making it problematic for public and
private schools, alike, are the aging of the baby boom generation and the growing unpopularity
of school leadership as a career path (Mason, 2015 ).
Despite the fact that almost 80 % of school administrators are women (NAIS, 2010), only
one-third of independent schools are led by women. There is a gender imbalance in the
representation of females in the head-of-school role. The phenomena demands exploration
because the pipelines are full of qualified women. Equal access to head-of-school positions can
be improved, and boards pl
ay
a large role in making the improvements a reality. Although
search committees and private consulting firms are initiating programs to identify, recruit, and
prepare future leaders, we cannot assure success for women unless we discern the factors that are
producing barriers for them. Until school boards of trustees stop referring to women as
"untraditional candidates," training is necessary for head search committees. Independent school
culture is steeped in tradition and age-old routines that influence a gendered perception of
leadership (Feibelman & Haakmat, 2010; Pernambuco-Wise, 2014). This study aimed to explore
those perceptions and how it contributed to women's equal access into school leadership. There
is much to consider on this topic, as it is a growing area of curiosity and examination.
There is ample evidence that barriers such as gender discrimination and societal bias are
staving off women from rising to school leadership positions. In addition to these barriers, there
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 20
is evidence that suggests women may not be pursuing head-of-school positions because of
perceived barriers (Pernambuco-Wise, 2014). The existing body of research about women in
school leadership focuses on public school principals and superintendents. This research adds to
the body of knowledge about women and their pursuit of the head-of-school position, focusing
on California Association of Independent Schools member schools.
Statement of the Problem
According to the National Association oflndependent Schools (2010) 2009 leadership
study, 80 % of women hold positions of leadership at independent schools; however, only a third
hold the position of head of school. The research indicated that the pipelines are full of
qualified, experienced female educators. Why are more women not in the highest leadership
positions in our independent schools? The literature suggested that independent school culture
fosters a gendered style of leadership, preferably male (Gallagher, 2017), and that boards of
trustees consider female candidates as "non-traditional" (Pernambuco-Wise, 2011 ). Moreover,
the growing number of accomplished women who could be applying to head-of-school open
positions are hesitant due to their perception that the head-of-school role does not provide
balance for family life (NAIS, 2010).
The focus of this study was to explore the barriers, self-imposed or otherwise, that
women in California face when seeking and maintaining head-of-school positions in independent
schools. There are multiple problems with the lack of access women have to the head-of-school
position (Scott, 1997), and few speculations exist as to why the barriers continue to occur. The
purpose of this study was to explore the lack of access problem for women in achieving the
head-of-school position, focusing on the 228 independent schools in California.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 21
Pur pose of the Study
The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the barriers that women encounter when
pursuing access to and retaining the head-of-school position in California independent schools.
The intent of this study was to enlighten boards of trustees by providing information about the
barriers female colleagues have faced in their pursuit of senior leadership and to shed light on
this problem so that boards of trustees can understand how women are uniquely skilled in the
head-of-school role and are valuable to the success of schools. Another advantage of this study
is to encourage and support female leaders as they pursue head-of-school positions so that they
may be equipped in 21st century leadership successions.
Resear ch Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to obtain
a position as a head of school?
1 a. How does private school culture reproduce a gendered perception of leadership
during the hiring process?
1 b. What are the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting to
access a head-of-school position?
2. What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their
success in the head-of-school position?
Signific ance of the Study
Female school leaders are underrepresented in independent schools (NAIS, 2010). This
study aimed to research the broader problem of career barriers that prevent female leaders from
accessing the top positions in educational leadership. The significance of this study was to
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 22
enhance the body of scholarly research about the barriers women face, self-imposed or
otherwise, as they pursue positions as head of school in California independent schools. An area
overlooked by past studies, is the significant implications in boards of trustees as gatekeepers to
the head-of-school position, as well as, the role of the board of trustees in the success of female
school heads. There are gaps in the data collected on the number of female leaders who apply
for head-of-school positions, measured against those who achieve attainment (Clifford, 2012).
This study addressed the deficiencies in the literature to understand how independent
school culture fosters a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process, and to
produce data on the perceived major barriers female heads of school report when attempting to
achieve a head-of-school position. The objective is that boards of trustees will understand how
to make improvements to the hiring process so that female leaders are seen for the strengths they
bring to the role, and how to support female heads of school. At a time of record high succession
rates, there is an opportunity to learn and to improve the practices of head selection (NAIS,
2010). Independent schools and students will benefit from a more equitable process of pursuing
and maintaining qualified heads of school.
Appl ication of Theory
The theoretical lens used to guide the study was the application of attitude theory,
developed by Eagly and Chaiken (1 993), used to study consumer preferences and behaviors.
Attitude theory indicates that leadership perceptions are determinants of the reactions to the
leadership process. The application of theory and research into attitudes is a useful framework
for understanding leadership perceptions and therefore, ultimately, leadership effectiveness (Lee,
Martin, Thomas, Guillaume, Maio, 2015 ). Concurrently, as the researcher explored the barriers
female leaders faced during career mobility, the researcher applied a feminist perspective to
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
shape the study and to explain why these problems of access continue to occur for women in
independent schools.
Limi tations and Delimitatio ns
23
The limitations of this study were that it is exploring one type of female leader in
California independent schools: Those women who attained a head-of-school position in
California in the last 10 years. Since the study reviewed only women who attained positions in
California, it limited the generalizability of the results to the state and to private schools. In
addition, limitations were present in the time allotted and the small sample of women self
reporting data.
The delimitations of the study were limited to four areas: the gender of Heads of School
(women), the type of institutions (independent schools), the geographic region (California), and
the number of female heads of school surveyed and interviewed.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
•
Attitude Theo ry: Feelings, as well as beliefs, about assertions, and the evidence that
influences intentions and behaviors (Nolder & Kadous, 2018).
•
Baby Roomers: The demographic cohort born between 1946 and 1964; the post-war
population noticeably increased by what is referred to as a 'baby boom' (Dimock, 2019).
•
Feminist The ory: To examine and understand the nature of gender inequality (Butler,
1988; Campbell & Wasco, 2000).
•
Head of School: The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the school (NAIS, 2010).
•
Head Search Consultant: Someone hired by the school board to manage the process of
searching for, interviewing, and hiring candidates, to fill positions, usually at the
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 24
leadership level, at the school. Responsibilities may include: search committee training,
reference checks, and status updates (to school and to candidates) (NAIS, n. d. ).
•
Postmodern Feminist The ory: The theory that gender is socially constructed ( e. g.
'feminine' is only a reflection of what is constructed as masculine) (Butler, 1988).
•
School Search Committees: A small sub-committee of trustees (and, sometimes school
administrators) appointed by the board chair to devise and implement a search process
that is viewed as fair, orderly, inclusive, and confidential (NAIS, 2010).
•
Sitting Head: The current Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the school.
•
Succession Plann ing: The process of identifying and developing individuals to succeed to
senior positions in an organization (Conger & Fulmer, 2003)
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one was an overview of this study,
and described the background of the problem, the context in which the problem results from, and
provides the reason why it is important to conduct research on this topic. Chapter two includes a
review of the literature that is up-to-date and relates to my research questions. The chapter
concludes with comments of the literature review and why there is a need to support this
study. Next, chapter three is the methods section where the purpose of the study and research
questions are restated. The rationale for the type of method used, both quantitative and
qualitative will be discussed. Chapter four is an analysis of the data collected from the surveys
and interviews. Finally, chapter five concludes the study by providing a discussion of the
findings, implications, and recommendations for future research on the study of female heads of
California independent schools.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 25
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
Women are significantly underrepresented in the senior levels of the academic profession
(Bain & Cummings, 2000). Even in the field of education, where women occupy a large number
of the positions and roles, the higher the prestige of an institution, the lower the proportion of
professors or senior academics are women (Bain & Cummings, 2000). The intent of this study
was to apprise independent school trustees of the barriers female colleagues perceive to face in
their pursuit of senior leadership, and to shed light on this problem so that boards of trustees can
understand how women are uniquely skilled and valuable in the head-of-school role. Another
potential advantage of this study is to encourage and support female leaders as they pursue head
of-school positions so that they may be equipped in 21st century leadership successions.
Demographics
According to the U. S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau (2006), 46% of the total
US workforce is female. The independent school workforce demonstrates a similar trend with
the demographics it represents in its staff. The majority of faculty and administrative positions
in independent schools are filled by women; however, men continue to dominate the positions of
leadership at the top. Women only represent 33.5% of the head-of-school positions (NAIS,
2018) (see Figure A).
Independent schools differ tremendously in their purpose, philosophy, mission, culture,
and even in their organizational structure of leadership (NAIS, 2018). Independent schools are
also similar in many ways; specifically, in that they grapple with some of the same issues,
concerns, questions, and problems. Understanding the trends of the independent school
demographic is an important part of contemplating how to reimagine the future of school
leadership in the 21st century. For example, as specified by the National Association of
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Independent Schools in their 2018-2019 Trendbook (NAIS, 2018), sometimes trends present
opportunities, specifically, developing a stronger pipeline for women to enter leadership in
independent schools and diversifying the head-of-school search committees.
26
The Glass Ceiling Index continues to reveal that White men maintain dominance in
leadership positions, despite the fact that education is a female dominated field (Wolfers, 2015 ).
In the last two decades in the independent school world, there has been slow growth for White
women in achieving the head-of-school position. Independent schools have blind spots around
why women do not have access to the senior leadership position, and National Association of
Independent Schools (2010) undertook new research to establish the root causes for this
disparity. One of the findings pointed to a set of attributes that search committees desire
candidates to possess, one of those being, fit with the school culture; and, since, being a woman
indicates a diverse candidate to search committees, a women may not appear to be that family
member (NAIS, 2010). Just the same, the demographic outlook is changing in America, and
families are looking for independent schools that are diverse (NAIS, 2018).
The demographic outlook, as specified in the NAIS 2018-2019 Trendbook (NAIS, 2018),
brought to light the reality that Generation Z (born after 1996) are the most diverse in history,
driving the demographic change in America. Furthermore, having lived through dramatic
economic, political, and social change, Gen Z is very accepting of people's differences, and
because of their tech-infused upbringing will require that educational leaders take new
approaches to student teaching and learning. Although independent school enrollment remains
stable, families are progressively looking for schools that aspire to be flexible, collaborative, and
less siloed (NAIS, 2018).
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Histo ric al Perspective
There is a limited amount of empirical research into the lack of access for women in
achieving career mobility up the hierarchical ladder and into senior leadership positions in
schools. Up until recently, women did not have a voice to express their perceived or realized
barriers to leadership mobility. This is partially due to the fact that women have only recently
begun to achieve senior leadership positions in schools (Bain & Cummings, 2000).
Discrimination Patter ns: Women in Educational Leadershi p
27
In Fidell's (1970) quantitative study on gender discrimination in hiring practices, the
researcher's 155 survey respondents were asked to indicate the desirability of 10, young PhDs on
a scale of 1-7; next, indicate at what level they would be offered a position at the University; and
lastly, to rank order of the 10 candidates from 1-10. Fidell 's (1970) research demonstrated that
the level a PhD would be offered a position depends not only on their academic credentials, but,
also on the gender of the hypothetical candidate; the levels of appointment are higher for men
than for women; and furthermore, only men were offered the highest rankings. The data
produced out of Fidell's (1970) study added to the historical perspective of the discrimination
patterns of women and their career mobility.
In Weber, Feldman, and Poling's (1981) discussion piece on the underrepresentation of
women in educational administration, they focused on three areas which contribute to the
maldistribution of men and women in educational leadership: the conditioning of gender and
social roles (Osofsky, 1971); the competing demands between the roles of professional and
mother; and the discriminatory patterns in training, hiring, and promotion (Blanchard, 1976).
When the National Education Association (NEA) in 1973 examined the rates of promotion and
advancement, the data showed that male superintendents were unlikely to hire women as
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 28
principals, even when female candidates were older and had more than three times the teaching
experience than male candidates. Further, Taylor (1 973) pointed to a discriminatory practice
called cronyism, where men refer fellow male associates to jobs, further separating women from
access to word-of-mouth leadership opportunities.
In Estler's (1 975) review of relevant statistical data and survey of the literature, the
author revealed critical patterns which explained why women were not more highly represented
in leadership positions in education, at the time. Estler's findings supported the possible
existence of a discrimination model worldview that helped explain the underrepresentation of
women in educational administration. The discrimination model reflects that there is gender bias
acting in the administration of schools which limits the opportunities for women to reach the top
leadership positions (Estler, 1975). Estler noted that although women are the majority of
employees in education they are the minority in leadership, and their numbers decrease with each
step up the hierarchical ladder at the top (Estler, 197 5).
Others have pointed to the fact that men historically dominated the gatekeeping positions
to entry and advancement into leadership (Yeakey, Johnston, & Adkison, 1986), requiring the
need to legitimize the study of equity and produce rationale for the exclusion of equity concerns
from the dominant research paradigm in the study of school leadership. Historically, the most
powerful socializing agents were the nuclear family and schools, both systems ensured that
young girls rarely saw themselves as leaders, and if they did, understood that most organizations
would not except them in that way (Yeakey et al., 1986). Even with the social changes of the
past three decades, gender role stereotyping persists, along with gendered attributes of successful
school leadership. It was thought: women have jobs, men have careers (Acker, 1990).
Historically, the structure of educational careers assumed that men and women would approach
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 29
work with different orientations: teaching complements a woman's role as wife and mother, and
school leadership compliments a man's role as breadwinner and stable head of household
(Adkison, 198 1). If young women expressed an interest in school leadership, they risked
negative sanctions and difficulty establishing credibility and alliances with peers, especially as
there were a lack of role models and formal training opportunities for women (Adkison, 1981 ).
Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff s
As women continue to attempt to advance in the executive ranks of organizations,
evidence continues to point to a glass ceiling or barrier to upward career mobility (Johns, 2013).
According to the U. S. Glass Ceiling Commission (1 995), the concept glass ceiling refers to
"barriers to the advancement of women and minorities" (p. iii). A glass ceiling inequality
represents a gender difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the
employee; that is, greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome; in
the chances of advancement into higher levels; and, that increases over the course of a career
(Cotter, Hermsen, Ovadia, & Vanneman, 2001).
Many would say that the enormous growth in female entrepreneurs in the United States
can be attributed to a rigid corporate ceiling, squeezing women out to reimagine their careers and
nurture flatter organizations where female leaders encourage wider participation in decision
making and share information in webs of inclusion (Rosener, 1990). In fact, one primary
measure of transformational leadership called the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
reports results comparing men and women as managers; the survey revealed that female leaders
are rated as being more inspirational and more individually considerate than their male
counterparts (Bass, Avolio, & Atwater, 1996). Strong qualities in transformational leadership
make women more effective in the eyes of their followers, the very qualities that organizations
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 30
are validating as being essential for prosperity (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Women see the world as a
network of connections, where support and consensus are endeavored and confirmed (Gilligan,
1982). For the last 30 years, individuals have argued that it is time for the glass ceiling to shatter,
as it prevents organizations from the best use of their management potential (Torres, 2019).
On the other side of the glass ceiling is a hypothesis known as the glass cliff (Ryan &
Haslam, 2005 ), which argues that there are a unique set of undesirable circumstances whereby
women break through the glass ceiling directly into senior leadership positions, and yet
subjecting them to unfair evaluation. In an archival study by Haslam and Ryan (20 08), the glass
cliff phenomenon was investigated. The researchers examined the trend in appointments of
women to senior leadership positions in organizations experiencing a performance downturn,
such that the leadership position is risky and precarious, placing performance under close
scrutiny, and exposing female leaders to undue criticism, humiliation, and blame for the
organization's negative outcomes that were set in place well before their installation (Haslam &
Ryan, 2008). In 2008, Haslam and Ryan , once more, examined three experimental studies of the
glass cliff and evidence that women are overrepresented in precarious leadership positions
associated with increased risk of failure. According to these studies, glass cliff appointments are
associated with beliefs that women are more likely than men to be appointed because the
positions involve the management of organizational units in crisis, and suit the distinctive
leadership abilities of women; and, despite the stressful work climate, provide women with the
opportunity to work in leadership (Haslam & Ryan, 2008 ). By identifying contextual factors that
increase women's mobility, or that trigger their nomination, such as, with the glass cliff effect,
the research contributed to the analysis of the processes that shape and reproduce gender inequity
in work (Cook & Glass, 2014a).
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 31
In a national study of female executives (Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998), 99% of the
survey respondents reported that they had to prove their ability repeatedly by exceeding
performance expectations consistently in order to counter negative assumptions in a
predominantly male work environment. In fact, more than half of the respondents cited
inhospitable attitudes and work environments as a barrier to their advancement. In 19 93, a
Wisconsin governor's report from the Task Force on the Glass Ceiling Initiative confirmed that
80 % of female, middle-level managers left their last organization because of the glass ceiling.
The lack of flexibility is a key feature in work culture, contributing heavily to the attrition of
high-potential women and the increase in entrepreneurship among women in the US (Mattis,
2004).
In a qualitative research study by Davies-Netzley (1 998), 16 men and women in senior
leadership positions in southern California were interviewed about career mobility and their
strategies for success. The women confirmed strategically increasing their cultural capital to
negotiate in male-dominated networks, and obtaining advanced degrees and modifying speech
and behavior to maintain their high-status positions (Davies-Netzley, 1998). While barriers to
mobility are well-documented, the conditions that increase promotions for women to senior
leadership remain unexplored (Cook & Glass, 2014b). Moreover, the negative ramifications of
women at the top are magnified when gender stereotypes are relevant performance expectations
for the role, as is with leadership positions (Thompson & Sekaquaptewa, 2002).
Surviving the Head-of -School Role
There is no other more important job in the world than leading a new generation of young
people into the world. One of the great things about the leadership of an independent school is
that the scale is relatively small, meaning the contact with all elements of the organization is
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 32
extensive (Melvoin & Thompson, 2005 ). From a structural view of governance, independent
schools are unique creatures. A strong and supportive trustee chair can make all the difference in
the head-of-school's ability to endure over time. The tradeoff of having an enthusiastic group of
volunteer trustees and parents who are involved and opinionated is that they are paying for the
privilege of being engaged in the school (Melvoin & Thompson, 2005 ). In Nostrand's (197 3)
research study which looked to measure the personal and professional requirements of the
position by surveying practicing heads of school, even then, indicated the strong need for the
head of school to intimately understand the individuality of each group affected by the school
(i.e. students, faculty, staff, parents, trustees, alumni, and community members); participants
described the head-of-school role much like that of a captain who is "absolutely responsible" for
a stimulating learning environment (Nostrand, 19 73).
A Klingenstein Fellow research study (Scott, 1997) investigated the perspectives of more
than 100 administrators and heads of independent schools about the nature of the head-of-school
position; the survey dealt specifically with the question, "Why aren't there more female heads of
NAIS schools?" Females listed more and different obstacles than male respondents, and
mentioned self-imposed obstacles, such as, self-doubt and ambivalence, seven times more often
than males in the survey. Two obstacles mentioned by females and not by males were "own
relocation and 2) conflicts with raising children" (Scott, 2002, Sample Results of the Survey,
para. 1 ). Both men and women mentioned what they perceived to be search committee biases,
such as, looking for the traditional leadership model where the male head of school is married
and with children, as an obstacle to obtaining the head-of-school position (Scott, 1997).
Apparently, not much has changed since 1997, in terms of perceived obstacles by men and
women, because, over 10 years later, when the National Association of Independent Schools in
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
2009 surveyed administrators and heads of independent schools about the state of leadership,
search committee bias was cited strongly (NAIS, 2010).
33
In a 2016 analysis of California Association oflndependent Schools (CAIS) and National
Association oflndependent Schools (NAIS) survey findings regarding how to foster a deeper
partnership between trustees and heads of school, Pernambuco-Wise and Jorgenson (2016)
synthesized the respective challenges and needs of school heads. Heads of school reported
feeling like they are being told to change by trustees who do not fully understand the whole
picture or grasp that moral support is the single most important priority that heads need and value
most (Pernambuco-Wise & Jorgenson, 2016). Furthermore, female heads of schools reported
having different expectations placed on them reflecting societal biases, such as, clothes, hair,
children, spouse, and home, in addition to the professional parts of the role (Pernambuco-Wise &
Jorgenson, 2016). These recent 2016 NAIS and CAIS studies also indicated that headship is
changing, moving away from "chief academic officer" towards being well-versed in all aspects
of school operations, like, marketing, financial planning, human resources, and law.
Common Character istics
When looking at the issue of how women succeed, Hymowitz and Schelhardt (1 986)
made the point that the very skills that girls develop in school which propel them to the top of
their classes, like, following instructions, are the very skills that hold them back in the world of
business or the headship of a school, where skills such as assertiveness and the ability to promote
oneself are sought after and valued. In Chapman's (1 975) qualitative research of male and
female leadership styles in the military, the findings of the questionnaires confirmed the
importance of studying gender differences in leadership, emphasizing that, at the time,
incidences of females in leadership positions were increasing. Chapman's study also indicated
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
that women exhibited leadership behaviors which are more relationship oriented than are those
of their male counterparts, which was seemingly more congruent with the societal expectations
in the 1970s.
34
In 2010, when Cheung and Halpern studied how women rise to the top of their
professions when they also have significant family care responsibilities; the authors noted that
this critical question had not been explored by existing models of leadership originally based on
western men. Cheung and Halpern (2010) suggested a new, work-family-integration leadership
model which includes (a) relational leadership traits, (b) emphasis on teamwork and agency, and
( c) a practical work-life balance that women with familial responsibilities establish and exert to
break through the glass ceiling.
Ways Women Lead : The Female Leader ship Advantage
Leadership styles encompass a large range of behaviors and leaders vary those behaviors
within the boundaries of their style (Eagly, 2007). Eagly's (2007) research strongly indicated
that leaders' effectiveness depends largely on context; and, so, the author's studies largely
support the position that "stereotypically feminine qualities of cooperation, mentoring, and
collaboration are important to leadership, certainly in some contexts and perhaps increasingly in
contemporary organizations" (p. 2). Even in the 21st century, cultural stereotypes put women in
a predicament: on one hand women are commended for having the right combination of skills for
advanced leadership, and yet, on the other hand women are vulnerable to becoming targets of
prejudice, as they continue to come in second to men in achieving senior leadership positions
(Eagly & Carli, 2003 ).
Women often receive disapproval for exhibiting masculine behaviors, such as,
assertiveness, and the more feminine behaviors, like, supportiveness; given the need to hurdle
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 35
both sides, it takes an especially skillful and persistent women to advance up the male-dominated
hierarchy of leadership (Eagly, 2007). Still, in 2006, when answering the Gallup poll question,
"If you were taking a new job and had your choice of a boss, would you prefer to work for a man
or a woman?" (Carroll, 2006, Survey Methods, para. 2) 37% of respondents prefer a male boss
compared with 19% preferring a female boss, and 43% responding "no difference" (Carroll,
2006, Survey Methods, Table). In the 21st century, journalists and authors continue to assert a
female advantage in contemporary leadership; however, further analysis demonstrated that
women suffer disadvantages from prejudicial evaluations of their competence as leaders (Eagly
& Carli, 2003). Researchers highlight findings consistent with the characterization of women's
effectiveness in middle-level leadership positions, with the opinion that those types of
management positions favor interpersonal skills and a more communal repertoire (Paolillo,
1981). Rosener (1990) wrote,
women ... tended to find themselves in positions consistent with the roles they played at
home ... supporting the work of others, and in functions like communications or human
resources where they had relatively small budgets and few people reporting directly to
them. (p. 124)
Much of the contemporary literature along with the limited empirical research into the
leadership-gender debate is merely conceptual, however, theorists suggested that certain
feminine characteristics give women a leadership advantage (Helgesen, 1990). In a case study
research design conducted by Stanford, Oates, and Flores (1 995), themes unraveled through
content analysis leading them to the development of a heuristic model of female leadership. This
study af firmed that inherently feminine characteristics such as, heightened communication skills,
advanced conflict resolution skills, well-developed interpersonal skills, and a greater capacity for
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 36
prioritizing than do their male counterparts, develops the female leader's capacity to "serve as an
extraordinary motivating force to achieve the organization's mission" (Stanford et al. , 1995 ,
p. 15 ). According to the themes which unraveled through the researcher's content analysis,
Stanford et al. characterized a female leader as one who "fosters mutual trust and respect
between herself and her employees." (p. 15 ). Historically, female leaders were criticized for
calling emotions to awareness when decision-making; however, in more recent research
conducted by Immordino-Yang, Christodoulou, and Singh (2012), there is evidence that
cognitively informed emotional reactions allow leaders to consider the social ramifications, long
term effects, and moral implications of their decisions.
Trai t-based Perspective of Leader ship
Zaccaro (2007) defined leadership traits as "relatively coherent and integrated patterns of
personal characteristics, reflecting a range of individual differences that foster consistent
leadership effectiveness across a variety of groups and organizational situations" (p. 7). A
substantial and growing empirical research base argued for traits that are significant precursors of
leadership effectiveness; and, despite the long history of the trait-based approach, there is a need
for more conceptually-driven research to provide the means of defining the basis for the
extraordinary qualities of effective leaders (Zaccaro, 2007).
The transformational approach to leadership has generalized advantages for
contemporary organizations. The transformational style (Bass, 19 85; Burns, 1978) of leadership
is defined as being positive and inspiring, and as encouraging participation and inclusion, a style
that is most consistent with the female approach to management (Eagly & Carli, 2003; Stempel,
Rigotti, & Mohr, 2015 ). Men are more likely to characterize their style of leadership in terms of
the transactional approach (Bass, 198 5; Burns, 1978) where job performance is based on a series
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
of transactions with subordinates, much like a traditional command-and-control style (Schein,
197 3). Rosener (1990) wrote, "women encourage participation, share power and information,
enhance other people's self-worth, and get others excited about their work ... good for the
employees and the organization" (p. 120).
37
Although the findings regarding gender differences in leadership are small, the numbers
are statistically significant, as indicated by the works of Rosener (1990) and Bass (1 996). The
survey data collected and analyzed by Burke and Collins (2001) provides insight into gender
differences in self-ratings of leadership styles and management skills. Burke and Collins' (2001)
results suggested that self-reported leadership styles of female managers differ somewhat from
the leadership styles reported by male managers, and that women are more likely than men to
indicate that they use an interactive style of management called transformational leadership.
Women are more likely than men to report doing the following: serve as positive role models,
inspire employees to strive for a common purpose, encourage followers to be creative in
problem-solving, and spend time developing and coaching subordinates (Burke & Collins, 2001).
It is important to note that the transformational leadership style was found to be correlated with
management skills associated with success and effectiveness (Avolio & Bass, 1988).
Kruger (1996, 1999, 2008) found that women are stronger educational leaders than their
male counterparts: women are more focused on establishing instructional goals, creating a
positive school culture, and providing more professional development opportunities for teachers.
Kruger, Witziers, and Sleegers (2007) conducted an international path analysis study to
investigate the chain of variables from principal to student achievements, taking gender of the
school leader into account. It was found that the vision of women principals was more directed
towards the educational matters of the school, both operationally and strategically, than their
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 38
male colleagues. Kruger's (2008) more recent work suggested that when men and women work
together they have a wider range of alternative strategies at their disposal than either acting
alone, creating a case for mixed teams in school leadership.
Goleman (2004) wrote, "truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high degree of
emotional intelligence, which includes self -awareness, self -regulation, motivation, empathy, and
social skill" (p. 1 ). Goleman asserted that the first three components of emotional intelligence
(self -awareness, self -regulation, and motivation) are self -management skills, while the last two
(empathy and social skill) concern a person's ability to manage relationships with others.
Goleman stressed that socially skilled people possess the knack for moving people in the
direction they desire - whether that is agreement on a new instructional strategy or enthusiasm
about a new curriculum - they know how to employ rapport with a purpose. Goleman found
direct ties between emotional intelligence and measurable results for organizations. Other
researchers have confirmed that emotional intelligence (El) distinguishes outstanding leaders and
can be linked to an organization's strong performance (Amado & Elsner, 2007; Furnham,
McClelland, & Mansi, 2012).
In the results from their qualitative study utilizing the multifactor leadership
questionnaire (MLQ), Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001) discovered a robust connection
for emotional intelligence with effective leadership. Palmer et al. wrote, "knowledge regarding
exactly how EI relates to leadership may lead to significant advances in leadership training and
development programs, and the ability to select potentially effective leaders" (p. 5). The Center
for Creative Leadership (CCL) studied 2,23 9 leaders from 24 organizations in three countries
and found that, organizations are living in a period of leadership deficit, and are preparing for
imminent gaps in leadership, moving forward (Leslie, 2015 ). In a CCL comparison study of
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 39
leadership skill importance today, compared with five years from now, the research indicated that
the four most important future skills - inspiring commitment, leading employees, strategic
planning, and managing climate - are among the weakest competencies for today's leaders
(Leslie, 2015 ). When CCL pushed further to understand this problem, the research identified
specific drivers of the deficits, such as, outdated leadership styles and an underinvestment in
leadership development, specifically in the promotion of the democratic leadership style
necessary for innovation (Leslie, 2015 ).
Inde pendent School Cultur e and Organizational Structur es
There is a notable lack of research investigating the cultural and institutional norms that
reinforce the gendered nature of school leadership in independent schools, making it challenging
to evaluate the topography of the 21st century leadership outlook. Furthermore, there are not
many research studies that have explored the reasons for the dearth of women heads of
independent schools. There is a qualitative research project consisting of surveys and interviews
with heads and administrators of independent schools, which is widely and frequently cited, by
Scott (1 997) whose findings suggested that the lack of female heads in NAIS schools is
attributed to either women choosing family over career, or to social biases against female
leaders.
When answering the question: "What do you see as the greatest obstacle to becoming a
head of school?," the female participants in Scott's study (1 997) listed three times as many
obstacles as the men. The most commonly cited obstacles by the female participants were:
(a) "self-doubt," (b) search committees' "bias against them as women" and (c) conflicts with
raising children (p. 12). The most commonly cited obstacles by the male participants were:
"1) none, 2) lack of professional experience and 3) bias of search committees" (p. 12). Scott's
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 40
findings stressed that, without question, the number one cause according to both males and
females is: "male dominated boards ... and male dominated search committees" (p. 36).
Additionally, Scott drew attention to the topic of societal bias against females as leaders, writing,
"Both males and females responding to the survey see a strong bias against females as leaders in
both independent schools and in society in general. ... The traditional view of what makes a
leader effective is masculine in nature" (p. 51 ). This is a strong example of how internal school
culture, such as search committee bias, and external societal pressure, like gendered perceptions
of leadership, work doubly-against women achieving access and career mobility (Weiner &
Burton, 2016). More current data pulled from the NAIS's 2010 leadership survey revealed that
women are prepared and ready for career mobility; however, biases still exist preventing access
for them to the head-of-school role.
Care er Mobility for Women in Inde pendent School Leader ship
When women achieve positions in educational leadership, it becomes evident to them
that the majority of their colleagues are men, and the research centered around women in school
administration is as scarce and scattered as the women themselves (Brunner, 2000). Even when
women attain the role of head-of-school or superintendent, experiences of inequality persist
(Brunner, 2000), producing discourse that may prevent future women from pursuing educational
leadership positions, potentially aff ecting the number of female leaders in the pipeline.
Car eer Moves within a Labyrinth : Female Leader s in the Pipeline
Women are better educated than ever before; they make up the majority of enrollments in
undergraduate education (United States Census Bureau, 2004). As might be expected from this
trend, there are more women than men in middle management positions, creating an overflowing
pipeline of experienced managers primed for advancement to top-level executive positions
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 41
(McKinsey & Company: Executive Task Force for Women in the Economy, 2011; U. S.
Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 2006); and yet, the double standard is alive and well in
the workplace, sending the message that having children signals stability and responsibility for
men, while the same situation harbors the opposite effect for women. Given the small number of
women at the top, most of the studies on women in leadership rely on in-depth, qualitative
interviews involving snowball techniques, much like the ones conducted by Cheung and Halpern
(2010). Using semi-structured, open-ended interviews, Cheung and Halpern studied 62 women
at the top of their professions who were married and had significant family-care responsibilities.
The women interviewed in this study acknowledged a pattern of unintended leadership
development. For example, early on in their careers, none of these women planned on making it
to the top of their professions, and yet, climbed one rung at a time as they rose to meet new
challenges, making "career moves within a labyrinth," a metaphor preferred by Eagly and Carli
(2007). The women "did not strategically plan their routes or attempt to identify the blind
alleys" (Cheung & Halpern, 2010, p. 189); rather, they considered themselves to be experts in
multitasking, and counted performance and outcome rather than actual hours at work (Cheung &
Halpern, 2010). The participants in Cheung and Halpern's study did not segregate their work
roles and family roles into domains that could result in conflict; instead, they integrated their
work and family functions in ways that enabled them to harmonize both and to embrace the
multifaceted roles involved in being women.
Through qualitative inquiry and analysis methods, including interviews and case studies,
and verified with triangulation, Brunner (2000) studied the patterns of talk of 12 female
superintendents, with the primary objective of examining their perceptions of their experiences
of inequality within the contextual constraints of their positions. Brunner's study documented
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 42
the continuing existence, pervasiveness, and power of gender bias at the highest level of
leadership and decision making in schools. By studying the discourse of these 12 women,
Brunner (2000) provided strategies for action, such as, tactics for women aspiring to educational
leadership roles and for women already in educational leadership roles, as well as potential
implications for examining the way we shape the criteria for selection processes and for thinking
about how we construct training programs for aspiring female school leaders.
Ibarra, Carter, and Silva (2010) introduced the difference between mentorship and
sponsorship, citing both as crucial for the advancement of female leaders, arguing that even the
most exceptional women do not benefit from mentorship at the same rate as their male peers. In
the spirit of mentorship, Scott (1 997) provided female participants the opportunity to offer advice
to aspiring female heads of school: "make a conscious decision to go for it; find your own
leadership sty le; ... build your own support network; ... build a strong relationship with your
board [of trustees]; find a good mentor" (Abstract). Although personal networking is an element
of the recruiting process, it alone will not produce the variety of leaders needed in the coming
decade (Robertson, 2016); and, in the growing midst of retirees, there is an increasing demand
for talent and a desire to establish creative ways of finding and recruiting new leaders (Tierney,
2006 ).
wrote,
In 2015, John Chubb, Stanford University professor and former president of NAIS,
[Independent] Schools will require special kinds of leaders ... finding those leaders is
perhaps the greatest challenge and opportunity of our time. . .. We could be bolder about
how we identify prospective leaders ... [individuals] who will do more at the next level
than replicate traditional strengths. [It is possible to cultivate the leaders from the
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 43
pipeline and] work with them to understand what it takes to both embrace ...
[independent school] culture and help to change it. ... future leadership transitions could
also be our most significant transformations [for independent schools]. (para. 4, 11, 15)
Gender ed Leadershi p in Pr ivate School Cultur e
There is a growing body of qualitative research on the strategies female educators utilize
and/or seek out to gain access to formal leadership positions in schools. In a qualitative study,
F eibelman (2013) examined the gendered nature of leadership roles in independent schools, the
disproportionate rate that women achieve access to head-of-school positions, and the cultural
contexts that inform women's preparation for leadership positions in independent schools.
Feibelman's research further contributed to the growing discourse regarding the role that gender
plays in the normalization of independent school leadership. According to Feibelman, there is
the presence of a "new boys club" that supports the continuation of a disproportionate number of
women effectively making it through the mainline, into becoming heads of school. Through in
depth, structured interviews with the participants, Feibelman documented personal narratives that
repeatedly describe the systemic regularity with which women, both Black and White, were
passed up for head-of-school positions.
Feibelman was first inspired in 2011 when conducting a pilot study about the ways
women prepare for school leadership roles. After an analysis of the pilot study data, Feibelman
knew that the study would need to have more nuanced research questions about gender and how
it might influence the strategies women use when preparing for school leadership. Feibelman's
study examined how women conceptualized independent school leadership, as well as, the
cultural contexts that prolong gender stereotypes and the status quo of male school leadership in
independent schools.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 44
Feibelman's (2013) research findings revealed that gender bias can prescribe the social
power and status of the people in school communities; and, it is communicated in both implicit
and explicit ways. Feibelman discovered that the participants in the study were well aware of
their respective positions of power and status in their communities, which was only exacerbated
by the already unequal illustration of women in the most respected leadership roles at the
schools. Feibelman concluded that, although the National Association of lndependent Schools
has promoted strategic initiatives with the hopes of advancing diversity in independent school
communities, there is a void in their public acknowledgement of the various ways in which
independent schools normalize masculine leadership, which in tum, affects the perception of
which leadership candidates have the "right stuff' to get hired (Feibelman, 2013).
In a phenomenological study framed through social role theory, Gallagher (2017)
produced results pointing to some of the biggest barriers for women assuming head-of-school
positions in independent schools. Gallagher studied 10 female administrators working in schools
accredited by the Connecticut Association of Independent Schools. The researcher's participants
strongly indicated that the barriers to their leadership as women are strongly influenced by their
perception that independent schools have a gendered expectation of leadership, and are ever
more run like businesses. Gallagher confirmed that independent schools now require the head of
school to be educated in specific areas of business and finance, often studied by men, in order to
be successful with budgeting, fundraising, and strategic planning, areas that female educators do
not typically receive training.
Bar rie rs to Mobility
A notable body of research by Ely, Ibarra, and Kolb (2011) demonstrated that for women,
the acute gender bias that persists in organizations and in society disrupts the learning cycle at
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 45
the center of becoming a leader. Ibarra, Ely, and Kolb (2013) argued, "the context must support
a woman's motivation to lead and also increase the likelihood that others will recognize and
encourage her efforts-even when she doesn't look or behave like the current generation of senior
executives" (para. 3). The research conducted by Ibarra, Ely et al. (20 13) suggested that people
become leaders by internalizing a leadership identity, and in doing so are af firmed or resisted;
af firmation gives the rising leader the fortitude to step outside a comfort zone and experiment
with new ways of exercising leadership. Despite a lack of discriminatory intent, second
generation forms of workplace gender bias obstruct the important and valuable leadership
identity development of rising female leaders (Ibarra, Ely et al., 2013). According to Ibarra, Ely
et al. (2013), second generation gender bias erects subtle barriers for women that arise from
cultural assumptions and organizational structures, practices, and patterns of interaction that
benefit men while putting women at a disadvantage; barriers noted are: a dearth of role models
for aspiring female leaders, gendered career paths and gendered work, women's lack of access to
networks and sponsors, and double-binds (Oakley, 2000) that affirmed the notion that there is a
mismatch between conventionally female qualities and the qualities of traditional leadership.
The research indicated that tactics for women like coaching relationships, safe settings to
explore leadership techniques, women's leadership programs, peer support groups, and the
establishment of strong female networks are in the early stages of exhaustive access, rarely come
to them as a matter of course, and can sometimes feel merely transactional. And yet, even with
strong connections to female mentors, women are perceived to be without an executive presence
(Oakley, 2000). There is evidence to indicate that female school leaders are judged less
favorably than male school leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002). This is associated with the extent to
which leaders behave in a way that corresponds to gender role expectations (Acker, 1990); for
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 46
example, women who display male leadership styles are more negatively judged compared to
those who do not (Kruger, 2008; Oakley, 2000). Furthermore, Kruger (2008) noted that the
undervaluing of women is more marked when men do the assessment. In the research findings
conveyed by Oakley (2000), it is noted that current approaches implemented by organizations to
move female leaders up the hierarchy usually focus on helping women find ways to adapt or
blend in rather than speak out and find their own individual voice.
In a grounded theory study, Pemambuco-Wise (2011) investigated the relationships that
affect the attainment and sustainment of women in head-of-school positions. Pemambuco- Wise
explored the theory that women must prove "beyond a doubt" that they are highly competent in
all aspects of headship and that their preparation for leadership be perfectly aligned, in order to
be considered for a private school headship alongside their, often times less prepared or
qualified, male colleagues. In her grounded theory study, Pemambuco-Wise analyzed the
phenomena of being a female head of school with the hopes of providing results that are
informative for current and aspiring female Heads and for those who hire them. The main
method of inquiry for this study was interviews with 19 female Heads of School. The data were
triangulated with demographic surveys of each head of school, document analysis of their
curriculum vitae, and semi-structured interviews with 12 recruiters from eight search firms.
The research from Pemambuco-Wise's (2011) study revealed that barriers were not the
sole cause for the lack of attainment of head-of-school positions for women in independent
schools. Additional reasons included: women's perceptions of the barriers of the position, such
as, an increase in community politics; women's perceptions that school leadership is men's work;
and, women's feelings about their obligations to their own families. Furthermore, gatekeepers
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 47
such as Boards of Trustees and search firms play a significant role in women's attainment of the
head-of-school position in independent schools.
The substantive theory that emerged from Pernambuco-Wise's (2011) grounded theory
methodology is that, women must prove "beyond a doubt" that they are competent in every
aspect of private school headship in order to be hired as a head of school; and, moreover, in order
to ascend to this position, women must be aligned in their preparation, opportunity, advocacy,
and support. The findings from Pernambuco-Wise's study indicated that the construct of the
head-of-school position in independent schools does not directly, per se, exclude women from
the post. According to Pernambuco-Wise's research, women can successfully attain headship
and flourish in the position, if they are equipped with the right skill set, have mentors and
advocates, are supported professionally and personally , and are provided the opportunity.
Critical consciousness (Tatum, 2017) is a term used primarily when examining racial
identity and fairness, although the principle can be applied here, as well. Critical consciousness
points to the notion that, "we are better able to resist the negative impact of oppressive messages
when we see them coming than when they are invisible to us" (Tatum, 2017, p. 126). The
research recognized and casted a light on the underlying unfairness around women's lack of
attainment of school leadership. The concept of critical consciousness signals an opportunity for
women to predict barriers to career mobility and invites the construction of strategies in real
time.
The major themes, identified by the participants in Gallagher's 2017 study, related to the
barriers perceived by women to advance to a head-of-school position were: (a) work/family
balance and the demands of the role; (b) lack of mentorship or encouragement in pursuing the
role; and ( c) gendered expectations of leadership, and leadership preparation programs that
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 48
reflect a masculine expectation of the role. The researcher suggested that the absence of females
in the senior ranks of leadership is a sign that the process of preparation, selection, recruitment,
and promotion is in need of repair. Gallagher's research pushed deeper by exploring whether the
culture of independent schools influences the under-representation of women in head-of-school
positions, and, whether women are contributing to the structure via their perception of the
barriers.
The Gatekeepers: Boards of Tru stees in Inde pendent Scho ols
In 2005 , BoardSource in Washington, DC, convened a group of top governance experts to
identify the characteristics of an outstanding board of trustees. The committee came up with 12
principles of governance that power exceptional boards. Of the 12 attributes identified, two can
be seen as action areas where boards of trustees can initiate positive implications for women
attaining head-of-school positions in independent schools. Item 2 stressed the importance of
trustees' willingness to ensure the compatibility between decision making and core beliefs, and
item 11 emphasized the significance of the trustees' acceptance of the unique qualities held by an
organization which ascribes to continuous learning, performance evaluations, and value
assessments. For example, by verifying that independent schools' boards of trustees make
hiring decisions consistent with what they have articulated as organizational core values, female
leaders may have stronger opportunities to attain head-of-school positions. Furthermore, if
boards of trustees regularly evaluate and assess their performance and contributions to their
schools in ethical and transparent ways, then, there is the potential that hiring and succession
practices may shift in favor of greater equity for women and their access to leadership roles in
schools.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 49
Subsequently, in 2006, the National Association of Independent Schools conducted its
own research study investigating the composition, practices, attitudes, and effectiveness of
independent schools' boards of trustees. The findings suggested that boards of trustees should
frequently assess their own performance for the following reasons: to send a signal to the rest of
the school about the importance of accountability, to identify ways that the board could improve
operations, to help develop a shared understanding of the board's responsibilities, and, to
improve communications among trustees and with the head of school. Trustees come to the job
of governance from a variety backgrounds, and despite the diversity of skills they bring to their
oversight of their schools, they require support and training in order to operate with purpose and
integrity (NAIS, 2006). As part of NAIS membership, heads of school receive free membership
in BoardSource, which provides access to workshops and resources for trustees. When surveyed,
only 48% of responding trustees thought their board did well in the area of selecting and
orienting new trustees, indicating that boards are ripe for a reliable mechanism for discussing and
evaluating board performance as well as strategies for acting on areas that need enhancement
(NAIS, 2006).
In 2018, the NAIS found that 43% of the chairpersons for independent school Boards of
Trustees were female. This reflects a trend potentially toward a positive shift in school
governance, especially since the representation gaps by gender persist among school heads
(NAIS, 2018). Trustees are without a doubt the greatest threat to the head-of-school's job
security, especially when board members have private or personal agendas that create political
cliques (Scott, 2002). When surveyed, heads of school will unanimously respond that they want
their boards of trustees to have a greater understanding of exactly what it is like to be the head of
school (Scott, 1997). In the analysis of the recent National Association of Independent Schools
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 50
and California Association of Independent Schools survey findings regarding how trustees can
better support their heads of school, Pernambuco-Wis e and Jorgenson (2016) recommended that
trustees deliver on the support their head needs versus what they think the head needs, proving
that sometimes it's prudent to enlist an external facilitator to assist the discourse, owing to the
fact that the board-head partnership is essential to a school's prosperity.
Hiring
A key responsibility of the board of trustees in an independent school is to oversee the
hiring of the head of school. The hiring of senior leadership is the most important decision that a
board of trustees will make during their tenure (Moran, 2016). During a review of the literature
on independent school governance, the organization BoardSource proved to be a valuable
resource to NAIS member schools. The mission at BoardSource (n.d.a) is "to inspire and
support excellence in nonprofit governance and board and staff leadership" (About page).
BoardSource (n.d.b) advises trustees and stresses that the board's leadership on diversity,
inclusion, and equity, in hiring the chief executive, matters. The findings of a 2017 BoardSource
study revealed that when Boards assess their performance regularly they perform better on core
responsibilities, namely their ability to work as a collaborative team toward shared goals.
Gallagher's 2017 research suggested that independent schools have their own distinct
organizational structures and cultures, which were developed over time and steeped in traditions
that influence the underrepresentation of women in the head-of-school position. For example,
Gallagher recognized that the participants in the study favored collaboration and a distributive
model of leadership, yet, felt siloed once placed into a leadership position in their independent
schools. Moreover, it is unclear about what that looks like when working with independent
school boards of trustees. The overall impression shared by the participants was that
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
independent school boards of trustees are predominantly run by businessmen, who desire that
their schools be run like businesses with a head-of-school who looks like them. As one search
committee member noted in a recent National Association oflndependent Schools 2016-2017
survey, independent schools are "looking for the beloved family member ... , so if you're a
diverse candidate, you may not appear to be that family member" (Orem, 2018, Bias in
Executive Hiring, para. 3 ).
51
In 2015 a Pew Research Center study examined Americans' views about the abilities of
men and women to handle top leadership positions and found that, women are perceived to have
a clear advantage over men in key areas such as honesty, integrity, and the ability to reach
compromise. Given these findings, why is it that men outnumber women in top leadership
positions in every field? A recent study conducted by Krivkovich, Robinson, Starikova,
Valentino, and Yee (2017) suggested that implicit bias is the malefactor, pointing out that, "we
have blind spots when it comes to diversity, and we can't solve problems that we don't see or
understand clearly" (para. 3). In 2016, the National Association of lndependent Schools (2017)
conducted its own research to better understand the barriers to women seeking independent
school headships. Donna Orem (NAIS, 2017), president of the National Association of
Independent Schools, explained that, the studies examined how search firms source and put forth
candidates; what qualifications, experiences, and behaviors drive search committees to choose
the candidates they do; and how candidates approach the search process. Orem (2018) wrote,
"bias is present in all parts of the hiring process, and we need to examine each part to identify
how we can eradicate bias" (Rethinking Job Descriptions, para. 1 ). In contemplation of hiring
the next generation of leaders and in examining the lens used to review the interviewing and
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
selection process, the independent school world must call out the ways that implicit bias creeps
in and maybe the door will open wider for women seeking headships (Orem, 2018).
52
School leadership, after instructional quality, is the most significant school-related
contributor to what and how much students learn at school (Leithwood, Seashore, Anderson, &
Wah lstrom, 2004). When making hiring decisions, search committees must consider which
practices attract the best suited candidates. One of the practices that limit a school's ability to
attract the best candidate is casting too narrow a net (Khurana, 2001 ), and falling into a pattern of
selecting from a homogenous candidate pool (Moran, 2016). Furthermore, one of the practices
that can hinder a hiring committee's ability to make effective decisions is neglecting to consider
variations to the kind of information collected regarding candidates, and how that information is
weighted (Clifford, 2012; Khurana, 2001).
According to Khurana's (2001) study of executive hiring practices and the analysis of his
interviews with executive-search consultants and job candidates, one of the major pitfalls in
senior leadership searches is choosing the wrong search committee. Khurana wrote, "it is human
nature to gravitate toward people like oneself. The search committees researched were more
likely to consider a good range of candidates if the members had diverse backgrounds" (p. 93).
Khurana noted that a solid search committee has individuals who have a deep knowledge of the
organization and its challenges, is diverse in its functional backgrounds, and is cognizant of its
potential biases.
Successi on Practices and Impr ovements
Little attention has been paid to leadership succession as an instrument to impacting
school improvement, through the cache of talented individuals capable of acting strategically in
moving schools forward on their own improvement journey (Rhodes & Brundrett, 2005 ).
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 53
Rhodes and Brundrett's (2005) small-scale study informed the research agenda by exploring
issues of succession and succession planning in 12 UK primary schools. The findings revealed
that patterns of succession can offer either continuity or discontinuity with current school
improvement efforts (Hargreaves, 2005; Rhodes & Brundrett, 2005 ), indicating that there is a
strong need for better conceptual and practical understandings of succession practices.
Leadership succession is a regular and recurring part of the life of a school, and as evidenced in
the Hargreaves, Moore, Fink, Brayman, and White (20 03) study, can provide schools the
opportunity to ensure success over time by building upon the series of actions and influences that
connect one leader to the next.
To understand the dynamics in the recruiting process that plays a part in or impedes the
hiring of people of color and White women, the National Association of Independent Schools
launched a study in 2016 that aimed to assess motivators and barriers to seeking the position and
perceptions of the hiring process among potential head candidates, specifically, people of color
and White women who are current independent school administrators and middle managers.
This NAIS (Torres, 2017) study included two phases: (a) "36 in-depth interviews with search
firms, search committee chairs, and potential headship candidates who are people of color and
White women" (para. 3); and, (b) an online survey distributed to "more than 440 potential
headship candidates who are people of color and White women" (para. 3). One thing that the
response made clear is that there is a misalignment between the candidates' perceived strengths
and skills they believe they need for the job and the actual requirements set by search firms and
search committees. For example, candidates believe they need more experience in financial
management, whereas the list of must-haves from search firms includes qualifications and
personal characteristics like, effective communication strategies, strong fit with school values,
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 54
and team mentality, in addition to, experience with finances (Torres, 2017). Additionally, search
committees ranked, "experience at similar schools," as one of their top must-haves, indicating
that ex perience is being used as a proxy for ability to perform the job; the problem with this
approach is that there are not enough people of color and White women currently in the headship
role (Torres, 2017).
In Scott's (1 997) qualitative study of male and female independent school leaders, the
majority of female participants reported seeing the search process itself as a barrier; Scott's
findings were emphatic that the search process is inherently biased against females as leaders in
independent schools. The research indicated that boards of trustees are typically unprepared for
the task of hiring senior leadership at their organization (Austin & Gilmore, 199 3). Most agreed
that hiring ( as well as supporting and evaluating) leadership is the primary responsibility of
independent schools' boards of trustees, yet, most trustees are ill-equipped to tackle this
assignment, as there is a lack of resources and training for search committees (Levinson, 2015 ).
Based on case studies and interviews, Levinson's (2015) research suggested that boards of
trustees in independent schools look more carefully at their succession planning. Levinson
(2015) wrote,
Boards need to consider the skills required to lead a 21st-century school and that these
may be different than what has been successful in the past. We are in the midst of a rapid
transformation of our educational models and the traditional model of leadership is
unlikely to be successful for an innovative, progressive school. (Takeaways, item 4)
In terms of improvement to succession practices, Watkins (2004) discussed how new
leaders can position themselves to transition successfully, both internal and external, and how the
power of that success contributes to achieving their goals. Trustees have the ability to be
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 55
instrumental in helping new heads create coalitions, as their support of new heads is essential for
success (Watkins, 2004). Fink and Brayman (2006) pointed out in their study that "leadership
succession plans connect the identification, recruitment, preparation, induction, and on-going in
service education of leaders" (p. 65). The implications of Fink and Brayman's data pointed to
four major factors that have made principal succession problematic: (a) the turnover of principals
has accelerated at an ever-increasing rate; (b) successors are being denied the time to engage in
an entry process; ( c) thoughtful succession plans can help to sustain school improvement, yet, the
majority point to unplanned, arbitrary, and ethically questionable succession events; and ( d) the
changing nature of school leadership has potential consequences on the rotational changes
among the leaders themselves. In response to their findings, Fink and Brayman noted, that their
study indicated connections between the rapid turnover of school leaders and the barriers in the
way of progress towards educational change. By identifying succession planning as an area of
continual improvement and evolution, schools take the long-term challenge of succession more
seriously, committing to a process that allows newly appointed leaders to lead well, lead with
others, and subscribe to practices that make leadership last (Fink & Brayman, 2006; Glendinning
& Hoffman, 2010; Mason, 2015 ).
Clouser (2018) examined women's leadership programs and the trajectory of the
participants' leadership careers. Can participation in a year-long women's leadership program
increase the number of women hired as heads of schools? The National Association of
Independent Schools acknowledges the large gender gap in independent school leadership
( Chubb, 2015 ), yet, provides limited programs and trainings focused solely on rising female
leadership. Through interviews with female applicants and survey data from search committees,
Clouser's study found that women perceive facing bias due to their gender when applying for
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 56
leadership positions, regardless of prior training, and 52% of the respondents agreed that gender
bias exists when people consider good leadership. Clouser's study revealed that leadership
programs are not seen as being useful for candidates' career performance, nor did they have
impact on hiring decisions; the variables that may contribute to the rise in female leaders are:
increasing women's self-ef ficacy, building community among women, addressing barriers with
other women, and deconstructing the gendered head-of-school position and hiring process
through implicit bias training.
Head-of -School Search Consultants
According to the National Association oflndependent School's Principles of Good
Practice - Head Searches (NAIS, n. d. ), independent school trustee chairs and search committees
are expected to comply with the following practices: (a) gather resources to identify the
appropriate approach to the search ( e.g. how to form a search committee, hire search consultant,
and diversify the pool of candidates); (b) devise a search process that is "fair, inclusive, and
orderly" (School Search Committees, item 2); ( c) communicate to candidates its protocols to
ensure a search process that is "viewed by candidates as being fair, orderly, inclusive, and
confidential" (School Search Committees, item 3); ( d) "make every ef fort to present the school
with a finalist pool that is both highly qualified ... [ and] diverse in makeup and attributes"
(School Search Committees, item 4); (e) conduct the search in a manner "that ensures complete
confidentiality, ... care, sensitivity, and consideration of each candidate's wishes" (School
Search Committees, item 5); (f) "compensating the new school leader fairly and appropriately"
(School Search Committees, item 6). If an NAIS accredited school chooses to hire a search firm,
the search firm and search consultant are expected to adhere to the aforementioned Principles of
Good Practice -Head Searches (NAIS, n. d. ). Furthermore, as defined by the National
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 57
Association oflndependent Schools (n.d. ), head search consultants are presumed to "make every
effort to understand the school, its mission, its culture, its tolerance for change, and its preferred
leadership style" (Head Search Consultants, item 3), as well as, make "every effort to present the
school with a diverse group of highly qualified candidates" (Head Search Consultants, item 4).
There is minimal research on how search consultants view and talk about female
candidates for superintendent or head-of-school positions. In a study conducted by Chase and
Bell (19 94 ), the findings revealed that search consultants' acceptance of women as school leaders
does not go far enough; there is too much focus on individual competence and choices as
determinants of success versus open discussion around the systemic barriers that women face
when attempting to achieve these coveted positions. Boards of trustees should choose their
"consultant-gatekeepers" wisely ( Chase & Bell, 1994 ).
Search firms and consultants must begin to guide private schools to more equitable hiring
and succession practices. Search firms can help debunk misleading explanations of why there
are not more female leaders, such as lifestyle preference and choices, because this does not even
begin to account for the disproportionate percentage and gap in school leadership (Gangone,
2013). Gangone (2013) made an appeal to the men reading the report, asking his peers to decide
in what capacity they will partner with women to improve the landscape of positional leadership
in this country?
Feminist Perspective and Attitude Theory
Eagly and Karau (2002) wrote about how the career challenges women face can be
attributed to the dissonance of women's more traditional roles, and the traits perceived to be
affective in most leadership positions. Prejudicial reactions restrict women's access to leadership
roles and negatively biased judgements affect a women's performance as leaders. The double-
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 58
standard requirement to demonstrate added competence makes it difficult for women to obtain
recognition for ability and achievement, while conforming to expectations concerning
appropriate female behavior (Foschi, 2000). The cross-fertilization of research from the attitudes
literature to understanding leadership perceptions (Lee et al., 2015) can provide insight into
women's access to leadership roles. Understanding the nature of attitudes is a first step to
grasping human behavior (Eagly & Chaiken, 2005) and to addressing the social problems it
produces (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995 ).
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory claims that the reproduction of gender identities, sustained in discrete
and binary categories of men and women, determines the conditions of oppression by further
conflating the universal with the masculine and seizing all of culture as masculine property
(Butler, 1988). Gender is part of what instructs people in contemporary culture, and, regrettably,
those who fail to perform their gender properly are regularly punished. Feminist theorists, like,
Butler (1 988), stressed that there is a good deal about the diverse experiences of women that still
needs to be expressed.
Feminist Perspective
Lather (1992) wrote, "feminist research assumes that ways of knowing are inherently
culture bound and that researcher values permeate inquiry" (p. 91). Feminist researchers
generate and refine contextualized methods in order to search for patterns and meanings, rather
than for prediction and control (Acker, Barry, & Esseveld, 198 3; Reinharz, 198 3). Those
researchers engaging in a feminist perspective choose to maximize the research process by
enhancing change (Lather, 1992). A feminist standpoint can only be achieved through struggle
against male oppression, looking at the world through women's eyes and providing the
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
possibility of a less distorted understanding of it (Lathe r, 1992). Finally, with regard to the
feminist standpoint and management science, Fletcher's (1994) study suggested, that in
sanctioning feminine strengths lies the power to revolutionize organizational ideology and
practices by elevating relational activity and by challenging the superiority hidden within
organizational discourse.
Attitude Theory
59
Attitudes towards people can be inferred from expressions of belief s (e.g. cognitions) and
feelings (e.g. affects) associated with them, potentially explaining and predicting human
behavior; mindsets drive cognitive processing (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995 ; Nolder & Kadous,
2018). Nolder and Kadous (2018) wrote, "attitudes recognize the influence of social factors on
evaluative judgements" (p. 1 ). By studying attitude theory, there is the potential for practitioners
to apply the research toward changing attitudes and behaviors (Eagly & Chaiken, 199 3).
Wher e Are We Today?
At the end of the 2012-2013 school year, 38% of public school principals and 30 % of
private school principals left due to retirement and by 2020 those numbers will climb (National
Center for Education Statistics, NCES, 2013). According to the Private School Principal Status
Data Files of the 2012-2013 Principal Follow-up Survey (PFS; NCES, 2013), discussions and
decisions regarding principal attrition and mobility among boards of trustees, researchers, and
parents are widespread. The 2009 NAIS School Leadership (2010) study revealed that there is
an aging population of heads of school. The survey data further suggested that the head-of
school positions will be dif ficult to fill because "a majority of school administrators are not
interested in pursuing headship" (NAIS, 2010, p. 2); however, this dissertation aimed to prove
otherwise.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 60
National Reports on School Leadershi p
There is the perception that women, who fill the majority of private school administrative
positions ( e.g. division head, academic dean, assistant head of school), are either uninterested in
headship due to their family commitments, or that they were misinformed regarding the scope of
the position and its potential adverse effects on family life. In fact, the majority of current heads
of school say that the role is compatible with child rearing, although the perception is the
opposite among many school administrators (Torres, 2017).
Independent schools face large-scale leadership transitions. The NAIS 2010 Leadership
Report stressed, "perceptions regarding the demands of the head-of-school position, needs for
improvement in the search process, and barriers to the participation of people of color and
women in leadership roles must be addressed as we face this potential crisis" (p. 4). Women
make up only a third of school heads (NAIS, 2010), and with only recently developed
mentorships, leadership development programs, and executive coaches aimed directly at
cultivating female leaders, are there enough women in the pipeline to see this number grow?
Has the perceived stress of the role in conjunction with family responsibilities affected the
pipeline? The perceived stresses are far greater than the actual stress reported (NAIS, 2010).
When asked to identify why there are few female heads in independent schools, heads
and administrators identified the following reasons: (a) there are too few in the pipeline, and
(b) trustees and search committees are reluctant to hire non-trad itional heads (NAIS, 2010). It is
important to note that since NAIS conducted the same leadership study in 2002 as in 2009, the
percentage of female heads in independent schools (31 % ) remains unchanged (NAIS, 2010).
This data indicated that the perception of stress and demands of the job on family obligations
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
may be creating a void in the leadership pipeline, in addition to the reluctance of search
committees to hire non- traditional candidates.
Studies Spe cific to Califo rnia
61
There is an enormous dearth to the research, survey data, and literature pertaining to
women and their perceived access to leadership positions in independent schools in the State of
California. One reason the data is focused nationally could be because head searches span far
and wide, indicating that candidates are willing to move states and travel for a position. It is
likely that current heads of school have moved for their role.
Implications of Resear ch
Past research has demonstrated that a study of the barriers encountered by women
entering K-12 headships in California private independent schools is necessary to understand if
the national data is similar to what is reported in California. The researcher aimed to explore:
hiring practices specific to the head-of-school position, determining if candidates are being fairly
eliminated during early stages of the search process; the gendered expectation of leadership,
identifying areas that may be supporting discriminatory behaviors and practices; external barriers
and self-imposed barriers that female leaders place on themselves, as they consider career
mobility; and, the perception female heads of school have about the board of trustees role in their
success.
Summary
There are numerous barriers encountered by women as they attempt to attain the head-of
school position in independent schools. The past literature pointed to the following factors:
discrimination and bias in leadership culture; independent school resistance to female leadership
traits, despite the value to organizations; lack of mentorship for aspiring female leaders; lack of
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 62
training and evaluative measures for trustees on head-of-school success; and, the perception of
stress associated with the head-of-school role. A study of the barriers encountered by women
entering K-12 headships in California private independent schools is necessary to understand if
the national data is similar to what is reported in California and to determine if there are new
recommendations that can potentially contribute to women accessing the head-of-school role.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Chapter 3: Methods
The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the barriers that women encounter, self
imposed or otherwise, when pursuing access to and maintaining the head-of-school position in
independent, California private schools. The intent of this study was to enlighten boards of
trustees by providing information about the barriers that female colleagues have perceived to
face in their pursuit of the head-of-school position. Another advantage of this study was to
encourage and support female leaders as they pursue head-of-school positions, so that they are
equipped in 21st century leadership successions.
63
The direction of inquiry positions the researcher in relation to the participants in a posture
ready to explore the data and provide cogent answers to the research questions (Agee, 2009).
The research questions helped guide this study:
1. What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to obtain
a position as a head of school?
1 a. How does private school culture reproduce a gendered perception of leadership
during the hiring process?
1 b. What are the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting to
access a head-of-school position?
2. What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their
success in the head-of-school position?
Creswell (2014) explained that qualitative researchers gather multiple forms of data, such
as interviews and documents, rather than rely on a single data source. The researcher employed
a mixed-methods approach. Information was initially gathered through a survey administered to
41 female heads of independent schools in California who were in their first 10 years of
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 64
headship. In the 2018-2019 school year, 102 women occupied head-of-school positions in
California independent schools (CAIS Directory, 2018). Since the research process for this study
was sequential mixed methods, the researcher built on the patterns, categories, and themes
revealed in the survey data to construct the interview protocol. At the end of the survey, the
researcher provided the participants with an opportunity to indicate a willingness to take part in
an interview with the researcher, either by phone or in person; of the female heads of school who
indicated willingness; five were selected by the researcher for semi-structured interviews. By
talking with five women who had achieved independent school headship positions within the last
10 years, the researcher was able to focus on learning the meaning that each participant holds on
the issues presented in the research questions, and their multiple perspectives were reported.
The researcher reviewed qualitative studies, because this mixed-method approach
included the use of interview data. In qualitative studies, the researcher is a key instrument for
collecting data (Creswell, 2014). Because the researcher is a female school administrator
aspiring to achieve a headship position in an independent school, the researcher's background
helped shape the research through the themes advanced and the meaning ascribed to the
data. The economy of the survey design and the rapid turn-around in data collection provided an
opportunity to focus the interview protocol around patterns and themes that emerged from the
survey data.
Sampl e and Popul ation
Participants in this study were a purposive sample selected from a population of first
time, female heads of school in California who were within 10 years of experience as an
independent school head in a California Association of Independent Schools (CAIS) accredited
school, and as having recent experience with the hiring and succession process for their current
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
position. Participants were selected from the information gathered from the 2018-2019
California Association of Independent Schools roster of accredited independent schools, which
includes the names of all school heads. The researcher focused on surveying female heads of
school appointed in the last 10 years. The rationale for using this approach was to collect
information from females who had achieved a head-of-school position in the last 10 years, and
had relatively recent experiences to speak of regarding potential barriers and obstacles in
attaining and maintaining their current role.
65
Surveys were emailed out to 41 sitting female heads of school within 10 years of
appointment in their current position; out of 98 female heads of school overall, only 41 met the
criteria. Participants were emailed at their school email addresses, and asked to return responses
within 10 days of receipt, with a reminder email sent after the first five days. Of the 41 surveys,
data was compiled from 26 returned responses, a sample of the study's population. Efforts were
made to receive more than 26 responses ( e. g. email reminders), and yet, heads of school are busy
and do not always have the time to complete a survey. The interview protocol was developed
based on the categories and new properties revealed in the survey data. Five participants, who
volunteered themselves through the survey, were interviewed for this study. Although seven
volunteered, two dropped out; and, even though efforts were made to secure as many more
interviews as possible, only five participated. The researcher conducted either a face-to-face or a
telephone interview with the five interview participants.
The researcher attempted to collect enough survey and interview data to saturate the
categories, and until fresh data no longer sparked new insights into the research questions. Table
1 shows the criteria for selection of survey and interview participants.
In strum entation
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 66
The researcher employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. The mixed
method approach in this study enabled the researcher to produce results and support evidence to
verif y the research questions (Maxwell, 2013). Quantitative data were gathered through the use
of a survey, and qualitative data were gathered through the use of an interview protocol. A
survey was selected as one method because the efficiency of the survey design and the rapid
tum-around in data collection provided an opportunity for the researcher to focus the interview
protocol around patterns and themes that emerged from the survey data. All research questions
were addressed in both the survey and interview questions which utilized quantitative and
qualitative designs.
Quantitativ e In strument
The data were responses on a survey. The survey had five parts with a total of 26
questions. The survey instrument was designed to collect data in the following categories:
demographics ( see Table 1 ), perceived barriers, reproduction of a gendered perception of
leadership during the hiring process, self-imposed career barriers for women, and the perceived
role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school.
Part I of the survey collected important, demographic information. Part II centered on
perceived barriers when trying to obtain a head-of-school position, and targeted research
question 1. Part III focused on belief s about gendered perceptions of leadership during the hiring
process, and aimed at answering research questions la and lb. Part IV looked at the most
important career barriers for women, and was intended to address research question 1. Lastly,
part V addressed the perceptions women have about the role of the board of trustees in the
success of a female head of school, and was constructed to answer research question 2. The
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
researcher piloted the survey first, and then, designed questions that would hold personal
meaning for the respondents (see Table 2).
67
All of the questions in the survey were written as closed questions, and sections III, IV,
and V incorporated a four-point Likert scale (see Table 3). The survey instrument was sent via
email utilizing GoogleForms. The survey designed for this study was created to provide the
researcher with, as Creswell (2014) described, numeric descriptions of the attitudes and opinions
of the participants.
Qualitative In strument
An interview protocol was developed and used to ask questions and record answers
during the qualitative interview. The qualitative data was gathered through the use of an open
ended, semi-structured interview protocol (see Appendix D). The interview questions were
written in follow-up to the survey questions, and designed to add depth to the research questions,
beyond the data provided from the survey. Each of the interview questions addressed one or
more of the research questions. The interview protocol consisted of 10 questions, with the
addition of probes and follow-up questions. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that probes
and follow-up questions are important to include in the interview process when information
needs clarification. The researcher captured the interview data by conducting face-to face and
telephone interviews; and, as Creswell (2014) suggested, the interviews were audio recorded and
notes were taken throughout the process. Interviewees gave consent for the audio recordings.
Based on the surveys returned, five female heads volunteered for interviews. The
interview protocol focused on the same categories as the survey design; however, the line of
questioning targeted even greater depth of understanding the research questions ( e.g. How can
the board of trustees contrib ute to your success in the head of school position, and in a way that
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 68
changes the culture of leadership?). The researcher constructed questions aimed at providing an
opportunity to hear more detailed information about personal career barriers and examples of
experiences with career obstacles from the interview participants.
Like the survey design, the interview protocol had five parts. In Part I of the interview,
the researcher's objective was to collect more detailed demographic information that the survey
did not obtain, such as, length of time in the position, school demographics, and the number and
gender of heads preceding the participant's hire at their current school. Part II centered on
perceived barriers when trying to obtain a head-of-school position, and targeted RQ# 1. Part III
focused on beliefs about gendered perceptions of leadership during the hiring process, and aimed
at answering RQ#s 1 a and 1 b. Part IV looked at the most important career barriers for women,
and was intended to address RQ# 1. Lastly, Part V was constructed to explore the perceptions
women have about the role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school, and
was constructed to answer RQ# 2. Probes and follow-up questions were inserted after the field
test was conducted.
Reliab ility and Validity
The researcher followed Patton's (2002) credo, that it is crucial that the study be carried
out with "intellectual rigor, professional integrity, and methodological competence" (p. 570).
The steps used to promote reliability and validity in this study are consistent with Creswell's
approach (2014): triangulation of the data built a coherent justification for themes between the
survey data, interview data, and literature review; member checking for the interview data, with
retired heads of school, determined accuracy; rich descriptions of the survey and the interview
data conveyed findings realistically; researcher memos clarified potential biases, such as, those
gendered practices experienced by the researcher during hiring; and peer debriefing enhanced
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
accuracy of the findings. The researcher employed a field test of the survey design and the
interview protocol with two, out-of-state female school heads, making revisions ( e.g. removing
questions that did not directly serve the research questions) before administering more broadly.
69
In addition to the triangulation of data, two frames, feminist theory (Butler, 1988) and
attitude theory (Eagly & Chaiken, 199 3), were utilized as a framework of connecting the findings
within these larger perspectives. Feminist theory claims that the reproduction of gender
identities, sustained in discrete and binary categories of men and women, determines the
conditions of oppression by further conflating the universal with the masculine and seizing all of
culture as masculine property (Butler, 1988). Nolder and Kadous (2018) wrote, "attitudes
recognize the influence of social factors on evaluative judgements" (p. 1 ). By using the attitude
theory to frame the study, there is the potential for practitioners to apply the research toward
changing attitudes and behaviors (Eagly & Chaiken, 199 3). (see Figure B)
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework is a key part to the design of this study. Maxwell (2013)
described a conceptual framework as a "system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs,
and theories that support and inform the researcher's study" (p. 39). The researcher constructed
the conceptual framework from prior theory and incorporated information found in the extensive
literature review, however, the structure and coherence is something that the researcher
built. The conceptual framework is the baseline of the researcher's thinking (Maxwell, 2013). It
is the researcher's main lens, and helps to justify the research by shedding light on the issue of a
lack of females achieving headship positions in private schools. As women attempt to achieve
headship positions in independent schools, they confront obstacles, such as, the self-imposed
barriers regarding work and fam ily responsibilities (Pemambuco-Wise, 2011 ), gendered
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 70
perceptions of leadership during the hiring process (F eibelman, 2013) and a lack of female
mentors (Ibarra, Carter et al., 2010), and gatekeeper biases (Gallagher, 2017; Orem, 2018), who
are, in this case, the board of trustees (Moran, 2016; NAIS, 2006 ). The cross-fertilization of
research from the attitudes literature to understanding leadership perceptions (Lee et al., 2015)
can provide insight into women's access to leadership roles. This conceptual framework anchors
the study by visually demonstrating the obstacles women face as they attempt to achieve senior
leadership positions in schools. Many women report being stuck at the top of the funnel, in
middle management or administration, navigating various barriers, self -imposed or otherwise,
and having a difficult time moving through to the bottom of the funnel, where access to ( and
retention of) school headships lie with the gatekeepers. (see Figure C)
Data Collection Pr ocedur es
Surveys were emailed out to 41 sitting female heads of school within 10 years of
appointment in their current position. Participants were emailed at their school email addresses,
and asked to return responses within 10 days of receipt, with a reminder email sent after the first
five days.
Of the 41 surveys, data was compiled from 26 returned responses; although efforts were
made to produce a higher yield, only 26 surveys were returned. The interview protocol was
developed based on the categories and new properties revealed in the survey data. Five
participants, who volunteered themselves through the survey, were interviewed for this study.
The researcher conducted two face-to-face interviews and three telephone interviews; all five
interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and coded. The researcher worked on a robust,
transparent, and detailed field journal, which included researcher identity memos, recommended
by Maxwell (20 13). Lastly, the researcher spent time following up on what Miles, Huberman,
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 71
and Saldana (2014) described as "surprises;" there were a few surprising interview responses that
were outside the realm of expectations, prompting reflection and consideration of anything that
could surface as a violation of the researcher's emerging micro-theories. For example, when a
survey respondent described her experience of being recruited and groomed for a desirable head
of-school position, after only five years as a middle school department head, it violated one of
the researcher's micro-theories on women navigating hiring obstacles, and which informed
revisions to the interview protocol.
Data Analysis
All items on the survey and interview protocol were mapped to the research
questions. Data from participants were carefully coded and analyzed for patterns related to the
research questions. Quantitative data were collected through the survey and analyzed using
descriptive data (mean, standard deviation, and range of scores). Then, qualitative data were
collected through one-on-one interviews.
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) described data analysis as the process of systematically
searching and arranging interview data, transcripts, researcher memos, documents, and materials;
then, interpreting and making sense out of those materials to reveal the findings. The
researcher's analysis consisted of five stages, adapted from Bogdan and Biklen's (2007) tips for
analysis, and were reframed to work within the context and content of this particular research
study. The researcher's rationale for developing this process was to minimize validity threats,
specifically, researcher bias and reactivity (Maxwell, 2013), and to maximize the researcher's
disciplined subjectivity. First, the researcher studied the analytic and researcher memos, and
explored analytic questions and statements (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Along with these
analytical questions, the research questions and literature review helped the researcher produce
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 72
apriori codes ( e.g. MB: Major Barrier; GHP: Gendered Hiring Practices), before mining the data
(Harding, 2013). Second, the researcher planned regular data-collection sessions based on what
was discovered from the previous session (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) and reviewed transcripts
from the interviews, memos, and pursued leads that produced categories, sub-categories, and
emergent codes (Harding, 2013). Third, the researcher wrote analytic memos about what was
learned and summarized critical thinking, searching for moments of insight along the way (Miles
et al., 2014). Pattern codes emerged, which will be discussed in chapter 4. Fourth,
acknowledging researcher bias, the researcher used survey and interview participants as
resources for triangulation, trying out ideas and themes on them; and, asked peers in the field to
review and provide feedback on initial categories and themes. The researcher member-checked
with retired heads of school and women in division director positions. Next, the researcher
finished coding, by questioning and thinking dimensionally, and strategically looking at language
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008 ), as the last data chunks were categorized. Finally, in the fifth stage of
data analysis, analogies, concepts, and findings materialized (Harding, 2013). The researcher's
coding allowed the process of taking raw data and raising it to a conceptual level (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008 ).
Summary
The data collected from the surveys and interviews were analyzed to target the research
questions: (1) What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to
obtain a position as a head of school? (1 a) How does private school culture reproduce a
gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process? (1 b) What are the self-imposed
barriers women place on themselves when attempting to access a head-of-school position?
(2) What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their success
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 73
in the head-of-school position? The economy of the survey design and the rapid tum-around in
data collection provided an opportunity to focus the interview protocol around patterns and
themes that emerged from the survey data. These findings are presented in chapter 4, with a
discussion of the findings in chapter 5.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 74
Chapter 4: Research Results and Findings
The purpose of this research was to explore the barriers that women encounter, self
imposed or otherwise, when pursuing access to and maintaining a head-of-school position in an
independent school in California, as well as, to explore the role of the board of trustees in the
success of female heads of school. The intent of this study was to inform the boards of trustees
of independent schools by providing them with information about the barriers women perceive to
face in their pursuit of head-of-school positions; and, to galvanize the trustees in recognizing the
important role they play in the success of female heads by evolving the culture of independent
school leadership. Another outcome of this study was to encourage and support female leaders
as they pursue head-of-school positions, equipping them for 21st century leadership successions.
The results and findings from this study, specifically focusing on women's career barriers, the
hiring process, and the role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school, are
presented in this chapter. The following results provide valuable information regarding the most
significant barriers women report facing in achieving and maintaining headships, the gendered
perceptions of leadership exposed during the hiring process, and the ways trustees shape
independent school culture through the support of female heads of school.
Pur pose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers female leaders face, both self
imposed and otherwise, as they attempt to achieve access to, and maintain, the head-of-school
position in California independent schools. There is a notable lack of research investigating the
cultural and institutional norms that reinforce the gendered nature of school leadership in
independent schools, making it challenging to evaluate the topography of the 21st century
leadership outlook. When women achieve positions in educational leadership it becomes evident
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 75
to them that the majority of their colleagues are men, and the research centered around women in
school administration is as scarce and scattered as the women themselves (Brunner, 2000). In
2010, when Cheung and Halpern studied how women rise to the top of their professions while
managing significant family care responsibilities, they noted that this critical question had not
been explored by existing models of leadership originally based on western men.
The following three studies are examples which point to the critical need to further
explore this issue. First, in a grounded theory study, Pernambuco-Wise (2011) investigated the
relationships that affect the attainment and sustainment of women in head-of-school positions.
Pernambuco-Wise explored the theory that women must prove 'beyond a doubt' that they are
highly competent in all aspects of headship and that their preparation for leadership be perfectly
aligned, in order to be considered for a private school headship alongside their, often times less
prepared or qualified, male colleagues. Pernambuco-Wise's research contributed to the
expanding narrative regarding women's experiences in leadership training and development for
the head-of-school position. Second, in a qualitative study, Feibelman (2013) examined the
gendered nature of leadership roles in independent schools, the disproportionate rate that women
achieved access to head-of-school positions, and the cultural contexts that informed women's
preparation for leadership positions in independent schools. Feibelman's research contributed to
the growing discourse regarding the role that gender plays in the normalization of independent
school leadership. Third, the major themes identified in Gallagher's 2017 qualitative study about
the barriers women believe to have faced in attempting to achieve a head-of-school position
contributes to the conversation about women and the perceptions about balancing the head-of
school role and family responsibilities, the lack of mentorship or encouragement in pursuing a
head-of-school role, and, the gendered expectations of leadership and leadership preparation
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
programs that reflect a masculine expectation of the role. Gallagher (2017) suggested that the
absence of females in the senior ranks of leadership is a sign that the process of preparation,
selection, recruitment, and promotion is in need of repair. The trustees of independent schools
have the most significant role in these processes.
76
Trustees are without a doubt the greatest threat to the head-of-school's job security,
especially when board members have private or personal agendas that create political cliques
(Scott, 2002). When surveyed, heads of school will unanimously respond that they want their
boards of trustees to have a greater understanding of exactly what it is like to be the head of
school (Scott, 1997). In their analysis of the recent National Association of Independent Schools
(NAIS) and California Association oflndependent Schools (CAIS) survey findings regarding
how trustees can better support their heads of school, Pemambuco-Wise and Jorgenson (2016)
recommended that trustees deliver on the support their head needs versus what they think the
head needs, proving that sometimes it's prudent to enlist an external facilitator to assist the
discourse, owing to the fact that the board-head partnership is essential to a school's prosperity.
Independent schools face large-scale leadership transitions. The National Association of
Independent Schools' (NAIS) 2010 leadership report stressed, "perceptions regarding the
demands of the head-of-school position, needs for improvement in the search process, and
barriers to the participation of people of color and women in leadership roles must be addressed
as we face this potential crisis" (p. 4). Women make up only a third of school heads (NAIS,
2010), and with only recently developed mentorships, leadership development programs, and
executive coaches aimed directly at cultivating female leaders; research indicated there may not
be enough women in the pipeline to see this number grow. Through the lens of feminist and
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
attitudes theory, this study examined why the dearth of up-and-coming female heads of school
exists.
77
Feminist theorists, like, Butler (1 988), stressed that there is a good deal about the diverse
experiences of women that still needs to be expressed. With regard to the feminist standpoint
and management science, Fletcher's (19 94) study suggested that "a fully empowered
representation of feminine strengths has the potential to transform organizational theory and
practice by giving voice to the powerfulness of relational activity and challenging the
preeminence of instrumentality in organizational discourse" (p. 74). Nolder and Kadous (2018)
wrote, "attitudes recognize the influence of social factors on evaluative judgements" (p. 1 ). By
studying attitude theory, there is the potential for practitioners to apply the research toward
changing attitudes and behaviors (Eagly & Chaiken, 199 3). This study aimed at applying the
theories of feminism and attitude to give voice to female heads of school, and change popular
attitudes around the perception of their suitability as leaders of independent schools.
Presentation of Findings
This chapter begins with an exploration of two main components of the research. First, a
description of the survey data and interview responses are explained. Second, a descriptive
analysis of the findings is provided as they address the guiding research questions. The
following Research Questions helped guide this study.
1. What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to obtain
a position as a head of school?
la. How does private school culture reproduce a gendered perception of leadership
during the hiring process?
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
1 b. What are the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting to
access a head-of-school position?
2. What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their
success in the head-of-school position?
Organization of Data Analysis
The following data analysis begins with a section which describes how the research
questions were served through the instrumentation method. Next, a section follows with
characteristic descriptions of the survey respondents and the interview participants. Finally, a
section which delivers a detailed analysis of the findings for each research question follows.
78
The quantitative data that were gathered for this study was a survey. The survey was sent
to 41 female heads of school, and 26 surveys were returned. The survey had five parts with a
total of 26 questions. The survey instrument was designed to collect data in the following
categories: demographics, perceived career barriers, gendered perceptions of leadership revealed
during the hiring process, self-imposed career barriers for women, and the perceived role of the
board of trustees in the success of a female head of school ( see Table 2).
The qualitative data were gathered through the use of an open-ended, semi-structured
interview protocol. Five heads of school participated in the interviews. Like the survey design,
the interview protocol had five parts. In Part I of the interview, the researcher collected detailed
demographic information that the survey did not obtain, such as, length of time in the position,
school demographics, and the number and gender of heads preceding the participant's hire at her
current school. Part II centered on perceived barriers in obtaining the head-of-school position,
and targeted RQ# 1. Part III focused on beliefs about gendered perceptions of leadership during
the hiring process, and answered RQ#s 1 a and 1 b. Part IV looked at the most significant career
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 79
barriers for women, and addressed RQ# 1. Lastly, part V explored the perceptions women have
about the role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school, and answered
RQ# 2.
Descriptive Char acteristics
Survey Par ticipants
In the 2018-2019 school year, a total of 102 women occupied head-of-school positions in
California independent schools (CAIS, 2018). The quantitative data that were gathered for this
study was a survey administered to 41 female heads of independent schools in California. The
survey had five parts with a total of 26 questions. The survey instrument was designed to collect
data in the following categories: demographics, perceived barriers, reproduction of a gendered
perception of leadership during the hiring process, self-imposed career barriers for women, and
the perceived role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school. At the end
of the survey, the researcher provided the participants with an opportunity to indicate a
willingness to take part in an interview with the researcher, either by phone or in person; of the
female heads of school who indicated willingness, five were selected by the researcher for semi
structured interviews. Since the research process for this study was emergent, the researcher
built on the patterns, categories, and themes revealed in the survey data to construct the interview
protocol.
Inter view Par ticipants
The qualitative data were gathered through the use of an open-ended, semi-structured
interview protocol. The interview questions were written in follow-up to the survey questions,
and designed to add depth to the research questions, beyond data provided from the survey. Each
of the interview questions addressed one or more of the research questions. The interview
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 80
protocol consisted of 10 questions, with the addition of probes and follow-up questions.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that probes and follow-up questions are important to
include in the interview process when information needs clarification. The researcher captured
interview data by conducting face-to face and telephone interviews; and, as Creswell (2014)
suggested, the interviews were audio recorded and notes were taken throughout the process.
Interviewees gave consent for audio recordings. By talking with five women who had achieved
independent school headship positions within the last four years (see Table 1), the researcher was
able to focus on learning the meaning that each participants holds on the issues presented in the
research questions, and their multiple perspectives were reported.
Resear ch Question 1
What perceived barr iers do women report as being most important when try ing to
obtain a position as a head of school?
Gendered perceptions of leadership are present in the internal cultures of schools, and in
the external societal pressures of communities, working doubly-against women attempting to
achieve career access and upward mobility (Weiner & Burton, 2016). The researcher's intent in
Research Question 1 was to learn about the perceived barriers current heads of school report as
the most pivotal during their attempt to access a head-of-school position. By searching through
these data for common themes, categories emerged, helping produce answers to Research
Question 1 (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Miles et al., 2014). Establishing a set of predetermined
apriori codes (Harding, 2013) yielded relevant constructs within interview data. The researcher
found that the heads of school believed to have experienced three major barriers when attempting
to achieve the head-of-school position. The first major barrier was in the perception that women
will allow their emotions to influence administrative decisions. For example, Head of School- I
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 81
stated, "They [trustees] want to know you can make hard decisions, without the emotional piece,
not taking it personally and without wavering." The second barrier was in the perception that
women are unqualified to handle budget or finance. For example, Head of School-4 stated, "My
former head of school would say [when grooming me for this position], 'You need to get the
finance piece! You don't have the finance piece!
"'
The third major barrier was in the perception
that women are not strong business managers and lack political savvy. For example, Head of
School-2 stated, "You have to be extroverted .. .. People want someone with a presence, who is
not going to be overshadowed." Although the survey respondents indicated strongly the lack of
mobility for family members as an important career obstacle for women, the researcher found
that this theme was not indicated as strongly throughout the interview data. The findings for
Research Question 1 are indicated further in the following sections.
Findings for Resear ch Question 1: Survey Par ticipants Analysis
The first part of this mixed-methods study aimed at determining which barriers were
perceived by female heads of school as being the most important when attempting to access the
head-of-school position. Through an electronic survey, the participants' responses were
quantitatively calculated. The survey was voluntary and anonymous. The survey consisted of 26
questions. Of the 41 female heads of school in receipt of the survey, 26 completed and submitted
the survey. The results generalized strongly to female heads of school in California independent
schools.
Part IV of the survey revealed which barriers were perceived by female heads of school
as being the most important when attempting to access the head-of-school position. Participants
indicated the degree to which 16 discrete barriers are perceived as important with a 3- point
Likert scale (0 -3): don't know
=
0, not a barrier
=
1, somewhat of a barrier
=
2, a major barrier
=
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3. The barriers with means calculated in the range of 2. 0 - 2. 3 were noted as the most significant
(see Table 4).
Findings for Resear ch Question 1: Inter view Analysis
In Part IV of the interview protocol, each head of school answered questions about the
barriers they believed were the most important during the time they attempted to achieve a head
of-school position in an independent school. In this part of the interview , the heads of school
shared examples and expanded on their thinking. Later in this report, Research Question 1 b,
addresses to what extent the barriers are self-i mposed. What follows is a synthesis of the three
overarching themes uncovered from these interview data, and which informed Research
Question 1.
Managing emotions. Historically, female leaders were criticized for calling emotions to
awareness when decision-making; however, in more recent research conducted by Immordino
Yang et al. (2012), there is evidence that cognitively informed emotional reactions allow leaders
to consider the social ramifications, long-term effects, and moral implications of their decisions.
Furthermore, Goleman (2004) asserted, "truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high
degree of emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,
empathy, and social skill" (p. 1 ).
During the interviews, the researcher found that the heads of school expressed keenness
towards the perception that women will allow their emotions to influence administrative
decisions was a major career barrier to achieving a head-of-school position. For example, when
probed about managing emotions during tough decision making, Head of School-3 stated,
I think there's a perception that it needs to be done in a ... through one type of quadrant,
like, "assertive and male," maybe a type of attitude I don't necessarily think. I've found
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 83
that some of the most effective ways to give people feedback is to ask them questions,
smile, laugh. So, it's a different style. I don't know if that's guided by emotion, but it's a
communication style [that's effective for me] .
Furthermore, Head of School- I stated, "I think they [trustees] do look for someone who's
a bit more stoic and strong ... . " Head of School-5 stated, during one search as a finalist who
received feedback about demeanor, "The thing that they told me was that, 'You just don't have
enough gravitas. "' Head of School-5 went on to say, "And, the other thing I' d say is, [ about] the
emotional piece, [is] I think that's a good thing. That, you have to use your emotions to make the
right decision sometimes." The researcher found all five heads of school believed that the
concern from trustees that female heads of school would allow their emotions to influence
decision making was a career barrier; and yet, the heads of school in this study believed the
ability to access emotions was a major strength to their leadership styles. Next, the researcher
found that the heads of school believed to have experienced a major career barrier in the
perception that women are unqualified to handle budget or finance. This finding is indicated
further in the following section.
Handling budget and fin ance. Women often receive disapproval for exhibiting
masculine behaviors, such as, assertiveness, and the more feminine behaviors, like,
supportiveness; given the need to hurdle both sides, it takes an especially skillful and persistent
woman to advance up the male-dominated hierarchy of leadership (Eagly, 2007). Rosener
(1990) wrote,
women tended to find themselves in positions consistent with the roles they played at
home ... supporting the work of others, and in functions like communications or human
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
resources where they had relatively small budgets and few people reporting directly to
them. (p. 124)
84
The researcher found that the heads of school believed that the perception that women are
unqualified to handle budget or finance was a major barrier to achieving the head-of-school
position. In describing this barrier, Head of School-2 stated,
I knew from doing aspiring heads [training] and starting to research [the head-of-school
position], what buckets [ of expertise] I had the least amount of experience with. Finance
was at the top of that [list]. . .. My head of school invited me to a few finance committee
meetings, . . . and I did an online course - When Budget Meets Mission. So, I had
enough working knowledge, and I asked questions. . .. But, I do remember, when I had
lunch with the search committee, [they were surprised] and, somebody said, "W ow,
you're knowledgeable about budget?!"
Head of School- I stated,
There are more schools now where you have a legit CFO, and so I think, and I' m hopeful,
that the emphasis [ on finance experience] is going to go away because you have a CFO
who can really help out with the nuances part of the budget. ... There's no real
quantitative skill to the school budget. It's just good judgement, a sense of ethics, and a
sense of fiduciary responsibility.
When describing her lack of experience with the finance aspect of school leadership,
Head of School-4 stated,
I'm like, I haven't been in front of the finances! ... You haven't given me the
experience. I wanted to join the finance committee that following year to really do that
deep dive work ... to be able to say, "Okay, I get how this runs, now."
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The researcher found that the heads of school in this study recognized that both the
perceived lack of experience and, for some, the real lack of experience in finance was a major
barrier to career mobility; and yet, the researcher found that the heads of school believed the lack
of access to experiences in finance was a barrier in and of itself . Next, the researcher found that
the heads of school believed to have experienced a major career barrier in the perception that
women cannot be strong business leaders or have political savvy. This finding is indicated
further in the following section.
Having business and pol itic al savvy. The researcher found that all five heads of school
believed to have experienced a major career barrier in the perception that women are not strong
business leaders and lack political savvy. For Head of School-2, having business acumen and
political savviness are essential traits for success in the head-of-school position; the barrier lies in
the perception that women do not have these traits. Head of School-2 stated,
The political piece is important. ... Doing a good job, communicating that you're doing
a good job, and finding the right pace of change. People want to know, "Do you
understand us, our school, the mission?" [I understand] that the school wants to be the
best version of what it can be. [People at the school want to know] "Can you appreciate
us for what we've done? Can you see where we could go? And, can you get us there
without making us feel bad about not being there already?" That takes a lot of skill.
It is really important to be able to quickly listen to a lot of different people, and
[communicate] how we want to achieve the school's goals.
The researcher found that all five heads of school recognized the critical importance of
having business and political savvy, and how these traits contribute largely to the success of a
head of school; however, the perception that these qualities might not exist inherently for
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 86
women, was noted by the heads of school as a major barrier in achieving their positions as head
of school.
Head of School- I stated,
I think that the gender norm of leadership in independent schools is still plaguing us, and
it's hard for boards [of trustees] and I think it's hard for schools, especially historical
ones, to imagine what it could be like if they had a female head. I think that people, not
deliberately, but I think in the back of people's mind is, "Can a woman handle the
burdens of headship? Can they handle the schedule? Can they handle the hard
decisions? Can they handle the hard conversations that have to happen?" I think those
questions are not in the forefront of boards [ of trustees] minds, but, I think it's floating in
there, for sure.
Throughout the interviews, the researcher found that all five heads of school felt the
weight of the perception that they are not strong business leaders, and its perceived effect on
their maintaining the role as head of school. This finding is discussed further in the section about
trustees, and their role in the success of a female head of school.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
Even in the 21st century, cultural stereotypes put women in a predicament: on one hand
women are commended for having the right combination of skills for advanced leadership, and
yet, on the other hand women are vulnerable to becoming targets of prejudice, as they continue
to come in second to men in achieving senior leadership positions (Eagly & Carli, 2003 ).
Leadership styles encompass a large range of behaviors and leaders vary those behaviors within
the boundaries of their style (Eagly, 2007). For example, for the female leaders in this study,
their use of emotion during decision making is seen both as a strength and as a weakness by
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 87
them. Eagly's (2007) research strongly indicated that leaders' effectiveness depends largely on
context; and, so, her studies largely support the position that "stereotypically feminine qualities
of cooperation, mentoring, and collaboration are important to leadership, certainly in some
contexts and perhaps increasingly in contemporary organizations" (p. 2). The perception that
trustees believe traits related to political savvy and business acumen are not characteristics
natural to a women's leadership style, is believed, by the women in this study, as being a major
barrier to achieving career success as female heads of school. Furthermore, the female heads of
school in this study believed the lack of access to financial experience as being unique to a
women's traj ectory into school leadership. The findings which informed Research Question 1
indicated the degree to which gendered perceptions of leadership are prevalent in women's
access to the head-of-school position in independent schools. In the next section, the researcher
discusses the finding that heads of school believed gendered perceptions of leadership were
reproduced during the hiring process for the head-of-school position.
Resear ch Question la
How does private school culture repr oduce a gendered perception of leadership
during the hiring process?
Researchers have examined the gendered nature of leadership roles in independent
schools by studying the disproportionate rate that women achieve access to head-of-school
positions and by investigating the cultural contexts that inform women's preparation for
leadership positions in independent schools (Feibelman, 2013). According to Feibelman (20 13),
there is the presence of a 'new boys club' that supports the continuation of a disproportionate
number of women effectively making it through the mainline, into becoming heads of school.
The heads of school in this study expressed a strong belief that private school culture reproduces
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 88
a gendered perception of leadership, specifically during the hiring process, when assumptions are
made about female candidates and their familial responsibilities, and by means of a powerful
culture of fraternity in independent schools.
Findings for Resear ch Question la: Survey Par ticipants Analysis
In Part III of the survey, heads of school were asked to select the topics from which they
were questioned during their hiring process to achieve the position as a head of school. This list
of topics was comprised of categories the researcher constructed from the review of the literature
with respect to the gendered perceptions of leadership and the hiring process for women. Topics
included, the details of family life, household responsibilities, work ethic, work-life balance,
parenting style, occupation of spouse/partner, or none of the above. Respondents were asked to
check all that applied. The three areas which received the highest number of elections regarding
the questions asked of female candidates during their hiring process were ( a) details of family
life, (b) managing work-life balance, and ( c) the occupation of a presumed spouse/partner ( see
Table 5). All 26 survey respondents answered this question.
Following this set of elections, survey respondents were asked to indicate to what extent
discriminatory hiring and promotional practices are a problem in limiting the head-of-school
career opportunity for women. For this question, 73% (19 of the 26 respondents) answered that
discriminatory hiring and promotional practices are a major or moderate problem in limiting the
head-of-school career opportunity for women (see Figure D).
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 89
Findings for Resear ch Question la: Inter view Analysis
In Part III of the interview protocol, each head of school answered questions about their
experiences during the hiring process. The heads of school were asked to discuss their beliefs in
connection with gendered perceptions of them, occurring throughout the hiring process or during
promotional practices, when achieving the head-of-school position. In this part of the interview,
the heads of school shared examples and expanded on their thinking on this topic. What follows
is a synthesis of the two overarching themes uncovered from the interview data, and which
informed Research Question 1 a.
Assumptions about women and fam ily life . 21st century research contributes to the
growing discourse regarding the role that gender plays in the normalization of independent
school leadership. Cheung and Halpern (2010) studied 62 women at the top of their professions
who were married and had significant family care responsibilities. These women "did not
strategically plan their routes or attempt to identify the blind alleys" (p. 289), rather, they
considered themselves to be experts in multitasking, and counted performance and outcome
rather than actual hours at work (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). The women in Cheung and
Halpern's study did not segregate their work roles and family roles into domains that could result
in conflict; instead, they integrated their work and family functions in ways that enabled them to
harmonize both and to embrace the multifaceted roles involved in being a women.
The researcher found that during the hiring process all five heads of school believed to
have experienced gendered assumptions about family life and familial responsibilities that
questioned their abilities to perform the role successfully. Head of Schoo l-I stated,
I don't think they [male candidates] get asked the work-life-balance question, because I
think there's this assumption that there's someone at home who's helping with the life-
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 90
balance piece of it. I think that the interview process lends itself to having a stay-at-home
spouse .. .. There's the assumption that your spouse can take the day off work on
Wednesday. There's just things in the schedule [ during the finalist round] that make it
feel like it's a man with a wife, a stay-at-home-spouse, a non-working person.
The researcher found that the assumptions made about a stay-at-home spouse for head-of
school candidates contributes to a barrier of success for women, because all spouses do not have
the same flexibility.
The researcher found that all heads of school in this study expressed a strong belief that
private school culture reproduces a gendered perception of leadership, specifically during the
hiring process, when assumptions are made about female candidates and their family life. In one
statement describing her finalist interview , Head of School-3 stated,
The part that struck me as strange is, I was specifically asked if my husband could come
with me on the finalist interview. Like, if he would join me for the dinner that was going
to happen that night with the trustees. And, I found that unusual. I was applying for the
job .. .. I wondered myself at that moment if the wives or partners of the other
candidates, I don't know, making assumptions, but ... if they were asked, if their partners
would come. Maybe that was standard practice. My husband was at that time, and
remains, unemployed; and, there were a lot of questions about that. I felt like in some
ways, the question mark was, 'Is he going to get a big job and not be available, or is he
going to stay unemployed?' and that felt like it was a good thing.
Head of School-3 expressed a strong perception that independent school hiring practices
are built upon the idea that the majority of finalists are male, and that felt discriminatory. The
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researcher found that Head of School-2 experienced discomfort when gendered hiring practices
occurred during the finalist round of interviews. Head of School-2 stated,
It was interesting, because when you come into the final round, you typically bring your
partner. So, I think they didn't quite know what to do with my husband, [laughter] you
know? I think when it's the woman who's the partner, it's like, 'We're going to send you
with the real estate agent and look at homes in the area, and have coffee with another
mom at school.'
When probed further about gendered practices during the hiring process, Head of School-
3 stated,
I feel like there's a lot of [interview] questions about ability to dedicate time, because
these jobs are ... incredibly time consuming and have lots of evenings. So, I was asked
questions, I remember, about my ability to do things in the evenings. . .. And, so, I think
there's a question of whether women's dual roles as caregivers and their professional
lives, if those things can be balanced effectively.
When asked about which aspect of the hiring process could be recreated or changed,
Head of School-5 stated,
I would say people should not have to talk anything about their personal lives, ... if they
want to have a transparent process. They don't ask men if they're taking their kids to
soccer games in the afternoon, and if that's going to take them away from their ability to
go to the school's games. It shouldn' t matter ifl am married or ifl have children, or what
age they are .. .. People shouldn't be able to ask those questions. Either I can do the job
based on my experience and merits or my qualities, or I can't. And, it should not matter
if I have a fam ily.
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All heads of school in this study reported experiences with gendered assumptions made
in connection with their own hiring and their ability to maintain the pressures of the position.
During the interviews, each head of school expressed a strong desire for an elimination of this
line of questioning. The felt sense was that, their participation in a job search for a head-of
school position is the confirmation of their willingness and ability to perform the position to its
fullest extent; and, there need not be questioning on matters which are not addressed to their
male peers.
92
Next, the researcher found that all heads of school believed in the potency of a fraternity
culture in independent schools and that it contributes to the reproduction of gendered perceptions
of leadership. In independent schools, fraternity culture can be interpreted as, men having
mutual support of and solidarity with each other. Fraternity culture is perceived as a career
barrier for women when it obstructs their success. This finding is indicated further in the
following section.
Frater nity cultur e. During the interviews, the researcher found that all heads of school
communicated a passionate standpoint that a gendered perception of leadership is manifested
during the hiring process in independent schools. Head of Schoo l-I explained how the history of
independent schools contributes to a powerful culture of fraternity by stating,
I mean, historically, if you look at the foundation of independent schools, they were
founded as, many of them, as these boys' schools on the East Coast. So, therefore, they
had "Masters." Even the term "Head of School" is such an evolution. The term
"Headmaster," this idea that there's this, like, pied piper man who was always leading
these schools ... so, there's this entrenched doctrine that these schools have to be led by
these men, these "Headmasters." And, so, part of this is pointing just to the history of
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independent schools and breaking the mold of that. And, how we were founded,
probably contributes to it.
When asked about how independent school culture might contribute to a gendered
perception of leadership, Head of School-5 stated,
93
It's still a lot like a fraternity. It's like White guys in bow ties. And, not that they're not
great educators at all, but, they see the path as the path they had, right? If you start at this
intern post, and then, you work your way up; and, so, I think that's part of it.
Head of School-2 stated,
It's still largely men at the top in leadership positions. And, men are more likely to
mentor other men, or to see themselves reflected in younger men coming up. I think men
tend to feel they're ready for positions when they're not, or before women do, let's say.
Women often feel they have to check every box of every skill that's required, or every
experience, before they'll throw their hat in. And, I think men think, "Oh, I' ll figure that
out!" So, I think you just probably have more men in the pipeline. I think when people
think, "What is a Head of School?," [they think it] is the "Headmaster." I think those are
still just very pervasive kinds of stereotypes or implicit biases ... and, I think the work
life balance, you know, the men probably, I think, they just have a wife ... there's
somebody else who's [trails of f].
Head of School-4 suggested how the maternal journey women experience proves as a
more natural fit for the role, and stated,
I think you still have people that believe that the male, particularly, the Caucasian male,
has the best acumen for the position. And, when you think about all the ... I mean, this
job is so nuanced and intricate, and it rivals how, as a young mother, I cared for my
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 94
kid ... kept up with her appointments and knew the lunch to pack and talked to the
doctor ... to call in prescriptions; all of that, right? ... It seems like it's [the role] more
of a natural fit for women who, in my experience, are some of the best communicators
and collaborators and thought-partners you want to have in the room.
Head of School-3 stated, being the only women in the semi-finalist round led the head to
believe a woman might have been there simply to represent "diversity" versus having been
selected as a "genuine candidate."
The researcher found that all heads of school in this study expressed a strong belief that
the hiring process reproduces a gendered perception of leadership by means of a powerful culture
of fraternity in independent schools. The heads of school in this study possess knowledgeable
opinions about how gendered perceptions of leadership are reproduced during the hiring process
for the head-of-school position. One of the overarching themes informing Research Question 1 a
was the fraternity culture from which independent schools were founded, its evolution, and its
presence in 21st century hiring practices. During the interviews, the female heads of school
pointed passionately to the entrenched doctrine of a pied piper or Master leader, as well as, the
repetition of an unbreakable men's network of quick and easy mentorship into the head-of-school
position in independent schools.
Summary of Findings for Resear ch Question la
Two overarching themes emerged from the interview data, and which informed Research
Question la. The first theme examined women's perception that private school culture
reproduces a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process, when assumptions are
made about female candidates and their roles and responsibilities in family life, and how familial
responsibilities might impact a female candidate's commitment to the head-of-school position.
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The second theme studied women's perception that private school culture reproduces a gendered
perception of leadership during the hiring process, by means of a powerful culture of fraternity in
independent schools, whereas men find comfort, confidence, and ease in their upward career
mobility.
The female heads of school in this study reported having added obstacles to navigate
during the hiring process and more stringent criteria from which they are currently evaluated,
both in comparison to their male peers. There is evidence to indicate that female school leaders
are judged less favorably than male school leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002). This is associated
with the extent to which leaders behave in a way that corresponds to gender role expectations
(Acker, 1990). And yet, there are instances when women self-subscribe to outdated gender
expectations for success.
It was found through the research of this study that the heads of school admitted to
having self -imposed obstacles into their own career trajectory. For example, when Head of
School-2 expressed women's role in holding themselves back from entering the career pipeline,
by saying,
Women often feel they have to check every box of every skill that's required, or every
experience, before they'll throw their hat in. And, I think men think, "Oh, I'll figure that
out!" So, I think you just probably have more men in the pipeline.
During the interviews, a similar expression of views about self-imposed obstacles led the
researcher to the next category which informed Research Question 1 b.
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Resear ch Question lb
What are the self- imposed barriers women place on themsel ves when attem pting
to access a head-o f-school position?
96
A Klingenstein Fellow research study (Scott, 1997) investigated the perspectives of more
than 100 administrators and heads of independent schools about the nature of the head-of-school
position; the survey dealt specifically with the question, "Why aren't there more female heads of
NAIS schools?" Women listed more and different obstacles than male respondents, and
mentioned self-imposed obstacles, such as, self-doubt and ambivalence, seven times more often
than the men participating in the survey.
The heads of school in this study reported areas of a con f idence gap or imposter
syndrom e as a self-imposed barrier to career success. Two things may be contributing to the
confidence gap for women in this study. First, as indicated in the survey data (see Figure E),
there is the perception of a higher degree of stress associated with the head-of-school position,
than there actually is. Second, Head of School-3 stated, "I self-imposed obstacles about my own
insecurities," acknowledging that there is a perceived mastery level of skill proficiency that
women believe is necessary prior to achieving the head-of-school position. The heads of school
in this study reported self-imposed barriers which contributed as obstacles to career success.
These data informed the findings for Research Question 1 b.
Findings: Survey Par ticipants Analysis
In Part III of the survey, respondents were asked if as part of their career advancement
they self-imposed any changes or restrictions on their personal lives based on factors, such as,
familial responsibilities or the perceived stress of the occupation of head of school or both. Two
responses garnered the largest number of selections for these 26 female heads of school. First,
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
45 .8% (11 female heads of school) confirmed their 'partner took a less demanding job or one
with greater flexibility.' Second, 41. 7% (10 female heads of school) af firmed del
ay ing career
advancement 'until my children were older.' Lastly, when asked, to what degree of stress they
perceived the head-of-school position, before achieving it, 100% (all 26 respondents) reported
perceiving the job as producing very great or moderate stress (see Figure E).
Findings for Resear ch Question lb: Inter view Analysis
97
In Part III of the interview protocol, each head of school answered a question regarding,
what extent they perceived their having self-imposed obstacles during their careers. This part of
the interview reflects all the heads-of-school examples of self-imposed barriers placed in front of
themselves in the face of an opportunity for career advancement. What follows is a synthesis of
the main theme uncovered from these interview data, and which informed Research Question 1 b.
The Confidence Gap
The greatest self-imposed barrier reported in this research study was the confidence gap
experienced by female leaders. The researcher found that women questioned their own
experience and ability to do the head-of-school job successfully, contributing to the belief that
they exist as imposters to this leadership role. Head of School-2 explained,
Then, there's the confidence gap, and all that stuff of women waiting, and women
deciding, "Oh, I don't want to do ... I have to be ready. I don't want to put myself out
there, if I' m not going to get the job." ... I think there's so much pressure in our culture
to be good moms, whatever that means, that people are hesitant to take on these [head of
school] jobs.
Head of School-3 expressed feeling guilty, and, like an imposter, and stated,
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-I2 HEADSHIPS 98
As a woman I think there's all of the many roles that we feel responsible to be upholding
and that if we have some sort of guilt associated with not doing all of those things really
well, then, we' re going to likely not feel ready to take a risk as much, because it may
mean that we won't do some other things well. That was one of the trickiest things I've
dealt with. I was like, "I got this job. I can totally do it. " I felt really confident. But,
then, once I had it, the imposter syndrome, of like, "How did I get this job?" [ crept in] .
So I felt really great in my silo, and then, like, seeing myself in comparison to others,
which made me feel ... .
Head of School- I explained,
Some days I think, "Oh, if I' d done it differently ... I think I would have just baked a
little bit more before becoming a head of school. " And, that's what women say all the
time. Women always say that. Like, "Oh, just one more middle step, or one more
exposure to this aspect of the school."
Head of School-4 shared statements which evidenced the featured subcategory of women
self-imposing barriers by encouraging their own confidence gap. Head of School-4 affirmed this
by saying,
We look at job descriptions and if we don't have one of the attributes of that position, we
think we're not ready. Men don't do that. If they have three out of six, they're good. We
go, "Oh, nope. I got to wait until I get that financial planning background on lock. " You
know? It's like, "No, you don't [need it on lock] ... you really don't have to."
The researcher found that Heads of School- I, 2, 3, 4, and 5 each described having or
experiencing a con fid ence gap or the imposter syndrome, or both. This was the most pervasive
self-imposed barrier reported. Both the perception of a high degree of stress associated with the
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
head-of-school position and the perceived level of skill proficiency that women believe is
necessary prior to entering a head-of-school position, pl
ay ed an enormous role in their self
imposing a major obstacle.
Summary of Findings for Resear ch Question 1 b
99
There is alignment between Research Question 1 b and the conceptual framework which
helped guide this study. As women attempt to achieve headship positions in independent
schools, they confront obstacles, such as, self-imposed barriers (Pemambuco-Wise, 2011 ),
gendered perceptions of leadership during the hiring process (Feibelman, 2013), and gatekeeper
biases (Gallagher, 2017; Orem, 2018). The cross-fertilization of research from the attitudes
literature to understanding leadership perceptions (Lee et al., 2015) provided insight into
women's access to these leadership roles. The conceptual framework anchored the study by
visually demonstrating the obstacles women face when attempting to achieve the head-of-school
position. Many women reported being stuck at the top of the funnel, in middle management or
administration, navigating various barriers, self-imposed or otherwise, and having a difficult time
moving through to the bottom of the funnel, where access to school headships lie with the
gatekeepers (see Figure F). The next group of subcategories which emerged from the interviews
indicated the perceived role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school.
The following set of subcategories informed Research Question 2.
Resear ch Question 2
What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of truste es in
their success in the head-o f-school position?
A strong and supportive trustee chair can make all the difference in the head of school's
ability to endure over time. The tradeoff of having an enthusiastic group of volunteer trustees
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 100
and parents who are involved and opinionated is that they are paying for the privilege of being
engaged in the school (Melvoin & Thompson, 2005 ). In a 2016 analysis of the California
Association of Independent Schools (CAIS) and NAIS survey findings regarding how to foster a
deeper partnership between trustees and heads of school, Pernambuco-Wise and Jorgenson
(2016) synthesized the respective challenges and needs of 21st century school heads. Heads of
school reported feeling like they are being told to change, by trustees who did not fully
understand the whole picture or grasp that moral support is the single most important priority
that heads need and value most (Pernambuco-Wise & Jorgenson, 2016).
The heads of school in this study indicated one major area in which they believe trustees
who serve on independent school boards can contribute to the success of a female head of
school. One subcategory emerged from the analysis of the survey and interview data, and which
informed Research Question 2. As perceived by the female heads in this study, the role of the
board of trustees in the success of a female head of school falls into one domain, which is, to be
outwardly supportive of the head in the school community.
Findings for Resear ch Question 2: Survey Par ticipants Analysis
While the survey did not address female heads' perceptions about the role of trustees in
their success, Part V of the survey did ask about perceptions of experiencing gendered evaluation
practices by their board of trustees. The researcher defined gendered evaluation practices as any
evaluative measure of success that is used with female heads of school and not with male heads
of school, and is perceived by women as being more stringent than the methods used with male
counterparts. When female heads of school were asked if they believed to be evaluated on more
stringent criteria than their male peers, 88.5% (23 of the total 26 respondents) indicated almost
always (3) or always (4) on a 4-point Likert scale (see Figure G). There appears to be room for
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 101
improvement, as indicated by the high volume of responses regarding the extent to which female
heads of school believe their trustees are equipped to develop a female head. When female heads
of school were asked if they believed the trustees at their school are well-equipped to develop a
woman in the head-of-school position, 88.5% (23 of the total 26 respondents) indicated almost
always (3) or always ( 4) on a 4-point Likert scale (see Figure H).
Findings for Resear ch Question 2: Inter view Analysis
In Part V of the interview protocol, each head of school answered questions in which they
described their beliefs about how trustees contribute to their success. In this part of the
interview, the heads of school shared specific examples of the different ways trustees play a part
in their success. What follows is a synthesis of the main overarching theme uncovered from the
interview data, and which informed Research Question 2. The researcher found that all heads of
school believed the most significant role of the board of trustees, in their success as female heads
of school, was to be outwardly supportive of the head in the school community. During the
interviews, the researcher found that each head of school expressed an eagerness and
commitment to steer and advise their boards of trustees towards becoming more active in this
role.
Be Out wardl y Suppor tive in the Community
The female heads of school in this study perceived the outward support of their
leadership in the school community as being a crucial role for the board of trustees in their
success as female heads. Head of School-2 stated,
I think supporting the head, by both appreciating the work that the head does, and then,
also supporting the symbolic, ... they are outwardly supportive. . .. When the board is
more engaged with the community at the school, it just gets everybody on the same page.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 102
Concurringly, when discussing how trustees and heads can be outwardly supportive of
each other, Head of School- I expressed the importance of articulate to the community, "This is
our relationship-to be strategic partners; not to be putting out whatever gossip is coming our
way, answering to every little nitpicking complaint that people have about the school, or the
program, or whatever." Head of School-3 added, "I would love to know ... how they're
proactively messaging into the community my success. Perhaps in areas where people might not
naturally think I' m having success." Head of School-3 also emphasized the power of the
trustees' positive messaging about the head's efforts with the budget, safety, and physical plant of
the school. Head of School-5 stated,
My perception is all about how the board perceives me and my ability to do the job; and,
believes I have the confidence and the skill set to do the job. And, then, communicates
that confidence to the wider community.
Head of School-5 went on, and said,
And, I think actually paying women a lot gives, and it's ridiculous, but, paying them in
the top percentile gives other people more confidence in their abilities. You know what I
mean? It's sort of that idea of, if you're buying the most expensive product, it's better. I
do feel like that, it's a sign, that the board ... you know, it's public information. By and
large, if people know how to find it. I think if the board is paying you what you should
be paid, or in a sort of benchmark in the top percentile, that's a vote of confidence. The
median is not a vote of confidence.
It was found that the heads of school in this study believed the outward support of their
leadership in the school community is the most important role for the board of trustees in their
success as female heads of school. Whether outward support is in the form of engaging with the
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 103
community by modeling strategic partnership with the head, by publicly articulating confidence
in the head's abilities, or by compensating the head of school in the top percentile, or all of the
above, outward support is perceived as critical in the success of female heads of school.
Summary of Findings for Resear ch Question 2
Levinson's (2015) qualitative research suggested,
boards need to consider the skills required to lead a 21st-century school, and that these
may be different than what has been successful in the past. We are in the midst of a rapid
transformation of our educational models and the traditional model of leadership is
unlikely to be successful for an innovative, progressive school.
Through the analysis of the data, it is evident the board of trustees are the most impactful
authority in the success of a female head of school. Through the qualitative analysis of the
interviews with all five heads of school and revealed through their shared beliefs, the trustees
play a significant role in the success of a female head. It is perceived, in order for trustees to
contribute positively to the success of a female head of school, trustees must be outwardly
supportive of the head in the school community.
Discussion and Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-methods study, intended to understand
and answer the research questions. It began with a qualitative survey to measure a variety of
areas that would inform which barriers were perceived as being the most influential in the
success of a female head of school. In addition to informing the design of the interview protocol,
the survey measured female heads' perceptions of the hiring process, the gendered perceptions of
leadership in independent schools, the barriers (self-imposed or otherwise) limiting women's
opportunity to achieve a head-of-school position, and beliefs about trustees' role in the success of
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 104
a female head of school. Next, the researcher used the survey data to inform the interview
protocol. Five heads of school were interviewed. The interview data was meticulously analyzed
to uncover overarching themes and subcategories. The next part of the discussion took to
understanding the emerging patterns in the head's responses of perceived barriers, gendered
hiring practices, self-imposed barriers, and the role of trustees.
In terms of informing Research Question 1, the data collected revealed three overarching
themes which revealed the most important barriers women confront in attempting to achieve a
head-of-school position; these barriers are: the perception that women will allow their emotions
to influence administrative decisions, the perception that trustees think women are not strong
facility/business managers, and the perception that trustees think women are unqualified to
handle budget or finance. In terms of informing Research Question 1 a, the data collected
revealed two overarching themes. The first theme uncovered women's perceptions of how
private school culture reproduces a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process,
when trustees make assumptions about female candidates and their roles and responsibilities in
family life, and how familial responsibilities might impact a female candidate's commitment to
the head-of-school position. The second theme brought light to women's perceptions of how
private school culture reproduces a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process,
by means of a powerful culture of fraternity in independent schools, whereas men find comfort,
confidence, and ease in their upward career mobility. In terms of informing Research Question
1 b, the data collected revealed the greatest self-imposed barrier for women is the confidence gap
experienced when attempting to achieve headships. In terms of informing Research Question 2,
the data collected revealed that, in order for trustees to contribute positively to the success of a
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
female head of school, trustees must first, be outwardly supportive of the head in the school
community.
105
The findings gathered from this study revealed which dynamics in our independent
schools present as uniquely challenging for female heads. The heads in this study presented
valuable information regarding how we can adj ust the dynamics of independent school culture in
order to make headship more accessible for female leaders in the pipeline. In terms of
maintaining the head-of-school position, every head of school in the study emphasized the need
to establish, develop, and nurture a network of female professional peers. Although personal
networking is an element of the recruiting process, it alone will not produce the variety of leaders
needed in the coming decade (Robertson, 2016); and, in the growing midst of retirees, there is an
increasing demand for talent and a desire to establish creative ways of finding and recruiting new
leaders (Tierney, 2006).
Chapter 5 includes a summarization of research, practice, and recommendations.
Recommendations are provided for aspiring female heads of school and for independent school
boards of trustees. In chapter 5, there will also be a brief discussion of limitations and
recommendations for further study.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 106
Chapter 5: Conclusions
Independent schools face large-scale leadership transitions. The National Association of
Independent Schools (NAIS) 2010 leadership report stressed, "perceptions regarding the
demands of the head of school position, needs for improvement in the search process, and
barriers to the participation of people of color and women in leadership roles must be addressed
as we face this potential crisis" (p. 4 ). Women make up only a third of independent school heads
nationally (NAIS, 2010), and with only recently developed mentorships, leadership development
programs, and executive coaches aimed directly at cultivating female leaders, the research
indicated there may not be enough women in the pipeline to see this number grow in time to fill
the vacancies. Through the lens of feminist and attitudes theory, this study examined why the
dearth of female heads of school exists.
There are several studies that contributed to the ongoing conversation about the barriers
limiting women's access to top leadership positions in independent schools. Pernambuco-Wise's
(2011) research contributed to the expanding narrative regarding women's experiences in
leadership training and development for the head-of-school position in independent schools.
Feibelman's (20 13) research contributed to the growing discourse regarding the role that gender
plays in the normalization of independent school headship. The major themes identified in
Gallagher's (2017) qualitative study contributed to the conversation about women and the
perceptions around balancing the head-of-school role and family responsibilities, the lack of
mentorship or encouragement in pursuing a head-of-school role, and, the gendered expectations
of leadership and leadership preparation programs that reflect a masculine expectation of the
head-of-school role.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 107
The significance of this study is to further support the body of research on the barriers
women face when attempting to achieve and maintain the head-of-school position in California
independent schools. The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers women have faced
when attempting to achieve and maintain the head-of-school position. The summary of findings
and implications for practice from this study, focusing on women's career barriers, the hiring
process, and the role of the board of trustees in the success of a female head of school, are
presented in this chapter.
Resear ch Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study.
1. What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to obtain
a position as a head of school?
la. How does private school culture reproduce a gendered perception of leadership
during the hiring process?
1 b. What are the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting to
access a head-of-school position?
2. What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their
success in the head-of-school position?
Summary of Findings
The findings presented in this study were developed by analyzing the data collected. The
purpose of this section is to synthesize the major findings. Several key findings resulted from
this study on the barriers female leaders face in achieving and maintaining the head-of-school
position in independent schools in California, and are pertinent to note herein.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 108
Resear ch Question 1: Bar riers
The intent of Research Question 1 was to learn about the perceived barriers current heads
of school report as the most important during their attempt to access a head-of-school position.
The survey respondents indicated three major barriers in the highest mean range, and which were
confirmed in all five interviews. First, the researcher found that the perception that women will
allow their emotions to influence administrative decisions was a major career barrier to
achieving a head-of-school position, because trustees preferred candidates who were more strong
and stoic, and have enou gh gravitas to perform the job well; and yet, the heads of school in this
study believed the ability to access emotions was a major strength to their leadership styles.
Second, the researcher found that the perception that women are unqualified to handle budget or
finance was a major barrier to achieving the head-of-school position, because female school
leaders are not typically in roles that provide access to finances and budget. The heads of school
believed that the lack of access to experiences in finance was a major barrier in and of itself .
Third, the researcher found that the perception that women are not strong business leaders and
that women lack political savvy was a major barrier to achieving the head-of-school position,
because the gendered norm of independent school leadership aligns the role with traits held more
often by men. All five heads of school recognized the critical importance of having business and
political savvy, and how these traits contribute largely to the success of a head of school; the
major barrier lies in the perception of how these traits are lived out as successfully in women.
Resear ch Question la: Hiring
The intent of Research Question la was to learn about how private school culture
reproduces a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process. The researcher found
that 73% of the survey respondents indicated that discriminatory hiring and promotional
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 109
practices are a major or moderate problem in limiting the head-of-school career opportunity for
women. Survey respondents indicated that the three most commonly asked interview questions
were about (a) details of family life (38.5%), (b) managing work-life balance (46.2%), and
( c) the occupation of a presumed spouse/partner (53.8%). First, the researcher found that when
assumptions are made during the hiring process about female candidates and their familial
responsibilities it reproduces gendered perceptions of leadership, because it questions women's
ability to dedicate time and flexibility to performing the role successfully. Next, the researcher
found that the historical culture of fraternity on which independent schools were founded
reproduces a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process, because it supports the
doctrine that schools must be led by 'Headmasters,' reproducing an unbreakable men's network
of quick and easy mentorship into the head-of-school position.
Resear ch Question lb: Self -Impose d Bar riers
The intent of Research Question lb was to learn about the self-imposed barriers women
placed on themselves when attempting to access a head-of-school position. The researcher found
that 100% of survey participants reported perceiving the head-of-school job as producing very
great or moderate stress, before achieving the position. The greatest self-imposed barrier
reported in this research study was the confidence gap experienced by female leaders. The
researcher found that women questioned their own experience and ability to perform the head-of
school job successfully, contributing to the belief that they exist as imposters to this leadership
role. The researcher found that both the perception of a high degree of stress associated with the
head-of-school position and the perceived level of skill proficiency that women believe is
necessary prior to entering a head-of-school position, played an enormous role in their self
imposing a major obstacle.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 110
Resear ch Question 2: Board of Tr ustees' Role in Head's Success
The intent of Research Question 2 was to learn about what role female heads of school
believe the board of trustees has in their success. In the survey, when female heads of school
were asked if they believe the trustees at their school are well-equipped to develop a woman in
the head-of-school position, 88.5% indicated almost always or always on a 4-point Likert scale.
The researcher found that all heads of school believed the most significant role of the board of
trustees, in their success as female heads of school, is to be outwardly supportive of the head in
the school community. During the interviews, the researcher found that each head of school
expressed an eagerness and commitment to steer and advise their boards of trustees towards
becoming more active in this role. The researcher found that the power of the trustees' positive
messaging in the community about the head of school's skills, competence, and expertise
communicates confidence to the wider community that is necessary for a female head-of
school's success.
Implications for Practice
One of the great things about the leadership of an independent school is that the scale is
relatively small and the contact with all elements of the organization is extensive (Melvoin &
Thompson, 2005 ). Understanding the trends of the independent school demographic is an
important part of contemplating how to reimagine the future of private school leadership in the
21st century. There is a notable lack of research investigating the cultural and institutional norms
that reinforce the gendered nature of school leadership in independent schools, making it
challenging to evaluate the topography of the 21st century leadership outlook. Furthermore,
there are not many research studies that have explored the reasons for the dearth of female heads
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
of independent schools. This research study informs the practice of three groups of
professionals.
111
First, this study informs the practice of aspiring female heads of school by shedding light
on the aggregated data which indicated major barriers to accessing the position, and which
pointed to the significance of self-imposed barriers on women's success. By understanding the
major barriers to achieving the head-of-school job, aspiring female heads can better position
themselves to either overcome a particular barrier ( e. g. seek training in finance), or address a
barrier head-on ( e.g. demonstrate the value of emotional intelligence in decision-making).
Second, this study informs the hiring practices of independent school search committe es by
illuminating the data collected on the inaccurate assumptions made (e.g. during interviews) about
a female candidate's perceived lack of balance between familial responsibilities and a head-of
school position, and by pointing out the subconsciously, gendered perceptions search committees
possess as a result of the historic origination of the private school headmaster. By seeking to
understand how misconceptions and perceptions about aspiring female leaders manifest, search
committees can explore new techniques and protocols for interviewing candidates. Third, this
study informs the practice of private school boards of trustees by pointing to the data on what
role the board of trustees plays in the success of a female head of school. The female heads of
school in this study indicated that the power of the trustees' positive messaging in the community
about the head's skills, competence, and expertise is necessary for a female head of school's
success. While the implications for practice are inspiring and optimistic, there are a few
limitations and delimitations.
The limitations of this study were that it is exploring one type of female leader in
California independent schools. The study examined the experiences of those women who
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 112
achieved a head-of-school position in an independent school in California within the last 10
years. Since the study reviewed only women who attained positions in California private
schools, it limited the generalizability of the results to the state and to private schools. In
addition, limitations were present in the time allotted and the small sample of women self
reporting data. The delimitations of the study were limited to four areas: the gender of Heads of
School ( women), the type of institutions (independent schools), the geographic region
(California), and the number of female heads of school surveyed and interviewed. These are my
findings, given this bounded study.
Futur e Resear ch
The findings in this study raised compelling questions that warrant future research.
Interview topics bled into additional realms, which could not be explored more deeply in this
particular study, and which informed recommendations 2, 3, and 4, below. The following are
recommendations for future study:
1. Conduct future research in other states, in addition to California, to determine if female
heads of school in other regions experience similar barriers, or have common perceptions
about the role of the board of trustees in their success.
2. Attempt to identify the link between heads of school who have prior experience in
finance/business and leadership success.
3. Further, explore head-of-school search committees and their perceptions of and practices
for hiring female heads of school.
4. Examine the experiences of women who are in senior leadership positions in independent
schools, but, are not in the head-of-school position. Studying this group of women may
help identify new or different barriers.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 113
5. Further explore the role of the board of trustees in a female head-of-school's success, but,
from the trustees' point of view. Studying this group may provide insight into why the
demonstration of outward support, from trustees for the head of school, is so impactful in
independent school communities.
Concluding Remar ks
At the core of this study was the desire to uncover the major barriers for women
attempting to achieve and maintain the head-of-school position through a feminist and attitudes
lens in order to provide insight into the underrepresentation of female heads of school. In
addition to the key findings in this study, important lessons were extracted from the female
heads. It is crucial for female heads of school to be role models and to mentor other women into
head-of-school positions, for women to see themselves as equally capable as their male peers,
and for women to educate each other on how to address obstacles and misconceptions that get in
the way of achieving career success. Women perform a powerful role in the success of their
female peers and have the capacity to confront gendered perceptions. Although this study
contributes to the body of literature by documenting the experiences of female heads of school
and career barriers, discriminatory hiring practices, and trustees as gatekeepers, a large
discrepancy continues to exist in the number of female heads in California and nationally in
independent schools. Women are natural born connectors, stewards, and servant leaders, and
must be recognized for their vital skills that come naturally to developing and sustaining
organizations of the 21st century.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 114
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Tables
Table 1
Survey and In terview Selection Cr iteri a of Female Heads of School
Survey
Participants
26
Interview
Participant
Head of
school -1
Head of
school -2
Head of
school -3
Head of
school -4
Head of
School -5
Relevant
Criteria 1
Female
Volunteered
through Survey
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Relevant
Criteria 2 Relevant Criteria 3
Head of
school in
CAIS
accredited
institution Hired within last 1-10 years
# of Ye ars Role Prior to Achieving
in Head- Headship
of-school
Position
4 years Middle School Division Head
3 years Assistant Head of School
2 years Middle School Division Head
1 year Lower School Division Head
3 years High School Division Head
131
Length
of
Interview
39 min.
58 min.
40 min.
42 min.
45 min.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 132
Table 2
Survey Design
Part I Part II Part III Part IV Part V
( did not target RQ # 1 RQs # la & lb RQ # 1 RQ #2
specific
RQ)
Demographic Perceived Gendered Experience Perceptions women
information barriers perceptions of with most have about the role
when trying leadership important of the board of
to obtain during hiring; career trustees in the
head-of- self-imposed barriers success of a female
school barriers head of school
position
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Table 3
Likert Scales in Survey Design
Part III
no stress, little stress, moderate
stress, very great stress
major problem, moderate
problem, minor problem, no
problem
Part IV
a major barrier, somewhat of a
barrier, not a barrier, don't know
important factor, somewhat
important factor, not a factor,
don't know
Part V
never, sometimes,
often, always
13 3
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 134
Table 4
Barr iers In dicated in the Highest Mean Range
2. 0 2. 16 2. 17 2. 3
Perception that Perception of trustees Perception of Lack of mobility for
women will allow that women are not trustees that family members
their emotions to strong women are
influence facility /business unqualified to
administrative managers handle budget or
decisions finance
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Table 5
Number of Female Heads Re porting Gendered Questioning During Their Hiring Pr ocess
Questions pertaining to the
details of family life
( e.g. age/number of
children; household
responsibilities)
Indicated by 38.5%
( 10 respondents)
Questions pertaining to
work-life balance
Indicated by 46.2%
( 12 respondents)
Questions pertaining to the
occupation of a
spouse/partner
Indicated by 53.8%
(14 respondents)
135
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 136
Figures
Female
35. 5'¾
Male
64.5%
Figure A. Independent School Heads by Gender, 2017-2018
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 137
Figure B. Triangulation of the Data
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
self-imposed
barriers
regarding
work/family
expectations
hiring and
succession
practices
implemented
by boards of
trustees
Women Achieving Senior Leadership
Positions in 21
1
st Century Schools
Figure C. Conceptual Framework
138
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
In your opin ion, to what extent are discriminatory hiring and promotional
practices a problem in limiting the he ... school career opportunity for women?
26 responses
e major problem
e moderate problem
e minor problem
e no problem
Figure D. Extent to which Discriminatory Hiring/Promotional Practices are a Problem in
Limiting the Head-of-school Career Opportunity for Women
139
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 140
The head of school position is often descri bed as a stressfu l occu pation.
Before you started, what degree of stre . ..id you perceive the position entailed?
26 respo nses
e no str ess
e lit tle stress
e moder ate stress
e very gr eat stress
Figure E. Degree of Stress Female Heads Perceive about the Position Prior to Acquisition
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
self-imposed
barriers
induced by
having a
confidence
hiring
practices
implemented
by boards of
trustees
D
Women Achieving Senior Leadership Positions in
21 st Century Schools
Figure F Conceptual Framework 2. 0
141
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
I believe female heads of school are evaluated on more stringent criteria
than male heads of school.
26 responses
15
10
5
0
0(0%)
I
12 (46.2%)
I
3(11.5%)
I
3
Figure G. Female Heads' Perceptions about Gendered Evaluation Practices
11 (42.3%)
4
142
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
I believe that the trustees at my school are wel l equipped to develop a
woman in the head of school position.
26 respo nses
15
10
5
0
1 (3.8%)
r 7
13 (50% )
10 (38.5%)
r
2 (7.7%) l
2 3 4
Figure H Female Heads' Perceptions about Trustees' Ability to Develop a Female Head of
School
143
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Appendix A: Introductory Letter
The following introduction accompanied the survey:
Dear Sitting Female Heads of School,
144
You were selected to participate in this survey because you have achieved headship in a
CAIS accredited school and are serving in your first 15 years of headship. This survey focuses
on examining the barriers women face in attempting to achieve and maintain the head-of-school
position in California independent schools. Given that women make up 80 % of middle
managers (NAIS, 2019), women are under-represented in headships. In addition to evaluating
career barriers for women (self-imposed or otherwise), this study investigates the gendered
perceptions of leadership that play out during the hiring process, and explores the perceived
significance of the board of trustee's role in the success of a female head of school. Your
participation in this survey has tremendous value in what it adds to the cluster of research on this
important topic, however, your participation is entirely voluntary. All answers are private,
confidential and anonymous.
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4111/2 019
Appendix B: Survey
Survey: Barners &!:countered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
Surv ey: Barriers Encountered by Women Entering
Independent School Headshi ps in California
This surve y focuses on examining the barriers women face in attempfi ng to achieve and mai ntain the
head of school position in Calif ornia independent schools. In addition to evaluating career barrie rs for
women (self-imposed or otherw ise), this study aims to understand the gendered perceptions of
leader ship that play out dur ing the hiring process, and explores the perceived significance of the
boar d of trustee's role in the success of a femal e head of school.
Any ident� iable information obtai ned in connection with this study will remain con fidentia l. Your
partici pation in this survey adds tr emendous value to the research of this important topic, however,
your invol vement is entirely voluntary. You will not be compensated for your partici pation.
Thank you.
Sarina Fierro, USC doctoral candidate
Part I: Demographics
Answers remain anonymous
1. How many total yea rs were you a school admin istrator, prior to achieving your current
position as head of school?
Mark only one oval.
0
1-4 years
0
5-1 0 years
O 11-15 years
0 16-20years
0
more than 20 years
2. How many school administrativ e positions have you held in your career, prior to becoming
a head of school?
Mark only one oval.
O 1 position
Q 2 posit ions
0
3posi tions
0
4 positions
0
5 or more positions
3. What is the highest earned degree you hold?
Mark onl y one oval.
0 Bachelor's Degree
Q Master's Degree
0 Specialist Deg ree or License
Q Ed.D orPh.D
0 other
Part II: Hiring
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145
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4/11/2 019 Survey: Barners Encountered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
4. How long did it take you to obtain your current head of school position once you were
actively seeking such a position?
Mark only one oval.
0
less than 1 year
0
1 year
0
2 years
0
I was recruited
0
more than 2 years
5. How many head of school positions did you apply to, before achieving your current head
of school position?
Mark only one oval.
0
0
0
1-2
0
3-4
0
5
0
more than 5
6. How many total intervie ws did you rece ive, dur ing the time you were actively searching for
a head of school position?
Mark only one ova l.
0
0
0
1-3
0
4-5
0
more than 5
7. Did a professional search firm and/or search com m ittee manage the search process for
the current head of school position you hold?
Mark only one oval.
Q Yes
Q No
O other
8. How many women, in decis ion-making positions, were part of the interview process for
your current head of school position (e.g. admin, board , search comm ittee)?
Mark only one oval.
0
0
0
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5or more
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BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4/11/2 019 Survey: Barners Encountered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
9. Did you interview directly with any members of the school's board of trustees?
Mark only one oval.
Q Yes
Q No
1 o. How many offers did you receive during that time ?
Mark only one oval.
0
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5or more
Part Ill : Gendered Perceptions of Leadership
11. Have yo u or your partner made any of the following changes in your personal lives to
accommodate the demands of your job as a head of school? (check all that apply)
Check all that appl y.
D I delayed seeking a head of school position until my childr en were older
0 My partner took a less demanding job or a job with greater flexibi lity to a=mmodate the
demands of my job
0 I made sacr ifices for my part ner's job
0 We made no sacrifices
12 The head of school position is often described as a stressful occupation. Before you
starte d, what deg ree of stress did you perceive the position entailed?
Mark only one oval.
O no stress
Q litt le stress
Q moderate stress
Q very great stress
13. During your interview/s for head of school position/s, were you asked questions that
pert ained to (check all that ap ply)
Check all that appl y.
0 details of family life (e.g. age/# of childr en)
0 household responsibilities
0 work ethic
O work -life-balance
0 parenti ng style
0 occu pation of spouse/partner
0 none of the abo ve
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Jn
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4111/2 019 Survey: Barners Encountered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
14. In your opinion, to what extent are discriminatory hiring and promotional practices a
problem in limiting the head of school career opportu nity for women?
Mark only one ova l.
0
major problem
0
moderate problem
0
minor problem
O no problem
Part IV: Barriers
15. Please indicate the degree to which each of the following may be a barrier limiting the
head of school opportu nity for women:
Check all that appl y.
a major somewhat of a not a don' t
barrier barrier barrier know
Search committees do not
□ □ □ □
actively recrui t =m en
Lack of mobili ty for family
□ □ □ □
member s
Lack of opportu n�ies to gain
□ □ □ □
experie nces
Lack of professi onal networks
□ □ □ □
Perception of trustees that
□ □ □ □
\'.Omen are unqualified to
handle budget or financ e
Perception of trustees that
□ □ □ □
=men are not strong
facilit y/business manager s
Perception that women will
allow their emotio ns to
□ □ □ □
influ ence administrative
decisions
Perception that women can't
□ □ □ □
handle diff icult decisions
Perception tha t women are not
□ □ □ □
rational or objec tive enough to
be effective problem solvers
Perception that women are not
□ □ □ □
pol itically astute
Belie f that women are
perceived to be less interested
□ □ □ □
in headship
Belie f that women are mor e
□ □ □ □
dif fic ult to work for than men
Lack of mentors
□ □ □ □
Not having more female role
□ □ □ □
models in leadership
Bel ief that women are
perceived as less motivated
□ □ □ □
beca use they provide a
'seccnd income' for their family
Perception that ccst and
impact of maternfy leave
□ □ □ □
present a problem for the
school
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148
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4111/2 019 Survey: Barners Encountered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
16. Please indicate the degree to which each of the following factors may help advance the
career opportun ities for female administr ators:
Check all that app ly.
important sorrewhat import ant not a dont
factor factor factor know
Know ledge of teach ing and
□ □ □ □
learning
Know ledge of curricul um
□ □ □
Ability to maintain
□ □ □ □
organizational rela tionships
Interperson al skills
IJ □ □
Responsiveness to pa rents
□ □ □ □
and community group s
Management of facilities and
□ □ □ □
budget
Management of students
□ □ □ n
17. What is your perception of the most import ant reason you were employed in your cu rrent
positi on as head of school?
Mark only one oval.
Q personal characteristics (honesty, communication style)
Q potential to be a change agent
0 ability to maintain the status quo
O ability to be an instructi onal leader
Q strong mana gerial skills
Q Other:
Part V: Trustees & the Success of a Female Head of School
Please indicate how you perceive the following state ments
18. I believe head of school sea rch committees should be trai ned in understanding
unconscious bias, prior to interviewing cand idates.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
19. I believe female heads of school are evaluated on mor e stringent criteria than male heads
of school.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
20. I believe that the trustees at my school want me to have more techn ical experience and
training than is required of my male peers.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
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149
sn
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
4111/2 019 Survey: Barners Encountered by Women Entering Independent School Headships in California
21. I beli eve that my mistakes are judged much more harsh ly, given more weight, and
remember ed longer, than my male peers who make mistakes.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
22 I believ e that building a cultu re where women are actively mentored is new terrain.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
23. I beli eve that the trustees at my school are well equipped to develop a woman in the head
of school position.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q alway s
24. I feel confident speaking up to my board of trustees, when problems arise.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never Q Q Q Q always
25. I beli eve that my male peers have a larger support network than I cu rrently do.
Mark only one oval.
2 3 4
never O O O O
alway s
26. Since achieving my headship, I have served in the role of mentor or sponsor for someone
aspiring to be a head of school?
Mark only one ova l.
Q Yes
Q No
Thank you for participating in this anonymous survey. It would
be incredibly helpfu l if you wou ld consider partici pating in a
brief interview. If you are willing to participate, please reply
di rectly to my email or you can reach me at: sfierro@usc.edu
All interviews are conduct ed with the utmost discretion, and identifie rs are removed for complete
privacy and confidentiality.
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150
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 15 1
4/ll/2 019 Survey: Barriers &countered by Women Entcrin: lndcpcodcnt School Headships in California
Po.vered by
I Goog le Forms
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BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
Appendix C: Recruitment Request
Subject Header : ATTENTION_CAIS Sitting Female Heads of School
Dear Sitting Female Heads of School,
You were sel ected to participate in this confidential surv ey because you have achieved
headship in a CAIS accredited school and are serv ing in your first 15 years of headship .
152
I am the lower school division head at an indepe ndent school in Los Angele s. I am
colle cting impor tant data for my doctoral dissertation in Educat ional Leader ship at USC's Rossier
School of Education. The title of my dissertation is: Barriers Encountered by Women Entering &
Maintaining Independent School Headships in California.
This surv ey focuses on examining the barrier s women face in attempting to achieve and
maintain the head of school position in California independ ent schools . In addition to evaluating
career barrier s for women (self-im posed or otherwise), this study aims to under stand the
gender ed per ceptions of leader ship that play out dur ing the hiring pr ocess , and explor es the
perceived significance of the boa rd of trus tee's role in the success of a female head of school.
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confident ial.
Your participation in this surv ey adds tremendous value to the res earch of this impor tant topic,
however , your involvement is entirely volun ta ry. You will not be compensat ed for your participation.
Please click https://forms.gle/EZXqWRxFATUJBzCnZ to begin the surv ey.
(It will take 6-8 minutes to comple te.)
Please consider participating in a 30-minute intervie w with me (by phone or in per son). If
intereste d, ple ase email me at s£ierro@usc.edu
Your contributions are much appr eciated! Thank you in advance , and ple ase contact me if
you have any questions!
Sarina N. Fierr o, Doctoral Candid ate
University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education
3335 S. Figuer oa St., Los Angel es, CA 90007
Appendix D: Interview Protocol
INTER VIEW PROTOCOL
Initials of Interviewee:
Introd uction:
Date:
First, let me start by saying , 'thank you' for agreeing to participate in my study . I appr eciate the
time that you set aside to answer my questions. The intervie w should take about 30 minut es, does
that time frame still work for you and your schedule ?
As you know , I am a doctoral candidat e at USC. I am conducting a study on the barriers women
face in achieving & maintaining the head of school position. I am particularly interested in
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS 15 3
under standing fema le leader s' per ceptions of: barrier s in achieving the hea d of school role , hir ing
practices for the hea d of school position, an d, the role of the board of trus tees in the success of a
fema le hea d of scho ol.
I wa nt to assur e you that I am strictly wearing the hat of resea rcher today . What this means is
that the natur e of my questi ons ar e not evaluat ive. I will not be ma king an y judg ments on how
you ar e per forming as a hea d of school. This interv ie w is also conf ident ial. What that means is
that you r nam e wil l not be sha red in con nection to the per spectiv e you provide.
The data for this study wi ll be compile d in to a di sser tation, and while I do plan on using some of
what you say as dir ect quotes , none of this dat a will be directly attrib uted to you. I will use a
pseudon ym to protect you r confident iality and wil l try my best to de-id entify an y of the dat a I
gather from you. All dat a wil l be de stroyed af ter May 2020. I am happy to provide you with a
cop y of my di ssertation if you ar e in terested .
Now , onto the intervie w: You ar e the perfect partic ipan t for my stu dy! At this point , do you hav e
an y que stions ab out the stu dy be fore we get started? I hav e br ough t a recor der with me today
so that I can accur ately captu re what you sha re with me.
Do I have your permission to record our conversation
2
Let's begin •.•
Part I, Demographic Information: (warm- up)
I'd lik e to start by asking some questi ons ab out you r back ground as an educat ional leader .
(framing )
i. Ho w long hav e you been in the Ho S role ?
ii. Ho w man y hea ds (fe male ? male ?) preced ed you at your cu rrent school?
iii. What role di d you hav e be fore acquir ing a school hea dship position?
iv. Did you hav e an y ment ors, &/or fema le role mod els , in leadersh ip prior to ach ieving
hea dship?
Part n. Perceived Barriers (RQ#l ):
[RQ# 1: What per ceiv ed barrier s do women report as being most impor tant when trying to
obtain a position as a hea d of school? (s oft di ve)]
1. Tell me ab out how you achi eved you r hea d of school position?
a. Ho w di d you know it wa s "the right time" ?
b. Can you de scribe a time dur ing you r sea rch process when you migh t hav e
encountered an obs tacle (self-impo sed or other wise)?
Part m. Beliefs about Gendered Perceptions of Leadership During the Hiring Process :
[RQ#l a Ho w does priva te school culture reproduce a gender ed per ception of leader ship during
the hiring process? RQ#l b. What ar e the self-imposed barriers women pla ce on themse lves when
attempting to acce ss a hea d of school position?]
1. Ho w di d you feel ab out the hir ing process for you r hea d of school position? Were there
an y hig hs/l ows?
a. An early analy sis of the su rvey data revealed = 54% of women we re as ked ab out
the occupa tion of their spouse/p artner ; 46% we re as ked how the y manage work
li fe- balan ce; an d, 39% were ask ed que stions ab out their family lif e-Do you think
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
you r ma le peer s get as ked these same questions dur ing the HoS hir ing process ?
Why do you think that?
15 4
b. 73% of surv ey respond ents reported feeling that di scriminat ory hir ing &/or
promotion al prac tices ar e a problem in li miting the hea d of school caree r
opportun ity for women. What ab out leader ship cultur e in inde pend ent schools , do
you think , might contrib ute to this probl em?
c. Do you think ther e ar e aspe cts of the hir ing process tha t contrib ute to the
gender ed per ception of leader ship in inde pend ent scho ols ? Tell me ab out ho w you
wou ld know that .
d. If you cou ld rec reat e the idea l hir ing process for you r hea d of school position ,
what wou ld it look lik e?
2. To what extent do you think , as women, we self-im pose caree r barr iers? (For example ,
wa iting to begin the sea rch process until we feel our familial responsi bilities ar e ready to
eas e up ••• or , per ceiving the stress of the hea d of school role as being too de ma nding for
women? )
3. Ho w ar e women encou raged towa rds leader shi p oppor tunities at you r school?
a. Do you hav e ideas about how it could be be tter?
Part IV, Most Important Career Barriers for Women
[RQ# l: What per ce ived barrier s do women report as being most important when trying to
obtain a position as a hea d of school? (ha rd di ve)]
1. Surv ey respond ents ind icat ed sev era l top barrier s limiting women's access to the head of
school position, suc h as , the per ception of trus tees that women ar e a) unqua lified to handle
bud get or finance b) ar e not strong facil ity /busi ness mana ger s & c) that women will allow
their emotions to infl uence adm in istra tive de cisio ns. To what extent do you think any of
these per ceptions ar e true? Can you sha re an examp le?
a. To what extent do you think the lack of mobili ty for family is a major barr ier ?
b. To what extent do you think the lack of mento rs/r ole mod els is a major barrier ?
2. Which barrier do you think is the most impor tant in overcoming , to ach ieve a head of
school position?
a. What ab out in attemp ting to maintain a head of school position?
Part V. Trustees and the Success of a Female Head of School:
[RQ# 2: What do female hea ds of school per ce ive as the role of the board of trustees in their
success in the hea d of school position?]
1. 90% of surv ey respond ents indicat ed the y feel the y ar e evaluat ed on mor e stri nge nt
criteria than male hea ds of school. Can you de scribe a time , or provide an example of,
when that mig ht hap pen?
a. 89% of surv ey respond ents indicat ed that their boards of trustees ar e "well
equippe d" to de velop a fema le head of scho ol. In you r opin ion , what mak es a
board "well -eq uipped" to de velop a female head of school?
b. What role do you bel ieve the board of trus tees should pla y in the success of a
fema le head of school?
BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY WOMEN ENTERING K-12 HEADSHIPS
2. How can the boa rd of trustees contribute to you r success in the hea d of school position,
and in a way that changes the culture of leadership?
VI. Closing Question:
Are there any other insights you would like to sha re about ca reer ba rriers, hiring and private
school cultu re, or the role of the boa rd of trustees, that I might not have covered?
VII. Closing Comments:
155
Thank you, I really appreciate your time and willingness to sha re and be open with me. If I find
myself with a follow-up question can I email you?
VIII. Post interview summary and reflection
[ADD shortly after each interview]

Asset Metadata

Creator Fierro, Sarina Naccari (author)

Core Title Barriers encountered by women entering K-12 headships in California private schools

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/08/2020

Defense Date 11/19/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag assumptions,Barriers,board of trustees,California independent schools,female heads of school,gendered perceptions,head-of-school position,hiring practices,OAI-PMH Harvest,private school culture,self-imposed barriers

Language English

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Samkian, Artineh (committee member)

Creator Email sarina.fierro@avenues.org,sfierro@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-303743

Unique identifier UC11666088

Identifier etd-FierroSari-8462.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-303743 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-FierroSari-8462.pdf

Dmrecord 303743

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fierro, Sarina Naccari

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explored the barriers women face when attempting to achieve and maintain the head-of-school position in California independent schools. The following research questions guided this study: (1) What perceived barriers do women report as being most important when trying to obtain a position as a head of school? (1a) How does private school culture reproduce a gendered perception of leadership during the hiring process? (1b) What are the self-imposed barriers women place on themselves when attempting to access a head-of-school position? (2) What do female heads of school perceive as the role of the board of trustees in their success in the head-of-school position? The methodology for this study was a mixed-methods design. There were quantitative and qualitative data collected and analyzed. Surveys were sent to 41 female heads of school in California. From the 26 surveys returned, five heads of school were selected from the volunteers, for one-on-one interviews. This study informs the practice of aspiring female heads of school by shedding light on the aggregated data which indicated major barriers to accessing the position, and which pointed to the significance of self-imposed barriers on women’s success. This study informs the hiring practices of independent school ‘search committees’ by illuminating the data collected on the inaccurate assumptions made (e.g. during interviews) about a female candidate’s perceived lack of balance between familial responsibilities and a head-of-school position, and by pointing out the subconsciously-gendered perceptions search committees possess as a result of the historic origination of the private school headmaster. This study informs the practice of private school boards of trustees by pointing to the data on what role the board of trustees plays in the success of female heads of school.