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Closing the completion gap for African American students at California community colleges: a research study
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Content
Closing the Completion Gap for African American Students at California Community Colleges:
A Research Study
by
Ralph B. Berry III
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2020
Copyright 2020 Ralph B. Berry III
ii
Acknowledgements
This journey of a terminal degree has been an arduous one. I have to thank my mother
for all of her support that made it possible for me to go back to school.
The knowledge and support from so many amazing faculty members such as Dr. Doug
Lynch, Dr. Jennifer Phillips, and Dr. Maria Sanchez will continue to motivate and inspire me for
whatever comes next in my career and beyond. This is my second time studying at the
University of Southern California and it was just as amazing, difficult, and worthwhile as the
first time some thirty years ago.
I can not thank enough the individuals of the Windy Area Community College that
helped an outsider in so many ways. The administration was so open and engaging. I could not
have done this without their continuous support and willingness to help. Their dedication to
closing the completion gap for African American students is unequalled.
Cohort X, my classmates helped in so many ways. As an outsider to education they took
me in and helped me understand the complex but yet rewarding world of education. Without
them I do not even make it through the first semester. I do wish I would have listened to them
more and spoke less.
And finally, my partner Marcy, who provided countless hours of support and was always
there when I needed her. Without her intellect, experience, and knowledge of the educational
system this dissertation and degree would not have been possible. And to everyone out there
facing the trials and tribulations of life, never forget to always Fight On!!!
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice ...................................................................1
Organizational Content and Mission .......................................................................2
Organizational Goal .................................................................................................3
Inclusion Pledge .......................................................................................................4
Related Literature.....................................................................................................5
Significance of Addressing the Problem..................................................................7
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..........................................................................8
Stakeholder Group for the Study .............................................................................8
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................10
Methodological Framework ...................................................................................10
Definitions..............................................................................................................11
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .............................................................................13
Literature Review...................................................................................................13
Community College Context in the United States .................................................13
The Community College System ...............................................................14
The Completion Gap ..................................................................................16
Need for Elimination of the Completion Gap ............................................17
Barriers to Community College Completion .........................................................20
Pre-College Level Coursework ..................................................................20
Part-Time Enrollment ................................................................................21
Insufficient Financial Aid ..........................................................................21
Insufficient Guidance .................................................................................22
Strategies for Improving Completion Rates ..........................................................22
Move Students Quickly through Pre-College Level Courses ....................23
Services for African American Students....................................................24
Strengthen Financial Support .....................................................................25
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework ......................26
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...................27
Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................27
Motivation ..................................................................................................31
Organization ...............................................................................................34
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context ....................................................................................35
iv
Conclusion .............................................................................................................38
Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................................40
Introduction ............................................................................................................40
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................41
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale ..............................................41
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale .......................42
Data Collection and Instrumentation .....................................................................43
Interview Protocol ......................................................................................43
Interview Procedures .................................................................................43
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................43
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................45
Ethics ....................................................................................................................45
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ...................................................................................47
Introduction ............................................................................................................47
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................48
Results and Findings ..............................................................................................50
Research Question 1 ..................................................................................50
Conclusion .................................................................................................64
Research Question 2 ..................................................................................65
Conclusion .................................................................................................68
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation ..............................................................70
Introduction and Overview ....................................................................................70
Knowledge Recommendations ..................................................................71
Motivation Recommendations ...................................................................75
Organization Recommendations ................................................................79
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach ..............................................82
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................83
Future Research for Closing the African American Completion Gap ...................84
Conclusion .............................................................................................................84
References ....................................................................................................................87
Appendices ....................................................................................................................99
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ............................................................................99
v
List of Tables
Table 1. Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Gap Analysis ..........30
Table 2. Motivational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis .....................33
Table 3. Organizational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis ..................35
Table 4. Participant Gender, Race, Pseudonym, Position, TIP, TTE (n=8) ............49
Table 5. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations .....................72
Table 6. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ......................76
Table 7. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ...................80
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Completion Gap Conceptual Framework/Map ..........................................37
vii
Abstract
This dissertation examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences regarding
the completion gap for African American students at the Windy Area Community College, a
mid-sized community college located in Southern California. The impetus for this research study
was to have 40% of African American students complete their degree or certificate programs in
three years. The framework guiding this study was the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis
Framework. This framework, along with the review of literature, was used to identify factors
impacting African American completion rates. The research methodology was a qualitative
approach that leveraged qualitative interviews. Eight Administrators were interviewed. Data
analysis suggests that, in the past year, the WACC administration has undertaken significant
change, and is now on a path to eradicating the completion gap for African American full-time
students. Recommendations address the fortification and support of several assets and strategies
to rectify any needs identified during data collection and analysis. A plan based in training and
education was created. This plan centers around developing a program with and by leadership
that culminates in the development of a completion mindset and an African American
completion gap elimination program within the WACC.
Keywords: African American, California, completion cap, community college, diversity,
equity, inclusion
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Even though college enrollments for African American students have increased, the
completion gap between African Americans and Hispanics and their white, non-Hispanic
counterparts persists and continues to grow (Bensimon, 2005; Ruppert, 2003; Sandoval-Lucero
et al., 2014). To mitigate some of these challenges, new funding mandates, known as Outcome-
Based Funding (OBF), from the state of California will link future operating budgets directly
with equity for students of color (Lorenzo, 2018). The idea is to target more aid directly toward
at-risk students through an outcomes-based funding approach. This concept is also commonly
referred to as performance-based funding; the two terms are interchangeable, with performance-
based funding being the older of the two terms (Lorenzo, 2018). California’s top lawmakers have
reached an agreement on OBF. All that remains is final approval and OBF will be enacted for the
state’s 114 community colleges, which currently enroll 2.1 million students (Fain, 2018). The
strategy of using OBF has been growing in popularity amongst California educational funding
policymakers for several years. For the purposes of this study, the term “outcome-based funding”
will be used.
OBF is meant to target students who will more than likely drop out and end up in debt,
without viable and significant job opportunities for a better life (Lorenzo, 2018). OBF is offered
as a better alternative for state funding of such at-risk students, as opposed to current funding
models based chiefly on enrollment numbers (Lorenzo, 2018). OBF utilizes key metrics to
determine whether an institution is graduating students successfully and on time (Lorenzo,
2018). In short, outcome-based funding is all about completion. OBF was supposed to be signed
into law by Governor Brown in his last few months in office. He placed OBF into committee to
2
await Governor Newsome’s signature. However, as of October 2020, OBF has not been signed
into law by the Governor’s office.
According to the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office 2015 Statewide
Student Success Scorecard, more than half (53%) of all students complete a degree, certificate,
or transfer to a four-year university within six years (Valliani et al., 2015). Additionally,
completion rates for African American students have remained unchanged at 37% for over the
past five years (Valliani et al., 2015). To mitigate these challenges, OBF and soon-to-be enacted
California law will drive the necessary and appropriate changes at California community
colleges and the institution examined in this study. The purpose of this study was to conduct a
gap analysis at one California community college to uncover solutions the institution can use to
increase completion percentages for African American students.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Windy Area Community College (WACC, a pseudonym) is a two-year school
located in Southern California. It encompasses 19,000 students in multiple campus locations. In
terms of community colleges in Southern California, it is “average” in student population size,
although it has been one of the fastest-growing campuses for the past eight years. The WACC is
a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI), which means that at least 25% of its students identify as
Hispanic (Bensimon et al., 2003). Sixty-five percent of the students are female. The College
employs nearly 600 faculty.
The mission of the College surrounds the principles of offering quality, accessible,
equitable, and innovative educational programs, and services to students to help them achieve
their academic, career, and personal development goals. Completion is a pillar for the institution
included in the mission statement. However, in the most recent three-year period, only 17% of
3
full-time African American students completed their degree and certificate programs. In the
same time period, 27% of Asian students and 22% of White students completed their degree and
certificate programs, respectively.
In 2019, the WACC examined internal data which showed full-time African American
students completing degrees and certificates at a rate of 30.4%. This data demonstrates how this
student group is disproportionally impacted when compared to the mean cohort of the students'
reference group, which has a completion rate of 42.5%. This data was taken from a six-year
cycle. The degree and certificate completion data show that full-time African American students
completed at a rate lower than the 80% rule tolerance limit. In further analysis, the WACC
examined additional internal data and found that assessment level placement is a component of
remedial transition and completion rate disparities. This outcome disparity at the WACC was the
basis for this research.
Organizational Goal
Graduating within the specified program period is critically important for students who
are served by community colleges. The Windy Area Community College (WACC) has struggled
with the effectiveness of its student completion plan for the past three years. The plan is based
around the following five pillars: (a) Access, (b) Course Completion, (c) Basic Skills and ESL
Course Completion, (d) Degree and Certificate Completion, and (e) Transfer. Completion rates
and cycle times are a problem for the WACC concerning its full-time African American student
population. Currently, African American students are completing their degrees and certificate
programs at a rate of 17% in three years.
The organization’s new goal is that by May 2022, the Administration and President of the
WACC will create and implement a completion gap elimination program for African American
4
students. This mindset and strategy are designed to increase the existing rate from 17% to 40%,
assisting incoming full-time African American students with completing their certificate or
degree programs in three years.
Inclusion Pledge
In Spring 2019, an equity committee, comprised of administrators, was created at the
WACC. This committee will be discussed in greater detail in a subsequent section. Their first
order of business was to create an inclusion pledge. This pledge was disseminated to the entire
administration for review and adoption by verified signature form. This pledge creates the formal
framework which will help to eliminate the completion gap. This pledge will allow the
institution to focus on its most pressing student issue: the completion gap for full-time African
American students. The inclusion pledge states:
We, the Windy Area Community College Faculty, Classified Professionals, and
Administrators, acknowledge there are systemic barriers that have historically excluded
and prevented equal outcomes for students on the basis of:
• Race/Ethnicity
• Gender Identity and Expression
• Sexuality
• National Origin
• Socioeconomic Status
• (Dis)ability
• Language
• Religion
• Age
5
• Physical Appearance
• Intersections of these identities
Therefore, we are committed to achieving parity in academic outcomes by removing
organizational hurdles and creating an inclusive and culturally affirming learning
environment. As such we are devoted to questioning and challenging perceptions, biases,
and blind spots through self-reflection and constant inquiry to recognize and remove
completion gaps and reinvest in our communities. Our purpose is to commemorate
diversity, instill hope, and empower students to convert their lives and those around them.
Related Literature
Numerous studies have suggested that current strategies are failing traditional minority
students (Bates & Siqueiros, 2019; Bensimon, 2005; Bensimon et al., 2003; Darling-Hammond
et al., 2014; Knoell, 1990; Lorenzo, 2018; Valliani et al., 2015; Young et al., 2012). California’s
community colleges are graduating African American students at lower rates. National research
indicates that more than 80% of community college students intend to earn at least a bachelor’s
degree (Community College Resource Center, 2015). However, data from the California
Campaign for College Opportunity (2019) reports that only 35% of African American students
actually complete their degree programs within six years. California’s community colleges are
the first step for many students who want an Associates of Arts degree, vocational certificate, or
transfer to a four-year institution. According to the Master Plan, one of the community college
system’s most critical missions is to serve as a transfer pathway after completion for either the
workforce or further education (Geiser & Atkinson, 2010). As it stands now, the promise of
completion is failing.
6
Even though some progress has been made in improving completion rates amongst
African American students, concerns remain (Sandoval-Lucero et al., 2014). The first significant
hurdle to completion is enrolling. The second hurdle is the ability to persist until completion.
Regrettably, many African American adults are likely to have some college education but no
degree, coupled with lower completion rates than other racial groups. This is testament to the
fact that the dream of college completion is not realized for many African American students
(Valliani et al., 2015). Several interconnected issues contribute to African American students
leaving college before completion. Significant barriers to completion that must be addressed
include college readiness, part-time college enrollment, insufficient levels of financial aid, and
inadequate guidance for students to help them succeed (Valliani et al., 2015).
Systemic issues within community colleges affect African American student outcomes.
Placement into college-level English and math must be improved to ensure vigorous completion,
transfer, and degree pathways (Bates et al., 2019; The Campaign for College Opportunity, 2019).
Community college leaders must create a welcoming environment that provides African
American students with a strong sense of belonging by increasing the proportion of African
American faculty and staff who reflect the experiences of African American students and
understand their assets and strengths (Bates et al., 2019). Community colleges also need a strong
education data system that will identify trends facing African American students in education,
identifying solutions that work to improve outcomes for students and ensure progress toward
closing completion gaps (Bates et al., 2019).
Individuals within the Administration could have a deficit mindset while valuing
diversity, and at the same time, containing positive attitudes toward increasing African American
student participation and completion in higher education. Still, Administrators could be inclined
7
to attribute differences in African American student educational outcomes, such as lower
completion rates, to cultural stereotypes, inadequate socialization, or lack of motivation and
initiative on the part of the students (Bensimon, 2005). Bensimon (2005) identifies that the
Administration also needs to engage in double-loop learning to focus attention on the root cause
of lowered completion rates for African American students instead of externalizing the issues
and attributing them to forces and circumstances beyond their control, keeping them from
resorting to compensatory strategies such as the treatment for lack of African American student
completion success (Bensimon, 2005). An important purpose of this study was to hold up a
mirror to the WACC as an institution that clearly reflects the status of African American student
completion rates and provides appropriate recommendations for eliminating this completion gap.
Significance of Addressing the Problem
Our future economic prosperity is endangered if large education disparities by race and
ethnicity continue to be ignored (The Campaign for College Opportunity, 2019). It is important
for the organization to create and implement organizational processes that support the graduation
rates of African American students. The organizational performance goal of a new completion
gap elimination program that increases the existing rate from 17% to 40% of incoming African
American full-time students completing their certificate or degree programs in three years will
help drive organizational change. If the organization is not compliant with its goals and
California state mandates, it risks losing general and/or discretionary operational funding.
Funding certainly is not the only reason to do this, but a possible lack of funding would
affect full-time African American students at the institution and all other organizational
stakeholders. Economic consequences for the students, continued education gaps, wealth gaps,
and continued oppression are additional significant reasons to eliminate the completion gap for
8
the full-time African American students on this campus (Alexander, 2001). Proper assessment of
the organization’s performance will allow stakeholders to gather decisive data that can be used to
close the completion gap with programs, processes, and innovative techniques that will
positively impact African American student progress (Bates & Siqueiros, 2019).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholder groups that contribute to and benefit from the achievement of this
organizational goal are the Administration, the faculty, staff and student advisors, and the
students. The Administration is responsible for the creation of action plans and strategies, and the
overall direction with respect to its implementation. The faculty are responsible for
implementing certain aspects of the completion gap elimination program and identifying
struggling students who are referred appropriately. They are also accountable for offering
instruction that helps to eliminate the completion gap. Additionally, the faculty provide upward
feedback to the Administration with examples of success and or failure(s). College staff and
student advisors also help to implement initiatives, as well as provide feedback to the
Administration. Moreover, student advisors work directly on the front lines to help students plan
and select courses, and provide student support services. Students are the beneficiaries; they may
have implementation responsibilities depending on the plan.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
WACC Administrators are the stakeholder group who can create and implement proper
strategies, polices, and programs that will eliminate the African American completion gap. The
goal of the completion gap elimination program is to increase the current rate from 17% to 40%
of incoming African American full-time students completing their certificate or degree programs
9
in three years. An equity committee comprised of eight different WACC Administrators is
directly related to this study because it forms the entire participant group.
The eight members of the equity committee are all leaders and administrators at the
College, but have varying roles in addition to their equity committee roles. Some participants are
full-time administrators, faculty, and counselors/advisors. Each name depicted is a pseudonym.
Jane is the Director of Institutional Research. June is the Faculty Coordinator. Richard is the
Director of TRIO Programs and the A2MEND advisor. Betty is the Interim Dean of Instruction
and a professor of English; she also served as the Puente Coordinator. David is the Director of
the Cultural Program. Regina is the Director of the Cal Works program. Matt is the Basic Skills
Coordinator and a member of the faculty. Finally, Carol is the Director of the EOPS program.
The impetus behind the creation of the equity committee was to address the challenges that
institution faced regarding the African American full-time student group and their low
completion rates.
The equity committee was first established by the executive cabinet of the College in
Spring 2019, but after the assignment of this study to the researcher. Their first order of business
was to create a guiding document to foster a completion mindset at the College called the
inclusion pledge. This pledge was noted earlier in this chapter. The pledge was formally adopted
by the Board of Directors in Spring 2020. This pledge is a living document which allows for its
modification as the need arises. This pledge is an important first step in creating an awareness for
the completion gap concerning full-time African American students for the broader
Administration and the entire organization, which includes faculty, classified staff, and every
single employee of the WACC. After the inclusion pledge, the next charge was to focus on
eliminating the completion gap for African American full-time students at the WACC. The
10
equity committee comprises in its entirety the complete interview group. More data concerning
the individuals on the equity committee is available in Chapter Four.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to uncover knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences and strategies that the Administration can use
to create a completion gap elimination program for full-time African American students. This
program is designed to increase the completion rate of incoming African American students
working on their certificate or degree programs in three years from 17% to 40%. The analysis
focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the
organizational goal. While a complete innovation study would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholder group focused on in this analysis was the WACC
Administration equity committee (“the Administration”).
The following research questions guided the innovation study and addressed knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences for the Administration:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation influences related to increasing the percentage of
full-time African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years
from 17% to 40%?
2. What are the organizational influences related to increasing the percentage of full-time
African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years from 17%
to 40%?
Methodological Framework
This project employed qualitative methods. The goal was to create completion gap
elimination strategies so the WACC can attain its organizational goal via organizational
11
interviews. Research-based solutions were evaluated, reviewed, and recommended in an
innovative and comprehensive manner. This study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008) KMO
framework to select the correct performance solutions.
Definitions
African American: Relating to African Americans or individuals with heritage tracing
back to the continent of Africa originally (Winkle-Wagner, 2015).
Equity: The quality of being fair and impartial. In an educational context, equity is
defined as fairness for all students of color or traditional minority representation (Bensimon et
al., 2003).
Equity mitigation: In an educational context, programs or processes that allow traditional
minorities fairness with educational opportunities as white or Asian (in this case non-affected
groups) (Bensimon et al., 2015).
Community college: A college offering courses for two years beyond high school, either
as a complete training or in preparation for completion at a four-year college (Dowd, 2005).
Completion: The act of earning a degree, vocational certificate, or transfer to further
higher education (Valliani et al., 2015).
Pre-college level coursework: Classes prior to community college that demonstrate the
student’s readiness for college classes and curriculum (Valliani et al., 2015).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the key concepts
and terminology commonly found in a discussion about completion gap elimination for African
American students at the community college level. The organization’s mission, goals,
stakeholders, and the framework for the project were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review
12
of current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of completion policy, state and
federal mandates, and funding will be addressed. Chapter Three details the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational elements to be examined, as well as the methodology used, the
choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing
the perceived gaps.
13
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Literature Review
Chapter Two provides a review of the literature that addresses the major variables and
factors that were used to investigate the causes of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
issues that contribute to full-time African American student completion gaps. These gaps lead to
longer time to degree completion for African American students (Sandoval-Lucero et al., 2014).
This chapter is divided into five major sections. The first section will define and discuss
the community college system and its context in the United States and the state of California.
This section will also explore the completion gap within the boundary of minoritized and full-
time African American community college students and the need for elimination of the
completion gap (Shapiro & Dundar, 2013). The second section will examine the barriers to
completion for full-time African American students. The third section will address the strategies
for completion for full-time African American students. The fourth section details the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis model. The fifth section outlines the knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences pertaining to this study. The chapter concludes with a presentation of the
conceptual framework guiding this study.
Community College Context in the United States
The community college system in the United States and California is large, but in
disarray due to budget cuts from the 2008 global financial crisis. Currently, the community
college system is not eliminating the completion gap for full-time African American students.
This section provides the general context for the community college system, details the
completion gap, and the need for its eradication.
14
The Community College System
As America’s largest system of higher education, community colleges enroll nearly 40%
of all U.S. undergraduates (Burns, 2010; Dowd & Shieh, 2014). Increasingly, community
colleges are tasked with the responsibility of serving populations with higher need, but have
fewer resources to do so (Burns, 2010; Dowd & Shieh, 2014). The fiscal impact on community
colleges translates directly into an adverse impact on students who deserve attention from a
completion perspective (Burns, 2010; Dowd & Shieh, 2014). Society suffers because it relies on
community colleges to provide a gateway to higher education, and for the underrepresented who
select community colleges over other types of institutions in large numbers (Dowd & Shieh,
2014).
The overall character of community colleges is changing and the budget damage from
years of state disinvestment have taken a toll (Dowd & Shieh, 2014). The situation varies, but the
primary impact of fiscal belt-tightening in community colleges due to the economic recession of
2008 and an overall reduction in state funds allocated for education has been a reduction in
classes offered and a down-sizing in the number of personnel available to assist students (Bohn
et al., 2013). The divestment in public higher education after the economic crisis of 2008
rendered into a greater decrease in per student resources at community colleges compared to in
any other sector of higher education (Baum et al., 2013). In 2010, public associate degree
granting colleges experienced declining resources, resulting in 5.3% decrease in average state
subsidy per full-time student (Dowd & Shieh, 2014). Budgets are currently in flux due to the
coronavirus and the complete loss of funds remains to be seen, but further decreases could
hamper many completion programs on community college campuses state and nationwide.
15
The number of credentials and degrees generated per 100 undergraduates enrolled in
California’s community colleges is amid the lowest in the country (Valliani et al., 2015). In
2012, on average, approximately nine certificates and degrees were awarded per 100 enrolled
community college undergraduates (Valliani et al., 2015). During the same time period, African
American students were awarded 8.2 certificates and degrees per 100 enrolled students. This is
the same average from ten years ago, indicating that no progress for African American students
has been made (Moore et al., 2014).
Currently, California community colleges are not obligated to prepare students for
assessment tests, the tests generally vary by campus, and students are not allowed to retake tests
within a one-year interval (Brown & Niemi, 2007). Regrettably, many students are not aware of
the magnitude of these tests or the impact that they will have on their ability to complete a
certificate or degree in a timely manner (Venezia et al., 2010). Research from the Community
College Research Center at Columbia University found that assessment tests inaccurately place
students into pre-college level course work (Belfield & Crosta, 2012). Pre-college level course
work does not count toward graduation, so students can get stuck in an endless loop of taking
classes repeatedly and not making any strides towards completion (Venezia et al., 2010).
To tackle the issues associated with these placement tests, the California Community
Colleges Chancellor’s Office developed the Common Assessment Initiative (CAI) (Chancellor’s
Office, 2014). This initiative created a Common Assessment System (CAS) for all California
community colleges, containing test preparation, test delivery, test administration, data
collection, and course placement guidance (Valliani et al., 2015). The pilot program launched in
2017, but with 113 state community colleges, it is impossible to make this new system available
to all schools at once (Valliani et al., 2015). Also, there is not a requirement for full
16
implementation if a college already has an appropriate system in place (Valliani et al., 2015).
The primary goals are to increase the effectiveness and accuracy of test placement, lower
remediation rates, increase student appreciation of importance of assessment tests, improve
student participation, and generally reduce cost of assessment-related activities (Valliani et al.,
2015).
Thus far, singular California community colleges have been directing their own
initiatives to redesign the assessment process (Valliani et al., 2015). One innovative campus,
Long Beach City College, began experimenting using numerous measures, such as grade point
average or high school transcripts, to assess students’ levels of proficiency instead of just using
placement tests (Belfield & Crosta, 2012). The results are impressive, with completion times
shortening and more degrees and/or certificates earned, indicating that the use of multiple
measures is a superior indicator of how well students will perform in college level work (Scott-
Clayton et al., 2012).
The Completion Gap
Community colleges have the lowest rate of completion among all educational
institutions, with only 39.1% of students who started at a community college completing a
degree (certificate, associate, or bachelor’s degree after six years) (Juszkiewicz, 2015).
Community colleges are important postsecondary entry points for African American students,
with 44% of African American undergraduates enrolled at community colleges (Ma & Baum,
2016). However, completion rates reflect racial inequities. Thirty-one percent of African
American students earned an associate degree or higher, compared with 54% of White students
and 72% of Asian students (American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2016).
17
The number of traditional minoritized students who go to college and graduate has
increased, but the gap between African Americans and Hispanics and their white, non-Hispanic
counterparts still exists and continues to grow (Shapiro & Dundar, 2013). African American
students still lag behind Whites in finishing college (Sandoval-Lucero et al., 2014). Access is no
longer an issue. The assumption that educational progress has been made beyond access into
higher education for African Americans and Hispanics is simply not supported by evidence
(Nguyen et al., 2012).
The completion gap for these groups is considerable nationwide and has not moderated in
the last 15 years (Nguyen et al., 2012). In an Education Trust study, completion rates for African
American students have largely remained stagnant over time, with slight dips from 2004 to 2010
(Nguyen et al., 2012). In 2004, 41.2% of African American students completed their community
college programs in six years, compared to 40.6% in 2010 (Nguyen et al., 2012).
Oddly, inequity in educational outcomes in higher education has not been as prominent
an issue as the educational gaps between white and minority K-12 students (Bensimon et al.,
2003; Young et al., 2012). Under the No Child Left Behind legislation, K-12 institutions are
required to report all of their data disaggregated by race and ethnicity. Analogous requirements
for higher education are not required; thus, lessening the mainstream discourse for these policy
and procedural failures affecting students of color (Harper et al., 2009). Educational opportunity
for underrepresented groups has traditionally been framed by affirmative action and diversity
(Bensimon et al., 2003; Harper et al., 2009).
Need for Elimination of the Completion Gap
Today, education for traditional minoritized students in the United States is at a crisis
point (Young et al., 2012). When underrepresented students are not provided with the same
18
opportunity to receive a world-class education as other students, they are denied the chance to
completely fulfill their capacity as students, workers, and citizens (Young et al., 2012). The
present conditions of education for underrepresented students will not improve unless
determined efforts are made to effect change from educators, politicians, policymakers,
researchers, and parents (Young et al., 2012). Hence, this study was needed.
One of the most urgent and intractable problems in higher education is inequality in
educational outcomes for historically underserved groups (Bensimon, 2005; Harper et al., 2009).
The persistence of unequal educational outcomes for racial and ethnic groups that have a history
of discrimination is not a learning problem of students; rather, it is a learning problem of
institutional actors, faculty members, administrators, counselors, and others (Malcolm-Piqueux
& Bensimon, 2017). The development of completion as a cognitive frame is important for
individuals whose institutional roles can influence whether students are successful or not
(Bensimon, 2005). The key to alleviating completion issues lies heavily with the administration
of any higher education institution.
Inequality is one of the most enduring characteristics of our nation’s higher education
system (Harper et al., 2009; Malcom-Piqueux & Bensimon, 2017). The evidence revealed that
racial and class-based disproportions in college access, enrollment, and completion still persist
despite years of programmatic and policy efforts to counter them (Malcom-Piqueux &
Bensimon, 2017). Researchers found that differences in college enrollment and college
completion among historically disregarded and White and affluent populations have widened
(Witham et al., 2015). The true upside to this situation is that policymakers and institutional
leaders must increasingly focus their energies, efforts, and resources on creating completion in
higher education (Malcom-Piqueux & Bensimon, 2017).
19
In the current globalized, technology-centered economy, a state’s well-being depends
on an educated workforce (Bensimon et al., 2003; Lee, 1999). Treating completion in
educational consequences as a matter of institutional accountability is a matter for and of the
public interest (Bensimon et al., 2003; Harper et al., 2009). Policymakers in majority-minority
states want to know whether the higher education results for underrepresented populations
can effectively meet economic and workforce needs in the future (Bensimon et al., 2003; Young
et al., 2012).
African Americans have placed a high value on education for generations and require
fairness with respect to their completion rates (Winkle-Wagner, 2015). African Americans have
historically been marginalized in the larger society and higher education (Banks, 2009; Moses,
1989). The research shows that African American students have increased their enrollment rates
in the past 20 years, up from 31% of 18-24-year-olds to 37%, but their graduation (completion)
rates remain behind those of White students (Winkle-Wagner, 2015).
Additionally, research data from 2018 shows that, of all the two-year degrees earned that
year, 53% where completed by White students, while only 12% where realized by African
American students (Duffin, 2020). Greater completion rates for African American students will
increase their socialization and ascension into the middle-class and beyond (Stanton-Salazar,
1997). Higher education can be the key to middle-class ascension. Higher education has been
characterized as one of the greatest hopes for intellectual and civic progress in this country
(Harper et al., 2009). Researchers have identified that higher education is a public good, through
which individual participation amasses benefits for the larger society (Kezar et al., 2005; Lewis
& Hearn, 2003).
20
Despite this, recent inquiry has confirmed that too few African Americans are offered
access to the socioeconomic advantages associated with college degree completion (Harper et al.,
2009). In several ways, this continuing struggle for racial equity is surprising, given the number
of polices that have been enacted to close college completion gaps between African Americans
and their White equivalents at various junctures throughout the history of higher education
(Harper et al., 2009). These policies include a focus on completion, more financial aid, and
curriculum changes; to date, these policies have fallen short of increasing overall completion
percentages (Harper et al., 2009).
Barriers to Community College Completion
There are numerous barriers to community college completion including: (a) pre-college
level coursework, (b) part-time enrollment, (c) insufficient financial aid, and (d) insufficient
guidance (Belfield & Crosta, 2012; Valliani et al., 2015).
Pre-College Level Coursework
When students apply to a community college in California, they are compelled to take
assessment tests in English and math, and the results of these tests determine their individual
level of proficiency or college readiness in a particular subject (Belfield & Crosta, 2012; Valliani
et al., 2015). If students do not exhibit college readiness on these assessment tests, they are
required to take pre-college level courses, also called remedial or basic skills courses (Belfield &
Crosta, 2012; Valliani et al., 2015). Depending on the campus, students can be placed one to four
levels below college-level courses and are required to take each course successively before they
can begin college-level curriculum in that subject (Valliani et al., 2015). Credits awarded in pre-
college level coursework at community colleges can, but do not always, count toward
21
completion, thereby extending the time students are enrolled in college and costing students
more (Belfield & Crosta, 2012).
Part-Time Enrollment
A substantial barrier to graduation is the practice of enrolling in college less than full-
time, which equates to fewer than 15 credits per term or 30 credits per year (Valliani et al.,
2015). In general, African American students are more likely to be enrolled part-time than their
White counterparts (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Students are faced with the choice
between either working to earn money to support themselves and their families or focusing on
their course work to move along in their degree programs (Valliani et al., 2015). Research shows
that working excessive hours while enrolled in college can significantly extend the time to
completion (Bound et al., 2012).
Insufficient Financial Aid
In times of fiscal uncertainty, attention to current trends in community college enrollment
and completion is appropriate for understanding how changes in financial aid, tuition rates, and
course requirements impact students at public two-year institutions (Dowd & Shieh, 2014). As a
result of higher education budget cuts after 2007, colleges increased tuition and fees to make up
for lost state funding (Valliani et al., 2015). Higher education cost(s) for students means that a
larger number of students require financial aid to fund their college education (Bates &
Siqueiros, 2019). In California, the California Student Aid Commission serves as the principle
agency accountable for administering the many state financial aid programs, including the Cal
Grant program (Valliani et al., 2015). Many African American students do not complete the
FAFSA or file for a Cal Grant even though they are eligible for the aid (Valliani et al., 2015).
These low application rates come at a cost to students. In 2009-2010, approximately half a
22
million California community college students who were eligible to receive federal grant aid left
nearly $500 million on the table in Pell grants alone (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).
Insufficient Guidance
Completing a certificate or degree program at a California community college can be
complicated and difficult. Many students require guidance traversing the process (Valliani et al.,
2015). Quality advising is vital to student success, but a shortage remains. The median student-
counselor ratio at California’s community colleges is 756 to 1 (The Campaign for College
Opportunity, 2014). The recommended ratio is 370 to 1 (Academic Senate, 2003). Reduced
counseling can leave students feeling confused, overwhelmed, and without a clear understanding
of degree requirements or specified pathway to completion.
Quality academic advising serves a prominent role in the success of community college
students (Allen et al., 2013). Advisors provide students with accurate information about degree
requirements and help students comprehend how things work at their institution (i.e.,
understanding timelines, policies, and procedures regarding registration, financial aid, grading,
graduation, petitions, and appeals) (Allen et al., 2013). Individuation is a key function for
advisors because it includes factors and functions that include knowing students as individuals
and taking into consideration their cultural situations, unique skills, interests, and abilities (Allen
et al., 2013; Smith & Allen, 2006).
Strategies for Improving Completion Rates
There are several strategies for improving completion rates for African American
students including: (a) move students quickly through pre-college level courses, (b) student
services for African American students, and (c) strengthen financial support (Bailey et al., 2010;
Perun, 2015; Valliani et al., 2015).
23
Move Students Quickly through Pre-College Level Courses
Pre-college level studies is one of the biggest factors in determining whether student’s
complete college (Valliani et al., 2015). The majority of African American students test into pre-
college or remedial level coursework; thus, this is a critical issue regarding African American
students completing their certificate or degree programs (Valliani et al., 2015). Use of multiple
measures of assessment will help to appropriately place incoming students in pre-college level
coursework, limit course loads, and shorten time to completion cycles. Redesigning delivery of
pre-college level course burdens to help more students successfully persist through to college-
level work include not limited to scaling promising accelerated, contextualized, and compressed
delivery methods (Valliani et al., 2015).
However, the eradication of pre-college level coursework is essential to African
American student success. Research demonstrates that most students who enroll in
developmental education never pass a college level course (Perun, 2015). Using the national
Achieving the Dream database, Bailey (2009) approximated that more than half (56%) of
community college students who enrolled in any developmental education course did not enroll
in a college-level course within three years. Many failed out or withdrew (Bailey et al., 2010).
For those students who did pass their developmental coursework and enrolled in a
college-level course, an estimated 25% failed (Bailey et al., 2010). More large-scale survey
research is needed to shed light on why students in developmental education withdraw or fail
before passing a college-level course (Perun, 2015). Most educational outcomes are produced in
the classroom, and that is where more research is needed to understand what happens between
content, professors, and students (Perun, 2015).
24
Services for African American Students
Nearly two-thirds of African American high school graduates are not properly prepared
for college by their school (Bates & Siqueiros, 2019). High schools are failing to provide access
and relative support to ensure that African American students are completing college preparatory
courses with a C or better (Bates & Siqueiros, 2019). Efforts should educate students and their
families, as early as middle school, about different financial aid options, college eligibility
criteria, differences between types of colleges, and the complicated college application process
(Valliani et al., 2015).
The U.S. Department of Education recognizes seven characteristics that increase
students’ risk of not succeeding in college: (a) delaying post-secondary enrollment, (b) receiving
a GED or not completing high school, (c) being financially independent of one’s parents, (d)
being a single parent, (e) having dependents other than a spouse (children or extended family),
(f) attending college part-time, and (g) working full-time (Horn & Premp, 1995). In 1999-2000,
the average number of risk factors for all undergraduates was 2.2 per student (Greene et al.,
2008). However, for African American students, the average was 2.7 per student (Horn et al.,
2002).
Possession of any one risk characteristic greatly increases a student’s possibility of
leaving college without a credential, and for students who possessed two or more risk
characteristics, only 25% eventually earned a degree or certificate (Bradburn, 2002). Typically,
community college students contend with more academic risk than their four-year peers (Greene
et al., 2008). The WACC has to understand and create service offerings on campus that cater to
African American students who are more likely to be financially independent, single parents,
attend college part-time, and work full-time (Hoachlander et al., 2003; Horn & Nevill, 2006).
25
Strengthen Financial Support
Financial aid systems need to be created that help African American students and their
families afford the full cost of college, not just tuition (Bates & Siqueiros, 2019). Increase the
number of students who complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) by
educating middle and high school students and their parents early and often about financial aid,
the FAFSA, and their individual options (Valliani et al., 2015). Ensure students maximize
current programs by applying for all aid that is available, they are eligible for, and that does not
leave any money on the table.
The research shows that financial concerns are significant barriers to African American
college enrollment and completion (Abrica & Martinez, 2016). The federal financial aid system
was designed with the assumption that college students are dependent on their parents and attend
college full-time, and that their parents are able to financially contribute to their college costs and
expenses (Campbell et al., 2015; Cruse et al., 2018). Federal and state financial aid policies have
been found to contribute to inequities in access and completion outcomes for community college
students (Alexander, 2001; Campbell et al., 2015; Goldrick-Rab, 2010, 2016).
Financial aid is critical to persistence. Research findings have shown that a lack of
financial aid was the top reason that African American students attending community colleges
seriously considered leaving their colleges (Gipson et al., 2018). Changes to the financial aid
system over the past decade, with an emphasize on loans, tax credits, and merit aid, place a
disproportionately higher college cost burdens on African Americans (Elliot & Friedline, 2013).
Several studies have examined which types of aid are most effective in improving student access
and completion (White & Dache, 2020).
26
Grant aid appears to be the most effective for low-income and non-White students (White
& Dache, 2020). Conversely, loan aid has been found to have a negative effect on the persistence
of African American students (Kim, 2007; Paulsen & St. John, 2002). The financial aid system’s
new dependency on debt leaves low-income and African American students with higher loan
balance and causes these students to leave college without a credential at higher rates (Huelsman,
2015).
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a methodical, analytic framework that clarifies
organizational and stakeholder performance goals, and identifies the gap between the actual
performance level and performance goal. Once the gap is identified, this framework investigates
the stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that may impact
performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge and skills, recognized by Krathwohl
(2002), are divided into four types: (a) factual, (b) conceptual, (c) procedural, and (d)
metacognitive. These knowledge types are used to decide if stakeholders know how to achieve
their requisite performance goal(s). Motivation influences include the choice to consider goal
achievement, continuation of work towards said goal, and the mental effort to realize the goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Motivational principles such as self-efficacy, group-
efficacy, and attribution theory can be considered when analyzing the performance gap
(Bandura, 2000; Pekrun, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Finally, organizational influences on stakeholder
performance to consider may include institutional processes, resources, and school culture (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Each of the elements of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis are addressed in terms of the
Administration’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to meet their performance
27
goal of 40% of full-time African American students graduating in three years. The first section
will discuss the assumed influences on the stakeholder performance goal in the environment of
knowledge and skills. Next, assumed influences on the attainment of the stakeholder goal from
the viewpoint of motivation will be considered. Finally, assumed organizational influences on
achievement of the stakeholder goal will be explored. Each of these assumed stakeholder
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance will be examined through
the methodology presented and discussed in Chapter Three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Krathwohl (2002) discusses four types of knowledge types. Declarative knowledge is
understanding a particular field or area of interest by becoming acquainted with or knowing the
skills needed to work within that field or specific discipline (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual
knowledge relates to grasping basic elements of a concern or idea, and how they form and work
together to create relationships that create an overarching concept, outline of an idea, or
developed structure (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge is defined by Krathwohl (2002) as
comprehension concerning the criteria, steps, methods, and knowledge of how to do something
or how to determine appropriate techniques and methods of doing and implementing a task.
Finally, metacognitive knowledge is self-awareness of how an individual’s mind and mental
ability function (Krathwohl, 2002). For the purposes of this study, factual, conceptual, and
metacognitive knowledge types were utilized to innovate concerning the problem of practice and
research questions. Using these knowledge types can help address the stakeholder and
organizational goal of having shorter completion times for African American students.
28
Declarative Knowledge: Awareness of Current Completion Rates
Leaders in higher education pay attention to what is measured, so it follows that if
academic outcomes for African American students are not assessed regularly, one can expect
inequalities in outcomes to remain (Bensimon & Harris, 2007). Collecting data on African
American student outcomes needs to be a standard practice in community colleges such as the
WACC. This data on African American student outcomes and its analysis is required for
organizational learning and administration awareness, and it is critical in eradicating the
completion gap for African American students at the WACC.
Research has shown that the use of data can help the institutions of higher education
innovate and increase their African American student completion rates (Fairlie et al., 2014). Data
collected and analyzed by the WACC regarding its African American students will lead to the
Administration’s declarative knowledge, as well as declarative knowledge for the faculty and
staff. This knowledge development is predicated on the data being shared in an appropriate
manner. The collection, analysis, and dissemination of data will help the Administration
eliminate the completion gap.
Administration comprehension of the graduation timelines of African American students
is essential to remedying this important issue. Organizational awareness is also important for the
organizational and stakeholder goals. The Administration, at all levels, require awareness of the
current state and the desired state of African American student completion rates. Without a basic
level of awareness, the stakeholders may fail to reduce African American completion rates.
Applied to this study, the use of a robust and unique administrative data set that matches
African American student outcomes to identifiable classes and faculty is a concept that could
create a process for determining where the classroom failings are occurring (Fairlie et al., 2014).
29
This new declarative knowledge could lead to internal dialogue that will create organizational
reflection and a determination to utilize equity procedures that positively impact the completion
gap. Using a compilation of data from several administrative sources will provide positive equity
impacts for both the short- and long-term (Fairlie et al., 2014).
Conceptual Knowledge: How to Innovate and Implement Promising Strategies
Understanding current procedures and the development of new procedures is important to
achieving the stakeholder goal. Of all the knowledge types, conceptual knowledge may be the
most important (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptually understanding and discarding the old way of
doing things and fostering new procedures for the benefit of African American students may be
the deciding factor in whether the organization is successful in shortening completing time for
African American students. The Administration needs to understand, conceptually, what
promising strategies are available and how to implement them.
Applied to this study, these promising strategies include but are not limited to: (a)
moving students quickly through pre-college level courses, (b) providing student services for
African American students, and (c) strengthening financial support. Additionally, other
promising strategies may be uncovered over time and through trial and error. These strategies
will have to be understood conceptually by the Administration to implement them in a way to
benefit the African American student group and eliminate their completion gap.
Metacognitive Knowledge: Self-Awareness of Biases and Self-Reflection
The term metacognition refers to the kinds of processes involved, and the self-knowledge
gained in thinking about and in controlling one’s own thinking (Proust, 2010). Metacognition
coincides with the acquisition or possession of attitudes, such as “I believe that I believe or that I
30
intend to” (Proust, 2010, p. 989). Thinking about one’s thinking truly only occurs when a belief
or propositional attitude is formed about one’s thought contents (Proust, 2010).
The purpose of this knowledge influence is individual Administrator’s metacognition
about their own biases concerning African American students. Will they be able, via reflection,
to understand their perceived bias and can they overcome them to help African American
students eradicate their completion gap? Reflection about the students and what they endure on
campus is not enough. Administrators will have to dig into their personal psyches to understand
their own bias and, with the help of training and reflection, learn to eliminate them.
Table 1 shows the organizational mission, global goal, and stakeholder goal, as well as
the associated knowledge influences, types, and assessments.
Table 1
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
WACC offers quality, accessible, equitable, and innovative educational programs and
services to students aspiring to achieve their academic, career and personal development goals.
Organizational Goal
By May 2022, the WACC Administration and President of the WACC will create and implement
a completion gap elimination program for African American full-time students to increase
completion from 17% to 40% in three years.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
The Administration needs
awareness of their completion gap
for African American students.
Declarative
Interview
Administration must have
conceptual knowledge of promising
strategies that have been shown to
be effective to close the completion
gap.
Conceptual Interview
Administrators must overcome any
self-imposed bias, limits, or barriers
via reflection.
Metacognitive Interview
31
Motivation
Motivation is the means to maintaining goal directed behavior (Mayer, 2011). In this
schema of stimulus, the concept of motivation is based on interests, beliefs, attributions, goals,
and social partnerships that will help the Administration shorten completion times for African
American students (Mayer, 2011). Motivation is a key component of the configuration of gap
analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study emphasized on self-efficacy, group-efficacy, and
attribution theory.
Self-Efficacy
According to social cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for
human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment (Pajares, 2009). Unless people
believe that their actions can produce desired outcomes, they have little to no incentive to act or
strenuously persevere in the face of problems and complications. These self-perceptions touch
virtually every aspect of people’s lives, whether they: (a) think fruitfully, self-debilitatingly,
pessimistically, or optimistically; (b) how well they self-motivate and persevere in the face of
adversities; (c) their vulnerability to stress and depression; and (d) the life choices they make
(Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy is also a critical factor for the self-regulation practices found in
humans as they go about the important task of self-correcting their individual actions and
cognitions (Pajares, 2009).
Self-efficacy theory is the basis for motivation and achievement in humans (Pajares,
2006). According to Bandura (2005), a functional self-awareness is at the core of self-efficacy by
using a reflective process. Bandura (1986) painted a portrait of human behavior and motivation
in which individuals’ self-beliefs are critical elements. In advancing the discussion, Bandura
(1997) writes that, of all the beliefs that people hold about themselves and that greatly affect
32
their daily functioning, self-efficacy beliefs are the most important. These beliefs can be defined
as the judgements that individuals hold about their abilities to learn or perform certain courses of
action designated levels (Pajares, 2009).
To accomplish the goal and applied to this study, Administrators must feel that they can
successfully create and implement a completion gap elimination plan with the promising
strategies already determined and new ones yet to be discovered. The Administrators will need a
strong sense of self belief to accomplish this task because it is complex and requires a long-term
solution horizon to successfully eliminate the completion gap for full-time African American
students.
Collective Efficacy
The growing interdependence of human functioning is not just self-efficacy in a silo but
the placing of a premium on the exercise of collective agency through shared beliefs in the power
to produce effects by collective action (Bandura, 2000). Perception is important when
determining how collective efficacy and its centrality regulate how people live their lives
(Bandura, 2000). Collective efficacy plays an important role in fostering and mentoring a
groups’ motivational commitment to their missions or goals, resilience to adversity, and overall
performance accomplishments (Bandura, 2000).
The emplacement of perceived collective efficacy resides in the minds of group members
(Bandura, 2000). People act as one on a shared belief, not a disembodied group mind that is
doing the cognizing, aspiring, motivating, and regulating (Bandura, 2000). Although beliefs of
collective efficacy include emergent details, they serve functions similar to those of personal
efficacy beliefs and operate through similar processes (Bandura, 1997). People’s shared beliefs
in their collective efficacy impact the types of goals they seek to achieve through collective
33
action (Bandura, 2000). Along with individual capability within the administration,
Administrators will have to believe that the collective is capable of working together to
accomplish the goal of eliminating the completion gap.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory examines individuals’ beliefs about why certain events happen and
correlates those beliefs to ensuing motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). The basic
proposition of this theory is that people want to understand their milieu and strive to understand
why certain events happen (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Weiner (1985) specifies that the
types of attributions that individuals make influence their subsequent behaviors in predictable
manners. This occurs due to both the expectancy beliefs and the emotions that individuals
experience as a result of the attributional process (Weiner, 1985). This coupled process creates
the predictable outcomes.
Expectancy beliefs that individuals experience as a result of the attributional process
determine future behaviors (Weiner, 1985). Applied to this study, Administrators will look to
understand causes of past events that influence their ability to control what happens in the future.
Administrators at the WACC need to believe they are responsible for eliminating the completion
gap and that their efforts will make a difference. Table 2 outlines motivational influences and
assessments.
Table 2
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
WACC offers quality, accessible, equitable and innovative educational programs and services
to students aspiring to achieve their academic, career and personal development goals.
Organizational Goal
By May 2022, the WACC Administration and President of the WACC will create and implement
a completion gap elimination program for African American full-time students to increase
34
completion from 17% to 40% in three years.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy - Individual Administrators should
believe they can make positive change to help
increase African American student completion
rates.
Interview
Collective-Efficacy - The entire group of
Administrators should believe they collectively
can foster change and make positive contributions
to the completion gap for African American
students.
Interview
Attribution Theory - The Administrators believe
they are responsible for and their efforts will
make a difference in positively impacting the
completion gap for African American students.
Interview
Organization
General Theory
An organization’s culture can be analyzed based on the cultural settings and cultural
models that exist in it (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings are concrete and
include the employees, their tasks, how and why tasks are completed, and the social context in
which their work is performed. Cultural models refer to cultural practices and shared mental
schema within an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Stakeholder Specific Factors
From a cultural model perspective, two specific factors may be at work to explain the
cause of organizational problems within equity support programs and organization processes: (a)
a demonstrated shared understanding of the value of equity at the institution and (b) a
commitment to equity as demonstrated by factors such as mission and messaging. In the past
year, the organization has developed an inclusion pledge, created an equity committee, and made
equity a priority. But that has not translated into the creation of a completion gap elimination
program for African American students. This study will determine if the organization has taken
35
the appropriate steps and what else is required to begin eliminating the completion gap for
African American students at the WACC.
The qualitative interviews will determine if the organization values equity. These
interviews will also decide if appropriate messaging is occurring at the institution to support the
eradication of the completion gap. These cultural models were examined and analyzed to
determine if they were gaps and contributed to the lack of an equity mindset that negatively
impacted the completion rates of African American students at the WACC. Table 3 shows the
assumed organizational influences and assessments.
Table 3
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
WACC offers quality, accessible, equitable and innovative educational programs and services
to students aspiring to achieve their academic, career and personal development goals.
Organizational Goal
By May 2022, the WACC Administration and President of the WACC will create and implement
a completion gap elimination program for African American full-time students to increase
completion from 17% to 40% in three years.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1 – There is a need to
create a shared understanding or value of equity at
the institution.
Interview
Cultural Model Influence 2 – There is a need to
demonstrate a commitment to equity as
demonstrated by factors such as mission and
messaging.
Interview
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is primarily a conception or model of what the researcher
intends to study (Maxwell, 2013). The state of the topic or “problem” and what is transpiring are
needed to develop a tentative theory of the phenomena that is being investigated (Maxwell,
36
2013). Furthermore, the framework of this study drew upon the concepts, terms, definitions,
models, and theories of the literature review and current academic orientation (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Finally, this conceptual framework and its derivative theory informs the research
design, helping to assess and refine goals, develop realistic and relevant research questions,
select appropriate methods, and identify potential validity threats to outcome deficiency
recommendations and conclusions (Maxwell, 2013).
Each of the potential influences presented above are independent of each other, but they
do not remain in isolation from each other. In this study, three stakeholder groups were
identified: (a) the Administration (stakeholder of focus), (b) the faculty, and (c) the students.
There is clear interaction between the three groups, but due to research constraints, the
Administration was identified as the stakeholder of focus with the student group as the
beneficiary of this research and analysis. In this case, the students have little to no true effect on
the organization and are more hampered by the Administration and their knowledge and
motivation deficiencies in conjunction with organizational program and policy failures
(Bensimon et al., 2003). Combined, these different issues lead to the time to graduation failings
and shortcomings (Young et al., 2012). Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework for this
study.
37
Figure 1
Completion Gap Conceptual Framework/Map
Windy Area Community College
(WACC)
Key
Organization
Stakeholder Influences
Interaction
Leads to
Organizational Goal
Organizational Mission
Motivation
Self-efficacy: Belief that leadership
qualities exist within individual
administrators.
Collective-efficacy: Belief that the
entire Administration can affect
positive change.
Attribution Theory: Administrators
believe they are responsible for
completion and their efforts will
help.
Knowledge
Declarative: Identify gaps in completion
and demonstrate awareness.
Conceptual: Demonstrate knowledge for
promising strategies.
Metacognitive: Overcoming self-
imposed barriers in order to overcome
external barriers.
Organizational Goal
By May 2022, the WACC Administration and president of the
WACC will have created and implemented a completion gap
elimination program for African American students to
increase completion from 17% to 40% in 3 years.
WACC Organizational Mission
WACC offers quality, accessible,
equitable and innovative educational
programs and services to students
aspiring to achieve their…goals.
Organizational
Cultural model: Shared
understanding of equity value.
Cultural model: Commitment to
equity via mission and
messaging, etc.
38
The above figure denotes the overall relationship between the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational issues of the Administration (stakeholder of focus) that influence the
stakeholder goal of creating and implementing completion gap eradication plans that will have
African American students graduating in three years. Within the greater organization (WACC),
which is represented by the purple circle, there are several the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, which are signified by the smaller blue circles. Arrows connect the
influences and indicate incessant flow and interaction between the influences, which ultimately
leads to the organizational goal.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to research and analyze data to create higher completion
percentages for African American full-time students at the WACC. Literature in Chapter Two
presented the state of higher education for African American students and the current crisis
(Young et al., 2012). The achievement gap between African Americans as compared to their
White, non-Hispanic counterparts persists and continues to grow (Ruppert, 2003). This chapter
also presented the key stakeholder KMO influences and the study’s overall conceptual
framework.
The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences work in concert to determine
what gaps and/or assets are present. The validation of gaps or the concurrence of assets will
ultimately drive the recommendations found in Chapter Five. The conceptual framework
provides the reader with a visual representation of all the necessary influences and their
connectivity relative to the African American completion gap and its eradication. This study
relies on a detailed examination of the KMO influences to drive acceptable recommendations
and future success. In short, the influences cannot stand on their own and rely on each other to
39
formulate corrective measures needed. Chapter Three describes the study’s methodological
approach.
40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to uncover knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences and strategies that the Administration can use
to create a completion gap elimination program for full-time African American students. This
program is designed to increase the completion rate of incoming full-time African American
students working on their certificate or degree programs in three years from 17% to 40%. The
analysis focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the organizational goal. While a complete research study would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholder group focused on in this analysis was the WACC
Administration equity committee (“the Administration”).
This introduction is an overview of this study’s research methodology. Each method is
discussed in detail in the subsequent sections. Interviews were used to help examine the
knowledge and motivational influences concerning the stakeholder of focus and the issues
concerning completion programs in the organization. Systematic and careful interviews created
a solid methodology that are appropriate and validate research findings (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
The following research questions guided the innovation study and addressed knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences for the Administration:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation influences related to increasing the
percentage of full-time African American students completing certificates and
degrees in three years from 17% to 40%?
41
2. What are the organizational influences related to increasing the percentage of full-
time African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years
from 17% to 40%?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were the current Administrators at the WACC. The
population of focus for this research study included all 31 administrative level leaders for the
WACC. Purposeful sampling was used. The sample group for this study was narrowed to eight
individual administrators. Each participant was involved as a member of the equity committee at
the College. These participants were the decision-makers concerning completion initiatives for
full-time African American students at the WACC. By developing and using the research
questions, selected criteria guide the sampling and recruitment process for this research study
(Maxwell, 2013).
The Administration broadly represents the organization and, as such, can affect the most
change to benefit the African American full-time students and eliminate the African American
completion gap. The rationale for the selection of the Administration is that the organization
requires a completion gap eradication program(s). The only individuals on campus who can
affect this change are the leaders of the institution. Culture flows from the top down.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
This study included a qualitative interview with eight participants who held various
leadership positions throughout the College and are members of the equity committee. This
initial phase was driven by the WACC key informant, the President, who identified essential
administrators within each major administrative division. This strategy was dependent on the
respondent, denoting experiences, reflections, and apprehensions concerning equity and the
42
completion gap within the institution. The interviews were conducted over a 30-day time period.
The following criteria were used to determine the participants for this phase of the study.
Criterion 1
Participants are part of the current Administration and a member of the equity committee.
Criterion 2
Participants have been selected and nominated by the President for inclusion in the study.
Criterion 3
Participants were able to participate in an interview process to obtain a better perspective
of full-time African American student completion on campus, its current state, and the desired
future state.
The rationale for these interviews was to dig deeper into the participants ’ psychology to
better understand their thoughts, awareness, and motivations toward completion for African
American students at the WACC. Ultimately, the interview phase of the study provided research
data concerning completion that was new and reflective of the information found in the existing
literature.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The researcher worked with the President and his Chief of Staff to create the interview
schedule. The Chief of Staff coordinated schedules for the participants and the researcher. When
a time slot became available, the Chief of Staff sent emails to the researcher. Interviews were
conducted between June and July 2020.
43
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interview Protocol
The type of protocol used was semi-structured. This allowed for a measure of flexibility
and exploration while adhering to some rigidity with the wording of questions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The types of questions asked were focused on experience and behavior,
knowledge and motivation, and background and demographics. Experience, behavior, and
knowledge questions were critical to understanding the knowledge and motivation of the
Administration. Opinion question(s) were used to ascertain thoughts about the organization and
its programs for eliminating the completion gap for African American students. These opinion
questions were directed to help develop an understanding of the African American completion
gap on the WACC campus. The interview protocol can be found in Appendix A.
Interview Procedures
Interviews were conducted in the Spring of 2020. No more than eight individual, one-
time interviews were planned, but that number was scalable (maximum 12) (Maxwell, 2013).
Each interview lasted no more than 60 minutes. On-campus interviews were initially proposed,
but the COVID-19 pandemic caused all interviews to be held via Zoom. All video calls were
recorded and transcribed. Every interview was reviewed no less than three times to confirm the
data. Each transcript was downloaded and converted to a Word document from the Zoom
software for easy storage and reference. English was the only language used.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process that researchers use to make sense of the data and to find
credible answers to research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is recommended that
researchers begin their analysis quickly after collecting new data to initiate the process of
44
concentrating the analysis and as a way to determine if the research questions are generating
appropriate and intended results (Bogdan & Biklen, 2011). Each Zoom interview was transcribed
within 24 hours. The interview(s) were reviewed in the Zoom software and the transcript was
transferred to a Word Document for further enhancement. Several iterations were required due to
internet connectivity issues and outside noise acquired by the Zoom software. Initial analysis
began after each interview was finalized, but this analysis was to check that the questions and
answers were appropriately aligned and moving in the intended direction.
Content analysis was utilized to analyze the data. Content analysis is an inductive process
that depends on continuously comparing data to develop categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
An Excel spreadsheet was developed to act as a codebook. At this point, empirical coding began.
Each participant was given their own column and each row represented an interview question.
Verbatim answers from the interviews were cross-referenced in the appropriate cell by
participant. From this spreadsheet, themes emerged. The researcher tested emerging themes with
conflicting examples in the participant data, and the frequency with which the participants
identified each data segment. Counterexamples and category frequency are two methods to
ensure typicality of a category (Miles et al., 2014). Moving from empirical coding to patterns and
then to findings was an arduous iterative process. Percentages were tabulated and majority
findings did ultimately present themselves, allowing the researcher to validate the influences as
gaps or assets.
During the data collection and data analysis process, a substantial number of research
memos were created. Most memos were analytic in nature, with a few referring to methodology.
These memos collected the researcher’s thoughts about the process and different ways to
improve the data collection and analysis process in the future.
45
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Three strategies were selected to increase and maintain the credibility and trustworthiness
of the study. Triangulation uses multiple sources of data or data collection methods to confirm
emerging findings as appropriate to doctoral level research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Member
checks kept the researcher honest by taking findings back to the participants to inquire about
plausibility concerns (Maxwell, 2013). Finally, peer and expert review was heavily utilized to
obtain congruency of emerging findings with the raw data collected and initial tentative
interpretations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
As a qualitative study, the intention was to focus on meaning and understanding to
resolve the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To do this, it is important to collect
data in an ethical manner because much of the data collection will involve conversation and
observation (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). In particular, informed consent forms were provided to all
research participants at the beginning of the study. Glesne (2011) writes that informed consent is
necessary to ensure that participants are aware that their contributions are voluntary, all
discussions are and will be kept private and confidential, and that they may withdraw from the
study at any point in time without any penalty.
The study was submitted to the University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board (IRB) and the researcher followed their rules and guidelines regarding the protection of
the rights and general welfare of the participants in this study. All participants signed consent
forms, and they were reminded that this study was completely voluntary and that their identity
would be kept confidential via a system of coding. Prior to the interviews and observations, the
researcher obtained permission to audio and/or video record the interviews and interactions while
46
providing participants with transcripts of the proceedings to allow them the opportunity to be
assured that their spoken words have not been changed or altered in anyway.
Participants were not provided incentives to prevent possible coercion. However, at the
conclusion of the study participants were sent a thank you card and a small monetary gift card as
a token of appreciation for their participation in the study.
The researcher’s relationship to the organization was purely academic and as an outside
researcher. The purpose of the work was to determine why the organization has failed in its
attempts to eliminate the completion gap and to provide recommendations for future
improvement of completion for full-time African American students at the WACC.
47
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to uncover knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences and strategies that the Administration can use
to create a completion gap elimination program for full-time African American students. This
program is designed to increase the completion rate of incoming African American students
working on their certificate or degree programs in three years from 17% to 40%. The analysis
focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the
organizational goal.
A qualitative interview method was employed to identify and analyze the
Administration’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that led to the gap for
African American completion. This chapter describes the stakeholders of the study, overall
findings, and results. The following research questions drove the basis for this study:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation influences related to increasing the percentage of
full-time African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years
from 17% to 40%?
2. What are the organizational influences related to increasing the percentage of full-time
African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years from 17%
to 40%?
In this chapter, the participating stakeholders will be delineated and their qualitative data
analyzed in relation to the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The
findings concerning each influence will be determined to be either an asset, need, or a
combination of both.
48
To provide context, the researcher will discuss the genesis for this study and how
the equity committee was developed. The equity committee is directly related to this study
because it forms the entire participant group. The impetus behind the creation of the equity
committee was to address the challenges the institution faced regarding the full-time African
American student group and their low completion rates.
The equity committee was first established by the executive cabinet of the College in
Spring 2019. Their first order of business was to create a guiding document to foster a
completion mindset at the College called the inclusion pledge. The pledge was formally adopted
by the Board of Directors in Spring 2020. This pledge is a living document which allows for its
modification as the need arises. This pledge is an important first step in creating a completion
mindset for the broader Administration and the entire organization, which includes faculty,
classified staff, and every single employee of the WACC.
This pledge began the quest for more completion at the institution. The President also
commissioned this study to augment the work of the equity committee and to bring a fresh
perspective to the issue. The equity committee is charged with eliminating the completion gap
for full-time African American students. The purpose of this study was to determine knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influence gaps to help the administration eliminate the African
American completion gap. This study will help the Administration understand what KMO gaps
exist within the Administration and organization. With a clear understanding of these gaps,
recommendations will be provided for their removal.
Participating Stakeholders
The population of focus for this research study included all 31 administrative level
leaders for the WACC. The sample group for this study was narrowed to eight individual
49
administrators. Purposeful sampling was used. Each participant was involved is a member of the
equity committee at the College.
The eight participants are all considered leaders and administrators of the College, but
have varying roles in addition to their equity committee roles. Some participants are full-time
administrators, faculty, and counselors/advisors. Each name depicted is a pseudonym. Jane is the
Director of Institutional Research. June is the Faculty Coordinator. Richard is the Director of
TRIO Programs and the A2MEND advisor. Betty is the Interim Dean of Instruction and a
professor of English; she also served as the Puente Coordinator. David is the Director of the
Cultural Program. Regina is the Director of the Cal Works program. Matt is the Basic Skills
Coordinator and a member of the faculty. Finally, Carol is the Director of the EOPS program. In
total, five were female, three were male, and the majority were Hispanic.
More information about the interviewees is available in Table 4. It lists the eight
participants’ gender, race, pseudonyms, positions, time in position, and total time in education.
Table 4
Participant Gender, Race, Pseudonym, Position, TIP, TTE (n=8)
Participant Gender Race Pseudonym Position TIP TTE
1 Female AA Jane FT admin 2 yrs. 25 yrs.
2 Female Hispanic June FT admin 12 yrs. 20 yrs.
3 Male AA Richard FT admin 5 yrs. 30 yrs.
4 Female Hispanic Betty FT admin 17 yrs. 21 yrs.
5 Male AA David Advisor 2 yrs. 4 yrs.
6 Female Hispanic Regina FT admin 4 yrs. 4 yrs.
7 Male Hispanic Matt FT admin 5 yrs. 20 yrs.
50
Participant Gender Race Pseudonym Position TIP TTE
8 Female Hispanic Carol FT admin 5 yrs. 22 yrs.
Results and Findings
This section describes the results and findings from the qualitative interviews as they
related to the research questions and the conceptual framework, with a focus on knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. A discussion of supplemental observations within
each influence variety will be presented, followed by a summary.
Research Question 1
What are the knowledge and motivation influences related to increasing the percentage of
full-time African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years from 17%
to 40%? In Chapter Two, the researcher presented knowledge factors hypothesized to influence
the achievement of higher completion rates and shortened completion times for full-time African
American students at the WACC. Through qualitative interviews, three knowledge influences
were explored and analyzed. Declarative knowledge concerning the completion gap was
determined concerning the interviewed administrators. Next, the researcher validated the
conceptual knowledge of the interviewees regarding promising strategies for eliminating the
completion gap. Finally, the researcher investigated and validated the use of metacognition by
the participants regarding the completion gap.
Knowledge Results
Declarative Knowledge Concerning the Awareness of the Completion Gap for
African American Students. Awareness of the problem of completion for full-time African
American students is the first step in eliminating the completion gap. To ascertain awareness by
51
the participants of the completion gap, they were asked questions concerning their individual
awareness of initiatives on campus designed to mitigate the completion gap. Every participant
responded with an initiative that was currently underway on campus. A gap was not confirmed
by the data analyzed.
Six of the eight participants commented on the Cultural Program (a pseudonym). David,
the director of the program, went into great detail about the program. He said:
One of the major things we have done as an institution is, we have implemented a
program that’s a statewide program at the community college level called Cultural.
Cultural is a Swahili word meaning unity…there is a club and a program component
associated with it. The program component has a number of courses associated with
it…It creates a family…to assist students in their course completion. It is based on 18
principles…the principles are basically revolving around love…Using the Cultural as a
power base…that really encourage students to continue to seek their education and also
help with their course completion.
June also commented:
We are doing a good job…building community among our African American and
African American students…what we are hearing from students is that building that
community among them has helped them, giving them that space, that safe space. Has
been like a refuge for them…it has in turn helped them to persist and stay in college and
feel motivated to complete their classes…for example our Cultural club.
The other four participants who commented on the Cultural Program did not go into this level of
detail.
52
When asked about programs on campus, Carol noted, “I would say within the last two
years, we have been working on establishing the Cultural Program.” Regina responded, “One of
the major things we have done is we have created Cultural.” Jane also recalled, “We have a
Cultural Program.” Finally, Richard mentioned, “Bringing in a Cultural Program to campus and
really integrating that and trying to build that program.” David has detailed awareness of the
Cultural Program because he directs it. The other Administrators have topical knowledge, which
is important and sufficient for the WACC at this stage of dealing with the completion gap.
Awareness is the key for this declarative knowledge influence.
When asked about initiatives that help with the completion gap, Betty and Matt recalled
professional development (PD). Professional development is training that helps eliminate bias,
implicit bias, and build a completion mindset for the trainees at WACC. This mindset
development helps to mitigate the completion gap. Betty added:
We had to have a shared vision of what equity was at our institution. And so, it required a
lot of PD for the folks who, you know, major stakeholders to initially really come
together and really understand what equity means for us…that was one big thing getting
everybody on the same page and acknowledging that equity is about race and having
racial conversations or having conversations about race.
Betty has exceeded simple awareness, but commented that PD was the mechanism on campus
that created the awareness in the Administration concerning the completion gap. Matt also
depicted awareness. He commented, “Some professional development has addressed issues of
equity.” All eight participants demonstrated both awareness of the completion gap and working
knowledge of initiatives currently in place at the WACC to mitigate the completion gap.
53
These responses prescribe awareness, but they go much deeper. The participants
understand the impact of the Cultural Program. This program provides a sense of belonging,
family, safety, and culture. The Cultural Program provides a “hub” for the African American
student group with a dedicated counselor, a man of color they can aspire to and who has their
best interest in mind. Professional development is an apparatus to create a completion mindset.
This mindset helps to drive the elimination of the completion gap. The reader(s) should
understand that the evidence supports that the equity committee is aware of the completion gap.
This committee has started to implement strategies to mitigate it, but they are just beginning.
Jane believes it may take “ten years” to eliminate the completion gap. There will be trial and
error, success, and failure, before the completion gap is an item of the past at the WACC.
However, after analysis of the data, the declarative knowledge influence is confirmed as an asset
by these findings.
This declarative knowledge depicts awareness by the Administration. This awareness will
allow the Administration to focus on eliminating the completion gap for full-time African
American students by implementing strategies outlined in Chapter Two. These strategies will
increase individual student completion, which will, in turn, eliminate the completion gap.
Conceptual Knowledge Regarding Promising Strategies. Administrators were asked
questions concerning promising strategies that should be used to eliminate the completion gap at
the WACC. All eight administrators demonstrated conceptual knowledge for promising
strategies. Three participants recommended professional development. When asked about
promising strategies, Jane said, “Professional development around equity and also around things
like implicit bias…and micro aggressions. It’s really important.” She continued, mentioning
CORA training which is centered around teaching and serving students of color. CORA training
54
helps identify responsibility and accountability, and apply a multitude of skills and techniques
for successfully teaching students of color. June noted, “we have all these professional
development plans and opportunities…for example like the Teaching Men of Color or Serving
Men of Color.” June feels and understands that the Administration and faculty have “a lot on
their plate,” but these types of PD opportunities are targeted specifically for the underserved
African American population and there is no reason these PD opportunities should go to waste.
David believes PD is great but, “you have got to have someone that wants to hear, wants to learn,
wants to change.” In this instance, he was speaking about certain tenured faculty and their
behavior in the classroom. He lamented, “professors…are required to do certain things, but at the
same time, you know, the administration is not sitting in the classrooms, either.”
Betty and Regina spoke of student engagement techniques. Betty wants to “build
relationship with students.” She would like to remove equality and focus on equity for African
American students. She feels academia is replete with old paradigms and antiquated policies and
procedures that came from someone’s opinion or mindset and those items impact the African
American students unfairly. She believes we should challenge the way things were always done
to start conversations about positive change for the disproportionately affected. Regina also
believes in student engagement techniques. She commented, “I am a firm believer that you need
to meet students where they are at, whether it is educationally or emotionally.”
Richard, Matt, and Carol all demonstrated conceptual awareness but in different ways.
Richard is interested in new class schedules that provide flexibility for his students that work odd
hours including the night shift. Many of the students he advises via the A2MEND program work
the night shift at the local Amazon warehouse or night security guard positions. Afternoon
55
classes and weekend classes would greatly benefit many of his African American students.
Currently, he said, “class schedules…benefit the faculty.”
Matt is focused on strategies that are related to departments that have not embraced
equity or the issues surrounding the completion gap for African American students. He
mentioned, “changing the interpersonal cultures…of particular departments.” Matt said,
“Nothing, nothing really happens…no momentum.” Unless departments embrace equity and
personal relationships develop. These relationships can then be harnessed for matters of equity
and completion.
Carol had an interesting and unique perspective on what she feels is a promising strategy
for completion. She mentioned recruiting faculty of color. She knows that it is a strategy that
will/should work. She said, “I think what we should be doing that we are not already doing
is…recruiting…faculty of color…so that students can see themselves as instructors on campus.”
Betty, who spoke of student engagement techniques previously, echoed Carol when she
referenced “hiring more diverse faculty.”
All the participants demonstrated conceptual knowledge for promising strategies. There
was not a single theme that dominated the conversations; rather, several varied and different
themes surfaced. This influence was confirmed as an asset but an issue concerning a need
remains. Conceptual knowledge is confirmed as an asset and a need.
Conceptual knowledge by the Administration provides the starting point for
implementation of promising strategies. Again, the strategies discussed in Chapter Two will
provide for elimination of the completion gap by increasing individual student completion rates.
The Administration has the conceptual knowledge it is now a question of implementation which
is an area for future study and research.
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Metacognition Skills that Allow the Administrators to Reflect. Metacognition is used
to refer to the kinds of mental processes involved, and the self-knowledge gained in thinking
about and in controlling one’s own thing (Proust, 2010). Defined in its simplest terms,
metacognition is “thinking about one’s thinking” (Proust, 2010, p. 989).
The Administration at the WACC is a reflective group concerning completion for African
American students. When asked during their individual interviews relative to eliminating the
completion gap all eight participants reflected: six daily and two weekly.
From the interviews, no emergent theme presented that dominated the participants
responses. Jane and June, who reflect daily, were concerned about technology issues and what
they could to do to eliminate the technology problems of their students. They both had
technology issues relative to moving from campus to a virtual work environment and reflected
about how the new virtual campus could impact their students. Jane is concerned about access to
computers and laptops as the college transitioned to online learning due to Covid-19. June is
worried about online access, internet connectivity, and support for students who are new to
online learning. Regina, who reflects weekly, shared similar concerns with technology and
online access as Jane and June. Carol, who reflects daily, is also concerned with technology
access wondered not just about a laptop or internet connectivity, but was also worried about the
ability of students to print from home and how that could affect their progress in certain classes.
Richard, who reflects daily and is the advisor to A2MEND program, interacts with
students on a day to day basis. He reflects on the immediate concerns of his students. During his
last reflection he said, “they have so many issues outside the of the classroom.” He worries about
his student’s ability to get to class, transportation, housing, and food insecurities. Richard
reflected on his time as a student and remembered the financial issues he had and how difficult it
57
made staying focused on his academics. David, who reflects daily and is the director of the
Cultural program, echoed Richard’s comments. But David was an athlete and did not have the
same financial issues as Richard or some of his students. However, he reflected on the time his
sport (football) took from his schedule and that tutors played an important role in his completion
of his degree program.
Betty, who reflects daily, commented that she reflected last on Latinx students as they
compare to African American students in the conversation concerning equity on campus. She
said:
Oh, now we are going to talk about equity. And when we talk about it. We are only going
to talk about it in terms of…our African American students. What about our Latinx
students? They have been here…some faculty and staff and colleagues…keep hearing
about equity, but I don’t hear about our Latinx students and we never…talked about our
Latinx students in the way we have talked about our, our African American African
American students…There are folks that feel hurt…we are reflecting on it or talking
about it and prioritizing our African American and African American students…I don’t
want to contribute to the African American versus brown thing.
Betty’s concern is centered around competing agendas on campus for institutional resources and
jealousy that could develop over initiatives for African American students. But, at this time, the
African American student group is the most disproportionately affected at the WACC. This
causes Latinx concerns to be placed lower on the priority list for the Administration.
Matt who reflects weekly, reflected last on his own success data. He commented:
A couple of days ago I looked at my own success data…I am non-teaching faculty and a
coordinator…I usually just teach overload…so I don’t have a lot of data…Being able to
58
look at my own data was a little bit jarring in terms of success rates, retention rates…I’ve
got like high 60s…That is terrible…I mean it just opened up a can of worms for me.
Matt is actively trying to figure out what he is doing in the classroom with his policies, how his
syllabus and assignments are built, and trying to figure out ways to increase his success and
retention rates.
Reflection is practiced with all eight of the interview participants. The items reflected
upon are varied but are all centered around eliminating the completion gap. However,
metacognition concerning their own biases is not supported by the data. The data collected
validates the knowledge influence of reflection and metacognition by the administration as a gap.
The participants need to reflect on their own biases and how these thoughts can affect the
African American student population.
This gap by the Administration could hamper results in eliminating the completion gap if
individual administrators do not adequately reflect on their pre-conceived notions and internal
bias concerning African American students. Serious soul-searching and metacognition will be
required to ensure fairness for African American students. The students cannot be blamed for
circumstances beyond their control.
Motivation Results
The following section analyzes the presumed gaps in motivational influences. Three
motivational influences were examined. Self-efficacy for individual administrators was reviewed
and determined. Next, collective efficacy or the beliefs the participants have in the
administration as a team working together was determined. The final motivational influence
scrutinized was attribution by the participants with respect to developing and implementing
policies and procedures to positively impact the completion gap for African American students.
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Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy theory and its beliefs form the foundation for human
motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment (Pajares, 2009). The individual
Administrators must believe their actions can produce the outcomes they desire. Self-efficacy is
also important for the Administrators as they go about the important task of self-correcting their
actions and cognitions (Bandura, 1997).
All eight participants believe they, as individuals, have the appropriate ability to affect
change and eliminate the completion gap. When asked about her confidence level, Jane said:
I think I am personally very well equipped basically throughout my education as an
undergrad and graduate…throughout my bachelor’s degree, my master’s degree, and my
end…doctorate. This is a focus not specifically on African American student but student
equity, diversity, intersections of race, class, and gender as they relate to social mobility
and college access and choice.
June expressed confidence in herself because of what she has helped change on campus
regarding equity. She commented, “Things that we do outside the class…for example, just
creating those spaces outside of class, creating a sense of belonging for these students.” Richard
also shared, “When I first came to the district…I put together the student equity plan for the
region.” He feels immense pride in this work and believes it helped to prepare him for future
work in equity mitigation.
Betty expressed confidence too, noting, “there’s been a lot of engagement in professional
development and conversations about race.” David feels extraordinarily empowered because, as
the director of Cultural, he is more involved in different committee meetings and different board
meetings. As an attendee, he has a voice for his students. He now understands that equity is
important to the Administration. Regina feels confident because she said, “I worked in social
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services for a long time. So, I have dealt with many inequities.” Matt and Carol echoed similar
comments. When asked about his confidence, Matt simply said, “I feel confident” and Carol
said, “I feel knowledgeable.” Jane expressed the most confidence, but not a single interviewee
conveyed anything that belied inferior confidence or an inability to eliminate the completion gap.
Confidence in their own abilities was demonstrated by the participant group. However, several
needs remain. This majority confirms self-efficacy as an asset, but also as a need.
A strong sense of self is apparent within the interview group. This confidence is required
when dealing with the difficult problem of completion rates for full-time African American
students. The individual administrators’ self-assurance will keep them motivated and prevent
discouragement when strategies for completion gap elimination do not always go exactly to plan.
Strong willed people are needed to tackle complex issues.
Collective Efficacy. The locus of collective agency inhabits the minds of group members
(Bandura, 2000). A group operates through the behavior of its members (Bandura, 2000). People
must act in coordination with each other on a shared belief (Bandura, 1986). When the
participants where asked questions regarding their confidence as a team, the responses were
varied. Six of the eight participants demonstrated collective belief in the group. Jane, who is
confident concerning her equity skill set, shared:
With the professional development that we’ve had so far…I know people are learning
more. They are learning to recognize implicit bias that they haven’t been aware of
before…I think that is really helpful…So I think that…our administration is kind of like
in varying states but we’re moving much more to equity mindedness.
June did not elaborate as much as Jane, but detailed that she felt positive about the group because
the Administration is finally looking at data and starting to use that data for difficult
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conversations with faculty and staff. She believes a tone has been set for the group and that the
group is moving in the “right direction.”
Richard also expressed extreme confidence in the group. He commented:
We have a core group of people that are very equity minded. We are preaching that all
the time. There is a core group…I think from the top down you look at our executive
cabinet, they are all on board with this equity issue…our president is on board with the
equity issue…the key individuals in the building that can make things happen are all on
board.
Betty expressed confidence in the group as well, arguing, “We are a lot better than we were a
year ago.” Regina also expressed confidence in the Administration. She feels there is appropriate
Administration knowledge, noting:
Continuing to study the data and to continue making progress in the o opportunities that
we provide for our African American African American students…Look at Cultural.
Look at our success rates with our Cultural class. Partnering with our tutoring and
mentoring programs.
Regina feels confident in the work of the group to date, but maintains that the group must
continue to move forward, commenting, “we need to stay focused…and see what worked, what
didn’t work and continue moving forward and continue to train staff and faculty on how we can
overcome any kind of bias towards anyone really.”
Carol also indicated confidence with the group’s ability. When asked if she felt if the
Administration had the knowledge to eliminate the completion gap, she replied, “You know, I do
think that there is a sufficient amount of knowledge within our administrative team to identify
strategies to really create a huge change within the WACC for this population of students.”
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Matt was the sole outlier. When asked about his confidence in the ability of the
Administration to work as a team, he replied, “With my administration, I am cautiously
optimistic.” The answer does not espouse confidence, but the way in which he answered was
also illuminating. There was a long pause and a forced pensive look before he replied. These
expressions and his answer caused the researcher to eliminate his response from validating
collective efficacy as an asset.
A majority of participants, six of the eight members, demonstrated collective efficacy.
From the Zoom interview, Matt’s answers and mannerisms while answering collective efficacy
questions made the researcher conclude that Matt was not convinced of the Administration’s
ability to work together. A need that surfaced is better direction from the Administration. The
Administration needs to lead all efforts toward equity and empower departments to address the
completion gap issue. Therefore, the motivation influence of collective efficacy is an asset and a
need.
The completion gap eradication requires not only strong confident individuals, but a
powerful group too. The group has demonstrated a sturdy belief in the overall ability of the
collective. This stalwart collective belief will help the group in overcoming obstacles and staying
on course when eliminating the completion gap by increasing individual student completion
rates.
Attribution Value Theory. Attribution theory furnishes an important method for
examining and understanding motivation in academic settings (Anderman & Anderman, 2009).
This theory examines individual’s beliefs about why certain events occur and correlates those
beliefs to subsequent motivation (Weiner, 1985). The basic premise of this theory is that people
want to comprehend their environments and, therefore, endeavor to understand why certain
63
events happen (Weiner, 2005). The participants in this study were asked questions pertaining to
who is responsible or has the authority to implement strategies to eliminate the completion gap.
Of the participants, five of the eight interviewees identified gaps concerning the
Administration being responsible for abolishing the completion gap. The participants provided
interesting and colorful answers. Jane, Richard, Regina, and June believe it is “everyone’s
responsibility.” When Jane was asked who is responsible for implementation, she said:
I think it’s everyone’s job. I think it’s everyone from you know the college president
to…middle administration, faculty, staff, classified staff, everyone. The
groundskeepers…facilities, everyone. We all play a role in making our college a
welcoming environment for students…And for encouraging our students…And being
friendly to our students and letting them feel welcome in our college community. It’s all
of our responsibility.
Richard did not go into the same level of detail, but echoed Jane’s comments. He believes it is
the responsibility of the “team” to correct the completion gap and stated that the current rates of
completion are “criminal” in his opinion. Regina, when asked who has overall authority,
commented:
Each individual I think has overall authority on how they are going to try and implement
[changes] to increase their success rates. I believe it comes from the top, but it also can
go bottom up as well because if we are feeling the top is not addressing the issue
adequately…We always have a voice to bring it to them…So everyone’s really.
When questioned concerning attribution of strategies to eliminate the completion gap,
Jane said, “It is everyone’s business and everyone’s responsibility.” Betty mentioned, “It should
be everyone’s business to ensure equity.” David also believed that everyone on campus has a
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role to play in impacting the completion gap, “It starts from the top and goes down.” Five
participants do not attribute eradication of the completion gap to the Administration.
From the data analyzed, this influence is a gap. It is interesting that group efficacy was
validated as an asset, but attribution was a gap. With collective efficacy as an asset, it would be
easy to assume that attribution would also be an asset. But this is not the case. Here, alignment is
critical. Attribution needs to be determined. If not, who is truly accountable for eliminating the
completion gap for full-time African American students? This could be an area for further study.
Conclusion
The full-time African American student group at the WACC is disproportionately
impacted by a completion gap. Knowledge and motivation influences were detailed in Chapter
Two. The knowledge and motivational influences of the WACC administrators are currently and
will be important factors in terms of positively affecting the goal to increase the existing
completion rates of incoming full-time African American students. The organizational goal is to
increase completion from 17% to 40% within three years.
Three knowledge influences were identified and evaluated. Declarative knowledge,
understanding there is a completion gap problem, was determined to be an asset. Conceptual
knowledge, or awareness of concepts for promising strategies, was confirmed as an asset and a
need. The last knowledge influence, metacognition, was validated as a gap. The WACC
administrators are a reflective group but do not reflect concerning their own bias.
Three motivational influences were identified and analyzed. Self-efficacy, or individual
beliefs about one’s ability to eliminate the completion gap, was confirmed as an asset and a need.
Collective efficacy, or the belief by individual administrators that the team working together
could eradicate the completion gap, was deduced to be an asset and a need. Attribution of the
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Administration as having the power or ability to implement change or promising strategies was
established as a gap. This lack of attribution could lead to a scenario of “finger pointing” or the
“left hand didn’t know what the right hand was doing.” This is an area of concern and more
study and analysis are required.
Research Question 2
What are the organizational influences related to increasing the percentage of full-time
African American students completing certificates and degrees in three years from 17% to 40%?
Organization Results
In this section, two cultural models will be introduced. These models will represent
organizational factors influencing administrators at the WACC implementing a completion
mindset that will impact the African American completion gap. The first cultural model to be
introduced is the shared understanding for equity at the institution. The second cultural model
advanced is the commitment to equity as demonstrated by mission and messaging.
Cultural Models: Shared Understanding and Value for Equity. Participants were
asked questions designed to determine if a shared understanding and value for equity was present
within the organization. Of the eight participants interviewed, six participants commented on a
shared norm and value for equity within the WACC organization. When asked about completion
for African American students and how it ranked against other institutional priorities, Richard
said, “Well for us, it’s our top priority.” June noted, “It’s definitely on the top.” Betty remarked,
“It’s a top priority.” Jane plainly commented, “It’s extremely important.” Regina elaborated:
I think there is a shared, I think everyone has a thought process on the shared equity, you
know, equity in regards our institution. I think over the last several years it’s become
more of the forefront for everyone. Now again, I’ve only been here three years, but in
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three years, the word equity has come up in almost every meeting that I attend and it also
comes from our executive cabinet.
Matt concurred:
It’s another thing that we have probably developed over the last year, or year and a half,
two years. The development of an inclusion pledge as an institution, and so for me, that’s
kind of been the springboard for where we are now. Recent events have
accelerated…our strategic plan in terms of equity. I would say our inclusions pledge is
where we are now in terms of institution wide.
From the data collected, six of eight participants either demonstrated that the completion
gap is a “top priority” or that a norm for equity has been established at the institution. David does
not feel the completion gap is a top priority, but it should be the number one priority. Carol does
not believe a norm has been established, but does not offer any explanation as to why.
In this context, equity is a broad construct with completion as a subset. Although the
research has determined this organizational influence to be an asset, the entire organization has
still not “bought into” an equity mindset and how that mindset will positively affect the
completion gap. The work of building an equity mindset to eliminate the completion gap for full-
time African American students is not complete at the WACC. Therefore, a shared
understanding and value for equity at the WACC is an asset and a need.
Cultural Models: Commitment to Equity as Demonstrated by Mission and
Messaging. Participants were asked questions concerning mission and messaging about equity
and the completion gap. The participants were asked about the different methods the
organization used to communicate concerning the priority for equity and the completion gap. Of
the eight participants, five interviewees mentioned methods the organization used to
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communicate concerning this cultural influence. No gap was detected by the researcher
concerning how the organization communicates about equity and the completion gap.
Jane said the organization uses, “emails and announcements from leadership…townhalls
and group meetings.” She also feels that by offering professional development (PD), which is
voluntary, for equity can be a vehicle which helps to communicate its importance. Richard also
shared how PD is viewed as a method for communication, noting, “it is being communicated in
all meetings.” Betty expanded the methods used when she said, “messages from townhalls,
research updates, convocation…and Senate updates.” David described equity sessions that are
hosted during convocation and his conversations with the Administration throughout the
semester. Regina mentioned, “Well verbal…we have meetings on…We have had several
meetings over the course of the last…two months. The types of communication mediums are
adequate and deemed as an asset, but a need was determined too. The communication and its
methods are primarily internal. An external approach is also needed to communicate the priority
for equity and the completion gap.
Participants were also asked questions regarding the actual messages from leadership
regarding increasing African American completion rates. Of the eight participants, five
interviewees responded with messages that confirmed the importance of eliminating the
completion gap. Therefore, no gap was detected with respect to this influence either.
When asked about messages from leadership, Jane remarked, “we need to work to reduce
the opportunity gaps between student group in terms of completion.” When talking about faculty,
June was told, “it is in the classroom and unless we change that nothing will change.” Richard
heard, “This is our highest priority now.” David was told, “The African American and African
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American student population is our highest priority” and Regina was informed, “Figure it
out…it’s a top priority.”
The message from leadership is clear. The completion gap for full-time African
American students needs to be eliminated. Therefore, it is an asset. However, a need was
identified too. The removal of the completion gap requires a long-term solution. The
communication and messaging about the completion gap and its suppression needs to remain at
the center of the organization as a priority for years. A year from now, the conversation cannot
be “it’s on our radar” or “we talk about in meetings.” This is a complex issue that requires
diligence, creativity, and time to abolish.
Conclusion
In this chapter, the researcher presented themes and findings derived from the qualitative
interviews of eight administrative leaders from the WACC. This chapter examined the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organization influences that impact African American completion
rates.
The three knowledge influences of declarative knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge were analyzed. Declarative knowledge or understanding of the
problem was overwhelmingly confirmed as an asset. Conceptual knowledge regarding promising
strategies was also confirmed as an asset, but participants had varying ideas concerning different
strategies and their overall impact, thus depicting a need. Metacognitive knowledge via reflection
was established as a gap with each participant either reflecting daily or weekly on the problem of
completion but not on their individual bias.
In terms of motivation, three influences were identified and scrutinized. The three
motivation influences were self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and attribution as it relates to who
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is responsible for implementation of strategies to eliminate the completion gap. Self-efficacy,
individual belief in one’s self to solve the problem, and collective efficacy, overall belief in the
group, were supported as both assets and needs. However, attribution was validated as a gap.
Consensus could not be reached by the participants regarding who or what department was in
charge and had the ability to implement change initiatives to eradicate the completion gap.
Two organization influences of culture were introduced and examined. Culture
concerning the organization’s norm of equity and the completion gap plus its value and culture
regarding institutional mission and messaging were explored. Both influences were determined
by the participants to be an asset and a need. Equity, as it relates the African American
completion gap, is at the forefront of the institution. The messaging from leadership, including
the inclusion pledge, has centered the organization and provided the overall mission for equity to
keep the completion gap problem at the vanguard of the Administration’s priority lists, meetings,
and internal and external discussions.
This chapter developed, via the participants, several recommendations for extinguishing
the completion gap. The recommendation voiced most frequently was training for equity and
teaching and serving people of color. Training was the top recommendation. Chapter Five will
delve into the recommendations and their use as a means to create an institution of higher
learning that is completely focused on putting an end to the completion gap for full-time African
American students at the WACC.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
Introduction and Overview
This innovation study analyzed the knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO)
influences affecting the completion percentages for the full-time African American student group
at the WACC. The first three chapters detailed the problem of practice, including a literature
review regarding African American student completion outcomes at national and California
community colleges, as well as at the WACC. A thorough qualitative approach was employed to
collect data to construct Chapters Four and Five. The data acquired in Chapter Four was
accumulated over a three-month period and consisted of qualitative interviews and interview data
analysis. Eight WACC Administrators were interviewed for this study. By using qualitative
interviews, a consistent and reliable sample of data was collected.
Multiple KMO influences were recognized amidst the literature review and ultimately
authenticated through the data collection and analysis to provide the cornerstone for the
recommendations listed in Chapter Five. A total of three knowledge influences were compiled
from the literature review. These were analyzed via the data collection and analysis completed in
this study. These knowledge components focused on declarative, conceptual, and metacognitive
issues that the WACC face when considering African American completion rates. The three
motivational influences are embedded in the theories of self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and
attribution. The organizational influences concentrate around two cultural models. The first
model consisted of a shared understanding of equity as it relates to completion and its value to
the organization. The second model was comprised of a commitment by the Administration to
equity and completion via mission and messaging. Chapter Five contains recommendations
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which address the identified gaps, assets, and needs required to create and implement a
completion gap elimination program.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction
The knowledge influences in Table 5 represent the complete list of assumed knowledge
influences and their probability of being validated. It is anticipated that these influences have a
high probability of being validated as a gap and have a high priority for achieving the
organizational goal. Table 5 also shows the recommendations for these highly probable
influences based on certain theoretical principles. The data collected revealed that declarative
knowledge was not a gap, but an asset. Conceptual knowledge was determined to be an asset and
a need. Administrators’ metacognitive reflective skills were determined to be a gap.
Although the declarative and conceptual influences were not determined to be gaps, they
must be continually reinforced to remain assets. Awareness of the completion percentages needs
to be maintained to accurately assess the condition of completion for full-time African American
students. Conceptual knowledge of promising strategies needs constant vigilance to keep the
latest in improvements flowing to the institution. Conceptual knowledge will need to be
converted to procedural knowledge for implementation of successful strategies, but procedural
knowledge is outside the scope of this study. Metacognition is a gap that will require attention so
the Administration can reflect on their own biases. The removal of individual bias and
development of a more open mindset will help improve the atmosphere of the College and will
have a positive impact on the African American student group.
Education will buttress the Administration with awareness of the problem for African
American students’ completion rates. Training for the administration will provide them the
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ability to create and implement, from a conceptual perspective, new and effective programs for
closing the completion gap. Additionally, training via reflection will help the Administration
properly self-regulate in order to meet organizational goals and enhance learning and
performance of African American students.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
The Administration must be able to
identify the gaps in their equity
programming and innovate to help
African American students. (D)
Modeling to be learned strategies or
behaviors improves self-efficacy,
learning and performance (Denler et
al., 2009).
Education concerning past
programs and procedures to learn of
failures in order to cause future
success in African American student
cycles of completion and create
higher graduation rates.
Administration must innovate and
understand how to create and
implement new organizational
procedures. (C)
Effective observational learning is
achieved by first organizing and
rehearsing modeled behaviors, then
enacting them overtly (Mayer,
2011).
Training that allows the
administrators and the faculty to
organize, rehearse and implement
effective completion gap elimination
programs and procedures.
Administrators must overcome any
self-imposed bias, limits, or barriers
via reflection in order to eliminate
completion gap. (M)
Self-regulatory strategies, including
goal setting, enhance learning and
performance (APA, 2015: Dembo &
Eaton, 2000; Denler et al., 2009).
Training for administration and
faculty in self-regulation and
reflection in order to meet
organizational goals and to enhance
learning and performance of African
American students.
Increasing Administration Declarative Awareness Concerning African American Students ’
Completion Cycles
The data showed that WACC Administrators did not lack declarative knowledge
concerning the completion gap for African American students. But their awareness must be
enhanced. The theory being used to recommend a solution is Social Cognitive Theory. Modeling
strategies and/or new behaviors will help to improve the Administration and its self-efficacy,
organizational learning, and performance (Denler et al., 2009). Implications for the
Administration could be more work for the staff or the addition and needed budget for extra
73
support personnel to alleviate this need. Therefore, education is the recommended solution to this
asset and its fortification (Clark & Estes, 2008). An example would be a one-day off-site for all
administrators to cover the statistics for African American students and a brainstorming session
to help determine the most appropriate reinforcing action needed.
The goal of the completion gap elimination program should be to create shorter
completion cycles and higher rates of graduation (Valliani et al., 2015). Creating model
programs and procedures is possible via education (Clark & Estes, 2008). The tricky part is
determining the appropriate model. Is it based on institutional past failures or is there a similar
college that had success with African American students (Valliani et al., 2015)? If this
organization exists, can it be modeled via education in a way to help the Administration at the
WACC? In essence, modeling appropriate strategies or behaviors could improve the
administration’s self-efficacy, organizational learning, and their performance regarding the
completion gap (Denler et al., 2009).
Increasing Conceptual Knowledge for the Elimination of the Completion Gap
The data showed that the WACC Administration did not lack conceptual knowledge
about how to eliminate the completion gap. This influence was identified as both an asset and a
need. Professional development or training surfaced as the most promising strategy to eliminate
the completion gap. Social Cognitive Theory informs an effective recommendation for
addressing this need. Mayer (2011) asserts that demonstration and modeling can help learners
acquire new behaviors. Training supplies the Administration with the needed guided practice and
corrective feedback to help them achieve specific African American student goals. The
recommendation is that the WACC Administration should receive step-by-step training on how
to develop and implement successful completion gap elimination strategies. An example would
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be a week-long remote training and education summit, to be held off-site, to minimize distraction
and allow for proper transfer of the training surrounding the completion gap successful strategies
and their fruitful implementation.
The goal of the completion gap elimination program is to reduce completion cycles from
six years to three years, while increasing graduation rates from 17% to 40% in the new time
period. For student success to take place, substantial and meaningful training for the
administration is critical (Clark & Estes, 2008). The administration must be trained appropriately
to create the completion gap elimination program and implement it campus wide. Metacognitive
Theory provides that learning and motivation could be enhanced by setting goals and monitoring
implementation progress and overall evaluation of the program(s) and African American student
achievement (Ambrose et al., 2010; Mayer, 2011). This will help the Administration create and
implement the completion gap elimination program.
Increasing Self-Regulation Skills to Overcome Completion Gap Elimination Program
Creation and Implementation Challenges
Many of the Administrators at the WACC have never created nor implemented a
completion and graduation performance program. A gap in terms of metacognition was
identified. Their metacognition must be developed to overcome any bias or barriers that may be
present and hinder elimination of the completion gap. A solution based in Social Cognitive
Theory has been chosen to bolster this reflective metacognitive asset. Research suggests that
metacognition knowledge will help Administrators self-regulate and overcome any self-imposed
limits or barriers (previous bias) via reflection to successfully create and implement the
completion gap elimination program (APA, 2015: Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler et al., 2009).
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By increasing their respective self and group metacognition and through self and group
empowerment, the Administration will create and implement a successful program. Thus, it is
recommended that trainings are provided to allow for metacognition of the individual
Administrator’s bias to ensure that new and open mindsets are created to allow for successful
completion gap minimization (Clark & Estes, 2008). For example, monthly lunch and learns
concerning metacognition could help to ensure individual bias is kept in check.
The Administration is completely responsible for African American student success.
They are responsible for creating the program and successfully implementing it as well. But,
through proper self-regulation, suitable goal setting, and a corrective feedback loop, the
Administration can be successful in creation, adoption, and fruitful execution of a completion
gap elimination program (APA, 2015: Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler et al., 2009). Helping the
Administration with their metacognition could be advantageous for Administrators with both
high and low value deficit cognitive frames. In turn, this would benefit African American
students by removing cultural stereotypes, inadequate socialization, or lack of motivation and
initiative theories that some believe are the reason for lower rates of retention or degree
completion (Bensimon, 2005).
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction
The motivation influences in Table 6 represent the complete list of assumed motivation
influences and their probability of being validated. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that
motivation is a key component of the configuration of the gap analysis. Self-efficacy (Pajares,
2009) and collective efficacy (Bandura, 2000) both play an important role in determining the
individual and collective belief that individual administrators and the entire Administration can
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make a difference in African American student success. Additionally, Attribution Theory
determines what the Administration attributes to the overall success and or failure of the
completion gap elimination program.
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Self-efficacy - Individual
Administrators should believe
they can make positive change
in African American student
success.
Unless people believe that
their actions can produce
desired outcomes, they have
little to no incentive to act or
strenuously persevere in the
face of problems and
complications (Pajares, 2009).
Emphasize during training that
the individuals do have the
ability to affect positive
change for African American
students and reward the
individual administrators in an
appropriate fashion.
Collective-efficacy - The
entire group of Administrators
should believe they
collectively can foster change
and make positive
contributions to African
American student success.
The growing interdependence
of human functioning is the
placing of a premium on the
exercise of collective agency
through shared beliefs to
produce effects by collective
action (Bandura, 2000).
Emphasize during training that
the entire Administration as a
whole does have the ability to
affect positive change for
African American students
and reward the entire group of
administrators in an
appropriate manner.
Attribution Theory - The
Administrators believe they
are responsible for and their
efforts will make a difference
in African American student
success.
Provide accurate feedback that
identifies the skills or
knowledge the individual
lacks, along with
communication that skills and
knowledge can be learned,
followed with teaching of
these skills and knowledge
(Anderman & Anderman,
2009).
Training and education will
help the administrators
understand that their efforts do
make a difference and they
just need to acquire the skills
and be presented with
appropriate and timely
feedback cycles (once per
term to start) to prevent failure
and ensure African American
student success.
Increase Self-Efficacy of WACC Administrators
Individual Administrators are confident they can make a positive change in African
American student success. This confidence was determined to be an asset and a need. This need
indicates a reinforcing solution rooted in Self-Efficacy Theory that would be effective in
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supporting and strengthening self-efficacy in the individual administrators. Pajares (2009) found
that individuals form their self-efficacy beliefs by interpreting information primarily from four
sources: (a) mastery experience, (b) vicarious experience, (c) social persuasions, and (d)
physiological reactions. This would suggest that providing the Administrators with a
demonstration via training that utilizes Pajares’ four previous points would increase their self-
efficacy. The recommendation is a training session(s) that allows the Administrators to realize
that they do have the ability to affect positive change for African American student completion
rates. An example would be a self-efficacy training module occurring quarterly with follow up
training sessions as deemed necessary by completion gap strategy’s success or failure.
Clark and Estes (2008) state that when individuals have positive beliefs about their own
capacity to do something, they are more likely to persevere and achieve the goal while increasing
their performance. Pajares (2009) argues that if people believe in their actions with respect to the
desired consequences, they will then have the incentive to engage in the appropriate actions to
achieve the suitable outcome(s). Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to have feelings of
serenity in approaching difficult tasks and activities (Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy training will be
valuable to the Administration. From a theoretical viewpoint, increasing self-efficacy with
individual administrators through self-efficacy training would increase their performance and
benefit African American students enrolled at the WACC by increasing African American
student completion rates thereby closing the completion gap.
Increase Collective Efficacy of WACC Administration
The WACC Administration are confident they can create and implement an appropriate
program to ensure African American student completion. This influence was deemed an asset,
but a need arose as well. The need is to fortify collective efficacy for the Administration. This
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indicates a solution based on Collective Efficacy Theory would be most effective in bolstering
this asset. Bandura (2000) posits that shared beliefs help to produce positive effects by collective
action. A leadership training module replete with a completion mindset component that
demonstrates that the Administration, as a whole, has the ability to affect positive change is
suggested. This training could be facilitated off-site to minimize distractions and followed up in
monthly or quarterly sessions.
Bandura (2000) explains that conceptions of human agency have been fundamentally
confined to personal agency exercised individually. This is important as it relates to self-efficacy,
but this is not the only form of agency through which people manage events that affect their lives
(Bandura, 2000). Social Cognitive Theory distinguishes between personal and collective agency
(Bandura, 2000). The Administration, as a whole, must believe they can, as a group, decrease
African American student completion times and increase graduation percentages. Therefore,
from a theoretical perspective, it would appear that increasing collective efficacy throughout the
entire Administration through training would improve their performance and benefit African
American students enrolled at the WACC.
Increase Attribution of the Administration
The Administration does not uniformly believe its efforts will make a difference in
African American student success. A solution based on Attribution Theory is necessary to
overcome this gap. Anderman and Anderman (2009) write that accurate feedback pertaining to
skills or knowledge that is lacking and proper communication of the skills and knowledge to be
learned with proper teaching can lead to positive results. This may require serious self-reflection
for the Administration, individually and collectively. Training and education will help the
Administrators understand that their efforts do make a difference and they need to acquire the
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skills and be presented with appropriate and timely feedback cycles (once per term to start) to
prevent failure and ensure African American student completion success. This training and
education can be initially accomplished on campus with follow up sessions.
Attribution Theory provides an important procedure for examining and understanding
motivation in academic settings (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). It examines individuals’ beliefs
about why particular events occur and coordinates those beliefs to subsequent motivation
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009). The fundamental premise of this theory is that people want to
understand their environments and strive to comprehend why certain events happen (Anderman
& Anderman, 2009). The WACC Administration will need to understand why African American
students are not succeeding and take more responsibility in order to feel their efforts are related
to the outcome. Therefore, from a theoretical position, training and education posited via
Attribution Theory would increase Administration performance and benefit the African
American student group by increasing their completion percentages (Weiner, 2005).
Organization Recommendations
Introduction
The organizational influences in Table 7 represent the complete list of assumed
organization influences and their probability of being validated. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest
that organizational and stakeholder goals are often not achieved due to a lack of resources,
typically time and money, and stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the organization’s
mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) propose two constructs about culture: (a)
cultural models, the observable beliefs and values shared by individuals in groups; or (b) cultural
settings, the artifacts and activities in which performance occurs. Thus, both resources and
processes and cultural models and settings must align throughout the organization’s structure to
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achieve the mission and goals. As such, as indicated in Table 7, some organizational influences
have a high probability of validation and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’
goal. Table 7 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on certain theoretical
principles.
Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
There must be a shared
understanding of the value of
equity and completion. (CM)
Leadership understands the
meaning of equity, diversity,
and access in their
organizational context in order
to enhance the capacity to
improve organizational
climate, culture, and outcomes
(Darling-Hammond, 2007;
Lim et al., 2013; Trenerry &
Paradies, 2012).
Leadership will disaggregate
and disseminate data by race,
ethnicity, gender, and other
subgroups in order to address
stakeholder goals.
There must be a commitment
to equity and completion as
demonstrated by mission and
messaging. (CM)
Effective leaders utilize strong
public speaking skills to
communicate ideas and a
vision to the organization and
larger public circle (Conger,
1991; Denning, 2005; Lewis,
2011).
Leadership will communicate
the organization’s equity
mindset, mission, and values
to its members and
stakeholders through
consistent, clear messaging.
Increase Administration Understanding of the Shared Value and Understanding for Equity
and Completion by and for the Organization
Per the study's findings, more than 50% of the Administrators do understand the benefit
of equity and completion for the College’s African American student population. However, the
Administration collectively must understand the meaning of an equity as it relates to improving
climate, culture, and student outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Lim et al., 2013; Trenerry &
Paradies, 2012). Therefore, a theory of accountability is being used to invigorate this asset. The
creation and implementation of the value of equity and completion by leadership may be difficult
81
for the broader organization to digest. Leadership must disaggregate and disseminate data by
race, in this case African America students, to address the organization goals and build a mindset
of completion. A specific recommendation would be to provide data monthly to the
Administration to allow a real time understanding of the successes and/or failures of the African
American full-time student group.
Inequality is one of the most enduring characteristics of our nation’s higher education
system (Malcolm-Piqueux & Bensimon, 2017). Racially minoritized students are more likely to
enroll in some form of postsecondary education than in years past, but their likelihood of
completing a certificate or degree program once enrolled in college falls far below that of their
white and economically privileged equivalents (Carnevale & Strohl, 2013; Perna & Finnery,
2014). Completion minded faculty, staff, and administrators must rely on evidence and data to
understand the practice and policy related factors that contribute to inequities experienced by
their students (Malcolm-Piqueux & Bensimon, 2017). The WACC and its Administration have
its own obstacles and hurdles to face when building a completion mindset, but keeping the
principles of completion at the core of campus equity efforts will bolster their chances of success
(Malcolm-Piqueux & Bensimon, 2017).
Clearly Communicate the Commitment to the Value of Equity and Completion
Seventy-five percent of the Administration receives clear, consistent messaging regarding
the vision of equity for the entire organization. But this asset is also a need. All Administrators
must receive clear, consistent, and timely messaging regarding equity and the completion gap
elimination plan. Communication competence elements have been selected to support this asset.
Leadership must utilize strong public speaking skills to communicate ideas, as well as the vision
for equity and completion to the organization and broader public circle (Conger, 1991; Denning,
82
2005; Lewis, 2011). Leadership may need to recreate its entire communication program
concerning developing a completion gap eradication program for African American students.
Public speaking opportunities, events, town hall meetings, and all hands meetings will need to be
utilized for leadership to detail the organizations creation and implementation of a completion
gap eradication program.
Leadership must understand that one aspect of demonstrating equity-mindedness and
completion is by considering their position and how their power can be used to intentionally
“ingrain more institutional members with a sense of agency for equity” (Bishop, 2014, p. 208).
Data and conceptual aspects of creating and implementing a completion mindset can be
disseminated via All College Forums with clear intent of specifically discussing equity and
completion (Felix et al., 2015). A challenge to equity-mindedness and completion for the WACC
is the lack of structures and overall competency to engage in discussions about race (Felix et al.,
2015). A clear communication strategy about equity and completion will help to create a process
that routinizes race talk through the engagement of the Administration and this collaboration will
ultimately benefit the African American full-time student group.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework provided a feasible manner in
which to research the African American completion gap at the WACC. It provided a malleable
transition from KMO influences to data analysis, results, and recommendations to close any gaps
in the perceived influences and support any found assets or needs. The qualitative interviews
provided rich information for analysis, but there were some aspects of this research study that
could have been added to strengthen the data and subsequent outcome of the analysis.
83
A qualitative survey could have been used to buttress the interview results and provide a
broader reach to the Administration. Even if a small percentage of the non-interviewees
responded to a survey, the pool of information would have been deeper and different results
could have been determined. These different results may have created a different set of
recommendations. But time and access were at a premium, so the decision was made to sample a
small percentage (25%) of the Administration via interviews. Interviews do provide for richer
data than a survey, but they are time consuming.
Limitations and Delimitations
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that contributed to the full-time African American student group completion gap at
the WACC. The main limitation with this study was the timing of the data collection when
compared to the designation of the study by the President of the WACC. When the researcher
was presented with the problem of completion for African American students, nothing was
currently underway at the WACC. Twelve months later, when data collection began, the school
had created an equity committee and an inclusion pledge and had started work on the completion
gap. The COVID-19 pandemic was also a limitation which caused in-person interviews to be
rescheduled as Zoom calls. The nuance of in-person meetings was lost. Finally, many of the
influences were validated as assets when they were initially assumed to be gaps.
Despite this primary limitation, there were several delimitations as well. The topic of this
study was confined to the African American student group at one California community college.
Replicating success from this study could be difficult with other student groups at this college or
other institutions. Another delimitation involved the researcher. The researcher was not part of
the WACC organization. If the researcher had been part of the organization, he may have had a
84
better understanding of the current climate concerning closing the completion gap and could
have created a more directed study. A richer and more robust data set could have been
developed, which in turn, would have helped the researcher in creating even more depth in the
data, analysis, and recommendations.
Future Research for Closing the African American Completion Gap
The topic of African American student completion is extremely important and relevant in
the current era, so there are several areas where future research could be guided. This area of
research could be reproduced at other community colleges in California or any other state in the
United States. Research can also be conducted within the WACC with new assumptions when
the current completion gap elimination program is implemented and measured. After
measurement, a follow-up study could generate new procedures and practices to help eliminate
the completion gap. Finally, this was the first study on this topic at the WACC and is not
exhaustive in its scope, approach, or results.
Future research can also focus on four-year degree granting institutions and graduate
programs that have African American student group completion gaps. Although those
institutions are different and have varying requirements, some of the assets and needs generated
in this study could apply to other areas of higher education. This study could be used as a model
or a starting point to help completion for African American students in any area of higher
education.
Conclusion
This dissertation examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
encompassing the completion gap for full-time African American students. The dynamic force
driving this study centered on how to increase the percentage of African American students
85
completing their respective degree or certificate program(s) in three years from 17% to 40%.
The research questions enclosing this study’s design, methodology, data collection, analysis, and
recommendations were:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation influences related to increasing the percentage of
full-time African American students completing in three years from 17% to 40%?
2. What are the organizational influences related to increasing the percentage of full-time
African American students completing in three years from 17% to 40%?
The review of literature and the analysis of gaps, assets, and needs was ordered around the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. This structure identified knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences relating to declarative, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge, and
theories of self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and attribution. Cultural models of the WACC were
also examined.
Declarative knowledge was found to be an asset, with the Administration demonstrating
different but high levels of awareness concerning the completion gap. Conceptual knowledge
was an asset and need that must be fortified by the Administration in the future as concepts of
promising strategies must be constantly identified, developed, and implemented. Metacognition
was validated as a gap as the entire participant group reflects constantly concerning the
completion gap but not about their individual biases.
Self-efficacy was determined to be an asset, but is also an influence that must be
constantly monitored and supported so the individual Administrators continually believe in their
ability to eliminate the completion gap. Collective efficacy was also validated as an asset, but it
is needed to be supported so the group believes in their collective ability to eliminate the
completion gap. Attribution theory was validated as a gap. At this point, the Administration does
86
not understand who is in charge or who has responsibility for eliminating the completion gap. An
individual or a department needs to take charge and be accountable for the completion gap
elimination program; otherwise, the possibility of failure increases.
From an organizational perspective, a shared understanding is present and considered an
asset for the value of equity and completion at the institution. Also, a commitment to equity and
completion via different messaging mediums is present and is considered an asset. But the
messaging requires centralization, focus, and an external commitment to African American
culture on and about the campus.
The identification of these assets, needs, and gaps allow for the development of goals and
practical implementation fostered by appropriate training measures. With the requisite training,
and implementation of the completion gap eradication program, the completion gap for full-time
African American students can be eliminated. The time cycle can be reduced from six years to
three years and 40% can complete in that timeframe versus the current 17%.
87
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APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Introduction
The following text will be read to the interviewee:
My name is Ralph Berry, I am doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. In this study, I am examining equity mitigation as it relates to completion cycles for
African American students at the Windy Area Community College (WACC) by using the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to this topic. My goal is to
determine solutions to any equity issues at the WACC for African American students and their
completion cycles. Results from this study will be used to provide an Organizational initiative(s)
for change by targeting gaps that exist regarding African American student equity issues.
Pseudonyms will replace any references to the organization, study participants, and any other
possible identifiable information produced in this dissertation. All information provided in this
interview will remain confidential. Participation in this study and this interview is entirely
voluntary, and there is no penalty for refusing to take part in or for terminating your participation
at any time. Additionally, there will be no compensation for participation in any part of this
study.
Do you have any questions concerning the purpose of the study, the confidentiality of any
information, or your right to participate or terminate your participation at any time throughout
this study?
With your permission, I will be recording the audio and video for this interview using the
Zoom recording feature and I will transcribe the interview in order to analyze responses.
Additionally, I will be taking some notes using my notepad. Upon your request I will also
100
provide a link to the Zoom audio/video and/or the transcription to you, as well as any written
notes I may take. If needed, you may choose to end the interview at any time or decline to
answer any question in which you do not feel comfortable discussing. Lastly, I anticipate this
interview to last approximately one hour.
Do you have any further questions? Thank you, and I will now be turning on the
recording feature of the Zoom application. (Interview begins).
Guiding Questions
1. What is the institution currently doing to improve completion rates for African American
students?
a. What do you view as the main (core) challenges at the institution for doing this?
2. In your opinion, what are some of the promising strategies that should be used? What
should your institution be doing that it is not already doing?
3. In your opinion, how important is the goal of increasing completion for African
American students when compared to other institutional priorities?
a. How important should it be?
4. When was the last time you reflected about this particular problem?
a. What did you think (reflect) about?
b. In your opinion, what are the primary reasons why this problem exists in your
institution?
c. What changes do you think should be made to solve it?
5. Thinking from an overall institutional perspective, how often do you think the
Administration is reflecting on this problem?
a. What kinds of conversations do administrators have about this problem?
6. In your opinion, how equity-minded would you say the institution is?
101
7. How equipped do you feel you and other administrators are with the knowledge to solve
this problem?
a. What might need to be learned to be better equipped to accomplish the goal of
increasing African American completion rates?
8. How confident are you in your ability to increase African American completion rates?
a. How confident are you in the ability of the Administration working as a team?
9. What kinds of strategies do you think should be in place?
10. How confident are you that the belief system is in place to do this work?
a. What is needed?
11. Whose job is it to implement these types of strategies?
a. Who has overall authority?
b. Who is ultimately responsible (if different)?
12. In what ways, if at all, does the Organization communicate about the priority for equity?
a. What are the messages from the leadership regarding increasing African
American completion rates?
13. In your opinion, to what extent is there a shared Organizational norm for the value of
equity?
14. What resources are currently available to you to increase African American completion
rates?
a. What additional resources are needed?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences regarding the completion gap for African American students at the Windy Area Community College, a mid-sized community college located in Southern California. The impetus for this research study was to have 40% of African American students complete their degree or certificate programs in three years. The framework guiding this study was the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework. This framework, along with the review of literature, was used to identify factors impacting African American completion rates. The research methodology was a qualitative approach that leveraged qualitative interviews. Eight Administrators were interviewed. Data analysis suggests that, in the past year, the WACC administration has undertaken significant change, and is now on a path to eradicating the completion gap for African American full-time students. Recommendations address the fortification and support of several assets and strategies to rectify any needs identified during data collection and analysis. A plan based in training and education was created. This plan centers around developing a program with and by leadership that culminates in the development of a completion mindset and an African American completion gap elimination program within the WACC.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Berry, Ralph Byron, III
(author)
Core Title
Closing the completion gap for African American students at California community colleges: a research study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
11/13/2020
Defense Date
10/19/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African American,California,community college,completion gap,diversity,equity,inclusion,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Malloy, Courtney (
committee chair
), Robles, Darline (
committee member
), Stowe, Kathy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
pakarbb3@yahoo.com,ralphber@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-393152
Unique identifier
UC11666061
Identifier
etd-BerryRalph-9117.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-393152 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-BerryRalph-9117.pdf
Dmrecord
393152
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Berry, Ralph Byron, III
Type
texts
Source
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
community college
completion gap
equity
inclusion