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Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices used by teachers in kindergarten through second grade in Los Angeles County urban elementary schools
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Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices used by teachers in kindergarten through second grade in Los Angeles County urban elementary schools
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CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
1
Discipline With Dignity for African American Students: Effective Culturally Responsive
Practices Used by Teachers in Kindergarten Through Second Grade in Los Angeles County
Urban Elementary Schools
by
Jose F. Soto III
______________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Jose F. Soto III
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my beautiful wife, who is my pillar of support, my
motivator, and my best friend. Lee, thank you for handling additional responsibilities so that I
could dedicate countless hours to complete this work. Thank you for always supporting my
dreams and ambitions and for always encouraging me to push forward to get the job done. We
did it honey! This is OUR achievement.
To my oldest daughter, Alexis, anything is possible if you work hard and find the
determination to meet your goals. I hope my dedication as an educator will continue to inspire
you on your journey through life.
To my youngest daughter, Amanda, I know that completing this dissertation robbed us of
precious quality time. I look forward to making up those hours with you. Also, please know that
Daddy loves you and truly believes in you. Fight On Every Day!
To my little buddy, Joey, son, you made this journey so much more tolerable for me. On
those long days of reading, writing, and researching, your hugs and affection made it possible for
me to push through. You are my best bud. I love you, pal!
I also dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Frank and Raquel Soto. Thank you for
showing me the importance of hard work. Thank you for always supporting me with an open
heart. Both of you raised two children who are called “Dr. Soto.”
A special dedication to the memory of Kobe Bryant. Kobe, thank you for being such a
great inspiration for many of our students in Los Angeles County. I hope to continue inspiring
students through dedication and hard work. #mambamentality
Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to the students and families I serve. Thank you for
teaching me humility and sensitivity and for inspiring my passion to lead. Mr. Soto-Out!
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
3
Acknowledgements
This journey would not have been possible without the support and guidance of Dr. Rudy
Castruita, my dissertation chair. Dr. Castruita’s mentorship, encouragement, and positive
approach were most helpful during this arduous journey called the dissertation process. It was an
honor to have Dr. Castruita serve as my dissertation chair because I learned so much from his
teaching, experience, and most of all, his passion. Dr. Castruita, your support, especially in
facilitating my conversations with the superintendents from the school districts represented in my
study, was instrumental to the completion of my dissertation. Dr. C., you have left an indelible
mark in my mind, and I look forward to our continued friendship.
I would also like to acknowledge my dissertation committee members, Dr. Dave Cash
and Dr. Al Webb. Dr. Cash, your passion for education and equity is infectious. I will always
remember your fight for social justice and your belief in “Every Student, Every Chance, Every
Day.” Dr. Webb, thank you for agreeing to participate on my dissertation committee. I have
always admired your work ethic and dedication to our students in LAUSD. Your friendship as a
colleague and support means a lot to me.
It is an honor to join the USC Trojan Family as a graduate, and I will never forget the
professors who paved the way during this journey. A special thank you to Dr. Samkian, Dr.
Slayton, Dr. Muraszweski, Dr. Burch, Dr. Picus, Dr. Kho, Dr. Cash, and Dr. Castruita for
challenging me as a scholar practitioner and helping me grow as an urban school leader.
I would also like to give a special acknowledgement to my dissertation partner, Sukari
Garlington. Sukari, our careers have followed a similar path, and it was always our goal to
complete the doctoral program together. We did it, partner! Your support and encouragement
through this process lifted me up when I was down. I will never forget our long nights in class,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
4
our long study sessions, our long writing sessions, and our ongoing jokes. Thank you for being
the best partner! I am proud to have shared this journey and accomplishment with you. We are
forever family. We are forever Trojans!
Last, I would like to acknowledge my friend, Raymond Lucero, the “Professor”. Ray,
thank you for your constant support and encouragement. Thank you for inspiring me through
your work ethic, honesty, and loyalty. I truly appreciate our friendship.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
5
List of Tables
Table 1. Participating School Districts’ Student Demographic Data
Table 2. Total Survey Participant Data for School District A and School District B
Table 3. Survey Respondents by Grade Level
Table 4. School District A and School District B Survey Respondent Demographic Data:
Kindergarten Through Second Grade
Table 5. Demographics of Interview Respondents
Table 6. I Consistently Use CRT strategies to Understand African American Students in My
Classroom
Table 7. I Consider Cultural Background When Responding to Inappropriate Student Behaviors
in My Classroom
Table 8. I Consistently Praise the Positive/Desired Behaviors of African American Students in
My Classroom Environment
Table 9. I Consistently Use Individual Incentives to Reward Positive/Desired Behaviors
Manifested by African American Students
Table 10. Teacher A’s Four Color Behavior Management Clip System for Second Grade
Table 11. Teacher D’s Six Color Behavior Management Clip System for Second Grade
Table 12. I Utilize Office Disciplinary Referrals to Document African American Student
Behaviors of Concern
Table 13. I am Comfortable Utilizing Suspension as a Consequence for Pervasive Behaviors
Such as Student Disrespect Toward Adults and Students, Classroom Disruptions, and
Inappropriate Language
Table 14. I Consistently Use Individual Student Reinforcement Systems and Group
Contingencies Such as a Token Economy to Support Positive Behaviors in My
Classroom
Table 15. I Rely on the Use of Student Interest Surveys in My Classroom to Gain a Better
Understanding of My Students
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
6
List of Figures
Figure 1. Representation of Students Who Received Disciplinary Actions Compared
to Overall Student Population, by Student Race or Ethnicity, School Year
2013-2014 ...........................................................................................................38
Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom: A Model of Teacher Social and Emotional
Competence and Classroom and Student Outcomes ..........................................40
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
7
Abstract
There is an urgent need for elementary educators to employ discipline practices that
improve the academic achievement of African American students. The purpose of this study was
to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers use to promote a learning environment, based on Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory
(Ladson-Billings, 1995a), that supports young African American students in Los Angeles
County.
The joint parts of this research investigated two school districts and focused on the
strategies that teachers used to support African American students in kindergarten through fifth
grade. The researchers for this particular study analyzed the practices and beliefs of elementary
school teachers in kindergarten through second grade and investigated four areas through the
lens of culturally relevant teaching (CRT): (1) the positive behavior strategies most commonly
used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African American
students in the urban classroom, (2) effective positive behavior strategies that support the
academic achievement of African American students, (3) how elementary school teachers
measure the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students
in their classroom, and (4) the behavioral support practices used within the learning environment
to support an ethnically diverse classroom.
The researcher conducted a mixed-methods study that included both quantitative
(surveys) and qualitative (interviews) data collection. The data was analyzed using a thematic
approach, and the researcher identified themes, categories, and patterns to answer the guiding
research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data
collected in the study highlighted a number of key findings. Based on survey response data, the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
8
researcher determined that kindergarten through second-grade teachers in this study were mostly
in favor of consistently using culturally relevant practices in their classrooms. Teacher responses
also revealed that most teachers were in favor of consistently using praise and individual
incentives to reward African American students in the classroom. Additionally, interview
response data showed that teachers used various teaching strategies, including building
awareness, encouraging acceptance, and learning about diverse student populations. Teacher
beliefs and perceptions gathered from this study aligned with Gay’s (2002) Theory of Cultural
Relevant Teaching, which encouraged teachers to use cultural knowledge, experiences, heritage,
and differing perspectives to promote cultural awareness in the classroom.
Finally, the quantitative and qualitative data also demonstrated that effective strategies
used by teachers included teaching explicit classroom rules and expectations, modeling
appropriate behaviors at the beginning of the school year, revisiting classroom expectations
frequently, and teaching social skills throughout the day.
It is important to note that in this study, the terms Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and
Culturally Relevant Teaching (Gay, 2002) will be used interchangeably throughout the body of
this dissertation. Although Gloria Ladson-Billings originated the theory of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy (1995), Dr. Geneva Gay has furthered this research and influenced additional
culturally relevant teaching practices of educators across the nation.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
9
Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and have been identified as
such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm for most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this
shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between two doctoral candidates,
Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto. We two doctoral students met with several elementary schools
in Los Angeles County to learn about the effective positive behavior support practices used to
support students in the elementary classroom. However, the process for dissecting and resolving
the problem was too large for a single dissertation. The participants in this research study were
selected from two urban school districts within Los Angeles County. This study focused on
examining, through the lens of CRT, effective practices elementary school teachers used to
support African American students in kindergarten through fifth grade. The researchers
conducting this study split the data collection responsibilities to gather a richer sample of
information that compared and identified recurring themes between upper and lower grade
levels. One researcher focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other researcher
focused on third through fifth grade. As a result, the two dissertations produced by our inquiry
team collectively examine effective positive behavior support practices used to support African
American students in elementary schools throughout Los Angeles County (see Garlington, 2020;
Soto, 2020).
Running head: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
Table of Contents
Dedication ............................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................3
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................5
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................6
Abstract ................................................................................................................................7
Preface..................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study .....................................................................................13
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................14
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................20
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................20
Research Questions .....................................................................................................21
Importance of the Study ..............................................................................................22
Limitations ..................................................................................................................23
Delimitations ...............................................................................................................23
Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................23
Organization of the Study ...........................................................................................26
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................27
Theoretical Framework ...............................................................................................28
Culturally Relevant Teaching .....................................................................................29
Culturally Responsive Climate ............................................................................30
Culturally Responsive Teachers ..........................................................................31
Factors Contributing to Behavioral and Academic Challenges ..................................32
Poverty .................................................................................................................33
Differential Rates of Disruptive Behaviors .........................................................34
The Cultural Mismatch ........................................................................................34
The Discipline Gap ..............................................................................................36
Social Emotional Learning .........................................................................................38
Classroom Management and Positive Behavior Support ...........................................41
Effective Strategies to Support Desired Behaviors in the Classroom ........................44
Positive Reinforcement .......................................................................................45
Contingent Reinforcement ...................................................................................46
Token Economy ...................................................................................................46
Response Cost .....................................................................................................48
Group Contingencies ...........................................................................................49
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................49
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................51
Statement of the Problem, Purpose of Study, and Guiding Research Questions .......51
Sample and Population ...............................................................................................53
Instrumentation ...........................................................................................................54
Quantitative Instrument .......................................................................................54
Qualitative Instrument .........................................................................................55
Data Collection Procedures ........................................................................................55
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
11
Quantitative Data Collection ...............................................................................56
Qualitative Data Collection .................................................................................56
Data Analysis ..............................................................................................................57
Quantitative Data Analysis ..................................................................................58
Qualitative Data Analysis ....................................................................................58
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................58
Summary .....................................................................................................................59
Chapter 4: Research Results and Findings.........................................................................60
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................60
Coding the Data ..........................................................................................................61
Presentation of Findings .............................................................................................62
Descriptive Characteristics .........................................................................................62
Survey Data .........................................................................................................62
Demographics of Participating School Districts .................................................63
Interview Participants ..........................................................................................67
Research Question 1 ...................................................................................................68
Culturally Relevant Teaching Practices ..............................................................68
Culturally Responsive Climate ............................................................................70
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................72
Research Question 2 ...................................................................................................73
Positive Reinforcement .......................................................................................73
Response Cost .....................................................................................................76
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................78
Research Question 3 ...................................................................................................79
Disciplinary Referrals ..........................................................................................79
Suspension ...........................................................................................................81
Supporting Social Emotional Learning ...............................................................83
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 ..................................................84
Research Question 4 ...................................................................................................85
Group Contingencies/Token Economy ...............................................................85
Response Cost .....................................................................................................87
Knowing Your Students ......................................................................................87
Summary of Findings for Research Question 4 ..................................................88
Summary of the Key Findings ....................................................................................90
Discussion ...................................................................................................................92
Chapter 5: Conclusion........................................................................................................94
Statement of Problem .................................................................................................94
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................94
Research Questions .....................................................................................................95
Review of the Literature .............................................................................................96
Design Overview ......................................................................................................100
Key Findings .............................................................................................................102
Comparing and Contrasting Between Grade Levels ................................................104
Similarities Among Grade Levels .....................................................................104
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
12
Differences Among Grade Levels .....................................................................105
Implications for Practice ...........................................................................................106
Limitations ................................................................................................................107
Recommendations for Future Study .........................................................................108
Conclusion ................................................................................................................108
References ........................................................................................................................110
Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Survey Instrument ....................................................................126
Appendix B: Interview Instrument ..................................................................................129
Appendix C: Superintendent Cover Letter ......................................................................131
Appendix D: Participant Cover Letter .............................................................................132
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
13
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
1
Introduction
Elementary teachers face many challenges in educating the youth of today (Colvin, 2010;
Gay, 2002). On a daily basis, teachers are pressured to increase high-stakes test scores,
differentiate instruction for diverse learners, and to do more with less funding (Colvin, 2010).
These problems are compounded in urban elementary schools, which may have larger class
sizes, less funding, and a more diverse student population. Creating a classroom environment
that promotes the academic and social emotional growth of students of color is important, and
teachers should emphasize safety, empower all students, and develop collaborative partnerships
between children and adults (Craig, 2016). Student diversity creates challenges in the classroom
if teachers are not familiar with Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) and do not use the “cultural
characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for
teaching them more effectively” (Gay, 2002, p. 106).
African American students receive a disproportionate share of the suspensions,
disciplinary referrals, expulsions, and special education referrals that occur in schools across the
nation. African American students are three to seven times more likely than their White peers to
receive a suspension as a consequence for misbehavior (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003). In
addition, African American students are more likely to receive disciplinary referrals from
teachers for less serious offenses, such as disrespect and excessive noise, and to receive
suspensions and expulsions as consequences for the same or similar behavioral offenses (Skiba,
Graham, Sheras, Conoley, & Garcia-Vazquez, 2008). A nation-wide study of student discipline
1
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
14
referrals showed that 43% of disciplinary referrals in kindergarten through sixth grade were
administered to African American students (Skiba et al., 2008). Behaviorally at-risk African
American students are also overrepresented in special education programs; 73% of African
American students referred and evaluated for special education qualified for services (Decker,
Dona, & Christenson, 2007). African American students are more likely than their White peers
to receive suspensions and expulsions as consequences for the same or similar behavioral
offenses (Skiba et al., 2008).
African American students account for over 40% of the total K-12 student population in
schools across the nation, yet only 17% of teachers are from similarly diverse backgrounds
(Boser, 2011). In addition, proactive behavior management, including clearly sated
expectations, anticipating student struggles, and precorrecting for undesired behaviors, in tandem
with culturally relevant teaching, can create an understanding of the association between a
student’s culture and their behavior (Larson, Pas, Bradshaw, Rosenberg, and Dave-Vines, 2018).
Improving the school success of ethnically diverse students through culturally relevant teaching
requires providing teachers with opportunities to learn and understand the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills necessary to serve African American students (Gay, 2002).
Background of the Problem
The disproportionate discipline practices for African American students has been a
historical issue in the United States (Gregory, 1997; Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003; Skiba,
Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). Over the past 40 years, African American students have
been suspended at significantly higher rates than their White peers. Both national and state data
revealed consistent patterns of disproportionality in school discipline among African Americans
(Gregory, Skiba & Noguera, 2010).Vincent, Tobin, Hawken, and Frank (2012) argue that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
15
students from non-White backgrounds, particularly African American students, experience
poorer discipline and academic outcomes than their White peers. National and state data reveal
consistent patterns of disproportionality in school discipline among African Americans (Gregory
et al., 2010). In the 1970s, data from the Office of Civil Rights, which is a sub-agency of the
U.S. Department of Education, revealed that African Americans were at twice the risk of
receiving out-of-school suspensions as their White peers (Skiba, Horner, Chung, Rausch, May,
& Tobin, 2011). In addition, a national study conducted by Children’s Defense Fund in 1975
reported that African American students were two to three times more likely to be suspended for
disciplinary incidents when compared to their White peers. A nationally representative study
utilizing parent reports showed similar patterns: one in five African American students in the
study had been suspended, compared to only one in 10 White students (KewelRamni et al.,
2007). The data suggested that African American students were more frequently subjected to
harsher discipline practices (Gregory & Mosely, 1996) and were less likely than other students to
receive alternative discipline interventions (McFadden et al., 1992). The research demonstrates
that over the past 40 years African American students are suspended at disproportionately higher
rates than their White peers which has led to the to a discipline gap within the United
States. Russ (2014) defines the discipline gap as the disproportionate disciplinary responses by
teachers to one race when compared to others. A national study conducted by Children Defense
Fund in 1975 reported that African American students were two to three times more likely to be
suspended for disciplinary incidents when compared to their White peers.
More recent data revealed that this trend is still evident across the United States.
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2014), African American students are 3.8 times
more likely to receive one or more suspensions than their White peers. This highlights the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
16
overuse of disciplinary practices used by teachers to address the inappropriate classroom
behaviors of African American students (Smith & Harper, 2015).
In 2014, the U.S. Department of Education released a policy statement that described
“stark racial and gender disparities” in disciplinary consequences for young students of color,
and evidence showed that African American students were suspended and expelled more
frequently than students of other ethnicities (as cited in Reno, Friend, Caruthers, & Smith, 2017).
The continual removal of African American students from their educational settings for extended
periods of time decreases the amount of time devoted to learning (Joubert, Bonner, Lewis, &
Butler, 2010). Furthermore, research showed that African American students who are constantly
reprimanded for classroom misbehavior may become less attached to school, less invested in
schoolwork, less inclined to follow school rules, and consequently, less motivated to achieve
academic success (Gregory et al., 2010).
Utilizing effective teaching and discipline strategies to increase learning outcomes for
students of color is key to disrupting the high discipline rates for African American students. In
educational settings, policies, expectations, and practices reflect the values of the individuals
who create them (Monroe, 2004). In the classroom, teachers are the leaders and have the
authority to determine consequences that are suitable for inappropriate behaviors. In 2012, 82%
of public education teachers were White, while 16% of their students were African American
(U.S. Department of Education, 2016a). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argued that higher
disproportionality exists when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and
students in the classroom. When teachers misinterpret behaviors in the classroom, it leads to the
unnecessary disciplining of African American students. As an example, Monroe (2005a)
indicated that elevated voice levels, displays of emotion, and pupil-to-pupil interactions were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
17
considered inappropriate behaviors in the classroom, yet they were associated with African
American culture. The actions of African American students, therefore, are often misinterpreted
and penalized because teachers may not fully understand the cultural background and
socioeconomic status of African American students, which may differ from the institutional
norms of the school staff (Ferguson 2000; Obidah & Teel, 2001).
Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) practices are intended to increase opportunities for
cultural synchronization and, ultimately, to address the issue of disproportionate disciplinary
practices. Gay (2002) defined CRT as using cultural knowledge, experiences, perspectives, and
the heritage of different ethnic and racial groups to teach students more effectively. CRT is a tool
that can be used to help guide teachers to develop effective ways to instruct their students (Griner
& Steward, 2012). In a study by Ladson-Billings (1990), African American students were
shown to be more successful in school when the school culture paralleled their home culture.
Although CRT is intended to help teachers work with diverse populations, school staff lack
appropriate implementation due to the absence of clear examples and tools for best practices
(Fiedler et al., 2008). If implemented correctly, CRT enables practitioners to consider the
possible cultural underpinnings of behaviors traditionally perceived as disruptive (Monroe &
Obidah, 2004). Implementing CRT will supports teachers in building meaningful relationships
with students and making cultural connections with African Americans students at low
performing schools.
Research on positive behavior support in the classroom has yielded many effective
classroom strategies that promote the academic and social emotional growth of students (Colvin,
2010). Behavioral interventions based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
have been utilized in elementary classrooms to support students with persistent behavioral
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
18
challenges. ABA is a scientific approach for discovering environmental factors that contribute to
socially significant behaviors and the behavior change interventions that take practical advantage
of those discoveries (Cooper et al., 2007). Teachers rely on the use of positive behavior
supports, such as individual reinforcement or group contingencies, behavioral interventions
including a schedule of reinforcement, and student self-monitoring systems (Bloh & Axelrod,
2008).
In recent years, educators have adopted the use of Social Emotional Learning (SEL)
curricula to support socialization the development of life skills within the classroom environment
(Catalano, et al., 2002). Elias et al. (1997) defined SEL as the process through which children
develop skills, values, and attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing
and managing emotions, developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors.
These skills are particularly important and are linked to long-term behavior implications (Zins,
Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2007). Increasing opportunities for students to develop
these skills using SEL curricula in the educational setting can create opportunities for positive
interactions with peers and help to lower student suspension (Elias et al. (1997). Lopes and
Salovey (2004) postulated that the educational process was negative for students when the
attention and resources were focused only on academics. Furthermore, developing social
emotional skills separate from the core curriculum reduces the probability that students exposed
to risk factors will engage in problem behavior (Catalano, 2002).
Today, schools are faced with the challenge of developing 21st century learners who are
socially and academically competent to navigate our evolving society (Buchanan et al., 2009). In
addition, teachers are confronted with students who have traumatic childhood experiences that
impact their educational involvement and engagement with the curriculum. Kaiser Permanente
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
19
conducted an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) survey with 17,000 members between 1997
and 1995 (Centers of Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2016). The study revealed that
two thirds of the participants had at least one ACE, while one in five reported having three or
more ACEs (CDC, 2016). Exposure to ACEs, such as substance abuse, physical abuse or
neglect, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, and domestic violence, has serious implications for
student academic achievement and overall wellbeing. The CDC (2016) reported that ACEs
increased the risks of poor achievement, health problems, and drug and alcohol use.
Incorporating SEL curriculum might support students who experienced ACEs in their emotional
development. Because schools play a key role in developing and nurturing positive social
interactions, it is important for SEL to be a part of the educational process to benefit all students
(Zins et al., 2007). SEL programs continue to have a positive impact on student behaviors and
interactions; however, schools continue to adopt zero tolerance suspension policies that
concentrate on punitive measures to discipline students. Teachers are the leaders and play a
pivotal role in developing a positive classroom climate that promotes social emotional learning
for students (Haynes, Ben-Avie, & Ensign, 2003). The mismatch between students’ needs and
teachers’ expectations can negatively impact the quality of the teacher/student relationships,
therefore, decreasing positive social and emotional experiences (Hughes & Cavell, 1999).
Urban elementary educators encounter many challenges that impact managing behaviors
in the classroom. Teachers are confronted with obstacles that make it difficult to respond to both
the demands of instruction and the social emotional development of their students. African
American students are subjected to disciplinary actions that are inequitable when compared to
their peers (Skiba, et al., 2011). African American students are suspended and expelled more
frequently than other ethnic groups because teachers do not fully understand their cultural
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
20
differences or have the knowledge, attitude, and necessary skills to serve students of color (Gay,
2002; Reno et al., 2017). Educators need to use effective tools and implement plans that promote
a positive, safe climate so that they can provide academic rigor and encouraging social
experiences.
Statement of the Problem
There is an urgent need for elementary educators to employ discipline practices that
improve the academic achievement of African American students. Research continues to
demonstrate that African American students receive high rates of suspension when compared to
those of their White peers. Moreover, a number of factors including culturally biased discipline
practices and low socioeconomic status appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem
(Skiba et al., 2008). While there is wealth of literature focused on the disproportionate
suspensions, expulsions, and disciplinary referrals of African American students, there is very
little research on the essential culturally relevant strategies in conjunction to positive behavior
support strategies to support African American e students in the elementary classroom. Skiba et
al. (2002) emphasized the need to better understand the school response to discipline and the
culturally biased practices among staff. The disproportionate suspension rate of African
American students within the United States has been consistent for the past 40 years, and there is
a need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based strategies and interventions
that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), the positive behavior strategies and practices that
elementary school teachers in Los Angeles County used to promote a learning environment that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
21
supported young African American students. The researchers for this study analyzed the
practices and beliefs of elementary school teachers who implemented positive behavioral
strategies that supported ethnically diverse students in their urban classrooms. The researchers
also explored how teachers perceived the behavioral challenges of African American students in
their classroom and examined their understanding of culturally relevant teaching. This research
investigated elementary teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, skills, and practices and shed light on
successful strategies that may or may not have connected with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Theory. This study also investigated the behavior strategies that supported African American
students in the classroom and limited the disproportionate disciplinary consequences that
reprimanded students and caused them to become less attached to school, less invested in
schoolwork, and less inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010). The results of this
study highlight the effective positive behavior practices that elementary school teachers in Los
Angeles County used to improve the academic achievements of African American students in
their urban classrooms.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided our study:
1. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory (CRT), what are the
positive behavior strategies most commonly used by elementary school teachers to
support the behavioral challenges of African American students in the urban
classroom?
2. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching Theory, what do elementary
teachers believe are effective positive behavior strategies that support the academic
achievement of African American students?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
22
3. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, how do elementary school teachers
measure the effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African
American students in their classroom?
4. Through the lens of Culturally Relevant Teaching, what behavioral support practices
are used within the learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Importance of the Study
African American students continue to receive a disproportionate amount of disciplinary
consequences; African American students are three to seven times more likely to receive
suspensions for disciplinary infractions or to be referred for special education services for
disruptive behaviors than non-African American students (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2008). Research in the field demonstrates that African American students who are
constantly reprimanded for disciplinary infractions become less motivated to achieve academic
success in school (Gregory et al., 2010). However, “Even after decades of research, African
American students continue to be disproportionally represented in exclusionary disciplinary
actions” (Larson et al., 2018, p. 153), and there is a lack of proactive behavior management and
use of culturally responsive teaching practices in the classroom (Larson et al., 2018). Teachers
working with African American students should have a “clear understanding of their own and
others’ culture” to connect with their students and create a culturally responsive classroom
environment (Larson et al., 2018, p. 155). Ladson-Billings (1990) argued that African American
students were more successful in school when there was a parallel connection between home and
school. Larson et al. (2018) hypothesized that using CRT practices would improve African
American students’ behavior outcomes and create equity within the classroom. However,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
23
research linking culturally responsive teaching and student behavior outcomes has been
inconclusive (Larson et al., 2018).
This study is important because it critically analyzed and identified effective behavior
strategies used in the elementary classroom that supported African American students and
limited the disproportionate use of disciplinary consequences. This research also attempted to
identify whether there was a link between CRT, positive classroom behavior management, and
student outcomes. In the field of elementary school education, more research is needed for
identifying effective behavior management strategies that support a culturally diverse classroom.
Limitations
This study focused on effective teacher strategies to support African American students
in urban elementary schools within Los Angeles County. This limited its representativeness
because it did not include information from elementary teachers who worked with African
American students in non-urban schools.
Delimitations
A delimitation of this study was the geographic boundaries. Teachers who participated in
this study worked in urban elementary schools located within Los Angeles County, California.
Definition of Terms
The terms that follow were used throughout the study:
Contingent Reinforcement: The clear and explicit appropriate behaviors expected from
students in the classroom and the consequences that will ensue for compliance and
noncompliance (Cooper et al., 2007).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
24
Cultural Mismatch: The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between
teachers and students that can lead to devastating learning experiences for ethnically diverse
students (Antón, 1999; Cho & Reich, 2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory: The theory to build cultural proficiency amongst
students comprised of three criteria: (1) students experiencing academic success; (2) students
developing and maintaining cultural competence; and (3) students developing a critical
consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current order (Ladson-
Billings, 1995a).
Culturally Relevant Teaching (CRT) Theory: The use of cultural knowledge, experience,
perspectives, and the heritage of different ethnic and racial groups to teach diverse students
more effectively (Gay, 2002).
Culturally Responsive Climate: A classroom climate that is culturally sensitive and
demonstrates caring and culturally responsive learning communities (Gay, 2002).
Culturally Responsive Teacher: A teacher able to recognize the need to modify his or her
own knowledge and training through the use of variations in teaching modalities while
paying attention to classroom contexts and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al.,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Discipline Gap: The racial and ethnic disproportionality constrained by simplistic
dichotomies that artificially pit individual student characteristics (e.g., student aggression,
disengagement from school) against systemic factors (e.g., school administrators’ implicit
bias, community violence) as the reason why some groups are overrepresented in suspension
or expulsion (Skiba et al., 2008).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
25
Group Contingencies: A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is
dependent on the behavior of (a) a person within the group, (b) a select group of members
within the larger group, or (c) each member of the group meeting a performance criterion.
(Cooper et al., 2007)
Lower Grades: Kindergarten through second grade
Positive Behavior Support: The broad enterprise of helping people develop and engage in
adaptive, socially desirable behaviors to overcome patterns of destructive and stigmatizing
behavioral responses using positive reinforcement (Koegel, Koegel, & Dunlap, 1996).
Positive Reinforcement: The naturally occurring phenomenon used to describe pleasant
events or rewards given to a student who exhibits replacement behavior as part of a behavior
change plan (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
Response Cost: The contingent loss of reinforcers and a form of negative punishment that
produced a decrease in the frequency of undesired behaviors using classroom fines (Cooper
et al., 2007).
School Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment, based
upon the physical, academic, and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007).
Social Emotional Learning: The process through which children develop skills, values, and
attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing and managing emotions,
developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors (Elias et al., 1997).
Token Economy: The procedure for administering generalized secondary reinforcers, such as
tokens, points, stickers, stars, or tickets, to students demonstrating target behaviors so that
they can later redeem or exchange them for a preferred classroom item, activity, and/or
reward (Kearney, 2015).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
26
Upper Grades: Third through fifth grade.
Organization of the Study
This study was organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduced the study and
included a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions that
guided the research. The second chapter contains a literature review that focused on exploring
effective positive behavior strategies to support African American students in the elementary
classroom. The third chapter introduces the methodology used for this study, including data
collection, protocols, and the rationale for this study. The fourth chapter discusses the results
and outcomes of this study. The fifth chapter serves as the conclusion of the study; it includes the
implications of this study and recommendations for further research.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature that outlines the historical perspective of
disproportionate disciplinary consequences for African American youth in public schools, the
research on effective strategies used to remediate the disproportionate disciplinary practices used
for African American students, and the link between CRT and positive behavior practices in the
classroom.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
27
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
2
A large body of research collected over the past four decades found that disciplinary
practices in schools across the United States disproportionately affect African American
students. Scholarly research has consistently demonstrated that African Americans receive high
rates of disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions when compared to their White peers
(Moore, 2006a); Skiba et al., 2008). A national study conducted by the Children’s Defense Fund
in 1975 found that African American students were three times more likely than White students
to receive suspensions for similar acts of misbehavior. Due to the disproportionately high rates of
disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions, African American students experience poorer
academic outcomes than their White peers (Gregory, 1997; Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2002; Vincent, Swain-Bradway, Tobin, & May, 2012).
Monroe (2006) suggested that over the past 30 years the data has demonstrated that
student discipline rates for African American students far exceeds their statistical representation
and is highlighted on measures of suspension and expulsion in most major school districts. More
recent data revealed that this trend is still evident across the nation. In their study of suspension
practices in a large, ethnically diverse school district, Raffaele Mendez and Knoff (2003) found
that African American students were three to seven times more likely to be suspended for
undesirable behaviors than their White peers. A report from the Office for Civil Rights (OCR;
2014) demonstrated that students of color maintained disproportionately high suspension and
expulsion rates across the United States and were three times more likely to be suspended or
expelled than White students. This chapter provides an introduction to the historical evidence
2
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
28
highlighting the disproportionate rates of suspension, expulsion, and disciplinary referrals for
African American students. It also includes an analysis of the theoretical framework of this
study, factors contributing to the behavioral and academic challenges experienced by African
American students in public schools, research on current effective practices to support African
American students in the classroom, and concluding remarks.
Theoretical Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
(CRP) theory. CRP theory is used as a framework to explain the need for equitable
implementation of discipline practices for African American students in this inquiry. The
disproportionate disciplining of African American students has been extensively documented
(OCR, 2016; Skiba et al., 2002). African Americans students consistently receive harsher
discipline, including exclusionary and punitive consequences, than their White peers (Skiba et
al., 2011). CRP theory is appropriate for this study because it examines cultural discrepancies
that exist between a teacher and a student. CRP humanizes pedagogy that respects and uses the
reality, history, and perspectives of students as integral parts of the educational practices
(Bartolome, 1994) . It requires teachers to participate in critical reflection and engage in
reflective action as a tool for addressing social and emotional issues pertaining to race and
culture (Howard, 2003). Ladson-Billings (1995b) explained that CRP encompasses three criteria
to measure cultural proficiency: “(a) students must experience academic success; (b) students
must develop and or maintain cultural competence; and (c) students must develop a critical
consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current order” (p 160).
Students are required to improve their academic skills despite inequities that exist within
the educational system. This requires that teachers attend to academic needs and demand
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
29
academic excellence of their students (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). Gay (2002) argued that being an
effective teacher requires mastering both pedagogy and content knowledge. Utilizing appropriate
culturally relevant strategies to improve learning environments has been shown to decrease the
inappropriate suspensions of African American students. Gay (2002) and Howard (1999)
teachers are inadequately prepared to teach ethnically diverse students and cannot teach what
they do not know or. Brown (2004) asserted that in order to increase cultural competence,
teachers have to engage in behaviors that will meet the needs of students. CRP creates inclusive
environments that emphasize experiences and the languages and cultures of diverse learners.
Culturally Relevant Teaching
Disciplining students is more complicated than controlling student behaviors by
administering sanctions for inappropriate behavior. It entails creating and sustaining classroom
environments that are personally comfortable, racially and ethnically inclusive, and intellectually
stimulating (Everstson &Weinstein, 2011). Teachers are at the forefront of creating safe learning
spaces for students to develop academically, socially, and emotionally. Culturally Relevant
Teaching (CRT) practices has been shown to increase opportunities for students of color to feel
comfortable in an educational setting (Gay, 1995). . Gay (2010) defined culturally responsive
teaching as using ethnically diverse students’ prior experiences, cultural knowledge, and frame
of reference to make learning experiences more relevant and effective. Gay (2018) asserted that
“teachers must learn how to recognize, honor, and incorporate the personal abilities of students
into their teaching strategies. If this is done, then school achievement will improve” (p. 1).
Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as a vehicle for learning (Ladson-
Billings, 2009). Culturally Responsive teachers also participate in practices that foster students’
academic success while empowering them to challenge inequities (Brown & Crippen, 2016).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
30
CRT recognizes the role that cultural socialization plays in how students receive, analyze, and
interpret information (Allen & Boykin, 1992; Au & Jordan, 1981; Cazden & Leggett, 1981). Gay
(2018) argued that teaching is more effective when teachers use cultural knowledge, heritage,
perspective, and the experiences of students from different ethnic and racial groups. In addition,
Griner and Stewart (2012) suggested that CRT is an instrument that supports teachers with
effective ways to instruct students. Other researchers described CRT as an effective resource for
meeting the social and academic demands of culturally diverse students (Gay, 2018; Howard,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Shade, Kelly, & Oberg, 1997).
Culturally Responsive Climate
Students face many challenges beyond the walls of the school that extend to their homes
and communities. Fostering a culture that is focused on creating a positive learning environment
has been shown to increase academic achievement for students of color. . To promote student
learning and engagement, educators can examine their beliefs and practices (Manning & Bucher,
2007). This requires teachers to be culturally sensitive and demonstrate caring and culturally
responsive learning communities (Gay, 2002). Implementing culturally responsive approaches to
education and discipline increases students’ academic achievements (Durden, 2008). Instruction
and classroom management are linked, and teachers who are unprepared, disorganized, and lack
cultural competence of their students will encounter behavior problems (Howard, 2003; Manning
& Bucher, 2007). Lew and Nelson (2016) noted that in order to effectively manage a classroom,
teachers must be confident in their ability to be culturally responsive, set clear classroom
expectations, model positive behaviors, and enforce consequences.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
31
Culturally Responsive Teachers
Public school teachers face many challenges when implementing classroom management
strategies in the classroom. A lack of familiarity with students from different cultures is one such
challenge because it may cause teachers to overact and implement unnecessary rules and
regulations (Irvine et al., 2001). Howard (2003) emphasized,
To become culturally relevant, teachers need to engage in honest, critical reflection that
challenges them to see how their positionality influences their students in either positive
or negative ways. Critical reflection should include an examination of how race, culture,
and social class shape students’ thinking, learning, and various understandings of the
world. (p. 197)
Impediments in students’ progress stem from the lack of cultural synchronization
between teachers and students (Irvine, 1990). Monroe and Obidah’s (2004) qualitative study in
an urban public school revealed that cultural synchronization between teachers and students
improved classroom management and assisted in effective discipline practices for African
American students. Higher disproportionality exists when cultural synchronization is not present
between teachers and students in the classroom (Monroe & Obidah, 2004). For example,
Monroe (2005b) indicated that elevated voice levels, displays of emotions, and pupil-to-pupil
interactions were considered inappropriate behaviors in the classroom, yet were associated with
African American culture. Teachers who examine their personal beliefs about classroom
management and provide appropriate supports for learners in the environment respond to
students more effectively (Lew & Nelson, 2016) In addition, identifying their strengths and
areas of weakness, examining their practices, and developing a classroom management plan will
help teachers become more culturally responsive (Bosch, 2006). Monroe (2005c) suggested that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
32
teachers are encouraged to modify their own behaviors to limit inappropriate culturally based
discipline practices within the classroom. To address the inaccurate culturally based discipline
sanctions, teachers must understand their own worldview and accept their biases within the
profession. This connection to cultural behaviors will equip teachers with the tools to better
understand other cultures and ethnicities (Monroe, 2006b). Howard (2003) explained that
critical reflection is necessary within a diverse setting and requires teachers to engage in deeper
levels of self-knowledge and to acknowledge that one’s worldview can shape students and
outcomes (Howard, 2003).
Cultivating cross-cultural understanding helps to increase teacher confidence when
addressing student behaviors and supports lowering classroom discipline referrals (Monroe,
2005a). Bosch (2006) affirmed classroom management is a skill that must be learned, practiced,
and modified to meet the needs of a changing classroom. Developing a culture of inquiry that
embraces positive behavior supports and culturally responsive pedagogical practices will help to
decrease discipline referrals and suspensions of African American students while improving
academic outcomes
Factors Contributing to Behavioral and Academic Challenges
The behavioral and academic challenges that African American students face in the
education system are underscored in large bodies of scholarly literature. African American
students are overly represented in office disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and expulsions
(Bradshaw, Mitchell, O’Brennan, & Leaf, 2010; Skiba et al., 2011). In their study on the
disproportionality of school discipline for African American and Latino students, Skiba et al.
(2011) postulated that possible mechanisms contributing to disciplinary disparities by ethnicity
included poverty, differential rates of disruptive behaviors across school settings, and a “cultural
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
33
mismatch or racial stereotyping”. Skiba et al. (2011) also hypothesized that students of color
participated in higher levels of classroom disruption due to a variety of factors and stressors
associated with poverty. Their study showed that African American students in elementary
school were twice as likely as White students to receive office disciplinary referrals (ODRs).
Bradshaw et al. (2010) argued that these referrals had a negative effect on African American
students because they reduced opportunities for learning and led to other risks including truancy,
suspension, gang affiliation, and school failure.
Poverty
The disproportionality in the implementation of disciplinary practices for African
American students has been highly connected to race and socioeconomic status (Skiba et al.,
2011). Brantlinger (1991) argued that low socioeconomic status (SES) was found to be a major
risk factor for African American students and was consistently connected to out-of-school
suspensions. Skiba et al. (2002) posited that students receiving free school lunch were at an
increased risk for school suspension and received more severe consequences from teachers when
compared to high-income students. In his qualitative study of socioeconomic class and
punishment, Brantlinger (1991) found that high-income students reported receiving mild to
moderate consequences for misbehavior, including teacher reprimand and/or seat reassignment,
while students of low SES reported receiving more severe consequences, including public
reprimands, exclusion from the classroom, and a search of personal belongings. Gregory et al.
(2010) claimed that students in high-poverty, urban neighborhoods experienced adversity,
including exposure to violence and substance abuse, which increased their likelihood of
receiving disciplinary consequences.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
34
Differential Rates of Disruptive Behaviors
The disciplinary practices used by teachers to address student behavior has demonstrated
stark differences between African American students and their White peers (Skiba et al., 2011).
African American students are more likely to receive harsher levels of punishment for low-level
infractions than other students, and they receive disciplinary referrals for offenses, such as
disrespect or loitering, that are based on teacher subjectivity (Skiba et al., 2011). Bradshaw et al.
(2010) suggested that cultural discontinuity between African American students’ homes and
schools for African American students increases the likelihood of misconduct, especially when
students perceive a lack of respect, differential treatment, and low teacher expectations. Further,
Skiba et al. (2002) asserted that higher rates of punishment for African American students were
due to the correspondingly high frequencies of disruptive behaviors manifested by students at
school. Finally, Skiba et al. (2011) remarked that African American students scored lower on
achievement tests than their White peers and showed frustration in the classroom, which may
have contributed to a higher rate of school disruption.
The Cultural Mismatch
The teaching force in most school districts across the United States is predominantly
composed of White females (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). In the early 2000s, one of every three
students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools was a minority, whereas 87% of teachers
were White females (Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Data from the U.S.
Department of Education (2016) displayed that in 2012, African American students accounted
for 16% of public education enrollment, whereas 82% of public education teachers were White.
More recent data from the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES, 2018) showed that
in the 2015-2016 school year, 79.7% of all public education elementary school teachers were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
35
White. Monroe (2004) argued that policies and practices in an educational setting reflect the
beliefs of the individuals who created them. Given that the majority of publication education
teachers are White females, it may be that a cultural mismatch between teachers and African
American students is contributing to the disproportionality in disciplinary consequences for
students. Student disengagement is more common when there is a mismatch between school
values and what is being modeled in the home and community (American Psychological
Association [APA] Task Force, 2008; Obiakor, Algozzine, & Ford, 1993; Tyler et al., 2008).
Bradshaw, et al., 2010 suggest that this mismatch in values can increase the likelihood of
misinterpretation of what is considered appropriate behavior by students and what is acceptable
behavior by administrators (Skiba et al., 2008).
The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and
students can lead to devastating learning experiences for students (Antón, 1999; Cho & Reich,
2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argue that disproportionality
increases when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and students in the
classroom. Studies have found that there is some indication that teachers make decisions about
student achievement and discipline based on racially conditioned characteristics (Skiba et al.,
2011). Gay (2002) argued that student diversity created challenges for teachers if they were not
familiar with their students’ cultural backgrounds. In addition, a teacher’s lack of cultural
understanding contributes to misinterpreting behaviors in the classroom and leads to strained
relationships and the unnecessary disciplining of African American students. Moreover, the lack
of teacher and student connections also overwhelms the educational community and causes more
disconnect between home and school (Griner & Stewart, 2012).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
36
Due to the increase risk of feeling less connected to school as a result of this cultural
mismatch (Greenwood, Horton, & Utley, 2002), it is not surprising that African American youth
also experience an increased risk of academic failure (NCES, 2004). Hollie (2012) remarked that
teachers must learn to separate cultural behaviors from wrong behaviors. Students from diverse
backgrounds that do not match the culture of the school can pose a challenge for teachers,
especially in terms of building relationships and participating in positive interactions. Student
cultural norms that emanate from the home lead to cultural misunderstandings and
miscommunications in the classroom. It is incumbent for teachers to be sensitive of cultural
differences and teach situational appropriateness where the appropriate behaviors are determined
solely by the current situation or social context (Hollie, 2012).
The Discipline Gap
Research has shown that there is a discipline gap in the United States; culturally and
linguistically diverse students receive a much higher number of disciplinary referrals than their
White counterparts (Vincent et al., 2011). Gregory et al. (2010) found that the discipline gap
between African American students and their White peers was a trend that did not receive the
attention it deserved, and their research demonstrated the following:
“The discourse on racial and ethnic disproportionality seems to be constrained by
simplistic dichotomies that artificially pit individual student characteristics (e.g., student
aggression, disengagement from school) against systemic factors (e.g., school administrators’
implicit bias, community violence) as the reason why some groups are overrepresented in
suspension or expulsion” (Skiba et al., 2008, p. 65).
Most of the literature and research collected on the discipline gap over the past 30 years
has provided substantial evidence that African American students received the majority of
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
37
behavioral consequences in K-12 public schools Monroe (2006a) Howard (2010) argued that in
order to improve African American student outcomes, teachers should have a clear
understanding of the importance of racial awareness. Educators should recognize the “historical,
social, political, and economic consequences of being a member of a racially marginalized group
in the United States” (Howard, 2010, p. 121).
According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (2018) the pattern of
disproportionate discipline affected both African American girls and boys across six areas,
including out of school suspension, in-school suspension, referral to law enforcement, expulsion,
corporal punishment, and school-related arrest. In Figure 1 White students made up 50% of the
K-12 population and accounted for 17.8% of the out-of-school suspensions. Whereas, African
American students made up 15.5% of the public- school population, yet accounted for 39% of
out-of-school suspensions. African American students were the only racial group disciplined at
higher rates across all six areas as compared to other racial groups (see Figure 1). Lewis et al.
(2010) asserted that the constant removal of African American students from their learning
environment was detrimental because it limited the time they devoted toward learning.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
38
Figure 1. Representation of students who received disciplinary actions compared to overall
student population, by student race or ethnicity, school year 2013-2014. Adapted from
“Discipline Disparities for Black Students, Boys, and Students With Disabilities,” by U.S.
Government Accountability Office, 2018, p. 14.
Social Emotional Learning
Social Emotional Learning (SEL) is used to support the development of social and life
skills within the classroom. Elias et al. (1997) defined SEL as the process through which children
develop skills, values, and attitudes to acquire social and emotional competence by recognizing
and managing emotions, developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviors.
Having more opportunities for students to develop skills using the SEL curriculum can assist in
creating positive relationships with staff and peers. Catalano et al. (2002) postulated that SEL
can reduce the risk of problem behaviors if it is explicitly taught to students. To support the
implementation of SEL in the classroom, teachers must be aware of their social and emotional
competence and well-being and how it plays a crucial role in student outcomes (Schonert-Reichl,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
39
2017). Jennings and Greenberg’s (2009) Prosocial Classroom Model demonstrated that teachers’
social emotional competence and wellbeing affect student outcomes in the classroom. The
Prosocial Classroom Model illustrates how teachers’ well-being and social emotional
competence affect the classroom management strategies that they use, the relationships they
form with students, and their ability to implement the SEL curriculum and practices (Schonert-
Reichl, 2017). Jennings and Greenberg’s (2009) explained that,
Socially and emotionally competent teachers set the tone of the classroom by developing
supportive and encouraging relationships withier students, designing lessons that build on
student strengths and abilities, establishing and implementing behavioral guidelines in
ways that promote intrinsic motivation, coaching students through conflict situations,
encouraging cooperation among students, and acting as a role model for respectful and
appropriate communication exhibitions of prosocial behavior. (p. 492)
Responsive teachers are able to recognize that they need to modify their knowledge and
training and use variations in teaching modalities while paying attention to classroom contexts
and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al., 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Ultimately,
children who feel comfortable with their peers will be able to grapple with the challenging and
difficult learning materials that are presented to them (Schonert-Reichl, 2017).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
40
Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom: A model of teacher social and emotional competence and
classroom and student outcomes (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
Kaiser Permanente conducted an Adverse Childhood Experience survey (ACES) with
17,000 members between 1997 and 1995. The study revealed that two thirds of the participants
had at least one ACE, while one in five reported having three or more ACES (CDC, 2016). ACE
categories included substance abuse, physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, and
domestic violence, all of which have serious implications for student academic achievement and
overall wellbeing. Children who experience more adverse events are more likely to display
behaviors that are harmful to their health, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, or antisocial
behaviors (Boullier & Blair, 2018; Shin, McDonald & Conely, 2018). Boullier and Blair (2018)
postulated that students that have been exposed to trauma are more likely to have increased
behaviors that can impact their health. In addition, the CDCenter for Disease Control and
Prevention (2016) reported that ACES’s increase students’ risks of experiencing poor
achievement, health problems, and drug and alcohol use.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
41
The National Survey of Children’s Health (NSHC) surveyed 95,677 households with
children between birth and 17 years and whose parents were under Maternal and Child Health
Bureau in 2011 and 2012. The study examined the relationships between adverse childhood
experiences, child and family demographic characteristics, health and school factors, child
resilience, and other parental health, family, and community factors (Bethell, et. al. 2014). The
study revealed that 22.6% of students between the ages of birth and 17 had two or more ACEs.
Bethell et al. (2014) explained that children with two or more of the adverse childhood
experiences were significantly more likely to qualify as children with special health care needs as
compared to children without exposure to traumatic experiences.
Classroom Management and Positive Behavior Support
Teachers are at the forefront of creating classroom environments that support positive
academic and behavioral experiences for students. The classroom environment plays a key role
in student achievement (Colvin, 2010). The structure of a class influences the behavior and
academic outcomes of students. Creating an environment that is managed effectively can
improve learning opportunities and increase positive social interactions. Classroom management
plays a key role in student learning and achievement (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994). Teachers who
utilize behavior management and instructional management approaches improve student learning
outcomes. Martin and Sass (2010) referred to behavior management as the general upkeep of the
classroom, including classroom expectations and pre-planned and preventive efforts to avoid
misbehavior. Instructional Management (IM) refers to the structuring of routines, including
lesson planning and monitoring students’ seatwork (Martin & Sass, 2010). Hollie (2012) argued
that Effective classroom management includes a culturally responsive approach that consists of
rapport, relationships, and mutual respect (Hollie, 2012). A culturally responsive approach
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
42
would allow teachers to make special connections with their students, build strong relationships
that are built on trust, and promote a classroom environment of mutual respect where students
have confidence in their teacher’s ability to teach. Colvin (2010) stated that schools must
establish an expectation of respect for one another that encompasses sensitivity to student
diversity and ethnic and cultural distinctions.
Positive behavior support is an effective approach to classroom management. Positive
Behavior Support (PBS) is defined as the “broad enterprise of helping people develop and
engage in adaptive, socially desirable behaviors to overcome patterns of destructive and
stigmatizing responding” (Koegel et al., 1996, p. xiii). Using a system of Positive Behavioral
Support is valuable because it provides interventions that enhance a person’s competencies and
access to desirable environments, activities, and social circumstances (Koegel et al., 1996).
Sprague and Golly (2013) argued that an effective system of PBS is founded on five core
principles: These principles include, (1) developing clear expectations, (2) communicating and
teaching expectations, (3) reinforcing and recognizing when students are compliant, (4)
minimizing negative attention, and (5) implementing clear and consistent consequences.
PBS is a shift in a teacher’s response that focuses on acknowledging desired behaviors in
the classroom, rather than on noticing and punishing undesirable behaviors (Sprague & Golly,
2013). Colvin and Lazar (1997) remarked that in order to establish effective classroom
expectations, teachers must teach the classroom rules immediately, review and rehearse the rules
constantly to identify rules that work and those that need revision, practice the consequences of
breaking the rules, and use positive reinforcement for students demonstrating desired behaviors.
Sugai and Horner (2006) defined PBS as a system that values outcomes through behavioral
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
43
science with the use of empirically validated procedures that enhance the quality of life and
mitigate problem behaviors.
In their study on the impact of using PBS to decrease disciplinary referrals for elementary
students, Sherrod, Getch, and Ziomek-Daigle (2009) found that implementing a system of PBS
and teaching students about classroom expectations made a difference in the number of
discipline problems at the school sites. The three schools that participated in the study
implemented a two-level approach to addressing disciplinary referrals, including a school-wide
initiative and a targeted group approach. Teachers delivered lessons to students that covered
rules, expectations, consequences, and positive communication. All three elementary schools
participating in the study showed a 26% drop in disciplinary referrals over the course of the
study.
Sprague and Golly (2013) posited that effective school-wide positive behavior support
(SWPBS) strategies include a three-tiered approach. Tier I involves a school-wide system of
support for all students, including academic support, social skills building, positive
reinforcement, and data-based decision making. Tier II supports at-risk students by providing
classroom and small-group strategies, including intensive social skills teaching, self-management
programs, adult mentoring, and increased academic supports. Tier III, the most intensive tier,
supports high-risk students by providing individualized interventions, including individual
behavior management plans, parent training, community and service learning, and multi-agency
collaboration.
Reno, Friend, Caruthers, and Smith (2017) found that during their study on exploring
connections between elementary school culture, positive behavior support, and student
achievement, the percentage of students of color coming from high-poverty backgrounds were
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
44
often identified as needing Tier II behavioral interventions by predominately White, female,
middle class teachers. While their study showed an overrepresentation of students of color
requiring Tier II interventions, there was no statistically significant connection between students
participating in Tier II interventions and student academic success in reading or math.
Effective Strategies to Support Desired Behaviors in the Classroom
The academic literature on effective classroom behavioral strategies is vast, and in this
study the researchers focused on strategies to support teachers in closing the discipline gap for
African American students in elementary school. Understanding and analyzing student
behaviors by discovering environmental variables that influence socially significant undesired
behaviors can assist teachers in creating systems of behavioral change (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008).
Monroe (2006b) remarked that effective classroom-discipline involves understanding classroom
instruction, students’ background knowledge, and the interpersonal bonds of both their students
and families. When African American students are intellectually engaged in academic tasks and
hold positive feelings about their roles as students, they are more likely to become productive
citizens (Monroe, 2006a). Implementing a tiered system of positive behavioral supports that
address students’ needs by implementing student inventories, taking proactive measures toward
discipline, incorporating physical movement in the classroom, and using sequenced and
structured systems of positive reinforcement can assist African American students to thrive in the
classroom (Bloh & Axelrod, 2008; Monroe, 2006b; Sherrod et al., 2009).
Monroe (2006a) suggested that teachers should deliberately gather pertinent information
about their students at the start of each academic year. Teachers should gather an understanding
of their students’ personal, cultural, familial, and neighborhood backgrounds and elicit data-
based answers from their students regarding topics of interest, learning style, strengths, and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
45
weaknesses by conducting a student inventory. Student inventories acquaint the teacher with the
“lived realities” of their students and position teachers to deliver meaningful learning
experiences (Monroe, 2006b, p. 106).
Monroe and Obidah (2004) declared that effective teachers of African American students
should devote time to explaining the explicit expectations and the standards for acceptable
conduct in the classroom. They further stated that providing students with explicit expectations is
a critical step in avoiding misunderstandings and socially preparing students for classroom
success (Monroe, 2006a). Marzano, Pickering, and Heflebower (2010) suggested that students
should feel they have the ability to succeed and that teachers should use specific, task-based
verbal feedback paired with student self-monitoring that ties effort with academic achievement.
Students are more likely to work toward academic goals when teachers provide the opportunity
for students to see the relationship between effort and success.
Positive Reinforcement
The strategy of positive reinforcement is rooted in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA),
and Alberto and Troutman (2013) postulated that reinforcement is a naturally occurring
phenomenon used to describe pleasant events or rewards given to a student who exhibits
replacement behavior as part of a behavior change plan. Kearney (2015) described ABA as an
approach to changing undesirable behaviors by employing scientifically established principles of
learning to promote changes. The scientific approach of ABA has existed since 1974 and is
closely related to B. F. Skinner’s work and his research on the contingency of reinforcement
(Kearney, 2015). Skinner (1968) described the contingency of reinforcement as a three-part
concept: “1) an occasion upon which behavior occurs, 2) the behavior itself, and 3) the
consequences of the behavior” (p. 4). Skinner’s three-part concept has evolved into what
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
46
behaviorists now call the antecedents, behavior, and consequences (ABC’s) used to describe a
behavior chain (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
Positive reinforcement can involve the use of various reinforcers in the classroom. There
are two classes of reinforcement procedures used to evoke behavioral change; these include
primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers consist of edible and sensory reinforcers,
including foods, liquids, visuals and auditory, tactile, olfactory, or kinesthetic experiences.
Secondary reinforcers consist of tangible, generalized, and social reinforcers including
certificates, stickers, monitorships, play activities, tokens, points, words and phrases (Alberto &
Troutman, 2013). In their study on writing outcomes of academically and behaviorally
challenged fifth grade students, Grünke, Sperling, and Burke (2017) found that using positive
reinforcement in the form of immediate feedback, explicitly timed periods, and visual
representations of student progress greatly increased the length and quality of student work.
Contingent Reinforcement
Contingent reinforcement involves the clear and explicit appropriate behaviors expected
from students in the classroom and the consequences that will ensue for compliance and
noncompliance. Various forms of contingent reinforcement are used in the classroom, including
token economy response cost procedures and group contingencies (Kearney, 2015; Cooper et al.,
2007).
Token Economy
The use of a token economy in the classroom immediately reinforces the target behaviors
and minimizes the risk of modifying undesired behaviors. A token economy offers a teacher a
practical solution for administering generalized secondary reinforcers such as tokens, points,
stickers, stars, or tickets. In a token economy, students earn secondary reinforcers for
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
47
demonstrating target behaviors; these tokens can later be redeemed or exchanged for a preferred
classroom item, activity, or reward. In their study on promoting positive student–teacher
interactions in the classroom using the token economy strategy, Gershenson, Lyon, and Budd
(2010) found that providing labeled praise of appropriate behaviors resulted in a decrease of
inappropriate behaviors and critical teacher statements. Gershenson et al. (2010) described the
use positive statements by teachers to recognize student appropriate behaviors increased the
target behaviors of the study. Marzano et al. (2010) asserted that teachers should provide
students with verbal feedback that promotes student growth and avoid feedback that makes a
student feel bad, inferior, that reinforces intelligence or talent.
Jurbergs, Palcic, and Kelley (2010) found that appropriate student behaviors increased
with the use of daily behavior report cards that had home-based consequences. In their study,
elementary school students participating in the home-based consequences experimental group
exhibited significantly higher rates of on-task behaviors. Students who received a good daily
report card for desired behaviors, including, paying attention, following directions, sitting
appropriately, and getting along with classmates, earned a contracted reward at home from their
parents or guardians. Students were involved in generating the list of rewards, which promoted a
high level of motivation to receive good daily behavior report cards (Jurbergs et al., 2010).
Ladson-Billings (1994) argued that establishing strong relationships between teachers, parents,
and other student caregivers promoted student success and developed a school environment
where parents and teachers worked together as allies. Developing relationships with parents
created opportunities to draw on parents’ knowledge of what strategies worked best for their
children (Monroe, 2006b).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
48
Response Cost
Response cost is a behavioral intervention procedure where a student loses a privilege in
response to inappropriate classroom behavior (McGoey & DuPaul, 2000). Cooper et al. (2007)
defined response cost as the contingent loss of reinforcers and a form of negative punishment
that produces a decrease in the frequency of undesired behaviors using classroom fines. Kearney
(2015) argued that response cost was an aversive procedure that limited the drawbacks
associated with other forms of punishment-based interventions. He further asserted that fines
incorporated with this procedure worked more effectively when clearly defined to all students
and when the schedule of fines was posted publicly within the classroom. Students who earned
rewards because of desired behaviors received immediate access to their reward and could not
lose it once it was earned.
In their study on the use of a token economy and response cost procedures in the
classroom, McGoey and DuPaul (2000) postulated that according to observations and teacher
rating scales, the use of both a token economy and response cost interventions showed a
moderate reduction of disruptive behaviors. Teachers in the study reported that using the
response cost procedure provided a “fair and consistent” means of correcting undesired
behaviors and that the procedure did not require an inordinate amount of teacher time (McGoey
& DuPaul, 2000). Nolan and Filter (2012) demonstrated that using the response cost intervention
reduced problem verbal and physical behaviors when implemented with fidelity by school staff.
The researchers found that students participating in their study showed a substantial drop in
problem behaviors when students received noncontingent reinforcement paired with the response
cost intervention. The response cost intervention procedure removed access to a preferred
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
49
reinforcer when a student manifested inappropriate behaviors, and the student earned access
when desired replacement behaviors were observed (Nolan & Filter, 2012).
Group Contingencies
Group contingencies are also an effective strategy used to decrease undesired classroom
behaviors, and Cooper et al. (2007) defined this procedure as follows:
A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the
behavior of (a) a person within the group, (b) a select group of members within the larger
group, or (c) each member of the group meeting a performance criterion. (p. 697)
Applied Behavior Analysis uses three types of group contingencies that include: (1) the
dependent group contingency, (2) the independent group contingency, and (3) the interdependent
group contingency. In their study, Willis, Iwaszuk, Kamps, Shumate, and Krieger (2014) showed
that using an interdependent contingency with first grade elementary students in their study
supported their original hypothesis and demonstrated an increase of on-task behaviors, teacher
praise, and on-task behaviors in students identified as at-risk because of behavioral challenges. In
their study, teachers taught classroom expectations that included “a) how to get the teacher’s
attention, b) how to follow directions the first time, and c) how to ignore inappropriate behavior”
(p. 198). Students received teacher praise for demonstrating appropriate behaviors, and
classroom teams earned points toward selecting a preferred activity (e.g., additional recess time,
playing games). Willis et al. (2014) posited that using the interdependent contingency supported
student achievement and developed a positive relationship between the teacher and students.
Conclusion
After a comprehensive review of the literature, the researchers found there are both
empirical and theoretical justifications for conducting research on effective culturally responsive
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
50
practices to support African American students in elementary schools. This is an important topic
of research because African American students in low-income urban schools receive disciplinary
referrals, suspensions, and expulsions at disproportionate rates when compared to other
ethnicities. There is a large body of research and literature on Culturally Relevant Teaching, yet
there is little research on effective strategies to support students of color using techniques that are
sensitive to a diverse student population and, more specifically, to African American elementary
students.
Current research highlights the factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of African
American students in many disciplinary categories and the historical issues that have existed for
over 40 years. The use of effective classroom strategies by elementary teachers that incorporate
culturally responsive practices may shift the current trend of disproportionately disciplining
African American students and provide improved student academic outcomes. However, further
research is required to validate this hypothesis. Chapter 3 will include a discussion of the
research design, the sample and population, data collection procedures, data analysis, and the
ethical considerations of this study.
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51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Authors: Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
3
Introduction
This chapter includes a brief summary of the problem statement, the purpose of the
research, the literature review, and the research questions that drove this study. This chapter also
includes an overview of the methodological approach used in this study, including the design of
the study, as well as a description of the participants, instrumentation, procedures for data
collection, methods of data analysis, and the safeguards enlisted to maintain participant
confidentiality. This chapter concludes with a summary of the research methodology and a
preview of the ensuing chapters.
Statement of the Problem, Purpose of Study, and Guiding Research Questions
Scholarly research continues to demonstrate a consistent disproportionality in the number
of suspensions, disciplinary referrals, and expulsions for African American students in
elementary schools across the nation. These “stark racial and ethnic disparities” are referred to
as a discipline gap between young African American students and other ethnic groups. (Reno et
al., 2017). Gay (2002) postulated that teachers do not fully understand or have the knowledge,
attitude, and necessary skills to serve diverse student populations. According to Skiba et al.
(2002), there is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of the culturally biased practices
that lead to the disproportionate number of disciplinary consequences for students of color within
school communities. This phenomenon has been documented over the past 40 years, and there is
an urgent need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based strategies and
3
Chapters One, Two, and Three were jointly written by the authors listed in alphabetical order. Authors used a team
approach in this research study and equally contributed to each chapter.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
52
interventions that are culturally sensitive and improve academic outcomes for young students of
color.
A comprehensive review of the literature provided empirical and theoretical justifications
for conducting research on effective culturally responsive practices to support African American
students in elementary schools. Scholars in the field of education agreed that culturally relevant
practices that recognize specific factors, such as poverty, differential rates of disruptive
behaviors, and cultural mismatches, could inform educators and assist in closing the discipline
gap (Bradshaw et el., 2010; Brantlinger, 1991; Howard, 2010; Skiba et al., 2011).
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of CRP (Gay, 2002; Ladson-
Billings, 1995a), the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers use to promote a learning environment that supports young African American students
in Los Angeles County. Thus, the following questions guided this study:
1. Through the lens of (CRT, what are the positive behavior strategies most commonly
used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African
American students in the urban classroom?
2. Through the lens of CRT, what do elementary teachers believe are effective positive
behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American
students?
3. Through the lens of CRT, how do elementary school teachers measure the
effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in
their classroom?
4. Through the lens of CRT, what behavioral support practices are used within the
learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
53
Sample and Population
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school districts
within Los Angeles County. This study focused on examining, through the lens of CRT, the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
kindergarten through fifth grade. The researchers who conducted this study split the data
collection responsibilities to gather rich information that identified and compared recurring
themes in both the upper and lower grade levels. One researcher focused on kindergarten through
second grade, and the other researcher focused on third through fifth grade.
The researchers interviewed and surveyed elementary school teachers to better
understand their beliefs and the discipline practices they used with ethnically diverse students,
particularly African American students in urban schools. The researchers also examined the
participants’ knowledge of culturally relevant teaching and how they perceived the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classrooms. By obtaining respondent data from
the interviews and surveys, the researchers were able to highlight the effective behavior
strategies that supported African American students in the classroom. Additionally, the data
uncovered the classroom strategies that worked to limit the disproportionate use of disciplinary
practices that cause students to be less invested in school (Gregory et al., 2010). This study used
convenience sampling, which allowed the researchers to select teachers from lower grade levels
(kindergarten through second grade) and upper elementary grade levels (third through fifth
grade) in urban schools with Los Angeles County.
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school
districts within Los Angeles County. Using the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
54
kindergarten through fifth grade. Survey participants who taught kindergarten through fifth grade
were selected from both School District A and School District B. A total of 10 teachers from
each respective grade level were selected from 12 elementary schools within both districts. There
were 60 teachers from kindergarten through third grade and 60 teachers from third through fifth
grade selected to participate in this survey. The survey was sent electronically, using Google
Forms, to each survey participant. Interview participants who taught in kindergarten through fifth
grade were selected from both School District A and School District B to gather qualitative
information for this study. To ensure the researchers conducted the survey in an ethical manner,
all participants were informed that participation and completion of the survey was optional. The
participants were also informed that all responses, including any identifying characteristics,
would remain confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Instrumentation
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach that incorporated quantitative and
qualitative instrumentation. All of the survey and interview questions included in the protocols
correlated directly with the guiding research questions for this study.
Quantitative Instrument
The researchers designed and generated the survey protocol using Google Forms, a web-
based program (see Appendix A). This allowed the researchers to share, receive, and organize
survey responses submitted by participants. The researchers designed the protocol and ensured
that survey questions were meaningful, free from biased words and phrases, and easy for the
respondents to complete (Creswell, 2014). The survey was comprised of 29 questions. The first
part of the survey collected demographic information. The remainder used a Likert scale survey
protocol for each closed-ended question, in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
55
disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree. The use of a
Likert scale survey protocol allowed the researchers to gather a numeric description of each
respondent’s perceptions and attitudes toward supporting African American and ethnically
diverse students in their classrooms.
Qualitative Instrument
The researchers used a face-to-face interview procedure to obtain a deeper understanding
of teacher perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). The researchers gathered qualitative data using a
structured interview protocol to limit probing and variations in the research questions (Patton,
2002). The qualitative protocol consisted of two parts: Part 1 included questions that focused on
background information, and Part 2 included 15 open-ended questions that aligned to the four
guiding research questions (see Appendix B). A total of 10 teachers who served students in
kindergarten through fifth grade agreed to participate in a face-to-face interview. Each interview
lasted approximately 60 minutes.
The interview questions were designed to provide participants with an opportunity to
explain and explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices they used that aligned
with attributes of CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995a). The researchers obtained informed consent
prior to conducting the interviews and explained that participation in the study was completely
voluntary (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Data Collection Procedures
The researchers utilized appropriate data collection procedures to gather data from
participants in this research study. The data collection process included two parts. The first part
consisted of collecting quantitative data from respondents’ surveys using the Google Forms
platform. The second part involved collecting qualitative data via the face-to-face interviews
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
56
with selected participants. An Institutional Review Board (IRB) application was submitted at the
University of Southern California to ensure that the researchers followed the ethical guidelines
for all respondents participating in this study.
The researchers obtained approval to conduct the study by directly contacting the
respective superintendents of School District A and School District B and sharing information
about the study, including the research questions and protocols. After receiving the
superintendents’ approvals, the researchers were provided a list of teacher emails to begin the
selection process for both survey and interview respondents.
Quantitative Data Collection
Using Google Forms, 120 surveys were sent to teachers in kindergarten through fifth
grade. Teachers in kindergarten through second grade, from both school districts, submitted a
combined total of 33 survey responses. Teachers in third through fifth grade, from both school
districts, submitted a combined total of 37 survey responses. The researchers received a total of
70 surveys from the respondents, for a 58% response rate.
Qualitative Data Collection
The researchers interviewed 10 teachers from the participating school districts. Five
teachers were interviewed from the lower grades (kindergarten through second), and five
teachers were interviewed from the upper grades (third through fifth). All 10 teachers agreed to
participate in a face-to-face interview to explore the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices they used that aligned with attributes of the CRP theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and
supported diverse student populations in their classrooms. The researchers obtained informed
consent prior to conducting each interview. The use of informed consent ensured that all
participants understood the nature of the research and the risks it posed (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
57
Participants also received an overview of the study that provided transparency and pertinent
information related to the interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure confidentiality, the
researcher used pseudonyms to protect the identity of the interview respondents.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach that incorporated quantitative and
qualitative data. A multi-layered data analysis process was used to interpret the quantitative and
qualitative data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it related to the research questions.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reported that the goal of data analysis is to make sense of the data
and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information. In order to begin this process, the
researchers had to evaluate the survey and interview data gathered from the participants. The
researchers used multiple data sources and methods of data collection to identify trends and
patterns (Miles et al., 2014). Triangulation was used to increase the trustworthiness and quality
of the study. Patton (2015) stated that triangulation increased the credibility and quality of the
study because it ensures that data were not collected using a single artifact, method, or source.
To ensure trustworthiness, the researchers triangulated the data from both the surveys and
interviews by reviewing the recurring themes and moments of occurrence. Next, the researchers
utilized a coding process to sort, separate, and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2014). This process
led the researchers to identify a priori codes and emergent trends, which assisted with
understanding teachers’ perceptions of culturally relevant practices in the elementary school
setting.
Although trends were detected after reviewing the data the first time, the researchers
evaluated the data again to identify additional themes and commonalities from the data results
(Miles et al., 2014). The researchers used this process to further classify more emergent themes
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
58
that were used to describe the findings, make assertions, and make connections to the research
questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Harding, 2013). The researchers also compared the body of
literature to the research findings to further validate the significance of this research study.
Quantitative Data Analysis
The researchers separated the survey data by lower and upper grade levels. The data was
exported and disaggregated using the Google Forms platform. Participant responses were
interpreted and analyzed using thematic codes that aligned to the guiding research questions.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reported that the goal of data analysis is to make sense of the
data and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information. The process of analyzing data is
multilayered and involves making sense of data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it
relates to the research questions. The face-to-face interview data was interpreted and coded. The
coding process included sorting, separating, and categorizing data. The researchers analyzed
each individual transcript to identify emergent themes using open and priori codes that were
responsive to the guiding research questions (Lichtman, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Multiple sources of data and information were used to understand the perceptions of the teacher
participants. Triangulation was used as a method of increasing the trustworthiness and quality of
the study. Patton (2015) argued that triangulation increases the credibility and quality of the
study by discounting that the study is a single artifact, method, or source.
Ethical Considerations
The researchers addressed various ethical concerns when conducting their study and
relied on Patton’s (2002) ethical issue checklist. The researchers ensured that both the survey
and interview protocols used in this study were conducted ethically. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
59
explained that using multiple data sources helped to increase credibility in qualitative research.
An explanation of the purpose of the study and a request for permission to audio record the
interview were provided to all participants at the inception of the data collection process. All
participant responses and interactions remained confidential, and, as recommended by Glense
(2011), the researchers protected participants’ personal information and all identifying district
information by using pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality. The researchers also obtained
informed consent from the participants prior to conducting surveys and interviews for this study.
Summary
This chapter outlined the study’s statement of the problem, purpose, research questions,
sample and population, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and data analysis process.
This chapter also included a discussion of ethical considerations and the steps that were utilized
to ensure participant confidentiality. The research questions and goals of this study dictated that
a mixed-methods approach, which included quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection, was used to conduct this study. Chapter 4 will present an analysis of the data
collection process as well as the major findings that emerged as a result of this study.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
60
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Author: Jose Soto
Introduction
Based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), the
purpose of this study was to examine the current strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers used to promote a learning environment that supported both the academic and social
emotional needs of young African American students in urban schools in Los Angeles County.
Chapter 4 will present the results and findings with a specific focus on the practices and beliefs
of urban elementary school teachers in kindergarten through second grade and outline the
positive behavioral strategies implemented to support ethnically diverse students through the lens
of Culturally Relevant Teaching (Gay, 2002).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and
practices that elementary school teachers used to promote a learning environment that aligned
with attributes of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and supported
young African American students in Los Angeles County. The researchers analyzed the
practices and beliefs of various elementary school teachers in two urban school districts to better
understand the knowledge, skills, and practices currently being implemented to support the
academic and social-emotional growth of African American students. For this study, the
researchers identified two urban school districts within Los Angeles County that included
ethnically diverse student populations and a diverse teacher work force. The specific focus of
this research was to highlight the current teacher practices that support African American
students in the classroom and limit the disproportionate disciplinary practices that cause African
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
61
American students to become less attached to school, less invested in schoolwork, and less
inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010).
Coding the Data
A multi-layered data analysis process was used to interpret the quantitative and
qualitative data to increase the researchers’ understanding as it related to the research questions.
The goal of data analysis is to make sense of the data and to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the
information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In order to begin this process, the researchers had to
evaluate the survey and interview data gathered from the participants. As recommended by
Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014), the researchers used multiple data sources and methods of
data collection to identify trends and patterns in the participants’ responses.
Triangulation was used to increase the trustworthiness and quality of the study. Patton
(2015) argued that triangulation increases the credibility and quality of the study by relying on
multiple data points, rather than using a single artifact, method, or source. To ensure
trustworthiness, the researchers triangulated the data from both the surveys and interviews by
reviewing the recurring themes and moments of occurrence. Next, the researchers utilized a
coding process to sort, separate, and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2014). This process led the
researchers to identify a priori codes and emergent trends, which assisted with understanding
teachers’ perceptions of culturally relevant practices in the elementary school setting. Although
trends were detected after reviewing the data the first time, the researchers evaluated the data
again to identify additional themes and commonalities (Miles et al., 2014). The researchers used
this process to further classify more emergent themes that were used to describe the findings,
make assertions, and make connections to the research questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007;
Harding, 2013).
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
62
Presentation of Findings
The presentation of findings in this chapter begins with a description and analysis of the
survey results collected during the study. Next, the researchers provide an analysis of the
recurring themes and findings as they relate to the research questions. The research questions
that guided this study were as follows:
1. Through the lens of CRT, what are the positive behavior strategies most commonly
used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African
American students in the urban classroom?
2. Through the lens of CRT, what do elementary teachers believe are effective positive
behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American
students?
3. Through the lens of CRT, how do elementary school teachers measure the
effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in
their classroom?
4. Through the lens of CRT, what behavioral support practices are used within the
learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Descriptive Characteristics
Survey Data
The participants in this research study were selected from two urban school districts
within Los Angeles County. Using the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
effective practices that elementary school teachers used to support African American students in
kindergarten through fifth grade. The researchers who conducted this study split the data
collection responsibilities to gather rich information that compared and identified recurring
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
63
themes between upper and lower grade levels. One researcher focused on kindergarten through
second grade, and the other researcher focused on third through fifth grade.
Demographics of Participating School Districts
School District A served students in kindergarten through eighth grade and was
comprised of six elementary schools and two middle schools. The district had a total enrollment
of approximately 6,000 students; 10% of the student population was African American.
Approximately 200 students, or about 4% of the total student population, in kindergarten through
second grade were African American. Approximately 210 students, or about 4% of the total
student population, in third through fifth grade were African American. More than 80% of the
students who attended School District A qualified for free or reduced-price meals.
School District B served students in kindergarten through 12th grade and was comprised
of 21 elementary schools, six middle schools, and three comprehensive high schools. School
District B had a total enrollment of approximately 23,000 students, 18% of whom were African
American. Approximately 1,200 students, or about 5% of the total student population, in
kindergarten through second grade were African American. Approximately 1,100 students, or
about 5% of the total student population, in third through fifth grade were African American.
School District B also served a socio-economically disadvantaged population where over 90% of
students qualified for free or reduced-price meals. Table 1 contains the student demographic
data for School District A and School District B.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
64
Table 1
Participating School Districts’ Student Demographic Data
Race or ethnicity
Percentage of student population
School District A
(N=6000)
School District B
(N=23,000)
African American 10 18
American Indian or Alaskan Native 0 0.2
Asian 4 0.3
Filipino 1 0.5
Hispanic or Latino 75 80
Pacific Island 1 0.5
White 5 0.2
Two or more races 2 0.2
Not reported 2 0.1
Note. Adapted from California Department of Education, 2019, Demographics.
The researchers obtained approval to conduct the study by directly contacting the
respective superintendents of School District A and School District B and sharing information
about the study, including the research questions and protocols. After receiving the
superintendents’ approval, the researchers were provided a list of teacher emails to begin the
recruitment process for both survey and interview respondents.
Survey participants who taught kindergarten through fifth grade were selected from both
School District A and School District B. A total of 10 teachers from each respective grade level
were selected from 12 elementary schools within both districts. There were 60 teachers from
kindergarten through third grade and 60 teachers from third through fifth grade selected to
participate in this survey. The survey was sent electronically, using Google Forms, to each
survey participant. To ensure the researchers conducted the survey in an ethical manner, all
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
65
participants were informed that participation and completion of the survey was optional. The
participants were also informed that all responses, including any identifying characteristics,
would remain confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
In School District A, 17 of the 30 teachers from kindergarten through second grade
completed and submitted the survey, for a 57% response rate. Of the teachers from third through
fifth grade, 20 of the 30 selected completed and submitted the survey, for a 66% response rate. In
School District B, 16 of 30 teachers in kindergarten through second grade completed and
submitted the survey, for a 53% completion rate. For third through fifth grade, 17 of 30 selected
teachers completed and submitted the survey, for a 57% response rate. The combined data for
School District A and School District B demonstrated that 70 out of 120 teachers from
kindergarten through fifth grade completed the survey, for an overall participation rate of 58%.
Table 2 presents the total survey respondent data for School District A and School District B.
Table 2
Total Survey Participant Data for School District A and School District B
Grade level
Number of survey
participants
Number of survey
responses
Participation rate
(%)
K–2nd 60 33 55
3rd–5th 60 37 62
Total 120 70 58
After evaluating the data, the participating 33 respondents from kindergarten through
second grade demonstrated the following descriptive characteristics: 26 respondents (79%) were
female teachers, seven respondents (21%) were male teachers, three respondents (9%) identified
as African American, 13 respondents (39%) identified as Caucasian, 12 respondents (36%)
identified as Hispanic/Latino, four respondents (12%) identified as Asian, and one respondent
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
66
(3%) identified as Pacific Islander. Twelve respondents taught in kindergarten, eight respondents
taught in first grade, and 13 respondents taught in second grade. The average length of teaching
experience for all survey respondents was 13 years. Table 3 contains the number of teacher
participants from each respective grade level by individual school district and combined school
districts.
Table 3
Survey Respondents by Grade Level
School district Grade Number of teachers Total survey respondents (%)
A (n=17)
K
7 41
1st
4 24
2nd
6 35
B (n=16)
K
5 31
1st
4 25
2nd
7 44
A and B (n=33)
K
12 36
1st
8 24
2nd 13 39
Descriptive data was also recorded on the respondents’ genders, years of teaching
experience, and residence within or outside of their respective districts of employment. Table 4
contains additional demographic data for the survey respondents.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
67
Table 4
School District A and School District B Survey Respondent Demographic Data: Kindergarten
Through Second Grade
Total survey respondents School District A School District B
Gender
Male 3 4
Female 14 12
Teaching Experience (years)
0–5 2 5
6–10 4 1
11+ 11 10
Residence
Live within district 4 2
Live outside of district 13 14
Table 4 shows that 26 out of 33 (79%) teachers identified as female. The table also shows
that 27 out of 33 (82%) of the teachers participating in this study lived outside of the district they
served.
Interview Participants
To conduct the qualitative portion of this study, the researcher interviewed teachers from
the participating school districts. Five teachers agreed to participate in a face-to-face interview to
explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices they used that aligned with
attributes of the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995b) and supported
diverse student populations in their classrooms. Two teachers from School District A and three
teachers from School District B were interviewed for this study. Interview respondents were
provided with informed consent prior to participating in the interview. Participants also received
an overview of the study, which provided transparency and pertinent information related to the
interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 5 presents the demographic data of the interview
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
68
respondents. To ensure confidentiality, the researcher used pseudonyms to protect the identity of
the interview respondents.
Table 5
Demographics of Interview Respondents
Interview
participants Grade taught Ethnicity Years teaching
Length of
interview
(minutes)
A 2nd African American 17 48
B 1st Hispanic/Latino 15 43
C K Caucasian 19 54
D 2nd Hispanic/Latino 8 63
E 1st Caucasian 13 42
Research Question 1
Through the lens of CRT, what are the positive behavior strategies most commonly used by
elementary teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African American students in the
classroom?
CRT is defined as using the cultural knowledge, experiences, heritage, and perspectives
of different ethnic and racial groups to promote cultural awareness amongst students in the
classroom (Gay, 2002).
Culturally Relevant Teaching Practices
In researching the culturally relevant practices and behavioral strategies most commonly
used by teachers to support African American students, the researcher discovered that
approximately 70% of the teachers participating in the survey used CRT strategies to better
understand African American students in their classrooms.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
69
Table 6 contains teacher survey responses regarding the use of CRT strategies in the
classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey
protocol in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4
indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 6
I Consistently Use CRT Strategies to Understand African American Students in My Classroom
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 3 9
Agree 21 64
Neutral 6 18
Disagree 3 9
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=33
Table 6 demonstrates that 24 out of 33 (73%) survey respondents strongly agreed or
agreed that they use culturally relevant strategies to understand African American students in
their classrooms. Teacher A defined culturally relevant practices as being “culturally aware of
students’ diverse backgrounds and making sure that lessons celebrating their culture were
provided in the classroom.” Teacher B defined culturally relevant practices as teaching student
awareness and “showcasing differences in culture, traditions, beliefs, upbringing, discipline, how
we talk, dress, eat, and how we learn.” Teacher B also added that culturally relevant practices
should be used regularly in the classroom because they teach students to “accept each other for
who they are and embrace each other’s differences.” Similarly, Teacher C responded,
Well, it is important to be culturally aware of community norms because some may view
joking around or bagging as inappropriate, yet it may be totally acceptable in some
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
70
schools, especially in schools within the inner-city. Practicing culturally relevant
strategies involves learning about your students and getting to know the norms within the
community.
Teacher C emphasized the importance of getting to know one’s student population and learning
about the different cultures within the classroom. This practice aligns with the view that
educators must examine their own beliefs and practices in order to promote a learning
environment that is culturally sensitive (Manning & Bucher, 2007).
Teacher E further highlighted the significance of being culturally responsive as a teacher
and remarked, “Teachers should take the time to learn about their school community, their
students, and the diverse populations that are represented in the classroom.” Teacher E
underscored the belief that responsive teachers are able to recognize and modify their knowledge
and training while paying attention to classroom contexts and individual student needs (Gay,
2002; Irvine et al., 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Culturally Responsive Climate
According to Howard (2008), teachers must critically reflect to gain a better
understanding of their positionality within the classroom. When teachers understand their
ethnically diverse student populations, they can work more effectively in creating a culturally
responsive climate that supports student achievement. Lew and Nelson (2016) furthered this
belief by arguing that teachers must examine their personal beliefs and the impact they may have
on classroom management practices within the classroom environment.
Table 7 contains teacher survey responses regarding the consideration of cultural
backgrounds when responding to inappropriate student behaviors in the classroom. Teachers
were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey protocol in which 1
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
71
indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5
indicated strongly agree.
Table 7
I Consider Cultural Background When Responding to Inappropriate Student Behaviors in My
Classroom
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 2 6
Agree 21 64
Neutral 8 24
Disagree 2 6
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=33
Table 7 shows that 23 out of 33 (70%) survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed that
they considered cultural background when responding to inappropriate student behaviors in their
classrooms. Teacher A believed that creating a culturally responsive climate was very important
when responding to diverse student populations. Teacher A felt teachers must provide a learning
environment where students are presented with “clearly defined expectations” and that teachers
must “model positive behaviors and apply rewards and consequences consistently.” Teacher D
passionately stated,
A classroom should be a safe haven for all students. Teachers should model appropriate
behaviors and explain the importance of celebrating different cultures by exposing
students to new learning. I create an environment where students learn about different
cultures through food, dance, clothing, and stories. I often bring in storybooks that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
72
represent the students in my class and portray characters that are familiar to their
experiences.
Teacher D highlighted the importance of creating a culturally responsive climate that sets clear
classroom expectations and models positive behaviors, as discussed in the work of Lew and
Nelson (2016). Teacher E also emphasized this belief and stated, “Disciplinary practices will not
work the same for students of different cultures, and teachers should be sensitive to cultural
differences, the community norms, and background of the students they serve.”
Teacher B believed that creating a relationship with African American students was very
important, especially if different races were involved. Teacher B remarked, “As the teacher, I
have to create a non-threating environment where students feel safe and are willing to take risks
in their learning.” Similarly, Teacher A believed effective classroom strategies “should provide
students of color the opportunities to interact with a variety of text types and literary genres that
foster resiliency, culturally sensitivity, and empowerment.” Teacher A shared that all students
should be exposed to “various literature, music, and activities that promote cultural awareness.”
Teacher C furthered this point and remarked, “Effective classroom strategies should provide
students of color the opportunities to interact with a variety of text types and literary genres that
foster resiliency, culturally sensitivity, and empowerment.” Teacher E shared that all students
should be exposed to “various literature, music, and activities that promote cultural awareness.”
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
A thorough analysis of the quantitative data gathered from the teacher surveys showed
that respondents strongly agreed or agreed that using culturally relevant strategies was important
for supporting ethnically diverse students. Seventy-three percent of teachers who completed the
survey were in favor of consistently using culturally relevant practices in their classrooms, while
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
73
70% of the teachers also considered cultural background when responding to inappropriate
behaviors in the classroom.
To gain a better understanding of teacher perceptions related to CRT and creating a
culturally relevant climate, an analysis of the qualitative data collected from the teacher
interviews was conducted. Interview respondents demonstrated a strong sense of using culturally
relevant teaching strategies to support their students. During the study, themes emerged from the
interview respondents; they included building awareness, acceptance, and learning about diverse
student populations. All five of the interviewed teachers felt that being culturally sensitive and
aware of student differences was vital to creating a successful classroom. Teacher responses
aligned with Gay’s (2002) Theory of Cultural Relevant Teaching, which encourages teachers to
use cultural knowledge, experiences, heritage, and differing perspectives to promote cultural
awareness in the classroom.
Research Question 2
Through the lens of CRT, what do elementary teachers believe are effective positive behavior
strategies that support the academic achievement of African American students?
Creating a culturally relevant climate includes providing students with positive
reinforcement when students are following classroom rules and expectations. Monroe and
Obidah (2004) argued that when positive reinforcement strategies are consistently paired with
CRT, teachers are able to consider possible cultural underpinnings of behaviors traditionally
perceived as disruptive.
Positive Reinforcement
The use of positive reinforcement to support African American students was evident from
the quantitative and qualitative data collected by the researcher. As defined by Alberto and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
74
Troutman (2013), positive reinforcement is a naturally occurring phenomenon that describes
rewards or pleasant events provided to students for exhibiting desired behaviors.
Table 8 contains teacher survey responses regarding the use of praise for desired
behaviors manifested by African American students in the classroom. Teachers were asked to
indicate their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey protocol in which 1 indicated
strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated
strongly agree.
Table 8
I Consistently Praise the Positive/Desired Behaviors of African American Students in My
Classroom Environment
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 5 15
Agree 24 73
Neutral 4 12
Disagree 0 0
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=33
Table 8 highlights that 29 out of 33 (88%) survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed
that they consistently praised the positive/desired behaviors of African American students in
their classrooms.
The table that follows contains teacher survey responses regarding the use of individual
incentives to reward desired behaviors manifested by African American students in the
classroom (see Table 9). Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
75
Scale survey protocol in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated
neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 9
I Consistently Use Individual Incentives to Reward Positive/Desired Behaviors Manifested by
African American Students
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 2 6
Agree 24 73
Neutral 3 9
Disagree 4 12
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=33
Table 9 demonstrated that 26 out of 33 (79%) survey respondents strongly agreed or
agreed that they used individual incentives to reward positive/desired behaviors manifested by
African American students. Teacher C believed in using a classroom management system that
rewarded students for desired classroom behaviors. Teacher C shared,
I have established a three-tiered system of reinforcing classroom expectations. I rely on an
individual student reinforcement system, a table group reinforcement system, and a whole
class reinforcement system… I also take into account the cultural norms that may be
present in the community and find teachable moments to model appropriate behaviors so I
can then reinforce and reward expected behaviors.
Teacher C created an environment that aligned with the work of Koegel et al. (1996) and
enhanced student competencies and access to desirable behaviors, activities, and social
circumstances. Teacher E shared similar strategies to support African American students and
used a “timecard system” where students earned points for desired behaviors, effort, and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
76
completed work. Students then used their earned points to purchase items from the class store on
designated days.
Response Cost
McGoey and DuPaul (2000) described response cost as a behavioral intervention
procedure that includes the loss of privileges or reinforcement as a consequence for inappropriate
classroom behavior. Cooper et al. (2007) defined response cost as the contingent loss of
reinforcers and a form of negative punishment that produced a decrease in the frequency of
undesired behaviors with the use of classroom fines. Kearney (2015) further asserted that fines
incorporated with this procedure worked more effectively when clearly defined to all students
and when the schedule of fines was posted publicly within the classroom.
Three out of the five teachers interviewed used a response cost system of behavioral
intervention in their classroom. Teacher A used a behavior management procedure that included
a four-color system to assist students in monitoring their behaviors. Teacher A explained that a
personalized clip system was used; clips with individual student names were placed on a
behavior chart located at the front of the classroom (see Table 10). The application of this system
was displayed in Teacher A’s interview:
Blue is for outstanding behavior, green is for good behavior with limited redirecting. All
students start on green every morning. Yellow is for average behavior with a few
instances of challenging behaviors, and red is for unacceptable behavior with multiple
redirections/warnings and if a student clips down to red, the consequence includes parent
contact. Each student is individually recognized when they are following classroom rules
and expectations and students can either clip up or clip down.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
77
Teacher A also mentioned that students could “move back up if they had dropped colors during
the day.”
Table 10
Teacher A’s Four Color Behavior Management Clip System for Second Grade
Chart color Significance Criteria
Blue Outstanding behavior Minimal to no redirecting
Green Good behavior Limited redirecting
Yellow Average behavior Few instances of undesired behavior
Red Unacceptable behavior Multiple instances of undesired behavior
Teacher D also demonstrated the use of a response cost system to reinforce positive
student behaviors in the classroom (see Table 11). Teacher D explained the six-color system this
way:
In my clip system, I use the colors pink, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Every
morning I make sure that students start on green—Ready to Learn. Pink signifies
outstanding behavior, blue signifies good behavior, green signifies ready to learn, yellow
is for slow down, orange is for teacher choice, and red signifies parent contact.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
78
Table 11
Teacher D’s Six Color Behavior Management Clip System for Second Grade
Chart color Significance Criteria
Pink Outstanding behavior No redirecting
Blue Good behavior Minimal to no redirecting
Green Ready to learn Limited redirecting
Yellow Slow down Few instances of undesired behaviors
Orange Teacher choice Multiple instances of undesired behaviors
Red Parent contact Ongoing instances of undesired behavior
Teacher D also mentioned that “students could move up and down the behavior chart throughout
the day depending on how they behave in the classroom.”
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
A review of the quantitative data gathered from teacher surveys showed that respondents
strongly agreed or agreed that they consistently used praise to reward the desired behaviors of
African American students. Eighty-eight percent of teachers who completed the survey were in
favor of consistently using praise in their classrooms. In their study, Gershenson et al. (2010)
argued that praising a student for using appropriate behaviors resulted in a decrease of
inappropriate student behaviors and a reduction of critical statements made by the teacher.
Marzano et al. (2010) posited that students should feel able to succeed in the classroom and that
teachers should use specific, task-based verbal feedback paired with student self-monitoring that
ties effort with academic achievement. The survey data also suggested that 79% of teachers
consistently used individual incentives to reward desired behaviors manifested by African
American students in their classrooms. An analysis of the qualitative data collected from the
teacher interviews revealed that all five interview respondents used a form of positive
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
79
reinforcement in their classroom; these included praise and individual and/or group earning
systems with specific rewards. Three out of five teachers used a response cost clip procedure in
their classroom. A number of recurring themes became evident when analyzing the interview
data, including setting clear expectations, modeling appropriate behaviors, and being aware of
cultural norms within the school community. These themes were viewed as an integral part of
creating a culturally relevant climate in the classroom because teachers must provide clear
expectations, know their student populations, and provide explicit teaching of appropriate
classroom behaviors (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
Research Question 3
Through the lens of CRT, how do elementary school teachers measure the effectiveness of their
positive behavior practices toward African American students in their classroom?
When teachers do not understand the cultural background and the socially accepted
norms within the community, this can lead to the unnecessary disciplining of African American
students. Teachers without this understanding often misinterpret behaviors that may be accepted
within the African American culture and deem them as inappropriate. Such behaviors include
elevated voices, the physical display of emotions, and interaction between peers (Monroe,
2005a). The behaviors of African American students are misjudged and often penalized because
teachers do not understand the cultural norms among African American students, which may
differ from the institutional norms of the school staff (Ferguson 2000; Obidah & Teel, 2001).
Research showed that African American students are often misinterpreted and penalized because
teachers may not fully understand cultural background and socio-economic status (Ferguson,
2000). As a result, African American students receive disciplinary referrals and suspensions at
disproportionate rates when compared to other subgroups.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
80
Disciplinary Referrals
Disciplinary referrals are used in schools to document inappropriate behaviors manifested
by students in the classroom and on the playground. Skiba et al. (2008) argued that African
American students were more likely to receive disciplinary referrals for less serious offenses
such as disrespect and excessive noise. According to Skiba et al. (2008), 43% of disciplinary
referrals in kindergarten through sixth grade in the United States were administered to African
American students. Table 12 displays teacher survey responses regarding the use of disciplinary
referrals to document inappropriate behaviors manifested by African American students in the
classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey
protocol in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4
indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 12
I Utilize Office Disciplinary Referrals to Document African American Student Behaviors of
Concern
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 0 0
Agree 8 24
Neutral 10 30
Disagree 13 39
Strongly disagree 2 6
Note. n=33
Table 10 shows that 15 out of 33 (45%) survey respondents strongly disagreed or
disagreed that they utilized disciplinary referrals to document undesired behaviors by African
American students. It also shows that 7 out of 33 (21%) survey respondents felt neutral about
utilizing disciplinary referrals. Conversely, eight out of 33 (24%) survey respondents agreed that
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
81
they utilized disciplinary referrals to document behaviors of concern manifested by African
American students. Teacher E strongly disagreed with the use of referrals or suspension as a
consequence for student misbehavior. Teacher E passionately remarked,
Look, referrals and suspension do not work to support behavior change. Students are
always sent to the main office with referrals or sent home when suspended and you gotta
ask yourself, will these consequences change the student’s behavior. In fact, students are
going to continue acting-up just to get sent out of class, especially if there is no
connection between the teacher and student. I use a different approach. I speak to my
students with respect. I address classroom disagreements using restorative practices such
as a restorative circle. I also work to clearly define classroom expectations. These
practices have helped me support students in my class.
Teacher C also believed that it was important to think ahead to prevent situations and
shared, “It is important to engage students in their learning and include real life examples.”
Teacher C furthered this point by stating, “Students need to feel safe to participate in class and
pose ideas, suggestions, and comments. A teacher needs to be patient and not take things
personal.”
Suspension
National data revealed consistent patterns of disproportionality in disciplinary practices
for African Americans students (Gregory et al., 2010). African American students received the
highest disciplinary sanctions across all six areas, including out-of-school suspension, in-school
suspension, referral to law enforcement, expulsion, corporal punishment, and school-related
arrest (Government Accountability Office, 2018). Data demonstrated that African American
students were three to seven times more likely than their White peers to receive suspension as a
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
82
consequence for disruptive behaviors (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003). Larson et al. (2018)
argued that using both CRT strategies and a proactive behavior management system could create
better outcomes for African American students.
Table 13 displays teacher survey responses regarding the use of suspension as a response
to pervasive behaviors manifested by students in the classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate
their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey protocol in which 1 indicated strongly
disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly
agree.
Table 13
I am Comfortable Utilizing Suspension as a Consequence for Pervasive Behaviors Such as
Student Disrespect Toward Adults and Students, Classroom Disruptions, and Inappropriate
Language
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 1 3
Agree 4 12
Neutral 7 21
Disagree 16 48
Strongly disagree 5 15
Note. n=33
Table 13 shows that 21 out of 33 (63%) survey respondents strongly disagreed or
disagreed that they were comfortable utilizing suspension as a consequence for undesired
behaviors in school. In addition, 7 out of 33 (21%) felt neutral about the use of suspension, and 5
out of 33 (15%) strongly agreed or agreed that they were comfortable utilizing suspension as a
consequence. In reviewing suspension data for both school districts, the researcher found that
School District A had 28 suspensions of African American students, for a 2.6% suspension rate.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
83
This was the highest suspension rate among all ethnic subgroups in School District A (California
Department of Education, 2019). School District B had 167 suspensions of African American
students, for a 3.3% suspension rate. Similar to School District A, African American students
held the highest suspension rate among all other ethnic subgroups. In School District B, the
Hispanic or Latino subgroup accounted for over 75% of the student enrollment, yet they only
showed a 0.8% suspension rate. Both School District A and School District B showed a
disproportionate number of suspensions for African American subgroups when compared to all
other ethnic subgroups (California Department of Education, 2019).
Teacher B believed that creating a relationship with African American students was very
important, especially if the teacher was from a different race or culture. Teacher B remarked, “As
the teacher, I have to create a non-threating environment where students feel safe and are willing
to take risks in their learning without the fear of punitive actions.” Similarly, Teacher A stated,
Students will not respond if there are only consequences for misbehaving. I teach my
students alternate ways to respond to certain situations. I also don’t believe in calling
parents for every little thing their child does wrong because then students feel they’re
always getting in trouble. I believe we need to provide an environment where we learn
from our mistakes.
Supporting Social Emotional Learning
Social emotional learning plays an important role in helping students develop life skills
and social development within the classroom (Elias et al., 1997). Teacher C believed that
teaching students social skills was essential for establishing relationships and learning how to
respond appropriately in different settings. Teacher C stated, “Sharing stories that incorporate
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
84
feelings and portray pictures illustrating a visual representation of desired behaviors can go a
long way.” Similarly, Teacher B shared,
Many of my students face adverse experiences at home, and it is important that I focus on
their well-being when they are here in school. I can only empathize with their difficult
situations because I am not living through them, yet I try to understand their perspectives.
I feel that coaching students through modeling and role-playing is a good strategy to
teach appropriate classroom behaviors. Students need to know that their teacher cares and
the classroom is a safe environment where they will receive love and care to help them
learn. I believe that my ability to learn about my students has made me a better teacher
and supported their academic growth, especially in ELA.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
The researcher collected quantitative and qualitative data to understand how teachers
measured the effectiveness of the positive behavioral strategies they used to support African
American students. Based on the analysis of teacher interview data, the respondents all shared
similar beliefs on how to support ethnically diverse students. Teachers believed that student
success in the classroom was predicated by empathy, academic engagement, exposure to
culturally relevant curriculum, knowledge of their students’ background, and creating a safe
classroom environment. Teachers believed that it was important to create relationships with their
students and to provide an environment that encouraged students to take risks. Teachers also
believed that referrals and suspensions were punitive practices that were ineffective in changing
behavior and supporting the growth of African American students. The researcher also found that
effective strategies discussed by the participants included teaching explicit classroom rules and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
85
expectations, modeling appropriate behaviors at the beginning of the school year, revisiting
classroom expectations frequently, and teaching social skills throughout the day.
The quantitative data collected on the use of disciplinary referrals and suspensions
uncovered mixed results from the respondents. Although 45% of teachers who completed the
survey strongly disagreed or disagreed with utilizing disciplinary referrals, 21% felt neutral, and
24% agreed with utilizing referrals to document student misbehaviors. Moreover, when
respondents were asked about suspension as a consequence to pervasive misbehaviors, 63% of
respondents strongly disagreed or disagreed with this practice. Conversely, 21% felt neutral, and
15% strongly agreed or agreed with the use of suspension as a response to misbehavior. The data
showed that both School District A and School District B disproportionately suspended African
American students when compared to other ethnic subgroups within their districts (California
Department of Education, 2019).
Research Question 4
Through the lens of CRT, what behavioral support practices are used within the learning
environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Effective classroom management procedures have a strong correlation to student learning
(Rogers & Freiberg, 1994). Covin (2010) argued that classrooms must encompass a respect for
student diversity and cultural differences. Using a behavior management system that is culturally
responsive and embodies mutual respect, relationship building, and rapport is important for
student success (Hollie, 2012).
Group Contingencies/Token Economy
According to Cooper et al. (2007), group contingencies are effective strategies used to
decrease the undesired behaviors of individual students or to decrease the undesired behaviors of
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86
a specific group of students. Students receive tokens, points, or classroom currency as a reward
when desired behaviors are manifested. There are three types of group contingencies: (1)
independent group, (2) dependent group, and (3) interdependent group. An independent group
contingency consists of all students meeting the same criteria to earn reinforcement. A dependent
group contingency consists of a group of students earning reinforcement for manifesting a
specific desired behavior. Last, an interdependent group contingency consists of all students
meeting the criteria established for the whole group (Cashwell, Skinner, & Dunn, 1998).
Table 14 displays teacher survey responses regarding the use of group contingencies to
support positive behaviors in the classroom. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of
agreement using a Likert Scale survey protocol in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2
indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
Table 14
I Consistently Use Individual Student Reinforcement Systems and Group Contingencies Such as
a Token Economy to Support Positive Behaviors in My Classroom
Response f Percentage
Strongly agree 2 6
Agree 28 85
Neutral 2 6
Disagree 1 3
Strongly disagree 0 0
Note. n=33
Table 14 shows that 30 out of 33 (91%) survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed
that they consistently used an individual student reinforcement system and group contingencies
to support positive behaviors in the classroom. Teacher C emphasized the use of group
contingencies and stated,
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I use a three-tier system in my classroom that includes individual student earning,
specific table group earning system, and a whole class earning system. Students earn
points or tickets to earn individual rewards, table group prizes, or whole class rewards.
Students get really excited about earning prizes for their table, and giving praise for
desired behaviors really helps other students self-monitor their own behaviors.
Teacher C also remarked, “Students must know the behavioral expectations in the classroom
earning points and/or tickets is dependent on students following the classroom rules.”
Response Cost
As mentioned in the analysis of the data for Research Question 2, the response cost
procedure was used by three out of the five interview respondents. Response cost is described as
a behavioral intervention procedure that includes the loss of privileges or reinforcement as a
consequence for inappropriate classroom behavior. This system was described as a procedure
where a student could earn privileges and praise for desired behaviors or receive consequences
for undesired classroom behaviors (McGoey & DuPaul, 2000). The response cost clip system
was a popular procedure used by elementary teachers in both School District A and School
District B.
Knowing Your Students
Monroe and Obidah (2004) posited that problems in the classroom arise when cultural
synchronization is not present between the teacher and the students in the classroom. Table 15
displays teacher survey responses regarding the use of an interest survey to better understand
students. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement using a Likert Scale survey
protocol in which 1 indicated strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4
indicated agree, and 5 indicated strongly agree.
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88
Table 15
I Rely on the Use of Student Interest Surveys in my Classroom to Gain a Better Understanding of
My Students.
f Percentage
Strongly Agree 2 6%
Agree 17 52%
Neutral 9 27%
Disagree 5 15%
Strongly Disagree 0 0%
Note. n=33
Table 15 shows that 19 out of 33 (58%) survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed
that they relied on student interest surveys to better understand their students. Teacher E stated,
“It is important to be sensitive towards all students, and we must try to connect with each student
and learn about their culture, especially if it is different than yours.” Teacher A furthered this
point and remarked, “I try to cultivate an environment of mutual respect by getting to know my
students through their likes and dislikes. Getting to know my students helps me build trust and
students are then more willing to try harder.” Teacher D stated, “I practice building a trusting
relationship with my students that is based in mutual respect, and I am sensitive to their
challenges in their home life and how it may affect their work production and behaviors in the
classroom.” In addition, Teacher B stated,
It is important to be proactive and try to prevent situations by knowing your students. I
get to know my students by making connections and learning about their favorite games,
pets, dessert, songs, and dances. I also incorporate these preferred activities into math
problems and writing prompts to engage them in their learning.
Teacher A summarized the importance of knowing your students by saying, “We are all
working together to make gains both academically and socially. We need to get to know our
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students and let them know they can trust us to help them” (personal communication, Month,
Day, Year). Monroe (2006b) postulated that effective classroom discipline involves the
teacher’s understanding of his or hers students’ background knowledge and the interpersonal
relationships that exist between the teacher and students and the teacher and their families.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 focused on identifying the culturally relevant behavioral support
practices used by teachers to support ethnically diverse students in the classroom. An analysis
and review of the quantitative data collected from the surveys revealed that 91% of respondents
strongly agreed or agreed that they used an individual student reinforcement system and group
contingencies to support positive behaviors in the classroom. Griner and Stewart (2012) asserted
that CRT is a tool used to help guide teachers in effective ways to instruct their students. Based
on the qualitative interview data collected, the researcher found that teachers used specific types
of positive behavioral strategies that supported students, including group contingencies, token
economies, response cost, and knowing your students. Teachers believed that the use of group
contingencies offered their students the ability to earn individual, small-group, or whole-group
rewards. The use of group contingencies and token economies provided students with an earning
system, rather than a punishment-based system, associated with response cost. All five teachers
used a token economy that consisted of students earning table points, tokens, stickers, or
classroom currency. Students earned rewards for manifesting desired behaviors that aligned with
classroom rules and expectations. Three out five teachers used the response cost procedure and
felt it was an effective strategy to support student behaviors.
Another theme that emerged in this study was knowing your students. Fifty-eight percent
of respondents in this study strongly agreed or agreed with the use of interest surveys to better
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90
understand students. All five teachers believed that it was important to learn about their students’
cultural background, interests, and societal norms. Teachers also strongly believed that trust
between the teacher and students played an essential role in supporting students in their
classrooms. Ladson-Billings (1992) posited that African American students are more successful
in school when the school and home culture are parallel to one another.
Summary of the Key Findings
Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data revealed a number of key findings
related to the research questions that guided this study. Key findings for Research Question 1
included that 73% of survey respondents were in favor of consistently using culturally relevant
practices in their classrooms. Moreover, 70% of survey respondents considered cultural
background when responding to inappropriate behaviors in the classroom. Interview respondents
demonstrated a strong sense of culturally relevant teaching strategies, and emergent themes
included building awareness, acceptance, and learning about diverse student populations.
Teacher beliefs and responses aligned with Gay’s (2002) Theory of Cultural Relevant Teaching,
which encourages teachers to use cultural knowledge, experiences, heritage, and differing
perspectives to promote cultural awareness in the classroom.
The key findings for Research Question 2 were that 88% of survey respondents were in
favor of consistently using praise in their classrooms. Survey data also suggested that 79% of
teachers consistently used individual incentives to reward African American students for
manifesting desired classroom behaviors. An analysis of teacher interview data revealed that all
five interview respondents used a form of positive reinforcement in their classroom, including
praise and individual and group earning systems with specific rewards. In addition, three out of
five teachers used a response cost clip system in their classroom. Recurring themes included
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91
setting clear expectations, modeling appropriate behaviors, and being aware of cultural norms
within the school community. These themes aligned with creating a culturally relevant climate in
the classroom and providing both clear expectations and explicit teaching of socially accepted
behaviors (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
A key finding for Research Question 3 was that the interview respondents all shared
similar beliefs on how to support ethnically diverse students. Teachers believed that student
success in the classroom was a result of empathy, academic engagement, exposure to culturally
relevant curriculum, knowledge of their students’ backgrounds, and creating a safe classroom
environment. Effective strategies discussed by teachers included teaching explicit classroom
rules and expectations, modeling appropriate behaviors at the beginning of the school year,
revisiting classroom expectations frequently, and teaching social skills throughout the day.
Another key finding was that the respondents demonstrated mixed results on the use of
disciplinary referrals and suspensions. The data showed that 45% of teachers who completed the
survey strongly disagreed or disagreed with utilizing disciplinary referrals, 21% felt neutral, and
24% agreed with using this procedure to document student misbehaviors. Moreover, survey data
related to the use of suspension found that 63% of respondents strongly disagreed or disagreed
with this practice. Conversely, 21% felt neutral, and 15% strongly agreed or agreed with the use
of suspension as a consequence for misbehavior. Despite mixed teacher perceptions on the use of
referrals and suspensions, the evidence collected presented effective classroom practices used by
the teachers that aligned with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) and
support the academic and social-emotional growth of ethnically diverse students.
Last, key findings for Research Question 4 were that 91% of respondents strongly agreed
or agreed in using an individual student reinforcement system and group contingencies to
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92
support positive behaviors in the classroom. Based on the qualitative interview data collected,
the researcher found that teachers used specific types of positive behavioral strategies that
supported students, including group contingencies, token economies, response cost, and knowing
the students. All five teachers used a token economy that consisted of students earning table
points, tokens, stickers, or classroom currency. Three out five teachers used the response cost
procedure and felt it was an effective strategy to support student behaviors. Knowing the
students was another theme that emerged in this study, and 58% percent of respondents strongly
agreed or agreed with the use of interest surveys to better understand their students. All five
teachers believed that it was important to learn about their students’ cultural backgrounds,
interests, and societal norms. When teachers take the time to learn about cultural backgrounds
and create a culturally relevant climate, African American students are more successful in school
because the school culture and the home are parallel to one another (Ladson-Billings, 1990).
In chapter 5, there will be an additional discussion of the key findings as well as a
discussion of the similarities and contradictions between the elementary grade levels in School
District A and School District B, implications for practice, and limitations. Chapter 5 will
culminate with recommendations for future research and a conclusion.
Discussion
Chapter 4 presented the findings from this mixed-methods study. The researcher shared
the results of the analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data collected, via surveys and
interviews, from the participating teachers from School District A and School District B, both of
which were located within Los Angeles County. The researchers collected 33 out of 60 survey
responses from teachers in School District A and School District B, for a combined response rate
of 55%. The participants from the surveys and interviews were elementary teachers in
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93
kindergarten through second grade. Five teachers voluntarily participated in face-to-face
interviews so the researcher could explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices
they used to support their diverse student populations.
Chapter 4 commenced with an explanation of the approach used to analyze and code the
respondent data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and then described the descriptive characteristics of
both the survey and interview participants. The data collected from both the surveys and
interviews were then aligned to the overarching research questions that guided this study. As
presented in the findings, there was clear evidence of recurring themes that emphasized the
importance of creating a culturally relevant classroom, the use of effective classroom
management strategies, and the significance of knowing and understanding the student
population within the classroom. Moreover, the data collected in this study highlighted how
teachers perceived their role as supportive figures in the lives of their students.
The data collected through survey responses and interviews also demonstrated that over
70% of participating teachers strongly agreed or agreed that creating a culturally sensitive
classroom and considering students’ cultural backgrounds were vital to the academic and social-
emotional growth of ethnically diverse students. However, a lower number of African American
teachers participated in this study when compared to other ethnicities. Overall, only three
African American teachers participated in this study; they represented 9% of the total respondent
group. The 13 teachers who identified as Caucasian accounted for 39% of the total respondent
group. In addition, 26 of the 33 respondents identified as female; they accounted for 79% of the
total respondent group. This data was representative of the cultural mismatch that minority
students face in elementary and secondary schools, where 87% of teachers are White females
(Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Introduction
This chapter provides a summary of the study, including the purpose of the study,
research questions, design overview, and key findings. It concludes with study limitations,
implications for practice, and recommendations for further study.
Statement of the Problem
There is an urgent need for elementary educators to employ discipline practices that
improve the academic achievement of African American students. Research continues to
demonstrate that African American students receive high rates of suspension when compared to
those of their White peers. Moreover, a number of factors including culturally biased discipline
practices and low socioeconomic status appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem
(Skiba et al., 2008). While there is wealth of literature focused on the disproportionate
suspensions, expulsions, and disciplinary referrals of African American students, there is very
little research on the essential culturally relevant strategies in conjunction to positive behavior
support strategies to support African American e students in the elementary classroom. Skiba et
al. (2002) emphasized the need to better understand the school response to discipline and the
culturally biased practices among staff. The disproportionate suspension rate of African
American students within the United States has been consistent for the past 40 years, and there is
a need to address the discipline gap by identifying research-based strategies and interventions
that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), the positive behavior strategies and practices that
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95
elementary school teachers in Los Angeles County used to promote a learning environment that
supported young African American students. The researchers for this study analyzed the
practices and beliefs of elementary school teachers who implemented positive behavioral
strategies that supported ethnically diverse students in their urban classrooms. The researchers
also explored how teachers perceived the behavioral challenges of African American students in
their classroom and examined their understanding of culturally relevant teaching. This research
investigated elementary teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, skills, and practices and shed light on
successful strategies that may or may not have connected with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Theory. This study also investigated the behavior strategies that supported African American
students in the classroom and limited the disproportionate disciplinary consequences that
reprimanded students and caused them to become less attached to school, less invested in
schoolwork, and less inclined to follow school rules (Gregory et al., 2010). The results of this
study highlight the effective positive behavior practices that elementary school teachers in Los
Angeles County used to improve the academic achievements of African American students in
their urban classrooms.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study.
1. Through the lens of CRT, what are the positive behavior strategies most commonly
used by elementary school teachers to support the behavioral challenges of African
American students in the urban classroom?
2. Through the lens of CRT, what do elementary teachers believe are effective positive
behavior strategies that support the academic achievement of African American
students?
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3. Through the lens of CRT, how do elementary school teachers measure the
effectiveness of their positive behavior practices toward African American students in
their classroom?
4. Through the lens of CRT, what behavioral support practices are used within the
learning environment to support an ethnically diverse classroom?
Review of the Literature
Decades of research has provided a large body of scholarship that highlights that African
American students across the United States receive a disproportionate share of exclusionary
discipline practices. Scholarly research over the past 40 years consistently demonstrated that
African American students received high rates of disciplinary referrals, suspensions, and
expulsions when compared to their White peers (Skiba et al., 2008). More recent data revealed
that this trend is still evident across the nation. In their study of suspension practices in a large,
ethnically diverse school district, Raffaele Mendez and Knoff (2003) found that African
American students were three to seven times more likely to be suspended for undesirable
behaviors than their White peers.
CRP and CRT have been used as a framework to support teachers in using equitable
discipline practices for African American students in the classroom. Howard (2003) and Ladson-
Billings (1995a) explained that CRP encompasses three major criteria, including students
experiencing academic success, students developing cultural competence, and students
developing a critical consciousness through which to challenge the status quo of the current
order. According to Howard (1999), teachers are inadequately prepared to teach ethnically
diverse students and cannot teach what they do not know or understand. Brown and Cooper
(2011) asserted that to increase cultural competence, teachers have to engage in behaviors that
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meet the needs of students. CRP creates inclusive environments that emphasize the experiences,
languages, and cultures of diverse learners.
Teachers are at the forefront of creating safe learning spaces that nurture students’
academic, social, and emotional growth. CRT practices promote success in the classroom
because they increase opportunities for students of color to feel comfortable in an educational
setting. Gay (2010) defined culturally responsive teaching as using ethnically diverse students’
prior experiences, cultural knowledge, and frame of reference to make learning experiences more
relevant and effective. Gay (2010) asserted, “teachers must learn how to recognize, honor, and
incorporate the personal abilities of students into their teaching strategies. If this is done, then
school achievement will improve” (p. 1). Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as
a vehicle for learning (Ladson-Billings, 2001). Culturally responsive teachers also participate in
practices that foster students’ academic success while empowering them to challenge inequities
(Brown & Crippen, 2016).
A large body of scholarship underscored the behavioral and academic challenges that
African American students face in the education system. African American students face a
disproportionality in school discipline and are overly represented in office disciplinary referrals,
suspensions, and expulsions (Bradshaw et al., 2010; Skiba et al. 2011). Skiba et al. (2011)
postulated that the mechanisms that might contribute to disciplinary disparities by ethnicity
included poverty, differential rates of disruptive behaviors across school settings, and a “cultural
mismatch or racial stereotyping” (p. 86). Skiba et al. (2011) also hypothesized that students of
color participated in higher levels of classroom disruption due to a variety of factors and
stressors associated with poverty. Bradshaw et al. (2010) argued that disciplinary referrals had a
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negative effect on African American students because they reduced opportunities for learning
and led to other risks, including truancy, suspension, gang affiliation, and school failure.
The teaching force in most school districts across the United States is predominantly
composed of White females (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). One of every three students enrolled in
elementary and secondary schools is a minority, whereas 87% of teachers are White females
(Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Monroe (2004) argued that policies and
practices in an educational setting reflect the beliefs of the individuals who create them. This
issue presents a cultural mismatch between teachers and African American students and possibly
contributes to the disproportionality in disciplinary consequences for students. Student
disengagement is also more common when there is a mismatch between school values and what
is being modeled in the home and community (APA Task Force, 2008; Obiakor et al., 1993;
Tyler et al., 2008). Bradshaw et al. (2010) suggested that this mismatch in values increased the
likelihood that there would be a mismatch between the behaviors considered appropriate by
students and the behaviors considered acceptable by administrators.
The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and
students can lead to devastating learning experiences for students (Anton, 1999; Cho & Reich,
2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004). Monroe and Obidah (2004) argued that disproportionality
increases when cultural synchronization is not present between teachers and students in the
classroom. Students from diverse backgrounds that do not match the culture of the school can
pose a challenge for teachers in terms of building relationships and participating in positive
interactions. Student cultural norms that emanate from the home can lead to cultural
misunderstandings and miscommunications in the classroom. It is incumbent upon teachers to be
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99
sensitive to cultural differences and to teach situational appropriateness where the appropriate
behaviors are determined solely by the current situation or social context (Hollie, 2012).
There is vast amount of academic literature on effective classroom behavioral
interventions; this research focused on the strategies teachers used to close the discipline gap for
African American students in kindergarten through second grade. Understanding and analyzing
student behaviors by discovering environmental variables that influence socially significant
undesired behaviors can assist teachers in creating systems of behavioral change (Bloh &
Axelrod, 2008). Monroe (2006a) remarked that effective classroom discipline involves
understanding classroom instruction, the students’ background knowledge, and the interpersonal
bonds of both their students and families. When African American students are intellectually
engaged in academic tasks and hold positive feelings about their roles as students, they are more
likely to become productive citizens (Monroe, 2006b). Implementing a tiered system of positive
behavioral supports that addresses students’ needs by implementing student inventories,
engaging in proactive discipline measures, incorporating physical movement in the classroom,
and using sequenced and structured systems of positive reinforcement can help African
American students thrive in the classroom (Monroe, 2006b Sherrod et al., 2009; Bloh & Axelrod,
2008).
Monroe and Obidah (2004) declared that effective teachers of African American students
devote time to explicitly explaining the expectations and standards for acceptable conduct in the
classroom. They further stated that providing students with explicit expectations is a critical step
in avoiding misunderstandings and socially preparing students for classroom success (Monroe,
2006a). Marzano et al. (2010) suggested that students should feel they have the ability to
succeed and that teachers should use specific, task-based verbal feedback paired with student
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100
self-monitoring that ties effort with academic achievement. Students are more likely to work
toward academic goals when teachers provide opportunities for students to see the relationship
between effort and success.
Design Overview
This study was completed using a mixed-method design utilizing a two-phase model that
included collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data. The researcher found that
using multiple instruments and protocols helped to interpret and make sense of the collected data
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, using quantitative and qualitative methods supported the
researcher in triangulating the data to reinforce evidence that was found through the data
collection process and aligned to the guiding research questions (Maxwell, 2013). A mixed-
methods approach allowed the researcher to use multiple perspectives to comprehensively study
and answer the research questions (Malloy 2011; Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, a mixed-
methods design assisted the researcher in completely understanding the research problem
(Creswell, 2016). The researchers conducting this study split the data collection responsibilities
between lower and upper grades with the intent of gathering a richer and more comprehensive
data sample. One researcher focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other
researcher focused on third through fifth grade.
The researcher designed and generated the survey protocol using Google Forms, a web-
based program. This program allowed the researcher to share, receive, and organize survey
responses submitted by participants. The researcher designed the protocol and ensured that
survey questions were meaningful, free from biased words and phrases, and easy for the
respondents to complete (Creswell. 2014). The survey was comprised of 29 questions that
focused on demographic information and aligned to the four guiding research questions. The
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survey used a Likert Scale survey protocol for each closed-ended question in which 1 indicated
strongly disagree, 2 indicated disagree, 3 indicated neutral, 4 indicated agree, and 5 indicated
strongly agree. The use of a Likert Scale survey protocol allowed the researchers to provide a
numeric description of each respondent’s perceptions and attitudes toward supporting African
American and ethnically diverse students in their classrooms. Surveys were emailed to 60
teachers in kindergarten through second grade from School District A and School District B. The
surveys were emailed to 30 teachers in School District A and 30 teachers in School District B.
The researcher assigned to this grade span sent reminder emails to participants every 10 days to
encourage selected respondents to complete the survey protocol. The survey collection window
lasted six weeks. The researcher collected 33 out of 60 surveys, for a 53% response rate. Once
the data was collected, the researcher analyzed the data, compared and contrasted participant
responses, and identified recurring themes.
The researcher then used face-to-face interviews to obtain a deeper understanding of
teacher perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher gathered qualitative data using a
structured interview protocol to limit probing and variations in the research questions (Patton,
2002). The qualitative protocol consisted of two parts: Part 1 included questions on background
information, and Part 2 included 15 open-ended questions that aligned with the four guiding
research questions. Five teachers serving students in kindergarten through second grade agreed
to participate in a face-to-face interview, and each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes
(see Table 5). The interview questions were designed to provide participants with an opportunity
to explain and explore the effective positive behavior strategies and practices they used that
aligned with attributes of the CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995a). The researcher ensured informed
consent prior to conducting the interviews and explained that participation in the study was
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102
completely voluntary (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The participants were also informed that all
responses, including any identifying characteristics, would remain confidential and be protected
from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Key Findings
Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data from this study highlighted a number of
key findings. Based on the survey response data, kindergarten through second grade teachers in
this study were mostly in favor of consistently using culturally relevant practices in their
classrooms. Teacher responses also revealed that most teachers were in favor of consistently
using praise and individual incentives to reward African American students in the classroom.
Additionally, the teachers demonstrated a strong sense of understanding of CRT strategies that
included building awareness and acceptance and learning about diverse student populations.
Teacher beliefs and perceptions gathered from this study aligned with Gay’s (2002) Theory of
Cultural Relevant Teaching, which encourages teachers to use cultural knowledge, experiences,
heritage, and differing perspectives to promote cultural awareness in the classroom.
Moreover, the researcher found that interview respondents all shared similar beliefs on
how to support ethnically diverse students. Teacher interview data highlighted common
perceptions, and it was evident that teachers believed that student success in the classroom
required empathy, academic engagement, exposure to culturally relevant curriculum, knowledge
of their students’ backgrounds, and creating a safe classroom environment. Additionally, both
the quantitative and qualitative data demonstrated that effective strategies used by teachers
included teaching explicit classroom rules and expectations, modeling appropriate behaviors at
the beginning of the school year, revisiting classroom expectations frequently, and teaching
social skills throughout the day. The data also revealed that teachers used specific types of
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
103
positive behavioral strategies that supported students, including group contingencies, token
economies, response cost, and knowing their students. All five teachers used a token economy
that consisted of students earning table points, tokens, stickers, or classroom currency. Three out
five teachers used the response cost procedure and felt it was an effective strategy to support
student behaviors in their classrooms. Furthermore, all five teachers believed that it was
important to learn about their students’ cultural backgrounds, interests, and societal norms. This
supported Ladson-Billings’ (1990) research, which showed that when teachers take the time to
learn about cultural background and create and culturally relevant climate, African American
students are more successful in school because the school culture and the home are parallel to
one another.
This study also highlighted teacher perceptions and beliefs on the use of disciplinary
referrals and suspensions as a consequence for undesired behaviors. Based on the quantitative
data collected on the use of disciplinary referrals and suspensions, teacher had mixed feelings on
the use of these procedures. The data showed that less than half of respondents disagreed with
utilizing disciplinary referrals as a consequence for undesired behaviors, while over half of
respondents felt neutral or agreed on the use of this procedure. In addition, over 60% of
respondents disagreed with the use of suspension, and over one third of respondents felt neutral
about or agreed with using suspension as a consequence for misbehavior. Despite mixed teacher
perceptions on the use of referrals and suspensions, the evidence collected presented effective
classroom practices that were used by the teachers in kindergarten through second grade, aligned
with CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995a) practices that supported the academic and social-emotional
growth of ethnically diverse students.
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104
Only three African American teachers participated in this study; they represented 9% of
the total respondent group. The 13 teachers who identified as Caucasian accounted for 39% of
the total respondent group. In addition, 26 of the 33 respondents identified as female; they
accounted for 79% of the total respondent group. This mirrors the cultural mismatch that
minority students face in elementary and secondary schools, where 87% of teachers are White
females (Cross, 2003; Sleeter, 2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). In addition, the findings also
showed that over 80% of the teachers participating in this study lived outside of the district in
which they served.
Comparing and Contrasting Between Grade Levels
As mentioned in the Design Overview sectioned of this chapter, the researchers
conducting this study split the data collection responsibilities between lower and upper grades
with the intent of gathering a richer and more comprehensive data sample. One researcher
focused on kindergarten through second grade, and the other researcher focused on third through
fifth grade. A review of the data revealed that strong similarities existed between the lower- and
upper-grade teachers in this study. However, there were also recognizable differences identified
among both sample groups.
Similarities Among Grade Levels
The data demonstrated that upper- and lower-grade teachers in both School District A
and School District B felt comfortable utilizing CRT strategies to support African American
students in their classrooms. Teachers also shared similar beliefs on the use of positive behavior
strategies in the classroom. The data demonstrated that teachers believed that rewards and
incentives, such as stickers, tokens, or preferred activities within the classroom environment,
increased the likelihood of compliant behavior in African American students. Additionally, the
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105
researchers found that teachers in both lower and upper grades also emphasized the benefits of
using a group contingency system in their classrooms to promote and reward desired student
behaviors. Teachers employed the use of individual or group rewards such as stickers, classroom
currency, and table points to promote positive behavior in the learning environment.
Differences Among Grade Levels
Lower- and upper-grade teachers demonstrated differences in their beliefs about utilizing
a disciplinary referral to document concerning African American student behaviors. The data
illustrated that 45% of teachers in kindergarten through second grade strongly disagreed or
disagreed with the use of referrals, and only 24% of teachers agreed with this procedure.
Conversely, 51% of teachers in third through fifth grade strongly agreed or agreed with the use
of disciplinary referrals. This difference may be attributed to the magnitude and frequency of
certain behavior types, such as defiance, talking back, and causing classroom disruptions,
manifested by upper-grade students. Although 63% of lower-grade teachers and 59% of upper-
grade teachers strongly disagreed or disagreed with suspension as a consequence for pervasive
behaviors, a larger percentage of upper-grade teachers were in favor of using suspensions as a
disciplinary practice. Twenty-seven percent of upper-grade teachers strongly agreed or agreed
with suspension, while only 15% of lower-grade teachers did. Again, the difference between
grades may be attributed the differing student behavior types between groups.
As previously mentioned, only three of the 33 lower-grade teachers who participated in
this study identified as African American. Similarly, only four of the 37 upper-grade teachers
who participated in this study identified as African American. Teachers who identified as White
or Caucasian accounted for 39% of the lower-grade teachers and 43% of the upper-grade
teachers. Moreover, more than 80% of teachers who participated in this study lived outside of the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
106
school district they served. Zumwalt and Craig (2005) noted that the teaching force in most
school districts across the United States was predominantly composed of White females.
Research also showed that one of every three students enrolled in elementary and secondary
schools was a minority, whereas 87% of teachers were White females (Cross, 2003; Sleeter,
2001; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Skiba et al. (2011) asserted that the mechanisms that might
contribute to disciplinary disparities by ethnicity included poverty, differential rates of disruptive
behaviors across school settings, and a “cultural mismatch or racial stereotyping” (p .86).
Implications for Practice
This research has implications for teacher practice in elementary schools. The purpose of
this study was to contribute additional research to the current scholarly literature on effective
classroom strategies that aligned with culturally responsive practices to support ethnically
diverse students. The significant findings revealed in this study can support elementary teachers
who are seeking ways to implement effective strategies that nurture the academic and social-
emotional growth of African American students. The culturally responsive practices and
effective classroom strategies that were identified can support African American students in the
classroom and assist in decreasing the disproportionate disciplinary referral and suspension rates
seen across the nation.
Based on the findings of this study and on the existing research on effective classroom
strategies, teachers who serve ethnically diverse students, particularly African American
students, should utilize CRT strategies that include building awareness, encouraging acceptance,
and learning about diverse student populations. The use of interest surveys to better understand
African American students is an effective strategy for gaining an understanding of cultural
backgrounds and student preferences. The findings in this study were further supported by
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
107
research that argued that African American students are more successful in the classroom when
teachers take the time to learn about cultural backgrounds and create a culturally relevant climate
that creates a parallel between the school and home culture (Ladson-Billings, 1990).
The findings of this study also support the use of effective classroom strategies that teach
students explicit classroom rules and expectations, model appropriate behaviors, revisit
classroom expectations frequently, and teach social skills throughout the day. In addition, the
data also revealed that the use of specific types of positive behavioral strategies, such as group
contingencies, token economies, and response cost procedures, increased desired student
behavior while decreasing misbehavior.
Limitations
This study was impeded by some limitations. First, this study only focused on effective
teacher strategies to support African American students in urban elementary schools within Los
Angeles County. This presents an issue of representativeness because it does not include
information from elementary teachers serving African American students in non-urban school
districts. Additionally, only 33 of 60 respondents completed the survey, leaving 27 unanswered
surveys. A higher response rate would have garnered a larger data sample and provided for a
richer and more informative analysis of the data. Because of the relatively low response rate, the
survey responses were more susceptible to potential bias.
Last, the survey protocol also demonstrated limitations because respondents could only
select from one of the five available Likert Scale options. The use of the neutral selection option
limited the researcher’s ability to determine if the respondent either agreed or disagreed on
certain questions, specifically those associated with the use of disciplinary referrals and
suspension.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
108
Recommendations for Future Study
To underscore the importance of utilizing culturally relevant practices and effective
classroom management strategies to support African American students and to reduce the
disproportionality of punitive disciplinary practices, the researcher recommends the following
considerations for future studies:
adding more school districts to the research study to yield a larger data sample and widen
the scope of teacher participants,
adding more participants to increase the generalizability of the findings, while limiting
the chances of bias from a smaller data sample,
collecting data on specific professional development provided to teachers based on CRT
practices to determine teachers’ exposure and competency with implementation,
examining administrative support for providing professional development and assisting
with the implementation of a school-wide positive behavior system,
examining the use of social skill programs used in each school district to support student
learning,
collecting data on social-emotional support and resources for students in each school
district, and
using a focus group interview with elementary teachers in kindergarten through fifth
grade to identify common practices, differing approaches, and various perspectives.
Conclusion
This study contributes to the existing body of literature through the examination of
teacher beliefs and perceptions on effective behavior strategies that align with CRT theory (Gay,
2002) and support African American students in the elementary classroom. The data revealed
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
109
that teachers utilizing CRT strategies, such as getting to know and understand cultural
background, utilizing student interest surveys, and setting clear expectations, promoted a culture
of trust in the classroom. Furthermore, the study also revealed that teachers felt strongly about
utilizing positive behavior strategies, such as group contingencies, response cost, individual
reinforcement systems, and praise, to promote and reward desired student behaviors. Common
strategies used by teachers included individual or group rewards such as stickers, classroom
currency, and table points. When teachers provide a culturally sensitive environment and use
research-based strategies to promote desired behaviors in the classroom, this will not only offer
African American students and ethnically diverse students discipline with dignity, it will also
assist in decreasing the disproportionate number of referrals and suspensions for our students of
color.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
110
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Appendix A
Participant Survey Instrument
Hello, my name is _________ and I am a graduate student at the University of Southern
California. As part of my dissertation process, I am conducting a study to examine the effective
positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school teachers use that promote a
learning environment based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory that supports young
African American students in the Los Angeles County. Thank you for taking the time to
participate in this survey. The estimated time for this interview is about 15 minutes and your
participation is entirely voluntary. Please know there are no right or wrong answers and I want to
assure you that my data collection will not reveal any of your personal information. It is my hope
that you feel comfortable in answering my questions and sharing your true feelings, perceptions,
and opinions during this process. Might you have any questions?
Please answer all the questions by circling the answer that you most agree with.
Background Information:
1. What is your ethnicity?
2. How many years have you been teaching?
3. How many years have you been teaching at this current site?
What city do you live in?
4. How long is your commute to work?
5. What grade do you currently teach?
Survey Questions
6. To what degree are you confident in managing current behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
7. To what degree are you confident in your ability to promote students social, emotional
and problem-solving skills?
5 4 3 2 1
8. To what degree are you confident in using culturally relevant strategies to manage
behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
5= Strongly Agree 4= Agree 3= Neutral 2= Disagree 1= Strongly Disagree
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
127
9. To what degree do you reward positive behaviors with incentives (e.g. stickers)
classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
10. To what degree do you praise positive behaviors in the classroom environment.
5 4 3 2 1
11. To what degree do you praise positive behaviors of African American students in the
classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
12. To what degree do you send positive notes home to parents when students are behaving
appropriately?
5 4 3 2 1
13. To what degree do you use culturally relevant teaching strategies to de-escalate
behaviors?
5 4 3 2 1
14. To what degree do you use group incentives to respond to appropriate behaviors in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
15. To what degree do you use individual incentives to respond to African American
students’ appropriate behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
16. To what degree do you use cultural relevant teaching to understand cultural differences
in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
17. To what degree do you use student interest surveys in the classroom environment?
5 4 3 2 1
18. To what degree do you respond to African American students’ behavior differently from
other peers?
5 4 3 2 1
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
128
19. To what do you use student’s culture to support classroom management practices in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
20. To what degree do you provide individualized behavior strategies to African American
students in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
21. To what degree do you teach specific social skills to African American students in the
classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
22. To what degree are you confident in managing current behaviors in the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
23. To what degree are you confident in managing African American student behaviors in
the classroom?
5 4 3 2 1
24. To what degree are you confident in your ability to promote African American students
social, emotional and problem-solving skills.
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Please indicate if you would like to
volunteer to participate in a 30 minute interview to examine the effective positive behavior
strategies and practices that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment
based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory that supports young African American
students in the Los Angeles County.?
_____YES ______NO
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
129
Appendix B
Participant Interview Instrument
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview process. I am a graduate student at
the University of Southern California. As part of the dissertation process, I am conducting a
study to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices that elementary school
teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Theory when supporting young African American students in the Los Angeles County.
The estimated time for this interview is about 30 minutes and your participation is entirely
voluntary. This interview is also confidential and your name will not be shared with anyone. I
want to assure you that our data collection will not reveal any of your personal information. I
will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality. It is my hope that you feel comfortable in
answering the questions and sharing your true feelings, perceptions, and opinions during this
process. With your permission, I would also like to record our conversation so that I may capture
all your responses and focus on taking important notes during our interaction. Before we begin, I
would like to respectfully ask you for permission to proceed with the interview? Do you have
any additional questions?
I am now providing you with the informed consent form. Please take a few minutes to read sign
this document.
25. What is your ethnicity?
26. How many years have you been teaching? How many years have you been teaching at
this current site?
27. What city do you live in?
28. How long is your commute to work?
29. What grade do you currently teach?
30. Describe how you respond to inappropriate behaviors in your classroom. Tell me your
approach. How, if at all, does it differ when responding to African American students?
31. How, if at all, did you decide to structure classroom management supports for students
in the class? How, if at all, does it differ when responding to African American
students?
32. How do you define culturally relevant teaching? How, if at all do you implement
culturally relevant teaching in your discipline practices?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
130
33. Describe a time when you had to use culturally relevant teaching in your discipline
practices? What approach did you use? What was the outcome?
34. How, if at all do you think that the implementation of culturally relevant strategies in
discipline has impacted the students in the classroom?
35. Describe a recent time in class when a student was behaving inappropriately. What
happened? How did the student respond? Were there consequences for the inappropriate
behavior?
36. Describe a recent time in class when an African American student was behaving
inappropriately. What happened? How did the student respond? Were there
consequences for the inappropriate behavior?
37. How would you describe your relationship with the students in your class? How, if at
all, does it differ when you respond to inappropriate behavior?
38. What are the next steps if any, do you plan to take to enhance your response to behaviors
in your classroom?
39. What, if anything have, we not discussed that would help me understand your response
to discipline in your classroom?
Closing Comments:
Thank you for your participation in this interview. If you have any questions, please contact me
by email at josefsot@usc.edu. If it is okay, I would like to know if I may contact you for any
follow up questions for clarification reading my research study. Thanks.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
131
Appendix C
Superintendent Cover Letter
10/20/2019
Dear Superintendent_________________:
We hope you have had a great start to the 2019-2020 school year.
We are currently doctoral students in the K-12 Educational Leadership Program at the University
of Southern California. Under the tutelage of Dr. Rudy Castruita, we are currently conducting a
joint research study titled: Discipline with Dignity for African American Students: Effective
Culturally Responsive Practices for Elementary Classroom Teachers in Los Angeles County
Urban Schools.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices
that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy Theory. The study will explore how teachers perceive the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classroom and examine their understanding of
culturally relevant teaching. This research will investigate elementary teachers’ beliefs,
knowledge, skills and practices can shed a light on successful strategies that may or may not
connect with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory.
Our study will be based on information collected through surveys and interviews with transition
kindergarten through fifth grade teachers in elementary schools. Since you are a small urban
district leading change, we are hoping to invite teachers in your district to participate. The tape-
recorded interview will take approximately one hour and will focus on questions related to the
implementation of behavioral and culturally relevant discipline practices.
I am seeking your approval to survey and interview teachers. Their participation in this study is
voluntary. This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) for Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and
rights. If you have questions, please contact us via email: Jose Soto (josefsot@usc.edu), Sukari
Garlington (sgarling@usc.edu).
Your districts cooperation in this matter is greatly appreciated as it will greatly enhance our
study. Thank you in advance for your consideration of participation in this study.
Respectfully,
Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PRACTICES FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR
132
Appendix D
Participant Cover Letter
Dear___________________________,
We hope you have had a great start to the 2019-2020 school year.
We are currently doctoral students in the K-12 Educational Leadership Program at the University
of Southern California. We are currently conducting a joint research study titled: Discipline with
Dignity for African American Students: Effective Culturally Responsive Practices for
Elementary Classroom Teachers in Los Angeles County Urban Schools.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effective positive behavior strategies and practices
that elementary school teachers use that promote a learning environment based on the Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy Theory. The study will explore how teachers perceive the behavioral
challenges of African American students in their classroom and examine their understanding of
culturally relevant teaching. This research will investigate elementary teachers’ beliefs,
knowledge, skills and practices can shed a light on successful strategies that may or may not
connect with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory.
Our study will be based on information collected through a 15 minute survey of kindergarten
through fifth grade teachers in elementary schools. At the end of the survey you will be asked to
participate in an interview. Participation in this study is voluntary. This research study has been
reviewed and approved by the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board
(IRB) for Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes that the research procedures safeguard
your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and rights. If you have questions, please
contact us via email: Jose Soto (josefsot@usc.edu), Sukari Garlington (sgarling@usc.edu).
Your cooperation will greatly enhance our study. Thank you in advance for your consideration of
participation in this study.
Respectfully,
Sukari Garlington and Jose Soto
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Soto, Jose Francisco, III
(author)
Core Title
Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices used by teachers in kindergarten through second grade in Los Angeles County urban elementary schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
05/13/2020
Defense Date
04/06/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African American students,classroom management,culturally relevant pedagogy,culturally relevant teaching,culturally responsive practices,elementary school,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive behavior support strategies
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Castruita, Rudy (
committee chair
), Cash, David (
committee member
), Webb, Alfonzo (
committee member
)
Creator Email
josefsot@usc.edu,soto.email@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-305329
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Tags
African American students
classroom management
culturally relevant pedagogy
culturally relevant teaching
culturally responsive practices
positive behavior support strategies