Conflict and resilience in women leaders of educational change

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CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN WOMEN LEADERS OF EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
by
Jesse Crete

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Jesse Crete

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study allowed me the opportunity to dive deeply into women’s lived experiences
through my participants’ stories. I am awed by their resilience, humbled by their graciousness,
and indebted to them for their willingness to authentically open their lives to me for this
research. I would like to thank Dr. Pensavalle and Dr. Hasan for introducing me to
autoethnographic research and encouraging me to forge ahead on this heretofore unchartered, at
Rossier, methodology and chairing this dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. Greiner for
serving on my committee and for her tireless leadership in higher education especially as it
relates to “nontraditional” students.
My doctoral journey included two different groups of core-coworkers both of whom were
integral to getting me across the finish line. Thank you for your support both professionally as
well as personally – from going above and beyond in the office, to creating a safe place to write
and reflect, and for reminding me to stop and take it all in every now and then. Thank you to the
incredible tribe of women whom I am so blessed to have in my life; your encouragement – kind
words and tough talk – along with your incredible patience for the countless hours you let me
talk about my research (not to mention incredible editing skills) – were the inspiration I needed
to keep trudging forward. This journey is all the better because you are each a part of it with me.
I would like to thank my family, especially my mother, godmother, and uncle and aunt;
you have always believed in me and been my staunchest supporters – I have known your love
every single day of my life. Thank you to my brothers and their partners for always cheering me
on. And thank you to my beautiful nieces – you make me want to be the best role model I can
possibly be – you are my inspiration. Finally, thank you to my kitties, Aries and Artemis for
being the best writing partners ever! Thank you, all.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. vi
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study ................................................................................................ 1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................. 2
Autoethnography ........................................................................................ 4
Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................... 10
Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 10
Importance of the Study ..................................................................................... 11
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................ 11
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................ 12
Organization of the Study ................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 14
Perceived Behaviors of Leadership .................................................................... 14
Role Incongruity ...................................................................................... 16
Relationship Between Leadership, Conflict, and Resilience ............................. 18
Conflict .................................................................................................... 19
Resilience ................................................................................................. 23
Resilience and Gender in Educational Leadership. ................................. 25
Women in Leadership ........................................................................................ 26
Challenges for Women Educational Leaders ........................................... 28
Reframing Leadership ........................................................................................ 29
Change Agents, Influencers, and Transformational Leaders ............................. 32
California Community Colleges .............................................................. 33
Conceptual Framework: Autoethnography ........................................................ 34
Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 34
Social-Cognitive Theory .......................................................................... 35
Resilience Theory. ................................................................................... 36
Summary ............................................................................................................ 38
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 41
Sample and Population ....................................................................................... 43
A Contextual Review of the Participants ........................................................... 46
Journey to Becoming an Educational Leader .......................................... 47
Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 48
Data Collection ................................................................................................... 50
Autobiographical Data Collection ........................................................... 50
Non-Researcher Interviews ...................................................................... 50

iv
Non-Researcher Journals ......................................................................... 51
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 51
Autoethnographic Data ............................................................................ 52
Non-Researcher Data ............................................................................... 52
Summary ............................................................................................................ 53
Chapter 4: Findings .................................................................................................................... 54
Research Question 1 (RQ1): Forging Educational Leaders ............................... 56
External Factors ....................................................................................... 58
Own Values .............................................................................................. 64
Skills and Abilities ................................................................................... 66
Imposter Syndrome. ...................................................................... 68
Conflict Experienced ............................................................................... 69
Research Question 1a (RQ1a): The Juxtaposition of Conflict and Resiliency
in Developing Agentic Female Leaders ............................................................. 72
Reframing ................................................................................................ 74
License to Help ....................................................................................... 79
Courage in Adversity ............................................................................... 82
Summary ............................................................................................................ 86
Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................................. 88
Discussion of Findings ....................................................................................... 88
Implications and Recommendations for Practice ............................................... 93
Recommendations for Future Studies ................................................................ 95
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 96
References ..................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 108
Appendix A: Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research ........................ 108
Appendix B: Interview Protocol – Conflict and Resilience in Women
Leaders of Educational Change .............................................. 110
Appendix C: Journal Protocol – Conflict and Resilience in Women
Leaders of Educational Change .............................................. 113

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Definitions of Key Terms .......................................................................................... 12
Table 2.1 Literature Review Table ............................................................................................. 38
Table 3.1 Dissertation Timeline of Data Collection and Analysis ............................................. 42
Table 3.2 Summary of Criteria for Participant Selection ........................................................... 45
Table 4.1 Summary of Methodology ......................................................................................... 55
Table 4.2 Summary of Research Question 1 Themes ................................................................ 57
Table 4.2 Summary of Research Question 1 Theme 1: External Factors .................................. 62
Table 4.3 Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 2: Values .................................................. 64
Table 4.4 Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 3: Skills and Abilities .............................. 66
Table 4.5 Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 4: Conflict ................................................ 69
Table 4.6 Summary of Research Question 1a Themes .............................................................. 73
Table 4.7 Evidence of Research Question 1a Theme 1: Reframing .......................................... 76
Table 4.8 Summary of Research Question 1a Theme 2: License to Help ................................. 79
Table 4.9 Summary of Research Question 1a Theme 3: Courage in Adversity ........................ 82
Table 4.10 Summary of Themes .................................................................................................. 87

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Warren G. Bennis & Robert J. Thomas’s Leadership Model Elaborated From
Their Book, Geeks & Geezers, 2014 (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b, p. 89) ................... 21
Figure 2.2 Visualization of Social Cognitive Theory, Triadic Reciprocality, and Resilience
Theory’s Relationship for the Purpose of This Study ................................................ 37
Figure 4.1 The Convergence of the Hero’s Journeys In This Autoethnographic Study. ............ 56

vii
ABSTRACT
This autoethnography was designed to investigate the relationship between conflict and
resilience in female educational leaders who use their agency to facilitate change within their
spheres of influence through the lenses of social cognitive theory (SCT) and resilience theory.
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that contribute to women forging themselves
as educational leaders, as well as to examine the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in
helping to develop effective female agentic leaders in education. Utilizing autoethnography, the
writings of the researcher were analyzed to develop the research questions and determine the
characteristics of the six non-researcher participants. Qualitative interviews were conducted with
each non-researcher participant followed by eight weeks of reflective journaling. Literature was
used heavily to identify codes from the researcher’s writings that were then applied to and
expanded upon the non-researcher data through the use of the qualitative analysis software. The
coded data was then analyzed again from which emerged themes in response to the study’s
research questions. A phenomenological approach which examines experiences through
individuals’ own perceptions was utilized throughout the data collection and analysis in order to
maintain alignment with the theoretical framework of the study, specifically resilience theory.
This study revealed seven themes that align with current literature regarding women’s leadership
development, and how conflict and resilience impact leaders and their development. With 64%
of the administrators in higher education being women, institutions have an untapped resource of
potential agentic leaders able to take on the incredible number of problems in education today
with the ultimate goal of helping students achieve success.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Women are found in all areas of educational leadership. They are both leaders such as
chancellors and presidents or superintendents and principals as well as leaders such as teachers
or directors that support key initiatives within their institutions. Over the past 20 years the field
of education has seen an increase in women in recognized positions of leadership, especially
among the upper levels of administration (Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). In fact, research has shown
that even though the majority of senior-level, higher education leaders are predominantly male,
64% of all higher education administrators are female (Enke, 2014). Many of these women have
overcome a variety of challenges such as discrimination, perceived “glass ceilings”, campus
politics, balancing family commitments, male-dominated networks, bias in the search process,
and gender bias (Campbell, Mueller, & Souza, 2010; Marshall, 2009; Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999).
Women in education have addressed and overcome these types of conflict not just by developing
characteristics of resilience, but through agentic strategies that forge their leadership. They then
exercise their agency by working to positively influence their institutions. The convergence of
conflict and resilience and its impact on women’s agency as educational leaders is the focus of
this study.
Women leaders contend with stereotypes bred from androcentric bias and role
incongruity (Epp, Sackney, & Kustaski, 1994; Iverson, Allan, & Gordon, 2017; Young, 2004).
This often places women in what Oakley (2000) refers to as a behavioral double bind where the
perceived expectation is that successful leaders embody masculine leadership traits based on
strength, which are at odds with the feminine traits based on social connections (Christman &
McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012; Gilligan, 1993; Heifetz & Linsky, 2004;
Keohane, 2007). Women in educational leadership seem to be particularly susceptible to these

2
conflicting gender norms (Carli & Eagly, 2001; Epp et al., 1994; Iverson et al., 2017) which
impedes their ability to be transformational leaders within their organizations.
In this autoethnography, one woman, the researcher — who has been in education
leadership positions — examined the experiences of middle management, the conflict
surrounding those roles, and the ability to affect change within a range of institutions. Chang
(2013) describes autoethnography as the process by which researchers use their personal
experience as primary data with the intention of expanding the understanding of social realities
through the lenses of multiple perspectives — theirs and those of the participants. The
autoethnography methodology will allow for deep exploration of the areas of conflict and
resilience, and how they intersect to create agency in female educators.
Background of the Problem
Bolman and Deal (1994), describe leaders as those within an organization that cultivate
purpose, passion, imagination, and change. Leaders tend to possess a hardiness that allows them
to learn from their experiences, especially their failures, and find meaning in them (Bennis &
Thomas, 2002a; Bolman & Deal, 1994). In other words, leaders are resilient. The concept of
resilience is not new. Numerous articles and books discuss resilience, resilience theory, and
resilience cycle (Bandura, 2012; Bennis & Thomas, 2002a; Reed & Blaine, 2015; Steward,
2014). A number of works also explore how resilience as a response to conflict is a
demonstration of one’s agency (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Steward, 2014). Leaders are
thought of as titans of a particular field who must have fantastic origin stories and overcome
what appears to be insurmountable odds by virtue of their courage and tenacity. It is only
because of their “heroes’ journey” (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b) that they have been able to affect
change within their sphere of influence. Such stories are documented in movies, books, and

3
scholarly articles. But does this cycle occur in the lives of the average woman? If not, does it
preclude her from becoming a leader? Is this true for women who have persevered in the field of
education? What can be learned by examining the professional trajectory of a range of women
leaders and the events that supported their accomplishments?
When the researcher’s life story was examined as the basis and beginning point of this
study, a repeating pattern which began in early childhood was identified, one of continual
conflict from external factors. Through resolute perseverance each conflict was overcome
regardless of the challenge. The researcher documented these obstacles and the reactive acts of
resilience that followed. As this pattern repeated itself, self-awareness, self-confidence, and self-
efficacy resulted which in time contributed to the researcher developing leadership skills and
experiences. When the researcher entered the field of education, she did so with the intention of
making a difference for students and institutions. As noted in her story, over time she earned a
reputation of having integrity by doing what was right and producing high-quality work. This
resulted in others viewing her as a leader who was willing to take on difficult challenges with
frequently successful outcomes. Throughout her career she used all her knowledge and
experiences, including what she learned prior to entering the field of education, to move her
institutions forward. The researcher’s transition into a leadership role in education was
documented via her writings. Throughout this study, reflection on these experiences have
continued to guide her decisions and responses as a leader in her current role.
By using the researcher’s autobiographical writings as the core of this study, an in-depth
examination of her story as well as those of other women leaders in education was conducted
utilizing the autoethnography qualitative methodology and illustrated with Bennis & Thomas’
(2002) “heroes’ journey” concept. These stories were examined in order to determine how the

4
women’s leadership abilities were developed and if any correlation existed between the
challenges they had already overcome and their ability to positively impact their institutions
when faced with difficult situations. This study sought to answer how individual experiences of
conflict and resilience affected the participants’ ability to be influencers in education through the
examination of their stories.
Autoethnography is used in this study in order to make meaning of women’s experiences
as they relate to conflict, resilience, and consequently their agency and leadership. Each
component of autoethnography — description, analysis, and interpretation — is intrinsically
connected to the other in order for meaning to be made. Autoethnographic studies are rich
because their inquiries have been expanded to include the voices of others (Chang, 2013) — the
researcher and non-researcher participants. In this manner, intersectionality becomes the
overarching interpretive framework for making meaning of personal experiences (Hernandez et
al., 2015). Because of its nature, autoethnography has a social scientific bent that is derived from
narratives, analysis of experience, and interpretation of the meaning of these experiences.
Autoethnography often begins with recalling the past in order to bring forth influencing
events that pertain to the specific research topic (Chang, 2013). In this study, recollection began
with the writing of the researcher’s own “heroes’ journey” in order to frame the background of
the problem. The actual story is denoted by italicized, single-spaced, blocked text to differentiate
the autoethnographic writing from the scholarly study and analysis.
I am the first born and have two younger half-brothers. My mother wanted me to receive
the best education possible, so she taught me to read before kindergarten and took a job at a
private school so that I could be enrolled there. In second grade I transferred to public school
where I would remain through middle school. During my elementary school years my family
experienced a great deal of emotional chaos due to abusive acts perpetuated by my stepfather,
the birth of my youngest half-brother after my stepfather and mother separated, a move to
another county, and a move in with my godmother and her children which meant new schools
and having to make new friends. Multiple illnesses within the family also occurred including my

5
baby brother being diagnosed with cancer, which precipitated me going to work at a very young
age. By this time in my youth I had learned that change was constant and the only thing I could
control was my response to it.
I always knew that I would go to college. My mother had instilled a love and respect for
education. But I also knew that I would be completely responsible for paying for my higher
education, so this encouraged me to earn good grades in high school and to participate in a
variety of extracurricular activities that would help me mitigate college costs. I made many poor
decisions when it came to postsecondary education which meant that I ended up working full-
time throughout my entire college experience. Hence, it took me a very long time to earn my first
degree, but quitting was never an option.
Immediately out of high school I officially joined corporate America and would continue
to work through every degree I earned. The positive side of this non-traditional college route
meant that I was embarking on my professional and educational journeys simultaneously and
was therefore able to incorporate many of the things I was learning in real time. One of my first
jobs out of high school was as the regional manager for a market research company that focused
on movie and television trailers and advertisements. Shortly thereafter I began work in the
architectural, engineering, and environmental consulting (A & E) field where I would begin my
climb up the corporate ladder serving three different companies over the course of the next nine
years.
Historically, the A&E field has been male dominated. This was most certainly the case
for the three firms for which I worked. As a very young woman who was working on her first
degree while in this field, I experienced a number of gender-based challenges. Most of the men I
worked with had at least two degrees so even though I was in a management position, they often
did not take me seriously. I had to work longer hours, deliver better products, and never make a
public mistake in order for them to begin to respect me. I learned that to be able to work with the
men I had to adopt a very direct approach and not shy away from confrontation. However the
drawback of this style was that it was often off-putting to my female coworkers.
At my second A&E firm I was promoted very quickly numerous times. While there, I had
a committed and generous male mentor, the chief financial officer of the company. He told me I
had a great “gut instinct” and moreover that I listened to it. He said I needed to always stay
connected to that intuition and follow it. I remember reflecting on what he said and realizing that
I had been listening to that internal voice since I was a child. By this time two things were
happening — I was building a reputation as someone that could build a profitable office from
nothing and I was beginning to realize I wanted to use my skills for something more meaningful.
I was tired of being in an industry where to be successful I had to cater to the whims of men and
in doing so alienate myself from the women, so I ended up leaving the corporate world for the
nonprofit one.
I was recruited to be the curator of a brand new, private sports memorabilia and pop-
culture museum in Santa Barbara. This position again utilized my organizational and
managerial skills to build something from nothing. During my tenure in this position I met
people from all walks of life with an incredible array of experiences. Some were famous, and
while I experienced many of the finer things associated with those in the higher socioeconomic
class, I always knew that in the end, I was the hired help. It was during this time that I also

6
began volunteering for other nonprofits and eventually was hired to be the first associate
development director for the Santa Barbara region of a national educational nonprofit.
In this new role I was responsible for raising $3.5 million annually through private
donations, planned-giving campaigns, and annual fundraising events. While there I began
numerous new fundraising initiatives including one that endeavored to connect younger donors
with the mission of the institution by building relationships that would hopefully continue for
many years and culminate in the nonprofit being named in the donors’ planned-giving financials.
This nonprofit did amazing work for young girls and I knew that by managing the fundraising
that I was an important part of it, but I wanted to do more. I wanted to make a more direct
impact in the lives of the students themselves. The following four years included moving from
Santa Barbara, a couple of different jobs including a short stint in retail where I encountered the
worst gender-discrimination to-date and going back to school to earn a master’s degree in
educational guidance counseling with a pupil personnel services credential.
My prior experiences taught me that I could build something from nothing in a variety of
contexts, that I preferred to address challenges and issues head-on, and that many of the young
adults that I had hired throughout my career were not prepared to be productive members of the
workforce. This combined with my desire to directly impact people in a positive way is what led
me back to school in the specific field-of-study of education. I knew I had found my calling as
soon as I began interning as a guidance counselor at a local high school. Education gave me the
opportunity to work with young people and help them connect with their dreams. After
completing more than double the required internship hours plus the coursework needed to obtain
my Pupil Personnel Services (PPS) credential, I thought I was ready to procure a job as a high
school counselor, one from which I expected to stay until the end of my career.
While completing my thesis and with the recommendation of the high school head
counselor I began part-time work at a community college district’s noncredit institution. While
there are many community colleges noncredit programs and departments throughout the state,
there are only two stand-alone, community college accredited noncredit schools in California.
Community college noncredit programs serve adults in programs such as high school diploma or
equivalent, English-as-a-second-language (ESL), short-term career technical education (CTE),
and adults with disabilities. All of these programs are part of the state’s public education system
which are tuition free. This was my introduction to adult education students. I could not believe I
was finishing up a master’s degree in education and I had never heard of adult education. These
students were important — they were the adult versions of many of the students I had been
working with at the high school and middle school.
Shortly after I began working in noncredit post-secondary education, I was offered an
opportunity that would define the next stage of my career. I was asked to write a document for a
state initiative that was changing adult education and noncredit programs across California. I
would later find out that this role also entailed leading and facilitating the newly formed
consortium of the college district and multiple K-12 districts. While I knew that taking this new
role would mean I would not be a high school guidance counselor, I ultimately decided that I
was being given the opportunity to impact thousands of students a year, so I took the contract
management position.
I quickly learned that leadership in education was not like leadership in the corporate
world. I was surprised that these institutions were not transparent about the work they did. How

7
could they improve their programs if they were not willing to address what was and was not
working? Administrators, faculty, and staff seemed to exaggerate in order to make their
programs look better and did not want to discuss things that could be considered subpar. This
was counterintuitive to how I knew to fix things and that is what I was being asked to do —
improve adult education. So, while I gained many supporters up and down the state for my
honesty and authentic approach, closer to home, I was not always viewed as favorably. I also
learned how much opportunity there was to do advocacy work at the state level in this area. This
really excited me.
The state-requested document was completed and submitted resulting in an allocation of
approximately three-and-a-half million dollars annually to our consortium. I was now
responsible for implementing all of the strategies we had developed in our plan and began hiring
staff. However, because my position was contract, per board policy they could not report directly
to me. This meant I had to navigate working with multiple directors that oversaw my managers
and staff while I was the person responsible for their actual work. I was responsible to the
consortium’s executive committee for every aspect of our budget and project management, but
my direct employer was the primary provider of noncredit who felt their say weighed more than
everyone else’s. Despite this imbalance, I feel that I made a positive impact in noncredit despite
all the challenges and inherent conflicts of my position. I won competitive grants, formed new
partnerships, increased enrollments, developed ways to gather data, was able to act as a mentor
to women and men in the field and helped many other consortia start new noncredit programs.
Yet, after almost four years I left my position months before the interviews to make it permanent.
At this new crossroads in my professional life I spent time examining my motivations for
being in the field of education. I concluded that my original reason, to impact people in a
profoundly positive way, was not only firmly intact but that I had an even stronger resolve to get
back into the fight so that I could do what was right for students. I applied to only one position,
which I felt aligned with my values, and got it; I was still employed by the community colleges,
but I was now in a regional role serving all of the colleges within a county. This new position
allowed me to have greater influence and to empower others to be able to strategically use data
and information to serve both noncredit and credit career education students. Going into this
new role, I recalled the challenges I had at my previous positions and used those experiences to
preemptively navigate the political landmines that could sabotage the work I had set out to
accomplish. As of this writing, I am almost two years in and I could not be happier with what I
have been able to do in that short time. It has not been easy and there is still a lot of work to do
but being reflective and in this research mode of examining conflict and resilience has been
more productive to my professional life than I ever could have imagined. My story is far from
over.
Statement of the Problem
This is a female story. It is unlikely that a male would encounter these same experiences
since many of them are inherent to being a woman. When looking at the available body of
research, concepts like the ones to be examined in this study were not mentioned in the context
of male leadership. Eagly and Karau (2002) believe that androcentric bias is at the core of the

8
misperception surrounding socially acceptable roles for women, which does not include
leadership. Androcentric bias is particularly apparent in the selection and promotion of
educational leadership positions; however, it does permeate all areas of education (Carli &
Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Epp et al., 1994; Iverson et al., 2017; Young, 2004). This
reality is contrary to the literature that shows that women tend to more frequently exhibit
characteristics of transformational leadership and enact greater change than male leaders
(Iverson et al., 2017; Young, 2004).
Research has shown that the number of women receiving doctoral degrees, 52%, has
surpassed that of men, 48% (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017), thereby potentially
increasing the pool of female candidates vying to move into leadership educational settings. The
number of women in senior-level administrative positions at community colleges has also
increased (Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). However, there is still a disproportionate amount of men in
the highest community college positions such as chancellors and presidents (Campbell et al.,
2010; Cejda, 2008). The California Community College system is the largest higher education
system in the United States serving over 2 million students per year at its 115 colleges within 73
districts throughout the state (Foundation for California Community Colleges, 2020). As of Fall
2018, California Community Colleges employed 2,280 educational administrators statewide,
2.47% (1,245) of whom are female (California Community College Chancellor's Office, 2020).
The literature on the challenges and barriers for women in educational leadership,
specifically high-level community college administration, is extensive (Campbell et al., 2010;
Cejda, 2008; Drury, 2010; Enke, 2014; Gangone, 2009; Gillett-Karam, 2001; Marshall, 2009;
Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Literature has also shown that as women overcome these conflicts,
they are building their resiliency and subsequently, their leadership skills (Bennis & Thomas,

9
2002b; Bolman & Deal, 1994; Marcus, 2014). Resilience is an adaptive trait that allows
individuals to overcome hardships (Christman & McClellan, 2012; Howard & Irving, 2014;
Ledesma, 2014; Steward, 2014). The transformational aspect of resilience is what is harnessed
by leaders (Bennis & Thomas, 2002).
Bennis and Thomas (2002a) state that a reliable indicator and predictor of true leadership
is the ability to thrive and find meaning in negative events. They argue that leaders use these
hardships as opportunities to create meaning. Leaders do not see themselves as helpless when
they are being battered by experiences because they have repeatedly thrived by overcoming past
obstacles. They have learned to have confidence in their ability to be resilient irrespective of the
circumstances (Bennis & Thomas, 2002a).
Leadership is learned from a variety of experiences. Research states that the most
successful leaders are both conflict amplifiers and risk takers (Bolman & Deal, 1994). They
understand that conflict is not only inevitable, but they embrace the positive energy conflict
creates which can become a catalyst for change. This does not necessarily mean that they enjoy
conflict, only that they understand conflict is what often allows for metamorphosis to take place.
A recent study (Howard & Irving, 2014) argued that hardships, including those that occur early
in life, have a direct correlation to leaders’ development of resiliency and increase their
effectiveness. Being a change agent invites conflict (Heifetz & Linsky, 2004; Marcus, 2014;
Reed & Blaine, 2015).
In recent years articles about grit and resiliency have begun to emerge including many
regarding women; yet, there is minimal resilience research that focuses on female educational
leaders as subjects. Despite this forward movement to study women’s leadership, there appears
to be a gap in the literature that examines both the external and internal factors that over time

10
forge women agentic leaders — women who not only know how, but are willing to be those
instruments of change in order to better their institutions. This study examined the literature gap
by utilizing autoethnography to obtain the perspectives of women who have been in similar
roles. Through the use of women’s personal stories, the goal of this research is to gain a better
understanding of how women educational leaders use experiences of conflict and resilience to
impact and grow their agency.
Purpose of the Study
This study utilized autoethnography to look at one woman’s story and compare it with
other women in order to find similarities. The stories of women were used to make meaning of
how they became influential educational leaders who were able to use their own agency to
positively impact their institutions. It also examined the role conflict and resilience may have
played in their leadership development. The author’s own story is the autoethnographic
component of this study and informed both the research questions and the questions asked of the
participants via interviews and journaling. The purpose of this study was to examine how agentic
female leaders were formed by investigating the relationship between their experienced conflict
and resilience. Therefore, this study is guided by the following research questions:
1. What factors contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders?
a. What is the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in developing effective female
agentic leaders in education?
Theoretical Framework
Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2000), was used to explain the triadic reciprocality of
personal, behavioral, and environmental factors demonstrated in women educational leaders’
heroes’ journeys as they developed self-efficacy. Additionally, resilience theory, which is

11
predicated on social cognitive theory, was utilized in order to more deeply examine and
understand the relationship between conflict and resiliency (Ledesma, 2014).
Importance of the Study
The importance of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of conflict
on building agentic leaders as well as the role of resilience in response to conflict for women
educational leaders.
It is essential that educational leaders have a certain level of resilience and the ability to
adroitly think when embroiled in conflict as well as how to derive meaning and knowledge from
setbacks and failures (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman & Deal, 2013; Northouse, 2016). It is
clear that the level of conflict in school leadership is high and that successful educational leaders
must have a correspondingly high level of resilience to cope, let alone thrive, under stressful
conditions. This study strives to provide insight into the reciprocal relationship between conflict
and resilience. Knowledge gleaned from this research will hopefully enhance leadership
literature and help educational leaders reflect on their response to conflict in order to build
strength through the experience. Resilient leaders embrace challenges and grow through
adversity. This study will benefit school leaders, human resources personnel, superintendents,
and educational organizations as it will provide insight into resilience in effective female change
makers. This study fills a gap in the literature by investigating resilience and building leadership
theory from the female educators’ perspective.
Limitations and Delimitations
In this study, data was collected at one point in time, which may limit the generalizability
of the study’s outcome. Additionally, all participants in this study are from California, therefore,
the results may not apply nationally or globally. Lastly, this study relies solely on self-reported

12
data. These limitations may be a threat to the external validity of the study (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Definition of Terms
Table 1.1
Definitions of Key Terms
Term Definition
Autoethnography Autoethnography is a qualitative research method by which the
researcher collects, analyzes, and interprets autobiographical
data in order to gain an understanding of society (Chang, 2013;
Hernandez, Ngunjiri, & Chang, 2015a; Ngunjiri, Chang, &
Hernandez, 2017).
Conflict An antagonistic state, incompatible actions, goal divergence, and
opposing interests, persons or forces. A mental struggle resulting
in incompatibility of ideas, beliefs, behaviors, roles, needs,
desires, and values (Marcus, 2014; Tjosvold, 2006).
Leadership It is hard to quantify as it is always dynamic. It is inevitably
political and inherently symbolic (Bolman & Deal, 1994)
Leadership is needed when we find out that something is not
right, and we have to fix it (Kotter in (Bolman & Deal, 1994).
Resilience persisting in the face of difficulty, having the ability to bounce
back or recover quickly from adversity, setbacks, or misfortune
(Ledesma, 2014; Steward, 2014).
Resilience in leadership When leaders endure adversity, they change their own
personalities and behaviors in order to better persevere when
future hardships are encountered; this is resilience (Christman &
McClellan, 2012).

Organization of the Study
This research study is based on autoethnography which began with the autobiography of
the researcher. It is organized into five chapters. Research began with the writing of the
researcher’s personal leadership journey from childhood through experiences in recent leadership
positions which is included in Chapter One: Overview of the Study. Chapter One also contains

13
the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, significance of the study,
study limitations and delimitations, as well as definition of terms. Conflict and resilience were
identified as the two major themes throughout the researcher’s leadership story included in
Chapter One. It was believed that the juxtaposition of this conflict and resilience was how
agentic leadership was forged. These concepts of leadership, conflict, resiliency, and agency
were thoroughly examined throughout Chapter Two: Literature Review. Chapter Two also
includes the study’s theoretical framework which was derived from social cognitive theory and
the related, resilience theory.
Chapter Three: Methodology explains exactly how the study was conducted as an
autoethnography which informed the design of the qualitative non-researcher interviews and
journal writings. Chapter Three includes the rationale for participant selection, instrumentation,
data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four: Findings contains the data coding and analysis
generated from data collection as well as the subsequent findings. And finally, Chapter Five:
Discussion presents the study’s implications for practice and ideas for future research based on
the data analysis.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews literature relevant to the factors that contribute to women forging
themselves as educational leaders as well as the convergence of conflict and resilience and its
impact on women’s agency as educational leaders. This study is grounded in autoethnographic
methodology and utilizes social cognitive theory (SCT) and resilience theory, a focused sub-
theory of SCT, as the theoretical framework, all of which will be discussed at the end of this
chapter. First, the perceived behaviors of leadership, including how role incongruity affects those
perceptions, will be examined in order to build a foundation for discussion of factors that affect
leadership. Then, utilizing the social cognitive theory (SCT) and resilience theory lenses of self-
efficacy, the relationship between leadership, conflict, and resilience will be discussed. This will
be followed by a closer look at resilience and gender in educational leadership and women in
leadership. Reframing leadership as defined by Bolman and Deal (2013), specifically how
transformational leaders utilize the political and symbolic frames, will follow. The concept of
agentic leaders will be defined and connected to how transformational leaders influence others to
engage them in organizational growth which will be the culmination of the discussion on SCT
and resilience theory.
Perceived Behaviors of Leadership
Bolman and Deal (1994) state that, “In modern organizations, management provides
consistency, control, and efficiency. But leadership is needed to foster purpose, passion, and
imagination,” (p. 77). While the same individual can embody both management and leadership,
leadership is what is needed when major adaptive change is required and in times of crisis.
Defining a leader and the characteristics of successful leadership have been debated by noted
academics and leaders in the field for over a century (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman & Deal,

15
1991; Bolman & Deal, 1994; Northouse, 2016). Northouse (2016) argues that leadership is a
process whereby the leader influences a group of people in order to achieve a common goal as
opposed to a trait or characteristic that an individual possesses. Bolman and Deal (1994) also
describe a transactional process when they explain that leaders use other people’s ideas, package
them effectively, and then communicate them powerfully. However, all parties agree that
leadership involves influence, it occurs in groups, and puts the focus on common goals.
Therefore, a leader’s self-awareness and identity which is developed over time through the
hardships and obstacles they endure early in life, is crucial to their influence of others (Howard
& Irving, 2014).
While clinical definitions of leadership may vary, there tend to be common perceived
behaviors of leadership. Leaders are often described as being courageous, risk-takers, passionate,
powerful, inspiring, empowering, and having a strong moral compass or integrity (Bennis &
Thomas, 2002b; Bolman & Deal, 1994; Northouse, 2016). They have the ability to take failures
and negative aspects of their lives and transmogrify them into fuel that can serve in
accomplishing their goals (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b). Bennis and Thomas (2002b) use the
concept of an integrity tripod to describe three elements — ambition, competence, and moral
compass that a leader must keep in balance in order to maintain their integrity as a leader. While
neither Bennis and Thomas (2002b), Bolman and Deal (1994; 2013) nor Northouse (2016)
specifically describe these behaviors of leadership as inherently male or female, they do all
acknowledge that these behaviors are often perceived as male traits due to androcentric bias and
role incongruity.

16
Role Incongruity
Androcentric bias is when issues of gender are not addressed but rather the male
perspective defines reality while the female experience is ignored or considered abnormal (Epp
et al., 1994). There is a history of androcentric bias in foundational psychological theories
including development theories which often predicate leadership theories (Gilligan, 1993;
Keohane, 2007). This has spurred the development of numerous new theories to include the
female perspective such as Gilligan’s ethics of care theory, based on Erik Erikson’s identity
development theory, which states that there are other perspectives than the traditionally white
male perspective. While androcentric bias has permeated all areas of education, it is particularly
apparent in the selection and promotion of educational administrative positions, often viewed as
leadership positions (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Epp et al., 1994; Iverson et al.,
2017; Young, 2004).
Eagly and Karau (2002) coined the term role congruity theory after they observed
prejudice occurred toward female leaders due to the inconsistencies that exist between the
characteristics of what is considered typical leadership and those associated with female gender
stereotypes. They believe that androcentric bias is at the core of the misperception surrounding
socially acceptable roles for women, which excludes leadership. When leadership is divided into
two gender norms, one of them inevitably becomes the gender norm of power while the other is
pushed into subjugation (Christman & McClellan, 2008) This creates a situation where women
work to embody the traits of those in power while men avoid traits considered feminine so that
they are not perceived as weak (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012;
Heifetz, 2007; Keohane, 2007). Furthermore, when women administrators venture to take on
traits considered to be more masculine in nature such as independence, efficiency, control,

17
rationality, and accountability (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Epp et al., 1994; Iverson et al., 2017) they
can be caught in a behavioral double bind (Oakley, 2000). This double bind vilifies women for
taking on masculine traits, however, if they do not take on those traits, there is the perception that
women are not strong enough for leadership (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Iverson et al., 2017).
Therefore, for the sake of their leadership, women will frequently resist their own gender
(Christman & McClellan, 2008; Hall, 1996).
Imposter syndrome can exacerbate role incongruity by reinforcing the idea within
women’s own thoughts that they are not good enough. Imposter syndrome is defined by Clance
(1978) as, “an internal experience of intellectual phoniness that appears to be particularly
prevalent and intense among a select sample of high achieving women,” (p. 241). While research
has shown that both men and women experience imposter syndrome, it has also shown that the
preponderance of occurrences belong to women (Goman, 2018). Those suffering from imposter
syndrome feel that they are not worthy of their successes and live in perpetual fear that they will
be found out for their fraud (Clance, 1978; Goman, 2018; Pedler, 2011). The insidiousness of
imposter syndrome is that it is all internal — within the mind of the afflicted — and is not in any
way reflective of the reality of their performance or leadership (Goman, 2018; Pedler, 2011).
One research study found that women leaders viewed desirable leadership qualities to be
inherently male qualities and therefore felt they had to work much harder to continually prove
their worth (Pedler, 2011).
While research does show that masculine leadership characteristics are most often sought
after by employers, it also shows that women more frequently exhibit characteristics associated
with transformational leadership which is the style deemed necessary for educational change
(Iverson et al., 2017; Young, 2004). This concept is contrary to role congruity theory where

18
general perceptions based on gender-related cues state men are agentic, and women are
communal but not very agentic (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002). This imbalance
between the perceived behaviors of leadership, role incongruity, and the transformational style of
leadership often exhibited by women is an inherent form of conflict and resiliency for female
educational leaders (Burbank, 2017; Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan,
2012; Reed & Blaine, 2015).
Relationship Between Leadership, Conflict, and Resilience
Leadership is learned from a variety of experiences. Leaders commonly seek out
opportunities to learn best practices, observe other leaders, and reflect on their own leadership.
Research states that the most successful leaders are both conflict amplifiers and risk takers
(Bolman & Deal, 1994). They understand that conflict is not only inevitable, but they embrace
the positive energy conflict can create. These leaders do not fear failure because they know that
difficult experiences can be used to improve their leadership and overcome adversity also result
in increased confidence. Many leaders consider their voracity to learn and grow through their
failures to be their most prized asset (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b).
A recent study (Howard & Irving, 2014) argued that hardships, including those that occur
early in life, have a direct correlation to leaders’ development of resiliency and increase their
effectiveness. The authors stated that obstacles, while not inherently negative, often show up in
the form of pain and struggle. They discovered that the holistic story of one’s life, including
those of hardship as well as joy, have a powerful impact on the individual’s human experience
and the formation of their leadership. The study concluded that while everyone encounters
obstacles, leaders and those who will become leaders use the act of overcoming these hardships

19
as practice for the future. Furthermore, Howard and Irving (2014) argued that the competency of
overcoming hardships should be considered a critical factor in leadership development.
Two additional studies conducted by Christman and McClellan (2008; 2012) examined
the relationship between gender and resilience in leadership among higher education academic
administrators. In their studies, men described how their resiliency was shaped through their own
ability to be adaptable, flexible, lead during difficult times, commit to a vision and remain
steadfast and their ambition. In contrast, the women shared more stories about overcoming sex
and gender bias and how they persisted and resisted despite the considerable barriers they
encountered. In order to more deeply understand the relationship between leadership with
conflict and resilience, the latter concepts are further discussed individually.
Conflict
The definition of conflict is an antagonistic state, incompatible actions, goal divergence,
and opposing interests, persons or forces (Marcus, 2014; Tjosvold, 2006). Conflict can be
viewed as a mental struggle resulting in incompatibility of ideas, beliefs, behaviors, roles, needs,
desires, and values (Marcus, 2014). Generally, people believe that conflict happens to them;
however, conflict can be both internal and external (Tjosvold, 2006). The process of resolving
conflict leads to change — change in areas such as ideas, attitude, belief, perception, roles,
behaviors, relationships, and norms (Marcus, 2014). Literature states that conflict resolution
leads to a changed state and conversely, change leads to conflict (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Bolman & Deal, 1994; Marcus, 2014). Therefore, how conflicts are resolved heavily influences
change efforts and their success. Bandura’s social cognitive theory explains that the degree to
which someone manages conflict is a learned behavior based on what they observe (Bandura,
1989; Bandura, 2000; Sandy, Boardman, & Deutsch, 2014). While conflict management can be

20
re-taught if bad examples are observed, the way individuals learn how to handle conflict heavily
influences how they will handle and affect change (Sandy et al., 2014; Sandy, 2014).
Conflict occurs at all stages of life according to development theorists (Sandy, 2014).
Early childhood is particularly important since it is the time when children begin to learn how to
deal with conflict through observing those in their environment, particularly those of the same
gender (Sandy et al., 2014; Sandy, 2014). Research has shown that how individuals learn to deal
with conflict indicates the positive or negative role conflict plays in the development of feelings,
intellect, and personality (Sandy, 2014). Sandy (2014) states that both the types of conflict
children encounter as well as the way they respond to conflict is closely tied to their gender
identity. For instance, disagreements for boys in middle childhood, roughly ages seven to eleven,
tend to involve issues of power such as obtaining a material object or position of privilege, as
opposed to girls in the same age range whose disagreements tend to regard interpersonal issues
such as the friendship of another child or inclusion by a peer group.
It is during these formative years that individuals learn to develop defense mechanisms as
a response to conflict. Defensive mechanisms can include denial, avoidance, projection, reaction
formation — which is taking on the attributes and characteristics of the person with whom you
are in conflict, displacement or changing the topic of the conflict, counterphobic defenses such as
being confrontational, escalation, as well as intellectualization and minimization of the
importance of the conflict (Sandy et al., 2014). Individuals who learn how to respond to conflict
in a positive manner by observing others in their environments who do not rely on defense
mechanisms, tend to not fear conflict (Sandy et al., 2014; Sandy, 2014). They are able to
construct a narrative about how they were challenged by the conflict and how they met that
challenge (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b). As individuals mature from childhood and grow into

21
leaders, they learn how positive responses to conflict change them into new and better selves
(Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Sandy, 2014).
There is an incredible amount of literature that states effective leaders do not fear failure
(Ackerman & Maslin-Ostrowski, 2004; Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Bennis & Thomas, 2002;
Bolman & Deal, 1994; Christman & McClellan, 2008; Howard & Irving, 2014; Ledesma, 2014;
Reed & Blaine, 2015; Steward, 2014). The reason for this fearlessness stems from the fact that
via self-reflection throughout their life, the leader has learned how to overcome conflict and
challenges that get in the way of accomplishing their goals (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman
& Deal, 1994). Studies have shown that successful business leaders correlate their success to
overcoming intense hardships in their childhood which heavily influenced their leadership
formation (Howard & Irving, 2014). Bennis and Thomas (2002b) refer to overcoming these
conflicts followed by periods of deep self-reflection as crucibles, referring to the vessels used by
medieval alchemists to turn base metals into gold. They use the symbol of a crucible to explain
the process of perseverance in the face of adversity which creates hardiness and ultimately
results in the adaptive capacity, or resilience, of the leader which is the premise of their
leadership model as shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.1
Warren G. Bennis & Robert J. Thomas’s Leadership Model Elaborated From Their Book, Geeks
& Geezers, 2014 (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b, p. 89)

22

Howard and Irving (2014) suggest that it is the act of removing obstacles or overcoming
conflict, that may serve as an antecedent to leadership formation. Bennis and Thomas (2002a)
state that a reliable indicator and predictor of true leadership is the ability to thrive and find
meaning in negative events. They further describe extraordinary leaders as having the skills
needed to not only conquer adversity but to arise stronger and more committed to their goals.
They argue that leaders use these hardships as opportunities to create meaning. Because they
have thrived after overcoming past obstacles, leaders do not see themselves as helpless when
they are being battered by experiences. But rather, they have confidence in their ability to be
resilient irrespective of the circumstances (Bennis & Thomas, 2002a). Regardless of background
or experience, each individual has their own set of conflicts that they have encountered and
responded to. Research has shown that those whom repeatedly overcome obstacles develop
resilience and that resilience is a common trait among effective leaders (Bennis & Thomas,
2002b).

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Resilience
Resilience is defined as persisting in the face of difficulty, having the ability to bounce
back or recover quickly from adversity, setbacks, or misfortune (Ledesma, 2014; Steward, 2014).
It is an adaptive and coping trait that allows an individual to overcome hardships (Christman &
McClellan, 2012; Howard & Irving, 2014). Resiliency is characterized by variables such as
positive self-esteem, hardiness, strong coping skills, a sense of coherence, self-efficacy,
optimism, strong social resources, adaptability, risk-taking, low fear of failure, determination,
perseverance, and a high tolerance of uncertainty (Bonanno, 2004; Ledesma, 2014). Resilience,
at its most basic form is quite common (Bonanno, 2004). It grows every time an individual is
able to effectively persevere from adverse events (Howard & Irving, 2014). Literature describes
three concepts of resiliency — survival, recovery, and thriving — that may occur during or after
the setback occurs (Ledesma, 2014). Of these concepts, thriving is the only one that focuses on
an individual going beyond their original level of functioning post adversity. While all three
concepts of resilience are important for leaders, thriving is the most powerful for successful
leaders (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012; Howard & Irving, 2014;
Ledesma, 2014; Reed & Blaine, 2015).
The aforementioned concepts of resiliency are also included in the resilience cycle
(Ledesma, 2014; Reed & Blaine, 2015). This cycle starts under normal conditions and then
adversity strikes. Thus begins the deteriorating phase where a person notices dysfunction is
occurring. The adapting phase occurs when survival instincts take over to counterbalance the
dysfunction. During the recovery phase, conditions and functioning return to normal or the status
quo. The final phase, the growing phase, occurs when the individual thrives resulting in their

24
cognitive transformation thereby elevating their functioning above where it began (Ledesma,
2014). It is this final stage that is utilized by effective leaders.
The transformational aspect of resilience is what is harnessed by leaders. When leaders
endure adversity, they change their own personalities and behaviors in order to better persevere
when future hardships are encountered (Christman & McClellan, 2012). They can develop
insight, patience, independence, tolerance, relationships, responsibility, initiative, compassion,
creativity, determination, humor, morality, and risk-taking skills as a result of building resilience
(Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012). Studies show that leaders
understand that they will encounter adversity (Ackerman & Maslin-Ostrowski, 2004; Christman
& McClellan, 2012). Strong leaders create the space for self-refection and self-discovery that
lead to resilience (Ackerman, 2002). Resilient leaders are not repelled by problems that may
arise, rather they determinedly find solutions to them thereby increasing their adaptive capacity
(Bennis & Thomas, 2002a).
Bennis and Thomas (2002b) refer to adaptive capacity as the ability to process new
experiences, find their meaning, and then to integrate those experiences and meanings into their
life. They list adaptive capacity as the most crucial of the four essential skills or competencies
that allow leaders to grow from their crucibles instead of being overcome by them. The other
three essential qualities include “the ability to engage others in shared meaning, a distinctive and
compelling voice, and a sense of integrity which includes a strong set of values,” (Bennis &
Thomas, 2002B, p. 122). However, it is adaptive capacity — this learned resilience — they
explain, that allows an individual to transcend adversity and emerge stronger than before.
Literature has also shown that there is a relationship between the process of an individual
building resilience and the shaping of their self-awareness and identity (Ackerman & Maslin-

25
Ostrowski, 2004; Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012; Howard &
Irving, 2014). Furthermore, self-awareness and identity have been established to be instrumental
in leadership development (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012;
Howard & Irving, 2014). This was shown to be particularly relevant of male and female
administrators in educational leadership within the studies by Christman and McClellan (2008;
2012).
Resilience and gender in educational leadership. Christman and McClellan (2008;
2012) conducted identical studies on two groups of educational administrators: one group was
female, and one was male. They were particularly interested in learning more about the leaders’
resiliency and how, if at all, gender played a role in their resiliency. The researchers admitted in
their findings that they expected to see stereotypical results based on gender, but in fact they
discovered that while they could not divorce gender from resilience due to its entanglement with
self-awareness and identity, they also could not classify the leaders’ resilience into binary
constructions of gender traits. They determined that, “what resilient leadership meant to these
participants was rather messy, complex, and substantial…,” (Christman & McClellan, 2012, p.
649).
These studies found that both the female and male participants described having strong
senses of self-awareness and identity which were frequently based on their gender identity
(Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012). This was particularly noticeable
when they described how they overcame conflicts through resiliency. The women tended to
describe utilizing interrelationship skills, especially with other women, to process difficult
situations. Conversely, the men described their ambition, persistence, and belief that they could

26
overcome any challenge. They tended to view challenges through a competitive lens which aided
in their ability to accomplish their goals.
Women in Leadership
There is much literature that asks whether or not women lead differently than men, and
furthermore, whether or not they should (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heifetz,
2007; Keegin, Stuhlmacher, & Cotton, 2017; Keohane, 2007). The general answer to the
question is that the stereotypes of leadership are interwoven into the stereotypes of women and
men as a result of androcentric bias (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Heifetz, 2007). Additionally, the
literature shows that when discussing the quality of leadership, often it is the perception of
leadership style or leadership authority rather than the actual quality of the leader that is being
discussed (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Epp et al., 1994; Heifetz, 2007; Keohane, 2007). Therefore, the
literature suggests it might be more impactful to isolate gender from leadership style, from
authority, from leadership effectiveness (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Heifetz, 2007; Keohane, 2007).
That being said, when studying women leaders, it is important to keep in mind that stereotype
biases exist.
This misalignment of expectations for women’s behavior in leadership affects women as
well as men. Studies have shown that when comparing men and women in the same leadership
positions and situations, their ratings of effectiveness differ by gender and the masculinity or
femininity of the leadership style (Keegin et al., 2017). This bias in perception also varies
depending on the leader’s level of management and whether the industry is male- or female-
dominated.
After Gilligan (1993) developed the ethics of care theory, which included both women
and men, several other scholars developed theories of caring as a distinctly feminine trait

27
(Keohane, 2007). These theories support the assumption that women and men lead differently
and perpetuates the aforementioned stereotypes. Given that research has shown that generally
girls are raised to be more concerned with relationships from a social-emotional perspective
(Gilligan, 1993; Keohane, 2007), it is perhaps not surprising that research also shows that
women tend to rely on relationships, collaboration, and communal styles of leadership (Carli &
Eagly, 2007; Keohane, 2007). Carli and Eagly (2007) argue that in reality male and female
leaders only differ in a few respects and certain circumstances. They further posit that leadership
styles considered to be more feminine are coming into greater demand as emphasis is placed on
collaboration and coaching and moving away from traditional autocratic styles, which they
believe to be good news.
In addition to challenges regarding misperceptions surrounding leadership styles, women
also have to contend with biases surrounding their personal style (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Hall,
1996; Keegin et al., 2017). Even highly successful women such as chief executive officers of
Fortune 500 companies have been judged more on their gender, appearance, and perceptions of
personality rather than their accomplishments (Carli & Eagly, 2007).
This is especially apparent in education where the leaders are often in frequent
communication with students, families, schools, and communities (Hall, 1996; Heifetz & Linsky,
2004). A study conducted on women administrators in Britain (Hall, 1996), stated that the
participants felt that as a school leader, their femaleness was constantly out on display and being
judged. They were expected to dress femininely yet desexualize themselves so that they could
establish their authority. They felt that by dressing smartly, they sent the message that they were
in control of themselves as well as the school itself. To further establish their authority, they
believed they had to manage the way they spoke as well as their behavior in order to appear in

28
charge but not controlling, and strong but not threatening. This caused the women participants,
who all stated they valued authenticity, to feel their authenticity was constrained due to the role
expectations based on masculine definitions of leadership.
As previously stated, a variety of skills, characteristics, and even some credentials have
been identified as common traits specifically of women leaders, especially those in the
community college system. However there are also similar critical leadership skills identified for
both men and women, including: communicate effectively, listen actively, respond tactfully and
responsibly, act with diplomacy, delegate appropriately, juggle multiple tasks, take smart risks,
project confidence, and make challenging decisions (Campbell, Mueller, & Souza, 2010). Both
men and women are capable of demonstrating these skills, however, the development of some of
these skills tend to be stronger in males due to their upbringing (Kabeer, 2005).
Challenges for Women Educational Leaders
In the last 15 years, much has been written about the challenges and barriers of women
leaders in community colleges whether it be as presidents, chief officers, or middle management
(Campbell, Mueller, & Souza, 2010; Cejda, 2008; Drury, 2010; Enke, 2014; Gangone, 2008;
Gillett-Karam, 2001; Marshall, 2009; Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Research has shown that while
the number of women receiving doctoral degrees, 52%, has surpassed that of men, 48% (NCES,
2016), and that the number of women in senior-level administrative positions at community
colleges has also increased (Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999), there is still a disproportionate amount of
men in the highest community college positions such as the presidency (Campbell et al., 2010;
Cejda, 2008). These statistics combined with the increase in studies that focus on women’s
identity development (Bargad & Hyde, 1991; Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011; Esther Duflo, 2012;
Marcia & Josselson, 2013; McLean, Syed, Josselson, & Flum, 2015) have begun to make the

29
connection between human development theory and women’s leadership. Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb
(2011) state that, “how people become leaders and how they take up the leader role are
fundamentally questions about identity” (p. 476).
The literature on the challenges and barriers for women in educational leadership,
specifically community college high-level administration, is extensive (Campbell, et al., 2010;
Cejda, 2008; Drury, 2010; Enke, 2014; Gangone, 2008; Gillett-Karam, 2001; Marshall, 2009;
Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Campbell, Mueller, and Souza (2010) state that, “barriers to
advancement can be perceived or real, conscious and unconscious.” Literature lists the barriers
women encounter in their quest to high-level community college administration include:
discrimination, perceived “glass ceiling”, campus politics, balancing family commitments, male-
dominated networks, bias in the search process, gender bias, lack of opportunity, organizational
barriers, and women’s communication leadership styles. (Campbell et al., 2010; Marshall, 2009;
Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Consequently, there is also a great amount of literature that
specifically addresses strategies for overcoming said challenges and barriers. Research has
shown that the majority of senior-level, higher education leaders are predominantly male, yet
64% of all higher education administrators are actually female (Enke, 2014).
Reframing Leadership
Bolman and Deal (2013) have developed the conceptual model of reframing
organizations which they have organized into four distinct frames: structural, human resource,
political, and symbolic. Their concept of reframing is in essence, thinking about situations from
these four multiple perspectives, or lenses, in order to create alternative strategies. They suggest
that all the ways in which managers and leaders respond to situations can be contained within
these four frames. Bolman and Deal (2013) argue that utilization of the four frames is powerful

30
because they create the space for new insights and responses in every situation. Based on their
research, they have found that managers tend to spend the majority of their time contained within
the structural and human resource frames which are focused predominantly on tasks and social
interactions (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Conversely, they discovered that leaders spend the bulk of
their time employing the political and symbolic frames. They also found utilization of the
political and symbolic frames to be the primary factor in leader effectiveness (Bolman & Deal,
1994; Bolman & Deal, 2013). For this reason, the political and symbolic frames will be further
discussed in relationship to leadership and this study.
Bolman and Deal (2013) declare that leadership is a political undertaking. Effective
leaders are able to bridge constituencies with conflicting viewpoints and make space for them to
productively address their differences, thereby ensuring that the organization is productive.
Inevitably, conflict is a by-product with which leaders must contend given the inherent power
struggle between stakeholders. These leaders recognize that they are asking each group to give
up something they want in order to collaborate and compromise in the best interest of their
common goals (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Heifetz, 2006). Leaders who are savvy within the
political frame are careful to build their power base of relationships and use their own power
strategically. By doing so, they conserve their political capital. Analysis showed this theme was
closely tied to an increase in their self-efficacy as is described in SCT (Bandura, 2012; Bandura,
2013). (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Two studies found that the political frame was a necessity for educational leaders (Hall,
1996; Heifetz, 2006). The main reason for this assertion is that educational leaders are required
to interact with powerful groups of people with distinct objectives such as students, parents,
communities, government entities, and the school itself. Hall’s (1996) study of women

31
administrators found the political frame to be of particular importance for her participants given
the variety of stereotypes and biases that they were forced to navigate.
Leaders who are proficient in the symbolic frame believe that a primary component of
their responsibility is to inspire — both people and their organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013). A
telling trait of symbolic leaders is their passion. They are passionate about their goals and are
effective in communicating that passion to other people. This is generally combined with their
ability to articulate the uniqueness of their organization through their vision and mission. A
common characteristic of symbolic leaders is their energy and visibility to their constituents
(Bolman & Deal, 2013).
While leaders are prone to excel within the political and symbolic frames, research has
shown that the most effective leaders utilize more than one frame within a single situation,
especially when something does not make sense or seems to not be working. This allows them to
examine the circumstances from a variety of vantage points (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Leaders that
tended to only use one frame were shown to have the least amount of experience. While each of
the four frames has its strengths, they each also have their limitations. Therefore, it is incumbent
upon the leader to apply each frame strategically.
Bolman and Deal (2013) posited that the most effective leaders at utilizing the four
frames are those that have the capability to extract meaning from their lived experiences,
regardless of whether they were positive or negative in nature and sought out opportunities for
growth. They explain that this foundation of knowledge is what allows the individual to practice
the intuitive blink process, which is the ability to switch between frames by thinking and acting
in an almost unconscious manner. The process is so fast that it occurs almost instantly and allows
the leader to see the situation holistically, in a coherent, meaningful pattern. This results in

32
affective judgements meaning the leader’s thoughts and feelings are aligned which produces a
confidence for how they should handle the situation. They describe, “the essence of this process
is matching situational cues with a well-learned mental framework — a deeply-held
nonconscious category or pattern,” (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 18). The base of this process is the
well-learned mental framework which comes from the lessons extracted from life’s experiences.
A characteristic of effective leadership is being quick to assess a situation in order to intuitively
reframe one’s leadership to best act within the situation (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Change Agents, Influencers, and Transformational Leaders
Miles, Saxl, and Liberman (1988) broadly define change makers or agents as people with
a license to help. They are individuals, often leaders, who by embodying great self-efficacy and
resiliency have the ability to act as an influencer and fulcrum for transformational growth within
their institutions and/or situations (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Burbank, 2017; Miles et al., 1988).
A leader who is an agentic advocate for change, is considered a transformational leader who
maximizes reframing with the political and symbolic lenses (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman
& Deal, 2013; Heifetz & Linsky, 2004; West-Burnham, 2009). They are able to motivate others
to do more than they thought possible and are generally able to achieve higher performances
from their constituencies (West-Burnham, 2009). Since the process of transformation is creating
something that did not previously exist, it is critical that leaders are able to influence others to
grow beyond the status quo (Burbank, 2017; West-Burnham, 2009).
Being a change agent invites conflict because often people are afraid of change (Heifetz
& Linsky, 2004; Marcus, 2014; Reed & Blaine, 2015). Heifetz and Linsky (2004) argue that it is
not change in and of itself that people resist but rather they resist loss. Loss is commonly viewed
as an outcome of change since it requires leaving behind the status quo…to grow beyond it.

33
Because of this, agentic leaders may sometimes appear dangerous to others and perhaps their
own organizations. Change management then demands that leaders have the ability to be strong,
persevere, and be flexible while heralding the change process and in order to allay fears (Bennis
& Thomas, 2002b; Ledesma, 2014).
California Community Colleges
The California Community College system is the largest higher education system in the
United States (Foundation for California Community Colleges, 2020). California Community
Colleges serve over 2 million students per year at its 115 colleges within 73 districts throughout
the state and one online college. The system’s impact is so vast that one in five community
colleges students nationwide is enrolled in a California Community College (Foundation for
California Community Colleges, 2020). Formerly known as junior colleges, the California State
Legislature authorized their formation from the state’s high schools in 1907. Systemwide, their
primary mission is to prepare students to transfer to four-year universities, provide workforce
development training, and basic skills and remedial education (California Community College
Chancellor's Office, 2020). California Community Colleges offer both associate degrees as well
as short-term job training certificates in more than 175 fields (Foundation for California
Community Colleges, 2020). As of Fall 2018, California Community Colleges employed 92,161
faculty and staff throughout the state, of which only 2.47% (2,280) statewide are educational
administrators of whom 54.61% (1,245) are female (California Community College Chancellor's
Office, 2020). Coincidentally, 54.06% (1,287,588) of all students enrolled statewide in the 2018-
19 academic year identify as female (California Community College Chancellor's Office, 2020).

34
Conceptual Framework: Autoethnography
Autoethnography is a qualitative research method by which the researcher collects,
analyzes, and interprets autobiographical data in order to gain an understanding of society
(Chang, 2013; Hernandez et al., 2015; Ngunjiri et al., 2017). Autoethnography focuses on the
interrogation of self. Hernandez et al. (2015) describe the approach to autoethnography as being
“self-focused, researcher-visible, context-conscious, and critically dialogic,” (p. 22). The process
of the autoethnography methodology is simultaneously autobiographical and ethnographic
(Hernandez et al., 2015). Autoethnographic researchers are dually the researchers as well as the
research participants — the instrument and the data source.
The purpose of autoethnography is to expand the understanding of social realities through
the interrogation of the researcher’s personal experiences (Chang, 2013). In this vein, the
researcher undergoes a transformative process of meaning-making by analyzing disparate
fragments of their life in relationship to one another. Because of its nature, autoethnography has
a social scientific bent that is derived from narratives, analysis of experience, and interpretation
of the meaning of these experiences. Each component of autoethnography — description,
analysis, and interpretation — is intrinsically connected to the other in order for meaning to be
made. Autoethnographic studies are richer when their inquiries have been expanded to include
the voices of others (Chang, 2013). In this manner, intersectionality becomes the overarching
interpretive framework for making meaning of personal experiences (Hernandez et al., 2015).
Theoretical Framework
Autoethnography is used as the methodology of this study as well as its analytical
framework in order to make meaning out of personal experiences (Chang, 2013; Hernandez et
al., 2015; Ngunjiri et al., 2017). The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in social

35
cognitive theory (SCT) and resilience theory which is based on SCT. These identity development
theories focus on self-efficacy, motivation, and resilience which have been shown to be driving
factors of leadership development. SCT and resilience theory explain how individuals learn to
respond to conflict and increase their resiliency which helps in better understanding the
relationship between conflict and resilience and in the forging of leaders with high agentic
capacity.
Social-Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s (1989; 2000; 2012) social cognitive theory looks at the social nature of
learning. It is predicated on the environment and an individual’s behavior affecting their
learning. Additionally, a person’s beliefs or self-regulation plays a strong part in their learning.
Social cognitive theory states that people’s self-efficacy determines their level of motivation.
Social cognitive theory takes a number of assumptions into account including that of triadic
reciprocality. Triadic reciprocality is the bidirectional relationship between personal,
environmental, and behavioral factors that influence one another. An additional assumption
based on triadic reciprocality is that people learn through the constant observation of others.
However, just because something is learned does not mean that it will be acted upon.
Furthermore, behavior is governed by the specific goals the individual has set for themselves.
Over time, behavior becomes self-regulated. The final assumption is that behavior and learning
are indirectly affected by reinforcement and punishment (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, n.d.).
All of these assumptions combine to drive an individual’s self-efficacy. Bandura (2012)
explains that self-efficacy is an individual’s judgement of their personal capability or agency,
which differs from their self-esteem which is the judgement of their self-worth. Research shows
that successful people know how to motivate themselves, which is a form of self-regulation

36
(Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Self-regulation requires goals and motivation in order to be effective
and it can be taught. The ongoing nature of triadic reciprocality influencing each other and
affecting one’s self-efficacy is at the core of resilience theory which is based on social cognitive
theory.
Resilience theory. Resilience theory was initially defined in the field of medicine as the
ability to recognize and endure pain until the pain subsides and the body normalizes (Ledesma,
2014). It was further grounded through the phenomenological identification of characteristics of
people who have survived high-risk situations and transformed as a result of experiencing
adversity (Ledesma, 2014; Richardson, 2002). Resilience theory expanded on SCT’s emphasis
on self-efficacy and focused on the identification of an individual’s strengths. Research showed
that resilient people maintained certain strengths that allowed them to survive conflict and
adversity (Richardson, 2002). According to resilience theory, resilience begins when an
individual reaches biopsychospiritual homeostasis — an adapted state of mind, body, and spirit
in response to life’s circumstances. Resilience theory posits that resilience is a force that resides
within everyone, yet not everyone is resilient. To the contrary, some people choose to go out of
their way to avoid disruptions in their life and thereby do not capitalize on utilizing adverse
situations as opportunities for growth and self-actualization (Richardson, 2002).
At the crux of resilience theory is the concept of thriving. Thriving is the characteristic of
a person who has endured hardships, yet through their inner strength has not only overcome the
adversity but grown from the experience (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Ledesma, 2014). An
individual’s ability to thrive is derived from their resilience capacity which encompasses their
personal values, personal efficacy, and personal energy (Ledesma, 2014). Resilience theory
places an emphasis on the cyclical pattern that occurs as an individual grows from adversity,

37
their resilience capacity increases, which in turn strengthens their personal values, efficacy, and
energy and thereby increases their ability to withstand future conflict and adversity. This study is
grounded in one’s ability to endure conflict, develop resilience, thrive, and repeat the process
again and again each time increasing the individual’s adaptive capacity. The focus of this study
is on women educational leaders and how their experiences and development as women affect
their resilience and subsequent adaptive capacity in order to influence their organizations.
Therefore, in addition to their self-efficacy and resilience, women’s identity development must
be taken into consideration.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the connectivity between SCT, triadic reciprocality, and resilience
theory as they relate within this study.
Figure 2.2
Visualization of Social Cognitive Theory, Triadic Reciprocality, and Resilience Theory’s
Relationship for the Purpose of This Study

38
Summary
In reviewing the literature, it became evident that self-efficacy and resiliency are critical
factors in the development of agentic educational leaders. This has been found to be particularly
applicable to women leaders given that they encounter androcentric bias from young ages and
therefore their pathways to leadership are fraught with internal and external conflict.
Additionally, the literature showed the interwoven connection between conflict and building
resilience. The symbiotic relationship between the two prepares transformational leaders by
increasing their adaptive capacity.
All of these concepts were grounded in social cognitive and resilience theories which
explain how effective leaders are developed. This chapter also examined the autoethnography
methodology and how it is used to make meaning out of the women’s stories utilized in this
research study. In summary, this chapter reviewed literature relevant to the factors that contribute
to women forging themselves as educational leaders and the juxtaposition of conflict and
resiliency in helping to develop effective female agentic leaders in education. See Table 2.1:
Literature Review Table for a summary of the literature contained in this chapter.
Table 2.1
Literature Review Table
Themes Highlights Author
Perceived Behaviors
of Leadership
• Leadership is transactional
• Leaders influence groups to meet a
common goal
• Leaders do not fear failure
• Leadership traits are often perceived
to be inherently male
Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Bolman & Deal, 1994;
Bolman & Deal, 2013;
Howard & Irving, 2014;
Northouse, 2016

39
Themes Highlights Author
Role Incongruity • History of androcentric bias in
psychological, development, and
leadership theories
• Socially acceptable roles for women
• Ethics of care theory
• Gender norm of power vs.
subjugation
• Double bind
Carli & Eagly, 2007;
Christman & McClellan,
2008; Christman &
McClellan, 2012; Eagly &
Karau, 2002; Epp & Kustaski,
1994; Gilligan, 1993; Hall,
1996; Heifetz, 2007; Iverson,
et al., 2017; Keohane, 2007;
Oakley, 2000; Young, 2004
Conflict • Conflict is both external and internal
• Process of resolving conflict leads to
change
• Conflict occurs at all stages of life
• Leaders state their success stems
from overcoming conflict
(crucibles)
• Overcoming conflict increases
confidence
Ackerman, et al., 2004;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002a;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Bolman & Deal, 1994;
Christman & McClellan,
2008; Christman &
McClellan, 2012; Ledesma,
2014; Howard & Irving,
2014; Marcus, 2014; Reed &
Blaine, 2015; Sandy, 2014;
Sandy et al., 2014; Steward,
2014; Tjosvold, 2006
Resilience • Common trait among effective
leaders
• Resilience cycle
• Transformational
• Adaptive capacity
• Thriving
Ackerman, et al., 2004;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002a;
Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Bonanno, 2004; Christman &
McClellan, 2012; Howard &
Irving, 2014; Ledesma 2014;
Steward, 2014; Reed &
Blaine, 2015
Women in
Leadership
• Women’s leadership vs. men’s
leadership
• Perception of leadership
style/authority
• Girls generally raised from social-
emotional perspective
• “Feminine” leadership styles are
coming into fashion
• Judged on gender, appearance, and
personality over accomplishments
• Challenges/Barriers for women
educational leaders
Campbell, et al., 2010; Carli
& Eagly, 2007; Cejda, 2008;
Drury, 2010; Eagly & Carli,
2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002;
Ely, et al., 2011; Enke, 2014;
Epp & Kustaski, 1994;
Gangone, 2008; Gillet-
Karam, 2001; Gilligan, 1993;
Hall, 1996; Heifetz, 2007;
Heifetz & Linsky, 2004;
Keegin, et al., 2017; Keohane,
2007; Marshall, 2009;
Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999

40
Themes Highlights Author
Change Agents,
Influencers, &
Transformational
Leaders
• Leaders with great self-efficacy and
resiliency
• Agentic advocate for change
• Being a change agent invites
conflict
• Agentic leaders may appear to be
dangerous
Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Burbank, 2017; Bolman &
Deal, 2013; Heifetz, 2004;
Heifetz & Linsky, 2004;
Ledesma, 2014; Marcus,
2014; Miles, et al., 1998;
Reed & Blaine, 2015; West-
Burnham, 2009
Analytical
Framework
• Autoethnography Chang, 2013; Hernandez, et
al., 2015; Ngunjiri et al., 2017
Theoretical
Framework
• Social Cognitive Theory Bandura, 1989; Bandura,
2000; Bandura, 2012; Dembo
& Eaton, 2000; Denler, et al.,
n.d.
• Resilience Theory Ledesma, 2014; Richardson,
2002

41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
In the past two decades there has been an increase of women in recognized leadership
positions throughout the field of education (Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Research has shown that
the majority of senior-level, higher education leaders are predominantly male, yet 64% of all
higher education administrators are actually female (Enke, 2014). As the number of women
leaders in education has increased, so too have accounts of women prevailing over multiple
instances of conflict (Campbell et al., 2010; Marshall, 2009; Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). Women
employ a variety of agentic strategies to resolve conflict which has resulted in the documentation
of their developed resilience (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Howard & Irving, 2013).
Arguments have been made that leaders, specifically effective leaders of change, have
encountered repeated cycles of conflict and resilience throughout the development of their
leadership abilities. This may be particularly true for women in educational leadership roles. This
autoethnography was designed to investigate the relationship between conflict and resilience in
female educational leaders who use their agency to facilitate change within their spheres of
influence.
Social cognitive and resilience theories are used to explain the triadic reciprocality of
personal, behavioral, and environmental factors demonstrated within women educational leaders’
stories as they developed their self-efficacy. Therefore, this study was guided by the following
research questions:
1. What factors contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders?
a. What is the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in helping to develop effective
female agentic leaders in education?

42
Because of androcentric bias in leadership research, new empirical research is necessary
to develop leadership theory based on the experiences of female leaders (Ngunjiri et al., 2017).
Currently, the primary source of research on resilience as it relates to educational leaders is
unpublished academic dissertations.
Autoethnography is a qualitative research method by which the researcher collects,
analyzes, and interprets autobiographical data in order to gain an understanding of society
(Chang, 2013; Hernandez et al., 2015; Ngunjiri et al., 2017). The process of the autoethnography
methodology is simultaneously autobiographical and ethnographic (Hernandez et al., 2015).
Autoethnography focuses on the interrogation of self. Hernandez et al., (2015) describe the
approach to autoethnography as being “self-focused, researcher-visible, context-conscious, and
critically dialogic,” (p. 22). Autoethnographic researchers are dually the researchers as well as
the research participants — the instrument and the data source.
The researcher of this study utilized a concurrent collaboration model. Concurrent
collaboration allowed the researcher to switch between individual and collective activities
throughout the study (Hernandez et al., 2015). Whether the researcher was individually writing
or collecting data, the process was iterative throughout the study. Figure 3.1 of the dissertation
timeline demonstrates the iterative properties of autoethnography data collection and writing.
Table 3.1
Dissertation Timeline of Data Collection and Analysis
Jul
‘18
Aug
‘18
Sep
‘18
Oct
‘18
Nov
‘18
Dec
‘18
Jan
‘19
Feb
‘19
Mar
‘19
Jul
‘20
Review Literature
Initial Story
Recall

Defend Proposal ¨
Submit to IRB ¨

43
Jul
‘18
Aug
‘18
Sep
‘18
Oct
‘18
Nov
‘18
Dec
‘18
Jan
‘19
Feb
‘19
Mar
‘19
Jul
‘20
Interview
Participants

Auto-
ethnographic
Journaling

Participant
Journaling

Data Review &
Coding

Data Analysis
Defend
Dissertation
¨

Sample and Population
Autoethnography is designed around the duality of the researcher assuming both the roles
of researcher and research participant (Hernandez et al., 2015). Therefore, the purposefully
selected participant for the autoethnographic portion of this study include the researcher — a
higher education administrator. The second portion of the study also utilized purposefully
selected sampling via a specific set of criteria mirroring the professional characteristics of the
researcher.
In order to select whom to interview, the researcher used literature to define “change
makers or agents” (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Burbank, 2017; Miles et al., 1988) and then
attempted to apply that definition to women educational leaders within higher education. The
researcher determined the best way to do this was to capitalize on the same, relatively new state
initiative in which she led a consortium, since it was designed to transform adult education in
California. This initiative was groundbreaking in that never in recent history, if ever, had
community colleges and K12s been mandated to work together in such a collaborative manner;

44
let alone been given substantial funding tied to the success of said collaboration. The initiative
was constantly evolving as the state was defining what it would eventually look like. That meant
that those initially chosen to lead the consortia had to be nimble in order to respond to rapidly
changing state directives as well as agile to navigate the long-held prejudices engrained in the
two educational systems that now had to corporate to ensure student success and continued
funding. In short, successfully developing these consortia required agentic leaders. Therefore,
interviewees were selected from the higher educational female leaders overseeing the California
Adult Education Program (CAEP). This initiative underwent a name change during the course of
this study. It was previously known as an initiative in California called the Adult Education
Block Grant (AEBG) and is often referred to as such by the participants.
The legislative language, Assembly Bill 104, which established AEBG that became
CAEP, explains that the initiative is designed to transform the existing adult education and
noncredit programs throughout the state. In order to facilitate this transformation, the state
formed consortia predominantly comprised of a single community college district and multiple
K-12 districts as mandatory members plus additional joint powers of authorities who either
provide adult education or have a stake in adult education, such as county departments of
education. Community college district boundaries were utilized to create the consortia, hence
there are 71 covering the state (there are 72 community college districts in California, however,
two districts merged to create a single consortium).
CAEP consortia demographics vary depending on their setting (urban, rural, etc.) as well
as their membership. All but the one consortium that was merged contains a single community
college district and multiple K-12 districts depending on the area within the community college
district regional boundaries. Many, but not all CAEP consortia have a consortium lead such as an

45
executive director, director, or manager with the role of facilitator depending on each consortia’s
governance and organizational structure. Participants were selected from leaders of CAEP
consortia for two main reasons. First, this was the role of the researcher for whom the
autobiographical data was collected. Secondly, because of the transformational nature of the
initiative, agentic individuals are drawn to the consortium leadership role. The initial concept of
AEBG was to radically recreate adult education and noncredit throughout the state via
collaboration between the K-12s, community colleges, and other stakeholders such as county
departments of education.
In order to select participants, the researcher utilized the state-funded website for CAEP
that lists the primary contacts for all of the CAEP consortia. Female primary contacts were
identified and contacted to see if they possessed all of the specific characteristics required of the
study’s participants. The researcher continued contacting CAEP consortia female primary
contacts until six research study participants meeting the criteria outlined in Table 3.2 were
secured.
Table 3.2
Summary of Criteria for Participant Selection
Participant Criteria
Researcher (1) • Female
• CAEP consortium lead for four years (Director)
• Employed by community college
• Willing to participate in study
Non-Researcher Participants
(6)
• Female
• CAEP consortium lead for more than 1 year (titles may
vary)
• Employed by community college or K-12 district
• Willing to participate in study

46
Nonprobability purposive sampling was utilized for this qualitative study. Purposive
sampling is used when the researcher identifies specific characteristics of a population of interest
and then finds individuals who have those characteristics (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). This is
the most appropriate type of sampling to use when the researcher is interested in discovering,
understanding, and gaining insight of specific cases of individuals utilizing a qualitative
methodology (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) specifically through interviews. The characteristics of
the women for this study include being in or having been in the role of consortium lead (specific
titles may vary) for a minimum of one year, being employed by either the community college
district or a K-12 district, being willing to participate in an hour-long face-to-face interview, and
being willing to journal at least twice a week for four weeks.
A Contextual Review of the Participants
Brief biographical information of the participants is provided here to provide context for
the analysis of their heroes’ journeys contained in Chapter Four. While generally broad
descriptions are used in order to maintain participants’ confidentiality, detail is provided when
doing so will not compromise anonymity. Since autoethnography is a methodology that
examines data from multiple perspectives (Chang, 2013), it is important for the reader to be
aware of the participants’ backgrounds when reviewing the analysis from the data collection. The
findings of this study will be presented immediately following this section.
The specific age and ethnicity of the participants was not a desired variable for this study
nor was it asked of the participants (a summary of the criteria for participant selection is
provided in detail in Chapter Three). However, all of the participants referred either directly or
indirectly to their age and ethnicity when describing their stories. Perhaps because this study
focused on seasoned educational leaders, the participants tended to range from early middle age

47
to nearing retirement. Each of the participants attributed their age to being the reason they felt
more secure in their positions both in life and professionally. They were also clear this did not
mean that there was stability in their position, but rather they were, as many of them described,
more comfortable in their own skin.
Similarly, ethnicity was not asked, however all of the participants referred to their
ethnicity and/or cultural background. While only one of the women was born outside of the
United States, others were first generation Americans. They all shared that their cultural
upbringing and related values played a major part of their development and in their subsequent
relationship to education. This last point will be further explored in the findings for both research
questions.
Journey to Becoming an Educational Leader
Each participant had a unique pathway to becoming an educational leader, however, in
some cases there were parallels to other participants’ pathways. Half of the participants spent
their entire careers, often more than 25 years, in education. One of the participants worked for a
few years in marketing before spending the rest of her career in education. Two of the
participants had multiple successful careers prior to moving into education. Coincidentally, both
of these participants were successful paralegals and worked in various capacities in the field of
law prior to their education careers. They both also were entrepreneurs and started at least one
company which at times ran parallel to their main career and at other times was their dominant
professional focus. Eventually they both sold their businesses when they went into education
full-time where they each have been for over 10 years.
Five of the participants spent their educational careers within the same district, if not the
same school. One participant worked at numerous community colleges as adjunct faculty before

48
securing a full-time, tenured faculty position. Five of the participants taught in higher education;
one of whom taught at a public, four-year institution; while four others taught for community
colleges and were, therefore, community college faculty prior to becoming administrators.
In summary, each of the six participants had a different trajectory to becoming an
educational leader. One of the participants stated, “It was not my intention to get into education
or CTE [career technical education] or any of that. I was just, ‘sure I’ll do that!’,” (Participant 5
Interview, 2018). Yet each of them stated that they are not planning on leaving education any
time soon. In their interviews and journals, they all expressed their desire to do more and to
make a bigger impact for students.
Instrumentation
Autoethnographic studies utilize a variety of data that include both formal and informal
instrumentation (Chang, 2013; Chang, Ngunjiri, & Hernandez, 2013; Hernandez et al., 2015;
Ngunjiri et al., 2017). The autoethnography methodological process includes the researcher
conducting individual autobiography — the biography of the researcher as told by the researcher.
The researcher must begin with their own story followed by the participants’ stories in order to
identify themes and make-meaning. Hernandez et al. (2015), state that the foundation of
autoethnography data is self-generated personal memory. Informal instrumentation begins with
the researcher recalling past memories, often in the form of individual writing. In
autoethnography, recalling is the “free-spirited” process of remembering significant events,
people, behaviors, thoughts, perspectives, emotions, and other such memories relevant to the
specific research topic (Chang, 2013, p. 113). It is from these autoethnographic methods that the
research questions for this study were created.

49
In this study, two main forms of instrumentation were utilized — writing/journaling and
interviewing. The researcher wrote her own story to begin the autoethnographic process of
developing research questions. This instrumentation was also used to develop the participant
interview questions and subsequent journaling prompts for both the researcher and the
participants. Instrumentation for participant interviews was developed directly from the themes
and questions that arose from the preliminary and subsequent autoethnographical data collected
and coded.
Autoethnography, in the context of this study, is predicated on rich data coming from
multiple sources — the researcher and the participants. This study incorporated not only the
researcher’s autobiographical data via personal memory/recollection, self-observation, self-
reflection, and self-analysis, but also external interviews. The richness and variety of data
enhance the credibility of the stories being told as well as the interpretation through triangulation
of data sources (Chang et al., 2013).
Present thinking, attitudes, perceptions, and habits are also important data for
autoethnography. Often, this subsequent data is more formal self-analysis, self-observation, and
self-reflection, in that it is focused on the themes and questions that have emerged from the
recollection data. Writing prompts can be used in both self-observation and self-reflection. The
researcher wanted to examine whether the experiences that informed her leadership development
were unique or were experienced by other women in similar circumstances. The instrumentation
of this study was designed to make-meaning of women’s leadership and the relationship that
conflict and resiliency play in women exercising their agentic abilities.

50
Data Collection
Data collection began after receipt of the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB) approval. See Table 3.1 for the specific scheduling of the data collection
and analysis processes.
Autobiographical Data Collection
A variety of data was collected autobiographically and then analyzed to make-meaning.
First, autobiographical data of the past was recollected via the researcher’s writings from
memory of instances of conflict and resilience and self-reflection which enabled deeper
interrogation of lived experiences (Chang et al., 2013; Chang, 2013; Hernandez et al., 2015) and
are included in Chapter One. Self-observation of the present via researcher-created observation
notes documenting real-time activities and actions was also collected via journaling that occurred
throughout the study. Concurrently, past and present self-reflection and self-analysis occurred as
the researcher coded the autobiographical writings.
Non-Researcher Interviews
In addition to the autobiographical data collected in this study, the researcher conducted
interviews with six other women educational leaders who are influencers within their fields. The
intent of these interviews was to deepen the understanding of social realities through the lenses
of multiple perspectives in order to comparatively analyze the researcher’s experience.
Participants for this study were selected using purposive sampling, from the female CAEP
consortia leads throughout the state, to ensure that they each met the stated characteristics of the
study as defined in the Sample and Population section of this chapter.
Once the participants were selected, each one received a study information sheet and two
consent forms. The researcher went over each document in detail individually with every

51
participant. The participant’s understanding of the documents was captured via their signature on
the consent forms of which the researcher and the participant each kept a signed original form.
The researcher used five semi-structured interview questions regarding conflict and
resilience based on the themes and meaning-making generated from the autobiographical data
and from pertinent literature. Interviews were conducted both in-person at a location of the
participants’ choosing as well as via video-conference technology throughout November and
December of 2018.
Non-Researcher Journals
Journals were also written by the six CAEP higher education consortium leads. The
journal entries were free form to allow the participants to generate their own narratives of their
leadership, conflicts, and resilience as they are experienced in their current roles. Participants
were instructed to write no more than two pages per day and a minimum of two entries per week
for four weeks following their interview with the researcher. Participants utilized a Google doc
that the researcher created for each individual and was shared only between the researcher and
specific participant. This way the researcher had secure access to the journals at all time while no
information was sent via email.
Data Analysis
Qualitative research connects the processes of data collection, data analysis, and data
interpretation (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the
researcher’s preliminary autobiographical data was analyzed by the researcher in order to make
meaning of the stories being told. Transcriptions of interviews along with the journal entries
were uploaded into NVivo 12, a qualitative data analysis software. Literature was utilized to
develop codes which were applied to the data. Open, axial coding occurred multiple times in an

52
effort to make meaning of the collected data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Themes were then
identified from the coded data and used in the subsequent data collection and analysis. Data
analysis occurred congruently to data collection in order to make meaning throughout the
autoethnographic process (Chang, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana,
2014). A phenomenological approach which examines experiences through individuals own
perceptions was utilized throughout the data collection and analysis in order to maintain
alignment with the theoretical framework of the study, specifically resilience theory (Ledesma,
2014; Richardson, 2002).
Autoethnographic Data
The autobiographic writings were analyzed weekly, using the qualitative data analysis
software, NVivo 12, via the utilization of open and axial coding which allowed for data
interpretation from broad to specific themes. Literature informed the codes and through analysis
of the codes, themes were identified that informed the research and subsequent interview
questions for the non-researcher participants.
Non-Researcher Data
The interviews of the six participants were audio recorded, transcribed via Rev, and
maintained along with the researcher’s corresponding interview notes and memos. As soon as a
participant’s interview was completed, they were emailed a link to their unique Google doc in
order to begin their eight weeks of reflective journal entries. The software tool, NVivo 12 was
used to analyze the data upon completion of all non-researcher interviews and collected journals.
The same codes derived from literature that were used in the analysis of the researcher data were
applied to the participants data. The resulting themes from this analysis were combined with
those from the autoethnographic data collection.

53
Summary
The data collection and analysis of this study was conducted in order to determine the
factors that contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders and the juxtaposition
of conflict and resiliency in helping to develop effective female agentic leaders in education. The
researcher’s autobiographical data in the form of the initial story contained in Chapter One as
well as subsequent observation notes and journals were collected in addition to non-researcher
participant interviews and journal entries. Data collection and analysis relied on the concurrent
collaboration model in order to capitalize on the making-meaning autoethnographic process
throughout the study (Hernandez et al., 2015). Literature was used heavily to identify codes from
the researcher’s writings that were then applied to and expanded upon the non-researcher data
through the use of the qualitative analysis software, NVivo 12. The coded data was then
analyzed again from which emerged themes in response to the study’s research questions. These
themes are discussed in Chapter Four: Findings.

54
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the integrated results of data collection for this study through
examination of the convergence of conflict and resilience and its impact on women’s agency as
educational leaders. Utilizing an autoethnographic methodology and phenomenological approach
which examines experiences through individuals own perceptions, the voices of the researcher
and the six participants were examined through social cognitive theory and resilience theory
lenses. Autoethnography focuses on the interrogation of self and the collective meaning-making
of individual’s voices. Chang et al. (2013) describe the approach to autoethnography as being
“autobiographic (self-focused and researcher-visible), ethnographic (context-conscious), and
interactive (critically dialogic),” (p. 53). Because of this methodology, integration of the data, the
researcher’s writings and the participants’ interviews and journals, provided more depth when
presented together. Therefore, the results are organized by research question with supported
integrated data examples.
In this study, the researcher’s autoethnographic writing was analyzed resulting in initial
theme development which informed both the study’s research questions as well as the interview
questions for the non-researcher participants (Chang et al., 2013). Six, one per non-researcher
participant, qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted and ranged in length from 63
minutes to 82 minutes, averaging 70 minutes in length. The interviews were recorded using
Zoom videoconferencing for four participants and FaceTime video calling for one participant.
All interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission and subsequently transcribed
from the recordings. Following the interviews, the participants were asked to journal twice a
week for four weeks. The journal entries were not structured. Two participants completed eight
entries each, two completed four entries each, and one completed two entries for a total of 26

55
individual journal entries completed by five of the six participants. Codes evolved from the use
of literature which were applied to both the interviews and journals in NVivo 12, a qualitative
analysis software.
The data collected from the non-researcher participants’ interviews and journals
phenomenologically looked at their experiences of conflict, resilience, and as women educational
leaders with agency through their own perspectives, (Ledesma, 2014; Richardson, 2002). The
participants shared their heroes’ journeys of leadership with their own voices via interviews and
journaling. Table 4.1 shows the instruments used to collect data for this mixed-methods study.
Table 4.1
Summary of Methodology
Data Collection Instrument Participants Research Question Addressed
Autoethnographic Writing Researcher RQ1 & RQ1a
Interviews 6 Participants RQ1 & RQ1a
Journals 5 Participants RQ1 & RQ1a
NVivo 12 (qualitative software) Researcher + 6 Participants RQ1 & RQ1a
Holistic analysis, reviewing the data collected as a whole rather than as isolated
information, of all the collected autoethnographic data revealed that while the details were
unique in many ways, the researcher’s and the participants’ journeys converged at the same
destination — with each woman stating that she was claiming her own agency professionally and
working to capitalize on that agency in order to powerfully impact her institution. This
convergence is shown in Figure 4.1. This chapter will elucidate the participants’ ongoing
“heroes’ journeys” through their stories as it relates to the study’s research questions.

56
Figure 4.1
The Convergence of the Hero’s Journeys In This Autoethnographic Study.

Research Question 1 (RQ1): Forging Educational Leaders
In response to the first research question, data analysis revealed four key findings which
emerged as the predominant factors that contributed to the participants’ forging themselves as
educational leaders. The first theme was external factors, or rather other people, most frequently
in the form of those whom they respected and looked up to, encouraging the women’s fledgling
leadership skills often when they were young, early in and/or at pivotal points in their careers.
This finding supports one of the pillars of social-cognitive theory (SCT), that people learn by
observing others and interacting with other leaders (Bandura, 1989; 2012). Secondly, the
women’s own values were important contributing factors in their leadership development. Their
values defined their goals, which in turn governed their behavior, which combined, informed
their self-efficacy according to SCT (Denler et al., n.d.). Thirdly, as the women’s skills and
abilities, including their senses of humor developed, so did their leadership. Analysis showed this
theme was closely tied to an increase in their self-efficacy as is described within SCT (Bandura,
Researcher’s
Autobiographical
Writings
Participants’
Journals
Participants’
Interviews
Agency
Hero’s
Journey
Hero’s
Journey

57
2012; 2013). Lastly, experiencing conflict often from a young age as well as related to their
gender allowed the participants to reach biopsychospiritual homeostasis, “…a point in time when
one has adapted physically, mentally, and spiritually to a set of circumstances whether good or
bad,” (Richardson, 2002, p. 311), which was pivotal in the formation of their educational
leadership. Table 4.2 summarizes the four themes, how those themes manifest, and their
respective supporting theories which combined are result in the findings of RQ1.
Table 4.2
Summary of Research Question 1 Themes
Theme Name Manifestation of Theme Supporting Theory
T1: External factors Encouraged leadership SCT: Learn by observing and
interacting with others
(Bandura, 1989; Bandura,
2012)
T2: One’s own values Drove goals and governed
behavior
SCT: Informed self-efficacy
(Denler et al., n.d.)
T3: Own skills and abilities
(including sense of humor)
Developed leadership SCT: Increase self-efficacy
(Bandura, 2012; Bandura,
2013)
T4: Conflict Experienced
(often experienced at a young
age and/or gender-based)
Formed educational
leadership
Resilience Theory:
biopsychospiritual homeostasis
(Richardson, 2002)
Leadership is learned from a variety of experiences. “In the past, I always thought that
people in leadership positions just had the answers and never gave it much thought as to how
they got there,” wrote Participant 2 in one of her journal entries (2018). However, studies have
shown that successful business leaders correlate their success to overcoming intense hardships in
their childhood which heavily influenced their leadership formation (Howard & Irving, 2013).
Bennis and Thomas (2002b) use the concept of an integrity tripod to describe three elements —
ambition, competence, and moral compass — that a leader must keep in balance in order to
maintain their integrity and standing as a leader. The integrity tripod aligns with the four themes

58
discovered when analyzing the participants’ interview data and journals. This data provided
more depth and meaning when presented together. This section examines how the women in this
study formed their educational leadership. The first research question was, what factors
contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders?
The data analysis of the researcher’s autobiographical writing as well as both the non-
researcher participants’ interviews and journals yielded the same four main themes that help
explain how women develop as educational leaders. There was one area that was prevalent
throughout the researcher’s data and a couple of the participants’ data but not consistent
throughout all of the participants’ findings — risk-taking. When examining the factors that
contribute to forging leadership skills, the researcher and some of the participants were more
assertive in their early pursuit of leadership opportunities compared to the others. This
manifested in the stories shared in the autoethnographic data and interviews. However, all of the
participants stated that as they became more self-confident in their abilities, they also felt freer to
express themselves and more overtly go after their goals. The four main themes and their
findings are presented in the proceeding subsections in a manner that builds the participants’
ongoing heroes’ journeys.
External Factors
The first theme, external factors, most frequently occurred in the form of other people
encouraging the women’s fledgling leadership skills. For many of the participants, their journey
to becoming a leader began with someone else, usually a mentor, suggesting they step into some
type of leadership role. Some of the participants experienced this factor when they were young,
but most of them encountered it early in their career.

59
The two most oft mentioned phrases in both the interviews and journal entries were:
“someone saw something in me,” and “someone needed something.” Every participant said
and/or wrote those statements or close variations of them, multiple times when relating their
stories. Their mentors and role models were professors, department chairs, directors, deans, vice
presidents, presidents, chancellors, and sometimes they were “dear friends”. The women
described this group of people as encouraging them, emphasizing their strengths, and telling
them it was okay to make mistakes. Most importantly according to the women, these people
modeled good leadership and integrity. This latter point aligns with SCT’s triadic reciprocality
that states people are always watching and learning from others which informs their own
development (Bandura, 1989; 2012).
During her interview, Participant 2 described a time in college when she walked in on
one of her professors, the chair of the department, giving a lecture. Participant 2 explained that
during the lecture the professor made a mistake in regard to something she said in the class. The
professor caught herself, acknowledged the error, and then proceeded with the lesson. Participant
2 shared that it was in that seemingly small moment that she realized everyone makes mistakes,
even those that are held in high, professional esteem — that a mistake is not a big deal unless
you make it one. She reflected on the professor’s integrity in acknowledging the error, but also
her ability to continue with the lecture without allowing the mistake to derail her planned lesson.
Prior to seeing her mentor’s actions, Participant 2 said she was terrified of making mistakes and
often would not try things for fear of making them. She realized she had been missing out on
experiences because of fear. This example of integrity, knowledge, humility, and fortitude is one
that many decades later, Participant 2 stated she still considers a foundational tenant of
leadership and one of the factors in her own success as a leader.

60
Participant 2 further shared how she had had long-standing, meaningful relationships
with some of her early mentors that are still in her life today:
“I’ve had some really good role models. I’ve had the person that hired me [as a
teacher]. She became my friend and my mentor actually, and very, very much
[sic] great at pointing out really good skills that I had and that, you know, you
don’t value in yourself. But she really helped me and in fact she works for me
now.”
Many times, throughout the interviews and further supported in their journals, the women
said their leadership was developed because someone needed something from them. They shared
that frequently the person making the request was a trusted mentor or supervisor and often the
request would directly or indirectly affect students. They explained that sometimes they were
asked to be a substitute teacher for a course, which for two of the women was how they began
their careers in higher education.
Participant 1, in her interview, shared a story from years ago about when she first realized
she could be a leader. Her daughter was going into second grade and her daughter’s school
announced they were going to increase class sizes the following fall to 40 students due to a lack
of funding. Participant 1 explained, “…and I had a significant problem with that. I had a younger
child coming into kindergarten with learning disabilities and my daughter did not, but still
needed...I wanted my kids to have the best.”
She spoke to the district and was told if she could raise the money needed for the extra
teacher before the school year began, they would keep the class sizes at 20 students. She added:
“So, I led the effort at my school. We did a district-wide effort, but I ran our
elementary schools’ [effort] to earn the money to pay for 20-to-1 in kindergarten

61
through third grade. I took it on pretty late in the year because it was something
that happened in the spring and we had until June to rectify it if we were gonna
[sic] earn the money. And I just went gung-ho and I was supposed to earn
$30,000, I earned $60,000 in like eight weeks; $60,000! So not only did I fund the
20-to-1 program, but I also funded a whole new computer lab for our school.”
Participant 1 shared that at the time, she had not realized she could “do something like that.” She
was then a community college adjunct instructor but realized she “had more to offer.” Participant
1 further explained:
“I loved teaching. I loved making a difference in my students lives, but I knew I
could do more and effect more change in a more administrative role. So, I sought
more leadership roles: leader of girl scouts and boy scouts — anything to be with
my kids.”
Eventually, Participant 1 shared that she became the lead adjunct faculty member for her
department and interviewed for a full-time faculty position. When she did not get the position, a
mentor told her that she needed more professional management experience. She began pursuing
coordinator roles within her college which ultimately lead to her current leadership role as the
California Adult Education Program (CAEP) consortia lead.
The majority of the participants referred to their leadership style as servant leaders. They
believed their leadership stemmed from serving the needs of those around them. Participant 4
described her leadership style and her motivation during her interview:
“And I’m very much a servant transformational leader. So, I’m motivated a lot by
the needs and the interests of people around me. So, there are things that I
probably wouldn’t pursue on my own for [me], but by virtue of, oh, there’s a

62
group of students that have a need, so I go research it and figure out what to do
about it. So I think that’s one of the common themes for me in my personal life
and in my career life, is that I kind of show up with a skill set, or some
experience, or expertise and then the situation calls for someone to do something,
and if I’m there it’ll probably be me. Yeah. So, I was raised with, ‘be of service,
and be of good cheer’.”
Participant 4 further explains how she began her career as an educator:
“So, my entrée into working as an educator, officially an educator in community
colleges, is because of someone else saying, ‘oh, would you come and do this for
me?’ So, while I do a lot of planning, much of my life and professional career is
more happenstance. Or I was ready when an opportunity arose, but I didn’t
necessarily go in search of it.”
Most of the participants described their entrance to education in a similar fashion throughout
their interviews — someone else asked them to do it because someone needed something. Once
there, they shared they each realized the positive impact they could have on students. Table 4.2
provides a summary of this theme including specific examples from the participants’ interviews
and journal entries.
Table 4.2
Summary of Research Question 1 Theme 1: External Factors
Participants Examples of
Mentors/Role Models
Manifestation
of Theme
Example
Researcher
(R),
Participant 1
(P1),
Participant 2
(P2),
Parents, Teachers,
Professors,
Department chairs,
Directors, Deans,
Vice presidents,
Presidents,
“Someone saw
something in
me”
P2’s director would “point out my
good skills and encourage me to
value myself.”
P3 had a friend who encouraged her
to teach because of her degree,
personality, and love of people.

63
Participants Examples of
Mentors/Role Models
Manifestation
of Theme
Example
Participant 3
(P3),
Participant 4
(P4),
Participant 5
(P5),
Participant 6
(P6)
Chancellors,
Supervisor, “Dear”
friends
P4’s mentor invited her on an
international research project.
P5’s vice chancellor told her to get
her master’s degree so she could
become an administrator
P6 had a middle-school teacher
who encouraged her to speak up for
herself when she was placed in a
low-level math class but should
have been in a high-level course.
“Someone
needed
something”
P4, P5 were asked to be substitute
teachers which began their careers
in education.
P1 daughters’ school greatly
increased class sizes and she fought
to keep them small.
P4’s mentor asked her to conduct
staff development training, lead the
peer advisors, and assist director.
R, P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 were all
asked to run grants and/or
categorically-funded programs
P6 was recruited to work for her
college because, “a friend needed
some help, and I came back just to
support him.”
Modeled good
leadership and
integrity
P1 had a supervisor who would
make difficult decisions with grace
and integrity, which in some cases
would help lessen the blow.
R, P1, P2, and P5 had mentors who
would always support them in their
efforts while pushing them to aim
higher.
P2 states she, “always screws up
her words and says things
backwards.” She observed her
professor/mentor say something
incorrectly in a lecture and
everyone laughed. The professor

64
Participants Examples of
Mentors/Role Models
Manifestation
of Theme
Example
laughed, acknowledged her
mistake, and continued to lecture
without allowing the mistake to
stop her.
P4 had a mentor who was from a
war-torn country who lived every
day saying, “today will be the day I
want it to be.”
Own Values
The second theme in response to RQ1 is the women’s own values which were important
contributing factors in their leadership development. Note that throughout the data collected, all
of the participants’ shared stories of how their values drove their goals, which in turn governed
their behavior. Excerpts of these stories are provided as evidence of this theme in Table 4.3.
According to SCT, when goals and values are combined, they inform a person’s self-efficacy
(Denler et al., n.d.).
Table 4.3
Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 2: Values
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “I had a younger child coming into kindergarten with learning disabilities
and my daughter did not...I wanted my kids to have the best effort of their
teachers and I was willing to fight for that because it was right.”
Participant 2 “I was part of a church organization when I was a kid. And I remember
being in this session and we were asked, ‘Do you want to be a leader, or do
you want to be a follower?’ And I thought, ‘I want to be a leader.’ My
friends and I just wanted to do good things because it was the right thing to
do. We were always, ‘Do. Do. Do. Do,’."
Participant 3 “I’ve grown to be a person who is resolute in my values. And if I can’t be
aligned with those values and if my institution isn’t aligned with those
values, then I don’t belong here... This is who I am. And my voice is
becoming much firmer and stronger on these values.”
Participant 4 “I’m actually an immigrant. My family is from…, and we came here when I
was a little girl.”

65
Participant Evidence
“I was raised with be of service and be of good cheer.”
Participant 5 “I’m a risk taker, always have been. But I would say that a lot of that comes
from that I come from privilege.”
“I’m a long-time feminist.”
Participant 6 “… I was very involved when I was a student here at this community college
and at the university as well. I felt that there was value in that, in
understanding how decisions are made. Sometimes I think injustice, like
being a witness to injustice, it makes you feel like you want to change things,
and you can change the world, and you can impact the way things are done,
and you want things to be just, and fair, and right.”
All six of the participants shared stories from their childhood that they felt depicted the
development of their values. For three of the women, these experiences were connected to
growing up in religious families and regularly attending church. Two of the women shared their
values manifested as a countermeasure to having a parent with alcoholism. In other words, they
learned what not do from their family members. All of the women highly value issues related to
social justice. Five of the women shared explicit memories of experiencing social injustice early
in life. The sixth woman stated she felt her privilege growing up, or what she termed, “my very
nice safety net”, allowed her to freely speak aloud on behalf of others who may have been less
fortunate. However, for every participant, these formative experiences solidified their values and
shaped their leadership development. They each also shared that as they have matured in both
age and experience, they are not only more vocal about their values but more direct in their fight
to honor their values in all areas of their life — personal and professional. This will be discussed
further in respect to their agency when addressing RQ1a. The findings for this theme exemplified
Bandura’s (1989; 2000; 2012) triadic reciprocality concept in which the bidirectional
relationship between personal environmental, and behavioral factors inform one’s self-
regulation. The participants’ stories demonstrate their learned responses from the people and
circumstances in which they grew up.

66
Skills and Abilities
The third theme related to RQ1 was the women’s own skills and abilities. As the
women’s skills and abilities, including their sense of humor, developed, so did their leadership.
Examples of the women’s self-described skills and abilities are included in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 3: Skills and Abilities
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “So, I did other roles that put me in a [place of] leadership. I was leader of
Girl Scouts, leader of Boy Scouts. Anything I could do that still allowed me
to be with my children, because I was needed at home, but still kept me
developing my leadership skills... It gave me that ability to do things that
would help and change my kids’ lives, but it was still in that educational
environment where it gave me what I needed. Then I waited. As my kids got
older, I started taking on a little bit more work where I transitioned into
being the lead for the adjunct faculty so that I would be able to hear the
information from the department meetings and different things like that.
Then as soon as I could, I went for a full-time position.”
Participant 2 “I was always the ringleader.”
Participant 3 “I’m entrepreneurial, innovative, and creative. I think I’ve been pegged as a
specialist in getting through initiatives and being successful at building
teams and that kind of thing.”
“So, the leadership training, just owning my own business, has proven to be
absolutely invaluable for those kinds of skills. So, in crisis — I’m really good
in crisis management. I’m really good at keeping people motivated, no
matter what’s before us. I put my people first... Like I’ve had my day in the
sun. And at this level of leadership, this isn’t about me, it’s about my people.
How can I support my team? How can I make them look good? How can I
put them on a pedestal? What support do they need? So, it’s really taking my
ego out and then also being really sort of positive orientated and funny.”
Participant 4 “Jill-of-all-trades”
“I think I’m often seen as the ideal person for the startup work, because I
already have that network, and I sort of know how to get something going,
versus perhaps another faculty member who has had a more traditional
trajectory of pure instruction, or counseling just within the confines of the
district. So, it’s funny because in that sense I feel like I am that social worker
that I always thought I was going to be.”
“I don’t want to underestimate my counseling background. To be able to
read a situation, to be able to read it quickly, to be able to use immediacy

67
Participant Evidence
skills. Yes, we have an agenda but something else is happening in the room,
and we need to address that. That actually was very important when we were
forming our consortium under AB86. Because everyone was being very
polite.”
“I am self-deprecating in many instances — to ‘take the edge off’. That’s
very much a part of me being a woman. And I mean, in the worst moment
there is something to laugh about.”
“I have pretty good verbal skills and I’m pretty quick on my feet in a
situation, so I would guess that the majority of those experiences resulted
with me being in a leadership role, resulted from me being in a meeting…
Because I have an awareness of project management, and how to put things
together, and event planning. You know a lot of my work is actually event
planning. Even if it’s a meeting. And really considering what’s the theme?
What’s the vibe? What are we trying to accomplish here? Keeping the end in
mind and working backwards from there.”
Participant 5 “I apparently was the utility player, hey… we don’t have anybody who can
do this. Would you be willing to run this planning grant and do the planning
for the college?”
“I’m a risk taker, always have been.”
“I’m creative, artistic. I see things as possibility/opportunity spaces,
realistic, mindset, energy, curious about things, early adopter. I surround
myself with good people. My boss just tells me don’t do anything crazy, but
there’s trust [there].”
“I like to laugh a lot, and so having people find humor in something I might
say that is brassy and sassy, let’s say, like in a meeting, it can really defuse
those conflict things. It can bring the temperature down in a room. It also,
sort of, to me, it’s a way of reinforcing the fact that I’m not in control of
anything, that I’m just trying to smooth it along. So that might be sort of
tangential, but I don’t know.”
Participant 6 “And I think not being afraid to bring other people into the conversation. I
think sometimes in a new role we want to own it and keep it ... At some point
I questioned it, but I was like, ‘Nope. You know what? Let me bring people in
to have those conversations from the college.’ I think one of my best skills is
being able to build relationships and trust.”
All of the women remarked on their wide array of skills and how, combined with their
willingness to learn anything, earned them the reputations of, “Jill[s]-of-all-trades,” as was
coined by Participant 4. They also shared how they each came to their first role in education with
a deep knowledge in one specific area such as teaching English-as-a-second-language, marriage

68
family therapy and counseling credentials, knowledge of law, being business owners, etc. They
then added breadth to their depth of knowledge as they learned new skills and consequently
developed new abilities in a variety of areas. They were describing themselves as what literature
refers to as T-shaped individuals, those that are capable in many areas and expert in, at least, one
(Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011). The women explained that having such diverse skills
and abilities allowed them to worry less about the mechanics of something and more about the
overarching issues at play. This then helped them be more strategic and act as leaders which
increased their self-efficacy. Analysis showed this theme was closely tied to an increase in their
self-efficacy as is described in SCT (Bandura, 2012; Bandura, 2013).
Imposter Syndrome. Despite the women’s ease in sharing their skills and abilities, most
of them shared either explicitly or implicitly that they have and often still do experience imposter
syndrome. They describe feeling like they do not belong in their role. More than one of the
participants stated that they do not think of themselves as a leader. Their feelings align with the
definition of imposter syndrome as first stated by Clance (1978) who coined the term.
Participant 4 felt that her imposter syndrome was imposed on her by the “white, male
patriarchy” that she had encountered for the majority of her professional career. She explains her
experiences with imposter syndrome in the following excerpt from her interview:
“Actually, the further I’ve gone, and the more credentials, and credibility I have
behind me, the more of a fraud I have felt. Not all the time. But during stressful
moments when you’re tired, when there’s just so many things at once. Those are
the moments where I’ll be sort of like, ‘Oh my God. What if I fail? What if they
found out I don’t know what I’m doing?’ And it’s that whole imposter syndrome.
It was an eye opener. It was a relief when I found out that that existed. That other

69
women, especially educated women, no matter how successful they are, kind of
experience it. It’s like, ‘Oh yeah. Okay. That’s those crazy white men that put that
on me!’.”
Conflict Experienced
The final theme associated with RQ1 was conflict. The participants shared that
experiencing conflict, often from a young age as well as related to their gender, ultimately
impacted their self-confidence. This phenomenon is called biopsychospiritual homeostasis
(Richardson, 2002, p. 311) which was pivotal in the formation of their educational leadership.
Biopsychospiritual homeostasis as it relates to conflict and resilience will be discussed in the
themes related to RQ1a. Table 4.5 provides examples of conflict from each participant’s own
hero’s journey as related in their interviews and journals.
Table 4.5
Evidence of Research Question 1 Theme 4: Conflict
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “I notice that I take on a lot of work and have a very difficult time saying no
to committees and extra assignments. Part of this is that I still feel that I
need to prove myself. Having been a part-time teacher for 20 years before
moving into an administrative role, I noticed that not everyone was as
excited about this new career change as I was. In the beginning, my biggest
hurdle were my colleagues that I had worked with over the past 20 years.
They could not understand how a part-time instructor could be hired for
such a position. People asked me questions such as, “How did you get hired
for this position?” When I answered that I applied for it, they would follow
up with, “But how?” with a puzzled look on their face. It was difficult to
have them questioning me and quite frankly trying to sabotage my earlier
work, but I charged through and just worked on my job. Over time, most
have come to accept me, but there are still a few that question me, and I
know that deep down, I am still trying to prove myself.”
Participant 2 “I had a boss, early on, who didn’t want to see me succeed. But I think it
reflected badly on them. They always gave me negative feedback and would
mentally knock me down. But I grew up in a home full of conflict. There was
an alcoholic at home; our family was dysfunctional. I lacked any kind of self-
confidence till I was about 15. I was afraid of male authority figures for

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Participant Evidence
years. I actually didn’t overcome that until a few months ago while in this
role when I had a conversation with a board member. One of the things he
told me was that he noticed I had become more confident in my leadership
style.”
Participant 3 “And so, I would say the primary skills that came out of that [conflict],
outside of an educational institution, was super calm under pressure, people
looking at you to be a leader during difficult times. And if you’re freaking
out and you’re, you know ... You cannot join the ranks of the employees’
anxiety; you have to be a leader and you have to be calm. You have to say,
‘We might not know all the answers now, but we’re going to figure this out
together and we’ll get through this, and we’re going to move forward. And
this may seem like that unsolvable problem, but everything is solvable.’
Right?”
Participant 4 “I probably, from a young age again, it was like…, ‘Oh, she’s so strong.
She’s the strong one.’ Which you know, I just can’t stand that, because that
means I’m not human. That means I can’t be vulnerable. That means I can’t
rely on others. So, it’s taken a while to undo some of those beliefs. But I am a
strong person. And I don’t recall learning it. So, I find it hard to put it to
words.”
“And that’s something else both my parents [taught me], my mother survived
the bombing in London and in Liverpool, the blitzes. Neighborhoods blown
up, people they loved killed etc. I grew up knowing that, having that in my
life.”
Participant 5 “My dad and I were at logger-heads for most of my ... I would say most of
my life until I was about, until he was towards the end of his life. Which
didn’t mean I didn’t love him, but I grew up... and it was just... it was never
physical. It was never violent. It was only just two very strong-willed people
who disagreed a lot.”
“There was this thing of we’re not gonna [sic] tell you what our expectations
are. We’re just going to let you know through silent disapproval when you
haven’t met them. So that was the kind of conflict I grew up with which led to
a lot of passive aggressive stuff and all that other stuff. I just had to get out.”
Participant 6 “So, this is really silly, but in fourth grade I wanted to be treasurer for ASB
or whatever. I think it was actually fifth grade. And so, the word was that the
only person who was gonna [sic] win was, you know, the girl that always
wins, and they did. That was absolutely true. But I felt like I had to at least
give it a try, you know, and I was like, I’m certain that that’s not the way
things are. And that was actually like an awakening for me to say, wow,
things really are that way. And I remember the girl’s name, it was Kimberly
with her beautiful curly hair, and her clothes were always impeccable. She
was a beautiful girl. And those are the girls who I think typically, or the kids,
it’s almost like there was a profile. And so, we’re in a school that was
probably 80% Black and Latino. None of the kids really were in a position of

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Participant Evidence
leadership. And so, I think at that age I was already beginning to understand
that there were differences, and so that was my very first, you know… and I
was actually heart broken. I went home and they were like, oh, but at least
you tried. You know, I had to make posters and money that we really quite
frankly didn’t have. But that was kind of an experience. So that was a
challenge.”
Some of the participants shared very vivid, distinct memories of childhood conflict such
as the example from Participant 6. Often the participants shared generalized memories of conflict
such as knowing as a child that their parents physically lived through a war or that there was
alcoholism in their family. Yet that knowledge impacted their development. The memories
collected in this theme were frequently also tied to the participants’ strong senses of social
justice. The experiences of conflict, specifically those having to do with their being viewed as
inadequate because of their gender or because they or their parents were from another country,
were often described as the seeds of what would become their fight to combat inequity in the
world around them. While their experiences of conflict were frequent and varied in nature, the
ones associated with being mistreated because of who they were evoked the most emotion and
seemed to have the longest-lasting impact. The latter of which were often examples of
experienced androcentric bias as described by Epp, et al., (1994) specifically role incongruity,
which is described as the prejudices experienced by women due to the perceived differences
between the characteristics that are considered typical of leadership and those associated with the
female gender. Role incongruity often manifests in women as imposter syndrome (Clance, 1978;
Goman, 2018; Pedler, 2011) which was also described by all of the participants.
While many factors contributed to the participants forging themselves as educational
leaders, four themes stood out from the collected data: external factors which encouraged their
leadership, having a firm understanding of their own values which drove their goals and

72
governed their behavior, confidence in their own skills and abilities, including strong senses of
humor, which freed them to focus on the leadership development, and experiencing conflict
often in their youth and frequently related to their gender which helped solidify their
commitment to social justice and ultimately formed their educational leadership.
Research Question 1a (RQ1a): The Juxtaposition of Conflict and Resiliency in Developing
Agentic Female Leaders
Research Question 1a asked, what is the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female agentic leaders in education? Analysis of the autoethnographic data
collected in this study revealed that the women’s experiences of repeated cycles of conflict and
resilience throughout their life prepared them to exercise their agency as effective leaders.
Specifically, there were three themes that emerged as the predominant areas where all the
women demonstrated their agency as leaders in education. The first theme was the women’s
ability to reframe their thinking and actions by successfully utilizing all four frames —
structural, human resources, political, and symbolic — especially the political and symbolic
frames of Bolman and Deal’s conceptual model of leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Analysis
showed that this ability stemmed from being able to extract meaning and lessons from their lived
experiences, which is a byproduct of biopsychospiritual homeostasis as described within
resilience theory (Richardson, 2002). The second theme was the women’s license to help as
defined by Miles, Saxl, and Liberman (1988); they would use their agency to advocate for
change based on their strong sense of values which were deeply ingrained, often from childhood.
While SCT explains that their self-efficacy was informed by their values, it is resilience theory’s
concept of thriving which supports the use of their agency in order to help others and their
organizations (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Ledesma, 2014). Finally, the third theme is the

73
women’s ability to be strong, persevere, and be flexible in order to allay fears, notably those that
would impede transformational change. Once again thriving, which is at the crux of resilience
theory, enforces the idea that the women are able to be steadfast in their convictions and actions
which in turn allows them to be able to attend to the concerns of those that may not share their
views. This is due to their deep-seeded knowledge that they will get through the current
experience as they have others previously and they will be stronger for it (Bennis & Thomas,
2002b; Ledesma, 2014)
Table 4.6
Summary of Research Question 1a Themes
Theme Name Manifestation of Theme Supporting Theory
T1: Reframing Mastery of the political
and symbolic frames
Resilience Theory:
biopsychospiritual homeostasis
(Richardson, 2002)
T2: License to help Agentic advocate for
change based on own
values
Resilience Theory: thriving
(Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Ledesma, 2014)
T3: Courage in adversity Ability to be strong,
persevere, and be flexible
in order to allay fears
Resilience Theory: thriving
(Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Ledesma, 2014)
Effective leadership is building on past experiences to be able to think and act swiftly, in
spite of any fears or doubts, and inspiring others to act in spite of their own fears or doubts,
(Bennis & Thomas, 2002a; Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman & Deal, 2013; Heifetz & Linsky,
2004; Ledesma, 2014). Functioning in this manner becomes instinctual (Bolman & Deal, 2013)
as explained in an interview with Participant 5 (2018), “I have been successful at making some
changes, and not successful at making others… I seem to have been somebody who’s been an
early adopter of a lot of things. And I am surprised that what seems so logical and reasonable to
me is not logical or reasonable to other people, but it’s threatening or even evil to them.”

74
Research states that the ability to be resilient and thrive is what enables the most powerful and
successful leaders (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman & McClellan, 2012; Howard &
Irving, 2014; Ledesma, 2014; Reed & Blaine, 2015).
Resilience and thriving align with the three themes discovered when analyzing the
participants’ interviews and journals. This data provided more depth and meaning when
presented together. This section examines the findings of how the women in this study harnessed
their agency, earned through their experiences of conflict and resilience, in order to enact change
through their leadership. The second research question, RQ1a, was: what is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in developing effective female agentic leaders in education?
The data analysis of the researcher’s autobiographical writing as well as both the non-
researcher participants’ interviews and journals yielded the same three main themes that help
explain how women are effective, agentic leaders by utilizing what they’ve learned through
experiences of conflict and resilience. These findings are presented in the proceeding subsections
in a manner that builds the participants’ ongoing heroes’ journeys through their stories.
Reframing
The first theme, reframing, manifested in all of the participants’ stories yet the
participants themselves were seemingly unaware of what they were doing. Each of them told
stories of professional situations where conflict was evident yet, they needed to find a way to
bring everyone together in order to reach their stated goals. The nature of their roles as the
leaders of their respective CAEP consortia required them to work with many different
stakeholders who did not always agree. They had to be masters of the structural and human
resources frames which are the foundation of the managerial work required to run the consortia.

75
However, as shown in their stories, it was their ability to seamlessly reframe their leadership to
the political and symbolic frames which created space for change to occur.
Participant 3 shared a story about a time when she was new in her role and had multiple
groups of faculty stakeholders from different parts of the college meeting for the first time. One
of the groups had been working together to create many new noncredit pieces of curricula
through the work of the CAEP consortium. One of the other groups had not been a part of the
process so when they all initially met, there was much tension in the room and tempers began to
flare. Participant 3 explained how she had to pivot in the moment from what she originally
thought was going to be a simple process to recognizing the political implications of what was
occurring. She knew getting the curricula approved was in the best interest of the students and
organization and recognized that all the stakeholders would agree on that fact if she could get
them to put aside their other issues. She also recognized that this was an opportunity for her to
build relationships that could reap long-term benefits for the college and consortium. So, she
listened to the concerns, took on the responsibility herself for not being more inclusive from the
beginning of the process, and created a space for how they could collaborate on the best way for
them to work together moving forward. While this slowed down the initial curricula approval, it
created a smooth process for future approvals and stronger connections between the divisions
which improved the curricula overall. Participant 3’s story was an example of utilization of the
political frame which Bolman and Deal (2013) explain is all about building relationships.
The symbolic frame is when the leader inspires both people and organizations by
exemplifying energy and visibility, most often through their passion (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
During her interview, Participant 4 explained her passion for change by stating, “But I really, I
love change. Because for me, again, going back to the counseling piece, it’s about human

76
capacity and potential. And I sort of equate change with an expression of capacity and
potential,”. She further explained that this is the frame in which she approaches her work to not
only inspire the best out of her team and colleagues, but through them, the best out of the
students. Table 4.7 provides examples from all the participants on their utilization of the political
and symbolic frames as well as seamlessly switching between all four frames as explained by
Bolman and Deal (2013).
Table 4.7
Evidence of Research Question 1a Theme 1: Reframing
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “You know, AB86, and AEBG, and now CAEP, it offered us this avenue
of opening up new programs and being innovative and helping different
populations that were not being served. And I think looking at it as a
change agent, I guess I didn’t look at myself that way before, but I
dove. I dove right in. And I think it’s a slow process, but nothing wrong
with being the turtle. Any new program. Anything new that you’re
trying to start. Any new innovation. It doesn’t just usually go poof and
be there. It’s a slow process. It’s a learning process. It’s a time-
consuming process.”
Participant 2 “I think, partly because I have a history of effecting change, that people
gravitate toward me to give me the difficult challenges to effect change.
And it might be ... that you need to work on what they’re ... articulating
what those qualities are, because there’s some intangible piece to this
too, that I’m not quite sure I can put my finger on the qualities that I
have. It’s a combination of so many things about who I am, that made
me successful in effecting change that no one has ever taught me.”
Participant 3 P3 shared a work example that occurred early in an interim tenure
where she oversaw faculty. There were many different stakeholder
groups meeting to review curriculum. The initial group of stakeholders
had worked collaboratively to revise curriculum for special populations
and wanted to see it through the process. The secondary group of
stakeholders had been the long-time gatekeepers of the curriculum
process, but since they did not work with special populations, they had
not been part of the original collaboration. There was a major clash
between the two groups that focused on P3 as the new leader who had
been unaware of the underlying challenges. She was called a “terrible
leader” and shared that inside, she felt like crying. However, she relied
on her experiences and recognized that she could reframe the

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Participant Evidence
conversation to focus on the unstated political and symbolic challenges
that were occurring. She capitalized on her strength in building
relationships and active listening skills and was eventually able to
create an environment where not only did the original curriculum get
through the process, but the culture of the group evolved. P3 was
successful in redirecting the group to truly be student-centered focused
which minimized the prior perceived importance of individual
objectives that did not meet the organizations stated goals.
“It’s having the ability to frame the initiative in a way that motivates
everyone and gets everyone on board. And having undeniable and
genuine authentic passion behind that mission, or vision, or initiative.
Right? Because this is the president’s idea, and if I can’t be 100%
behind it ... my language, it’s a language I used every day, too. And you
gotta get your voice. And it has to be strong, and you have to believe it,
because nobody else is going to believe you. The second piece is, you
have to get everybody else to believe it. If they don’t believe it, they’re
not going to do the work around it. And so, getting everybody on board,
and basically cutting off the arms and legs of that second director, and
having him be super, super happy right now, that was really, really
hard. But so, I say that, but it’s like okay, what are the specific things
that I did to get him to be really happy?”
Participant 4 P4 was hesitant to call herself a change agent, but did feel that she
enabled change to occur, “So maybe it’s just the semantics. I don’t
think I make ... Maybe I do make the change, and maybe other people
have experienced it that way. I don’t feel like I make change. I feel like
I facilitate that change is a coming, change is here. You need to
change, let me assist you with that. But I don’t feel like I…actually
make changes.”
“But I really, I love change. Because for me, again, going back to the
counseling piece, it’s about human capacity and potential. And I sort of
equate change with an expression of capacity and potential.”
“I believe my strategy of leading the horse to water, offering carrots
instead of sticks, and trying to model optimism and a ‘can-do’ attitude
arises from my actual lack of authority or power. As a dedicated
feminist (I did women’s studies at … before it was a degree…), I
sometimes feel uncomfortable when I employ what feels like a
traditionally feminine strategy. To counteract that feeling, I cast it in
Buddhist terms: I can’t change other people, only myself. I can’t
change their actions, only my response.”
“I had a random epiphany after writing the above -- I do not have
power, but I have influence. When I reflect on that, I would much rather
have influence than power. Influence means that people trust me and
believe that my actions are not capricious but based in data or

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Participant Evidence
evidence. Power allows people to impose their will on others. I would
rather work with others to do things collaboratively.”
Participant 5 P5 discussed her role of overseeing the AEBG consortium and trying to
get various stakeholders to come to agreement, “I was trying to bridge
these two divisions that had historically not operated in concert even
though we all knew that for students’ sake, we should. But the agendas
were so different. So, I had no authority. So, I had no sticks. I only had
carrots.”. Since she was not the direct supervisor, she had to find
creative ways to get everyone on board with the direction of the group.
“I tend to see things as possibility spaces or opportunity spaces more
than here’s the 49 reasons why that won’t work. But I also ... I’m
realistic, so I’m able to look at, ‘so what are all the things that could go
wrong with this and how am I going to do something proactive to make
sure they don’t happen’. So, I think part of it is my mindset and part of
it is I have a lot of energy.”
Participant 6 “I think it means understanding where you’re at, and where you are
going. And being able to move, not move, but have folks join you on
that journey, be invested in it, and own and share your vision for that
transformation. So, I mean, folks don’t always, you don’t always see it
initially. I mean, I think we’ve all been in that position where we’re
going, what? You know, but eventually you ask enough questions and
you see, ah, I see why this is necessary, how do we do this, where are
we going, what’s the best way? And so, you start having that
conversation. I think that’s what it means to really understand where
you’re at, and to implement.”
All of the women shared stories of relationships; some that they had for a long time and
they nurtured, and others that were more recent and built from contentious situations. But in all
of their stories, the women acknowledged that it was vital for them to give their energy and
attention to these relationships in order for change to occur. They recognized when
circumstances required them to take a step back from a process or activity they were focused on
and instead to actively build relationships with the stakeholders involved. While they agreed this
may take some more time, it was an investment in meeting goals and manifesting long-term
change.

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The participants also shared that they had to model productivity to their stakeholders. It
was important for morale that they were visible and that they exemplified the energy that was
needed for the task at hand. They also all expressed their passion for their work and the
betterment of their students. Their passion manifested outwardly and attracted others to want to
be a part of the work that they were doing, even when it was difficult. These shared
characteristics also helped to build relationships because people recognized the women’s
authenticity which in turn garnered trust. While the women did not use the nomenclature
associated with Bolman and Deal’s concept of reframing, they demonstrated their ability to
seamlessly switch back and forth between the four frames through their stories which Bolman
and Deal (2013) state is the primary factor in leader effectiveness.
License to Help
The second theme in response to RQ1a is the women’s license to help which Miles, Saxl,
and Liberman (1988) state is the definition of a change agent. The participants would use their
agency to advocate for change based on their strong sense of values which were deeply
ingrained, often from childhood. Note throughout the data collected, the participants often
reluctantly refer to themselves as change makers, especially in the beginning of their stories.
However, often by the end of the except they acknowledge that through their drive to help others,
they facilitate change. Excerpts of these stories are provided as evidence of this theme in Table
4.8.
Table 4.8
Summary of Research Question 1a Theme 2: License to Help
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “I facilitate change. I set it up so that change can happen.”

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Participant Evidence
“You know, AB86, and AEBG, and now CAEP, it offered us this avenue of
opening up new programs and being innovative and helping different
populations that were not being served. And I think looking at it as a change
agent, I guess I didn’t look at myself that way before, but I dove… I dove
right in. And I think it’s a slow process, but nothing wrong with being the
turtle. I noticed just with some of the things that just within that one
department, the things that I’ve had to do to have to make that change
happen. And I don’t mean like had to do, but do willingly… But to be able to
go in and open up those doors and really look in and dive into things that
are needed and learn about them and then make those changes, that’s what I
really think about when I think of being a change agent. It’s not just like, oh
I’m gonna change that. It’s the learning, the process you have to go through,
the hours and hours of work, the new friendships, new partnerships, new
collaborations, it’s everything together.”
Participant 2 “Someone sees an issue that needs to be taken care of and I make it start to
happen.”
Participant 3 “I’ve grown to be a person who is resolute in my values. And if I can’t be
aligned with those values and if my institution isn’t aligned with those
values, then I don’t belong here. That’s where I’m ... That’s why I’m coming
out, but this is still very raw. But that’s who I am. That’s what I’m realizing.
This is who I am. And my voice is becoming much firmer and stronger on
these values.”
Participant 4 “So maybe it’s just the semantics. I don’t think I make ... Maybe I do make
the change, and maybe other people have experienced it that way. I don’t
feel like I make change. I feel like I facilitate that change is a’comin’ [sic],
change is here. You need to change, let me assist you with that. But I don’t
feel like I…, actually make changes.”
“And I’m very much a servant transformational leader. So, I’m motivated a
lot by the needs and the interests of people around me. So, there are things
that I probably wouldn’t pursue on my own for…, but by virtue of, oh,
there’s a group of students that have a need, so I go research it and figure
out what to do about it. So I think that’s one of the common themes for me in
my personal life and in my career life, is that I kind of show up with a skill
set, or some experience, or expertise and then the situation calls for someone
to do something, and if I’m there it’ll probably be me. Yeah. So, I was raised
with be of service, and be of good cheer.”
Participant 5 “So, I’ve read a lot of articles about how you actually convince somebody
who you fundamentally disagree with. And all the science says facts don’t do
it. You have to change their heart. And sometimes I feel like I can help with
that, but it feels presumptuous to think you can actually do that. I mean,
people have to come willingly. So, I don’t really know to answer that. I
mean, I don’t know that I’ve been in a position to make systemic changes

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Participant Evidence
about anything. What I have been in a position to do is to create systems that
enable change to happen.”
“I facilitate change. I set it up so that change can happen.”
Participant 6 “And being able to move…not move, but have folks join you on that journey,
be invested in it, and own and share your vision for that transformation. So,
I mean, folks don’t always, you don’t always see it initially. I mean, I think
we’ve all been in that position where we’re going, what? You know? But
eventually you ask enough questions and you see, ah, I see why this is
necessary, how do we do this, where are we going, what’s the best way? And
so, you start having that conversation. I think that’s what it means to really
understand where you’re at, and to implement.”
“And so, I would like to believe that at least some of what I do does make me
a change agent. I mean, we do things differently than we did before. We have
services in place that we didn’t have before. We have people invested that
weren’t invested before. So, it’s a good thing.”
“But I think it just depends on your outlook. I mean, I had many challenges,
but I feel like my parents instilled in me that you keep going, keep moving
forward, to be resilient, and to demonstrate that you can, you know, despite
what’s going on around you, that that’s only one factor, it doesn’t define
you.”
This theme is intricately linked with RQ1’s theme two, own values. While that research
question and theme focused on the participants’ leadership development via values instilled in
when they were young by their parents, others, culture, and their experiences this theme focuses
on how those values affect their agency. The women’s stories demonstrated that as they have
matured in life, gained experiences, and grown in their leadership, they have intentionally
aligned their professional work with their values. Many of the participants shared that they were
more confident in speaking up for what they believed to be right despite any challenges they may
encounter. They explained that this was due to the certainty that it was more important for them
to stand by their beliefs than care what others thought of them personally. Combined, the women
explained that they felt these factors gave them a license to help others, in this case — students.
This theme is supported both by SCT which explains that self-efficacy is informed by one’s

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values (Bandura, 2013) as well as by resilience theory’s concept of thriving which states that one
uses their agency to help others (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Ledesma, 2014).
Courage in Adversity
The final theme related to RQ1a was courage in adversity. The participants shared a
number of stories that demonstrated their ability to be strong, persevere, and be flexible in the
face of opposition. Their stories illustrate how their resilience was the foundation for their
courage and allowed them to move forward regardless of conflict. Table 4.9 provides excepts
from the participants’ interviews and journals that demonstrate their courage in the face of
adversity.
Table 4.9
Summary of Research Question 1a Theme 3: Courage in Adversity
Participant Evidence
Participant 1 “But to be able to go in and open up those doors and really look in and dive
into things that are needed and learn about them and then make those
changes, that’s what I really think about when I think of being a change
agent. It’s not just like, oh I’m gonna’ [sic] change that. It’s the learning, the
process you have to go through, the hours and hours of work, the new
friendships, new partnerships, new collaborations, it’s everything together.”
Participant 2 “I think I shared with you that I was afraid of male authority figures in my
younger years. I remembered the exact moment when I knew I was really
over that fear! A few months ago, we had a leadership team meeting. On that
team are six of my Board members which all happen to be male. One of the
members actually yelled at me during that meeting! I realized that it was his
frustration for not understanding and my fault for not explaining thoroughly.
In the past, I would have sat there and got tears in my eyes, would have cried
and for sure would have been embarrassed. I apologized for not explaining
in a way that he could understand and realized that he was having a bad day
due to a phone call that he had taken earlier during the meeting. He left the
meeting early and he mumbled something about being angry and I joked
with him about him yelling at me. Thankfully, I have that kind of relationship
with him and all was good when he left. Later that night, he emailed me and
apologized for yelling at me and that it wouldn’t happen again! That was a
huge milestone for me that I didn’t realize until now!”

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Participant 3 “So, we had a huge program for our adult population, it was a fee-based
program. It wasn’t supported by the State, so it wasn’t quote, unquote ‘adult
ed’… Well, at some point six years ago, we did away with all the free stuff,
or most of the free stuff. And we decided to develop a fee-based program for
our older adult learners… And so, our new president came in, who we have
right now. And he says, ‘This isn’t right, I want to bring back adult ed. Our
community deserves it.’… And so, what it meant was, this was an empire that
had been built by a team. There was an executive director, two associate
directors, three full time assistants, a program specialist, it was a team
probably about seven or eight people. And my job was to come in and
dismantle that whole program, change everybody’s jobs, and all of a sudden,
the executive director, who was king of the hill, is going to report to me. And
we’re going to dismantle all of these programs that our community had come
to appreciate… We were exclusionary. We were very… marching to our
white, privileged society here. We had very little diversity. We had so many
problems as I started to unpack what this program was, and how much
change needed to happen, and how sort of educating the team I needed to
do. And that was huge. I didn’t really know what I was getting into. I just
said, ‘Sure, I’ll take care of it,’… And if you look at my website, we have one
of his new videos, front and center, about our student..., and his struggle to
get through... come back to college. I mean it’s a beautiful, beautiful story.
And so all of the people that were supporting that, even our community
members, have come around the table with all of our stakeholders, and
they’re all getting educated about what our mission really is. And how do we
do this important work which aligns with the mission. And that community of
retirees in our community, certainly they deserve a seat at the table, and
we’re serving them too. But we’re serving everybody else. And so, huge,
huge shift. And it’s a mission, and a vision, that everybody can get behind.
Everybody. And so that is how I effected that change.”
Participant 4 “But I think conflict is also that opportunity for change. And since I’m not
afraid of change ... I don’t like conflict, but I’m not afraid of conflict,
because I think if it’s handled well, and if people are genuine, and if enough
time is given to it, and what’s the motivation of the characters involved, I
think it really can strengthen and lead to some really good change.”
“And so, it allowed me even as someone who didn’t yet have the experience
behind her, or the variety of experiences to be able to step in and perhaps do
more than what I was technically ready for. But I’m a creative being, and I
just, you know, you just get it done. But that trust factor, I’ve had
administrators who have trusted me, I’ve had co-workers who have trusted
me, students, community members. It just makes a huge difference because
you can blow it and recover. Yeah. And I have blown it. Oh yeah.”
Participant 5 “And bring more people along. Demonstrate success and bring more people
along with that. But I don’t think any one person can make any change in
anything except themselves. And I think it also means that whoever this
"transformational leader" or "change leader" or "change agent" person, has

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to be actively compassionate all the time, so that when somebody is resisting
and says, ‘I don’t believe your data. What you’re trying to do is wrong. It
threatens me.’."
“When I’m in that situation and I hear that, I always think to myself, ‘Okay,
they’re not saying that because they don’t like you. They’re not saying that
for anything other than they have some reason that they’re saying that.’ And
to try and be compassionate and put myself in their shoes and say, ‘What is
it that’s making them say that?’ It’s not just because they’re ornery or
contrary. There has to be something that’s real for them or feels threatening
to them. And if I can just validate their feelings about it and hear what it is,
maybe I can move them a little bit or at least treat them with respect as
opposed to saying, ‘you’re full of it!’.”
“I have been thinking about some of the times I have had to pull myself
through tough events, disappointments, exhaustion, or just feeling really
burnt out. It never occurs to me to just give up or quit. But I have to go
through a lot of emotion before I move on. I feel like there are different
brands of resilience, and my version is to be determined and persistent. I am
also realistic. Sometimes I just have to ask myself if this is the hill I want to
die on.”
Participant 6 “…I found myself to be doing a huge amount of the work that my director
should have been doing. And then I thought, I was angry, you know, I went
through all the stages. I couldn’t believe it, I was angry. And then after a
while I was like, you know what, this is true, it’s more work than I’m
supposed to be doing, but it’s also helped me learn and it’s an opportunity,
and you know, where do I go from here? And she actually gave somebody
else a contract, didn’t even ask me, and hired someone else as an interim
before I was associate director. And that just really hurt, you know, I was
like, wow the injustice again, you know? I’ve been doing the work for two
years trying to prove to you that I’m capable, you don’t even consider me,
you give somebody else the job. But I told her all of this. And then I did an
interview and was given that associate director position. But that was also, I
have to say that that was just like, I was so angry. I don’t know if I’ve ever
been more angry I think in my professional life. Yeah, that was not good. But
it helped me grow. So, you know, at the same time I was like, had she not
given me that opportunity, then I probably wouldn’t have learned as much as
I did, or you know, gained the confidence probably too, the confidence to
move forward and believe that if she could do it, then, you know, and if I was
doing it, then I probably could do it. And I should attempt to do it, I guess,
officially.”
The women’s stories demonstrated that they did not seek out adversity but that they were
drawn to situations where they felt they could make a positive impact for students or their
organization. Therefore, after considering the consequences they were willing to use their own

85
social capital to see the project or situation through despite the obstacles. When asked why she
was willing to take on difficult projects, Participant 4 stated, “…I think conflict is also that
opportunity for change. And since I’m not afraid of change... I don’t like conflict, but I’m not
afraid of conflict, because I think if it’s handled well, and if people are genuine, and if enough
time is given to it, and what’s the motivation of the characters involved, I think it really can
strengthen and lead to some really good change.”
In one of her journal entries, Participant 5 gave examples of both professional and
personal situations that were incredibly difficult. She shared that she internally processes the
situation and decides if it is something for which she is willing to fight.
“I have been thinking about some of the times I have had to pull myself through
tough events, disappointments, exhaustion, or just feeling really burnt out. It
never occurs to me to just give up or quit. But I have to go through a lot of
emotion before I move on. I feel like there are different brands of resilience, and
my version is to be determined and persistent. I am also realistic. Sometimes I just
have to ask myself if this is the hill I want to die on.”
The women’s stories spoke frequently of conflict, usually external conflict, but
sometimes conflict residing in their own thoughts. They also shared that they believed they
would survive regardless of the circumstances. When they encountered a situation that was or
could be rife with conflict but if overcome, would reap benefits for students, others, or the
organization, the women would explicitly choose to engage in it regardless of any fear they may
have. Even though the specifics of each story varied, each participant emphasized that the
decision of whether or not to engage was conscious and intentional. Being a change maker
invites conflict since often people are afraid of change (Heifetz & Linsky, 2004; Marcus, 2014;

86
Reed & Blaine, 2015) as was illustrated in the data. This behavior is explained by the concept of
thriving in resilience theory, which states that one’s internal belief that they will overcome
challenges frees them to act even though they may be afraid (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b;
Ledesma, 2014; Richardson, 2002).
Through the examination of the relationship between conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female change makers in education, three themes emerged from the
collected data: the women’s ability to reframe their thinking and actions in order to more
effectively lead, the women’s belief that they had a license to help people, situations, and their
organizations; and the women’s ability to be courageous in adversity which allowed them to be
strong, persevere, and be flexible in order to allay fears, notably those that would impede
transformational change.
Summary
Women’s leadership in education, especially in community colleges, has been increasing
(Campbell et al., 2010; Cejda, 2008) as has the literature on the challenges and barriers for
women in educational leadership (Campbell et al., 2010; Cejda, 2008; Drury, 2010; Enke, 2014;
Gangone, 2009; Gillett-Karam, 2001; Marshall, 2009; Tedrow & Rhoads, 1999). However,
women’s voices have been noticeably absent when it comes to leadership development. Through
triangulation of the autoethnographic data from the researchers’ story and the six participants’
interviews and journal entries, the findings provide factors that contribute to women forging
themselves as educational leaders and examines the convergence of conflict and resilience on
women’s agency as leaders in education. This study revealed seven themes that align with
current literature regarding women’s leadership development, and how conflict and resilience
impact leaders and their development. Table 4.10 provides a summary of all themes for both

87
research questions. The following chapter addresses how these findings may help educators
inform their training of women aspiring to be agentic leaders in the field of education.
Table 4.10
Summary of Themes
Research Question Methodology Themes
Question 1: What factors
contribute to women forging
themselves as educational
leaders?
Interviews &
Journal Entries
External factors (encourages leadership),
One’s own values (drive, goals and
governed behavior), Own skills and abilities
— including sense of humor (developed
leadership), & Conflict experienced —
often experienced at a young age and/or
gender-based (formed educational
leadership)
Question 1a: What is the
juxtaposition of conflict and
resiliency in developing
effective female agentic
leaders in education?
Interviews &
Journal Entries
Reframing (mastery of the political and
symbolic frames), License to help (agentic
advocate for change based on own values),
& Courage in adversity (ability to be strong,
persevere, and be flexible in order to allay
fears)

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
With 64% of all higher education administrators being women yet the majority of senior-
level leaders being male (Enke, 2014), the purpose of this study was to examine the factors that
contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders and to answer how individual
experiences of conflict and resilience affected women educational leaders’ ability to be
influencers in education. Based on the conceptual framework of Bennis’ and Thomas’ (2002b)
heroes’ journey this autoethnographic study utilized the stories of women to make meaning of
how they became influential educational leaders who used their own agency to positively impact
their institutions. Autoethnography, in the context of this study, is predicated on rich data coming
from multiple sources — the researcher and the participants. This study incorporated not only the
researcher’s autobiographical data via writings from personal memory/recollection, self-
observation, self-reflection, and self-analysis, but also external interviews and journal entries
from six participants. The richness and variety of this data enhanced the credibility of the stories
being told as well as the interpretation through triangulation of data sources (Chang et al., 2013).
By collecting and analyzing women’s personal stories, the results of this research found that
women educational leaders both subconsciously and consciously use their experiences of conflict
and resilience to increase their agency and thereby facilitate change within their spheres of
influence. Potentially, if this process could be taught and learned by more of the 64% of women
higher education administrators, perhaps more of them would be able to obtain senior-level
leadership and affect meaningful change within their organizations.
Discussion of Findings
Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb (2011) state that, “how people become leaders and how they take up
the leader role are fundamentally questions about identity,”. Furthermore, leaders possess

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resilience that allow them to learn from their experiences — both the good and the bad — and
find meaning in them which then informs their identity. Therefore, it was important for this study
to focus on women’s voices, heard through their stories, in order to determine how their
leadership abilities were developed and if cycles of conflict and resilience affected their agency
professionally. Whether it was the researcher’s own story or those of the six non-researcher
participants told through their interviews and journal entries, all of the data showed repeated
patters of conflict and challenges experienced throughout the participants’ lives followed by not
just resiliency but thriving.
Howard and Irving (2014) argued that the competency of overcoming hardships should
be considered a critical factor in leadership development. While the women did not initially
consider their leadership development to be forged from hardships, throughout the course of their
interviews and writings, they shared numerous conflicts that impacted them in a variety of ways.
Every one of the women, researcher and non-researcher participants, told stories of conflict
experienced during their formative years. Sometimes this conflict was in the form of familial
dysfunction as with the Participants 1, 2, and 5 as well as the researcher. In other instances the
conflict was external such as combating racial stereotypes due to the family coming from another
country as with Participants 3, 4, and 6. All of the participants experienced some kind of conflict
either in their youth and/or early adulthood due to gender-bias, androcentric bias, and role
incongruity. The women expressed these memories affected not only their decision to have a
career in education but also informed their ideas of leadership.
While all of the participants experienced issues related to their gender, they also all
demonstrated that they possessed leadership characteristics that were historically associated with
men. For instance, stories were shared where the women exemplified independence, efficiency,

90
control, rationality, and accountability which are traits typically considered masculine (Carli &
Eagly, 2007; Epp et al., 1994; Iverson et al., 2017). The participants often shared that these skills
were born out of their experiences and how they saw leadership modeled. Through analysis of
the women’s holistic stories, the findings concur that their lived experiences informed their self-
awareness, self-confidence, and self-efficacy, similarly to the researcher’s as stated in her story,
which is supported by social cognitive theory literature (Bandura, 1989; Bandura, 2000;
Bandura, 2013). It is worth noting that individual personality traits were not explicitly examined
within this study. However, personality does manifest when examining the data. Specifically, the
researcher as well as a couple of the non-researcher participants tended to show that they were
risk-takers even as young leaders. This aspect of their personalities would historically be
considered an appropriate male trait and less acceptable for females (Carli & Eagly, 2007;
Iverson et al., 2017) and perhaps attributed to some of the gender-related conflict they
experienced. However, this facet of their personalities also likely contributed to their internal
drive to seek out leadership opportunities (Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Bolman & Deal, 1994;
Northouse, 2016).
A reliable predictor of great leadership is one’s ability to thrive and find meaning in
negative events (Bennis & Thomas, 2002a). A repeated theme amongst the data was the
participants’ resilience. They often stated that they did not see themselves as helpless when they
faced challenges because they had repeatedly thrived by overcoming obstacles in the past. The
women described their tenacity and increasing confidence in themselves as positively impacting
their leadership. However, each of the women noted that they had earned reputations as being
willing to tackle the difficult jobs. They shared that this began with simply being willing to step-
up when others weren’t. Then, as they learned new skills and increased their abilities, they

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became known as “Jill’s-of-all-trades,” as coined by Participant 4. Finally, they were either at, or
entering, a place in their leadership where they felt they were able to tackle the issues aligned
with their morals and values, which often tended to be the ones most entrenched in challenges
such as student equity and access. Through these experiences, the women were recognized
professionally as facilitators of adaptive change for their organizations and often attracted
conflict because of the change occurring.
Many of the participants described themselves as facilitators of change. Participant 4
described herself as a servant, transformational leader. Participant 1 said she recently had come
to acknowledge that she “has a little change maker” in her. Participant 3 shared she had been,
“riding this wave of being a powerful female leader”. When prompted, they all attributed the
description to their integrity, courageousness, and willingness to fight for what was right. They
passionately told stories about the work they had accomplished while leading their CAEP
consortia and how it positively impacted the lives of students. The women were describing
themselves as agentic advocates for change, change makers, change agents, and influencers, all
of which are the embodiment of a transformational leader (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Burbank,
2017; Miles et al., 1988).
Interestingly, initially about half of the women shied away from characterizing
themselves as transformational leaders. They referred to that type of leadership as something for
which they aspire. However, as the interviews continued and most notably in the journal entries
which were all written after the interviews, these women stated they had been thinking about
what they had shared in their interviews regarding their leadership styles. They had reached the
conclusion that even though they had never thought to call themselves as such, they were in fact
transformational leaders. The participants that had described themselves as transformational

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leaders during their interviews shared that they were even more confident and actually proud of
their earned agency upon reflection of all that they had endured and accomplished.
Finally, the idea of attracting change and conflict which was initially mentioned in
reference to being a transformational leader, was a concept that all of the participants brought up
during data collection. Participant 3 stated in her interview, “So, here's this interesting thing
about change. I think every leadership job or position I’ve been in has required... [long pause]. It
feels like it’s required an astounding amount of change. And so, my question, in fact, to you,
would be, does every leadership position require it? This isn’t just me and who I am? And why I
am I put in these situations?”. Research states that the most successful leaders are both conflict
amplifiers and risk takers (Bolman & Deal, 1994) which was corroborated by the participants’
data. Participant 4 further explained, “I think conflict is also that opportunity for change. And
since I’m not afraid of change... I don’t like conflict, but I’m not afraid of conflict, because I
think if it’s handled well… I think it really can strengthen and lead to some really good change,”.
The data showed that the women developed their leadership in education through a wide
variety of experiences beginning in their childhood where they learned what it meant to be a
“good leader”. They also acknowledged that they each had a diverse and complex set of personal
and professional conflicts that they had overcome which built-up their resilience, self-efficacy,
and confidence. As they thrived, they took on more and more challenges in their educational
leadership. These successes combined with their integrity, values, and passion for their work
attracted new challenges that while ripe for transformational change were also rife with conflict.
Thus, the cycle would repeat. The women’s journeys personified Bandura’s (1989; 2000; 2012)
social cognitive theory as well as resilience theory (Ledesma, 2014) especially as it relates to the
concept of the heroes’ journey (Bennis & Thomas, 2002a; Bennis & Thomas, 2002b).

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This study strove to provide insight into the reciprocal relationship between conflict and
resilience as it relates to the agentic leadership of women in education through autoethnography
which allows for intersectionality to be the overarching interpretive framework for making
meaning of personal experiences (Hernandez et al., 2015). True to the nature of autoethnography
(Chang, 2013), the researcher underwent a transformative process of meaning-making by
analyzing disparate fragments of her life in relationship to one another as well as to those of the
non-researcher participants. Surprisingly to the researcher, the non-researcher participants
expressed their own leadership transformations in their journal entries which they attributed to
their reflection of the overt interview questions of conflict, resilience, and their leadership over
the subsequent weeks while they were journaling. This examination into the female story and the
power it has to transform resiliency into agency is why this study was conducted.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
Upon completion of the data analysis, the researcher perceived that the characteristics of
agentic women leaders in higher education are changing. Leadership qualities that have long
been considered traditionally male traits due to androcentric bias and role incongruity (Eagly &
Karau, 2002; Epp et al., 1994) are more frequently being employed by females as demonstrated
in the participants’ stories. Furthermore, women are more noticeably beginning to embrace their
agency in order to facilitate change for their organizations. This combined with the fact that 64%
of all higher education administrators are actually female (Enke, 2014) and that higher education
as a whole is currently facing an incredible amount of challenges implies that institutes of higher
education may already have the people who can solve those challenges within their employ.
Institutions of higher education could intentionally create leadership development
programs that train women and men how to harness their resilience in order to purposely

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exercise their agency. Literature has shown that resilient leaders determinedly find solutions to
problems and in doing so, increase their adaptative capacity which in turn allows them to take on
larger and/or more complicated problems (Bennis & Thomas, 2002a). These professional
development programs should have modules interwoven into them on androcentric bias and role
incongruity in order for the participants to be able to confront their implicit and explicit biases.
This is crucial for two reasons; the first being that often people do not realize they have these
biases about other people nor towards themselves. As was repeatedly shown in the results of the
study, the participants often did not think of themselves as agentic or transformational leaders —
those were words that described people they considered better than they were. Yet when
examples of their leadership were given and upon reflection, the participants proved to the
researcher and themselves that they personified those descriptions as well. Secondly,
androcentric bias is particularly apparent in the selection and promotion of both interim and
permanent leadership positions (Carli & Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Epp et al., 1994;
Iverson et al., 2017; Young, 2004). Hence, women in educational leadership and those trying to
get into administration seem to be particularly susceptible to conflicting gender norms which
impedes their ability to be transformational leaders within their organizations.
Institutes of higher education should also train their employees how to positively handle
conflict and that it is not, in and of itself, bad or something to be feared. As the literature in this
study has shown, how one handles conflict is a learned behavior — first learned as a child from
watching how others deal with conflict and then reinforced by one’s own experiences with
conflict (Bandura, 1989; Bandura, 2000; Sandy et al., 2014). Therefore, everyone has a different
way of handling conflict. However, the management of conflict should be of particular
importance to higher education since the process of resolving conflict leads to change (Marcus,

95
2014) and heavily influences change efforts and their success. Someone’s ability to manage
conflict is an indicator of how they will handle and affect change (Sandy, 2014; Sandy et al.,
2014). The participants all shared that they were not afraid of change and while they did not
necessarily like conflict, they understood conflict to be the fulcrum point of change. Therefore,
they learned to thrive when dealing with conflict so that change could occur. Additionally,
agentic leaders themselves may appear dangerous to others and even their own organizations
since change brings about conflict (Heifetz, 2006). If more people in higher education truly
understood the true nature of conflict, perhaps the inherent fear of loss and danger that often
accompanies conflict (Heifetz & Linsky, 2004) would be mitigated.
Recommendations for Future Studies
This study examined the heroes’ journeys of seven women through autoethnography —
the researcher as well as six agentic women leaders in higher education. Due to the limitations of
this study, there are recommendations for future research. This study was collected at a single
point in time which may have limited the generalizability of the study’s outcome. Additionally,
all participants in this study are from California, therefore, the results may not apply nationally
or globally. While age was not asked nor an intentional aspect of this study, all of the
participants shared that they were middle-aged to within a few years of retirement.
Consequently, the voices of young female educational leaders were not captured. Lastly, this
study relies solely on self-reported data. Therefore, a longitudinal, qualitative study including
observations conducted of a broader geographic and age range may mitigate any external validity
inherent in this study and add to the literature.

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Conclusion
This study identified the factors that contribute to women forging themselves as
educational leaders and it examined the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in developing
female agentic leaders in education through women’s stories. Agentic women leaders in
education have endured a variety of conflict throughout their lives and in doing so, learned to
thrive. They have applied these skills to developing their leadership and subsequently positively
impacting their organizations. Yet there are still a number of challenges both for the women in
this study as well as those they represent. With 64% of the administrators in higher education
being women, institutions have an untapped resource of potential agentic leaders able to take on
the incredible number of problems in education today with the ultimate goal of helping students
achieve success.
This is a female story. Many of the experiences described are inherent to being a woman
such as those relating to androcentric bias and role incongruity (Eagly & Karau, 2002). While
both men and women are leaders, historically the characteristics associated with being a leader
have been perceived as masculine traits (Bennis & Thomas, 2002b; Bolman & Deal, 1994;
Bolman & Deal, 2013; Northouse, 2016). This is interesting in light of the fact that research has
shown that women more frequently tend to exhibit characteristics of transformational leadership
and enact greater change than male leaders (Iverson et al., 2017; Young, 2004). Literature has
shown that the transformational aspect of resilience is what is harnessed by leaders (Bennis &
Thomas, 2002) which was corroborated by the data collected in this study.
Conflict is all around; the world we live in is saturated with it (Tjosvold, 2006). However,
the process of resolving conflict is what leads to change in ideas, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions,
roles, behaviors, relationships, and norms (Marcus, 2014). It is important to note that the process

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is what leads to change, not the actual resolution of the conflict. Resilience is the adaptive coping
trait that allows an individual to overcome hardships (Christman & McClellan, 2012; Howard &
Irving, 2014), it occurs within the process of resolving conflict. When an individual is able to be
so resilient that they thrive from conflict, they undergo a cognitive transformation which elevates
their ability to function (Ledesma, 2014). The agency that is developed from thriving is the
power utilized by the most effective leaders (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Christman &
McClellan, 2012; Howard & Irving, 2014; Ledesma, 2014; Reed & Blaine, 2015). Women,
specifically women educational leaders like the participants in this study, have and continue to
experience an incredible amount of conflict from which they have been able to thrive. If shown
how and encouraged to employ their agency in order to address the conflicts in education that are
hindering student success, these women would potentially be able to affect institutional and
systemic change effectively impacting education in a profound way.

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APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Rossier School of Education 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN WOMEN LEADERS OF EDUCATIONAL CHANGE

You are invited to participate in a dissertation research study conducted by Jesse Crete, doctoral
candidate at the University of Southern California, because you are a female educational leader
who is also an Adult Education Block Grant consortia lead. Your participation is voluntary. You
should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form.
You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you decide to
participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will utilize the stories of women to make meaning of how they became educational
leaders. It will also examine the role conflict and resilience may have played in their leadership
development. The author’s own story will be the autoethnographic component of this study and
will inform the questions asked of the participants via interviews and journaling. The purpose of
this study is to put greater attention towards the characteristics and the effectiveness of female
leaders by investigating the relationship between conflict and resilience in female educational
leaders who demonstrate agency of change within their sphere of influence.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in one interview and
approximately one- to two-hours in length as well as complete twice-weekly journal entries for
the four consecutive weeks following the in-person interview.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks associated with participating in this study.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no direct benefits to participants, but there are anticipated benefits to society regarding
understanding women educational leaders and the role conflict and resilience play in helping them
become agents of change, contingent upon the results of this study.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for participating in this research study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
I will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if I am
required to do so by law, I will disclose confidential information about you. The members of the
research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program
(HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights
and welfare of research subjects.

109
The data will be stored on the researchers’ USC cloud drive until the completion of the study. Only
the research team will have access to the audio/video-recordings or transcripts.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies
because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jesse Crete:
Principal Investigator. Phone: 805.729.0858 Email: crete@usc.edu Address: 3470 Trousdale
Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO/VIDEO/PHOTOGRAPHS
□ I agree to be audio/video-recorded /photographed

□ I do not want to be audio/video-recorded /photographed

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe that
he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

110
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL – CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN WOMEN
LEADERS OF EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
I. Introduction (appreciation, purpose, line of inquiry, plan, confidentiality, reciprocity,
consent to participate, permission to record):

First and foremost, I would like to thank you for agreeing to participate in my dissertation
research study and for making the time to be interviewed. I anticipate the interview being
approximately one to two hours; does that work with your schedule?

Before we begin, I would like to take a moment to share the purpose of my study and answer any
questions you may have about this interview. I am currently an Educational Leadership doctoral
student at USC and am conducting my dissertation on women who are change makers in
education. I am particularly interested in understanding the factors that have contributed to these
women becoming change makers as well as how any conflict and/or resilience they have
experienced has played a role in their development as leaders. In addition to interviewing women
who are change makers in education, I am asking them to reflect on their leadership and
instances of conflict and resilience through weekly journal entries for one month.

My role is strictly that of researcher. I will not be evaluating your performance as a leader based
on anything that comes out of the interview or journals. Furthermore, this interview is
confidential so your name and perspectives will not be shared with anyone outside of the
research team. If you do not mind, I would like to use my phone to record our interview for
accuracy. I will also be taking notes, but by recording the interview I can insure complete and
exact data collection. The recording is solely for my purpose and will not be shared with anyone
outside of the research team. May I have your permission to record our conversation?

The data I collect for this study via interviews and journals will be used for my dissertation as a
requirement of my doctoral program. I may use some of what you say as direct quotes, but I will
use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and nothing will be directly attributed to you.

Do you have any questions regarding the study or interview process before we begin? If you do
not have any (further) questions, then could I have your permission to begin the interview?

II. Setting the Stage (developing rapport and priming the mind, demographic items of
interest – e.g. position, role, etc.):

I would like to start by learning a bit about you and your background.
• Would you begin by telling me about your background in education?
o How did you get into education?
o How long have you worked in education?
o What roles or positions have you held?
• Now let’s talk specifically about your experience with the Adult Education Block Grant
(AEBG): how did you begin your career in AEBG?
o Tell me about your role as an AEBG consortium lead.

111

III. Heart of the Interview (interview questions are directly tied to research questions):

Let’s turn our focus to you as a woman and educational leader.
1. What factors do you think have helped to make you the leader in education that you are
today?
2. What do you think it means to be a change maker/agentic leader/change agent?
3. Do you consider yourself to be a change maker? Why or why not?

I would now like to ask you some questions regarding conflict and resilience
4. How do you define conflict? / What does conflict mean to you?
5. How do you define resilience? / What does being resilient mean to you?
6. What types of conflict or challenges have you experienced in your life that you feel have
helped make you the leader you are today?

IV. Closing Question (anything else to add):

That concludes all the prepared questions I had for today. Is there anything you would like to add
that you think may be pertinent to the study?

V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):

I can’t thank you enough both for your time and candor in sharing your thoughts with me today.
Your openness will be very helpful for my study. If I happen to have any follow-up questions,
would it be alright if I contacted you via email or phone? Which would you prefer? Again,
thank you for participating in my study.

VI. Post interview summary and reflection:
[ADD shortly after each interview]

Research Question Interview Question Type of Question
What factors contribute to
women forging themselves as
educational leaders?
What factors do you think have
helped to make you the leader in
education that you are today?
Experience
What is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female
change makers in education?
What do you think it means to be a
change maker/agentic leader/change
agent?
Opinion
What is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female
change makers in education?
Do you consider yourself to be a
change maker? Why or why not?
Experience

112
Research Question Interview Question Type of Question
What is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female
change makers in education?
How do you define conflict? / What
does conflict mean to you?
Opinion
What is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female
change makers in education?
How do you define resilience? /
What does being resilient mean to
you?
Opinion
What is the juxtaposition of
conflict and resiliency in
developing effective female
change makers in education?
What types of conflict or challenges
have you experienced in your life
that you feel have helped make you
the leader you are today?
Experience

113
APPENDIX C: JOURNAL PROTOCOL – CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN WOMEN
LEADERS OF EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
I. Introduction:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my dissertation research study and for making the time
to reflect on your experiences via journal entries over the next four weeks.

Before you begin to write your journals, I would like to take a moment to share the purpose of
my study and answer any questions you may have about this interview. I am currently an
Educational Leadership doctoral student at USC and am conducting my dissertation on women
who are change makers in education. I am particularly interested in understanding the factors
that have contributed to these women becoming change makers as well as how any conflict
and/or resilience they have experienced has played a role in their development as leaders. In
addition to these weekly journals, I will be interviewing women who are change makers in
education.

My role is strictly that of researcher. I will not be evaluating your performance as a leader based
on anything that comes out of the journals or interviews. Furthermore, these journals are
confidential, so your name and perspectives will not be shared with anyone outside of the
research team. If you do not mind, I would like to use Google Docs to capture the journaling.
That will ensure I read exactly what you mean to say without any misinterpretation of
handwriting and that there is no transit time in getting hand-written journals delivered. May I
have your permission to use Google Docs? You may access the Google Doc at:
_________________

The data I collect for this study via journals and interviews will be used for my dissertation as a
requirement of my doctoral program. I may use some of what you say as direct quotes, but I will
use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and nothing will be directly attributed to you.

Do you have any questions regarding the study or journaling process before we begin?

II. Journal Instructions:

• Please complete two (2) journal entries each week for the next four (4) consecutive weeks.
(this will occur following our in-person interview)
o Each entry should be no more than 2-pages per day

III. Journal Content:

• Your journal entries are free-form and do not have specific prompts for each day. However,
given the research study subject matter, please keep the following topics in mind while
writing. Depending on your personal reflections, not every topic will necessarily be written
about in each entry.

114
o Please reflect on your current role as an educational leader and share any thoughts
and experiences – recent or past, regarding the factors that have contributed to you
being the educational leader that you are today.
o Throughout your journal entries, please reflect and write on issues of conflict, big or
small, that you encounter during this period.
o Finally, please include examples of when you feel you have exercised resilience
during the journaling period.

Asset Metadata

Creator Crete, Jesse (Jessica) (author)

Core Title Conflict and resilience in women leaders of educational change

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/19/2020

Defense Date 07/17/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag agency,agentic leader,autoethnography,community college,conflict,educational change,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,phenomenological,qualitative,resilience,transformational leader,Women,women's leadership

Language English

Advisor Hasan, Leila (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Greiner, A. Cathleen (committee member)

Creator Email crete@usc.edu,jcrete@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-370935

Unique identifier UC11666146

Identifier etd-CreteJesse-8985.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-370935 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CreteJesse-8985.pdf

Dmrecord 370935

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Crete, Jesse (Jessica)

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This autoethnography was designed to investigate the relationship between conflict and resilience in female educational leaders who use their agency to facilitate change within their spheres of influence through the lenses of social cognitive theory (SCT) and resilience theory. The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders, as well as to examine the juxtaposition of conflict and resiliency in helping to develop effective female agentic leaders in education. Utilizing autoethnography, the writings of the researcher were analyzed to develop the research questions and determine the characteristics of the six non-researcher participants. Qualitative interviews were conducted with each non-researcher participant followed by eight weeks of reflective journaling. Literature was used heavily to identify codes from the researcher’s writings that were then applied to and expanded upon the non-researcher data through the use of the qualitative analysis software. The coded data was then analyzed again from which emerged themes in response to the study’s research questions. A phenomenological approach that examines experiences through individuals’ own perceptions was utilized throughout the data collection and analysis in order to maintain alignment with the theoretical framework of the study, specifically resilience theory. This study revealed seven themes that align with current literature regarding women’s leadership development, and how conflict and resilience impact leaders and their development. With 64% of the administrators in higher education being women, institutions have an untapped resource of potential agentic leaders able to take on the incredible number of problems in education today with the ultimate goal of helping students achieve success.