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Leadership in an age of technology disruption: an evaluation study

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Leadership in an Age of Technology Disruption: An Evaluation Study
by
Peter S. Maharaj

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Peter S. Maharaj

ii
Dedication
To my mother, Josephine Alcala, your love, guidance, mentoring, leadership, positive
energy and work ethic—your beaming smile is a catalyst for having an amazing day and
recognizing the beauty of life and the value of others. You have always said, “An education is
the passport to life.” These teachings, along with many others, are the fundamentals to the
foundation of my life, my work and who I have become as a son, a brother, a father, and a
contributor to this world.
To my father, Maniram Boboy Maharaj—I am sorry you are not with me to see your son
achieve the pinnacle of his education journey. My memory of you, your teachings, and your
witty comments exist with your son. You were an accomplished businessman, racehorse owner,
trainer and master tactician—thank you for giving me the opportunity to learn from you, observe
your business acumen and be a silent achiever. Success never comes easy, you have to wake up,
get cracking, and push through to achieve the goals and, most importantly, have fun along the
way.
My siblings—Vida, Ricky, Ronald, Lou-Ann—and brothers-in-law, Piero and Rakesh,
thank you for your love, encouragement through the years, and support of my education journey.
To my grandson, Jeremiah, whom I first met in December of 2019, at the tender age of one
month. You have had a profound positive impact on my life by providing a unique perspective
of love, rediscovering the need for patience, and making me smile every day. I want you to
know Papa loves you. Stay focused, work hard, read daily, surround yourself with good people,
be adventurous, and have a positive influence on the lives of others. To my daughter, Roshni,
whose independence and drive makes me proud of the lady you are becoming.

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To my future wife, it’s good that we are getting this project completed before we begin
our lives and family—this was a tough one. Your calmness, the many moments of support,
sincerity, smiles and positive approach to me and people around you ignite my drive and passion
for life. I love and appreciate you deeply. Looking forward to our adventures—Kob Khun Kub
(ขอบคุณครับ).

iv
Acknowledgements
This dissertation is dedicated to the many individuals who have supported my
professional and personal development, the people I have interacted with and the opportunities
bestowed upon me. I am grateful for the good and the challenging opportunities which have
shaped my vision and allowed me to realize the impact we have on one another and the
continued dedication to making a positive influence on others. We are here for a short period of
time, and it is imperative that we make the best of every day, positively, becoming the beacon of
light and inspiration for future generations.
Thank you to my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, for your
guidance and patience, and for making me a better student by pushing me to the uncomfortable
zone and allowing me to discover a pathway of constructive review throughout my time at USC.
To my committee members, Dr. Eric Canny and Dr. Jennifer Phillips, for being a positive
influence and knowledgeable professors throughout the program. The examples you provided in
class, our one-on-one discussions, and words of inspiration have helped me tremendously
throughout the program and life.
My heartfelt thanks to my classmates and close friends, who have been there for me
during times of doubt and uncertainty. I am appreciative of you for not allowing me to give up
and thank you for not giving up on me. My “brother,” George McCalmon, I have known you
since 1997, and you have been one of my greatest supporters in my professional and academic
journey. I am forever grateful for your continued support and calm demeanor. Jamie Staff, I
applaud you and appreciate the many conversations, your words of encouragement, and our
Olympic journey to the London 2012 Games. Many of the principals written in this dissertation

v
are a reflection of our conversations and the coaching knowledge and motivating those around
us—Always Compete, Always Fight On!

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Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. x
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... xi
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Organizational Context and Mission ............................................................................. 4
Organizational Performance Goal ........................................................................... 4
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal ................................................ 5
Organizational Performance Status ......................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Project and Questions ...................................................................... 6
Importance of Addressing the Problem ................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature .............................................................................................. 10
Leveraging Technology ......................................................................................... 10
Data Collection and Mining .................................................................................. 12
Data Science .......................................................................................................... 13
Data Dashboards and Visualization ....................................................................... 13
Student Enrollment ................................................................................................ 14
Enrollment Strategies ............................................................................................ 15
Enrollment growth. .................................................................................... 16
Retention. ................................................................................................... 17
Operational Efficiency ........................................................................................... 18
Performance-Based Funding ................................................................................. 19
Clark and Estes’s (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Framework ............................................................................................................. 20
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ................... 21
Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................ 21
Knowledge influences. .............................................................................. 22
Motivation ............................................................................................................. 25
Self-Efficacy: Confidence in management efforts. Build the confidence of
the college leadership team. ...................................................................... 26
Expectancy-Value: Perceived value of work. Assist the FC vice
presidents, deans, and directors in recognizing the value of their
interactions with and adoption of technology for strategic success. ......... 27

vii
Organization .......................................................................................................... 28
Cultural setting: Developing interdepartmental communication. ............. 29
Cultural setting: Roles and responsibilities. .............................................. 30
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Staff Knowledge and Motivation with
Organizational Context .......................................................................................... 31
Summary ................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3: Methods ....................................................................................................................... 36
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................... 36
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale ............................................... 39
Interview or Focus Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ......... 39
Qualitative Data Collection ................................................................................... 39
Interviews. ................................................................................................. 40
Document Analysis ................................................................................... 41
Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 43
Results and Findings for Research Question 1 ...................................................... 44
What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve
100% adoption of technology to support student success? ....................... 44
Knowledge Findings .............................................................................................. 45
Knowledge of Technology Adoption .................................................................... 46
Motivation Findings .............................................................................................. 58
Results and Findings for Research Question 2 ...................................................... 64
What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of
stakeholder knowledge and motivation? ................................................... 64
Organizational Findings ........................................................................................ 65
Cultural Setting: Developing Inter-Department Communication. ............ 65
Cultural Setting: Roles and Responsibilities. ............................................ 67
Summary ................................................................................................................ 70
Chapter 5: Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 72
Knowledge Recommendations .............................................................................. 72
Procedural knowledge. .......................................................................................... 73
Motivation Recommendations ............................................................................... 73
Self-Efficacy: Confidence in management efforts. ................................... 75
Expectancy-Value: Perceived value of work. ............................................ 76
Organization Recommendations ........................................................................... 77
Cultural settings. ........................................................................................ 78
Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 80
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................... 81

viii
Level 3: Behavior .................................................................................................. 82
Critical behaviors. ...................................................................................... 82
Required drivers. ....................................................................................... 84
Organizational support. ............................................................................. 86
Level 2: Learning .................................................................................................. 87
Program ..................................................................................................... 87
Evaluation of the Components of Learning ............................................... 88
Level 1: Reaction ................................................................................................... 89
Evaluation Tools: ....................................................................................... 90
Delay for a period after the program implementation: .............................. 90
Data Analysis and Reporting: .................................................................... 91
Summary ................................................................................................................ 91
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................... 92
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................. 93
Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 94
Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ........................................................................... 96
Appendix B: Credibility and Trustworthiness ....................................................... 99
Appendix C: Ethics .............................................................................................. 100
Appendix D: Document Analysis Protocol ......................................................... 103
Appendix E: Evaluation Survey .......................................................................... 105
Appendix F: Delayed Evaluation Survey ............................................................ 107
Appendix G: Evaluation Dashboard .................................................................... 109
Appendix H: Initial Contact Letter to Participants .............................................. 110

ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments ............................................................ 24
Table 2. Summary of Motivation Influences and Assessment ...................................................... 26
Table 3. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ........................................ 29
Table 4. FC Job Titles with Job Roles at the College ................................................................... 38
Table 5. Full College Participants’ Names and Titles ................................................................... 43
Table 6. Need for FC/EMC Improvement of Processes, Interactions, and Outcomes (based on
document analysis) ........................................................................................................................ 52
Table 7. Summary of Knowledge Influence and Recommendations ............................................ 72
Table 8. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ........................................... 74
Table 9. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ........................................ 78
Table 10. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ........................ 82
Table 11. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................... 83
Table 12. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................... 84
Table 13. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ........................................ 89
Table 14. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ...................................................... 90
Table 15. Evaluation Survey ....................................................................................................... 105
Table 16. Delayed Evaluation Survey ......................................................................................... 107
Table 17. Evaluation Dashboard ................................................................................................. 109

x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 34
Figure 2. The New World Kirkpatrick Model ............................................................................... 81

xi
Abstract
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational context of enhancing
the use of technology to support student enrollment, retention, graduation, student education
lifecycle for success, and enable positive operational outcomes at Full College (FC), a California
Community College. This qualitative, single-case study was conducted at FC and the
participants in this study were Vice Presidents, Deans and Directors who share responsibility for
managing technology, data systems, and student support services. Participants were selected
because of their respective responsibilities and areas of expertise within the organizational
structure of the site for this study. Although each participant brought a different perspective to
the practices that work together to support student success and operational sustainability, their
ideas converged around fundamental principles of service and organizational theory that promote
student success.
Data collection for this study included document analysis and interviews with a cross
section of staff members at FC. The resulting data was coded, categorized and organized by
themes for analysis. In addition, the review evaluated the ability of FC leadership to manage
enrollment and to achieve the California Community College Chancellor's Office (CCCCO)
Vision for Success by using technology and predictive analytics for operating sustainability.
The takeaway of this research is the value and purpose of each individual within the
organization to ensure the mission and vision is achieved, as well as the success of the students
and community being served. By effectively adopting and managing technology, FC leadership
can help to enhance student success. In addition, examining the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences within FC, help meet the goals of the CCCCO Vision for Success.

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Leadership in an Age of Technology Disruption: An Evaluation Study
Introduction
The California Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) Vision for Success
provides a roadmap for California Community Colleges (CCC) to transform their current
enrollment and student success operations and to become more effectively engaged in the entire
student education lifecycle. The objectives of the vision are:
1. Increase in the number of students transferring to California State University (CSU)
and University of California (UC) campuses.
2. Increase the number of degrees and certificates awarded by Community Colleges.
3. Offer programs that lead to well-paying jobs after graduation (California Community
Colleges Chancellor’s Office, 2017).
The CCC comprises the most extensive community college system in the United States.
Although more than two million students attend the 115 California community colleges
(California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office [CCCCO], 2017), the system neither
produces the student outcomes identified in the Vision for Success nor effectively manages
student enrollment. For example, during Fall 2017 and Fall 2018, Full College (FC), (a
pseudonym for the site of this study) and one of the 115 campuses in the California community
college system, experienced a $4.1 million budget reduction as a result of a decline in student
enrollment over the same period. Furthermore, the Legislative Analyst’s Office (2016) found
that three-fourths of California community college districts would not meet enrollment targets
established for the 2019–2020 academic year. The inability to achieve such objectives means
that fewer classes and supporting educational programs will be available to students and will
negatively impact FC’s mission to positively impact the student body and the community it

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serves. The purpose of this project was to explore leadership perceptions and enhance the use of
technology to support student enrollment, retention, graduation, the student lifecycle for success,
and to enable positive operational outcomes at FC. This study also explored the leadership
approach to enrollment strategies and FC’s alignment with the CCCCO Student-Centered
Funding Formula (SCFF).
At the CCC, enrollment services begin when efforts to establish and reach annual
enrollment targets converge. These targets are defined both in terms of student headcount, which
the CCCCO (2018) described as the number of students enrolled in at least one course for at least
one semester in an academic year, and full-time equivalent students (FTES), a calculation of the
number of students enrolled full-time. Funding for CCC has traditionally been a function of
student attendance, as determined by FTES. When funding has relied exclusively on student
headcount, campus budgets were based on the number of students enrolled in at least 525 hours
of instruction for a term. According to the CCCCO, the resulting calculation represents an
institution’s FTES. The larger the FTES, the more funding a campus receives (Legislative
Analyst’s Office, 2016; Murphy, 2004). However, recent changes to California education
policy, including the funding formula, has required all CCC to reevaluate its approach to higher
education administration and how institutional success is measured. With FC as part of the 115
CCC, its leadership will have to become strategic in college operations, retention, and student
success initiatives to meet the California education policy changes.
Meeting institutional goals for enrollment and statewide objectives for student success
are priorities for CCC. With the California Student-Centered Funding Formula (SCFF), against
the backdrop of the Vision for Success, CCC are now expected to ensure access to quality
education by enrolling a sufficient number of students for FTES generation, in addition to

3
addressing issues of equity, student success (CCCCO, 2017). CCC that do not meet the SCFF
performance measures run the risk of not receiving adequate funding, which may, in turn, lead to
institutional collapse.
To ensure the sustainable operations plan and priorities, CCC can focus on the use of
technology to better aid and support the strategic directive governed by the CCCCO.
Technology implementation, data collection, analysis, and action from student information
systems can guide improvements for success, and aid in the evaluation progress toward student
achievement (Fozdar & Kumar, 2007). Integrating technology engagement to effectively
measure student performance metrics will support CCC in meeting the standards set by the
CCCCO. Additionally, the CCCCO has remapped the education funding model, prompting CCC
to rethink sustainable funding for education services. This policy change is of great importance
to ensuring FC’s sustainability, program offerings, quality of student services, employees’
performance metrics and morale, and the ultimate success of the students attending FC. If FC’s
leadership wishes to be successful in the operational framework set by the CCCCO, college
leadership must now make student success the center of its operations and be innovative in the
use of technology to support student success throughout the student lifecycle. Student success
equals college success—an equation this study examined as it pertains to how FC met CCCCO
education policy requirements.

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Chapter 1: Organizational Context and Mission
Full College (FC), established in 1966, is an academic institution based in Southern
California and one of 115 California community colleges that offers a variety of general
education programs, 55 associate degrees, 58 transfer majors, and 145 vocational programs.
Enrollment at FC averages 15,800 students per term, a retention rate of 85.7%, a graduation rate
of 36.10%, and a transfer rate of 17.1% per year (California Community College Chancellors
Office, 2018). The mission of FC is to ensure the success of its students and the development of
the community it serves. FC leadership needs to consider how technology can support the policy
changes that will be necessary for operational sustainability and student success.
Organizational Performance Goal
Full College’s (FC) goal by Spring 2021 is to increase the student retention rate from
85.7% to 90%, the graduation rate from 36.10% to 40%, and the transfer rate from 17.1% to
25%. By effectively utilizing campus resources technology and predictive analytics and
improving operational efficiency, FC’s ambition to achieve these goals will meet the CCCCO
Vision for Success and improve upon the enrollment baseline standards (CCCCO, 2017). The
increase in retention and graduation will be the direct result of the use of technology embedded
throughout the student life cycle to support enrollment efforts and program pathways. The
digital journey includes the development of digital interfaces, communication services, and
convenient apps, which will seamlessly integrate digital and non-digital interactions and
connecting to data and analytics processes (Ross, Beath, & Mocker, 2019). Education leaders
are responsible for establishing structures and measuring outcomes to make the organization
successful. They must take the additional step of designing interactions among people,
processes, and technology to ensure digital strategy (Ross et al., 2019). The value proposition

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stimulates the development of digital offerings, information enriched solutions, and personalized
digital offerings to what information technology and a strategic shift can aid FC in improvements
throughout the entire student and employee engagement process.
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
The stakeholder group in this study is significant for the success at Full College (FC) and
for meeting the CCCCO Vision for Success requirements. It is important to identify
stakeholders, and then determine strategic actions to manage relationships with these
stakeholders (Lewis, 2011). The focus of this evaluation is vice presidents and deans responsible
for operational sustainability, enrollment management, and student success; for example, the
development of conceptual knowledge to aid in the methodology and use of technology in
capturing student academic data and building relational patterns with college resources for
student success. The stakeholder goal is to achieve 100% of FC’s adoption of technology to
support student success. The stakeholders must recognize expectancy-value in a motivation
setting and embrace technology as an aid to support FC strategic goals (Eccles, 2006). The
stakeholder group was chosen because these professionals have not been studied in depth and
constitute a large percentage for student and operational success. Technology enables FC to be
more efficient and proactive in its decision-making to help students succeed academically. For
example, predictive analytics can help to quickly identify students who are having difficulty in a
class. Identifying such students early in the process will allow FC to assist those students.
Additionally, FC can reengineer business processes to leverage new technology
capabilities, and thereby increase operational efficiency and student satisfaction. For instance,
just-in-time messages can be sent to students to alert them of academic and support services,
such as tutoring and advising, via mobile push notifications. For this research, I targeted eight to

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15 participants. Participants were selected from the available pool of vice presidents, deans, and
managers employed by FC during the course of this study.
Organizational Performance Status
Although the retention and graduation rates at FC are above state averages and have seen
incremental gains due to the adoption of new technology services implemented in the 2017–2018
academic year, there is room for improvement. FC’s implementation of a predictive analytics
application, mobile services, and the restructuring of the student education pathway in the 2018–
2019 academic year have the potential to enhance these numbers further (California Community
College, 2018a). Institutional adoption of the new technology may distinguish FC as a leader
within the state by the use of predictive analytics and actionable steps with technology
throughout the student lifecycle (Siegel, 2013); for example, the ability to predict which students
are at risk of dropping out, and then taking the necessary proactive actions to intervene and assist
them with the successful completion of their academic coursework. This approach, termed
Active engagement with students, will require FC and its employees to use technology more
effectively to ensure that every process and every interaction with the student results in a
progressive and positive outcome.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The impetus of this project was to explore leadership perceptions and enhance the use of
technology to support student enrollment, retention, graduation, and the student lifecycle for
success as well as to enable positive operational outcomes at FC. This study also explored the
leadership approach to enrollment strategies and the alignment with the CCCCO Student-
Centered Funding Formula (SCFF). Emphasis was placed on technology management practices
that promote enrollment growth, facilitate operational efficiency, improve faculty productivity

7
and morale, and boost student retention and graduation rates. This aim is discussed in the
context of the Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (KMO) framework and methodology.
This study examined the vice presidents, deans, and directors’ perceptions of digital
transformation in order to support and align with California’s new Student-Centered Funding
Formula (SCFF). Because vice presidents, deans, and directors oversee day-to-day enrollment
management activities and play an essential role in institutional planning and technology
initiatives, they are in a position of authority to gauge the efficacy of institutional efforts aimed
at managing enrollment and the student life cycle using innovative tools to improve student
success. As such, this study posed the following research questions:
1. What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve 100%
adoption of technology to support student success?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
To aid this research in the understanding of college vice presidents, deans, and directors’
perceptions about operational strategies, Clark and Estes (2008) theoretical framework with roots
in organizational theory was used and is elaborated upon in the next section of this study.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The 2007 recession—which had a profoundly deleterious effect on the United States—
had a specifically significant impact on higher education operations, as funding fluctuated
dramatically for higher education institutions including California community colleges,
California state universities and the University of California system. Consequently, fiscal
limitations made it increasingly difficult for prospective students to gain access to and complete
their educational goals (Bohn, Reyes, & Johnson, 2013). From academic year (AY) 2007–2008

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to AY 2011–2012, CCC and universities experienced over $2 billion in budget cuts (Bohn et al.,
2013). The CCC had to adjust its operational strategy to ensure consistent revenue by meeting
the CCCCO Vision for Success. These efforts were actualized by creating educational pathways
for students, including courses, degree programs, and student services. Colleges such as FC can
use technology as a tool to ensure student success by using early intervention methods to create a
competitive advantage and ensure students receive the help, they need to be successful.
Technology tools such as predictive analytics and mobile applications can be used to synthesize
student needs, enabling more personalized support to students (Neelakantan, 2019). With these
resources, FC will be able to receive data on what students need—a proactive method to support
students.
At the time of this study, projected enrollment is expected to continue a downward trend
into the future, and CCC will likely have to cancel classes, eliminate academic programs, cut
student support services, and terminate the employment of staff and faculty (Belfield, 2012;
Grubb & Badway, 2005; Phelan, 2014). This reduction will have a detrimental effect on the
prospects for the success of the Vision for Success initiative. In the most challenging cases,
CCCCO will have to close under-enrolled, underfunded campuses out of concern for
productivity and efficiency (Belfield, 2012; Grubb & Badway, 2005). These potential outcomes
may prolong the time it takes students to complete their educational goals and, thereby,
exacerbate the obstacles to of student success and the problems being faced by FC. To mitigate
the threat to student and institutional success and to remain viable, FC must manage student
enrollment effectively (Bontrager, 2004) and promote student success and equity without
compromising the quality of students’ education. For example, FC can use predictive analytics
to improve student retention and graduation rates by analyzing student data to determine which

9
students are at risk of dropping a class. Other higher education institutions, such as Georgia
State University, have already had success with this approach (Neelakantan, 2019a). These
resources provide FC an opportunity to observe and strategically work toward success.

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Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
This section provides an overview of the literature and describes enrollment operations,
support practices, and technology integration. The research includes student enrollment
strategies, operational efficiency, performance-based funding, and information technology
resources to transform and improve services at FC. Additionally, this section will provide
background information on operational efficiency, student data, and the technology paradigm. A
synthesis of common themes for the major issues are identified in the literature and included
throughout the narrative.
Furthermore, there will be a discussion on leveraging technology, the application of
student data to make informed decisions about enrollment, and proactive steps to support student
persistence. As of the time of this study, the projected enrollment is expected to continue a
downward trend, and CCC will likely have to cancel classes, eliminate academic programs, cut
student support services, and terminate the employment of staff and faculty (Belfield, 2012;
Grubb & Badway, 2005; Phelan, 2014). This reduction will have a detrimental effect on the
prospects of achieving the Vision for Success. It is, therefore, imperative that FC focuses on
advancing the knowledge of innovative technology used to support student success. The study
was guided by the Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework, which requires the validation of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that could potentially be barriers to
reaching organizational goals.
Leveraging Technology
According to the literature, one of the most valuable resources available to institutions for
use in aligning internal processes with desired outcomes is information technology, student data,
and analytics (Capaldi & Abbey, 2011; Daniel, 2015; Harris, 2015; Kim, 2012; Sullivan,

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Mackel, Massy, & Sinha, ND). Moreover, the strategy of providing students with clear
pathways that guide them to completion must be based on real-time data to identify when a
student is off-track (Goff, Williams, & Kilgore, 2016; Harris, 2015; Kinzie & Kuh, 2017).
Technology can enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness by facilitating innovative
methods that are less expensive across time as well as geographic locations by improving the
decision-making efficiencies of stakeholders (Kabbaz, 2016.
Kinzie and Kuh (2017) emphasized the benefits of using data in higher education to
identify at-risk students and to develop interventions to aid in their persistence. This idea is
corroborated by Kabbaz (2016), who indicated that student data should be used to guide
institutional decisions about how to allocate student support services and other resources to
students who need them. As student enrollment declines and the use of public funds at CCC
becomes more restrictive, the role of technology and the use of student data to guide institutional
decisions will be critical. Kabbaz (2016) characterized successful enrollment management as
being data smart. He advocated for educational leaders to discover the content of data and to use
data to develop actionable steps. Equally important is that educational leaders be able to
interpret and present data clearly and concisely and that the data’s implications are clear (Daniel,
2015; Kabbaz, 2016).
Daniel (2015) wrote that many educational organizations use data to make better
decisions about operational directions. The author identified the challenges faced by higher
education leaders, including student enrollment and graduation. He also explored the potential
for data analysis to address student enrollment and graduation problems. Daniel (2015) pointed
out that technological tools such as predictive analytics applications translate intricate data
patterns into meaningful information with practical use. To effectively manage student data for

12
successful enrollment, the literature describes a three-step process for data collection, data
science, data dashboards, and visualization. The integration and review of different data sources
applied to one system—which pulls information such as financial aid, class grades, lab usage,
and appointment tracking—can be a beneficial asset to colleges and universities (Jackson, 2019).
For example, the vice president of student services at Central Arizona College recognized
improvements in student academic performance and program completion after a redesign of the
student information system and proactive measures by connecting and communicating with
enrolled students. “Working together to share and use data involves making student success part
of everyone’s job, ensuring technology tools are integrated, and tweaking roles and efforts as
needed” (Jackson, 2019, p. 28). The improvements were due to an early alert system driven by
predictive analytics and integrated into an administrative user dashboard and communication
tools, including text alerts, push notifications, and email to students (Jackson, 2019). Central
Arizona College is an example of using technology to help achieve successful outcomes for
students and can be applied to FC’s strategy for attaining enrollment targets and improving
student success operations to become more effectively engaged in the entire student education
lifecycle.
Data Collection and Mining
Advances in technology using data mining, predictive analytics, artificial intelligence,
and machine learning enable decision-makers to see into the future before making strategic
decisions (Loucks, Macaulay, Noronha, & Wade, 2016). It is necessary to have the correct data
collection methods and team to ensure operations remain relevant while achieving institutional
objectives. Data collection and mining is a critical first step to discovering the value of student
data and pattern development. Goff et al. (2016) indicated that enrollment management requires

13
vast amounts of internal and external data for meaningful reporting. The authors have
maintained that data analysis can be used by higher education leaders to inform decision making.
As such, the data collection step in this process involves the identification of data that can expose
useful information (Daniel, 2015). In this way, data are sorted and filtered to uncover their
relevance.
Data Science
After data are cleaned and organized in a useful form, it is time to generate information
and form the basis for a plan of action. Daniel (2015) indicated that data must be dissected and
connected to construct meaning. He then characterized the scientific process through which data
is scrutinized as one of complexity and underscored` the application of technology to support
data analysis and discovery processes. Harris (2015) used student data to identify specific
characteristics of students who persisted and completed the requirements for degrees. Harris
then used these characteristics to create student profiles for use with managing student
enrollment.
Data Dashboards and Visualization
According to Daniel (2015), relational connections, the use of dashboards, and
visualization of indicators is the last step in the process of leveraging student data for enrollment
management. Data that are cleaned and analyzed are made available to educational leaders in a
format that is understandable and integrated into existing processes such that the information can
be used to guide decision making. As actionable intelligence, the information presented at this
step in the process provides the impetus for continuous improvement through informed decision-
making (Gekeler, 2018). An example of operational change effected by adopting disruptive
technologies, such as machine learning, occurred at and continued to improve Ivy Tech

14
Community College of Indiana. The implementation had a profound identification of an 82%
estimation into the success of students at the start of a term and able to communicate and alert
Student Support Specialists to assist students in need of guidance (Hensley & Aldridge 2018).
Interactive dashboards with automated flags and bots are functional services that help quickly
identify cases and alert administrators to make informed decisions via a tailored approach that
successfully manages outcomes and controls costs (Rocchio, 2016). The organizational change
was a recognition of senior leadership, and the cultural setting demanded resources and technical
needs to support the sustainability of operations. Dashboards and the ability to view current
student data affords decision-makers to have business agility, providing useful insights into the
performance of an organization (Loucks et al. 2016).
Student Enrollment
The student enrollment process is a strategy used by colleges and universities to drive
student enrollment, reach institutional objectives, and influence student outcomes (Allen &
Dadgar, 2012; Black, 2004; Bontrager, 2004; Hartunian. 2011; Hossler, 1996; Hossler &
Kalsbeek, 2013; Kerlin, 2008). Kalsbeek (2001) has described enrollment management as an
approach and organizational structure that systematizes institutional processes for student
enrollment and can be further enhanced by integrating technology services and predictive
models. With this method, colleges and universities can leverage reporting structures (Bolman
& Deal, 2013) and proactively allocate the resources needed to manage institutional functions for
student recruitment, retention, and success (Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013).
Previous to Kalsbeek (2001), Hossler (1996) described enrollment operations as a process
through which the size of the student body is influenced by institutional efforts aimed at
admitting, orienting, and advising students, providing them with financial assistance and

15
facilitating retention and success. Furthermore, like the definitions provided by Kalsbeek (2001)
and Hossler (1996), Bontrager (2004) noted that despite still being concerned with helping
students achieve their educational goals, those who are responsible for enrollment operations
have increasingly focused their attention on issues associated with resource management and
efficiency. Additionally, Penn (1999) provided two reasons for the growing interest in resource
management and efficiency as functions of enrollment operations. Specifically, taxpayer
funding for education has decreased, and pressure is building at the national, state, and regional
levels to increase college and university accountability for student and institutional outcomes.
Further, and notably sooner in the enrollment management discourse, Dolence (1993) defined
enrollment operations as functions of operational efficiency and strategic planning. Therefore,
the enrollment management process is one of inclusiveness and is intended to help colleges and
universities achieve and maintain maximum enrollment and can be supported by using
information technology resources and data (Jonas & Popovics, 2000).
Enrollment Strategies
Effective enrollment operations are the result of a strategic approach through which
colleges and universities enroll students in programs and classes. Enrollment strategies include
coordinating institutional efforts to maximize access and promote student success (ASCCC,
2009; Bailey, Jenkins, & Jaggars, 2015b; Goff et al., 2016; Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013).
Enrollment growth and student retention are also commonly used enrollment strategies as is
discussion of how institutional efforts aimed at growth can improve operational efficiency.
While researchers and practitioners have not agreed on a single strategy for enrollment
management, consensus seems to have emerged around the idea that enrollment management
involves a systemic approach through which colleges and universities reach their capacity for

16
student enrollment by use of data analytics as a predictive model to guide the institution
(Bontranger, 2004; Diyon, 1995; Dolence, 1993; Hossler, 1996; Jonas & Popovics, 2000; Kerlin,
2008). Hossler (1996) suggested that institutions that effectively manage student enrollment do
so through an integrated process that incorporates assessment, planning, information technology,
and budgeting. Another position is that enrollment operations are predicated on the question of
how many students a college or university wants to enroll (Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013).
Bontrager (2004) offered a different perspective of enrollment management, one that possibly
resulted from his application of an organizational management framework to the issue.
Bontrager observed the possibility of a causal relationship between the reduction of taxpayer
funding and increasing concern in higher education for resource management and efficiency.
Colleges and universities are experiencing mounting pressure to be accountable for the use of
taxpayer funding and to improve institutional and student outcomes (Bailey, Jaggars, & Jenkins,
2015a; Bontrager, 2004; Burke, 2015; Dougherty, Hare, & Natow, 2009; Erisman & Gao, 2006;
Grubb & Badway, 2005; Penn, 1999).
Enrollment growth. Traditional methods of growing student enrollment involve the use
of marketing to target high school juniors and seniors for college and university recruitment
(Hartunian, 2011). However, increased competition for college-bound students has made current
efforts to attract them more difficult for colleges and universities (Newman, Couturier, & Scurry,
2010). The current research project examined strategies, including the use of technology, that
FC could use to increase student enrollment, retention, and transfer rates.
Dual enrollment programs are a viable alternative to conventional methods for college
recruitment (Bailey et al., 2015a; Kim, 2012; Purnell, 2014; Swanson, 2016). In an analysis of
Community Colleges, Bailey, Jaggars, & Jenkins (2015b) found that dual enrollment programs

17
helped students shape their understanding of what to expect in college courses. The authors also
found that high school students who participated in dual enrollment programs had higher rates of
college attendance and college graduation (Bailey et al. 2015b). In a different study, dual
enrollment students rated higher in performance indicators such as grades, course completion
rates, and use of online college resources (Purnell, 2014) and, in another, were found to have
higher college retention rates (Swanson, 2016).
Retention. Student retention is the continued attendance and active participation in
college courses until an educational objective is complete. Further, student retention means that
students stay in school until they either graduate or earn an occupational certificate (Hagedorn,
2004; Knaggs, Sondergeld, & Schardt, 2015). In addition to the educational objectives, efforts to
retain students are suitable investments of institutional resources (Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013).
Institutions enroll students who wish to earn a degree or a certificate, and retention rates are good
indicators of operational efficiency and the effectiveness of overall enrollment management
efforts (Boudreau & Kromrey, 1994; Hagedorn, 2004; Kalsbeek, 2013; Seidman, 2005; Talbert,
2012).
When students are not satisfied with the community college they attend or feel that they
cannot achieve their educational goals, they do not enroll in classes (Walsh, 1990). Institutions
with high retention rates experience fewer student departures and are less likely to experience
enrollment fluctuations (Bailey et al., 2015b). In contrast, institutions with low retention rates
tend to be less effective at managing student enrollment (Bailey, 2012; Bontrager, 2004; Hossler
& Kalsbeek, 2013; Lipka, 2013; Seidman, 2005; Talbert, 2012; Walsh, 1990).
There are many ways CCC can improve retention rates to enhance student enrollment and
increase institutional funding. Talbert (2012) used a purposive research method in a study

18
designed, in part, to help higher education leaders improve retention rates. Talbert (2012)
suggested that colleges monitor students’ academic progress—including failures, achievements,
and successes—and track high-risk students to aid and improve retention. At the heart of
Talbert’s recommendation is the idea that institutions must first identify issues that cause
students to drop out, then to address them. Talbert (2012) found that when institutions evaluated
reasons for student attrition and took steps to improve them, those institutions had a more
significant influence on not only student retention but also student success.
Further review of the efforts in higher education aimed at student retention, Tinto (2012)
reached a similar conclusion, but added a caveat concerning how retention should be addressed.
Rather than approach retention from a deficit perspective by placing too much emphasis on why
students leave, Tinto (2012) recommended that institutions identify steps that can be taken to
make students want to stay, and then allocate resources to help them succeed. Belfied (2015)
aligned with Tinto’s (2012) assessment that community colleges would make better use of their
resources and improve operational efficiency by retaining students and supporting them as they
strive to reach their educational goals. The use of predictive models and early alert systems will
assist these findings in maintaining and using resources more efficiently.
Operational Efficiency
CCC have come under increasing public pressure to become more efficient and to
improve institutional and student outcomes (Belfield, 2015; Blankenberger & Phillips, 2016;
Dougherty, Hare, & Natow, 2009; Dougherty & Reddy, 2013; Erisman & Gao, 2006; Grubb &
Badway, 2005; Jenkins & Rodríguez, 2013; Legislative Analyst's Office, 2016). Demand for
greater accountability and productivity underscores the public’s mandate to improve the quality
of institutional and student outcomes without spending more to achieve them (Jenkins &

19
Rodríguez, 2013). In a working paper on community college efficiency gains, Belfield (2015)
provided three suggestions for community colleges to improve efficiency: (a) increase faculty
productivity through the use of part-time instructors; (b) increase the instructor-to-student ratio,
thereby increasing class sizes; and (c) use technology resources to identify at-risk students and
issues before it is too late. Previous to Belfield’s (2015) assertion that community colleges must
increase operational efficiency, Jenkins and Rodríguez (2013) suggested that using part-time
faculty to improve faculty productivity and growing class sizes may not be a means to this end.
Instead, they contended that the first two strategies are, in fact, not cost-effective and could
reduce productivity and efficiency; instead, emphasis should be given to technology adoption to
assist and increase accountability.
Performance-Based Funding
Performance-based funding is a budget allocation method that is growing in popularity
among US states for educational funding. The attraction to performance-based funding is that it
encourages institutional efficiency (Smith, 2015). Performance-based funding is set apart from
traditional funding methods in that it emphasizes the cost-per-completion as a priority rather than
the cost-per-student (Bailey et al., 2015a). This method for determining community college
budgets uses accountability criteria, also known as performance-indicators, which institutions
must meet to receive some or all of their funding.
Performance indicators are data that can be used to measure, predict, or demonstrate an
institution’s performance (Fincher, 2015). In some parts of the United States, institutions are
allowed the latitude to define their performance indicators, while in other parts, colleges and
universities are given predefined performance-indicators by legislative bodies or regional
accrediting agencies (Fincher, 2015). As examples of performance-indicators, Bailey et al.

20
(2015a) cited graduation rates, transfer rates, and the number of students who are placed in high-
quality jobs; however, other commonly used performance indicators are course completion,
credit earned, degree completion (Miao, 2012; Zarkesh & Beas, 2004), and retention rates
(Fincher, 2015).
Performance-based funding models are used to encourage colleges and universities to
connect performance goals to institutional missions and goals. The objective of establishing
these connections is to produce appropriate institutional and student outcomes (Zarkesh & Beas,
2004) as a means for holding colleges and universities accountable for their use of the public’s
resources (Fincher, 2015).
Clark and Estes’s (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) analytical framework allowed FC to identify gaps with goals
and performance metrics by better understanding influences related to its knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources. The following is a modified pathway to the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational context that influences college leadership and their ability to meet
the performance goal of increasing student success at FC. Technology can aid in achieving this
goal by providing a means to more easily analyze student data, to identify user trends, and to
facilitate proactive follow-up actions. For example, Ivy Tech Community College
administration previously lacked a cohesive view of relevant data and, therefore, failed to award
approximately 2,800 degrees and certificates (Hensley & Aldrich, 2018). However, using data
analytics tools, Ivy Tech Community College was able to identify several students who had met
the criteria to graduate but had not completed the paperwork that would set the conferral process
in motion.

21
The sections below examine the assumed influences as they relate to the knowledge and
skills that affect stakeholder performance. The motivational influencers address the supposed
motivational forces that influence stakeholder performance. Finally, the organizational controls
highlight the impact on the realization of the stakeholder goal.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The CCCCO Vision for Success initiative supports participating CCCs to create and
implement an institutional approach to student success by providing structured pathways from
entry to completion of certificates, degrees, and credentials (California Community Colleges
Chancellor’s Office, 2017). The initiative requires a CCC to develop education program maps,
which include course sequencing, student learning outcomes, and progress milestones that align
with the knowledge and skills required by 4-year institutions. As a participating institution and
accountable to the CCCCO, FC was seeking to fulfill the criteria of the Vision for Success by
supporting the student body by creating student success initiatives. Implementation and the
development of predictive models, such as early intervention systems to keep students on track
for courses and degree progress, ensure sustained operational funding and compliance with the
new requirements.
To ensure success at FC, engagement with the entire college workforce is imperative and
technology tools are needed to support the academic development of students. Analyzing the
performance issues within the organization, the examination of the knowledge and skill
influence, and the ability of the employees to achieve the desired organizational goals was
conducted (Rueda, 2011). The performance goal is a description of tasks that the organization
must accomplish according to a specific deadline and criteria (Clark & Estes, 2008). The

22
approach focuses on technology adoption enabled by professional, skilled, and committed
educators and supported by adequate resources with favorable outcomes assessed by the Vision
for Success requirements (Golden, 2006). Without the aid of technology to efficiently analyze
student enrollment and retention data, FC vice presidents, deans and directors will lack crucial
information needed to make informed decisions about boosting student success. Furthermore,
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors need to communicate their findings for effective
decision-making.
Knowledge influences. According to Clark & Estes, cognitive approach to learning is
categorized into four different types— factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge (Rueda, 2011). These influencers fall into conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge types. Factual knowledge relates to facts and an affirmation of knowledge that is
basic to a specific discipline and one with which an individual must be familiar to perform a task
efficiently and effectively to solve problems (Rueda, 2011). An example of factual knowledge is
the ability to identify and graphically annotate, showing an operational process in the analysis of
test data. Conceptual knowledge will influence the methodology and use of technology in
capturing student academic data and building relational patterns with college resources for
student success. Procedural knowledge applies to the methods of communicating and
establishing rapport and credibility with college administrators. Finally, metacognitive
knowledge is associated with reflection and self-monitoring to create and influence a positive
working environment and innovative culture. This study focused on one procedural influence in
the understanding of knowledge: vice presidents, deans, and directors must effectively use
technology to track student performance as well as communicate with students to support student

23
academic progress, program persistence, and graduation to achieve the Vision for Success
initiative.
Effective use of technology to track student performance, communicate with students to
support student academic progress, program persistence, and graduation. Operant conditioning
and changing behaviors through adjustments in the environment will help create successful
outcomes for FC. Developing training and support via mentoring will assist in highlighting the
benefits of using data and making informed decisions within the environment. The goal will be
to establish a technology service of broad-scale performance improvement and organizational
change so that employees will be more productive, and organizations will be more effective and
efficient (McGee & Johnson, 2015). Training and demonstrating the steps and actions to take in
the analysis of data as well as understanding the procedures to follow for early intervention will
be useful for the expected outcomes. The systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
engagement will lead to improved performance within the environment (Grossman & Salas,
2011). According to Simon (2011), participation is linked to three vital forces within the
organization—attrition, productivity, and profitability. Such participation as well as having
engaged employees focused on the goal and fully aware of the procedure will bring success to
the organization.
The procedural process for understanding the methods to obtain information for analysis,
interpretation, and intervention will be beneficial to the program at FC. Grossman and Salas
(2011) elaborated that the contributions have proven to be crucial to the learning, retention,
generalization, and maintenance of skills. Grossman and Salas (2011) and organized these
contributions into two categories:

24
1. Knowledge of technology adoption –cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation, and
perceived utility of training; and
2. Communication—behavioral modeling, support, opportunity to perform, and follow-
up.
Aligning these characteristics with detailed procedures about how and when to enter pertinent
information and data to support the decision-making process will be beneficial to the
stakeholders. Also, the methods that need to be sequenced as performed on the job must be
accompanied by a demonstration of the procedure of opportunities to practice during and after
training, with feedback to correct performance mistakes (Clark & Estes, 2008); for example,
entering grades after a quiz within the Learning Management System (LMS) grade book and
providing summative feedback on the student. Performing this task allows flags in the system to
programmatically alert stakeholders to conduct early intervention if needed.
Table 1 illustrates the theoretical procedural principle to help address the knowledge
influence gaps—the required knowledge to use technology to track student performance and
communicate findings.
Table 1
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Vice presidents, deans, and
directors need to know how to
effectively use technology to
track student performance,
communicate with students,
and support student academic
progress, program persistence,
and graduation.

Procedural Provide college stakeholders
with training on how to use
technology for student
performance assessment
effectively, metrics,
communication methodologies
(nudges and push
notifications), and early
intervention tools to help

25
improve student enrollment,
retention, and graduation.

Motivation
Motivation is a complicated relationship between thoughts, beliefs, emotions, and
behaviors. According to Rueda (2011), motivation is influenced by internal and external factors
and further breaks into four categories: personal, activating to enable a specific behavior,
energizing to enable persistence further, and directed to attain a particular goal. Motivation is a
crucial factor in stakeholders’ objectives because it highlights developments and aligns with
learners and achievers. Motivation gets us going and tells us how much effort to spend on a task
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The facets of motivation are an active choice, which is the intention to
pursue a goal. Therefore, FC vice presidents, deans, and directors will have to commit to using
technology to help achieve student success and follow up with the necessary measures to ensure
a successful outcome. Persistence is when an individual continues in the face of distraction. The
final facet of motivation is mental effort, which applies to individuals to work smarter and
develop solutions. As a result, FC vice presidents, deans, and directors will have to stay focused
on achieving the goals set and find more innovative ways to use technology for greater
efficiency. Combined, the three factors will increase performance and goal achievement.
FC is impacted by the motivation of the employees, driven by utilizing predictive
analytics and information systems to improve current practices and discover new pathways for
student success. Employees who are motivated, engaged, and understand their purpose
contribute to the achievement of the organization and obtain favorable outcomes (Jensen, 2012).
With an understanding of the constructs and influences of motivation, the organization will be
able to address the performance problems and deal with issues before it is too late (Rueda, 2011).

26
Furthermore, determining the positive and negative factors that may influence productivity will
be an asset to the organization’s leadership.
This study focused on two motivational theories: self-efficacy, and expectancy-value.
The objective was to highlight the relevant research to increase confidence and beliefs for a
particular outcome and different ways to engage and respond to achievement situations. Table 2,
below, shows the motivation influences and assessment.
Table 2
Summary of Motivation Influences and Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influence Knowledge Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy: FC vice presidents, deans, and
directors need to know their purpose and to
believe that the effort they make is having an
impact on student success; they must also
make informed decisions with data.

Interview questions to stakeholders should assess
expectations for the use of software to analyze
student performance data and how they can
contribute to making it possible.

Also, ask open questions on the impact of
predictive models and the ability to interpret
data, and recognize the outcomes of early
intervention.

Expectancy-Value: FC vice presidents,
deans, and directors need to see the value of
technology (predictive analytics and
communications tools) as an aid to support
FC strategic goals and advocate for
technology tools to improve performance
goals with their peers. The outcome will
help in the attainment of success by using
technology resources to achieve institutional
goals.
Written feedback on the process and self-
reflection of the effort being made.

Describe the impact in associating predictive
models, including historical patterns and
assessing the outcomes of the decisions.

Self-Efficacy: Confidence in management efforts. Build the confidence of the college
leadership team. Self-efficacy is essential for the success of FC vice presidents, deans, and
directors in recognizing their positive efforts and building confidence in the use of technology to

27
support student success. This influence will yield improvements in the performance of the
stakeholders, the value proposition to FC, leading to operation success. A reduced level of
confidence by a vice president, dean, or director may have negative consequences in terms of
following through on initiatives and seeing diminishing returns for student success. Overcoming
this gap is fundamental to the self-efficacy theory as a practical approach to meeting the
requirements of the Vision for Success initiative. According to Pajares (2006), learning and
motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for success. This finding
supports the need to provide college stakeholders with a model that demonstrates their efforts to
improve student performance. As an example, confidence can be built through several means:
providing information on the metacognitive process, identifying the approach to support student
outcomes, demonstrating the impact of technology in operational improvements for student
success, and creating a positive work environment.
To actualize an effective data-driven approach to decision making and, ultimately,
improve student success, the FC vice presidents, deans, and directors must know their purpose
and believe that the effort they make is having an impact on student success. Clark and Estes
(2008) stated that confidence and a belief in performing a particular task yields organizational
success and is an essential driver of performance improvement. According to Bandura (2000),
confidence in one’s ability to influence events and others within an organization, personal
inspiration, performance accomplishments, and motivation are central to undertaking activities in
the face of difficulties. This belief operates through influence on cognitive, motivational, and
decision processes for the FC vice presidents, deans, and directors.
Expectancy-Value: Perceived value of work. Assist the FC vice presidents, deans,
and directors in recognizing the value of their interactions with and adoption of technology

28
for strategic success. This research highlighted that FC vice presidents, deans, and directors
must see the value of technology as an enabler through predictive analytics for increasing student
retention, graduation, and transferability rates. Demonstrating the expectancy-value theory will
help both address the motivation gap and resolve any challenges. Discussions of the importance
and utility value of work or learning can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003). This conclusion suggests that the vice presidents, deans, and directors improve
institutional awareness and increase the adoption of technology and the amount of collaboration
with employees to achieve common goals. Eccles (2006) further elaborated that modeling
values, enthusiasm, and interest in a task will yield positive outcomes. Creating a model for FC
will demonstrate VP’s et al. efforts to aid the college, improve the utility value of doing more
than the minimum to support employees and students, help close the motivation gap, and
improve the student performance outcomes.
Improving organization performance, Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted that focusing on
the benefits of a task proved a solution to the value of the motivation gap. A practical method of
addressing the lack of awareness and sensitivity by the leadership team is to revisit the purpose
of the initiative and show the relevancy. Additionally, feedback and achieving success in
challenging tasks can positively influence the perception of competence (Borgogni et al., 2011).
These measures can close the motivation gap. FC vice presidents, deans, and directors,
therefore, engage with employees, effectively communicating on technology, data models, early
intervention tools, and technology effectiveness to help improve student success.
Organization
Information access, resources to experiment, and the opportunity to question lead to
innovation and the implementation of new technologies that drive organizational change. Clark

29
and Estes (2008) highlighted that understanding resources and processes is integral to success in
addressing performance gaps. The influencers within the organization context are the work
process and value streams. College leadership must trust in the importance of both enhancing
and developing communication channels with college stakeholders and ensuring that knowledge,
skill, and motivation operate in synchronicity (Clark & Estes, 2008). This approach will further
build upon the organization’s culture and aid in the transparency of the organization (Rueda,
2011). The second influence is the value stream and the understanding of the interactions and
work processes between departments (Clark and Estes, 2008). Table 3 illustrates the assumed
organizational influence and assessment.
Table 3
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Organization Influence Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural setting: The organization needs to develop
interdepartmental communication channels for the vice
presidents, deans, directors, and employees.

Interview questions to stakeholders about
fostering the use of technology, such as
dashboards, to aid in determining
performance metrics within the college and
to help with communication across the
organization.

Cultural setting: The organization needs to have roles
and responsibilities outlined to aid and highlight
connections between departments.
Interview questions to stakeholders about
resources such as data coaches, training
mentors that are available to support FC
vice presidents, deans, and directors.

Cultural setting: Developing interdepartmental communication. This study
determined whether the FC Vice presidents, deans, and directors needed to establish
communication channels and foster technology adoption to achieve institutional success.
Effective leadership calls for acknowledging biases and seeking ways to protect from any
negative impact (Bensimon, 2005). Clark and Estes (2008) have underscored that college

30
leadership trust in the importance of developing communication channels with stakeholders and
in ensuring that knowledge, skill, and motivation operate in synchronicity, suggesting that with
alignment and belief, FC vice presidents, deans, and directors can establish clear communication
with college stakeholders and have a positive impact on performance goals. FC will prosper and
learn, and motivation will be achieved when learners have positive expectations for success.
Self-reflection on the interaction and planning for future meetings will have a positive outcome
with an overall service for college and student success.
By applying information-processing theory, the organization will see improvements in
performance using metacognitive strategies to nurture and encourage continuous learning
(Baker, 2006). The ability of FC vice presidents, deans, and directors to reflect and acknowledge
their beliefs will bring an informed perspective on interactions with college stakeholders. A shift
of the unconscious belief will yield a positive outcome, improving and developing
communication channels for the college to be successful. The benefits of developing a mental
network through the application of continuous learning; ease of information retrieval; and
recognizing and applying solutions to organizational problems will become more functional and
useful to performance.
Cultural setting: Roles and responsibilities. This study validated that FC needed to
provide college leadership by promoting various types of communication (e.g., person-centered
communication) and storytelling to develop accountability and support college departments
(Hattaway & Henson, 2013). Responsibility for shaping and leading the organization to success
requires measures of accountability for effective organizational change (Lewis, 2011).
Accountability in communication between departments plays an essential role in working toward
a common goal. An accountability theory is selected to close the organization gap and improve

31
performance. Bensimon (2007) emphasized that a scorecard can be used for community
accountability and as a method of detecting inequalities and bringing them to stakeholder
attention. The scorecard allows vice presidents, deans, and directors to identify and address
performance gaps to improve the flow of information, the method of how information is
communicated, and roles and responsibilities within the organization.
Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted that understanding resources and processes is integral
to success in addressing performance gaps. Developing goals and indicators to reflect various
measures within the work setting will aid in addressing gaps and define stakeholder
responsibilities. An example of an identified goal is to establish a base standard in student
outreach using the predictive model for at-risk students. Questions about responsibility for
awareness, methods of communication, and departments responsible for supporting student(s)
are important to addressing the gaps. This approach will support the idea that college leadership
is an essential factor in building capacity for the achievement of students (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This drive to establish roles, responsibilities, and communication at FC will yield a collaborative
and robust value of engagement and resolve any challenges.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Staff Knowledge and Motivation with
Organizational Context
Initiatives that support participating CCCs to create and implement an institutional
approach to student success requires a framework and an investigative approach and must take a
holistic view of the entire operation to be successful. Any program that influences performance
management engages in the values of the organization and looks at established standards, such as
education maps, course sequencing, student learning outcomes, and progress milestones, must
align with knowledge and skills within the institution for success. The conceptual framework

32
outlines the assumptions, concepts, and theories to support the research—an investigative model
and tentative theory of what is being studied (Maxwell, 2013). This framework is based on the
Clark and Estes Gap Analysis. The purpose of the conceptual framework is to provide an
understanding of theories and models within a particular area and to create relationships in
functioning processes (Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004). An example of conceptual knowledge
is understanding political and governmental processes; within the CCC environment, this
understanding is valuable in the relationships between the CCCCO and FC.
This study drew upon constructivist and pragmatist worldviews in establishing an
underlying belief to guide action in the research process. Constructivism seeks an understanding
of the environment and values the complexity of views and process interaction among
individuals (Creswell, 2018). A constructivist researcher will look at the stakeholders’ ability to
interpret data and create intervention models. Furthermore, a look at operant conditioning and
changing behaviors through adjustments in the environment will have a benefit in creating
successful outcomes. Developing training and support via mentoring will assist in highlighting
the benefits of using data and making informed decisions within the environment. The
complexity of all these factors and directing meaning to broad-scale performance improvement
and organizational change so that employees will be more productive and increase the
organization's effectiveness and efficiency (McGee & Johnson, 2015).
The pragmatic worldview emerged as one of the actions, consequences, focusing on what
works and seeking solutions to the problems being considered (Creswell, 2018). The focus is on
the application, what works within the environment, and the use of various approaches in
addressing the problem. One problem may be a disconnect between leadership, organization
engagement, building trust within the organization, and use of technology as a tool to provide

33
insights on student performance. Figure 1 highlights what the organization must prioritize to
address the problem and value those support improvements and intervention.

34

Full College
Cultural Settings:
Organization identity,
communication, and desire to
improve.

Training, communication for vice
presidents, deans, and directors.

Stakeholders

Procedural: Utilize analytics with student
data

Self-Efficacy: Ability to attain a positive
outcome by developing competence.

Expectancy-Value: Ability to see the value
of technology to support organization
performance goals.
Stakeholder Goal

The stakeholder goal is to achieve 100% of FC’s
adoption of technology to support student success.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

35
Summary
The works considered for this literature review describe leadership as a systemic,
inclusive approach used by colleges and universities to achieve optimal student success (Allen &
Dadgar, 2012; Black, 2004; Bontrager, 2004; Dolence, 1993; Hartunian. 2011; Hossler, 1996;
Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013; Jonas & Popovics, 2000; Kerlin, 2008). One way to achieve student
success is to use student data to guide strategic enrollment management efforts (Capaldi &
Abbey, 2011; Daniel, 2015; Harris, 2015; Kim, 2012) and organizational structures to create
processes for student retention and completion (Dixon, 1995). Organizational structures can be
designed to support communication and collaboration vertically—between subordinates and
superiors—or horizontally—between peers (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Technology,
communication, and collaboration should be brought to bear when tough decisions about the
allocation of resources are weighed against potential benefits to campuses and students (Hossler
& Kalsbeek, 2013).
The literature revealed three key strategies that lend themselves to effective leadership for
California Community Colleges: (a) technology and predictive analytics, (b) operational
efficiency, and (c) communication. The literature suggests that effective higher education
leadership requires a combination of strategies to achieve the best results (Hartunian, 2011;
Hossler, 1996; Hossler & Kalsbeek, 2013; Legislative Analyst’s Office, 2016; Talbert, 2012).
By joining institutional efforts to reach performance goals efficiently, FC will benefit from
building organizational structures and promoting collaborative relationships through which
students can achieve success by completing degree and certification programs (Clark & Estes,
2008).

36
Chapter 3: Methods
The purpose of this project was to explore leadership perceptions and to enhance the use
of technology to support student enrollment, retention, and graduation as well as the student
lifecycle for success, and to enable positive operational outcomes at FC. This study also
explored the leadership approach to enrollment strategies and alignment with the CCCCO
Student-Centered Funding Formula (SCFF). Emphasis was given to FC vice presidents, deans,
and directors’ perceptions of existing enrollment management practices and the implications for
future research. To achieve these goals, leaders from the ranks of vice presidents, deans, and
directors at FC who shared responsibility for enrollment management–related activities were
interviewed. The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements
related to achieving the organizational goals.
To this end, the questions that guided this study were:
1. What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve 100%
adoption of technology to support student success?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
Participating Stakeholders
Participants in this research at Full College (FC) included vice presidents, deans, and
directors who are responsible for strategic operations, enrollment management, or some part
thereof. The qualitative method employed interviews and document analysis. Purposive
sampling of these participants was used because the research questions are oriented explicitly to
examine the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on these members to help
meet the goals of FC. The purposive sampling method utilizes a criterion-based selection of

37
participants who are uniquely able to inform the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The population that may be impacted by the outcomes of this study included all students
attending FC. For participation in this study, employees had at least 5 years of managerial or
instructional experience; during this time, the new methodology of tracking was introduced at
FC. For this study, 10 participants were interviewed. The titles of prospective participants and a
description of their role in managing student enrollment are in Table 4, below.

38
Table 4
FC Job Titles with Job Roles at the College
Job Title Role at FC
Vice President of Administrative Services
(VPAS)
Manages campus budgets, overall operations,
and advises the college president of
functional strategy.
Vice President of Student Services (VPSS) Manages the student services division.
Dean of Science, Engineering, And Math Manages the SEM division, academic
programs, and type of course offerings that
influence the academic curriculum.
Dean of Fine Arts Manages the fine arts division, academic
programs, and type of course offerings that
influence the academic curriculum.
Dean of Humanities Manages the humanities division, academic
programs, and type of course offerings that
influences the academic curriculum.
Dean of Nursing Manages the nursing division, academic
programs, and type of course offerings that
influence the academic curriculum.
Dean of Admissions and Records Manages the operations and activities of the
Admissions and Records Office, including
student admissions, registration, graduation
and certification, and academic records;
provides leadership to various campus
programs and serves as a liaison between
college administrators and student
organizations, such as a student council.
Dean of Library, Learning Resources, and
Distance Education
Provides leadership and administration for
the college library, learning resources, and
instructional, and support programs services.
Director of Extended Opportunities Programs
and Services (EOPS)
Provides leadership and administration for
the college EOPS, CARE, and CalWORKs
programs.
Director of Institutional Research Manages institutional research projects to
assess institutional needs, including studies
required for the assessment of student
outcomes, accreditation, program review, and
enrollment management.

39
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants were current employees at FC.
Criterion 2. All FC vice presidents, deans, and directors were asked to participate in this
research.
Interview or Focus Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on the FC vice presidents,
deans, and directors’ transformation were examined through interview data collection. The
sampling strategy was purposive and comprehensive, including all vice presidents, deans, and
directors in the sample who were employed at FC. The target sample size was between eight and
15, with 15 being the maximum number of interviews.
These criteria were necessary as the research question was interested in understanding the
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors’ suggestions. This sampling strategy was recommended
as the population is small, and the participants have the information to guide the research
questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The open-ended questions during the interview process
aimed to highlight the systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and engagement leading to
improved performance within the environment (Grossman & Salas, 2011). According to Simon
(2011), participation that is linked to three vital forces within an organization—attrition,
productivity and profitability, and having an engaged employee focused on the goal and fully
aware of the procedure—will bring success to a team.
Qualitative Data Collection
Yin (2017) suggested that researchers use multiple sources of evidence for data
collection. Accordingly, two methods of data collection were used for this study, and data were
collected through interviews and document analysis. Each approach enriched and validated the

40
data being collected in assessing the efforts to support enrollment growth, operational efficiency
in uses of data, and integrated technology solutions to promote retention, graduation, and
transferability. Each method will help support the theory of practice and further support the
efforts by college leadership, identifying specific behaviors and change over time, providing
useful insights to the organization.
Interviews. Interviews were guided by the interview protocol developed for this study
and conducted with FC vice presidents, deans and directors. The interview protocol guided the
discussions and addressed the research questions (see Appendix A). The interview protocol
consisted of 10 questions, not including probes.
The interview protocol is designed to protect the integrity of this study and the identity of
study participants as well as to collect data in a non-threatening way (Yin, 2017). A systematic
approach was used to protect the integrity of participants by removing their names and all
personally identifiable information from study records and replacing them with pseudonyms. FC
vice presidents, deans, and directors were invited to partake in this study by choosing
pseudonyms in place of their names. According to Oyelaran, Watson, and Holloway (1991),
including study participants in the choosing pseudonyms is meaningful in a symbolic sense and
engenders their trust and cooperation.
I employed an ethical standard and honesty in all aspects of the conduct of this study.
Before the interviews began, study participants were required to sign a consent form, which
declared that their participation was voluntary. Jenkins’s (2014) survey of leadership best
practices for female executives in the information and technology industry offered a
comprehensive summation of the semi-structured interview protocol. Jenkins (2015), citing
Baumbusch (2015), claimed that interview protocol involves a set of open-ended questions that

41
include in-depth and productive responses. For this project, interviews were used to gauge
participants’ understanding of enrollment, retention, and student outcome success management
as well as their respective roles in managing student enrollment. Interviews are conversational
and offer participants the opportunity to explore issues of importance (Yin, 1994). According to
Glesne (2015), meetings are a means of facilitating close researcher-participant interaction.
Despite the use of prepared questions, interviews allow the development of new items to follow
up on information (Glesne, 2015). This method enabled probing for new information by posing
additional questions that allow vice presidents, deans and directors to further explain their
thoughts, actions, ideas, and worldviews (Glesne, 2015; Merriam, 2009). From participants’
responses, researchers make meaning of participants’ opinions and behaviors (Yin, 2017).
Document Analysis
Document analysis is an unobtrusive way for researchers to collect data (Yin, 2017).
Documents included as part of this study were agenda, minutes of meetings, and reports.
Documents contain detailed information as to times, locations, and dates that can span a long
period, and may be reviewed many times (Yin, 2017). Therefore, documents are used to
corroborate evidence collected from semi-structured interviews (Yin, 2017).
According to Bowen (2009), document analysis occurs during review by a researcher,
attributing the meaning of elements and assessment of a phenomenon. Accordingly, I used the
document analysis process to gain insight into the underpinnings of enrollment management
processes within the context of the FC culture. Documents were collected and coded into
themes. The materials that were collected include public records of campus meetings that
capture official, ongoing records of campus activities. Examples were the strategic technology

42
plan, meeting minutes, and Enrollment Management Committee minutes. Additionally, notes of
first-person accounts of meetings, activities, and action plans were collected and analyzed.

43
Chapter 4: Findings
The California Community Colleges (CCC) is the most extensive community college
system in the United States. Despite enrollment of more than two million students at its 115-
member campuses (CCCCO, 2019), CCC does not produce the student outcomes identified in
the Vision for Success in adequate numbers. CCC are expected to ensure access to quality
education by enrolling enough students for full-time equivalent student (FTES) generation.
Additionally, the system is tasked with addressing issues of student success and equity (Vision
for Success, 2017). To better understand what a CCC was doing to meet these objectives,
analysis explored the KMO factors that influenced FC administrators in their efforts to achieve
the college’s goals. This study posed two research questions that guided this research:
1. What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve 100%
adoption of technology to support student success?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
Answers to these research questions will contribute to educational leaders’ understanding of
technology adoption and how it aligns with FC enrollment management strategies and the
CCCCO Vision for Success initiative.
An invitation via email was sent to 15 employees to participate in the interview, but only 10
responded. These 10 current employees at FC were responsible for enrollment management,
technology, and program implementation and served as vice presidents, deans and directors, as
indicated in Table 5, below. The group consisted of six women and four men, of which two vice
presidents, six deans, and two directors were selected through purposeful sampling.
Table 5

44
Full College Participants’ Names and Titles
Names (Pseudonyms) Title
Don Vice President
Michelle Vice President
Randy Dean
Eric Dean
Tammy Dean
Martha Dean
Ann Dean
Cheryl Dean
Gorgan Director
Jane Director

Data collection for this study consisted of document analysis and semi-structured
interviews. Documents included reference materials and minutes of meetings at which
enrollment management was discussed. Semi-structured interviews of FC vice presidents, deans,
and directors were used to triangulate findings from document analysis. All interviews took
place during work hours and were audio-recorded to ensure that the researcher did not miss any
details provided by the subjects. The researcher also took written notes to ensure that additional
context such as body language, and gestures that may not be present in the audio recording were
captured. Materials used for data analysis included documents, interview notes, recordings, and
transcripts of semi-structured interviews.
Results and Findings for Research Question 1
What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve 100% adoption
of technology to support student success?
FC stakeholders provided mixed feedback on 100% adoption of technology in support of
student success. The feedback highlighted a strong understanding of conceptual knowledge but
revealed a lack of understanding of procedural knowledge and the methods for establishing the

45
necessary steps to have institutional buy-in for successful technology adoption. While the
stakeholders understood the value of technology in achieving student success, they needed better
insight into the necessary processes for implementing the technology. The college is on a
pathway to the adoption of new processes, technology tools, and mechanisms for measuring
outcomes, but procedural knowledge about how to effectively use the technology needs
improvement. The challenge lies in the understanding and adoption of technology within the
operational fabric of the institution.
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors demonstrated a general lack of understanding of
standard operating procedures related to implementation and operationalization of technology to
improve success at FC and to achieve the requirements of the CCCCO Vision for Success and
long-term sustainability. These FC leaders understand that technology plays an important role in
helping to achieve student success and had a solid understanding of conceptual knowledge, but
they also expressed concerns that processes and procedures to support technology
operationalization and adoption are not fully understood and need to be improved at FC.
Knowledge Findings
The purpose of this study was to determine the level of knowledge vice presidents, deans,
and directors have in effectively using technology to track student performance and
communicate with students to support academic progress, program persistence, and graduation.
According to researchers Grossman and Salas (2011), systematic acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and engagement lead to improved performance within an environment. For the purpose of
this study, the researcher focused on one procedural knowledge influence that emphasized the
adoption of technology to support student and academic progress. Feedback from study
participants—vice presidents, deans, and directors—signaled a general understanding of how

46
technology can be used to support student success; however, there was room for improvement in
developing a clear understanding of the standard operating procedures needed to effectively
implement and adopt technology such as Predictive Data Analytics, Technology, and
Engagement (PDATE) at FC.
Knowledge of Technology Adoption
FC managed student enrollment through a strategic planning process. There are several
advantages to taking a strategic approach to enrollment management using technology. Strategic
planning helps to clarify direction, reduce uncertainty, identify a shared vision, solve problems,
achieve goals, manage changing priorities, enhance institutional ability to control resources,
improve communication, facilitate coordination, and keep pace with student needs (Benefits of
Strategic Planning, August 6, 2018). According to one participant: “We engage in enrollment
management strategies with our instructional component, in terms of enrollments, [and] seat
counts using the Student Information System (SIS), but also in terms of some student services
functions [like] outreach and employment trends” (Randy).
Against this backdrop, FC leverages Guided Pathways to manage student enrollment.
Through a digital roadmap, Guided Pathways provide students with fewer choices for degree and
certificate objectives. Rather than presenting students with an overwhelming number of options
for potential majors, the Guided Pathways model is used to steer students to choose a meta-
major, a broad course of study that consists of a sequence of courses in a general area of
educational interest (Bailey et al., 2015b). At FC, meta-majors are described as areas of interest
that students declare before declaring a specific major.
Another FC strategy for managing student enrollment involves increasing capacity for
student registration. FC deans monitor seat counts in classes by using reports that compare the

47
number of filled seats to the total number of seats available per section. As a participant
described it:
The ensuing ratio of filled seats to a total number of available places is referred to as the
fill rate. FC uses fill rates to measure efficiency for class offerings, so it is imperative
that the seat counts using reports from SIS services is important to make informed
decisions. Typically, 60% or 20 students is the formula that we use that would allow a
course to start at a minimum level. (Randy)
Armed with information about fill rates, deans decide whether to cancel classes with low
enrollment or let them continue. However, sometimes courses, despite low enrollment, remain
active and continue. “The latter happens when small enrolled courses are needed by students to
complete their educational objectives (e.g., degrees or certificates), and an alternative is not
possible and the importance of concise reports” (Randy).
Deans also monitor waitlists of classes that are closed (e.g., the fill rate is 100% or
higher) to increase enrollment and, thereby, generate additional FTES. In this way, deans add
class sections to the academic schedule to meet the demand for classes that would otherwise not
be available.
Another example of the way FC maximizes FTES generation involves the coordination of
activities among key players in the campus leadership. At the center of these activities is the
office of Institutional Research (IR). IR provides deans and the campus communications office
with reports that identify courses with waitlists and also supplies contact information for students
who were waitlisted. The deans then use this information to open additional class sections or
determine if there are under-enrolled courses that meet the same requirement as classes with
waitlists. Once a determination is made by deans as to whether to open new class sections or if

48
there are alternatives to fill course requirements, the campus communications office reaches out
to inform students of their options.
We pull data regarding classes that are full or classes that are open, work with the campus
communications office to be able to alert students who are on a waitlist with additional
sections that are available, or classes that have low enrollment, to reach out to students to
get them to enroll, and that all happens as a result of having a conversation with the Dean
to figure out what we should be doing. (Eric)
The need to use data for decision-making was a factor echoed by the 10 participants in
this study. These remarks were in response to interview question designed to understand
participants’ thoughts about factors that contribute most to managing student enrollment.
Tammy expressed appreciation and was an advocate for IR and the employees in that office for
their ability to take data and provide requested information for the campus leadership. This work
aids FC strategic goals through the use of technology tools that offer insights and predictive
models on student data, thus adding long-term value to achieving Vision for Success
requirements.
The IR team does an excellent job with that, and then [they give me] both the raw data, so
I can look at it, as well as what their interpretations are. That's good. Because then, I can
take their understanding and interpret it for my classified staff who may not understand
that having never been through a stats class. (Tammy)
Outreach activities that FC performs with high schools and K–8 campuses in its
surrounding service area is an essential component of its enrollment management
strategy. “Through outreach, FC establishes relationships with prospective students and begins a

49
process of engagement. As a result of its outreach efforts, FC receives requests for and
schedules campus tours tailored to the interests of prospective students” (Randy).
Academic counseling is an important component of FC retention efforts in that
counselors provide direction to students as they prepare to identify and subsequently enter
pathways. Academic counseling at FC features a decentralized model for service provision
that includes a case management component that was fully adopted in the spring of
2019. Counselors are embedded in each of the academic divisions and work directly with
instructional faculty to develop expertise in their disciplines. In the same way, counselors
serve students who are interested in, or who have already declared, a major that is part of the
counselor’s academic division. This expertise and close working relationship with
instructional faculty using technology such as predictive data analytics, technology, and
engagement (PDATE) allows counselors to better serve the interests of students.
I’m able to support [instructors]. They can refer students who are in need of
academic support to the Cranium Cafe online service. It gives me more credibility as
a counselor with the students and the service is very successful since we moved to
this model in 2019. (Jane)
Academic counseling at FC is designed to help students enter a pathway and develop
education plans to clarify a pathway and is improving with the adoption of new technology
tools and predictive models. Additionally, academic counseling is delivered via a case
management approach. According to the Case Management Society of America (2008), case
management is a collaborative process through which a person’s needs are assessed and
treatment is planned to promote positive outcomes. In this way, the case management
approach to academic counseling facilitates student retention. The efficiency and

50
effectiveness is improved through just-in-time and active tracking of student progress using
data.
Additionally, FC uses benchmarking to inform its retention efforts, comparing its
programs, services, and program outcomes to best practices for achieving student success. As
an example, FC compared the success rates of students who utilized the English Success
Center (ESC) and the Math Learning Center (MLC) with students who did not use them. The
data suggested that the centers’ use is a good predictor for success.
Student data show that under-represented students are more successful when they use
the centers than those who do not. Subsequently, FC uses success rate data to identify
students who could benefit from the services provided by the ESC and MLC and
reach out to them to share information about the availability of the centers and the
benefits of using them. (Tammy)
Tutoring refers to services for supplemental instruction and technology plays a role in
the engagement of meeting student needs. Tutoring is relevant to FC retention efforts because
it helps students develop the skills needed to be successful in their classes. The more
supplemental instruction students receive, the better their chances are to pass their classes and
remain enrolled (Casazza & Silverman, 2013).
FC uses student data to determine which classes students perform poorly in and assign
personnel to them to provide supplemental instruction. We are working towards
improving the adoption of the outcomes from the reports for improvements at FC. We
need to have the confidence in our decisions and understand the value of the effort that
supports FC within the coming year and many more to come. (Don)

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The adoption and use of technology to visualize data, inform students, and influence
student behaviors is yet another strategy for managing student enrollment. During his interview,
Gorgan, an IT expert, indicated his department collaborates with the District Office (FCCCD)
and student support services at the campus level to support technology that is used to manage
student enrollment. In doing so, Gorgan facilitated Deans’ use of Civitas (a tool used to perform
predictive analytics) to identify events in student behavior and performance for
intervention. More specifically, Gorgan and his team of employees helped identify students in
danger of dropping out by implementing Civitas. Civitas enables FC users such as Deans,
Directors, Vice Presidents, to identify students who are at risk for not completing their classes, or
otherwise have the potential to stray from their educational paths, so that they can be steered to
appropriate student support services. Predictive Data Analytics, Technology, and Engagement
(PDATE) is the catalyst to success as mentioned by Gorgan.
FC has already begun using Civitas and the mobile application for this purpose by
sending push-notifications to target student populations. However, I am concerned with
the disconnect between FCCCD and FC with regards to supporting the operations to
attain the college goals using this new technology and the understanding of the adoption
at the institution. (Gorgan)
Document analysis indicated data or topics related to data (e.g., the need for data, data
collection, data accuracy, and data analysis) were mentioned at the four Enrollment Management
Committee (EMC) meetings. FC, in consultation with and support from its governing
community college district, used reports and data visualization tools to examine student
enrollment trends and FTES generated (Enrollment Management Committee: Southern
California Community College District, June 4, 2019).

52
With [that] software, we can drill down into certain things. And it’s also about using
dashboards and trying to see things via insights. I want to be able to look at the history
offerings, [and see] what happens if I offer this course, or do this, and see how that
impacts potential enrollment needs and trends - what-if scenarios. (Tammy)
The researcher found additional reports used by FC that allowed campus leaders to
identify and schedule available classrooms to maximize space utilization and student enrollment
and to inform academic scheduling based on student educational plans (Enrollment Management
Committee: Southern California Community College District, June 4, 2019).
Data and the need for data were also frequent topics of discussion during the Enrollment
Management Committee (EMC) meetings and were mentioned several times during interviews.
One participant stated that “FC leaders need a robust data set related to enrollment management
to make smart decisions about what to do” (Cheryl).
Additionally, during the October 10, 2019, EMC meeting, committee members, including
several from FC, acknowledged that it was necessary to improve EMC processes, interactions,
and outcomes by collecting and analyzing data. The committee noted that its most pressing need
was to further its understanding of student needs. As a result, the committee presented an
improvement grid, illustrated in Table 6, below, that highlights processes, interactions, and
outcomes identified as recommended steps for FC to help improve enrollment management.
Table 6
Need for FC/EMC Improvement of Processes, Interactions, and Outcomes (based on document
analysis)
Step Description
1 Understanding that one solution will not solve the student enrollment
problem.

53
2 More data through qualitative and quantitative research.
3 More time to address topics of concern.
4 Access to data.
5 Definition of EMC and FC’s roles for managing student enrollment.
6 Training on issues and topics that impact enrollment (e.g., dual
enrollment).
7 Electronic access to EMC agenda and other meeting documents in a
location accessible districtwide.
8 Training in the use of data collection and data visualization tools.
9 A visual infographic to inform constituents about enrollment
management so everyone can see their contributions to the overall
enrollment management effort.

One of the processes identified during an EMC meeting as needing improvement
involved perceptions of a disconnect between scheduling, marketing, and outreach. As part of an
assessment of related activities in these areas, EMC members noted that identifying students’
pathways to inform scheduling and provide student support services were essential components
of enrollment management (Enrollment Management Committee: Southern California
Community College District, October 2019). To address the issues between marketing, outreach,
and counseling within the context of enrollment management, FC is in the initial stages of (a)
creating easy methods such as push notifications and multiple avenues to communicate with
students, and (b) formalizing outreach activities with high schools. (Enrollment Management
Committee: Southern California Community College District, October 2019). FC also
determined that the use of technology such as laptops and the promotion of the mobile app
should take place at outreach events so that prospective students could use them to apply for
admission, schedule appointments with counselors, and receive updates directly through the
mobile app. The idea was to break down organizational silos by coordinating activities at a
tactical level and in the field rather than at a strategic level that is set apart from points of contact
with prospective students. In this way, the organizational units responsible for marketing,

54
outreach, and counseling would increase awareness about outreach activities. The three units
would also be connected to the overall enrollment management effort such that the focus of
marketing would be branding, the focus of outreach would be onboarding, and the counseling
unit could better anticipate the need for counseling services and plan accordingly (Enrollment
Management Committee: Southern California Community College District, October 2019). “To
assess the efficacy of the overall effort, FC established a means to track the number of students
who make and keep their first counseling appointments” (Martha).
Another strategy used by FC to manage student enrollment was making sure performance
measures were accurately reported for funding purposes. The 10 participants interviewed all
noted the importance of collecting and reporting accurate data during interviews. “The objective
is making sure FC receives the correct level of funding for state-defined performance metrics”
(Gorgan). FC has a Management Information System (MIS) data analyst who works with the
campus registrar and personnel at the district office (FCCCD) to make sure data are accurate
before they are reported to the state.
Our [Associate Degrees for Transfer], our contacts with orientation, all of those things
are important, and the MIS has to be an essential factor because the data has to be clean
for us to be able to receive the return of all of these efforts that we're doing on campus.
The challenge we face at FC is ensuring the FCCCD meets the accuracy of the
submission and the importance of meeting the deadlines as funding is determined by the
requirement set by the State Chancellor's Office. (Randy)
The accuracy of data is crucial because it is reported to the State of California to determine
institutional funding levels.

55
It is imperative that FC accurately report the number of degrees and certificates earned by
students, as well as the number of student contacts made by categorical programs. In the
wake of student-centered funding, which bases part of CCC budgets on performance
metrics, data accuracy and reporting under the umbrella of technology services are
critical functions of enrollment management. (Gorgan)
According to Don:
FC is in the process of creating training programs so that departments throughout the
college will know of the importance of the roles and responsibilities, required procedures
and understand the value of the efforts made to support the college and student success.
Technology adoption to support student success initiatives and enrollment management
strategies used by FC align with the Vision for Success requirements. The Vision for Success
provides community colleges with additional funding for students’ successful outcomes, which
includes funding for technology and new innovative services to help support student
success. These outcomes are measured by the number of students who complete college-level
English and math within their first two semesters of study, earn degrees and certificates, and
follow the completion of certificate programs to achieve gainful employment in their field of
choice. Martha expressed a belief that FC’s adoption of technology could be used to improve
institutional success. In relation to performance metrics, “FC uses multiple measures to allow
students to increase their likelihood of being placed in college-level English and Math” (Martha).
Following the placement of students in college-level English and math, FC provides support
services such as tutoring to help students be successful in their classes. “The initial engagement
starts with communication, and with the new mobile app, we respond more quickly to the

56
students, and have the digital touch point in a timelier manner, compared to email or traditional
letters” (Martha).
According to Cheryl, regarding the earning of degrees and certificates, FC, through
Guided Pathways, began mapping shorter, more direct paths to completion supported by the
Vision for Success. “FC implemented a mobile application to communicate with students via
push notifications and nudges” (Gorgan). The funding for this initiative helps improve the
student success and the overall institutional outcomes. “These initiatives build confidence in our
belief that the technology will increase student and staff engagement, improve retention via
making informed decisions with data, and the long-term goal of transfer service improvements
for our students” (Gorgan).
Another way in which FC’s adoption of technology is helping to improve institutional
success is by using Degree Works, a degree audit system that allows students to view how their
courses are used to fulfill their educational objectives (Randy); and Civitas, to perform
regression analyses and identify students who are at risk for dropping out. These students are
subsequently targeted for intervention. As part of the intervention, students meet with
counselors and are steered toward additional resources for student retention. “These technology
strategies have helped improve FC’s student success by increasing the student retention,
graduation and transfer rates over the past two years while working towards higher rates
[numbers] with full adoption of the new technology services” (Don).
Technology can aid in achieving insights into the outcomes of student performance,
inclusive of course completion, graduation, and transferability as outlined by the CCCCO Vision
for Success. “The MIS reporting process is a passive methodology of reviewing data and the

57
need for real-time analytics can help FC be better prepared and competitive in achieving the
Chancellor’s vision” (Gorgan). Don added:
We adopted a data analytics tool to provide us [at FC] with student performance insights
with the action of early intervention. This step was the vision of our college President
before the new state requirements and we believe we are on the right path, ahead of other
CCC.
Another example of how PDATE is helping FC achieve the state chancellor’s Vision for
Success is the use of the Civitas data analytics platform to determine which students are
underperforming academically and may need additional help, such as tutoring and
counseling. More specifically, “Gorgan and his team of employees helped identify students in
danger of dropping out by implementing Civitas” (Don). Among other things, Civitas enables
FC users such as vice presidents, deans, and directors to identify students who are at risk for not
completing their classes—or otherwise have the potential to stray from their educational paths—
so that they can be steered to appropriate student support services. Gorgan indicated that FC is
using the new mobile application for this purpose by sending push notifications to targeted
student populations. “This real-time analysis and notifications can be a huge win for our
students and for FC in attaining its strategic goals and meeting the CCCCO requirements. There
is general consensus, among the Deans that the new technology can help FC improve
performance goals and positive outcomes” (Michelle). Martha added:
I think that there are a lot of people who are aware of the predictive data analytics tools
we acquired, because of the cost by struggling with conceptualizing how it integrates into
the college operations. FC needs to communicate a bit more on this to have buy-in to this
shift.

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The value of technology and adoption—specifically with the use of PDATE—to connecting all
college services must be better communicated.
Communication. Communication plays a huge part in FC retention efforts involving
different modalities with current students, providing helpful information about student services,
administrative tasks, and student engagement.
Through in-reach, FC informs students about available classes and steers students to
enroll in them. From a student retention perspective, knowledge of the requirements to
use technology and the procedures to ensure we, as employees can actively participate
and help cultivate the campus climate and improve our successes.” (Michelle).
The complexity of all of these factors and directing meaning to broad-scale performance
improvement and organizational change will help employees be more productive and increase
the organization’s effectiveness and efficiency (McGee & Johnson, 2015).
Reaching out, making sure that specific groups on campus know that we have programs
that could benefit them, and accommodate them using the amazing technology tools we
have is highly desirable. However, we face the challenge of a disjointed training system
and professional development program on the use of these tools, such as the mobile
push notification, nudge campaigns and active reach options. We need an in class and
online employee training course option using Canvas for these specific tasks. (Ann)
Motivation Findings
According to Rueda (2011), motivation is influenced by internal and external factors and
further breaks into four categories: personal, activating to enable a specific behavior, energizing
to enable persistence further, and directed to attain a particular goal. Motivation is a crucial
factor in stakeholders’ objectives because it highlights development and aligns with learners and

59
achievers. The two specific theories of this study are self-efficacy and expectancy-value. Self-
efficacy theory addresses a quality within individuals that deals with that person’s belief in
themselves to accomplish a task. Expectancy value theory relates to the value an individual
place on a certain task, and how that the value—coupled with self-belief in their ability and high
expectations for success—increases their performance.
The focus of this study was to determine whether FC vice presidents, deans and directors
had confidence that their efforts being made toward a more data focused approach to inform
decision-making were having a positive impact on student success. FC vice presidents, deans,
and directors must understand that technology is a valuable aid in supporting FC strategic goals.
Therefore, FC leadership will have to commit to using technology to help achieve student
success and follow up with the necessary measures to ensure a successful outcome. Feedback
from the study participants indicated that the use of data analytics tools has aided FC in making
more informed decisions, thus enabling FC to achieve its strategic goals. However, the feedback
also revealed a need for more effective communication among FC departments and showed that
not all FC staff clearly understood the overall technology adoption plan within their
departments.
Self-Efficacy: Confidence in Management Efforts
Student engagement is a well-established strategy for student retention and includes both
the personal connections and the use of technology to enable early intervention. “At FC, the
point of student engagement is to promote student success and well-being. We depended on a
delayed model in the past and are now implementing the tools to be actively engaged and support
the student body” (Ann). Randy, Eric, Tammy, Martha, and Ann (five participants) expressed
that their individual beliefs in the jobs they do to serve students are reflected in the successful

60
completion and graduation rates within the program. Student engagement refers to events,
programs, and services that feature student interaction with faculty, staff, and other students.
During such interactions, FC shares information with students and encourages students to
participate in campus programs, tutoring services and opportunities to explore transfer
and career options. Students are also encouraged to attend various campus events and
participate in student activities and innovation competitions. (Jane)
Ann added:
The more that our students connect with their counselors, their coaches, advisors,
mentors, and faculty members, the more successful they are. So, having that human
touch is super powerful and impactful for students. These efforts are the reason I do my
job - it fulfills my responsibilities and I know we are making a profound positive impact
for the students we serve. I feel confident about the steps the FC leadership team has
taken with the new data tracking systems and services to our students and the continued
work on the adoption procedures.
In addition, the relationships they created with each other, the faculty, and departments
yielded positive results and collaboration, as expressed by Cheryl, Martha, Tammy, and Don.
According to Randy:
In the spring of every year, we conduct an active recruitment process by bringing high
school students to campus, showcasing the FC campus, our programs and services we
offer for their educational success and personal growth. I am an advocate for this event
and believe in the strategic direction the FC Vice Presidents, Deans and Directors are
making with the use of technology. This provides me the assurance that I can be a

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positive contributor to student success. Services like the new check-in process using the
mobile app, nudges and push notifications are a tremendous step forward for FC.
The positive efforts and outcomes by FC yielded improvements in the confidence in the
entire FC workforce, stated Don. Michelle added: “Campus employees exhibit a greater level of
confidence and enthusiasm about how the new innovations and connecting these services to the
current operations lead to the enrollment success.” Eric explained:
The gap of the unknown to having the insights, earlier, is closing and we will
continuously improve with the efforts on technology adoption and workforce
engagement. It helps build the confidence and commitment by the campus leadership
knowing that they can do it and on the right path with the recruitment processes. (Eric)
Expectancy-Value: Perceived Value of Work
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors who participated in the research appeared to
understand that technology tools for predictive analytics and communication are valuable
resources in helping to support FC strategic goals. They recognize the importance of making
personal connections with students as well as with their fellow colleagues. Student engagement
is a proven strategy for promoting student success. The more students feel that they are part of
the campus community, the more likely they are to persist and succeed academically
(Kevin). To that end,
FC provides students with personalized counseling and leverages the Full College
Experience Program via online resources and technology engagement for case
management. These are important resources to help with student retention. This is
possible via the tracking tools, though antiquated a few years ago with Excel

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spreadsheets, we are now using Civitas and Degree Works, which sped up the process of
student insights and improved our outreach to the students. (Don)
Martha said, “Cranium Cafe online student support platform played an important role in
operations before the COVID-19 pandemic and was a critical part of the FC student engagement
during these challenging times.”
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors also expressed that focusing on the purpose and
relevance of the technology helps them to better understand the value of such technology as an
enabler for student success. This focus also helps motivate FC to adopt technology that has a
clear purpose of helping to achieve the Vision for Success. These initiatives were echoed by
Jane and the department she oversaw:
The new technology tools we adopted have had a positive impact, especially now with
the health issues related to COVID-19. Without the communication tools like the mobile
app and Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) and the nudge campaigns, we would have
been unable to adequately provide resources to students. We are more motivated to
directly support students under these trying circumstances by using this new technology.
By moving from the traditional in-person contact to remote services, the VOIP,
chat/video and mobile communication services fill the service gap we would have had.
(Jane)
These initiatives will help close the motivational gap by demonstrating how the adopted
technology helps FC achieve its enrollment targets as well as add value throughout the
workforce. “Modeling values, enthusiasm, and interest in a task will yield positive outcomes.
By creating a model for FC, this will demonstrate their efforts to aid the college and improve the
utility value of doing more” (Cheryl). Cheryl and Don both shared that:

63
FC needs to continuously address the awareness, training and purpose of the efforts to
further build the expectancy-value within the organization and address the lack of
motivation some FC staff have about using technology to support students due to an
unclear understanding of the purpose and relevance of the technology. This way, the
motivational influence would be better understood, via communication, as well as a
learning opportunity for the FC leadership team.
Summary
According to the feedback provided by the 10 participants interviewed, the researcher
found FC’s leadership had a strong conceptual knowledge and an understanding of the concepts
of technology to support student success and operations sustainability. However, there were
concerns about the lack of procedural knowledge regarding specific standards and operating
procedures related to technology adoption at the current time. One example is the addition of
Civitas, the predictive data analytics tool, the mobile application, and Cranium Cafe software
without a defined plan and relational models to connect the outcomes of the individual software
applications. The result was a missed opportunity to identify useful insights by not merging the
data findings from these applications to identify “at-risk” groups at FC as well as projected
timelines when student intervention should occur. Although these applications have all
contributed positively to FC’s outcomes—as well as the expectancy-value and self-efficacy of
the FC staff who participated in the research—a lack of clearly defined procedures had left a gap
in achieving a 100% technology adoption and, ultimately, the Vision for Success. At the same
time, the interview revealed a concern about effective communication and showed that some FC
staff lacked a clear understanding of the overall technology adoption plan within their
departments.

64
The addition of new technology, such as push notifications via mobile apps and
engagement, demonstrates that FC stakeholders have a good conceptual understanding of the
important role technology plays in aiding FC’s trajectory toward attaining the organizational
goals. However, there is a gap in procedural knowledge about integrating new technology into
daily operations. Confidence in FC management efforts in adopting technology to aid the
strategic direction and performance improvement, collectively, was a theme echoed throughout
the interviews. Additionally, the participants interviewed emphasized the need for continuous
training and communication in order to convey information that highlights the value of the work
and effort being demonstrated.
Results and Findings for Research Question 2
What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
Among the various departments, the need for interdepartmental communication and
responsiveness is considered of high importance and essential to FC’s success in assisting
students, improving the overall student experience, and allowing FC to be successful with the
student-centered funding formula (SCFF) and the Vision for Success. A better understanding of
the roles, responsibilities, and provision of resources was cited as an area in which FC has made
progress; however, there is still need for improvement. The FC leadership team expressed
optimism about the overall direction due to the adoption of technology for determining the
actions needed to be supportive of the student body and to improve overall organizational
performance. For example, the establishment of data coaches would help FC improve data
analytics processes and communication among departments.

65
Organizational Findings
Organizational culture is defined as a shared learning experience that will help members
address internal issues and work toward continuous improvements. At FC, information access,
innovation, and understanding and implementation of new technologies to drive organizational
change are drivers of this change. Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted that understanding
resources and processes is integral to success in addressing performance gaps. According to
Rueda (2011), cultural settings are the shared schema of how an organizational process and
structure is shaped by identifying and implementing its values, practices, policies, and incentive
structure. The second part is the cultural setting, which includes social contexts that help
illuminate some of the visible aspects of an organization’s culture. This study determined if
there was a need for the FC vice presidents, deans, and directors to establish communication
channels, foster technology adoption to achieve institutional success, and establish clearly
defined roles and responsibilities to help connect departments.
Cultural Setting: Developing Inter-Department Communication. Participants cited
concerns with the student-centered funding formula (SCFF), the method of explanation by
campus leadership, and the required changes FC will have to adopt to meet the requirements of
the SCFF. “Clear communication from the Chancellor’s Office to the campus administration is
not well established and potentially misinterpreted at FC. The directive, timelines, and baseline
metrics are at risk because of confusion of these requirements” (Don). One participant described
the SCFF as poorly conceived and stated that it did not have input from faculty or others at the
campus level (Martha). When asked about SCFF communication among departments at FC,
Michelle indicated that FC leaders did not fully understand the SCFF and were struggling with
how the different departments will work together to ensure success, effectively measure the

66
performance prescribed by the formula and—more so—how the technology and data retrieval
process flow occurs throughout the organization for student success. According to Randy:
I think you’ll see over the course of the next several years in terms of how we measure
and the Vision for Success, we will struggle to get there but we’ll hopefully learn from
our ways and come up with successful measures that we can move forward for our
students. The metrics are not clearly defined with the cut date. Colleges are given a
‘hold-harmless’ period, does this mean its variable by college and Districts? The lack of
clarity if not good from Eloy Oakley and the Chancellor's Office.
Another concern with SCFF and interdepartmental communication involved what was described
as the moral implications. The student-centered funding formula assumes that students will
enroll full-time each semester; however, most students at FC do not reflect this demographic, nor
is it fully understood.
Some FC staff don’t have a clear understanding of what the SCFF actually means and
this leads to confusion and inconsistency at FC. Therefore, there needs to be better
communication among FC departments and campus leadership regarding the meaning
and implications of the SCFF. I can tell you right now that there’s a gap in
understanding between FC staff and leadership as it relates to the SCFF. How are all
these changes going to impact the support programs? The programs will fall short and it
will appear that we are not doing our jobs at FC, specifically for the Federal Grant
program. We need to understand this better within the internal services provided. (Ann)
The ability of the vice presidents, deans, and directors to reflect and acknowledge their
beliefs will bring an informed perspective to their interactions with college stakeholders. A shift
in their beliefs will yield a positive outcome, improving and developing communication channels

67
for the college to be successful. Recognizing and applying solutions to organizational problems
will become more functional and useful for FC performance.
The lack of clarity is impacting how colleges respond and making colleges like FC create
metrics that are supposed to be defined clearly by the CCCCO. This action can lead to confusion
among the 115 CCCs. Attaining the necessary buy-in can be challenging when colleges like FC
are seeking support and commitment from different stakeholders, including FC leadership, and
from the CCCCO. “We can have the best technology resources available, but if the rules are not
clearly defined for the SCFF, there is a high possibility that the entire program will get scrapped
in a few years” (Gorgan).
Cultural Setting: Roles and Responsibilities. Participants indicated that FC had lacked
clearly defined roles and responsibilities to manage the Vision for Success properly and to
provide the case management services needed to help students succeed. During interviews, it
was also noted that FC was working on better defining roles and responsibilities, using such
resources as data coaches to facilitate the training of employees to improve case management for
the entire student population.
I think that establishing the role of Data Coaches helps to facilitate training and
communication among departments regarding the use of technology to help FC achieve
student success. The technology solutions, Civitas, Tableau and Power BI, that we have
implemented in the past two years are progressive and now having the guidance of the
Data Coaches will help us better integrate the technology tools with the actionable
outcomes we seek. (Don)
Consequently, “the most vulnerable employees at FC are those who struggle with technology and
the use of new services to change and improve their job functions” (Cheryl). FC is working

68
diligently to create training positions with specific roles and responsibilities, funded through the
new Title V grant, to support employees and ultimately student success as expressed by all the
deans.
These new roles add three employees, funded by the Title V grant, to train and guide
employees on the use of Predictive Analytics and how to take action based on the results
and insights from systems like Civitas, MIS and use of push-notifications via the mobile
app to communicate with the different audience. (Don)
FC launched a new mobile app in 2018, which serves as a useful resource to
communicate with different constituents—among them, students and faculty/staff. However, FC
is still in the process of defining roles and responsibilities for ownership and administration of
the information that needs to be communicated. These roles will help tailor the message to the
different constituents and ensure consistency throughout the process. The new mobile app is a
great resource for targeted messages to specific groups; for example, knowing which students are
on probation, the app allows FC to tailor messages directly to these groups and integrate
information directly into various campus resources. “A combination of analytics, the mobile app
resource and the [people] intervention gives us leverage and a positive outcome by using these
resources” (Randy).
Better communication, training, and data analytics will help address the enrollment
management challenges. Some participants indicated that FC enrollment management efforts
were not coordinated and needed improvements. Eric stated that enrollment management
strategies conceived at the FCCCD level lack connection to campus initiatives, which runs
counter to what participants indicated they needed to manage student enrollment effectively. In
fact, one study participant noted the need for communication when managing student enrollment

69
and the value of the technology needed to be successful. Data analytic tools such as “real-time”
dashboards allow a proactive look at the enrollment numbers and offer communication push
services such as mobile notifications, both of which can be a profound benefit to FC success.
Keep making sure that we’re all communicating so that [enrollment] processes are clear
and easy for our students, so that we remove any barriers that may be there. To be able to
pick up the phone and say, “Hey, I have this issue with a student. Can we waive this
process because it’s not making sense?” I think it’s important when you have those strong
relationships with your colleagues, and you’re able to call upon each other to help each
other out. (Jane)
Despite aspirations for communication and collegiality, another participant shared a
different opinion and described enrollment management as something that happens in silos
between the FCCCD Office with no central figure in leadership bearing responsibility at the
FCCCD in support of the campus level (Gorgan). Deep concern was shared among the
interviewees about the coordination needed between the FCCCD and FC for the attainment of
future positive funding following the requirements set by the CCCCO.
Participants described faculty awareness and support of the Vision for Success as issues
for concern. In one instance, a participant indicated that faculty might be fatigued by the number
of initiatives rooted in state mandates. When asked if the Vision for Success is well-received
among faculty, Eric stated, “I think that there’s a lot of people who think about Vision for
Success like they thought about [student learning outcomes]. And it’s just another thing that
we’re going to focus on for some period.”
Eric also indicated that a lot of faculty on campus were not aware of the Vision for
Success, which is indicative of another communication issue. “I know the data coaches were just

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established and this should be a welcomed addition to the engagement and connection we need”
(Eric). Jane also indicated that further work needed to be done to bring more faculty, including
part-time employees, into SCFF and Vision for Success conversations, by addressing the bigger
issue of sustainability and the new training mentor program, which will be the catalyst to
institutional buy-in. “Understanding how analytics and all the computer lingo fits within the
operations, knowing it plays a huge role in catering to the needs of the college will be an
institutional benefit” (Jane). Randy, Don, Gorgan, Tammy, Martha, Cheryl, Michelle, and Ann
all expressed optimism about the efforts being worked on for employees as well as the training
initiatives and actionable support FC is working on and the implementation of new roles—such
as data coaches—within the coming year. The connection of Predictive Data Analytics,
Technology, and Engagement (PDATE) to aid in the transition to determine performance metrics
will support FC in achieving the goals set by the college president to accomplish the CCCCO
Vision for Success.
Summary
The second research question, according to feedback provided by the stakeholders,
highlighted mixed results about the importance of the cultural settings and developing the
cultural setting at FC. The need for interdepartmental communication and responsiveness is
considered of high importance and essential to FC’s success among the various departments in
assisting students and in improving the overall student experience. It was shared that FC is on a
more favorable trajectory to support this initiative and will ultimately meet the requirements of
the Vision for Success. A point of contention shared across the interviewees is the understanding
and support of the district office (FCCCD). Funding is generated at the college level and, if
there is a gap in the process—specifically at the FCCCD—the efforts will not be a positive

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reflection of FC’s efforts. Improvements in understanding the roles, responsibilities, and
provision of resources was an expressed area for improvement needed between FC and
FCCCD. By adopting technology, the FC leadership team expressed optimism about the overall
direction in determining the actions needed to be supportive of the student body and of overall
organization performance. The establishment of data coaches funded by the Title V grant was
also recognized as a progressive step forward in meeting the requirements of the CCCCO Vision
for Success and long-term sustainability.

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Chapter 5: Recommendations
Knowledge Recommendations
According to Rueda (2011), the cognitive approach to learning is categorized into four
different types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. Factual
knowledge is the basic level of understanding that vice presidents, deans, and directors need in
order to successfully use technology to achieve the Vision for Success initiative. Conceptual
knowledge will influence the methodology and use of technology in capturing student academic
data and building relational patterns with college resources for student success. Procedural
knowledge applies to the methods of communicating and establishing rapport and credibility
with college administrators. Finally, metacognitive knowledge is associated with reflection and
self-monitoring to create and influence a positive working environment and innovative culture.
These assumed knowledge influencers and recommendations are provided based on theoretical
principles. The recommended knowledge solutions are articulated in Table 7, below.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influence and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Vice presidents, deans, and
directors need to know how
to effectively use technology
to track student performance,
and to communicate with
students to support student
academic progress, program
persistence, and graduation.
(P)
Social cognitive theory
models help interactions
and facilitate performance
improvement (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
Provide college vice presidents,
deans, and directors with training
on how to effectively communicate
with administrators on the
technology, data models, and early
intervention tools to help improve
student retention and graduation.

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Procedural knowledge. Facilitating performance improvement through adjustments in
the environment will create successful outcomes for FC. Developing training and support via
mentoring will assist in highlighting the benefits of the use of data and making informed
decisions within the environment. The goal will be to establish a technology service of broad-
scale performance improvement and organizational change so that employees will be more
productive, and the organization will be more effective and efficient (McGee & Johnson, 2015).
According to the findings of this study, FC vice presidents, deans, and directors needed a clearer
understanding of standard operating procedures to effectively implement and adopt technology
such as Predictive Data Analytics, Technology, and Engagement (PDATE).
The recommended solution for this procedural knowledge gap is to provide FC vice
presidents, deans, directors, and their staff training regarding specific steps and actions that are
needed to effectively implement and adopt technology. For example, training can be provided
on the need for clearly defined roles and responsibilities, communication as well as project and
change management. The systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and engagement will lead
to improved performance within the environment (Grossman & Salas, 2011). According to
Simon (2011), engagement is linked to three essential forces within the organization: attrition,
productivity and profitability, and having an engaged employee, focused on the goal and fully
aware of the procedure will bring success to FC.
Motivation Recommendations
Motivation is a factor that drives individuals to success and ensures persistence and focus
on completing a task (Rueda, 2011). FC is impacted by the motivation of the employees, with
the driver being utilizing technology to improve current practices and discover new pathways for
student success. Employees who are motivated, engaged, and determine their purpose contribute

74
to the achievement of the organization and obtaining favorable outcomes (Jensen, 2012). With
the understanding of the constructs and influences of motivation, the organization will be able to
address the performance problems and address issues before it is too late (Rueda, 2011).
Furthermore, determining the positive and negative factors that may impact productivity will be
an asset to the organization's leadership.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Self-Efficacy: FC vice
presidents, deans, and
directors need to know their
purpose and believe that the
effort they make is having an
impact on student success
and applying the concept of
making informed decisions
with data.

Learning and motivation are
enhanced when learners
have positive expectancies
for success (Pajares, 2006).

Provide goal-oriented training
and opportunity for feedback
to assess learning.

Expectancy-Value: FC vice
presidents, deans, and
directors need to see the
value of technology as an aid
to support FC strategic goals
and be an advocate of the
technology tools to improve
performance goals with their
peers. The outcome will help
in the attainment of success
by using the technology
resources in achieving
institutional goals.
Rationales that include a
discussion of the importance
and utility value of the work
or learning can help learners
develop positive values"
(Eccles, 2006; Pintrich,
2003).
Utilize training modules that
focus on rationales such as the
importance and utility value of
technology to support FC
strategic goals. Introduce the
VPs, deans, and directors to
similar and credible models,
which can foster positive
values.

FC vice presidents, deans, and directors need to understand that technology is a valuable
aid in supporting FC strategic goals. Therefore, FC leadership will have to commit to using

75
technology to help achieve student success and follow up with the necessary measures to ensure
a positive outcome. Feedback from the study participants indicated that the use of data analytics
tools has aided FC in making more informed decisions, thus enabling FC to achieve its strategic
goals.
Self-Efficacy: Confidence in management efforts. The FC leadership team, consisting
of vice presidents, deans, and directors will be assisted in recognizing their positive efforts and
building confidence in technology adoption, which will yield improvements in student success.
The leadership team must believe that they are capable of achieving the Vision for Success
through the use of technology initiatives. A reduced level of confidence by the leadership team
may have negative consequences of not following through on the initiative and diminishing
returns for student success. Overcoming this gap is the foundation of self-efficacy theory and
will be the most productive way to lead a fruitful student success initiative. According to Pajares
(2006) learning and motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for
success. This finding supports the recommendation to provide the FC vice presidents, deans, and
directors with a model that will demonstrate that their efforts to improve student performance
can be useful. As an example, applying relevant research, the vice presidents, deans, and
directors’ confidence can be built up by providing information on the metacognitive process,
identifying the approach to support student outcomes, demonstrating the impact of technology in
operational improvements for student success, and creating a positive work environment.
The college leadership needs to know their purpose, believe the effort they make is
having an impact on student success, make informed decisions, and learn from examples to
improve. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that having confidence and a belief in performing a
particular task will yield organizational success and is an important driver in motivating for

76
performance improvement. According to Bandura (2000), belief in the ability to influence
events, others within an organization, human inspiration, performance accomplishments, and
motivation are core beliefs to support action in the face of difficulties. This belief operates
through cognitive, motivational, and decision processes.
Expectancy-Value: Perceived value of work. Validation of this research shows that the
college leadership comprising vice presidents, deans, and directors needs to see the value in
being aware and sensitive in their interactions with college stakeholders, and in seeking to fulfill
the organization’s performance goals. Expectancy value theory will help address the motivation
gap and resolve challenges. Including a discussion of the importance and utility value of the
work or learning can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). These
findings suggest that FC vice presidents, deans, and directors need to improve institutional
awareness and increase the value of collaboration throughout the organization to achieve
common goals. Eccles (2006) further elaborated that modeling values, enthusiasm, and interest
in a task will yield positive outcomes. This approach will help close the motivation gap, achieve
college performance goals, and improve student performance outcomes.
Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted that focusing on the benefits of the task proved to be a
solution to the value of the motivation gap. An effective method of addressing the lack of
awareness and sensitivity by FC vice presidents, deans, and directors and their interaction is to
revisit the purpose of the initiative and show the relevancy. Additionally, feedback can close the
motivation gap. FC vice presidents, deans, and directors must, therefore, engage with
stakeholders, effectively communicating with administrators on the technology, data models,
early intervention tools, and their effectiveness to help improve student success. Therefore, the

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value of engagement, validation, and interaction with stakeholders will aid in resolving
challenges.
Organization Recommendations
FC vice presidents, deans, and directors must work toward enhancing and developing
communication channels with college stakeholders and ensuring that knowledge, skill, and
motivation operate in synchronicity (Clark & Estes, 2008). This approach will further build
upon the organization’s culture and aid in the transparency of the organization (Rueda, 2011).
Furthermore, the organization needs to understand and recognize the value of access to
information, interdepartmental-level communication, and the implementation of new
technologies to drive organizational change. Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted the importance
of understanding that resources and processes are integral to success in addressing performance
gaps. The influence is the value stream and the understanding of interactions and work processes
between departments (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 9, below, illustrates the assumed
organizational influence, citation and recommendations.

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Table 9
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization needs to
develop
interdepartmental
communication channels
for the vice presidents,
deans, directors, and
employees.
Learning and motivation
are enhanced when learners
have positive expectancies
for success (Pajares, 2006).

Foster the use of technology, such
as dashboards, to aid in
determining performance metrics
within the college and to help with
communication across the
organization.
The organization needs to
have roles and
responsibilities outlined
to aid and highlight
connections between
departments.
Connect new information
with prior knowledge
(Mayer, 2011).
Have resources such as data
coaches, training mentors to
support FC vice presidents, deans,
and directors.

Cultural settings. The results and findings from this study validated the need for FC
vice presidents, deans, and directors to develop interdepartmental communication and
responsiveness for FC to improve and be successful with the overall student experience. Such
change begins with effective leadership at FC and calls for the acknowledgment of biases and to
seek ways to protect from any negative impact (Bensimon, 2005). Clark and Estes (2008)
highlighted that the leadership must trust in the importance of developing communication
channels with stakeholders and ensuring knowledge, skill, and motivation operate in
synchronicity. This acknowledgement suggests that, with alignment and belief, FC vice
presidents, deans, and directors can establish clear communication with college stakeholders and
the organization will prosper and have a positive impact on performance goals and learning;
further, when learners have positive expectations for success, they will become motivated.

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The ability of the FC vice presidents, deans, and directors to reflect and acknowledge
their beliefs will bring an informed perspective to interactions with college support staff. A shift
in beliefs will yield a positive outcome in improving and developing communication channels
for the college to be successful. Developing a mental network through the application of
continuous learning, information retrieval, and recognizing and applying solutions to
organizational problems will become more functional and useful to performance.
This study validated that FC needs to have defined roles and responsibilities to manage the
Vision for Success. To achieve this outcome, Table 8, below, outlines the change efforts and
recommendations required for FC vice presidents, deans, and directors to be successful in
achieving their vision and overall student success. Person-centered connections, roles, and
storytelling, and the development of accountability and information flow support organizational
outcomes and student success (Hattaway & Henson, 2013). The facilitation of data coaches to
support training and introduce the PDATE principle will help shape and lead the organization to
success and introduce a level of accountability for effective organizational change (Lewis, 2011).
An accountability theory was selected to close the organization gap and improve performance.
Accountability in communication between departments plays an essential role in working toward
a common goal. Bensimon (2007) highlighted that a scorecard can be used for community
accountability and as a method of detecting inequalities and bringing them to stakeholder
attention. This finding suggests that the organization can identify and address performance gaps
to improve information flow, how information is communicated, and the roles and
responsibilities within the organization.
Clark and Estes (2008) also underscored the importance of resources and processes to
successfully addressing performance gaps. Developing goals and indicators to reflect various

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measures within the work setting will aid in addressing the gaps and define the stakeholder's
responsibilities. An example of an identified goal is to establish a base standard in student
outreach using the predictive model for at-risk students. Questions (such as who will be
responsible for the outreach, methods used in the communication, and the department
responsible for supporting the student(s)?) will be important questions in addressing the gaps.
This approach will support that FC leadership is an essential factor in building capacity for
student achievement (Waters et al., 2003). This drive to establish roles, responsibilities, and
communication within FC departments will yield a strong and collaborative value of engagement
and resolve any challenges.
Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The Kirkpatrick (2016) New World model was applied to this study to evaluate
organizational training programs and KMO initiatives. The model provides a roadmap for
structuring and developing a plan for desired outcomes and starts with level 4 for participants,
with a focus on the purpose, mission, and relevance to full college (FC). Level 3 highlights
critical behavioral changes and on-the-job learning to apply to the tasks within FC. Level 2
provides direction on the degree to which participants acquire new knowledge, confidence, and
commitment from training. The final level, Level 1, describes the degree to which participants
find the training relevant and engaging in their jobs. The model will serve as the guide to
modernization and to changing the work environment and will help support the evaluation
trajectory.
Figure 2, below, highlights the four levels of evaluation in the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (2016).

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Figure 2. The New World Kirkpatrick Model.
Reprinted from Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation (p. 11), by J. D. Kirkpatrick
and W. K. Kirkpatrick, 2016. Alexandria, VA: ATD Press.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
The external and internal outcomes provide an opportunity to observe if the initiatives are
performing optimally and enabling FC to progress with the goals and achieving the desired
results. The external indicators highlight a perspective of improvement at FC, including an
increase in high school applications and an increase in the college ranking within the State of
California. Internal outcomes will allow FC leadership to focus on the operational success of the
organization with a focus on increasing the persistence rate of students enrolled. This
measurement will highlight the dropout rates of students at the college. A review of the
operational cost per student will be implemented to measure the actual value of student services,
leading to successful graduation and completion of degree programs. This metric will help FC
leadership to leverage resource allocation and improve sustainability. The third internal outcome

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is employee satisfaction with their jobs and the value of what FC provides to the employee and
the reciprocated contributions in serving the student body. Table 10 illustrates an overview of
external and internal outcomes, the measurement, and the methods used to attain the data.
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)

External Outcomes

Increase the number of high
school applications to the
college.
Application count of high school
students applying to the college.
Review of application count on the
Management Information Systems
(MIS) yearly reporting,
Increase FC education ranking
within the State of California.
FC increases in ranking within
the State of College.
Reviews by education publications,
referencing Niche, and US News.
Increase the retention and
graduation rates at FC.
Review the baseline metric via
MIS and forecast a percentage to
attain.
Analyze the MIS counts over the past
2 years as a benchmark to be used for
baseline and program development.

Internal Outcomes

Increase the persistence rate of
students enrolled at FC.
Measure the persistence rate. Analyze MIS data dating back 2 years
as a benchmark for future persistence
analysis.
Reduce the operation cost per
student.
The decrease in operations costs
measured on a by-student basis.
Implement a cost analysis per student.
Increase employee satisfaction. Percentage of employees
reporting satisfaction with their
jobs.
HR to provide employee satisfaction
surveys. Satisfaction rates applied to a
Likert scale.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Kirkpatrick (2016) defined crucial behavior as an action performed
consistently and reliably that will have the most significant impact on targeted program
outcomes. The success of external and internal results depends on three critical behaviors
demonstrated by FC leadership. They are: (a) An understanding of the college culture, behaviors,

83
and interactive services amongst departments and students; (b) Collaboration and strategic
discussions with division deans and department managers to conduct an environmental scan
through the use of a Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal
(PESTEL) analysis to improve the college performance; and (c) Demonstrate trust and
confidence with college stakeholders in collectively achieving and improving college
performance. Table 11, below, illustrates an overview of critical behaviors, metrics, methods,
and timing for evaluation.
Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
(1) The college vice
presidents, deans
and directors will
demonstrate an
understanding of the
college culture,
behaviors, and
interactive services
between
departments and
students.
Discussion of
college culture,
behaviors, and
interactions among
department
stakeholders with a
written plan and
agreement.
Review and sign an
agreed report by
college stakeholders.
This information will
be reported as part of
the college scorecard
to the Board of
Trustees.
Signed at the time of
the initial meeting,
reviewed monthly to
validate
accomplishments
followed with the
critical behaviors
below.
(2) Collaboration
and strategic
discussions with
division deans and
department
managers to conduct
environmental scan
through the use of a
Political, Economic,
Social,
Technological,
Environmental and
Legal (PESTEL)
analysis to improve
Develop a strategic
framework to
address education
issues that impact
the sustainability of
the organization.
Monitor and
document the
PESTEL framework
with college
stakeholders.
Conduct the
development of the
plan within the first
30 days of the initial
discussion and
revisit every 90
days.

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the college
performance.
(3) The college vice
presidents, deans,
and directors will
demonstrate trust
and confidence with
college stakeholders
in collectively
achieving and
improving the
college
performance.

Open discussion
between the college
stakeholders on
collectively working
toward achieving
and improving
college goals. A
signed agreement
between FC
leadership and
stakeholders.
Confidence review
form submitted to the
Board of Trustees
and kept as part of a
leadership plan.
Develop and present
at the initial
meetings and review
every 30 days.

Required drivers. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are necessary
to support the required change in transforming the organization successfully. Motivational
influencers, including value proposition and confidence, are essential in developing and driving
operational innovation. Organization influencers, such as developing training programs and
communication channels, will help aid in the development of accountability at the college. This
level of responsibility will ensure successful implementation of the solutions and support through
reinforcement, encouragement, and monitoring (Kirkpatrick, 2016). Informational resources,
and open and frequent communication via weekly sprint meetings, will provide the support
stakeholders need. Table 12, below, illustrates the required drivers to support critical behaviors.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing

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FC vice presidents, deans and
directors and stakeholders meet
and discuss communication
methodology and share their
approach to improve
communication and interaction.
At the beginning of program
implementation and
onboarding of new managers.
1, 3
FC vice presidents, deans,
directors, and supervisors reflect
on their internal communication
beliefs and interaction with staff
and students.
At the beginning of program
implementation and
onboarding of new managers.
1, 2, 3
Provide FC vice presidents,
deans and directors with job
aids to explain the steps in data
capture, validation, and
credibility of Management
Information Systems (MIS) in
student success and
performance.
At the beginning of the
program implementation.
1, 3
Provide FC vice presidents,
deans and directors with
information on the
metacognitive process, identify
the approach to supporting
student outcomes, the impact of
technology in operational
improvements for student
success, and creating a positive
work environment.
At the beginning of every
semester.
2, 3
Encouraging

FC vice presidents, deans, and
directors will meet with college
stakeholders to address
organizational culture,
successes, and challenges that
are being addressed.
Ongoing. 1, 2, 3
Rewarding

The District Board of Trustees
acknowledges FC President,
leadership team, and
stakeholders on improvements
achieved.
Every term 1, 2, 3
Monitoring

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Review of the student
persistence rate, student services
appointment, and student visits
to counseling appointments,
workshops, and tutoring
services.
Monthly 2, 3
Review of college foundation
donation to support student
scholarships and student success
initiatives.
Monthly 2

Organizational support. The success of the organizational change will rely on support
through resource allocation, improvements in communication channels among departments,
training, strategic planning, transparency of the plan, and sharing to establish trust among all
stakeholders. The required drivers—monitoring, reinforcing, encouraging, and rewarding—
provide a foundation on the success—and support of the critical behaviors. Monitoring has two
drivers, the review of student persistence rate, and tracking of student appointments, which help
aid student success. The second is employee support and awareness to assist students along their
education journey and other student success initiatives. These two drivers will provide a
valuable gauge on how well the college is doing with supporting the student body and if changes
within the college and its performance are attracting a flow of students through the college
programs. Reinforcing has four drivers and includes (a)communication methodology, (b)
reflection on how FC leadership communicates with college stakeholders, (c) provisions to the
college vice presidents, deans, and directors on the job aid on the value, relationship, and
purpose of MIS data, and (d) the metacognitive process in supporting student outcomes. The
deep reflection on communication methods, improving the transfer of information, and
understanding the touchpoints of how data from student performance and resource utilization can
yield an opportunity to make informed strategic decisions and future success for FC. Ongoing

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check-ins with college stakeholders will be encouraged and will aid in all sections of critical
behavior. The final driver is reward and recognition from the Board of Trustees, which will
support self-confidence and establish credibility within the District Office (FCCCD) and FC as
being innovators in times of radical change.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals. To achieve the critical behaviors, college leadership must be successful
at accomplishing three learning objectives: (a) Understand the college culture, behaviors, and
interactive services amongst departments and students; (2) Analyze and differentiate by
collaboration and strategic discussions with division deans and directors to conduct
environmental scan through the use of a Political, Economic, Social, Technological,
Environmental, and Legal (PESTEL) analysis to improve the college performance and
credibility; (c) Explain and demonstrate the value of trust and confidence with college
stakeholders in collectively achieving and improving college performance.
Program
The knowledge, motivation, and organization recommendations will be successful in
creating training modules to provide FC vice presidents, deans and directors with the necessary
tools to be successful. The value of the training should be an integral part of the District-Wide
Enrollment Management Advisory Committee (DEMAC) to help prepare, convey, and enrich the
learning experience. The program will help support and develop communication training and
how-to with administrators on the technology, data models, and early intervention tools to help
improve student success. This approach will help develop the expectancy-value of vice
presidents, deans, and directors, and the interactions of the FC stakeholders.

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Another module will provide FC vice presidents, deans and directors with job aids to
explain the steps in data capture, validation, and credibility of Management Information Systems
(MIS) for student success. The third module will focus on information related to the
metacognitive process, identification, and the approach to supporting student outcomes, the
impact of technology in operational improvements for student success, and creating a positive
work environment. Belief, via self-efficacy, will support the effort of demonstrating
improvement in student success.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Knowledge, skill, attitude, confidence, and commitment are learning elements FC
leadership must demonstrate in the learning process to successfully support organizational
change. The FC vice presidents, deans, and directors will have to demonstrate procedural
knowledge in the identification of tasks, classifying, summarizing, and explaining construct
models during the training. The FC leaders will demonstrate procedural knowledge by
attributing and knowing when to apply a working solution and use an appropriate procedure to
address a situation. The value and confidence in applying new information to the job are also
important in monitoring performance and useful in self-reflection for a task. This approach will
be evaluated from the discussions and interactions with the training coordinator(s). Finally, the
commitment to being successful will be reviewed by creating an action plan and discussing the
strategy in implementing the necessary sequence of steps for successful implementation. Table
13, below, illustrates the evaluation of the components of learning.

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Table 13
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration of action in engagement,
problem-solving, and communication during
DEMAC training.
Perform during DEMAC training.

Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Engagement during the training modules as
part of discussions on expectations.
Perform during DEMAC training.

Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions with DEMAC training
coordinator.
During 3-day DEMAC training.
Group discussions with the FC leadership
team.
During 3-day DEMAC training.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Action plan developed by the FC leadership
team.
During the DEMAC 3-day training in July.
Discussion of an action plan with the FC
leadership team and DEMAC committee.
Final day of the DEMAC 3-day training in
July.

Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 reaction, defined by Kirkpatrick, is the degree to which participants find training
useful, engaging, and relevant to their jobs (Kirkpatrick, 2016). It is essential that the training is
relevant and engaging for FC vice presidents, deans and directors to support institutional change
and institutional advancement. Formative evaluation methods will be applied during the training
so that feedback is quickly recognized and acted upon by the instructor. This approach provides
an engaging experience, and overall satisfaction of the information conveyed. The function of

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level 1 is to efficiently gather information to determine the quality of the training resources and
also to assess if the instructor plans are meeting the standards and are acceptable (Kirkpatrick,
2016). Table 14 illustrates the methods of the three evaluation areas for the FC leadership and
training to help support the institutional change.
Table 14
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observations during active participation During the DEMAC training
Asking questions leading to the discussion During the DEMAC training
Relevance
Observations from training consultants During the DEMAC training
Evaluations via survey After DEMAC training and mid-year reporting
Customer satisfaction
Training evaluations Post training
Observation During the DEMAC training

Evaluation Tools: Immediately following the program implementation. A survey will
be issued to the FC vice presidents, deans and directors to evaluate the quality of the training and
relevancy to the job. Providing the survey immediately after the exercise will offer the
opportunity to learn and understand if the program participant understood the new information
and possibly address any gaps in the knowledge conveyed. The survey will use a Likert 5-point
scale to follow the responses—disagree to agree— and will help support Level 2, Learning, and
Level 1, Reaction of the Kirkpatrick model. Appendix F illustrates the survey the FC vice
presidents, deans and directors will take after training to assess levels 2 and 1 of this research.
Delay for a period after the program implementation: The delayed survey will be
implemented 2 months after the conclusion of the training and will follow the same form of a

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Likert scale to evaluate FC vice presidents, deans and directors. Appendix G illustrates the
delayed evaluation survey for Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4 of this research. The FC vice presidents,
deans and directors would have an opportunity by the time the survey is administered to explore
what was learned, apply the knowledge to their job, and implement the critical behaviors. The
delayed evaluation helps to further evaluate the quality of the training program from all four-
evaluation levels (Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Data Analysis and Reporting: Reporting the results of the surveys is an essential step
in understanding the outcomes of the study as well as to serve actionable steps in changing a
behavior. The Likert scale from the evaluation survey (immediate and delayed) will serve as
identifiers for each of the four levels. The scoring matrix is separated into two—actual feedback
and expected feedback. When the actual and expected feedback matches, this demonstrates a
successful outcome. If the actual feedback is less than the expected feedback, this will serve as
an action step that FC will need to address and further improve to become equitable.
The evaluation dashboard, illustrated in Appendix H, shows the synthesized findings
from the delayed and immediate evaluation surveys. The dashboard supports a visual
representation of the scoring matrix and provides a quick view of performance, represented by
the levels and knowledge attained during the training program. The values in Appendix H
demonstrate the total mean score; for example, Level 1 has an overall attainable rating of 50,
which the expected and actual feedback is matched. If there is a difference in the input, for
example, Level 3, the identified targets should be fixed, as results are not achieved.
Summary
Implementing a successful program and understanding the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational recommendations pivots on the research and is influenced by the design,

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implementation, and assessment of an effective plan. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
provides the roadmap and competency-based system to ensure that stakeholders’ goals are
successful, outcomes are attained, and the performance goals are met in the review of the gap
analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). The assessment and evaluation of the training being
implemented will assist in understanding the influence and direction of the program to ensure
future success, help shape and improve the practice, and demonstrate its value to the users as a
return on investment for Full College. Working through the different levels will aid in the
required outcomes for Full College in meeting the California Community College Chancellor’s
Office’s Vision for Success, through technology and innovation.
Limitations and Delimitations
This qualitative study centered on the utilization of interviews and document analysis as
the primary method for collecting data. The study sought to bring to light the experiences and
perceptions of vice presidents, deans, and directors, as they attempted to a plan to create a data-
and technology-driven culture at FC to serve the college’s objective to improve student success
and fulfill the Vision for Success initiative. There were limitations and weaknesses of the study.
During the interview period, the COVID-19 pandemic affected many communities, families,
colleges, and universities across the United States, including FC. Therefore, participants may
not have been as forthcoming, given the COVID-19 challenges faced in March of 2020.
The study was also limited by the performance influences that were chosen as the focus
of the research; factors outside of the knowledge, motivation, and organization framework may
have presented limitations as well. In addition, the study’s interview sample consisted of a
smaller group due to the operational demands at the college during the pandemic and the
transition to online classes. The results will serve to better inform best practices at Full College.

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Recommendations for Future Research
Even though this study focused on one community college, the findings are applicable to
all 116 Community Colleges in the State of California (Madera Community College is the
newest member and was welcomed to the California Community College system in July 2020).
The focus on accountability, technology, and new operational processes is important for any
organization, in the public and private sector. Only with an articulate review of the greatest asset
of the organization, the employees, will organizational change be realized in helping achieve the
mission and vision. Future research could focus on the levels of leadership from the Chancellor
Offices at the California State University, University of California, and the California
Community College and K–12 systems, specifically how these public education systems can
collaborate in furthering their long-term goals and supporting the educational pathways of
students within the state. It would be useful to conduct a review of common practices to address
any potential differences and to compare and contrast the methodologies of goal achievement,
and factors to achieve these organizational goals.
Another opportunity for research is a review of integrated technology and predictive
model systems to improve contracts, cost, and fiscal operations in parallel with education
outcomes. Understanding how an activity-based costing model has a direct relationship to
education success and a derivative to the funding for education within the State of California.
Finally, there is an opportunity to review organizations beyond higher education and the value of
work and methods of operations in the new remote work services. The 2020 COVID-19
pandemic has forced a major shift in many organizations and disrupted the core beliefs of
operations, services, and employee morale, creating an environment of uncertainty and
insecurity. There is no greater time to lead change, implement the knowledge and practices of

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the Clark and Estes model, Maxwell's Five Rules of Leadership, and John P. Kotter’s eight-stage
process for organizational transformation. Investment into new technologies can be beneficial,
but cultivating new ways of knowledge transfer, motivating employees, and looking at reframing
the organization will lead a more nimble and agile organization to success.
Conclusion
The purpose of this project was to explore leadership perceptions and enhance the use of
technology to support student enrollment, retention, graduation, the student lifecycle for success,
and enable positive operational outcomes at a Community College. In addition, the purpose was
to evaluate the ability to manage enrollment and to achieve the California Community College
Chancellor's Office Vision for Success using technology and predictive analytics for operating
sustainability. The takeaway of this research is the value and purpose of each individual within
the organization to ensure the mission and vision is achieved, as well as the success of the
students and community being served. Community Colleges serve a very important sector of the
population by providing Associate Degrees, job retraining, and vocational programs for the
region and the State of California. Developing these core strengths, FC can make significant
strides by the reformed efforts and meet the demand for skilled workers within the State. A
collective effort within the organization is important in meeting the institutional goals. Overall
performance improvement and statewide objectives for student success are priorities for
California Community Colleges (CCC). A more educated and skilled workforce will lead to
California’s economic development, increased tax revenue, social development, and broad
success for the State of California. With the California Student-Centered Funding Formula
(SCFF), and against the backdrop of the Vision for Success, CCC are now expected to ensure
access to quality education by enrolling sufficient students for FTES generation, in addition to

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addressing issues of equity and student success as these two factors comprise a large portion of
the SCFF.
Although the study indicated a lack of procedural knowledge regarding specific
standards and operating procedures related to technology adoption at this time, Full College (FC)
technology adoption to support student success is on the right path and FC staff is confident in
FC leadership’s commitment to enhancing the use of technology. With a bit more support from
FC leadership in helping to foster technology adoption, FC could accelerate its use of technology
to achieve the Vision for Success initiatives. The study also revealed that there is a need to
improve interdepartmental communication and training in order to better assist students and
improve the overall student experience. Therefore, more support from FC leadership is needed
to develop better communication and training programs.
The confidence with FC management efforts in the adoption of technology to aid the
strategic direction and performance improvement, collectively, was a theme echoed throughout
the study. Additionally, the participants interviewed emphasized the need for continuous
improvement, training, and communication in order to convey information. The findings from
this study are not only limited to FC but can also be applied to other CCC throughout the State of
California. Examining the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences within the
CCC, help meet the goals of the CCCCO Vision for Success.

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Appendices
Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Thank you very much for agreeing to participate in this study and for having signed the
consent form. As required by my Doctoral program in Organizational Change and Leadership
program with the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California, I am
researching to fulfill my degree requirements. The interview will be no longer than 30 minutes
and will consist of 10 questions and may include a few follow-up questions. You may skip any
question with which you do not feel comfortable, and you may also discontinue the interview at
any given time.
Your responses may be summarized or modified in a way such that no particular
individual participant is identified. Your statements will be shared with the dissertation
committee, but as previously stated, your identities will be kept confidential. As required by my
doctoral program, I also plan to make specific recommendations that relate to utilizing
technology at FC, and I will also record the interview with a digital recorder. Upon request, I
will provide you with a copy of the interview session to ensure that your responses were
accurately represented. Upon the final defense of my dissertation, the recording will be erased
entirely.
Throughout the interview, PDATE will be used as an abbreviation for the term Predictive
Data Analytics, Technology, and Engagement.
Interview Questions:
1. What steps has FC taken to improve student retention, graduation, and transferability
success within the past 12 months? (K-Procedural).

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2. What actions are being conducted within your division at FC to increase student
retention, graduation, and transferability?
a. (Probe) Are these actions aligned with the organizational goals? (K-Procedural).
3. What technology tools and procedures are used to track student performance, calculate
performance metrics, retention, and communication methodologies (nudges and push
notifications) at FC?
a. (Probe) How is this done? (K-Procedural).
4. What training delivery modalities (in class, online or hybrid) will be most useful to
advance the technical knowledge of team members? (K-Procedural).
5. Do you think that the adoption of technology can be used to improve institutional
success?
a. (Probe), if yes, could you explain how? (M-Expectancy-Value).
6. Do you think PDATE can aid FC in achieving the State Chancellor's Vision for Success
initiative?
a. (Probe) If so, how? (M-Expectancy-Value).
7. How optimistic are you in FC’s goal of attaining increased retention, graduation, and
transferability rates with the use of PDATE? (M-Self-Efficacy).
8. Describe how FC’s technological strategies are used and how effective are they in
improving student performance? (M-Expectancy-Value).
9. Are there any recommendations for new technology solutions that can assist FC in
meeting the Vision for Success requirements?
a. (Probe) What technology and resources do you value as a useful option? (O-
Cultural Settings).

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10. To what extent do you think the institution is meeting the goal of training employees in
support of student services using PDATE? (O-Cultural Setting).
Thank you again for your time and assistance. Your responses are invaluable to my research.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any questions.

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Appendix B: Credibility and Trustworthiness
Rigorous inquiry applicable to the organization’s improvement of persistence and
graduation is a step to help shape the credibility and trustworthiness of the research. According
to Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, and Walter (2016), the integrity of a study is the foundation of
quality research. The authors concluded that member checking is more than a technical step in a
research study; rather, it is a mental process through which epistemological and ethical
challenges are evidenced. Consequently, the authors advanced the idea that when researchers
involve participants in the interpretation of data, they enhance the trustworthiness of the results
of their study. According to DeVault (2018), qualitative research is considered trustworthy when
the following characteristics are established:
1. credibility
2. transferability
3. dependability
4. confirmability
The reliability of research is directly related to the confidence the study inspires for
having recorded the phenomena being investigated (Shenton, 2004). Credibility contributes to a
belief in the trustworthiness of data, and for this study, it will be achieved through triangulation
and member checking (DeVault, 2018). A study’s credibility is established by involving
individuals external to the research to review participants’ narratives and vouch for the reliability
of the study (Creswell & Miller, 2000). The goal of involving participants is to inspect research
methods and the data collected to determine the trustworthiness of a study’s findings (Creswell
& Miller, 2000; DeVault, 2018).

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Appendix C: Ethics
My responsibility for the interviews and data collection process is to build a partnership
and create a meaningful relationship with the participants. Ensuring no harm, the protection of
the privacy, rights, and confidentiality of interviewees within my research is a priority in the
ethical requirements of the study. I will attain the permission of participants in the study and talk
openly on the topic. My approach will entail no deceit or pressure on the interviewee and will
ensure that the interviewee is treated with respect from our first interaction to the last (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). Moreover, protecting the rights of the interviewee, their feedback, and the storage
of data, notes, and voice recordings, files will be encrypted to ensure security and used during all
phases of the interview process. Creating a safe environment where the interviewee will share,
openly, is a priority in developing trust.
My job title and function at FC is the Director of Technology Services, and I am
responsible for the technology operations and implementation of new innovative services at the
college. I am interested in the qualitative research methodology to explore the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational context. The stakeholder’s current performance will be assessed
by interviews, a literature review, and content analysis. The research will be exploratory to
generate findings and an applicable theory for the study (Creswell, 2018). The qualitative
approach will provide an in-depth description of constructing the process within the standard
setting (McEwan, 2003).
Additionally, the qualitative inquiry process will help describe, evaluate, and provide a
clear direction and understanding of what is occurring within the FC environment and
influencers on the development of faculty, administrators, and college leadership. My approach
will be to clearly define the partnership of the interviewee and me, the purpose of the research,

101
from a neutral perspective, and the understanding that the feedback and results will be used to
improve the college. My role at the college will be clearly defined through informed consent,
and I will inform the participants that their participation is voluntary and are free to stop
involvement during any point of the study (Glesne, 2011). The opportunity to interview the vice
presidents and deans at the FC setting for a particular period is a unique position from which to
inquire and interpret the outcomes for performance improvement. The inquiry and observation
of leadership in academia will help shape the description of roles and serve in understanding the
vision and recognizing the engagement, enrollment processes, education, and mentoring within
the organization to help shape and develop a theory.
Creswell and Miller (2000) described triangulation as “a validity procedure where
researchers search for convergence among multiple sources of information to form themes or
categories in a study” (p. 126). Triangulation occurs by asking different participants the same
questions, corroborating data from independent sources, and using various methods to answer the
research questions (DeVault, 2018). Triangulation is the use of more than one way to collect
data on a single topic (Heale & Forbes, 2013). Through triangulation, researchers substantiate
evidence from different sources to gather insight on topics under study from multiple
perspectives. Triangulation will allow the researcher to develop converging lines of inquiry
(Yin, 2017). Thus, by triangulating data, a deeper understanding of technology to support
enrollment management at FC will be developed and will help build the evidence needed to
support the college and the research topic. The success of the research initiative relies on
facilitation efforts with interviewees using technology to support the academic development and
success of students. Analyzing the performance issues within the organization, the examination
of the knowledge and skill influence, and the ability of the interviewees to achieve the desired

102
organizational goals and future funding will occur through a collaborative and transparent
relationship.

103

Appendix D: Document Analysis Protocol
Research Questions
1. What are the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation to help FC achieve 100% adoption
of technology to support student success?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and the context of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?

Date: _____________________
Document:
_______________________________________________________________
Source:
________________________________________________________________
Document Number:
________________________________________________________
Summary of Document:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

104
Why is it important?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Which research question does it help answer?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Key Exemplars/Quotes:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Follow Up?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

105
Appendix E: Evaluation Survey
Table 15
Evaluation Survey
Directions: Please select, from the scale, if you disagree or agree with the statements provided,
1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree, 3 = neither agree or disagree.
# Statement Response, select only
one per statement.
1 I was encouraged to participate during the program training
modules.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
2 I actively participated during the training modules. 1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
3 The information I learned during the training modules will help
me better interact with college stakeholders.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
4 I understand, from the training modules, the expectation in
communicating with college stakeholders.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
5 The examples and activities in the training modules enhanced my
understanding of concepts taught.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
6 I will be able to apply the new information learned during the
training modules.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
7 I am confident I will receive support in the implementation of new
data and technology systems for operation and strategic planning.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5

106
8 I am confident in applying what I learned during the training with
college stakeholders and communicating steps for institutional
success.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5

107
Appendix F: Delayed Evaluation Survey
Table 16
Delayed Evaluation Survey
Directions: Please select, from the scale, if you disagree or agree with the statements provided, 1
= strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree, 3 = neither agree or disagree.
# Statement Response, select only one
per statement.
1 Information provided in the training has been relevant to my
job.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
2 The training program provided useful information in
communicating with college stakeholders.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
3 I am able to improve the data capture process to positively
impact student performance.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5
4 I successfully applied what I learned during the training
program.
1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5

Open-ended questions:
5. Describe any challenges you are experiencing since completing this training program in
applying what you learned from the program in your use of technology to support communication,
early alert, and structured program pathways. [Level 3].

108
6. Since completing this training program, please give an example of a positive outcome you have
experienced in your use of technology to support student communication, early alert, and
structured program pathways [Level 4].

109
Appendix G: Evaluation Dashboard
Table 17
Evaluation Dashboard
The dashboard illustrates the results of the survey, both immediate and delayed. The bar chart
represents the numeric results from the scoring matrix showing the differential of actual to
expectation.
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
FC Leadership Feedback 50 45 30 45
Expected Feedback 50 50 35 30

110
Appendix H: Initial Contact Letter to Participants
[DATE]

[TITLE] [FIRST NAME] [MIDDLE] [LAST NAME] [ADDRESS 1]
[ADDRESS 2]
[CITY], [STATE] [POSTAL CODE] [E-MAIL ADDRESS]
RE: Invitation to Participate in Research Study

Dear [TITLE] [LAST NAME]:

I am writing in my capacity as a doctoral student in the Educational Leadership program at the
University of Southern California. The purpose of this letter is to invite you to participate in a
research study regarding technology and its catalyst in enrollment management at California
Community Colleges.
The interview will last no more than 60 minutes. In the conduct of a qualitative study, I will
focus on participants’ perceptions of Full College innovation and technology implementation to
support enrollment management efforts as well as participants’ perceptions of how Full
College’s enrollment management efforts align with the State Chancellor's Office, Vision for
Success and Student-Centered Funding.
It is my sincere hope and wish that you will be able to participate in my study. If you are
interested in participating or have any questions regarding this research, please reach me by
using the contact information beneath my signature below.

111
Thank you for your time and attention. I appreciate your consideration of this request and look
forward to hearing from you.
Respectfully,

Peter Maharaj
Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California

112
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Asset Metadata

Creator Maharaj, Peter Suresh (author)

Core Title Leadership in an age of technology disruption: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 09/23/2020

Defense Date 09/23/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Analytics,change management,community college leadership,conceptual knowledge,dashboard,efficacy,knowledge motivation and organizational behavior,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,procedural knowledge,student center funding formula,Technology

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Canny, Eric (committee member), Phillips, Jennifer (committee member)

Creator Email pmaharaj@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-378348

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