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Chronic sleep deprivation in our nation's law enforcement: a public safety crisis

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Chronic sleep deprivation in our nation's law enforcement: a public safety crisis

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CHRONIC SLEEP DEPRIVATION IN OUR NATION’S LAW ENFORCEMENT:
A PUBLIC SAFETY CRISIS

by

Thomas L. Datro

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2021

Copyright 2021 Thomas L. Datro

ii
DEDICATION
This work is first and foremost dedicated to the life and memory of my grandmother, Adele G.
Stack. Because of your tough love, kindness, and many sacrifices, I am here today. I also
dedicate this work to the men and women of law enforcement. Though often maligned and
mischaracterized, you are appreciated, you are noble, and it is the honor of my life to stand by
your side.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To my classmates of Cohort 8 and especially to my Saturday morning warriors: thank
you all for your support, for challenging me to think differently, for setting the bar, and for
making me better. May each of you forever Fight On!
Thank you to my dissertation committee and especially my chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey. The
simple fact is I would not have come this far if not for your empathy, kindness, your scholarly
direction, and your endless dedication to making people better.
Finally, to the love of my life, who is more important to me than the air I breathe, my
wife, Tatiana. The greatest of poets would be unable to string words together that fully express
how much you mean to me. Thank you for choosing me. I will stand by your side until the end of
time.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ viii

Introduction of the Problem of Practice ...........................................................................................1
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................2
Importance of the Problem...................................................................................................2
Purpose of the Project and Questions ..................................................................................4
Organizational Performance Goal ........................................................................................5
Stakeholder Group of Focus ................................................................................................7
Stakeholder Performance Goals ...........................................................................................8
Review of the Literature ......................................................................................................8
Sleep Deprivation and Preventable Accidents .....................................................................9
Sleep Deprivation and Law Enforcement ..........................................................................12
The Gap Analysis by Clark and Estes................................................................................16
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ..............................16
Knowledge and Skills ............................................................................................16
Motivation ..............................................................................................................21
Organizational Influences ..................................................................................................24
Organizational Cultural Model ..........................................................................................25
Organizational Culture Setting ..........................................................................................27
Officers Must Be Trained to Value Proper Rest and Recovery .........................................27

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context .......................................................................29

Data Collection and Instrumentation .............................................................................................34
Survey Instrument ..............................................................................................................35
The Survey Procedures ......................................................................................................36
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................37

Results and Findings ......................................................................................................................37
Knowledge .........................................................................................................................39
Factual Knowledge ............................................................................................................39
Summary of Knowledge Findings .....................................................................................40
Motivation ..........................................................................................................................41
Utility Value.......................................................................................................................41
Summary of Motivational Findings ...................................................................................42

v
Organizational ....................................................................................................................44
Organizational Cultural Models .........................................................................................44
Summary of Organizational Influencers (Cultural Model) ................................................45
Organizational Cultural Settings ........................................................................................45
Summary of Organizational Influencers (Cultural Setting) ...............................................46
Statistically Significant Differences – Required Hours of Sleep for .................................47
Optimum Performance

Solutions and Recommendations ...................................................................................................49
Knowledge Recommendations ..........................................................................................50
Motivation Recommendations ...........................................................................................52
Organization Recommendations ........................................................................................54
Organizational Cultural Model ..........................................................................................56
Organizational Cultural Setting .........................................................................................57

Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................59

References ......................................................................................................................................60

Appendices
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Surveys ..................76
Appendix B: Protocols .......................................................................................................80
Appendix C: Validity and Reliability ................................................................................86
Appendix D: Study Limitations .........................................................................................88
Appendix E: Ethics ............................................................................................................90
Appendix F: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ...........................................92

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List of Tables

Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals ..................16
Table 2. Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ............................29
Table 3. Demographics: Gender, Age. Tenure: Years of Service ................................................38
Table 4. Response Distribution for Knowledge Influencers ..........................................................39
Table 5. Response Distribution for Motivation Influencers ..........................................................42
Table 6. Response Distribution for Organizational Influencers (Cultural Model) ........................45
Table 7. Response Distribution for Organizational Influencers (Cultural Setting) .......................46
Table 8. Contingency Table: Years of Service and Minimum Hours of Sleep
for Optimum Performance ....................................................................................................48
Table 9. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ...........................................51
Table 10. Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations .......................................53
Table 11. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations....................................56
Table 12. Recruitment Strategy and Timeline ...............................................................................79
Table 13. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes .........................93
Table 14. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ...............................94
Table 15. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ............................................................95
Table 16. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program .........................................99
Table 17. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .....................................................100

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for Chronic Sleep Deprivation in the SCPD .............................34
Figure 2. Response Distribution for Question 3 ............................................................................40
Figure 3. Years of Service and Minimum Hours of Sleep for Optimum Performance .................48

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ABSTRACT
This study (N = 411) examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
either supported or hindered patrol officers meeting their individual sleep needs between
working shifts. The researchers hypothesized that these officers would experience the same level
of sleep deprivation that other officers from agencies across the country experience. The data
confirm the hypothesis that, while officers understand the importance of sleep in a general sense,
there is a gap in factual knowledge regarding an officer’s understanding of how lack of sleep
negatively impacts a variety of human performance factors. Officers have a dearth of factual
knowledge regarding the use of stimulants as a means of overcoming the cognitive impairment
of sleep deprivation. While the data suggest that patrol officers are motivated to sleep, factors at
the organizational level appear to present a significant barrier. Finally, the study suggests that
officers want their agency to value the need for sleep, provide more training on the importance of
sleep, and create policies that promote proper sleep between shifts. The study’s findings support
the conclusion of this paper and the recommendation to create and implement department-wide
training on the negative consequences of sleep deprivation.
Keywords: sleep, sleep deprivation, fatigue, police, human performance, police training

1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Numerous factors influence the negative, and sometimes tragic, outcomes of police
encounters with the public. It is well documented that throughout this country’s history there
have been significant instances in which the police found themselves on the wrong side of
history (Holmes, 2016). The study of policing is complicated and multivariate (Manning, 2005)
by elements such as crime, fear, bias, culture, stress, training, history, perception, and racism.
While broad issues such as police brutality, biased policing, and racism must continue to be
addressed, this study seeks to understand one of the factors exacerbating negative encounters:
chronic sleep-deprivation in law enforcement officers.
Sleep is a fundamental human activity and is essential for survival (Helmenstine, 2019).
In 2011, Tony Schwartz penned an article in the Harvard Business Review titled, “Sleep is More
Important than Food.” Schwartz explained that sleep is so vital to the human condition that
Amnesty International lists sleep deprivation as a form of torture and suggests that the
compromised critical thinking ability caused by sleep deprivation may result in injury not only to
oneself but also to others. This outcome is especially true for law enforcement officers.
Sleep deprivation is a problem among upwards of 40% of our nation’s law enforcement
personnel (Rajaratnam et al., 2007). Studies suggest that fatigued officers experience an increase
in irritability, a decrease in patience, a lack of concentration, memory impairment, a rise in
aggression, and a failure to properly identify threats and non-threats (Blake & Cumella, 2015;
Lindsey, 2007; Senjo, 2011; Vila, 2000). The Journal of the American Medical Association
(2011) maintained that having almost half of our nation’s police force operating while sleep-
deprived might be the biggest public safety crisis that is not being addressed. Additional research
suggests that an officer’s bias can be negatively impacted by physical and mental fatigue (James,

2
2017; Ma et al., 2013). Finally, a first of its kind study conducted by Riedy et al. (2019) at the
Sleep and Performance Research Center at Washington State University found that public
complaints of discourtesy were seven times more likely to occur on shifts with officers who
typically demonstrate fatigue. Therefore, if the law enforcement profession is to effectively
address the myriad issues impacting officers’ ability to perform their duties while treating the
public with respect and dignity, then the problem of sleep deprivation—which causes slower
reaction times, weakened critical thinking skills, and adverse safety outcomes for both police and
citizens—must not be overlooked (Bonnet et al., 2005; D. Dinges, personal communication,
February 1, 2020; James, 2017; Riedy et al., 2019).
Organizational Context and Mission
The organization for this study is the Sunny Coast Police Department (SCPD;
pseudonym), also referred to as “the department,” and is composed of thousands of officers who
serve a diverse constituency of people in a large city located on the West Coast of the United
States. The SCPD policy manual (2020) provides the department’s mission statement. Like other
large, urban law enforcement agencies, the mission is simple: to protect the lives and property of
the people we serve with honor and integrity. The SCPD protects and serves millions of people
spread across hundreds of square miles. In 2019, SCPD responded to over a million calls for
service, while logging tens of millions of road miles by way of its fleet of police and emergency
vehicles.
Importance of the Problem
An abundance of evidence collected through multiple studies has demonstrated how
mental and physical fatigue brought on by chronic sleep deprivation significantly decreases
human performance in areas of cognition such as critical thinking, memory, decision making,

3
and self-control (Rajaratnam et al., 2011; Van Dongen et al., 2003). Policing is a 24-hour
endeavor that requires police officers to engage in rotating shift work (Vila & Kenney, 2002).
Shift work consists of nonconventional work hours and is responsible for employee fatigue due
to its inverse relationship with the typical human circadian rhythm (Sirois, 2016). Sleep
deprivation is commonplace in policing and is negatively affecting the ability of police officers
to perform at optimal levels (Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007; Durmer & Dinges, 2005; Honig &
Lewinski, 2008; Senjo, 2011; Sillivan et al., 2017; Vila et al., 2000). Through their research on
sleep and human performance, Bonnet and Arand (1995) concluded that fewer than 6.5 hours of
sleep per day has the potential to negatively impact human performance at a level that is
considered catastrophic. Belenky et al. (2003) demonstrated that even one hour of sleep loss per
night can yield measurable decreases in performance. Furthermore, police officers who are sleep
deprived and engaged in volatile, tense, and emotionally charged situations are more likely to
increase the intensity of an incident, creating more risk to all parties involved (Senjo, 2011).
Research suggests that fatigued officers—those who do not meet their individual sleep needs—
may have a compromised cognitive ability when confronted with a deadly force scenario, thus
increasing the potential for negative outcomes (Blake & Cumella, 2015). Finally, there appears
to be a culture of acceptance when it comes to sleep deprivation and fatigue among the rank-and-
file patrol officers, as demonstrated by the ubiquitous mantra that being tired is just part of the
job (Senjo & Heward, 2014; Vila et al., 2000). According to the Harvard School of Medicine,
police fatigue should be labeled a public health crisis (Rajaratnam et al., 2011).
For decades, the airline, railcar, maritime, and trucking industries have researched the
negative effects of fatigue and, as such, created policies and work schedules to help reduce
fatigue-induced errors (Dawson et al., 2011; The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the

4
medical profession have implemented training on the importance of proper sleep. But no policies
or specific training regarding the importance of sleep exist in the law enforcement profession
(Buysse et al., 2003; FAA, 2011; Vila & Kenney, 2002). There can be no compromise with
public safety; yet, law enforcement’s current culture of sleep deprivation acceptance—coupled
with a lack of policies and no significant training regarding fatigue—engender an environment
that allows police officers to operate at suboptimal, even impaired levels of cognition (Blake &
Cumella, 2015; Honig & Lewinski, 2008; Kline et al., 2011; Lewinski & Hudson, 2003;
Lewinski & Redmann, 2009; Senjo, 2011; Vila & Kenney, 2002).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study is to conduct a needs assessment of the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that may hinder or support officers meeting their individual sleep
needs. An officer who is fatigued due to sleep loss can experience impaired cognitive processing,
which will negatively impact sound judgment, critical thinking, weapon identification, and the
ability to properly react to rapidly evolving situations (Harrison et al., 2000; Killgore et al., 2006;
Whitney et al., 2017). A fatigued, cognitively impaired officer is more likely to have adverse
interactions with the public (James et al., 2016), which can harm the trust, perceptions of
legitimacy, and community outreach efforts (Vila, 2018; Vila et al., 2002). A study conducted by
Riedy et al. (2019) showed that the likelihood of an officer receiving a citizen complaint
increased when that officer was working while sleep deprived. Complaints of discourtesy tended
to originate with an officer’s inability to effectively communicate with professionalism, courtesy,
patience, and empathy. If officers are operating while sleep deprived, they are more likely to be
impatient, irritable, cranky, and lack general people skills (Lindsey, 2007; Senjo, 2011; Senjo &
Heward, 2007; Vila et al., 2000).

5
This study assessed patrol officers’ knowledge of sleep deprivation to determine if it
helped or hindered their engagement in healthy sleep habits. Further, this study evaluated the
motivational outcomes of current sleep patterns against stated performance goals, investigating if
these two factors could help officers overcome the organizational influences identified in the
extant research. Consistent with national trends in other large urban police departments, patrol
officers bear the brunt of sleep deprivation due to mandated overtime, court subpoenas, and the
inherent nature of 24-hour operations (Senjo, 2011; Vila, 2000; Vila & Kenney, 2002). Thus, the
stakeholders for this study are officers at SCPD who are currently assigned to uniform patrol.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that help or hinder
patrol officers achieve the recommended sleep for optimal performance while on
duty?
2. What are the recommendations that will address the gaps in knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that are negatively impacting an officer’s ability to
obtain the recommended sleep for optimal performance between shifts?
Organizational Performance Goal
The Sunny Coast Police Department (SCPD) creates a litany of organizational goals on
an annual basis. These goals originate in multiple sources such as the chief, the Board of Police
Commissioners, the mayor’s office, and the Office of the Inspector General, some start in the
office of the president of the United States. However, this study’s focus is on SCPD’s
organizational performance goal to reduce citizen complaints of discourtesy, which are more
common among officers who are experiencing fatigue related sleep deprivation. These
complaints are not incidents of misconduct or criminal in nature. The organizational goal of

6
reducing discourtesy complaints will be supported through the creation and adoption of a robust
infusion of officer wellness training that emphasizes the negative consequences of sleep
deprivation and provides coping strategies for rank-and-file officers as well as line supervisors in
an effort to minimize the negative performance outcomes associated with sleep deprivation
(Kuehl et al., 2016; Maddox et al., 2009; O’Brien et al., 2012; Rajaratnam et al., 2011; Van
Dongen et al., 2003). Although peer intervention faces challenges such as police culture and the
tendency for hierarchies to create mental and emotional inhibitors to stand against the status quo
(Aronie & Lopez, 2017), specific, extensive, and continual training on active bystandardship
delivered to officers, supervisors, and their command staff they become more self-aware and
more likely to intervene when confronted with uncomfortable situations such as stopping
misconduct and challenging police culture (Aronie & Lopez, 2017).
Therefore, it is important that the training incorporates not only the utility of sleep, but
also skills to both recognize the signs and symptoms of sleep deprivation and mechanisms to
intervene when those symptoms are observed. The training will be fully integrated by December
2021; by January 2022, every SCPD officer will receive this training starting at the end of their
probationary period. Successful measurement of this goal would see a reduction in citizen
complaints, and the state-level Police Officer Standardized Testing Association would certify the
course and mandate that every sworn officer in an organization receives two hours of sleep
deprivation training every calendar year. Because it will take the unprecedented step of including
command staff, this training will serve as the genesis for breaking a profession’s culture of
acceptance around sleep deprivation. In their study on citizen complaints and officer fatigue,
Riedy et al. (2018) determined that complaints stemming from the public were 6.6 to 7.5 times
more likely to occur on shifts that had a higher likelihood of officer fatigue due to sleep loss: the

7
night shift. Police officers who work at night and sleep during the day are more likely to develop
sleep disorders and not meet their individual sleep needs due to the breakdown of their natural
circadian sleep pattern (Akerstedt, 2003; Akerstedt et al., 2009; Bond et al., 2013; Knutsson,
2003; Rajaratnam et al., 2011). Despite the inherent drawbacks of shift work, training officers on
how to maximize rest time—coupled with strategies to improve sleep quality—has met with
success in reducing sleep loss (Kuehl et al., 2016).
Stakeholder Group of Focus
This study involves three stakeholder groups: the public, the police officers, and the
command staff of the department. The public are the individuals who request the police, or
otherwise interact with the police due to enforcement activities. The police officers are the
uniformed patrol officers who respond to calls for service and enforce California penal codes,
municipal codes, and all California laws. The command staff are those individuals above the
rank of lieutenant who are responsible for oversight, accountability, and the creation,
implementation, and enforcement of department policies. The stakeholder group of focus for this
study is the uniformed patrol officer, as this group is most susceptible to the negative effects of
fatigue due to sleep deprivation (Senjo & Heward, 2007). Furthermore, recent research by Riedy
et al. (2019) suggested that the greater the level of fatigue an officer experiences due to sleep
deprivation, the more likely that officer is to receive a citizen complaint.

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Stakeholder Performance Goals

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
It is the mission of SCPD to safeguard the lives and property of the people they serve.
Organizational Performance Goal
By December 2022, SCPD will improve the sleep habits of part
of officers and decrease the number of citizen complaints of discourtesy by 10%.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Training Division Patrol Officers Leadership
By December 2021, SCPD
Training Division will have
created and implemented a
wellness training program that
focuses on the awareness,
causes, and effects of—and
coping strategies for—sleep
deprivation.
By June 2022, all patrol officers
will demonstrate their awareness
of the causes and effects of sleep
deprivation, and of applications
of coping strategies for sleep
deprivation as it relates to
decreasing citizen complaints of
discourtesy by 10%.

By December 2022, 100% of
patrol officers will have received
the training. Officer surveys and
interviews will be utilized to rate
the efficacy of training from the
perspective of the officer’s
reduction of citizen complaints
of discourtesy by 10%.

Review of the Literature
The documentation surrounding the negative health outcomes and decline in human
performance directly caused by sleep deprivation is robust. There is broad consensus across the
spectrum of medical and social sciences on the premise that sleep is a vital component of the
overall health and well-being of every human being. In fact, none of the literature supports a
proposition that sleep is unnecessary; nor does any of the literature associate a lack of sleep with
positive outcomes (Durmer & Dinges, 2005; Walker, 2017). Indeed, Harvard Medical School’s
Division of Sleep Medicine, established in 1997, is a global leader in sleep research. Numerous

9
of its published studies indicate that individuals who consistently fail to achieve their individual
sleep needs can expect a host of negative health outcomes, cognitive impairment, and a decline
in human performance (Harvard Medical School, 2017). As little as 1 to 2 hours of lost sleep can
have a significant negative impact on cognition, which greatly increases the potential for human
error and can lead to drastic changes in personality and increased irritability (Mitler et al., 1988).
According to a 1988 Health and Human Safety report titled Catastrophes, Sleep, and Public
Policy, sleep deprivation has been attributed to some of the worst man-made disasters and is a
significant contributing factor to numerous fatal accidents (Mitler et al., 1988).
Sleep Deprivation and Preventable Accidents
In 1989, supertanker Exxon Valdez ran into a large and well-known coral reef section in
Alaska’s Prince William Sound. While traveling on an established shipping lane, the vessel’s
Third Mate fell asleep at the helm. The vessel exited the shipping lane and ran aground into the
reef. The final report (1990), released by Alaska’s Oil Spill Commission, indicated that the entire
crew had been working for 22 hours straight prior to the accident—the second largest oil spill
accident in US history. In 1986, the Challenger Space Shuttle exploded minutes after the initial
liftoff. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted its own
investigation into the incident, and NASA learned the majority of the employees working on that
mission in the control room, the maintenance crew, and all ancillary employees who were there
specifically to ensure a successful launch were working on 2 hours of sleep. The office of the
president of the United States released its own report on the matter and specifically highlighted
the extreme danger of the accepted practice of NASA engineers working while sleep-deprived
(Hearings of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, 1986).
Unfortunately, sleep deprivation has been negatively affecting outcomes for decades. In 1979,

10
the most significant disaster in the history of US commercial nuclear power took place: the Three
Mile Island accident. This event involved the partial meltdown of a nuclear reactor, which
caused a radiation leak. Shift workers, who routinely operated while sleep deprived, did not
notice that the coolant had gone below safety levels. This oversight allowed the heat to rise to the
point that the internal core of the reactor melted (Mitler et al., 1988). Finally, the Chernobyl
disaster is widely cited as the world’s worst nuclear accident (Lallanilla, 2019). Two engineers
working at the Ukrainian power plant the night of the explosion were routinely working shifts in
excess of 13 hours. While many things went wrong, sleep-deprived engineers and plant
employees were a significant factor (Merrill et al., 1988). Despite the plethora of examples in
which sleep deprivation and lapses in human judgement have been associated with—or the direct
cause of—high-profile accidents, many more such incidents go unreported (Wells & Vaughn,
2012). In addition to the prominent newsworthy instances, sleep deprivation has a deleterious
impact on society during the most routine of activities.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2017), traffic
accidents are the third leading cause of death for people in the United States; for those between
the age of 1 to 44, traffic accidents are the leading cause of death. And the CDC is not alone in
its findings. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is a government
agency that strives to save lives, prevent injuries, and reduce the economic costs due to road
traffic crashes through education, research, safety standards, and enforcement activity (NHTSA,
2016). The NHTSA (2017) stated that 10,000 deaths a year are caused by drunk drivers;
however, every hour a person in the United States dies in a traffic accident caused by a fatigue-
related error (Walker, 2015). This unfortunate statistic is the result of drowsy driving. A drowsy
driver is simply a motorist that has not obtained their individual sleep needs. The fatigued

11
motorist does not need to fall completely asleep to be a danger to self or others, the drowsy
driver just needs to be fatigued and experience a micro-sleep: a brief, 1 to 3 seconds of
momentary cognitive lag in focus (Walker, 2015). Studies have shown that motorists who
routinely sleep less than seven hours a night will frequently experience these micro-sleeps. If that
motorist is traveling 55 MPH, they are hurling their one-ton motor vehicle through space at 88
feet per second. A simple two-second lag in focus and attention is equivalent to traversing over
150 feet of distance while closing your eyes. Most troubling about micro-sleeps is that an
individual typically does not know it is happening or that it happened because the brain, along
with its perceptions and memory, are temporarily disabled (Walker, 2015). A motorist may be
more willing to engage in a behavior—despite the inherent dangers—if it is widely accepted.
Such is the case for drowsy driving. According to the President of the National Safety Council,
Debbie Hersman (2018), driving drowsy is not in and of itself a crime. Therefore, no method of
enforcement is available to disincentivize drivers from engaging in this behavior. Compounding
the problem is that no state or federal databases track sleep deprivation as a direct cause of an
accident. Fatigued drivers are easily distracted, slower to react, and prone to making poor
decisions while driving (Hersman, 2018).
Because they spend a great deal of time behind the wheel of their patrol car, police
officers can also be fatigued drivers. According to the SCPD Motor Transport Division (2016),
the fleet of emergency response vehicles averages 54 million miles a year—that is more than
147,000 miles per day (in the aggregate). And, high-speed driving by police officers is the
biggest threat to their own safety as well as to the safety of innocent bystanders (Frank, 2015).
Indeed, high-speed police pursuits are a leading cause of death for police officers and to the
public (Frank, 2015; National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund, 2016). A police

12
vehicle traveling 90 miles per hour is moving 132 feet per second. A large hunk of steel moving
at 132 feet per second on an urban roadway filled with other vehicles, bicycles, and joggers as
well as pedestrians carrying groceries and pushing strollers is a recipe for disaster. An officer
who is operating a police vehicle at high speeds can experience a cognitive load that is hard to
manage (Vila, 2000, 2009). An officer operating a police vehicle at high speed while sleep-
deprived is much less likely to successfully negotiate the same cognitive load (Vila, 2009). At 90
mph, a 0.3 second delay in reaction time equates to 39 feet. Not surprisingly, then, approximately
one person a day is killed in a law enforcement–involved fatal traffic accident (Frank, 2015). In
fact, a person not involved in the pursuit is more likely to be injured or killed than the one fleeing
or giving chase (Frank, 2015).
Sleep Deprivation and Law Enforcement
Policing is a 24-hour-a-day endeavor that requires personnel to routinely engage in long
working hours and rotational shift work (Kulbarsh, 2015; Sirois, 2009, 2016). Research on
fatigue in law enforcement conducted by Rajaratnam et al. (2011) demonstrated that some 40%
of the study’s police officers suffered from at least one sleep disorder. Furthermore, those who
suffered from sleep disorders reportedly made more cognitive errors and violated safety
standards due to fatigue. Shift work is inherently counterintuitive to our species’ circadian sleep
rhythm and rarely affords proper and adequate rest (Riedy et al., 2019; Sirois, 2016; Vila et al,
2000; Walker, 2017). Rotational shift work mandates that police officers toggle between day and
night shifts throughout the year, thus creating inconsistency with sleep and preventing the
formation of a sleep rhythm (schedule). Some negative outcomes associated with rotating shift
work include an increase in absenteeism, administrative errors, and self-injury (Sirois, 2009,
2016). Other, more significant, negative outcomes include increased aggression with a decrease

13
in patience, compromised critical thinking, and diminished self-control (Blake & Cumella, 2015;
Pilcher et al., 2015). Going to bed and waking up around the same time each day and night has a
significant impact on the quality of sleep a person achieves and increases that individual’s
overall mental and physical performance (Walker, 2015). The constantly changing work
schedules of police officers are a strong contributing factor to their over-representation in sleep
disorders (Neylan et al., 2002). While sleep deprivation affects one in three Americans, some
two-thirds of our nation’s police force will go out on patrol while sleep-deprived (Rajaratnam et
al., 2011). A Harvard Medical School study on sleep deprivation and public safety concluded
that sleep-deprived police officers are more likely to be involved in traffic collisions, commit
mental errors in judgement resulting in a greater safety risk to suspects and citizens alike, and
have increased odds of suffering from an unintentional injury or fatality (Rajaratnam et al.,
2011).
Most concerning, according to Blake and Cumella (2015), is that sleep-deprived police
officers perform significantly worse during deadly force encounters. During their study, Blake
and Cumella (2015) discovered that officers who are fatigued as a result of sleep deprivation
demonstrated a significant lack of cognitive function, which directly impacted their ability to
make good decisions during a deadly force scenario. Prior to Blake and Cumella’s study, no
other research had sought to determine the impact of sleep deprivation on an officer’s critical
thinking during such highly charged situations. Deadly force encounters create anxiety,
uncertainty, and fear, triggering a host of emotional responses. The study suggests a strong link
between negative safety outcomes and sleep-related fatigue (Blake & Cumella, 2105). The
literature in the medical community supporting the deleterious effect of stress on cognition is
robust and unchallenged. Such discoveries have been around since “the father of stress,” Hans

14
Selye, founded the theory of stress in 1936 (Tan & Yip, 2018). Decades of subsequent research
fortified the initial findings, while medical fields focusing on military medicine, veterinary
medicine, cybernetics, and psychiatry have utilized Selye’s theories to advance their study. As
the brain perceives stress, a host of physiological, involuntary responses commence. The body, at
the direction of the brain, will activate the sympathetic nervous system, which commands the
adrenal and pituitary glands to flood adrenaline, cortisol, and other chemicals into the
bloodstream. Heart rate increases so the body can fill large muscles with oxygen-rich blood—
blood that is being pulled from the extremities and the brain. Stress can consume the brain’s
attention and resources, leading to a lack of cognition and an increase in irrational and illogical
thought. In very serious stressful events, the amygdala becomes hyper-activated compromising
the prefrontal cortex’s ability to remain rational (Arnsten, 2009). In their meta-analysis,
Kowalski-Trakofler and Vaught (2003) described a sweet spot in which just the right amount of
stress can bring out the best in a person’s performance; but this phenomenon has been mostly
observed in athletic arenas not in situations that involve volatile, unpredictable outcomes.
Dynamic, high-stakes experiences negatively impact cognition as the brain vacillates between
analytical and intuitive processing. Additionally, life and death decisions—which need to be
made under extreme time pressure—are enough to compromise critical thinking, halt working
memory, and increase response variability (Bourne & Yaroush, 2003) .
The combination of a stressful event, time constraint pressures, and cognitive impairment
created by sleep deprivation imposes an immense burden on an officer’s physiological and
neurological processes (Blake & Cumella, 2015). As such, sleep-deprived officers have over-
estimated threats to their safety by misidentifying benign objects such as cell phones, wallets,
and keys as deadly weapons. This cognitive error diminishes any attempts to de-escalate by the

15
officer and creates a situation wherein the officer believes the only option available is deadly
force. But the cognition errors work both ways. Officers were also slower to recognize deadly
weapons causing them to underreact, increasing the danger to themselves and those in need of
their protection (Blake & Cumella, 2015). The bottom line is that sleep-deprived officers
consistently perform worse in every facet of their job (James, 2017; Vila & Kenney, 2002; Vila
et al., 2000). Meanwhile, a major obstacle to an officer’s obtaining proper sleep between shifts is
the inherent nature of the law enforcement schedule (Blake & Cumella, 2015; Vila et al., 2000).
The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is the research and development agency of the
Department of Justice. NIJ’s mission is to improve the knowledge and understanding of crime
and justice issues through science to reduce crime and advance justice. In 2012, the NIJ
commissioned a study that concluded the most common shift lengths in law enforcement (also
known as a compressed work schedule) typically lasted 10 to 12 hours a day (Amendola et al.,
2012). Police officers routinely worked mandated overtime and were mandated to appear in court
(Vila, Morrison, & Kenney, 2002). These obligations translate into workdays in excess of 12
hours and average 15 hours. The same NIJ study showed that insufficient rest results in
decreased officer alertness and increased mental and physical fatigue, which exponentially raises
the likelihood of performance errors, accidents, and injuries (Amendola et al., 2011). Despite
these studies, articles, and even officer complaints, little has been done to remedy the sleep
deprivation problem. That police departments fail to properly address this problem—in the face
of compelling data—can only be attributed to a failure of police leadership (Blake & Cumella,
2015). Research suggests that the implementation of sleep education programs—across all
organizational levels—may improve an individual’s awareness of the importance of meeting and
prioritizing their individual sleep needs (Gruber et al., 2016).

16
The Gap Analysis by Clark and Estes
Clark and Estes (2008) have maintained that the origins of performance gaps are found in
three specific areas: knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (KMO). According to
Clark and Estes, any failure to achieve organizational performance goals can be attributed to a
KMO problem. Furthermore, goals that are not properly aligned can lead to misuse of resources,
which may also hinder goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). However, once a problem is
properly identified, solutions to the problem are more likely to be effective (Rueda, 2011). This
study utilize the Clark and Estes GAP analysis to determine any knowledge, motivation, or
organizational influences that may be contributing or hindering the SCPD’s performance goal
wherein by January 2021, all patrol officers will demonstrate their awareness, causes and effects,
and application of coping strategies for sleep deprivation as it relates to a decrease of citizen
complaints of discourtesy by 10%.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The Mission of SCPD is to protect the lives and property of the communities they serve,
with honor and integrity. Despite the inherent dangers associated with police work, some 3,000
individuals don a bullet-proof vest and set out to accomplish that mission. Police work can be a
life and death endeavor. Add to that the incredibly high standards society has for police, for
whom an honest mistake made in a fraction of a second can be the very thing that sends an
officer to prison (Blake, 2015; Villa, 2011). The literature unequivocally asserts that human
beings who are well-rested make better decisions, handle stress better, and have more cognitive
ability available for critical thought compared to those who are sleep-deprived (Blake &
Cumella, 2015; Amendola, et al., 2011; Senjo, 2011; Vila & Kenney, 2002; Walker, 2017).

17
Deadly force incidents are statistically high-risk/low-frequency events; in other words, they are
rare incidents with significant consequences (Nix, 2020). Therefore, an in-depth look at the
knowledge and motivating factors that influence the stakeholders is necessary to help properly
frame the problem (Nix, 2020).
Knowledge influences. Krathwohl (2002) described four knowledge types: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge is what we might consider
common knowledge (Rueda, 2011), examples of which are that Saturday and Sunday constitute
the “weekend,” or that 12 months constitute a year. Factual knowledge is knowledge stored in
our long-term memory, is easily accessed, and seamlessly put into practice (Krathwohl, 2002).
Driving a vehicle to and from work is an example of long-term memory in action. One does not
think about how much pressure to place on the gas or the brake as they drive, nor do they have to
think deeply about the path they will travel to work. Conceptual knowledge is complex,
organized, and connected to systems; examples of conceptual knowledge are theories, principles,
and implications (B. Martinez, personal communication, April 14, 2018). Conceptual knowledge
can be thought of from a clinical perspective, in terms of math or science, or of how actions have
consequences; if one decides to drink and drive, the results of that decision can place them or
others in peril. Procedural knowledge is the understanding of how something works, or how a
task is completed. Baking a cake, throwing an effective jab, and shaving are examples of
procedural knowledge. Finally, metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s own cognitive
process (Rueda, 2011). An example of metacognition is when an individual preparing for an
exam periodically checks in with how their studies are going. One might engage in a self-quiz or
attempt to recite what was being memorized. If the individual is successful, the method of
studying continues. However, if the person performs poorly, recognizes that the specific study

18
model is yielding poor results, decides to change their method of study, and re-tests themselves
to measure the new process’s effectiveness, they are engaging in metacognition. The person is
aware of how their individual mental efforts are working—or not (B. Martinez, personal
communication, April 14, 2018).
According to Blake (2016), people who understand how they learn are more likely to
establish a learning environment that will engender a greater transfer of knowledge. As such, for
the officers of the SCPD to be successful, all four knowledge types must be explored. As
indicated by the research on sleep deprivation, law enforcement officers do not conceptualize the
negative outcomes associated with working while sleep deprived.
Officers do not know what they do not know. The problem of chronic sleep
deprivation in law enforcement is globally consistent (Senjo, 2011; Senjo & Heward, 2007).
Police agencies all over the world face similar challenges in that they must staff a 24-hour-a-day,
7-days-a-week operation (Scism, n.d.; Sirois, 2009, 2016). Today’s law enforcement officer is
asked to fight crime, enforce traffic laws, address the homelessness crisis, be a support structure
for those experiencing mental health issues, and more—all while building bridges to
communities that have been historically underserved and maintaining the standards set forth by
the community, police leadership, politicians, judges, and the media (Senjo & Heward, 2008).
On July 11, 2016 the Washington Post ran a front-page story titled, “Dallas police chief says
‘We’re asking cops to do too much in this country.’” At the time the Dallas police chief was
David Brown (currently the Chicago Police Superintendent), a Black man who further went on to
say that every societal failure is laid at the doorstep of police officers to solve, and they are not
trained nor equipped to handle such a load. The complicated 24-hour scheduling of constantly
varied, highly demanding work combined with mandated overtime and court subpoenas ensure

19
that police officers are not getting enough rest between shifts to meet expectations (Blake &
Cumella, 2015; Senjo, 2011; Vila, 2000; Vila & Kenney, 2002; Vila et al., 2000). Sleep-deprived
employees are impaired employees (Lim et al., 2010). Dr. Bryan Vila spent 20 years in law
enforcement and went on to become a professor of criminology. Vila founded the Sleep and
Performance Research Center (SPRC) at Washington State University, where he and his team of
researchers, physicians, nurses, professors, and thousands of members from the law enforcement
profession conducted over 70 peer-review studies on the decline in human performance
associated with sleep deprivation. The evidence is overwhelming and unidirectional: sleep
deprivation causes a decline in human performance, both physically and cognitively (Dinges &
Basner, 2011, 2012; Dinges et al., 1997; Dinges & Durmer, 2005; Vila, 2002, 2006; Vila &
Kenney, 2009). According to Professor Mathew Walker, a psychiatrist who has taught at
Harvard’s medical school and currently teaches neuroscience at the University of California,
Berkeley, there is a very good reason why officers cannot conceptualize the connections between
sleep deprivation and negative outcomes: their brains are literally unable to process that level of
thought. One of the most devastating aspects of sleep deprivation is the diminished capacity of
the brain to be self-aware (Walker, 2017). In circular fashion, then, officers who are sleep-
deprived are unable to recognize their diminished capacities (Sing & Belenky, 2000; Vgontzas &
Zoumakis, 2004; Walker, 2017). This dilemma leads officers to conclude that sleep deprivation
is limited to feeling tired, a sensation that can be mitigated through stimulants such as coffee and
nicotine (Duggan et al., 2014). But, as the literature review suggests, implementation of a sleep
awareness program that incorporates all levels of authority may improve a person’s perspective
on the value of meeting their individual sleep needs (Gruber et al., 2016). Not surprisingly, the

20
US Army has begun to train its soldiers on the importance of sleep to empower individuals to
overcome the cultural belief that fatigue is a badge of honor (Kennedy, 2016).
General fatigue is a part of life. It is axiomatic that, from time to time, people will—and
often must—function while fatigued. The reasons why our species does not get sufficient sleep is
nearly endless: work, children, commute, jet lag, Internet, smartphone addiction, procrastination,
health issues, hunger, housing insecurity, crime, politics, and the struggle for so many just to stay
afloat. Life, it seems, conspires to ensure that we are always tired. However, being tired from
time to time is not the same as consistently operating in a chronically sleep-deprived state
(Duggan et al., 2014). The slow erosion of physical and cognitive skills caused by chronic sleep
deprivation severely hampers the individual’s ability to recognize their decline (Walker, 2015).
Indeed, one can begin to experience the deleterious consequences of sleep deprivation after just
one night of shortened sleep (Walker, 2015). Thus, the cycle begins. One of the most significant
dangers of sleep deprivation is that people often make the inaccurate assumption they are the
exception; they can perform tasks without any deterioration despite not meeting their sleep needs
(Walker, 2017). This cognitive impairment is especially dangerous for those who must make
decisions under extreme stress (Sing & Belenky, 2000; Vgontzas & Zoumakis, 2004; Walker,
2017).
Officers must learn about sleep deprivation. Officers’ lack of knowledge about the
compromised judgement that results from cognitive impairment contributes to a culture of
acceptance (Vila, 1996). This mindset is not unreasonable when one understands that a sleep-
deprived body is not in sync with a sleep-deprived brain; thus, the chronically sleep-deprived
individual concludes that they have somehow acclimated and can successfully operate on less
sleep (Vila, 1996; Walker, 2015). This results in poor decision making, especially about the need

21
for adequate sleep (Durmer & Dinges, 2005; Lim et al., 2010; Vila, 1996, 2000; Walker, 2017).
Thus, sleep deprivation becomes a vicious cycle.
According to Professors Grandner, Pack, and Dinges (2011) of the University of
Pennsylvania, sleep deprivation causes a measurable, significant decrease in overall human
performance, a concern that has been greatly under-examined. The US military experiences
similar issues with sleep deprivation (Kennedy, 2016). In a 2015 government report, only 15% of
active-duty army personnel were meeting the national sleep standards (US Army, 2015). The
report clearly states that leadership and education are needed to address this problem.
Specifically, soldiers and their direct supervision must be able to identify the physical signs of
insufficient sleep. Also, leadership must educate the rank and file on the importance of sleep (US
Army, 2015).
Motivation
Motivation is the reason behind action. Clark and Estes (2008) separated motivation into
three parts: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice refers to taking on a task
or starting an endeavor. Persistence simply means keeping at the task that was started, and
mental effort relates to how much cognitive resource is being dedicated to the task or endeavor.
According to Rueda (2011), goal achievement has more to do with motivation than with
competence (Rueda, 2011). Social cognition theory tells us that motivation is directly related to
an individual’s self-efficacy. According to Pajares (2006), the source of an individual’s
motivation is a person’s belief in themselves. If an individual believes they are capable, they are
much more likely to take on a task, as opposed to those who do not share the same attitude. If a
person’s self-efficacy is low, they are much less likely to engage in motivation’s first phase,
active choice (Pajares, 2006). Clark and Estes (2008) explained that much of what employees

22
do—their behavior and actions—is not necessarily born out of love for the act, but rather for the
benefits that result from the act. For SCPD to ensure that any training around sleep is effective, it
is imperative to identify potential performance gaps that derive from a lack of understanding the
value of sleep.
Utility value for officers working patrol. Vila (1996) explained that police officers on
patrol must contend with high-risk, low-frequency events sandwiched between long stretches of
routine, mundane work. This cycle contributes to officers experiencing stress inoculation—that
is to say, they are more tolerant of volatility and hypervigilance becomes the new baseline
(Senjo, 2011; Vila, 1996). An officer’s ability to manage stress translates into a sense of
confidence. While this confidence and self-belief are good, Clark and Estes (2008) have pointed
out, an over-abundance of efficacy can be detrimental to a person’s ability to learn new things.
Research conducted by Senjo and Heward (2011) looked at various law enforcement agencies
and investigated the impact of sleep deprivation on an officer’s performance in relation to
administrative errors and vehicle accidents. While the research suggested a strong correlation
between fatigue and accidents, it also revealed that officers believed they could overcome the
effects of sleep deprivation with stimulants such as caffeine. While some of the negative effects
of sleep deprivation can be mitigated by caffeine, not all can. However, proper training about
fatigue mitigation can potentially shift the utility value of caffeine toward the utility value of
sleep. Wigfield et al. (2015) explained that if a training program is perceived to be of value or of
utility then the learner will show much greater interest in learning the information. Furthermore,
Mayer (2011) stated that when a learner experiences a greater utility for the information, the
learner will put forth more effort (motivation) into learning. In addition, Eccles (2006) explained
that learning and motivation are both positively impacted when the learner values the

23
information or task. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that a high-quality, comprehensive
training program that educates officers on the importance and value of sleep will add to their
decision-making skills and may help to overcome some organizational barriers (Kuehl et al.,
2016).
Understanding the importance of training. Police officers sometimes find themselves
in situations in which they must make split-second decisions with limited time and limited
information (Blake & Cumella, 2015). Because of increased scrutiny on the use of deadly force,
a premium is placed on avoiding mistakes and errors in judgement (James, 2017). The law
enforcement profession has dedicated significant time and money to training on implicit bias as a
stand-alone topic despite the mixed results (Worden et al., 2020). However, research has
suggested that racial bias is negatively impacted and associated with an officer’s level of sleep
deprivation (Ma et al., 2013; James, 2017) In short, fatigue from sleep deprivation impairs
everything related to cognition (Dinges et al., n.d.). Comprehensive training has been shown to
positively influence officers to focus on getting more sleep between shifts (Kuehl, 2016). Rueda
(2011) explained that when individuals feel that their errors result from a lack of competence or
moral character, their self-efficacy is lowered, which makes training less effective. Therefore,
when it comes to training and educating police officers on the importance of sleep, it is important
to emphasize the connection between sleep loss and poor critical thinking ability.
Police officers routinely operate in unstable and unpredictable environments (Blake &
Cumella, 2015). They are expected to go from objectively de-escalating neighbor disputes to
responding to a robbery in progress. Such an emotional roller coaster necessitates a robust
training regime to help officers establish autonomic responses that are reasonable, fair, and
legitimate (Anderson et al., 2020; Nota & Huhta, 2019). Operating in such an unpredictable

24
environment places a significant demand on an officer’s cognitive ability (Senjo, 2011; Senjo &
Heward, 2007). Therefore, training officers on the negative consequences of sleep deprivation
should be a priority (Vila, 2009). Developing this understanding through training may increase
the potential to proactively take steps to minimize sleep loss and overcome the inherent
organizational barriers (Kuehl, 2016). Further, research suggests that with comprehensive
training on officer wellness in general and sleep-deprivation specifically officers adjust their
behavior to make sleep a higher priority (Kuehl, 2016). Rueda’s research (2011) also suggests
that the more an individual values the topic being taught, the more likely they are to persist in
learning the material. Finally, research by Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) suggests that
positive values toward a task can emerge because of training that emphasizes the utility value of
the task being learned. This research supports the value of creating and implementing
comprehensive, meaningful training for officers on the importance of sleep.
Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that a lack of goal attainment in organizations can be
attributed to three organizational gaps: knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
This study sought to determine whether there was an organizational culture that supported or
discouraged sufficient rest between workdays among stakeholders. In Understanding Police
Culture, Crank (2014) described the multiple cultures within a police organization. Police culture
is generated through various channels. Some cultures are created through assignment patrol,
Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT), Air Support, K9, Vice, and so forth. Other cultures are
created around rank—chiefs, commanders, captains, and sergeants. Moreover, agencies manifest
police culture in individual ways (Crank, 2014). In a small agency, it is not uncommon for the
chief of police to be on a first name basis with the entire department, while in larger agencies

25
officers can work their entire career and never meet the chief. Crank (2014) stated that police
culture inadvertently teaches new officers how to interact with their peers and within the
organization itself.
Organizational Cultural Model
The SCPD is comprised of a diverse workforce that is representative of the city it serves.
However, despite the variety of backgrounds, life experiences, and cultures, once a person joins a
police department it is not uncommon for that individual to become a member of a new family, a
family with a unique culture (Crank, 2014; Prenzler, 2008). In policing, partners will often spend
more time together at work than they will with their own family. Police officers typically work
either a 10- or 12-hour shift. Additionally, police officers work a considerable amount of
mandated overtime, have to respond to court subpoenas irrespective of their time off, and must
adjust to the ever-changing needs of a profession that operates 24 hours a day, every day of the
year (Kulbarsh, 2015; Scism, n.d.; Senjo & Heward, 2014; Vila & Kenney, 2002; Vila & Senjo,
2011). According to Colwell (2009) and Waters and Ussery (2007), police officers are exposed
to both a greater variety and frequency of traumatic events compared to the general population. It
is commonplace for a police officer to experience a spectrum of tragedy during a single week of
work. Heart-wrenching child abuse, extreme domestic violence, and being verbally and
physically assaulted are routine for today’s police officer (Senjo, 2011; Sirois, 2016; Vila 2011).
These shared experiences can forge a tight bond, one that engenders an exclusive club with its
own norms and values—a culture (Levitt, 2014; Spacey, 2019). Police officers see themselves as
members of a unique club, and part of the club culture is to treat the members of the club with
trust and treat those outside the club with skepticism and distrust (Twersky-Glasner, 2005).
McCartney and Parent (2015), co-authors of the widely used academic text Ethics in Law

26
Enforcement theorized that within the culture of policing one can discover the genesis of all that
is good and all that is bad about the law enforcement profession.
Police culture is very similar to military culture. Not surprisingly, all military branches
battle the same sleep deprivation issue. The problem reached the highest levels of government
when, on September 19, 2017, the Senate Armed Services Committee conducted a hearing on
naval ship accidents. At the root of this discussion were two underlying causes: sleep deprivation
and a culture of acceptance (Patterson, 2012). The police culture, like the military’s, has a strong
value system, one that guides officers during times of stress and uncertainty, and is woven into
the fabric of the profession (Prenzler, 2008). However, the United States Army created a training
program to help soldiers overcome the cultural acceptance of sleep deprivation. Sergeant Major
Daniel Daily of the United States Army explained that the most important component is
education through training (Kennedy, 2016). Before any policy changes can take place,
explained Sergeant Major Daniel Daily, people at all levels of the organization must be apprised
of the problem (Kennedy, 2016). In their Safety and Health Improvement: Enhancing Law
Enforcement Departments (SHIELD) study, Kuehl et al. (2016) observed the benefits of officer-
wellness intervention training. The team of researchers concluded that a long-term, holistic
intervention of consistent training focusing on healthy behaviors—including the importance of
sleep—yielded positive changes in officer behavior.
Clark and Estes (2008) explained that organizational culture can be considered the most
important “work process” within an organization because it is through this process (the culture)
that individuals work together to achieve the mission. An organization’s culture is where values,
beliefs, and goals are found (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, effective organizations have

27
policies in place that align with organizational values and support organizational goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Organizational Culture Setting
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) explained that cultural models are directly influenced
by day-to-day operations and interactions—also known as cultural settings. These cultural
settings in law enforcement, as in the military, can hinder the department from reaching its
organizational goal. As mentioned, it is incredibly challenging to staff a 24/7 operation when the
employees have multiple obligations outside of their daily duties through court appearances,
mandated overtime, long commutes, and assigned training (Senjo, 2011). These constant
demands are not brought up as potential safety concerns, but rather as an opportunity to “suck-it-
up” (Duggan & McDevitt, 2014). An organizational culture that embraces the “suck-it-up”
mentality only serves to make operating in a sleep-deprived state a badge of honor that can lead
to tragic results (Lewinski, 2000; Vila et al., 2000). Therefore, it is imperative that training
serves to redirect the drive and determination of the officers toward recognition and acceptance
that sleep deprivation should be avoided and not embraced (Blumberg et al., 2019).
Officers Must Be Trained to Value Proper Rest and Recovery
Clark and Estes (2008) have maintained that effective change comes in achieving
organizational goals when it is based on solutions born from evidence-based means. Numerous
studies have suggested the dangers of operating in a sleep-deprived state; however, often
controversial incidents involving the police result in an immediate response involving charges of
implicit bias—or, worse—racism (Brooks et al., 2016). Despite the data supporting cognitive
impairment caused by sleep deprivation, no training is taking place at SCPD to educate officers
on how to minimize these negative effects by taking personal responsibility for themselves and

28
for their partners. The idea of improving officer wellness through education is the sole purpose
of SHIELD. A 2016 study titled the Safety & Health Improvement: Enhancing Law Enforcement
Departments (SHIELD) suggested after 6 months of training and education on a wide-range of
health topics such as physical activity, tobacco, alcohol use, diet, and sleep, officers recorded an
increase in overall health and wellness up to 2-years postintervention (Kuehl et at., 2016).
Further, a 2016 article in Sleep Medicine, titled “School-Based Sleep Education Program
Improves Sleep and Academic Performance in School-Aged Children,” suggesting a holistic
approach to training as well as educating students and parents about the importance of sleep, led
to improvement in sleep habits among those in the study (Gruber et al., 2016). Table 2 illustrates
how the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences concerning SCPD’s goal of
educating officers on sleep deprivation aligns with both the organization’s global goal and
individual stakeholder goals.

29
Table 2
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

KNOWLEDGE
Influence Assessment
Factual: Patrol officers need to know the
cognitive impairment and decline in human
performance associated with chronic sleep
deprivation.

Quantitative survey administered via email:
Questions 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
MOTIVATION
Influence Assessment
Utility Value: Patrol officers need to value the
impact sleep has on overall performance, the
reduction of mental errors, and the benefit to
mental cognition.
Quantitative survey administered via email:
Questions 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
ORGANIZATIONAL
Influence Assessment
Organizational Cultural Model: The
organization needs to create and maintain an
environment that encourages officers to meet
their individual sleep needs between shifts.
There must be a rejection of the culture of
acceptance surrounding sleep deprivation.
Quantitative survey administered via email:
Questions 13, 14, 17, 20,
Organizational Cultural Setting: The
organization needs to create policies as well as
comprehensive and holistic training to educate
all members of the organization on the negative
relationship between sleep deprivation and
human performance.
Quantitative survey administered via email:
Question 15, 16, 18, 19, 21

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that when organizations fail to achieve goals, and are
unable to maintain a high-performance workforce, knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influencers are at play. The literature suggests that sleep deprivation causes a decline in human
performance that can significantly compromise an officer’s ability to think critically—especially

30
during incidents of high stress. Further, the cognitive impairment caused by sleep deprivation
can adversely impact a person’s ability to recognize when they are sleep deprived. The military
has demonstrated the most important step in addressing the issue of sleep deprivation is to raise
awareness among subordinates and supervisors alike (Department of the United States Army,
2016; United States Army, 2015). The literature has also shown that officers are asked to do a
variety of tasks traversing the spectrum of society.
Police officers are expected to be all things to all people and work under some of the
most stressful conditions, yet still make impeccable decisions, every time. When officers make
errors in judgement, they are typically blamed on their lack of character or ability to work under
stress. However, the reality is that officers consistently work while sleep deprived. The
expectations placed on officers to be all things to all people may affect their motivation to
continually push through and focus their energy and attention on the mission, much like the
military. Finally, the law enforcement profession has a unique culture that not only views sleep
deprivation as commonplace but also embraces the “suck-it-up” mentality, which perpetuates the
problem despite significant scientific research indicating sleep deprivation’s potential to
negatively impact public safety. These potential influencers must be viewed in the aggregate and
through the lens of unbiased, academic research on human behavior. It is too simplistic to lay
every questionable decision an officer makes at the doorstep of implicit bias and racism (Blake
& Camella, 2015). The identification of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers
can locate areas for improvement that may be positively impacted with single-focused, consistent
training and education. Otherwise, these barriers remain in place, firmly creating roadblocks that
stand in the way of stakeholders achieving their goals (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).

31
The SCPD is mandated to deliver 24 hours of training every 18 months on a variety of
topics. Items such as implicit bias, mental health, homelessness, arrest and control, probable
cause, and even sexual harassment are among the topics eligible to count toward the 24 hours.
However, there is no training, at any level, on the importance of sleep despite the abundance of
research from scholars, researchers, doctors, psychiatrists, and police administrators
documenting the dangers to public safety posed by sleep deprivation (Dinges & Banks, 2007;
Dinges & Drumer, 2005; Rosekind et al., 2016; Senjo, 2011; Vila, 2002; Winerman, 2004).
Training is the first step in the right direction to address the problem of sleep deprivation. The
United States Army deals with the problem of sleep deprivation and, according to US Army
Sergeant Major Daniel Dailey (2015), the most important first step in addressing this problem
was to increase awareness efforts through training and education (Kennedy, 2016). However, the
culture and subcultures of policing are very powerful (Skolnick, 2008). The police culture
embodies the identity of the individual police officer and includes courage, stoicism, teamwork,
and perseverance (McCartney & Parent, 2015). The culture is also filled with bravado, mistrust,
and a disdain for perceived weakness, which can interfere with training related to self-care
(Dempsey et al., 2015; Stenner, 2009; Twersky-Glasner, 2005). Therefore, it is vital that SCPD
begin to move toward a culture that embraces proper rest and recovery as well as outwardly
reject the status quo: lack of sleep as a badge of honor. Gaining insight into the problem on a
deeper level may be served by applying a conceptual framework.
A conceptual framework is a visual representation of a phenomena that links concepts in
an effort to better understand what is happening (Jabareen, 2009). Maxwell (2013) explained that
despite rigorous efforts to capture and analyze data, if the initial assumptions surrounding the
problem are wrong—or inaccurate assumptions about the problem are made—then the subject of

32
analysis can mislead the researcher. The conceptual framework is used to help the researcher
frame the problem correctly, thus it can help design proper research questions (Maxwell, 2013).
Additionally, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that a conceptual framework helps to narrow
a researcher’s focus. This more precise “view” may lead to better application of theories
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, all researchers bring their own assumptions and biases to a
study. Maxwell (2013) asserted that a conceptual framework can minimize the effects of bias.
Below is the conceptual framework for the problem of practice in this study concerning chronic
sleep deprivation. The graph illustrates the problem as a product of an organizational culture.
Clark and Estes (2008) have discussed at length the impact of organizational influences when it
comes to performance achievement. The organizational culture will either encourage or
discourage employees to act in their own best interest (Schneider et al., 1996). These priorities
can be confusing because oftentimes the mantra is “the customer is always right”—or, in
policing, “to protect and serve.” What gets lost is that if employees are not well, they most
certainly will not represent the organization as well as they could.
In a TED talk, Simon Sinek (2009) discussed how leaders in an organization should focus
on the “why” before they focus on the “how” or the “what.” In the SCPD the “why” is
applicable to the importance of sleep. Why? Because a lack of sleep negatively impacts an
officer’s ability to perform at optimal levels. Allowing officers to work patrol while they are
cognitively impaired, impatient, cranky, irritable, and more likely to both over and under react
during times of stress is a risky decision (Blake & Cumella, 2015; Senjo, 2011; Vila et al., 2000).
Figure 1, below, illustrates how an officer’s knowledge and motivation are embedded in
the culture of the department. Instead of teaching officers about sleep deprivation, the culture
engenders not only a sense of acceptance, but also a source of bravado. The organizational

33
culture motivates officers to believe they should work while fatigued because it has always been
that way. And it will remain that way, unless there is an intervention (Senjo & Heward, 2007;
Vila, 2000, 2010; Vila & Kenny, 2002). The department must create and deliver substantial
training that educates and encourages officers to properly recover between shifts. Research
suggests that thorough, extensive training will lead officers to make better decisions regarding
their overall health in general and sleep in particular (Force Science Institute, 2011). While
organizational culture is certainly the dominant factor, that culture is made up of the officers. If
the officers change, the culture changes. Therefore, responsibility for changing organizational
culture rests with the decisions made by the officers.
In Figure 1, the large blue circle represents the organizational culture in which the false
ideas, bravado, and gaps in knowledge and motivation exist. The square to the lower left contains
the host of external influences that place immense pressure and, at times, unrealistic expectations
on the SCPD, fostering a culture that does not value health and wellness. The yellow square to
the lower right represents the intervention of a comprehensive training program, which will
impact the black square between the two. The black box in-between is the ideal attainment of the
stakeholder goal and feeds back into the organizational culture, which, over time, changes for the
better.

34

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for chronic sleep deprivation in the SCPD.

Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study utilized a quantitative research survey to collect and analyze data that related
to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that may have mitigated or
contributed to sleep deprivation. Creswell (2014) explained that a quantitative approach will
capture the relationship between cause and effect. A nonexperimental correlational designed
survey attempted to determine what, if any, relationship existed between officer’s knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that were either supporting or hindering them from
obtaining the proper amount of rest between shifts. Salkind (2017) explained that finding
patterns and measuring the central tendencies within the data is a way to describe the distribution
of the data. While not necessarily effective for the interpretation of minutia or the fine print,

35
these measurements can help determine how the data clusters, how much variability resides in
the data, and if the data have extreme outliers (Salkind, 2017). The data captured in this survey
were analyzed to uncover patterns of behavior for further exploration (Creswell, 2018).
Survey Instrument
A customized 25-question quantitative survey was used to identify gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that may be contributing to or hindering officers’
ability to properly recover between work shifts. There was one qualifying question, which was
used to ensure that participants were working in a patrol capacity (uniform detail), and 19
specific questions utilizing either a Likert scale, multiple choice, or “choose the best answer”
format to assess the officers’ perspectives and experiences (Creswell, 2018; Salkind, 2017).
There were an additional five demographic questions. What follows are four specific questions
that were used in the survey:
Example question No.1 – What is the minimum amount of sleep needed between shifts
for officers to perform at their optimal level? (0–3 hrs., 4–6 hrs., 7–9 hrs., 10+ hrs.).
Example question No.2 – I believe that getting enough sleep between shifts is vital to my
work performance. (Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree)
Example question No.3 – On patrol there is a culture of acceptance around sleep
deprivation. (Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree)
Example question No.4 – Does the Department have any specific policies that directly
support an officer obtaining enough sleep between shifts? (Yes, No, Do not recall)
The survey intentionally did not offer a neutral response in an effort to nudge the participant
toward a positive or negative response.

36
The Survey Procedures
The survey was created utilizing Qualtrics, a commercial software product commonly
used for data collection. Prior to dissemination, the University of Southern California’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensured that the survey procedures would not cause any harm
to any participants and that participation in the survey was strictly voluntary. The survey was
attached to an internal email on the department’s Microsoft Office email system and sent through
the information technology department. Embedded in the initial email was a general greeting and
a link to the Qualtrics application. Qualtrics ensures confidentiality, and the email clearly
explained that all participation was strictly voluntary. The email was sent to only those officers
working in a uniform detail (patrol).
Due to the varying nature of the police schedule, the survey was left open for 5 weeks to
allow for maximum participation. The survey was sent to 3,099 officers with a target response
rate of 10%. The 3,099 number was used after an internal audit determined that 3,099 members
of the SCPD were assigned to a uniform patrol; however, it is important to note that the system
that tracks where officers are assigned is typically a few months behind. In an organization as
large as the SCPD, 2 months could be the difference of anywhere from 100 to 300 officers. The
haves and needs of the department vary week to week, and personnel can get moved at a
moment’s notice. Furthermore, SCPD’s Behavior Science Section (BSS) medical personnel
explained that their internal surveys typically receive a response rate of 10%. Thus, that became
the benchmark for this survey. BSS psychologists shared anecdotal experience and explained
that police officers at SCPD have expressed a general distrust of data collection and surveys.
According to BSS psychologists and counselors, during confidential, one-on-one sessions,
officers expressed that surveys and other attempts to collect data are nothing more than the

37
department attempting to lull them (officers) into self-reporting mistakes that could be used to
demonstrate potential misconduct. Therefore, very few officers engage with surveys. This survey
yielded a near double response rate of 18% (562); however, after the data were cleaned the total
number of usable responses totaled 441. Data cleaning focused on duplicated responses, missing
responses, nonresponses to questions, and all responses received from those not currently
working a uniform detail. According to Schafer (1999) less than 5% of missing items can
produce inconsequential differences in data analysis, such as the exclusion of any responses with
greater than three missing items mitigated any potential bias generated from nonresponses. Re-
examination of cleaned data did not produce any duplicate responses. Upon completion of the
data cleaning process, the survey returned a 14% response rate—4% above the expected 10%
typical response rate.
Data Analysis
Upon the survey’s closure, four software programs were utilized to collect, analyze, and
present the data herein; they were: IBM SPSS Statistics V27, JMP Pro 15, Microsoft Excel, and
Qualtrics. Utilizing the software, the collected data were cleaned, coded, and analyzed to identify
frequency, consistency, and measures of central tendencies. Incomplete surveys improperly
answered questions, and duplicated surveys were removed.
Results and Findings
Data were also collected on the officer’s tenure on patrol (1–4 years, 5–10 years, 11–15
years, 16–20 years, 21–25 years, and 25+ years), age (21–25 years old, 26–30 years old, 31–35
years old, 36–40 years old, 41–45 years old, 46–50 years old, 51–55 years old, 56–60 years old,
and 60+ years), the officer’s sex (M or F), and the specific schedule the officer was working

38
(Watch 2 0600-1800 HRS, Watch 3 1800-0600 HRS, Mid-watch 1500-0300 HRS). Table 3
below displays the breakdown of these data.
Table 3
Demographics: Gender, Age. Tenure: Years of Service. Current Work Schedule: W2, W3, Mid-
Watch

Characteristics n % n = 411
Gender
Male 362 88.8
Female 49 14.2

Age
21–25 55 7.9
26–30 38 25.3
31–35
36–40
41–45
46–50
51–55
55–60
60+

94
67
64
57
29
4
3

18.6
14.7
12.9
12.3
5.9
1.1
1.3

Years of Service

1–4 Years 146 34.7
5–10 Years
11–15 Years
16–20 Years
21–25 Years
25+ Years

94
97
27
36
11

22.9
23.4
7.1
9.4
2.5

Current Work Schedule

Watch 2 138 34.5
Watch 3
Mid-Watch

163
110

38.8
26.7

39
Knowledge
This study assessed the baseline factual knowledge officers possessed about sleep, sleep
deprivation, the signs and symptoms of sleep deprivation, and the perceived belief that external
stimulants can mitigate the decline in human performance caused by sleep deprivation.
Furthermore, the study attempted to determine an officer’s factual knowledge regarding factors
that decrease officer safety.
Factual Knowledge
The data indicate that more than half (61.8%) of officers possess the knowledge
regarding the proper amount of sleep needed to perform at optimal levels as well as a strong
understanding of the negative characteristics caused by a lack of sleep. Table 4 illustrates the
response distribution to the assumed knowledge influencers for questions 2, 5, and 6.
Table 4
Response Distribution for Knowledge Influencers
Survey Item Response N Percent
What is the minimum amount of
sleep needed between shifts for
officers to perform at their optimal
level?
0 to 3 hours
4 to 6 hours
7 to 9 hours
0ver 10 hours
4
144
257
6
1.2%
35.6%
61.8%
1.4%
Over the counter stimulants such as
energy drinks or caffeine products
can mitigate the cognitive effects
associated with sleep deprivation.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
80
200
111
20
19.0%
47.7%
27.8%
5.6%
What poses the largest threat to an
officer’s safety?
Domestic violence call
Traffic stop
Ambush
Suicide
Terrorist attack
Traffic collision
78
108
85
22
1
138
18.1%
25.0%
19.7%
5.1%
0.2%
31.9%

In response to question no. 3, What are the effects of an officer not obtaining their
individual sleep needs between shifts? officers were given eight choices and the ability to check

40
all that apply. To prevent biasing the question, not every choice was negative. The top three
negative characteristics associated with sleep deprivation were (a) a decrease in performance, (b)
slower reaction times, and (c) mental fog. Less than 1% of officers stated that a lack of sleep has
no impact on them. The significance of this question is that every officer who responded seems
to inherently understand that inadequate sleep is not associated with an increase in performance.
In other words, officers understand the relationship between high performance and proper sleep.
Figure 2 illustrates the responses to question no. 3

Figure 2. Response distribution for question 3.

Summary of Knowledge Findings
The data suggest that officers have a wide range of perspectives, beliefs, and
commitments regarding sleep. For example, 96.8% of respondents either agreed or strongly

41
agreed that sleep is vital to work performance; however, 67.4% of those same officers often or
always reported for duty on fewer than 5 hours of sleep per night. That number jumped to 97.8%
when the response sometimes was included. This finding suggests that on any given day the
overwhelming majority of SCPD patrol officers may be responding to emergencies while sleep
deprived. Furthermore, the data suggest that while officers understand the importance of sleep,
they may be failing to understand the vital role sleep plays in ensuring that they are performing
at optimal levels. It is unknown currently whether SCPD officers understand the compounding
negative impacts of sleep deprivation and extreme stress has on cognitive ability. This is an area
of study that needs further attention. However, this study points to a gap in knowledge, which
could lead to a gap in gap in motivation that could be redressed through a comprehensive
training program.
Motivation
This survey evaluated one factor of motivation: utility value. To gauge an officer’s
perspective on sleep, it was important to understand whether officers valued proper rest between
shifts and understood the relationship between proper sleep and performance.
Utility Value
Officers must value sleep. As Rueda (2011) has explained, the more a person values what
is being taught, the more motivated the learner will be to gain the information. Therefore, to
address any potential gaps in motivation, it was important to understand if officers valued the
effects of proper rest. The results and findings of this study showed the very complicated and at
times contradictory relationship between the officer’s value of sleep and their motivation to
obtain the necessary amount of sleep. Table 5 provides a detailed look at the motivation
responses.

42
Table 5
Response Distribution for Motivation Influencers
Survey Item Response N %
Q7. During my work
week I try to make sleep
a priority.
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
10
146
150
104
3.0
33.8
36.8
26.4
Q8. I have reported for
duty having slept for
five or fewer hours
between shifts.
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
11
121
229
52
2.5
29.9
54.2
13.4
Q9. I believe that getting
enough sleep between
shifts is vital to my work
performance.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
265
135
8
4
62.7
33.6
2.8
0.9
Q10. Challenges that
impact my ability to get
enough sleep include.
(Check all that apply.)

EOW OT
Court Subpoenas
Family
The commute
Shift-work
Off-duty work
Inability to sleep
Personal Choice
No challenges
93
92
73
69
28
5
50
31
1
20.8
20.5
16.5
15.5
6
1.3
11.6
6.9
.3
Q12. I need to consume
caffeine throughout my
shift to help stay awake.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
106
186
91
28
24.8
45.4
23.4
6.5
Q11. I have fallen
asleep, even for a few
moments, while driving
home from work.
Never
Often
Sometimes
Always
115
243
46
7
27.8
57.4
11.8
3.0

Summary of Motivational Findings
Question.10 gave officers the option to choose what challenges impact their ability to get
enough sleep between working shifts. The top three responses were end of watch (EOW)
overtime, court subpoenas, and family responsibilities. Of respondents, 96% marked either
strongly agreed (62%) or agreed (33%) that getting enough sleep between shifts is vital to their

43
work performance. This finding demonstrates that officers value sleep. However, the data also
revealed a contradiction. When officers were asked if they made sleep a priority, only 26.4%
replied “always”; 36.8% replied “often,” for a total of 63.2% combined. Further inquiry could
extrapolate a more meaningful perspective. Further, 54.2% said they report for duty on 5 or
fewer hours of sleep often; 13.4% said they report for duty on 5 or fewer hours of sleep always,
for a total of 67.6% of respondents; 69.2% of respondents admitted to sometimes or often falling
asleep while driving home after their shift. Include “always” in the answer, and that number goes
from 69.2% to 72.2%. As mentioned in the literature review, the largest risk to members of the
public not directly involved with police, the bystanders, is a fatal traffic collision. This study
suggests that the majority of officers operate their vehicles while sleep deprived.
An alternative perspective on this data would be as follows: only 28.8% of officers
reported never falling asleep while driving home. Looking back to the literature review, Walker
(2015) showed that microsleep occurs most often while driving sleep-deprived. These micro-
sleeps literally turn off the ability to formulate new memories as the brain is momentarily
shutting down, even for fractions of a second. Therefore, an officer may clearly remember the
hard drive home filled with “almost” nodding off dozens of times. But what is more likely is that
the ride home was filled with microsleeps that the officer would never remember (Walker, 2015).
Despite data suggesting that officers attribute their lack of sleep to organizational influences
outside of their control, the case studies cited in this work have demonstrated that
comprehensive, department-wide training to those officers and their direct supervisors may be
able to incite bottom-up organizational culture change that teaches officers to understand the
importance of sleep. With that, it is vital that all three levels of value attribution theory are
touched upon during training, with a strong emphasis on locus and control.

44
Organizational
This study examined the cultural model and the cultural setting as described by Clark and
Estes (2008). Both cultural models and settings intersect to create the overarching organizational
culture. The ubiquitous nature of sleep deprivation in law enforcement is a driving force for
further inquiry because the law enforcement profession has a culture that not only fails to address
sleep-deprivation, but also embraces it (Campanella, 2018).
Organizational Cultural Models
Police culture is a significant area of focus for this study. Campanella (2018) explained
that chronic sleep deprivation is so embedded in the police culture that officers not only accept it,
they encourage it—much to their demise. This study evaluated if SCPD’s cultural model around
sleep was consistent with police agencies around the world. Table 6 shows a more detailed
analysis of the cultural model responses.

45
Table 6
Response Distribution for Organizational Influencers (Cultural Model)
Survey Item Response N %
Q13. The Department values sleep
as it relates to officer wellness.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
9
120
159
123
3.2
28.9
40.0
29.9
Q14. My direct supervision values
sleep as it relates to officer wellness.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
26
192
115
78
7.2
45.7
27.8
19.3
Q17. My experience has taught me
that being tired is just part of the job.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
161
210
33
7
38.9
50.2
9.0
1.9
Q20. On patrol, there is a culture of
acceptance around sleep deprivation.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
190
193
24
4
45.6
46.3
6.7
1.4

Summary of Organizational Influencers (Cultural Model)
These findings suggest that SCPD patrol officers’ beliefs are very consistent with the
beliefs of other patrol officers around the country; 89.1% of the officers who responded to the
statement that being fatigued is just part of the job either agreed or strongly agreed. Further,
91.9% strongly agreed or agreed that there is a culture of acceptance of sleep deprivation while
working patrol. More than half (69.1%) of SCPD officers disagreed or strongly disagreed that
SCPD values sleep in relation to officer wellness.
Organizational Cultural Settings
The extent to which the cultural setting impacted the potential sleep deprivation of SCPD
officers cannot be understated. In their decades of sleep research, Dinges et al. (1996) noted that
no training, self-motivation, or grit will enable a human to overcome the decline in human
performance caused by sleep deprivation. Therefore, it is vital that SCPD create and implement

46
specific training and, if possible, policies that educate and support officers’ well-being as it
relates to proper sleep. Table 7 shows a more detailed analysis of the cultural model responses.
Table 7
Response Distribution for Organizational Influencers (Cultural Setting)
Survey Item Response N %
Q15. Does the Department have any
specific policies that directly support
an officer obtaining enough sleep
between shifts?
Yes
No
I Do Not Know
185
112
114
44.3
27.6
28.1
Q16. Have you received any
Department training on the
importance of sleep?
Yes
No
I Do Not Recall
106
188
117
26.2
45.1
28.7
Q18. I would support the
Department implementing policies
similar to the rail-car, trucking,
airline, and shipping industries that
mandate away from work minimums
and at-work maximums even if it
impacted some of my ability to work
overtime.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
78
170
112
51
19.2
40.8
27.2
12.7
Q19. I would like to see the
Department dedicate more attention
to the subject of sleep as it relates to
officer wellness.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
140
220
49
2
33.4
52.1
13.3
1.2

Summary of Organizational Influencers (Cultural Setting)
Of 85.5% of those surveyed either agreed or strongly agreed that they would like to see
the department dedicate more attention to the importance of sleep. The data were very mixed on
the response to Q.16, Have you received any Department training on the importance of sleep?;
26.2% said “yes,” 45.1% said “no,” and 28.7% said “do not recall.” In hindsight, this question
might not have been specific enough. If a senior officer told a younger officer about the
importance of sleep, there is a strong likelihood that the latter would consider that training.
However, 73.8% had either not received any training, or the training was so insignificant as to

47
have been forgotten. The same split was observed when asked about the knowledge of any
departmental policies regarding sleep; 44.3% answered “yes,” 28.8% answered “no,” and 26.8%
answered “I don’t know.” Would the same inconsistencies be present if the question addressed
any policies on the use of force? Highly improbable. The data did suggest that officers want
attention dedicated to the topic of sleep deprivation;85.5% of officers agreed or strongly agreed
with that statement.
Statistically Significant Differences – Required Hours of Sleep for Optimum Performance
Analysis of the multidimensional chi-squared contingency table (Table 8) suggests that
respondent years of service influenced perceptions regarding sleep requirements. The
multidimensional chi-squared test for normality allows for the examination of categorical data
understand the relationships between responses (Fienberg, 1970). Specifically, two persons, one
from the 21–25-year demographic and the other from the 25 + years demographics generated the
largest adjusted residuals (2.3 and 4.4, respectively) and the greatest contribution to the
magnitude of the resulting chi-square value (χ
2
= 31.875. p = .007). This statistically significant
difference appears graphically in Figure 3.
The data concerning sleep requirements point to stereotypical beliefs concerning sleep
among more senior officers and reflect the many cultures and subcultures of the department.
Senior officers have been steeped in police culture. As Campanella (2018) suggested, fatigue
caused by sleep deprivation is not only tolerated in the law enforcement profession but also
embraced and encouraged. However, anecdotal observations suggest that newer officers have not
spent as much time being influenced by the profession’s culture regarding sleep and therefore
appear to have a healthier relationship with sleep and value its importance. Figure 3 represents
the years of service relative to the hours of sleep needed for optimal performance. Table 8

48
represents the relationship between the respondent years of service and its influence on
perceptions regarding sleep requirements.

Figure 3. Years of service and minimum hours of sleep for optimum performance.

49
Table 8
Contingency Table – Years of Service and Minimum Hours of Sleep for Optimum Performance
Years of
Service
Data Element 0-3 Hours 4-6 Hours 7-9 Hours 10+ Total
1-4 Count 0.0 51.0 93.0 3.0 147.0
Expected Count 1.8 53.6 89.9 1.8 147.0
% of Total 0.0% 12.1% 22.1% 0.7% 40.0%
Adjusted Residual -1.7 -0.5 0.6 1.2
5–10 Count 1.0 29.0 62.0 0.0 92.0
Expected Count 1.1 33.5 56.3 1.1 92.0
% of Total 0.2% 6.9% 14.8% 21.9% 0.0%
Adjusted Residual -0.1 -0.8 0.8 -1.0
11-15 Count 2.0 36.0 58.0 2.0 98.0
Expected Count 1.2 35.7 60.0 1.2 98.0
% of Total 0.5% 8.6% 13.8% 0.5% 23.3%
Adjusted Residual 0.9 -0.5 0.9 0.1
16-20 Count 0.0 12.0 19.0 0.0 31.0
Expected Count 0.4 11.3 19.0 0.4 31.0
% of Total 0.0% 2.9% 4.5% 0.0% 7.4%
Adjusted Residual -0.6 0.3 0.0 -0.6
21-25 Count 0.0 20.0 17.0 0.0 37.0
Expected Count 0.4 13.5 22.6 0.4 37.0
% of Total 0.0% 13.1% 6.6% 0.0% 8.8%
Adjusted Residual -0.7 2.3 -2.0 -0.7
25+ Count 2.0 5.0 8.0 0.0 15.0
Expected Count 0.2 5.5 9.2 0.2 15.0
% of Total 0.5% 1.2% 1.9% 0.0% 3.6%
Adjusted Residual 4.4 -0.3 -0.6 -0.4
Chi-
Square
Tests

Value df
Asymptotic
Significance*

Pearson Chi-Square 31.587 15 .007
Likelihood Ratio 23.042 15 .083
N of Valid Cases 420
Note. *Two-side value at the 95% confidence level.
Solutions and Recommendations
The previous work was dedicated to the completion of data analysis and key findings that
resulted from a quantitative survey directed at the stakeholder group as well as reviews of the

50
department’s relevant documents and artifacts. The findings are represented in the form of
themes that emerged from interrogation of the data that helped to answer the research questions.
Furthermore, the results also validated the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that impacted the stakeholder’s group of focus as they continually work to improve
their knowledge, understanding, and mitigation of sleep deprivation in order to achieve the
organizational goal. This section will address the recommendations for the organization to
continually develop, implement, and deliver high-quality classroom, roll call, and e-learning
training to consistently train officers on the importance of proper sleep between shifts.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model Framework (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was
used to develop recommendations for the strategic implementation plan and evaluation plan for
this study. This updated version maintains the four original levels used to evaluate outcomes as
well as utilizes the strategy of starting at the end. The model recommends that the organization
identify the desired results (level 4), address important behaviors (level 3) and relevant learning
(level 2), and assess participants’ reactions (level 1) to the strategic implementation plan. Each of
these levels will be described in detail. Additionally, the New World Kirkpatrick Model will be
used to evaluate the outcomes of the final implemented plan.
Knowledge Recommendations
The data collected from this study support the hypothesis that although officers
understand the need for proper sleep in general, they lack the factual knowledge regarding the
significant decline in human performance associated with sleep loss. Further, officers lack
factual knowledge regarding the use of stimulants to overcome the deleterious effects of sleep
deprivation. The following section discusses the need to create and implement a sleep-specific
training program that can fill the knowledge gap regarding the importance of sleep. The

51
probability of validating this influencer is based on the most frequent answers to questions
regarding factual knowledge. Further, the assumed knowledge influencer is supported within the
literature review. With that, Table 9 illustrates the assumed knowledge influence regarding the
impact of chronic sleep deprivation as well as the recommendations for this highly probable
influence based on evidence-based theoretical principles.
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Knowledge
Influence officers
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Patrol officers need to know
the negative health and safety
outcomes associated with
chronic sleep deprivation. (F)
Increasing germane load by
engaging the learner in
meaningful learning and
schema construction
facilitates effective learning
(Kirshner et al., 2009).
Provide training that educates
and emphasizes the
importance of maximizing
proper rest between work
days early at the academy
level, thus building a strong
foundation for rest and
recovery.
Patrol officers need to
recognize the limitations of
over-the-counter stimulants
as they relate to the
mitigation of the harmful
effects of sleep deprivation.
(F)
Activating and building upon
personal interest can increase
learning and motivation
(Schraw & Lehman, 2001).
Provide roll call trainings
with licensed dietitians who
can utilize job aids that
outline the positive and
negative effects of stimulants.

The results and findings of this study indicate that 67.4% of officers often or always
reported for duty on fewer than 5 hours of sleep. That number rose to 97.8 when “sometimes”
was included, which means that only 2.2 % of officers “never” reported for duty on fewer than 5
hours of sleep. Further, 70% of officers agreed or strongly agreed that they consumed caffeine to
stay awake during their shifts. With that, more than half (67%) believed that caffeine could
mitigate the cognitive impairments caused by sleep-deprivation despite the contrary literature on
caffeine use. A recommendation rooted in cognitive load theory has been selected to close this

52
knowledge gap. Kirshner (2009) stated that engaging the learner in meaningful learning can
increase germane load and that schema construction facilitates effective learning. In addition,
activating and building upon personal interest can increase learning and motivation (Schraw &
Lehman, 2001), which suggests that providing officers with relevant, interesting training can
increase their ability to learn, retain, and implement information about the importance of sleep.
The recommendation then is to provide specific training that educates and informs the officer on
the importance of sleep as well as present strategies on how to overcome barriers to sleep. This
training should be delivered during roll call training to ensure consistent, continuous exposure to
the subject matter.
Pintrich (2003) explained that knowledge gaps can be addressed through meaningful
training that creates a community of learners. This assertion suggests that the roll call
environment may be an ideal place to teach officers. The physical set up of the room, the
consistency of the delivery of training, and the accountability of officers engaging with the
training may in fact be the perfect setting in which to create a community of learners.
Motivation Recommendations
Due to the high probability that organizational influences were the main driver of sleep
deprivation in the law enforcement profession, one motivational influence was studied: value
theory. Would officers attribute proper sleep to occupational safety, an increase in performance,
and better outcomes? 96% of responses either agreed (33.7%) or strongly agreed (62.3%) with
the statement, “I believe that getting enough sleep between shifts is vital to my work
performance.” Further, in response to “Challenges that impact my ability to get enough sleep
include (check all that apply),” only 7% (6.98%) answered “personal choice to engage in other
activities at the expense of sleep (gym, social media, time with friends, etc.).” The data collected

53
suggest that officers are motivated to get sleep between shifts, however, forces beyond their
control may be negatively influencing their efforts to do so. Table 10 shows a summary of the
motivational influence and its associated recommendation.
Table 10
Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence

Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Utility Value – Patrol
officers need to know
the value sleep has on
overall performance, the
reduction of mental
errors, and the benefit to
mental cognition
When a learner realizes
the utility of the subject
matter, the learner puts
forth a greater effort to
learn the material
(Mayer, 2011).
Provide training that
emphasizes the value
and importance of
developing strategies to
create better sleep
habits.
Rationales that include
a discussion of the
importance and utility
value of the work or
learning can help
learners develop
positive values (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich, 2003).

The results and findings of this study indicate that 97% of officers agreed or strongly
agreed that getting enough sleep between shifts was vital to their work performance. However,
when asked about the barriers to getting enough sleep, 93% cited organizational influences
beyond their control. A recommendation rooted in utility value has been selected to close this
gap. Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) found that discussions on the importance and utility value
of the subject matter help learners develop positive values, which suggests that providing
comprehensive training to supervisors and officers about the importance and value of sleep could
positively influence awareness and value of sleep. The recommendation then is to provide

54
training that emphasizes the value and importance of developing strategies to create better sleep
habits.
Blake (2015) stated that multiple industries have taken significant action to ensure fatigue
does not negatively affect their personnel. The trucking industry, railcar industry and airline
industry have all implemented policies that attempt to mitigate the negative outcomes associated
with fatigue. Blake (2015) further explained that despite working conditions and family
commitments, officers must take responsibility for their recovery (sleep) because the law
enforcement profession has no such policies in place. Officers have also indicated that they value
the need for sleep, but feel the job prevents them from obtaining the proper amount of rest (Villa,
2011). Therefore, officers must be taught the value of their own actions and efforts to ensure they
are making whatever sacrifices they must to get the rest they need (Keuhl, 2016; Vila, 2000,
2011).
Training should focus on the officer’s understanding that while their sleep may be
negatively impacted by external forces, they must still make the active choice, remain persistent,
and put forth the mental effort to overcome organizational forces to the best of their individual
potential. Eccles (2006) stated that activating personal interest through individual opportunities
that allow for choice and control can increase motivation. This claim implies that providing
patrol officers with choice and a sense of control over their sleep habits could improve their
sleep, which would positively influence their overall performance. The recommendation then is
to create a training course that instructs officers on the benefits of engaging in healthy sleep
habits.

55
Organization Recommendations
Prior to this study the researcher combed through a robust body of literature suggesting
that irrespective of the level of knowledge an officer had regarding the importance of sleep and
the intrinsic motivation to obtain individual sleep needs, organizational influences were the
dominant force impacting the negative relationship officers had to getting proper sleep. The
findings of this study appear to corroborate the larger data pool. To identify the root cause of
sleep deprivation and lack of personal self-care in law enforcement, all one must do is study the
police culture (Mayer, 2016). Mayer (2016) explained that police culture places a very low
premium on mental and physical well-being, which can be seen as weakness, and in police
culture there is little worse than being viewed as too weak to handle the rigors of the career.
Schein (2017) has also demonstrated that co-workers learn behaviors and cultural norms through
their interactions with each other. Therefore, if an organization’s cultural model does not create a
healthy environment that supports self-care and proper rest, employees are unlikely to. Table 11
shows the list of assumed organizational influences and their probability of being validated based
on the most frequently answered questions regarding organizational influences relating to
achieving the stakeholders’ goal during surveys and shows the recommendations for these highly
probable influences based on theoretical principles.

56
Table 11
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Organization
Influence

Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation

The department
needs to embrace
a culture of
healthy sleep
habits for
employees.
Learning is
enhanced when the
learner’s working
memory capacity is
not overloaded
(Kirshner et al.,
2006).
Identify and resolve
discrepancies between
values and behavior
through holistic training
that encompasses not just
officers, but supervision
and command staff.
Ensure the responsibility
of mitigating chronic
fatigue is spread out
across the organization.
The department
needs training and
policies in place
to support officers
with respect to
getting proper rest
and recovery
between shifts.
Organizational
effectiveness
increases when
leaders ensure
employees have the
resources needed to
achieve
organizational goals
(Waters et al., 2003)
Create and align policies
to engender the
achievement of proper
rest between shifts.

Organizational Cultural Model
The department needs to embrace a culture of healthy sleep habits for employees. The
results and findings of this study revealed that 91.8% of respondents felt there was an
organizational culture of acceptance around sleep deprivation. Furthermore, 85.9% of
respondents wanted to see the department dedicate more attention to the subject of sleep
deprivation. Finally, 89.8% of those who responded admitted that being tired is just a part of the
job. The data would suggest that the SCPD has an organizational model that normalizes sleep
deprivation despite the negative outcomes. Retired police officer Bryan Vila, PhD, conducted a

57
meta-analysis of studies that researched how sleep deprivation impacted an officer’s
performance (Vila, 2004). The results of the analysis consistently demonstrated that sleep
deprivation causes a decrease in human performance on a variety of levels. Additional studies
have demonstrated a police culture of more work and less rest is expected and rewarded
(Basinska & Wiciak, 2012; Senjo, 2011). Therefore, a principle rooted in organizational change
theory has been selected to close this cultural model gap. Cultural models are so familiar that
they are often invisible even to those who perpetuate them (Goldenberg et al., 2001). This
premise suggests that patrol officers are unaware of the current cultural model. The
recommendation then is to begin the problem identification and solving process by addressing
discrepancies between values and behavior during roll call training and department e-learning
training.
Organizational Cultural Setting
The department has policies in place to support officers with respect to getting the proper
rest and recovery between shifts. The results and findings of this study indicated a large
discrepancy regarding policy. In response to Q.15, “Does the Department have any specific
policies that directly support an officer obtaining enough sleep between shifts?” 44.3% answered
“yes,” 28.8% answered “no,” and 26.8% answered “I don’t know.” If the department did have
policies in place that supported proper sleep between shifts, as 44% of respondents maintained, it
is odd that nearly 90% of respondents claimed there was a culture of sleep deprivation. Further,
why did 67.4% of respondents claim they “often” or “always” reported for duty on 5 or fewer
hours of sleep? Officers are keenly aware of policies; they represent the parameters or guardrails
by which they can enforce the law. No such discrepancies exist with regard to the use of force
policy, the pursuit policy, or policies on how to process arrestees. While they may not know the

58
verbiage of a policy verbatim, they certainly know the policy exists and can explain it in casual
terminology. A deeper look into the findings demonstrated further confusion among officers;
25.9% answered that they had received training on the importance of sleep; 45.9% answered that
they had not received training on the importance of sleep; and 28.2 % stated they cannot recall if
they had ever received any training on the importance of sleep. The most telling data however,
came in the findings from Q.19, “I would like to see the Department dedicate more attention to
the subject of sleep as it relates to officer wellness.” To this prompt, 85.9% answered “agree” or
“strongly agree.” A document review of SCPD policies revealed that no specific or general
policies ensured or attempted to ensure that officers obtained enough sleep between shifts.
Furthermore, no policies mandated that officers receive education on the importance of sleep.
Therefore, a principle rooted in organizational change theory has been selected to close this
cultural model gap. Organizational effectiveness increases when leaders ensure employees have
the resources, they need to achieve organizational goals (Waters et al., 2003). This assertion
suggests that the department \create policies to align employee resources with organizational
goals. The recommendation then is to create comprehensive training and, where practicable,
align policies to engender a culture that prioritizes proper rest between shifts.
Zimmerman (2016) conducted a study to determine the extent to which officers believed
they were getting sufficient training on health, wellness, and resilience. One thousand police
officers were given surveys, and 25 of those surveyed also participated in oral interviews that
presented a series of questions about officer training on a variety of wellness issues. The results
of the study indicated that 94% of officers could not correctly identify the potential health risks
and decline in human performance associated with sleep deprivation. During the interviews,
officers stated that their agency’s values did not align with the organizational culture, and that no

59
training was specific to officer wellness, thus potentially disincentivizing them to value rest and
recovery. Based on that study and the finding of this study, it is recommended that organizational
values align with policies to encourage healthy life-style decisions. To create a culture of change,
SCPD must develop policies that align with organizational values. This thesis supports the
recommendation to create comprehensive training and align policies, where practicable, to
support getting proper rest between shifts.
Conclusion
This study was designed to examine gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influence that impair an officer’s ability to meet their individual sleep needs between shifts. The
data suggest that while officers understand the importance of sleep in general, they do not
understand how important sleep is to their performance. Further, officers revealed
misconceptions about the use of stimulants to overcome the cognitive impairment caused by
sleep deprivation. Furthermore, officers demonstrated a distorted view of the dangers of the job.
The data also suggest that while officers indicated that they value sleep, they routinely showed
up to work having not slept enough. They blamed this behavior on organizational factors.
However, the data do suggest that officers want more training about the importance of sleep and
want the department to explore policies that will mitigate the cultural acceptance of sleep
deprivation.

60
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Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Surveys
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this study was those officers specifically working a
uniformed patrol assignment. This group of officers provided a diverse population that varied
demographically as well as experientially. These are the individuals working the long hours,
having to oblige with mandated overtime and court subpoenas irrespective of sleep needs. These
are also the individuals having to make life and death decisions under stress, the most visible
representation of policing and government, and the individuals who interacts most with the
public at large. Their work experience ranged from 1 year on the job to more than 25 years. They
are also the ones who must adhere to rotating shift work. This type of work schedule virtually
ensures that consistent sleep patterns cannot be established. Furthermore, the literature supports
the assertion that while the general public also experiences sleep deprivation, law enforcement
officers are over-represented in this category.
Other professions that pose significant health and safety risks to the public such as the
rail-car industry, the trucking industry, the airline industry, the shipping industry, the medical
profession, and even the United States military have all created and implemented specific
policies to minimize sleep loss. Further, the Federal Government (Federal Aviation
Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, the Federal Maritime
Administration, the Federal Railroad Administration, etc.) has created regulatory standards that
increase public safety and ensure that government employees are not putting the public in harm’s
way because of sleep deprivation. Police officers routinely interact with volatile, emotionally
charged members of the public under extreme stress, uncertainty, fear, and anger. The addition of

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cognitive impairment from sleep deprivation substantially increases the risk to everyone
involved in these situations.
This was a nonexperimental, correlational designed descriptive study that utilized closed-
ended survey questions in an effort to capture quantitative data to determine if gaps in
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacted an officer’s proper attainment of
sleep between working shifts. Participation in this survey was enlisted through a convenience
sample of 3,099 officers currently assigned to a uniformed patrol division. The surveys were sent
to these officers through a department email system that made very clear that participation was
strictly voluntary and that all information collected would be used for the sole purpose of an
academic study. The electronic survey was created for this specific group and its purpose was to
determine if the SCPD patrol officer experienced sleep deprivation consistent with other police
agencies and if so, the extent to which an officer’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences impacted or contributed to the lack of sleep between shifts.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
SCPD uniformed personnel working in a patrol capacity. These are the officers
consistently exposed to mandated overtime, court subpoenas, shift-work, and inconsistent
changes in working schedules.
Criterion 2
Participants must be off probation. Probationary officers only work uniformed patrol
assignments; however, because they are on probation, their involvement in the study would not
be ideal as they tend to have very structured, consistent schedules for training purposes. They are
less likely to experience the inconsistencies of a fully independent patrol officer and must abide

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by an overtime policy of “no training while on overtime.” Often, if a probationary officer and
their training officer are working overtime the watch commander will send the probationary
officer home at the end of their shift and not extend them, all but ensuring that the probationary
officer will have a very different experience with mandated overtime.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Creswell (2014) stated that a survey can quantify trends, beliefs, and opinions of a large
group by way of studying a smaller sampling of the group. SCPD has more than 9,000 sworn
personnel working across more than 20 geographical areas. Of that 9,000, some 3,000 to 5,000
are working in a patrol assignment. However, scheduled vacations, Injured on Duty (IOD), re-
assignments, suspensions, promotions, and a host of other unforeseen circumstances coalesce to
reduce the available officers on patrol. At the time of this study, the department roster showed
that 3,099 officers were working a uniformed, patrol assignment. Therefore, this group of
officers was utilized for the study.
The sample, therefore, was considered convenient because the researcher targeted the
entire 3,099 listed uniformed patrol officers. Stratification of the targeted population occurred
through the elimination of those officers who were listed as uniformed patrol but were actually
working a different assignment. Therefore, all research participants met the above-listed criteria.
The study was conducted over the course of 3 months and produced 528 responses, however
after cleaning the data, 411(14.2% response rate) fully completed surveys were used.
Additionally, a document review was conducted in order to determine if any SCPD policies
existed regarding the attainment of sleep between shifts. As mentioned, other government
agencies have created and implemented policies to help mitigate sleep deprivation through such

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polices as “away from work minimums” and “at work maximums.” Table 12 shows the
recruitment strategy and timeline.
Table 12
Recruitment Strategy and Timeline

Sampling Strategy Stakeholder
Population
Proposed
Sampling
Population
Data Collection
Period
Interviews: N/A N/A N/A N/A
Observations: N/A N/A N/A N/A
Documents: Purposeful
(Department
Policies,
procedures,
bulletins)
N/A N/A October 1–30, 2019
Surveys: Census 3,099 465 October 1, 2019
January 4, 2020

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Appendix B: Protocols
Survey Questions
1. This survey is an attempt to better understand the opinions of police officers in regard to the
importance of sleep. If you choose to participate, your responses will be kept confidential.
All data will be stored on a password-protected flash drive in accordance with the retention
policies of the University of Southern California. Any identifiable information obtained in
connection with this study will remain confidential. Your participation in this survey is
strictly voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw at any point, for any reason. By
choosing the “I Consent, begin the study” option, you acknowledge that your participation in
the study is voluntary and that you are aware that you may choose to terminate your
participation at any time, for any reason.
2. What is the minimum amount of sleep needed between shifts for officers to perform at their
optimal level?
o 0 – 3 hours
o 4 – 6 hours
o 7 – 9 hours
o 10 + hours
3. What are the effects of an officer not obtaining their individual needs between shifts? (Check
all that apply)
o No Impact
o Performance increases
o Decrease in performance
o Slower reaction times

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o Increased ability to de-escalate volatile incidents
o Mental fog
o Loss of appetite
o Increased aggression
4. The below items are each related to officer safety. Please rank them in order of importance. 1
= most important, 6 = least important. (Click and drag each item to create your personal list.)
Marksmanship with your service pistol
Wearing my duty vest
Obtaining my individual sleep needs between shifts
Possessing excellent communication skills
Being physically fit
Wearing my body-worn video
5. Over-the-counter stimulants such as energy drinks or caffeine products can mitigate the
cognitive effects associated with sleep deprivation?
(Strongly agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly disagree)
6. What poses the largest threat to an officer’s safety?
o Radio call of domestic violence
o Traffic stops
o An ambush
o Suicide
o A terrorist attack
o Traffic collisions
7. During my workweek, I try to make sleep a priority.

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(Never, sometimes, often, always)
8. I have reported for duty having slept for 5 or less hours between shifts.
(Never, sometimes, often, always)
9. I believe that getting enough sleep between shifts is vital to my work performance. (Strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
10. Challenges that impact my ability to get enough sleep include (check all that apply)
o EOW overtime
o Court subpoenas
o Family responsibilities
o The commute to/from work
o Rotating shift schedule
o Off-duty employment
o Inability to fall asleep after work
o Persona choice to engage in activities at the expense of sleep (gym, social media, time
with friends, etc.)
11. I have fallen asleep, even for a few moments, while driving home from work
o Never
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always
12. I need to consume caffeine throughout my shift to help stay awake.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
13. The Department values sleep as it relates to officer wellness.

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Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
14. My direct supervision values sleep as it relates to officer wellness.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
15. Does the Department have any specific policies that directly support an officer obtaining
enough sleep between shifts?
o Yes
o No
o I don’t know
16. Have you received any Department training on the importance of sleep?
o Yes
o No
o I do not recall
17. My experience has taught me that being tired is just part of the job.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
18. I would support the Department implementing policies similar to the rail-car, trucking,
airline, and shipping industries that mandate away from work minimums and at-work
maximums even if it impacted some of my ability to work overtime.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
19. I would like to see the Department dedicate more attention to the subject of sleep as it relates
to officer wellness.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
20. On patrol there is a culture of acceptance around sleep deprivation.
(Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)

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21. I have worked patrol for
o 1 – 4 years
o 5 – 10 years
o 11 – 15 years
o 16 – 20 years
o 21 – 25 years
o 25+ years
22. My age is
21 – 25 years old
26 – 30 years old
31 – 35 years old
36 – 40 years old
41 – 45 years old
46 – 50 years old
51 – 55 years old
56 – 60 years old
60 + years
23. Sex
o Male
o Female
24. I currently work
o Watch 2
o Watch 3
o Mid-watch
25. I currently work
o Uniform detail (Patrol, METRO, GIT, etc.)

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o Non-Uniform Assignment (Detectives, Vice, Narcotics, etc.)
o Administrative

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Appendix C: Validity and Reliability
Irrespective of the research method, validity and reliability can be ensured through
specific and diligent steps when creating the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I maintained the
validity of this study by ensuring the only data that were collected would either support or refute
the assumed KMO influencers that impact an officer’s ability to obtain the proper amount of
sleep between working shifts and nothing more (Salkind, 2017). The survey questions were
specifically designed to either support or refute the potential correlational relationships between
sleep obtainment and the identified variables. Prior to the official survey dissemination a random
convenience sample of 20 officers agreed to take the survey to ensure the questions were
relevant to the topic of sleep deprivation; clearly framed in a way that engendered trust; and
verified that the survey could be done using a variety of personal computing devices, such as
computers, tablets, and cell phones (Creswell, 2018). These 20 officers were not in the
stakeholder group as they were currently assigned to administrative duties. However, they had at
one time in their careers work a uniformed patrol assignment for longer than 5 consecutive years.
Their feedback resulted in some minor wording changes to a few questions and changing the
way some questions could be answered. This was necessary because the survey platform was not
as friendly to the smaller cell phone screens. The survey was disseminated via the SCPD’s
internal email system to those officers who were full duty and currently working a uniformed,
patrol assignment, as found within the internal departmental roster. Because it was made clear
that the survey was strictly for academic use outside of SCPD and was entirely voluntary, there
was no compensation or incentive to complete the survey. Typically, surveys similar to this study
see a response rate lower than 20% in the SPD rank and file. This survey’s response rate of
14.2% is consistent with past response rates. While many factors can influence response rates, a

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general lack of trust exists between rank and file officers and command staff. While there is not
rigorous data collection to substantiate this claim, the anecdotal evidence is robust. Therefore,
the low response rate, for all surveys, is possibly due to the belief that these are only attempts
from within to utilize personal experiences and opinions for nefarious or disingenuous purposes.

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Appendix D: Study Limitations
Myriad variables can impact a study of this kind. The very nature of who and what was being
researched yields numerous limitations. Those limitations must be considered when reviewing
the study and utilized to create more robust research moving forward. Below is a list of the
primary limitations:
1. Due to the large, bureaucratic, antiquated internal records systems within the SCPD, on
many occasions, an officer is transferred from one assignment (patrol) to another
(administrative), and it takes months for that transfer to be reflected on the internal roster.
Therefore, while the internal roster showed a number of 3,099 officers currently assigned
to patrol, that number could be larger or smaller by a considerable amount.
2. SCPD utilizes the departmental email system multiple times per day, 7 days per week.
There are days when officers receive more than 30 emails at once, and some who may
have received the survey link may not have noticed it. I engaged with five of these
officers, and my belief is that there were many more.
3. The time allotted to complete this research created a large barrier to how robust the
research could be. The research could have been more encompassing and much richer
had it been a mixed-method study wherein qualitative data could have been utilized to
create a more complete picture. However, the law enforcement schedule is dynamic and
inconsistent; therefore, scheduling in-person interviews would be difficult under such
short time-frames. Also, because of the geographical vastness that SCPD covers,
combined with the fact that many patrol officers work in the middle of the night while
most people are sleeping, a team of researchers would be needed to traverse the distance
and spectrum of time.

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4. Chronically fatigued officers may not recognize their own symptoms. Therefore, relying
on their self-assessment to judge their own cognitive impairment is inherently inadequate.
Much more detailed research would be needed to accurately measure the decline in
human performance caused by sleep deprivation. High-end technology that can measure
pupil dilation, blood pressure, heart rate, and reaction time would be necessary to fully
capture the degree of impairment.
5. As previously mentioned, the working schedule of an officer can change quickly, and if
the survey happened to reach the officer during a week of no overtime, no court cases,
and overall low crime, that officer may have had a more positive perspective of the
intersection of their work and sleep.
6. The Department has a concern about risk management and liability. If my research
resulted in a strong finding of causation, and that information were to be made public,
there is a potential for litigation against an organization that willfully placed officers in
potentially volatile situations wherein someone was gravely injured and the Department
should have known better.
7. Law enforcement is a profession rooted in conflict. The enforcement of rules in general
and law specifically are often-times adversarial. This constant conflict wears on officers
of all tenure, and compassion fatigue is rife in law enforcement, as in other professions
where trauma is commonplace. Therefore, officers tend to develop “thick skin” and
become cynical. Such an attitude complicates studying the profession because an
officer’s opinion of the profession can take dramatic swings based on most recent
traumatic exposure.

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Appendix E: Ethics
The focus of my study was to conduct quantitative research that would either support or
refute the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that were impacting an
officer’s attainment of sufficient sleep between working shifts through a 25-question survey
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;). Like all research that utilizes human subjects,
strict protocols must be adhered to, with the primary focus of “do no harm” to participating
individuals . Further, as Kruger and Casey (2009) have made clear, the intentions of the research
must be fully disclosed, and the researcher must ensure that the subjects fully understand their
involvement in the study.
I made the purpose of the study specific and clear through an informed consent prior to
any subject’s participation. The subjects were explicitly told that their participation in the
research was voluntary and that they could choose to participate or not without any negative
repercussions. It was made clear to those who voluntarily chose to participate that they could
stop participating at any time, for any reason (Glesne, 2011). Finally, prior to their participation,
the subjects were made aware that any involvement in the research would be strictly confidential
and that any and all data collected would be used for academic research and nothing more
(Glesne, 2011).
Those participating were selected due to their current assignment in patrol. The email
they received was sent by an officer who held no supervisory authority over the stakeholders. My
current assignment is administrative, so I hold no authority over those given the opportunity to
participate. There was no physical risk of harm to those who chose to participate and absolutely
no risk to their current or future employment.

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The purpose of the research was to determine if the patrol officers of SCPD experienced
sleep deprivation consistent with other police agencies and, if so, what gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences may be contributing to these consistencies (Clark &
Estes, 2008). While I have my own bias on this topic due to my own personal experience
working in a uniformed patrol assignment, I ensured that I was completely removed from the
data collection process so as to not influence the officer’s responses. There were no incentives of
any kind to participate in this study.
I have been a member of the SCPD for 18 years and currently hold the rank of sergeant. I
have taken measures to ensure that my rank and position within the Department have no
influence on the responses of the officers. Furthermore, this study is in no way attempting to
justify poor, unethical, racist, or illegal activities of officers. The assumption is that the decrease
in human performance due to sleep deprivation only serves to increase the potential for negative
outcomes. In no way is this study meant to absolve past or current injustices.

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Appendix F: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) created a method for evaluation known as the New
World Kirkpatrick Model. This model guided the implementation and evaluation plan. Briefly,
the New World Kirkpatrick Model is the same as the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of
Evaluation, however, the new model recommends an evaluation plan that starts with the goals
and then works backwards to create a new roadmap for effective training. This new method
elucidates and aligns organizational goals with recommended solutions based on targets or
“leading indicators” that help guide the process. This new approach keeps initiatives on track and
offers intermittent updates which creates momentum. This process will save limited resources
such as time, money, and human capital while simultaneously increasing morale (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Higher morale is also consistent with a greater degree of “buy-in,” which
serves to facilitate successful outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
It is the mission of SCPD to safeguard the lives and property of the people they serve, to
reduce the fear and incidence of crime, and to enhance public safety while working with the
diverse communities to improve their quality of life. Their mandate is to do so with honor and
integrity, at all times conducting themselves with the highest ethical standards to maintain public
confidence (SCPD, 2017). In order to accomplish such an important mission, SCPD officers
must be of the highest caliber including mental and physical well-being. An overwhelming
amount of research has demonstrated that fatigue and sleep deprivation causes a significant
decline in human performance, most notably the impairment of critical thinking and cognitive
function. This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers that

93
prevent officers from fully recovering between shifts. The proposed solution, an extensive
training program, organizational policies, and the empowerment of supervision should produce
the desired outcome: a decrease in cognitive errors associated with sleep deprivation.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 13 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for SCPD. If the internal
outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support, then the
external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 13
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Customer Satisfaction
A reduction in citizen complaints
related to discourtesy
The number of complaints of
discourtesy
Internal Affairs (IA) will compare
weekly reports
Market/Industry Response
increased Dept of Justice (DOJ)
referrals to the SCPD for best
practices
The number of DOJ referrals Police Commission will request a
quarterly report from the DOJ on
nation-wide referrals
Internal Outcomes
Quality
Decreased time spent on
investigating discourtesy
complaints
A reduction in the number of
hours spent investigating citizen
complaints of discourtesy t

Records Department will track
number of hours spent on training
Efficiency
Decreased worktime spent
training officers on professional
standards
A reduction in the number of
minutes spent training officers on
professional standards

Sergeants will conduct audits on
officers’ daily logs
Employee Satisfaction
Decreased use of sick time
unrelated to Injuries on Duty
(IOD)
A reduction in the number of sick
days used
Department Payroll System Dept
(DPS) will generate sick-time
usage reports
Safety
Decreased use of sick time
related to Injuries on Duty
(IOD)

A reduction in number of Injuries
on Duty (IOD)
DPS will generate IOD sick-time
usage reports

94
Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
The stakeholders of focus were the SCPD patrol officers. The first critical behavior is that
officers must be accountable for reporting how much sleep they logged the previous night. The
second critical behavior is that officers identify administrative errors on traffic citations. The
third critical behavior is that officers must consistently provide a level of service aligned with the
mission and standards of the SCPD core values. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for
each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 14.
Table 14
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation

Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Officers report
on how much sleep
they logged the
previous night.
The number of sergeant
logs that discuss proper
rest and recovery
Watch commanders
will audit sergeant
logs
Every roll call, on
every watch for the
first 6 months, then
every third roll call
the remainder of the
year.
2. Officers identify
their administrative
errors on traffic
citations.
The number of
corrections made by
supervisors
Supervisors will
monitor the
returned traffic
citations for
correction to
identify patterns.
Initially, audits of
traffic citations will be
performed every 30
days; as improvement
is observed, it will
increase to 60
eventually ending at
every 90 days.
3. Officers provide
a level of service
that is consistent
with the mission
and standards of the
SCPD core values.
Track the number of
“satisfied” and “not
satisfied” citizen
outcomes with respect
to an officer’s diligence,
professionalism,
patience, and empathy

Sergeants will
consistently show
up to conduct a
satisfaction audit
with citizens after
officers complete
their call for service
Each officer will
receive no fewer than
five audits every
month, all year round

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Required Drivers
Patrol officers require the support of their patrol sergeants and area captains to reinforce
what they learn in training and to encourage them to apply what they have learned to effectively
manage their rest and recovery between shifts. Rewards should be established for achievement of
performance goals to enhance the organizational support for proper rest and recovery for patrol
officers. Table 15 shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of patrol
officers.

96
Table 15
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors

Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing
Provide officers information on
specific behavior objectives for
learning about the negative
consequences of sleep
deprivation.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Help officers connect new
knowledge to prior knowledge
and to construct meaning on
sufficient rest and recovery
between shifts.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Provide officers with strategies
to manage their motivation,
time, learning and strategies,
and to control their physical and
social environment and monitor
their performance.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from
patrol sergeants on sufficient
rest and recovery between shifts.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Public acknowledgement, such
as a mention at staff meetings
when team performance hits a
benchmark of a drop in citation
corrections.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Provide officers the opportunity
to connect sleep deprivation
learning to individual interests
to encourage meaningful
responses to their own sleep
deprivation.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Conduct whole organization
meetings to communicate the
vision, mission and goals, and
individual and team
accomplishments.
Monthly 1, 2, 3

97
Organizational Support
The aforementioned critical behaviors and required drivers monitored for performance
improvement are premised upon the implementation of recommendations at the organizational
level. In this case, for the stakeholders to achieve their goals, the organization would need to
ensure that all internal messaging and training can help officers achieve their individual required
sleep needs to become better prepared officers during times of crisis and while completing
routine administrative duties.
To that end, patrol officers must be provided with consistent training and reinforcement
of the importance of achieving their individual rest between shifts. SCPD must also continue to
provide ongoing training to support the patrol officer’s implementation of rest and recovery
between shifts.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals
Following completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders will be able to do
the following:
1. Recognize the physical and mental manifestations of sleep deprivation.
2. Take steps to mitigate the decline in human performance associated with sleep
deprivation.
3. Design a routine that facilitates healthy and consistent sleep habits to maximize
recovery time (officers).
4. Reflect on the effectiveness of the integration of officer wellness into training.
5. Value the increased performance associated with proper rest.
6. Value the health benefits associated with proper rest.

98
Program
The combination of a centralized, department-wide training program, de-centralized
follow-up support training sessions, and infusion of policies regulating minimum hours away
from work between shifts will support efforts to meet the learning goals. The program will be
blended, consisting of one initial block of training that will be given to every member of patrol
(officers and supervisors) via the department e-learning system. E-learning is an internal web site
that offers a variety of mandated training that all personnel must complete. This specific program
will detail the decline in human performance caused by sleep deprivation, common signs and
symptoms of fatigue, and strategies to mitigate the negative outcomes associated with sleep
deprivation. It is anticipated that the department-wide, E-learning training will take one
deployment phase (DP), which is 28 days. The decentralized training will be conducted in
waves. For the first 30 days, it will be delivered daily in all roll call briefings. After 60 days, it
will take place every third roll call. Finally, it will be a mandated training annually. Additionally,
the department will create and implement a minimum-time-away policy wherein officers who
work in excess of 17 hours shall not return to work for at least 12 hours.
The department-wide centralized training will cover sleep deprivation in broad strokes,
highlighting the main points, while the decentralized training will reinforce the initial training
but add to it the specific issues that face each unique geographical area.
Further, the roll call trainings will continually re-emphasize what officers have learned
and discuss the value and benefits of proper rest between shifts for optimum performance.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Demonstrating declarative knowledge is often a necessary precursor to applying the
knowledge to solve problems. As such, evaluations should ensure that both declarative and

99
procedural knowledge are being taught. Learners should also value training and be encouraged to
use their newly acquired knowledge and skills. Learners must also be confident they can succeed
in applying their knowledge and skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such,
Table 16 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.
Table 16
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program

Include

Timing

Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice questions to assess
understanding of Sleep Deprivation signs and symptoms
At the end of centralized
training
Knowledge checks by patrol sergeants by way of observation of
discussions, “pair, think, share” and other individual/group
activities during roll call
Initially, during the first 30
days of decentralized
training
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstrate individually, and in groups, the ability to identify
signs and symptoms of sleep deprivation
During daily roll call
trainings
Pre- and post-test assessment survey asking officers about their
knowledge and awareness of sleep deprivation before and after
centralized training.
At the beginning and end of
each annual training
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions of the value of what they are being asked to do on
the job and while away from work
Daily roll call briefings
Field sergeants will observe participants’ statements and actions
demonstrating that they see the benefit of what they are being
asked to do in between shifts.
During roll call training,
every third day on every
watch.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Open forum-style discussions following in-person training After all centralized and
decentralized training
Post-test assessment survey asking officers about their belief in
their ability to apply the training on proper recovery between
shifts before and after the training
At the end of every fourth
deployment phase
(quarterly)
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create an individual action plan After annual trainings
Discussions following practice and feedback After briefings in roll call

100

Level 1: Reaction
Evaluating stakeholder reactions and participation involvement in learning at level 1 is
both formative and summative (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Formative reactions at level 1
can be measured through learner comfort, engagement, and satisfaction. Summative reactions are
gathered immediately or shortly after training is completed. Summative reaction evaluation
should be voluntary and reflective, but it should also ask the participants about the relevance of
the content, the quality of the venue and presenters as well as the relevance with respect to the
application of learning and use of time. Table 17 outlines the methods for measuring officer
reactions in roll call briefings in terms of engagement, relevance, and satisfaction regarding the
application of knowledge learned and individual satisfaction with officer wellness and
professional development.
Table 17
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program

Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by instructor/facilitator during the
workshops.
During the Centralized training
Course evaluation. Immediately after training
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via in class
discussions
Mid-training

Course evaluation for relevance to field Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants
via discussion
After every module/lesson/unit and the
workshop

Professional development evaluation Ninety days after centralized training
sessions.

101
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Evaluations at Level 1 and Level
2 provide feedback about the quality of the training. Officers have an opportunity to comment on
a variety of components related to the training, such as topics covered, quality of the instructors,
and the materials used to support learning. In addition, they are given the opportunity to
comment on the location and length of the training. Evaluations that take place immediately
following program implementation seeks to understand the confidence with which individuals
understand the knowledge and skills shared with them and the overall level of commitment that
individuals have in terms of transferring what they have learned into practice. While evaluation
at this level will take the form of event attendance and observational engagement data collected
by the gifted consultant, content specialists, and speakers, a more in-depth survey given in pre-
and post-test format will be used to confirm learning. Further, in addition to attendance,
observational data, brief pulse-checks during discussions, and longer range survey data,
sergeants will be asked to complete brief feedback forms following each roll call training.
Sergeants will be asked a series of questions regarding relevancy, confidence, and perceived
commitment levels.
A brief survey will be implemented at the completion of the centralized training (Level
1), which ensures all field sergeants have been educated on the subject of officer wellness as it
relates to sleep and recovery between shifts.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately 8 weeks after
the initial centralized training, and then once again 6 months later, the in-service training section
will administer a survey that will utilize the Kirkpatrick Blended Evaluation Approach. This
survey will ask questions related to all dimensions. Level 1 questions will capture items such as

102
satisfaction and relevance. Level 2 questions will capture confidence and commitment to apply
what was learned and see if a support team of supervision is helping. Level 3 will capture
whether what is being learned is being put to use.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The level 4 goal of the field officer will be measured by the ability to integrate new
knowledge into daily recovery/sleep habits. Every 4 days, field sergeants will informally track
the number of hours officers are sleeping between shifts. The dashboard below is an example of
how the data will be recorded and will serve as a monitoring and accountability tool. Similar
dashboards will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2, and 3.

Action/Result Target Actual Previous
Month
Rating
Increased recovery time between shifts (measured
as increased sleep hours)
75% 25% 15%

Decrease in administrative errors in relation to
traffic citations
50% 50% 30%
☺️
Less fatigue while driving home (after shift) 80% 60% 50%

Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model served as the training evaluation framework for this
study. Utilizing the end as the beginning concept, combined with the Four Levels approach,
enabled the researcher to develop this study’s recommended solutions, implementation
strategies, and an evaluation plan that may minimize the number of sleep-deprived police
officers actively serving and protecting the public. The simplicity of the reverse application is
also its strength. By starting at the end—that is, identifying the desired outcomes (Level 4)—one

103
can map out the desired behaviors (Level 3), move to learning (Level 2), and end with reactions
(Level 1). This process increases the potential of knowledge transfer, thus maximizing the
application of training in the workplace (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model
emphasizes the importance of collecting and making sense of data in an effort to create the most
beneficial training. With the focus on desired outcomes, the SCPD can begin to view training
from a more holistic perspective and begin to move away from the “check the box”–style
training that is all too common. Furthermore, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommended
that trainers consistently ask three simple questions: Does the training meet expectations? If not,
why not? And if so, why? In the case of the SCPD, this approach will serve to ensure the
training is not getting stale or outdated.
For this study, the New World Kirkpatrick Model creates and supports a training
environment that optimizes the interactions between patrol supervisors and patrol officers,
creating the most likely positive return on the investment in training officers about the decline in
human performance caused by sleep deprivation.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study (N = 411) examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that either supported or hindered patrol officers meeting their individual sleep needs between working shifts. The researchers hypothesized that these officers would experience the same level of sleep deprivation that other officers from agencies across the country experience. The data confirm the hypothesis that, while officers understand the importance of sleep in a general sense, there is a gap in factual knowledge regarding an officer’s understanding of how lack of sleep negatively impacts a variety of human performance factors. Officers have a dearth of factual knowledge regarding the use of stimulants as a means of overcoming the cognitive impairment of sleep deprivation. While the data suggest that patrol officers are motivated to sleep, factors at the organizational level appear to present a significant barrier. Finally, the study suggests that officers want their agency to value the need for sleep, provide more training on the importance of sleep, and create policies that promote proper sleep between shifts. The study’s findings support the conclusion of this paper and the recommendation to create and implement department-wide training on the negative consequences of sleep deprivation.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Datro, Thomas Lawrence (author)

Core Title Chronic sleep deprivation in our nation's law enforcement: a public safety crisis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/26/2021

Defense Date 02/26/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag fatigue,Human Performance,Law enforcement,OAI-PMH Harvest,Police,Police training,Sleep,sleep deprivation

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Samkian, Artineh (committee member), Yates, Kenneth (committee member)

Creator Email datro@usc.edu,tdatro@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-423903

Unique identifier UC11666599

Identifier etd-DatroThoma-9295.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-423903 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DatroThoma-9295.pdf

Dmrecord 423903

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Datro, Thomas Lawrence

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA