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High school counselors’ support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning: an evaluative study
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High school counselors’ support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning: an evaluative study
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Content
High School Counselors’ Support of First-Generation Students’ Postsecondary Planning:
An Evaluative Study
by
Sarah Katherine Stashkiw
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2020
Copyright 2020 Sarah Katherine Stashkiw
ii
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my favorite first-generation student, my father, Dr. Louis
Lombardi. Throughout my life, and especially during my doctoral journey, you and mom have
inspired me, guided me, and encouraged me. From our debate about whether it was ethical for
you to assist me with the ethics assignment for class to comparing our progress on various
chapters of your book and my dissertation, I have cherished sharing this experience with you.
You have been a role model and my moral compass in more ways than I can ever express. Our
current national climate emphasizes the importance of what you, along with mom, taught me and
modeled for me: not only to be aware of my immense and unearned privilege, but also how to
use it to fight for a more equitable future. I hope that this degree will allow me to continue to
impact our community in ways that will make you proud.
iii
Acknowledgements
Dr. Seli, there are no words to express the depth of my admiration of and gratitude for
you. I do not know what I would have done without your guidance and support throughout this
process. Your immediate responses and thoughtful feedback enhanced the quality of my work
and increased my confidence. To my committee members, Dr. Phillips and Dr. Riggio, thank you
for your insight and constant encouragement: they made this experience much less stressful than
it could have been. To the many professors I have had throughout this program, thank you for
sharing your knowledge, wisdom, and expertise. Dr. Canny, your feedback improved every
aspect of my writing. Dr. Seli, Dr. Samkian, Dr. Wilcox, and Dr. Adolph, I will never be able to
thank you enough for your support during a very challenging semester. Dr. Ott, I carried your
positive words and encouragement with me throughout the program.
To Cohort 11, I would not be at this point without you. I never could have imagined that
joining this program would give me a Trojan family that is so caring, giving, intelligent,
inspiring, and supportive. Heather Case, Cartier Coleman, Kevin Cross, Ryan Malin, Amy
Stolpestad, and Derek Westfall, your friendship is one of the greatest gifts I have gotten out of
this program.
Thank you to my family and friends who are like family. To my husband, Bill Stashkiw,
and mom and dad, your understanding and support made it possible for me to dedicate so much
time and energy to this program. I am forever grateful. Dr. Ali O’Brien, thank you for
encouraging me to pursue a doctoral degree and for your unwavering support and encouragement
throughout the process. Katie Preston, Juliann Abderholden, Shannon Bassi, Carolyn Brugioni,
Susan Ros, Maria Sostre, and Jana Thompson, thank you for your patience and always checking
in to see how I was doing. This document is a truly testament to the incredible people in my life.
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables............................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice ................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ....................................................................................... 1
Organizational Goal ................................................................................................................ 2
Related Literature ................................................................................................................... 2
Importance of the Evaluation .................................................................................................. 3
Description of Stakeholder Groups ......................................................................................... 4
Stakeholder Group for the Study ............................................................................................. 4
Purpose of the Project and Questions ...................................................................................... 6
Methodological Framework .................................................................................................... 7
Definitions .............................................................................................................................. 8
Organization of the Project ..................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ..................................................................................... 10
Pathway to College Completion ............................................................................................ 10
College Persistence and Completion as Measures of Student Success ................................... 14
College Readiness and Postsecondary Planning .................................................................... 19
Role of High School Counselors ........................................................................................... 29
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework ........................................................................... 30
High School Counselor Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ................... 30
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of High School Counselors’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context ........................................................................... 52
Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 56
Chapter Three: Methods ........................................................................................................... 58
Participating High School Counselors ................................................................................... 58
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................. 62
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................... 64
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 67
Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................................... 67
Credibility and Trustworthiness ............................................................................................ 69
Ethics ................................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .......................................................................................... 75
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 75
Research Question 1: What Are High School Counselors’ Knowledge and Motivation
v
Related to Creating Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans with First-Generation Students?.... 76
Research Question Two: What Is the Interaction Between Organizational Culture and
Context and High School Counselors’ Knowledge and Motivation? ...................................... 92
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 106
Chapter Five: Recommendations ............................................................................................ 109
Introduction and Overview ................................................................................................. 109
Recommendations for Practice to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Influences ........................................................................................................................... 110
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan .................................................................. 122
Implications for Practice ..................................................................................................... 138
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach ........................................................................ 140
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................. 141
Future Research .................................................................................................................. 142
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 143
References .............................................................................................................................. 146
Appendix A: Survey Items ...................................................................................................... 165
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ............................................................................................. 169
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol .............................................................................. 173
Appendix D: Evaluation Tool for Postsecondary Planning Trainer.......................................... 175
Appendix E: Postsecondary Planning Training Survey for Counselors .................................... 178
vi
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals ................... 6
Table 2: Knowledge Influences and Assessments ..................................................................... 37
Table 3: Motivational Influences and Assessments ................................................................... 41
Table 4: Organizational Influences and Assessments ................................................................ 51
Table 5: Postsecondary Planning Interview Participants ............................................................ 76
Table 6: Counselors' Comments Related to Knowledge of College ........................................... 81
Table 7: Counselors' Comments Related to Knowledge of Career Exploration .......................... 82
Table 8: Counselors’ Comments Related to Academic Preparation ........................................... 83
Table 9: Importance of Each Area of Support for First-Generation Students ............................. 88
Table 10: Counselors’ Confidence That They Could Support First-Generation Students ........... 90
Table 11: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Results and Findings .......................... 107
Table 12: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations..................................... 111
Table 13: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ..................................... 114
Table 14: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .................................. 116
Table 15: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 125
Table 16: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ........................... 126
Table 17: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ....................................................... 127
Table 18: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program .................................... 133
Table 19: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .................................................. 134
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for High School Counselors’ Support of First-Generation
Students’ Postsecondary Planning ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 2: Counselors’ Level of Agreement That Their High Schools Encouraged
Collaboration with External Partners, Internal Colleagues, and Parents ..................................... 93
Figure 3: Counselors’ Level of Agreement that They Had Adequate Time to Support First-
Generation Students’ Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning.................................................. 99
Figure 4: Counselors’ Level of Agreement that Their High Schools Had Procedures in Place
to Support First-Generation Students’ Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning ...................... 103
Figure 5: Counselors’ Progress Toward and Barriers Related to Supporting All Students in
Creating Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans ........................................................................ 137
viii
Abstract
The purpose of this project was to explore the degree to which Curlew Coalition, an organization
that brings together educational leaders to support student success, was meeting its goal of
ensuring first-generation students in Curlew County graduate from high school at the same level
of college readiness as their non-first-generation peers. The study focused on how high school
counselors contributed to this goal by using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework
to explore the degree to which counselors had the knowledge, skills, and motivation as well as a
supportive organizational culture and the resources necessary to effectively support first-
generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. The explanatory sequential mixed
methods design involved surveys of and interviews with high school counselors who worked
directly with students in target school districts. Existing organizational documents related to
postsecondary planning were also analyzed. Descriptive statistics and percentage, mode, and
frequency from the survey data and coded and categorized findings from the interviews revealed
that counselors had the necessary knowledge and motivation to support students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. Counselors had a clear understanding of the criteria for defining first-
generation students, holistic definitions of college readiness, and how to help students set goals.
They also valued and had high-self efficacy for supporting first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning. However, counselors lacked some of the requisite
organizational supports including having access to and awareness of effective training, having
sufficient time to support students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning, and having
procedures in place for goal-setting related to postsecondary planning and formally identifying
and tracking first-generation students. Therefore, this study culminated with recommendations
ix
for practice to address each of these gaps as well as an integrated implementation and evaluation
plan based on Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model.
1
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice
A U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics report
demonstrated that proportionally lower college persistence and completion is a problem for first-
generation students (Cataldi et al., 2018). Specifically, three years after initial matriculation in
college, only 48% of first-generation students were still enrolled in a postsecondary institution
compared to 67% of their peers whose parents had earned a bachelor’s degree (Cataldi et al.,
2018). Further, 33% of first-generation students who were no longer enrolled in postsecondary
education did not have any postsecondary credential compared to 14% of their peers whose
parents had earned a bachelor’s degree (Cataldi et al., 2018). One way to increase the college
readiness, persistence, and completion of first-generation students is to support first-generation
students in creating postsecondary plans that ensure they are preparing academically and
financially for college and that they are gaining the necessary noncognitive skills to be college-
ready when they graduate from high school (Atherton, 2014; Deslonde & Becerra, 2018). High
school counselors can play a key role in providing support for first-generation students.
Organizational Context and Mission
The context of this study is Curlew County (pseudonym), an economically diverse county
located in the suburbs of a Midwestern city. The educational landscape of Curlew County
includes over 20 high schools and a comprehensive community college, which will be referred to
as Curlew College in this study. The mission statement on Curlew College’s webpage is aligned
with the mission of community colleges identified by the Community College Research Center
(2017): it emphasizes access, diversity, quality, and student success. This makes it clear that the
College recognizes the value each member of the community contributes and that Curlew
College’s purpose is to provide the academic and support services necessary for students to
2
discover and attain their individual goals. In an effort to advance its mission and work
collaboratively with local educational leaders, Curlew College formed Curlew Coalition
(pseudonym) in 2015. The Coalition’s mission is to support Curlew County students and ensure
equitable outcomes and postsecondary opportunities for all students. The Coalition consists of
high school superintendents and senior leaders from Curlew College who meet regularly to
collaborate on current educational challenges. This study focuses on the Coalition and its
member institutions.
Organizational Goal
Educational leaders from Curlew County set, review, and modify the Coalition’s goals
annually to ensure they align to the mission. One of the Coalition’s current goals is that by the
2022-2023 academic year, first-generation students in Curlew County will graduate from high
school at the same level of college readiness as their non-first-generation peers. While the dates
are not necessarily endorsed by the organization, they are added here to demonstrate the general
timeframes and sequence of actions that will enable Curlew Coalition to meet its goal. The
institutional research department at Curlew College reported 7-11% gaps in college readiness
rates between first-generation students and their non-first-generation peers. While the goal of
closing these gaps was set by high school superintendents and the senior leaders from Curlew
College who serve on the Coalition, it is the faculty and staff in the high schools and community
college who must carry out the work to reach the goal.
Related Literature
Earning a college credential has financial and health benefits for individuals and society
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2018; Ma et al., 2016). However,
successfully earning a college credential is the culmination of work and experiences that begin
3
before and extend into students’ college years. Before students matriculate at an institution of
higher education, they demonstrate whether they are ready for college-level work through a
combination of academic knowledge, financial preparation, and noncognitive skills (Conley,
2007; Schmitt et al., 2009). Once students have matriculated, they need to be motivated and have
appropriate goals and self-efficacy to persist through college and earn a credential (Tinto, 2017).
Navigating complex educational systems and understanding what it takes to be successful
can be especially challenging for first-generation college students who are not able to rely on
their parents’ past experiences with higher education for insight and assistance (Atherton, 2014;
Deslonde & Becerra, 2018). To achieve Curlew Coalition’s mission of ensuring equitable
outcomes and postsecondary opportunities for all students, educators must support students
through each phase of the college completion pipeline: college preparation and readiness, college
matriculation, college persistence, and college completion. The existing literature around models
of college readiness can provide a basis for the work that high school counselors do to support
first-generation students as they prepare for postsecondary education (Conley, 2007;
Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate Curlew Coalition’s performance in relation to its goal of
ensuring first-generation students in Curlew County graduate at the same level of college
readiness as their non-first-generation peers for a variety of reasons. The Bureau of Labor
Statistics (2018) showed a positive correlation between educational attainment and weekly
earnings, making postsecondary education an important step toward securing students’ economic
futures. Students who are college ready are, by definition, more likely to succeed in college and
reap the benefits of a college education (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor,
4
2018; Ma et al., 2016). If more first-generation students entered college with the knowledge and
skills to succeed, the focus could shift from preparing students to meet current expectations to
strengthening the breadth and depth of programming to increase persistence and completion
rates. Additionally, failing to address the equity gaps in college readiness rates will likely
decrease the opportunities for social mobility for first-generation students (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2018; DeAngelo, 2016).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several stakeholder groups involved in increasing the college readiness,
matriculation, persistence, and completion rates of first-generation students. High school and
community college administrators are members of the Coalition who attend regular meetings and
set and monitor the group’s goals. Participants from Curlew College include the President, Vice
Presidents, and other senior leaders. High school Superintendents, Assistant Superintendents, and
other district office staff represent the secondary schools. High school and community college
faculty and staff, such as high school teachers and counselors, implement many of the
Coalition’s initiatives. However, they are often not present at the meetings or involved in setting
the goals. The collaborative work of these stakeholders is meant to benefit students across
Curlew County.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a complete exploration of the Coalition’s capacity to achieve its goal of first-
generation students in Curlew County graduating at the same level of college readiness as their
non-first-generation peers would include an analysis of all the stakeholder groups across Curlew
County, this study focuses on one stakeholder group that has regular interaction with and a direct
impact on students. High school counselors impact students’ college readiness through their
5
assistance in essential aspects of college readiness and postsecondary planning, including factors
such as course selection and career exploration (American School Counselor Association, 2017).
Postsecondary plans can be as simple as students identifying their plans to enter the workforce,
military, or a postsecondary educational institution after high school, but comprehensive
postsecondary plans prepare students to transition to and succeed in postsecondary settings.
Various organizations outline different components of postsecondary plans. In one
comprehensive example, Minnesota’s Planning for Students’ Successful Transition to
Postsecondary Education and Employment statute (2018, 120B.125) required all school districts
to develop collaborative partnerships to support student success and engage students in college
and career exploration and transition planning that includes rigorous coursework, individualized
goal-setting, experiential learning, access to support resources, and annual review of goals.
Through the Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act (2016, 110 ILCS 148/), the
State of Illinois identified college and career readiness indicators and postsecondary and career
expectations to increase students’ likelihood of postsecondary success (State of Illinois, 2018).
Postsecondary educational plans are an optional component of the legislation and the
Postsecondary and Career Expectations framework (Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness
Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State of Illinois, 2018). Educational plans provide a comprehensive
roadmap to college readiness for students and include factors such as early exposure to the wide
range of postsecondary educational options, course selection and planning, and reflection on
progress toward goals (Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State
of Illinois, 2018). Counselors should help all students set and annually review their
postsecondary plans. Without creating, reviewing, and updating comprehensive postsecondary
6
plans, students may not set postsecondary goals, know how to achieve them, or be able to track
their progress toward their goals. The stakeholder performance goals are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
Curlew Coalition’s mission is to support Curlew County students and ensure equitable outcomes
and postsecondary opportunities for all students.
Organizational Performance Goal
By the 2022-2023 academic year, first-generation students in Curlew County will graduate at the
same level of college readiness as their non-first-generation peers.
College Administrators’ Goal High School Teachers’ Goal High School Counselors’ Goal
By 2020-2021, Curlew
College will ensure its
placement measures align
100% to the definitions of
college readiness
recommended by the state’s
Community College Board.
By 2021-2022, teachers will
support 100% of students in
meeting the SAT definition of
“college ready” based on SAT
scores in mathematics and
English.
By 2020-2021, counselors will
support 100% of students in
creating comprehensive
postsecondary plans with a
specific focus on supporting
first-generation college
students.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to explore the degree to which Curlew Coalition is meeting
its goal of ensuring first-generation students in Curlew County graduate at the same level of
college readiness as their non-first-generation peers by the 2022-2023 academic year. While a
complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholder group of focus in this analysis is high school counselors. The analysis focuses on
their knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving their and,
ultimately, the organizational goals. The questions below guide the evaluative study.
7
1. What are high school counselors’ knowledge and motivation related to creating
comprehensive postsecondary plans with first-generation students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and high school
counselors’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) presented a gap analysis framework to identify how knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences can explain a gap between current performance and
organizational goals. Their framework is adapted for use in this evaluative study. The relevant
literature is reviewed to develop a list of assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences for high school counselors as they support first-generation students’ postsecondary
planning. The influences were assessed through surveys, open-ended interviews, and document
analysis.
The methodological framework for the study is an explanatory sequential mixed methods
design. As Creswell and Creswell (2018) explained, mixed methods designs can be used to
capitalize on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs. Explanatory sequential
mixed methods design begins by collecting and analyzing quantitative data and then using
qualitative data to provide depth and insight into the quantitative data (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). Following the sequential mixed methods design, topics from an initial survey of high
school counselors will be explored in greater depth during follow up interviews with a smaller
subset of the counselors who completed the survey. This mixed methods design is most
appropriate for the study because it provides a more complete understanding of whether and how
high school counselors are contributing to the organizational goal; the quantitative portion of the
study provides a broad description of what is happening while the qualitative stage helps make
meaning of and expand on the quantitative results. The comprehensive understanding of how
8
high school counselors are currently supporting first-generation students’ postsecondary
planning allows for more appropriate recommendations than relying on information from either
quantitative or qualitative data alone.
Definitions
A number of key terms appear regularly in this study. An operational definition of each
term is listed below.
College: For the purposes of this study, the term college will be used to describe any institution
of higher education. When a specific type of postsecondary institution is discussed, it will
be explicitly stated.
College Completion: According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2018), students
have completed college if they earned a degree, certificate, or other formal
documentation that they finished a program of study.
College Persistence: The National Student Clearinghouse Research Center (2015) defined
student persistence as students who have enrolled in any postsecondary institution in the
fall semesters of their first two consecutive years of college.
College Readiness: Students who are college ready are likely to succeed in credit-level
postsecondary courses due to their mastery of the content knowledge, academic and
noncognitive skills, and attitudes required for such work (National Forum on Education
Statistics, 2015).
Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans: This term was developed for the purposes of this study. It
is an overarching term incorporating the broad categories identified by the literature as
necessary for students’ future success. In this study, comprehensive postsecondary plans
9
help students develop knowledge, skills, and behaviors that will be necessary for success
in their education and careers after high school graduation.
First-Generation College Student: First-generation students are students who are the first in their
families to attend or graduate from college (Engle & Tinto, 2008; Higher Education Act
of 1965, 1998 Higher Education Act Amendments Subpart 2; Redford et al., 2017).
Contrasting definitions of first-generation students will be explored in more detail in
Chapter Two.
Organization of the Project
This chapter provided a general overview of the problem of practice that drives the focus
of this study. Chapter Two includes a comprehensive review of the literature related to high
school counselors, postsecondary planning, and college readiness, persistence, and completion
for first-generation students. Chapter Three includes the study methodology. Chapter Four
presents the results and findings, and Chapter Five offers recommendations for improving
performance.
10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two traces the literature backward along the continuum from preparing students
for college while they are in high school through college graduation. The first section discusses
low college persistence and completion rates in the United States and how they impact first-
generation students. College readiness is the predictor of persistence and completion that relates
to this study, so the definition of college readiness and promising practices related to college
readiness and comprehensive postsecondary plans are also analyzed. The chapter continues with
a preliminary look at the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework by reviewing assumed
learning, motivation, and organization influences for high school counselors as they help
students prepare for success in college. Finally, the conceptual framework incorporating the
literature review and assumed influences is presented.
Pathway to College Completion
The U.S. Department of Education (n.d.) emphasized the need for high-quality education
for all students. The importance of education is magnified by data that showed earning a college
degree had important financial and health benefits for individuals and increased individuals’
financial contributions to and civic engagement in society (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018; Ma
et al., 2016). To attain these benefits, students must proceed along the pipeline of college
readiness, persistence, and completion. Tinto (2017) identified a number of factors that impact
persistence, including motivation, goals, and self-efficacy. Another factor that contributes to
college persistence and success outcomes is college readiness (ACT Research and Policy, 2013).
Conley (2007) raised concerns about the traditional methods of assessing college readiness with
academic measures such as standardized tests. Though Schmitt et al. (2009) confirmed the
validity of ACT and SAT scores and high school GPA in predicting college success, Conley
11
(2007) proposed a four-dimensional view of college readiness that requires students to have
contextual skills and awareness, academic behaviors, and cognitive strategies in addition to
academic content knowledge. The research on predictors of success in college provides high
school counselors with important academic and noncognitive areas of focus as they work to
support first-generation students’ postsecondary preparation and planning.
Higher Education Requirements in the Workforce
The current workforce needs and economic landscape make it necessary for most
employees to have at least some postsecondary education. Since the 1980s, globalization,
automation, upskilling current workers, and the move to skilled jobs have increased the wages of
many jobs and the necessity of having a college education to be competitive (Carnevale & Rose,
2011; Carnevale et al., 2018). The majority of jobs now require at least some postsecondary
education (Carnevale et al., 2018; Symonds et al., 2011). Specifically, from 1973 to 2007, the
number of jobs that required a high school diploma or less shrank from 72% of jobs to 41% of
jobs while the percentage of jobs that required at least some college rose from 28% to 59%
(Symonds et al., 2011). The Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce
2018 report showed that while there were still 13 million good jobs available for employees with
a high school diploma, 56% of good jobs required a bachelor’s degree, and 24% of good jobs
required at least some postsecondary education (Carnevale et al., 2018).
Data from the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce 2016
report showed that the economic landscape since the recession of 2008 only intensified the need
for postsecondary education (Carnevale et al., 2016). 11.5 million of the 11.6 million jobs
recovered since the 2008 recession required education beyond high school. Industries that added
new jobs, such as healthcare, education, and financial and government services, required
12
postsecondary education while industries that were losing jobs, including manufacturing,
construction, and administrative support, are industries that have typically not required education
beyond high school. Even industries that traditionally have not required postsecondary education
are moving toward higher skilled jobs (Carnevale et al., 2016). Having a postsecondary
experience will provide better job prospects for workers. The number of jobs available for
workers with postsecondary educations exceeds the number of workers who have the required
postsecondary education (Carnevale & Rose, 2011). In 2008, 37.9% of American adults (ages
25-64) had a postsecondary credential (Lumina Foundation, 2019). By 2017, this number rose to
47.6%, but it is still short of the goal that 60% of Americans will have a postsecondary credential
by 2025. Additionally, there are still gaps for ethnic groups where 62.7% of Asian and Pacific
Islanders had a college credential, but only 23.7% of the Latinx population had a postsecondary
credential (Lumina Foundation, 2019).
Increasing the number of students enrolling in postsecondary institutions has the potential
to impact the number of employees with a college credential. Postsecondary enrollment
increased by 42% between 1998 and 2012 and is projected to increase an additional 15% from
2012-2023 for a total of 24 million students enrolled (Hussar & Bailey, 2017). The largest
projected increases are for Latinx and Black students, two of the populations with the lowest
percentage of postsecondary credentials (Hussar & Bailey, 2017). High school counselors can
contribute to an increase in college matriculation rates by encouraging and supporting students’
enrollment in institutions of higher education.
Access to Higher Education for First-Generation Students
Increasing the number of first-generation college students matriculating in postsecondary
institutions is another way to address the gap between jobs that require postsecondary education
13
and the number of workers who have postsecondary credentials. However, as Toutkoushian et al.
(2018) noted, there are multiple definitions of first-generation students. The definitions varied
based on who was considered a parent, whether both parents needed to have a college degree,
and whether parents needed to have enrolled in college or completed college. In their
quantitative study using data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002, Toutkoushian et
al. (2018) found that the percentage of students identified as “first-generation” ranged from 22%
to 77%, depending on the definition of first-generation.
TRIO, the Pell Institute, and the U.S. Department of Education each have their own
definition of a first-generation college student. Both TRIO and the Pell Institute define first-
generation students as students whose parents do not have a bachelor’s degree (Engle & Tinto,
2008; Higher Education Act of 1965, 1998 Higher Education Act Amendments Subpart 2). The
U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics has a more restrictive
definition that first-generation students are students whose parents do not have any experience at
a postsecondary institution (Redford et al., 2017). The U.S. Department of Education National
Center for Education Statistics report showed that, under this definition, Black, Latinx, and low-
income students were more likely to be first-generation college students (Redford et al., 2017).
Regardless of the parameters used to define first-generation status, high school counselors should
provide support to students who have the potential to be the first in their families to attend
college or earn a postsecondary credential.
Despite the importance of postsecondary education, one study showed that 20% fewer
students with parents who had no college education were matriculating in postsecondary
institutions when compared to their peers whose parents had bachelor’s degrees (Cataldi et al.,
2018). Toutkoushian et al. (2018) found that, no matter how parents and their education were
14
defined, first-generation students were less likely to apply to and enroll in postsecondary
education when compared to their peers who had two parents with bachelor’s degrees. Students
whose parents had less education had even lower application and enrollment rates (Toutkoushian
et al., 2018). This is consistent with data from the U.S. Department of Education National Center
for Education Statistics which showed that 72% of 2002 high school sophomores whose parents
had no experience with college were enrolled in higher education by 2012 while 93% of their
peers whose parents had a bachelor’s degree were enrolled (Cataldi et al., 2018). Students whose
parents had a bachelor’s degree were also 20% more likely to enroll within three months of their
high school graduation than their peers whose parents had no experience in college (Cataldi et
al., 2018). Meeting the educational needs of the current economy will require additional students,
and especially first-generation students, to enter postsecondary programs. While ensuring first-
generation students matriculate is important, students also need knowledge, skills, and support to
persist through the challenges they will face between matriculation and graduation. This study
explores how high school counselors are supporting first-generation students’ preparation for
these challenges through comprehensive postsecondary planning.
College Persistence and Completion as Measures of Student Success
To benefit from the increased employment opportunities and higher wages of a college
credential, students need to persist through college to complete a degree or certificate. President
Obama set a goal for the United States to regain its place as the country with the largest
percentage of college graduates (Higher Education, n.d.). Based on 2017 data, the United States
was fifth in the percentage of adults with a tertiary education behind Canada, Japan, Israel, and
Korea (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2018). The Lumina
Foundation (2019) called for 60% of adults in the United States to hold a college credential by
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2025. Complete College American (n.d.) is an organization aimed at addressing the low higher
education completion rates. Complete College American (n.d.) reported that 95% of students do
not complete associate’s degrees within two years of matriculation, and 81% of students do not
complete bachelor’s degrees within four years of matriculation. Despite a long-standing national
focus on education, too many students are not completing a college credential within 150% of
the time it should take to graduate (Shapiro et al., 2017).
College Persistence and Completion Rates for First-Generation Students and Their Non-
First-Generation Peers
Just over half of all degree-seeking students who matriculated to an institution of higher
education in the fall of 2011 had completed a credential six years later (Shapiro et al., 2017).
Rates were even lower for Black, Latinx, and first-generation students (Cataldi et al., 2018;
Shapiro et al., 2017). Black and Latinx students had the lowest six-year completion rates, at
29.2% and 38.2%, respectively, compared to overall completion rates of 56.9% (Shapiro et al.,
2017). Cataldi et al.’s (2018) study for the U.S. Department of Education National Center for
Education Statistics found that, after three years, 53% of students whose parents had no college
experience were still on a persistence track while 56% graduated or were still enrolled after six
years. National persistence and completion rates are low, with even lower rates for historically
marginalized and first-generation college students, and multiple theories of persistence and
completion attempt to understand and address this national challenge.
Theories of College Persistence and Completion
Attempting to understand the complex nature of college persistence and graduation has
required a number of evolving theories. Tinto’s (1975) theory was based on suicide research and
the importance of integration into the institution of higher education. It focused on the
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institutional factors and types of dropout. The theory posits that an individual’s commitment to
goals and the institution is impacted by the individual’s college readiness, family background,
individual attributes, and academic and social experiences at the institution. Tinto (1975) further
stated that this commitment to the institution determined how well students were integrated into
the institution, whether they made any further commitments to the institution, and whether they
dropped out or transferred. In this model, academic dismissals were typically based on
performance and extreme social integration or lack of integration, and lower socioeconomic
status. Voluntary withdrawals were typically linked to lack of social integration, low
commitment to goals and the institution, and high socioeconomic status (Tinto, 1975).
Tinto (1982) later critiqued his own work in discussing its lack of information about
transfer and specific demographic groups and the fact that some students select colleges based on
finances rather than whether the institution is a good fit for them. In this reflection on the
limitations of his previous work, Tinto (1982) also made a number of recommendations. Tinto
(1982) recommended developing advising and first-year experience programs and incorporating
campus visits into the college selection process. Many of these recommendations have now
become a standard part of college culture. Tinto (1982) also recommended focusing on
institutional quality rather than meeting the needs of students who may not want to or be
academically prepared to complete a college degree. He did make allowances for a few
underserved students (Tinto, 1982). However, this recommendation appears to underestimate the
current importance of higher education and negates the possibility of using education to address
systemic equity issues. In more recent work, Tinto (2017) extended his focus on institutions to
include student perspectives and noted that students’ motivation levels, goal completion, self-
17
efficacy, sense of belonging, and views of the curriculum and its relevance all impact student
retention.
Bean’s (1980) work compared persistence and retention in higher education to workplace
turnover. Like Tinto (1975), Bean (1980) found institutional commitment was the largest
predictor of persistence and retention. Bean’s (1980) model addressed persistence for men and
women separately. Men were more likely to drop out due to low performance or a lack of
perceived relevance of their educational experiences. Women were more likely to drop out due
to low performance and a lack of extracurricular involvement. It is important to note that this
model was based on the persistence of higher-achieving White freshmen at one institution and
may not extend to other groups of students at different institutions (Bean, 1980). The theoretical
literature highlights academic and non-academic factors related to college persistence and
completion (Bean, 1980; Tinto, 1982; Tinto, 1975). These theories can be extended by
examining specific academic predictors of success.
Predicting College Persistence and Completion
Understanding the validated predictors of academic success can guide practitioners as
they support students toward degree completion. A number of organizations identified academic
requirements for and predictors of success (Offenstein & Shulock, 2010). Milestones that are
required for success include completion of developmental coursework, gateway courses, and a
certain number of credit hours. Indicators that predict success include enrollment patterns such as
when students matriculate and take developmental or gateway courses, accumulating early
college credits, and grades and test scores (Offenstein & Shulock, 2010). A quantitative study of
registrar data for 1,738 traditional-aged students enrolled at one science and engineering
institution supported this by showing that students who declared a major and successfully
18
completed a gateway course in their major were more likely to continue at the institution
(Flanders, 2017). The study also reiterated the impact of grade point average on retention
(Flanders, 2017). In a Hidden Markow Model study using transcript data from the Beginning
Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, Witteveen and Attewell (2017) found that
transcripts could predict 74% of students’ completion status with one year of data, 79% with two
years of data, and 83% with three years of data. The study demonstrated that transcripts could
predict college graduation, at least as well as socioeconomic status and high school grade point
averages. The study also found that graduates were more likely to balance their course loads to,
for example, take fewer credits in semesters they take STEM classes and alternate between
heavy and light semesters (Witteveen & Attewell, 2017).
In a quantitative study of nearly 5,000 full time, first-time students at community colleges
in Kentucky, Davidson (2015) identified a number of leading indicators that increased students’
likelihood of completing their programs. Earning 30 college credits freshman year increased the
chances that a student would complete a degree by 289%, and completing math, English, and
summer courses had the largest impact. Low-income students and students who were
underprepared were less likely to complete their degrees or transfer. However, this was mitigated
if students met the leading indicators (Davidson, 2015). Davidson’s (2015) study included few
students from historically underserved backgrounds. An earlier quantitative study disaggregated
data for students at public four-year institutions in Kentucky and found that, while leading
indicators may have provided an overall sense of whether or not students were likely to persist
and graduate, they varied in their effectiveness for different populations. Indicators were less
effective for students who were from low-income and historically marginalized backgrounds and
for those who had not demonstrated college readiness (Davidson, 2014). Theories of
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postsecondary persistence and completion emphasize the importance of academic and social or
cultural factors, while leading indicators can help predict whether students will persist and
complete their college educations. Focusing on these proven indicators of success may
strengthen high school counselors’ effectiveness in supporting first-generation students’
postsecondary preparation and planning, the focus of this study.
College Readiness and Postsecondary Planning
The data on low persistence and graduation rates imply that completing a college degree
is not easy. Given the importance of academic momentum in the leading indicators of success,
students who are not college ready upon matriculation face even more challenges. A qualitative
study using Achieving the Dream, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, the
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, and institutional data examined how students
were assigned to and progressed through developmental education sequences at community
colleges (Bailey et al., 2010). The study found that, with no national cut scores for placement
tests, placement into developmental education classes was inconsistent. Additionally, the
majority of students assigned to a developmental education sequence did not successfully
complete the sequence. The study also outlined the cost of developmental education for students
in terms of time, money, and belief in self (Bailey et al., 2010). In contrast, a quantitative study
using Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study data on 2,780 first-year community
college students who reported they intended to transfer, Crisp and Delgado (2014) found that
taking developmental education classes did not make students more or less likely to persist and
made them less likely to transfer. The authors noted that developmental courses should provide
extra support to students, thus improving persistence rates; this was not the case (Crisp &
Delgado, 2014). Pretlow and Wathington (2012) estimated the annual monetary cost of
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developmental education in the United States to be at or over one billion dollars in 2012. The
accruing multi-billion-dollar costs of developmental education, coupled with low graduation
rates, highlight the importance of preparing high school students for postsecondary experiences
(Pretlow & Wathington, 2012; Shapiro et al., 2017).
Definitions of College Readiness and Gaps in College Readiness Rates for First-Generation
Students
The definition of college readiness has many components. However, many
determinations of college readiness used for admissions and placement are made primarily based
on academic achievement as measured by standardized test scores and high school GPA (Schmitt
et al., 2009). To fully evaluate students’ preparation for college based on multi-faceted
definitions of college readiness, both cognitive and noncognitive factors should be assessed. This
evaluation would provide a holistic view of college readiness and inform support programming
for all students, but especially students from underserved populations who typically have lower
standardized test scores (DeAngelo, 2016).
Academic Gaps in College Readiness for First-Generation Students
All populations, but especially underserved groups, experience the negative impact of
low college readiness rates. College readiness is typically defined by cognitive factors measured
by ACT, SAT, and high school GPA. Schmitt et al. (2009) confirmed the validity of these
measures in a quantitative study of over 2,000 students at 10 colleges and universities. ACT
(2018) and College Board (2018) set college readiness benchmarks for the ACT and SAT that
are meant to identify students who are 75% likely to earn a C or better in entry-level math,
English, history, or social sciences courses. However, only 10% of underserved learners, defined
as first-generation, low-income, or ethnic or racial minorities, met at least three of the four
21
college readiness benchmarks set by ACT (2018). ACT (2016) also reported that 52% of first-
generation students did not meet any college readiness benchmarks. Only 47% of all students
taking the SAT met college readiness benchmarks for both evidence-based reading and writing
and math, while only 31% of Latinx test-takers and 21% of African American test-takers met the
same benchmarks (College Board, 2018). Multiple measures of college readiness can provide a
more complete picture of students’ readiness, despite the traditional reliance on standardized
tests and high school GPA.
Additional Components of College Readiness
While many noncognitive skills are difficult to isolate and measure, research on multiple
measures demonstrated that they are valid markers of college readiness and predictors of success
(Gore, 2017; Soland, 2017). In a quantitative study of 1,300 students in Germany, Humphries
and Kosse (2017) found that the ability of noncognitive factors to predict educational outcomes
was impacted by the noncognitive factor being measured and the assessment tool that was used.
However, quantitative studies found noncognitive skills were valid in predicting success in
college (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013; Komarraju et al., 2013). Gaertner and McClarty (2015)
found noncognitive skills to be relevant even as early as middle school. A number of measures of
noncognitive skills have been developed, but they can be lengthy (Kafka, 2016). Gore’s (2017)
quantitative study of over 700 college freshmen found that a brief noncognitive skills assessment
was as valid as the longer assessment developed by ACT. Soland’s (2017) study of over 8,000
students found that data trees, including both cognitive and noncognitive factors, were helpful in
predicting persistence. Integrating cognitive and noncognitive components in a definition of
college readiness provides a more comprehensive understanding of how students are prepared for
postsecondary experiences.
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There is evidence that utilizing multiple measures to assess college readiness can be
especially impactful for the disproportional number of historically marginalized students who are
identified as not being college ready. Supporting ACT (2018) and SAT (College Board, 2018)
data, quantitative (Bailey et al., 2014; DeAngelo, 2016), and qualitative (Murillo & Schall, 2016;
Reid & Moore, 2008) studies demonstrated that Black, first-generation, and Latinx students were
less likely to be college ready and more likely to be placed in developmental education courses
than White students. Komarraju et al.’s (2013) study of college freshmen found that while
cognitive skills based on standardized tests may predict whether students are capable of
succeeding, noncognitive skills identify students who have the study skills and motivation that
make them likely to succeed. This implies that adding noncognitive factors to assess college
readiness may help mitigate the low readiness scores on standardized tests for historically
marginalized populations. This is especially important given the results of a quantitative study of
over 210,000 freshmen that showed education provided a path for social mobility only for
students who demonstrated college readiness (DeAngelo, 2016). This evidence highlights the
importance of utilizing a broader definition of college readiness, especially for underserved
populations.
Holistic College Readiness Frameworks
Holistic models of college readiness have developed to respond to the need for a more
comprehensive way to help students prepare and demonstrate readiness for postsecondary
experiences. Conley (2007) identified strategies, skills, and behaviors students need to be college
ready. Key cognitive strategies include intellectual openness, precision and accuracy, analysis,
reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving. Academic knowledge and skills include
writing, research, English, math, science, social studies, world languages, and arts content
23
knowledge. Academic behaviors were defined as study skills, metacognition, note-taking,
communication, and time-management. Contextual skills and awareness include understanding
college culture, financial aid, and how to select and apply to colleges (Conley, 2007).
The American School Counselor Association (2014) also outlined mindsets and
behaviors that students need to succeed. The mindsets include belief in self, a sense of belonging,
belief in the importance of postsecondary education and life-long learning, and a positive
attitude. The behavior standards were broken up into three categories: learning strategies, self-
management, and social skills (American School Counselor Association, 2014). Many
components of Conley’s (2007) college readiness definition are included across the categories.
Examples include critical thinking, taking rigorous courses, time management, and
communication (American School Counselor Association, 2014). Skills unique to the American
School Counselor Association (2014) include creativity, technology, delayed gratification, safety
skills, and empathy. As with other models, and consistent with postsecondary planning, goal-
setting is also a component of the American School Counselor Association (2014) model.
One resource the American School Counselor Association (2014) used in developing
their mindsets and behaviors for college and career readiness was College Board’s (2010) eight
components of college and career readiness counseling. The recommendations from College
Board (2010) included supporting students’ college aspirations, planning, exploration, and
application; academic preparation; participation in extracurricular activities; use of assessments
related to college and careers; and financial and transition planning. Again, these categories
overlap with many other holistic definitions of college and career readiness. Naviance by
Hobsons (n.d.) also developed college readiness competencies as part of the College, Career, and
Life Readiness Framework. The framework encompasses competencies across six themes for
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grades six through 12. Consistent with other models, the themes are social-emotional learning,
interpersonal skills, academic skills, career knowledge, college knowledge, and transition skills
(Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.).
Illinois’ Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act (2016, 110 ILCS 148/) mandated
that state agencies jointly draft a list of knowledge and skills students in grades eight through 12
should have related to postsecondary planning. The result of this mandate was the Postsecondary
and Career Expectations (PaCE) framework, which describes the preparation students need in
three areas: career exploration, postsecondary expectations and preparation, and financial
knowledge (State of Illinois, 2018). The State of Illinois’ (2018) PaCE framework, in many
ways, operationalizes aspects of Conley’s (2007) definition of college readiness by providing a
systematic checklist of what students should be supported to do in grades eight through 12. Each
component of the PaCE framework prepares students for postsecondary success.
Career Exploration
Students need opportunities to explore various careers so they can match their
postsecondary educations to their career goals. In a mixed methods study of 401 Latinx students,
McWhirter et al. (2014) found that students did not enroll in college because they did not believe
the career they were interested in required a degree. Similarly, in a qualitative student of 150
African American students, Holland and DeLuca (2016) found that high school graduates did not
know what type of education was required for different careers. The students, many of whom
were first-generation students, spent time in multiple postsecondary programs, but rarely
completed programs that led to careers (Holland & DeLuca, 2016). Once students have career
goals and know what type of education is required, they will be better equipped to select
appropriate postsecondary programs and institutions.
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Postsecondary Exploration and Preparation
The proportionally lower college matriculation rates for historically marginalized and
first-generation students (Cataldi et al., 2018) emphasized the importance of supporting first-
generation students in preparing for, selecting, and applying to college. In addition to finding that
students did not know which careers required degrees, McWhirter et al. (2014) also found that
participants expressed a need for culturally sensitive academic support and information about
college options, application procedures, and noncognitive skills. In a qualitative study of college
readiness programs serving mostly low-income, historically marginalized, and first-generation
students, Perna (2002) demonstrated the importance of encouraging interest in and awareness of
college, college knowledge, the college search process including visits and tours, and college
selection. In order to impact the matriculation rates of first-generation students, high school
counselors should support students during the college exploration and preparation process.
Financial Knowledge
In addition to selecting and applying to postsecondary institutions that support their
career goals, students need to have a plan to finance the rising costs of postsecondary education.
In McWhirter et al.’s (2014) study, Latinx students expressed a need for more information about
financial aid and scholarships. Poynton et al. (2015) conducted an exploratory study of over 700
high school seniors and found that financial aid support needed to be individualized for students
based on their plans for financing their postsecondary educations. They also found that first-
generation students were more likely to either have no plans for how to finance their
postsecondary education or to rely on themselves to fund their educations (Poynton et al., 2015).
Holistic definitions of college readiness incorporate many types of cognitive and noncognitive
knowledge, skills, and behaviors that together increase students’ likelihood of postsecondary
26
success. High school counselors can use information about what students need to be successful
in college to inform their support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans
The literature described above provides a plethora of ways to view college readiness. For
the purposes of this study, it is necessary to develop one definition for comprehensive
postsecondary planning that prepares students for success after high school across the multiple
dimensions of college readiness. Based on the multiple college readiness definitions and
frameworks, this study explores how high school counselors support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning across six broad dimensions. The six dimensions are
1. College aspirations, planning, exploration, application, and knowledge,
2. Career exploration and planning,
3. Academic preparation,
4. Learning strategies
5. Social-emotional learning, and
6. Financial knowledge and financial aid.
Promising College Readiness Practices for First-Generation Students
Support for first-generation students’ postsecondary planning should focus on indicators
of college readiness, persistence, and completion. Tierney (1999) noted the lack of cultural
integrity in Tinto’s model of integration, so he extended the model to address this limitation
when developing the Neighborhood Academic Initiative at the University of Southern California.
The program recognized and affirmed students’ existing capital while building other capital by
involving the students’ families and communities in the process of preparing students for
postsecondary experiences. The initiative for students in grades seven through 12 increased high
school and college graduation rates for participants (Tierney, 1999). In a qualitative study of 13
first-generation college students at a four-year institution, Reid and Moore (2008) asked
participants about cognitive and noncognitive factors that supported or detracted from their
27
college readiness. Helpful factors the students identified included academic support, English and
advanced placement (AP) classes, and participation in support programs such as Upward Bound.
Students felt they lacked preparation for the SAT/ACT, an understanding of which classes to
take in high school, how and when to apply to college and for financial aid, the cultural
differences between high school and college, and skills for studying and time management (Reid
& Moore, 2008). A number of successful college readiness programs have emerged that align
well to a holistic understanding of what is necessary to be ready for and succeed in college.
Comprehensive college readiness programs prepare students for college by addressing the
knowledge and multiple skills and behaviors that students need to succeed. Cates and Schaefle
(2011) studied Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR
UP), a long-term college readiness program for students that varies by school. In a quantitative
study of 187 mostly Latinx participants in one GEAR UP program, they found that the time
participants spent in GEAR UP advising was positively correlated with completing a college
preparatory curriculum. Advising, college visits, college guest speakers, and college resources
were the most helpful program components for students (Cates & Schaefle, 2011). Bernhardt
(2013) drafted a field report of another college readiness program, the Advancement Via
Individual Determination (AVID), at one California high school. AVID is a national college
readiness program for underserved students that includes family involvement, understanding of
educational systems and terminology, relationships with faculty, staff, and administrators, social
support, a sense of purpose, and student empowerment (Bernhardt, 2013). Comprehensive
college readiness programs such as GEAR UP and AVID are designed to prepare students for
future postsecondary experiences.
28
Another way to prepare students for postsecondary success is to provide opportunities for
high school students to take college-level coursework before they graduate from high school.
The National Alliance of Concurrent Enrollment Partnerships (n.d.) explained that dual credit or
concurrent enrollment classes allow high school students to take college classes for college
credit. In a quantitative study of students at one institution of higher education, Burns et al.
(2019) found that taking more than one concurrent enrollment class and/or more than one AP
class in high school reduced the time it took students to graduation from college.
Garcia et al. (2018) defined early college high schools as high schools that provide
opportunities for high school students to earn college credit and increase access for underserved
populations: low-income students, students of color, and first-generation students. In an
exploratory mixed methods study of two early college high schools using National Student
Clearinghouse data and six student interviews, they found that students who graduated high
school with more college credits were more likely to persist in college and earn bachelor’s
degrees (Garcia et al., 2018). Taylor (2015) conducted a quantitative study using data from the
Illinois Educational Research Council and the National Student Clearinghouse for 5,315 dual
credit students in Illinois matched to a control group of students from the same high schools. The
descriptive results showed that dual credit students were more likely to enroll in and complete
college. While Taylor (2015) found that this held true for underserved students, such as low-
income students and students of color, their enrollment and success numbers were lower than the
average for the total sample. This highlights the importance of supporting first-generation
students across all components of college readiness. High school students need support in
attaining and demonstrating a variety of knowledge, skills, and behaviors to succeed in
postsecondary settings and earn valuable credentials. High school counselors can utilize the
29
validated success indicators and comprehensive models of college readiness to ensure they are
providing the support students need throughout their postsecondary planning and preparation.
This study explores the extent to which they are doing so.
Role of High School Counselors
High school counselors have a role in preparing students for postsecondary education. In
a longitudinal study, Poynton and Lapan (2017) found that students who met with high school
counselors for college and career planning and students who began this planning early were more
likely to matriculate to and succeed in college. The American School Counselor Association
(n.d.) developed a National Model for school counseling programs to support this type of student
success. The model is grounded in data, equity, and the imperative to support all students. The
association’s recommendations include ensuring counselors hold the appropriate certifications,
licenses, and degrees and that the student-to-counselor ratios do not exceed 250 to 1. The model
encompasses how counselors define their work through student, ethical, and counselor standards
as well as counselor competencies. It also outlines how programs are managed based on their
missions and how counselors spend their time and plan programming while outlining appropriate
and inappropriate uses of counselors’ time. Finally, the model describes how counselors should
focus the majority of their time on providing direct and indirect services for students and how
they should assess and improve the effectiveness of their work (American School Counselor
Association, n.d.).
Mau et al. (2016) examined how lead high school counselors viewed their roles and how
they spent their time. Consistent with the American School Counselor Association’s (n.d.)
model, Mau et al. (2016) found that lead high school counselors believed their main goal was to
support students’ postsecondary preparation, followed by a focus on high school achievement,
30
students’ personal growth, and, finally preparing students to immediately enter the workforce
after high school. The qualitative study showed that the majority of counselors’ time was spent
on these activities; however, their time was also spent on other duties, including non-counseling
duties (Mau et al., 2016). Understanding the role of high school counselors provides context for
the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework
This study uses the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework for exploring both
organizational and stakeholder performance. The analysis begins with understanding the
organizational goals and how they relate to stakeholder goals. Once the goals are understood as
the desired performance, the analysis turns to an explanation of the influences on performance by
combining theory with a discipline-specific literature review and the researcher’s knowledge of
the organization and stakeholder influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The performance influences
are often linked to the stakeholder’s knowledge, skills, and motivation, and to organizational
barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Types of knowledge influences include factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). There
are many theories around motivation that impact active choice, persistence, and mental effort,
including attribution theory, expectancy-value theory, goal orientation theory, and self-efficacy
theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Yough & Anderman, 2006).
Cultural models and settings are organizational influences that include resources and procedures
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
High School Counselor Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This literature review explores the knowledge, skills, motivational influences, and
organizational factors relevant to high school counselors’ support of first-generation college
31
students’ postsecondary planning. The specific counselor knowledge influences that will be
explored in the first section are how to identify first-generation students, the definition of
comprehensive postsecondary plans, and how to help students set postsecondary goals. Utility
value and self-efficacy are the motivational influences that will be considered. Finally,
organizational influences, including expectations about collaboration, training, processes, and
time, will be reviewed. Chapter Three will then explain the methodology that was used to
examine these assumed influences.
Knowledge and Skills-Related Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) emphasized the importance of individuals
having the necessary knowledge and skills and knowing when and how to apply their knowledge
and skills to achieve their performance goals. To successfully accomplish their goals, high
school counselors need knowledge and skills related to first-generation college students,
comprehensive postsecondary planning, and goal-setting. Without the appropriate knowledge
and skills, high school counselors may not have the necessary tools and strategies to effectively
support 100% of first-generation students in creating postsecondary plans. If gaps in knowledge
are identified, solutions such as providing information, job aids, training, and education can be
implemented to increase the necessary knowledge and skills (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) identified four types of knowledge: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge refers to facts about a particular
subject matter. Conceptual knowledge is an extension of factual knowledge in that it involves
understanding how discrete facts are related and organized to form larger concepts. Procedural
knowledge requires individuals to know how to do something, and metacognitive knowledge
32
involves self-awareness about one’s own knowledge, skills, and learning (Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011).
High school counselors need to have each type of knowledge to effectively support first-
generation college students in creating postsecondary plans. This literature review will categorize
high school counselors’ knowledge influences by the type of knowledge they represent. It is
important to categorize knowledge influences by the type of knowledge because different
training, instructional practices, and assessments should be utilized to support the different types
of knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Identifying First-Generation Students
One type of factual knowledge high school counselors need is how to identify students
who have the potential to be in the first generation in their families to attend college. This
requires knowing the definition of a first-generation college student. There is more than one
definition of what it means to be a first-generation college student (Toutkoushian et al., 2018).
One definition is from the U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics
report which defined first-generation students as undergraduates whose parents never enrolled in
postsecondary institutions and differentiated first-generation students from undergraduates
whose parents either enrolled in postsecondary institutions or enrolled in and earned degrees
from postsecondary institutions (Cataldi et al., 2018). The report drew data from three
longitudinal studies and denoted significant gaps in postsecondary matriculation and completion
for first-generation college students when compared to their non-first-generation peers (Cataldi
et al., 2018). To begin to address the gaps in college matriculation and completion rates, a first
step in high school counselors’ abilities to support first-generation students is to be able to
identify which of their students have the potential to be first-generation college students.
33
High School Counselors’ Understanding of Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans
Conceptual knowledge requires understanding how discrete pieces of knowledge come
together to form broader ideas (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). One piece of conceptual
knowledge high school counselors need in order to support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning is how the multiple components of a holistic definition of college
readiness can be translated into comprehensive postsecondary plans for students. Before helping
students create comprehensive postsecondary plans, high school counselors need to know which
knowledge, skills, and behaviors students need to be successful in postsecondary educational
settings. The comprehensive postsecondary plans can then be built in a way that is designed to
increase students’ abilities in each relevant area.
Holistic models of college readiness identify the cognitive and noncognitive factors
students need to be college-ready and provide frameworks high school counselors can use to
support 100% of first-generation college students in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans
that include the knowledge, skills, and behaviors necessary to succeed in college (American
School Counselor Association, 2014; College Board, 2010; Conley, 2007; Naviance by Hobsons,
n.d.; Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State of Illinois, 2018).
Clark and Estes (2008) explained that job aids are lists or procedures that individuals can use to
increase performance. The PaCE framework is one example of a structure that can be used as a
job aid in that it provides a systematic checklist that high school counselors can use to support
students at every grade level (State of Illinois, 2018). Students need assistance in gaining the
cognitive and noncognitive knowledge, skills, and behaviors necessary for success at
postsecondary institutions. Students also need to know how to prepare for, explore, and apply to
postsecondary institutions (Conley, 2007; State of Illinois, 2018). McWhirter et al. (2014) and
34
Perna’s (2002) findings that participants wanted information about college options, the college
search and selection process, application procedures, and noncognitive skills reflect a need for
high school counselors to know how to support students’ academic preparation for college, but
also their knowledge about college and success strategies.
Counselors also need to know how to help students explore careers and understand what
type of postsecondary training is required for careers that interest them and how to fund that
education. McWhirter et al. (2014) and Holland and DeLuca’s (2016) research demonstrated that
many students, especially underserved students, did not know what type of postsecondary
education was necessary for their chosen career fields. Given the rising costs of higher education
and McWhirter et al.’s (2014) finding that students wanted more information about financial aid
and scholarships, students will also need to plan how they will pay for their postsecondary
educations. Poynton et al. (2015) took this research further by demonstrating the importance of
individualizing financial aid discussions based on the plans of each student. If high school
counselors know how to support students in their career exploration, explain the educational
pathways to those careers, and explain financial aid options, students will be able to plan how to
successfully transition from high school to postsecondary education to careers.
Ability to Support First-Generation Students in Goal-Setting
Comprehensive postsecondary plans are long-term goals with intermediate goals built-in
as scaffolding. The discussions in previous sections about academic preparation, future careers,
selection of postsecondary institutions, and financial planning can all be framed as goals. While
counselors need knowledge in each of these areas, they also need to know how to help first-
generation students set goals for each area. Goal-setting is typically considered a motivational
construct (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011; Yough & Anderman, 2006). However, for the
35
purposes of this study, goal-setting is a procedural knowledge influence because high school
counselors need to know how to help students set goals.
Effective long-term and intermediate goals are cascading, concrete, challenging, and
current (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, high school counselors need to ensure first-generation
students’ goals meet these criteria. Comprehensive models of and frameworks for college
readiness align well to cascading goals; students need to decide which careers interest them,
what postsecondary education will be required for their selected careers, and how to prepare for
and pay for the required postsecondary education (American School Counselor Association,
2014; College Board, 2010; Conley, 2007; Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.; Postsecondary and
Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State of Illinois, 2018).
Comprehensive models of college readiness are in themselves goals as they outline the
criteria necessary for students to attain the goal of demonstrating their preparation for college.
Additionally, a number of the frameworks address goal-setting specifically. For example, the
American School Counselor Association’s (2014) behavior standards and Naviance by Hobsons’
(n.d.) College, Career, and Life Readiness Framework require students to set goals related to
academics, careers, and social-emotional learning. The American School Counselor
Association’s (2014) expectations go farther by addressing the need for short- and long-term
goals. Many of the frameworks also mention the importance of academic, career, postsecondary,
and financial planning (College Board, 2010; Conley, 2007; Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.;
Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State of Illinois, 2018).
While these topics are not labeled as goal-setting, the inference is that students need to set goals
in these areas to attain future success.
36
While there is a plethora of general research on goal-setting, there is limited research
related to how high school counselors support first-generation students’ goal-setting. However,
one quasi-experimental study found that a five-year college readiness program for historically
marginalized students which included short- and long-term goal-setting and academic
preparation for college increased students’ positive views of college and their academic
achievement and decreased their likelihood of dropping out of high school (Radcliffe & Bos,
2011). While the study did not follow students to determine whether or not they enrolled in and
graduated from college, it did show that programs that included goal-setting as a component of
postsecondary planning increased indicators of college aspirations and readiness (Radcliffe &
Bos, 2011).
Counselors’ Ability to Self-Reflect on Their Effectiveness in Supporting First-Generation
Students
Metacognition is the self-reflective process of understanding one’s own thinking and
learning (Baker, 2006). Metacognition can be divided into two parts: metacognitive knowledge
and metacognitive control. Metacognitive knowledge refers to the types of knowledge necessary
to learn. This includes what needs to be done, how to do it, and the understanding of how one
learns. Metacognitive control builds on metacognitive knowledge to allow individuals to
determine their own strengths and weaknesses and adapt their strategies to increase success
(Baker, 2006). High school counselors need to know how to reflect on their own effectiveness in
supporting first-generation students so they are able to utilize metacognitive control to increase
their effectiveness. However, given the preliminary exploratory nature of this study,
metacognition will not be investigated. This topic will be more appropriate for future research
once the current status of high school counselors’ support of first-generation students’
37
postsecondary planning is established. Table 2 shows the knowledge influences and assessments
related to high school counselors’ goal to support 100% of first-generation students in creating
postsecondary plans.
Motivational Influences
Motivational influences often have a large impact on performance (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). Therefore, high school counselors need more than the knowledge and skills to
support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning; they also have to be motivated to do
so. Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) identified three motivated behaviors: the decision
to engage in an activity (active choice), the decision to continue with an activity despite potential
challenges (persistence), and the decision to dedicate the appropriate amount of time and energy
to the activity (mental effort). If motivational gaps are found, motivational theories can provide
Table 2
Knowledge Influences and Assessments
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
Knowledge Influence
Assessment
High school counselors need to
know how to identify “first-
generation students.”
High school counselors need to
understand holistic definitions of
college readiness.
Declarative (Factual)
Declarative
(Conceptual)
High school counselors will be
asked to define a first-generation
student (interview); document
review.
High school counselors will be
asked to discuss components of
comprehensive postsecondary
plans (interview); document
review.
High school counselors need to
know how to assist first-generation
students with goal-setting to
complete a postsecondary plan.
Procedural High school counselors will be
asked to explain their processes
for helping students set goals to
complete their postsecondary
plans (interview); document
review.
38
guidance for appropriate solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). There are many theories
around motivation that impact active choice, persistence, and mental effort, including attribution
theory, expectancy-value theory, goal orientation theory, and self-efficacy theory (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006; Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Yough & Anderman, 2006). Utility value is a
component of expectancy-value theory (Eccles, 2006). This study focuses on how utility value
and what Pajares (2006) described as self-efficacy impact high school counselors’ postsecondary
planning work with first-generation students.
Counselors’ Utility Value for Dedicating Time to Support First-Generation Students’
Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning
Expectancy value theory posits that individuals are motivated to engage in activities if
they believe they can be successful and they value the activity or outcome (Eccles, 2006). This
study focuses on one specific value: utility value. Utility value occurs when individuals value the
outcomes related to completing a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). In this
study, high school counselors need to see the value in assisting first-generation students with
postsecondary planning and believe that comprehensive postsecondary plans will help students
succeed.
The holistic models of college readiness include a plethora of cognitive and noncognitive
skills that students need to be prepared for college (American School Counselor Association,
2014; College Board, 2010; Conley, 2007; Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.; Postsecondary and
Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/; State of Illinois, 2018). Helping students
prepare and plan for their postsecondary experiences across the cognitive and noncognitive
components of college readiness will require a significant investment of high school counselors’
time. Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) noted that when there is a high cost to a task,
39
such as in terms of time, individuals need to see the value in dedicating resources to the task.
Given the cost in terms of time, high school counselors need to see the utility value in dedicating
the time to support 100% of first-generation students in creating comprehensive postsecondary
plans.
In a qualitative study of 12 high school counselors, Deslonde and Becerra (2018)
demonstrated that high school counselors believed they are important sources of postsecondary
information for students from low socio-economic backgrounds. These beliefs were supported by
Belasco’s (2013) quantitative study that found that students from low socio-economic
backgrounds who visited high school counselors were more likely to enroll in postsecondary
institutions. In a similar study, Robinson and Roksa (2016) found that students who visited high
school counselors for postsecondary planning were more likely to apply to college. The impact
of the counseling visits held true even if students also obtained information about postsecondary
options and procedures from other sources (Robinson & Roksa, 2016). Belasco (2013) and
Robinson and Roksa (2016) found larger impacts for students who visited high school counselors
in both tenth and twelfth grades. These findings reinforce the value of high school counselors
spending additional time with first-generation students on postsecondary planning despite the
cost in terms of time.
Counselors’ Self-Efficacy for Supporting First-Generation Students
With a foundation in social cognitive theory, self-efficacy theory asserts that individuals
need to believe they are able to achieve their desired outcomes and goals in order to make the
active choice to pursue them, persist through challenges, and apply the right amount of mental
effort (Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy is formed through personal experiences with
success, observing others’ experiences, feedback from others, and emotional states (Pajares,
40
2006). High school counselors need to form positive self-efficacy beliefs about their ability to
support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Previous research demonstrated that high school counselors believe they are important
sources of postsecondary information for students from low socio-economic backgrounds
(Deslonde & Becerra, 2018). In a small, qualitative, phenomenological study, Savitz-Romer
(2012) found that counselors also believed it was important that they provide postsecondary
planning for low income, first-generation, and historically marginalized students to increase their
college knowledge, aspirations, and motivation. However, Deslonde and Becerra (2018) and
Savitz-Romer (2012) found that many high school counselors did not feel they received adequate
training in their educational programs to prepare them to address equity issues related to
postsecondary enrollment and attainment. Savitz-Romer (2012) specifically found that high
school counselors felt a strong responsibility to support students in their postsecondary success,
but that this responsibility coupled with the lack of preparation led to anxiety and low self-
efficacy; high school counselors were concerned about doing the right thing for students, but
were not confident that they were able to do so.
While the previous studies focused on the lack of training counselors received to help
them achieve equitable outcomes for students, Holcomb-McCoy et al. (2008) studied the impact
of training on self-efficacy. In a study that surveyed 181 high school counselors, they found that
high school counselors who completed multicultural training had higher self-efficacy in their use
of data to make decisions and their multicultural knowledge (Holcomb-McCoy et al., 2008). If
multicultural training can increase high school counselors’ self-efficacy in equity work, it is
important that high school counselors receive this training. However, as Deslonde and Becerra
41
(2018) and Savitz-Romer (2012) reported, many high school counselors did not feel they
received adequate training to address the postsecondary equity gaps.
In a quantitative study of 2,047 school counselors at all grade levels using the School
Counselor Self-Efficacy for Enhancing Student Career and College Readiness Scale, Parikh-
Foxx et al. (2020) found significant differences in counselor self-efficacy across a number of
variables. Males, Black and multiethnic counselors, counselors with 1000 or more students, high
school counselors, counselors who received training to provide college and career readiness
support, and those who did not expect to experience challenges reported the highest levels of
self-efficacy (Parikh-Foxx et al., 2020). Given the varied findings on the levels of high school
counselors’ self-efficacy, the construct will be important to explore in this study. The motivation
influences and assessments related to high school counselors’ goal to support students in creating
postsecondary plans are outlined in Table 3.
Organizational Influences
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessments
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Utility Value: High school counselors need to see
the value in helping first-generation students
create comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Counselors will be asked to discuss the
importance of helping first-generation
students create comprehensive postsecondary
plans (survey) and will be asked about the
importance of differentiating support for
first-generation students (survey, interview).
Self-Efficacy: High school counselors need to feel
confident in their ability to help first-generation
students create comprehensive postsecondary
plans.
Counselors will be asked about confidence in
their abilities to help first-generation students
create comprehensive postsecondary plans
(survey).
42
Clark and Estes (2008) noted that performance is also impacted by organizational
influences such as culture, processes, and resources. While culture can be difficult to define,
Schein (2017) explained that nations, professions, and organizations all have cultures and may
even have subcultures. Culture is comprised of numerous components, including surface level
habits and behaviors that can be observed and deeper values, norms, shared meaning, and mental
models (Schein, 2017). High schools need to have supportive cultures and provide resources,
training, and procedures that enable high school counselors to successfully support 100% of first-
generation students in creating postsecondary plans.
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) identified two concepts related to culture: cultural
models and cultural settings. The cultural models that Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
described are similar to the deeper levels of Schein’s (2017) definition of culture. They are the
common mental models and understanding of how the world works that are held and shared by
individual members of the culture (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011). Examples of cultural models
include cultures of competition, resistance, and pessimism (Hirabayashi, n.d.). Cultural settings
are the more visible manifestations of cultural models where multiple individuals come together
to accomplish something (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings align with Schein’s
(2017) description of habits and observable behaviors. Incentives, resources, rules, and feedback
are examples of cultural settings (Hirabayashi, n.d.). It is necessary to identify assumed
organizational influences, such as cultural models and settings, so they can be assessed and
recommendations can be made to address any gaps that are found. For high school counselors to
effectively assist first-generation college students in creating comprehensive postsecondary
plans, their high schools’ cultures need both cultural models and settings that support their work.
The cultural model explored is the influence of a collaborative culture on high school counselors’
43
work with first-generation students. Four cultural settings influences, effective training, the time
to devote to postsecondary planning, optimal student-to-counselor ratios, and clear and
comprehensive postsecondary planning processes, are also reviewed.
Collaborative Climate
One cultural model that may support high school counselors’ ability to effectively
support students’ postsecondary planning is a collaborative climate. Holistic models of college
readiness require students to gain knowledge, skills, and experience with a variety of topics
ranging from financial planning to college culture, career exploration, and academic preparation
for college (American School Counselor Association, 2014; College Board, 2010; Conley, 2007;
Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.; Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness Act, 2016, 110 ILCS 148/;
State of Illinois, 2018). Collaboration with experts in each of these areas and with students’
families may strengthen high school counselors’ abilities to support students as they plan and
prepare for college.
The importance of a collaborative climate is documented in the literature. Bryan and
Henry (2012) stressed the importance of a collaborative climate when they proposed a model for
building three types of partnerships: those between the school and families, between the school
and community groups, and on collaborative teams within the school. In a quantitative study of
217 high school counselors using a modified version of the Counselor Involvement in
Partnerships survey, Bryan and Griffen (2010) found that collaborative high school climates
increased counselors’ involvement both on collaborative teams within the school and in
partnerships with families. Williams and Agahe Portman’s (2014) focus group interviews with
five high achieving African-American college students also supported the need for collaborative
partnerships. When the students were asked what they needed in high school to prepare for
44
college, four of the six themes that emerged reflected the need for collaboration. Students
expressed a need for collaboration between families, schools, and communities to support their
educational outcomes; support from parents; knowledge about and access to school, family, and
community resources; and comprehensive support from community-family-school partnerships
(Williams & Agahe Portman, 2014).
The positive impact of specific collaborative partnerships was demonstrated across
multiple studies (Arriero & Griffin, 2019; Griffen, 2019; Yavuz, 2016). One action-inquiry case
study explored a newly implemented coffee hour for parents to meet with counselors and other
school representatives (Griffen, 2019). The program increased collaborative problem-solving and
parents’ involvement in and comfort level at the school. It also improved high school staff
members’ opinions of parents and counselors (Griffen, 2019). Collaboration between school
professionals and families may increase if staff have more positive views of counselors and
parents. In a quantitative study of 305 students, Yavuz (2016) found that a comprehensive
College Readiness, Access, and Success Program developed collaboratively at one high school
increased students’ likelihood of enrolling in college. The study used data from state and national
databases and alumni surveys and stressed the importance of partnerships between school
leaders, counselors, families, and community members to provide comprehensive support to all
students (Yavuz, 2016). Another program used community asset mapping to list and incorporate
community resources in a college and career readiness program for students and parents (Arriero
& Griffin, 2019). An informal evaluation of the program showed that the program increased
student attendance, postsecondary plans, and self-efficacy (Arriero & Griffin, 2019).
Collaborative partnerships can support high school counselors’ work with first-generation
students.
45
Effective Education and Training for Supporting Students’ Postsecondary Planning
Effective education and training can increase performance by addressing both knowledge
and motivation gaps. Education provides conceptual knowledge while training conveys concrete
procedural knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008). Training and education can provide mastery and
vicarious experiences as well as verbal and social persuasions. Each of these components
increase self-efficacy and the likelihood that individuals will actively pursue goals, persist
through challenges, and apply the appropriate effort to reach their goals (Pajares, 2006).
Therefore, effective training and education can enhance counselors’ knowledge about and self-
efficacy for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Students initially gain necessary professional knowledge by earning a master’s degree,
completing an internship or practicum, and passing state tests (Illinois State Board of Education,
n.d.). Once school counselors are working in the field, they are required to obtain additional
hours of professional development to maintain their licenses (Illinois State Board of Education,
2019). The Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(n.d.), or CACREP, accredits counselor preparation programs. The general CACREP standards
cover everything from the learning environment to evaluation (Council for the Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Programs, 2016). The standards also outline specialty areas, one of
which is school counseling (Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Programs,
2016). The school counseling section alone contains 34 standards including many of the
components of comprehensive postsecondary plans: college knowledge, career preparation,
social emotional learning, and academic support (Council for the Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Programs, 2016a).
46
Despite accrediting standards, the studies discussed previously related to self-efficacy
demonstrated that counselors did not feel their counselor preparation programs adequately
prepared them in at least one key area: addressing equity gaps (Deslonde & Becerra, 2018;
Savitz-Romer, 2012). Another survey of counselors’ perceptions of their counselor preparation
programs supported the fact that counselors did not feel their programs provided adequate
training (Brown et al., 2016). Fewer than half the counselors agreed or strongly agreed that their
counselor preparation programs prepared them in four key areas related to postsecondary
planning: college aspirations, academic preparation, extracurricular activities, and college and
career planning (Brown et al., 2016). A different study of 26 members of the New York State
School Counselor Association found that the 13 high school counseling participants reported
being prepared to deliver services related to guidance and individual planning (Trolley, 2011).
The only area in Trolley’s (2011) study where the high school counselors did not feel highly
prepared was in providing responsive services for mental health needs. When isolating training
related to college and career counseling in a quantitative study of over 2,000 school counselors,
Parikh-Foxx et al. (2020) found a significant positive relationship between the level of training
counselors received and their self-efficacy for supporting students’ preparation for college and
careers.
The data demonstrates the importance of training generally and as it relates to knowledge
and self-efficacy specifically. However, in Parikh-Foxx et al.’s (2020) study, 34% of the
counselors surveyed indicated that they received inadequate training while only 20% of the
counselors indicated they received a high level of training. Additionally, Clinedinst et al. (2015)
found that only 32% of public high schools required counselors to obtain professional
development that focused on postsecondary counseling. Even when high schools required
47
training, only 33% of high schools paid for the full cost of participation in the trainings
(Clinedinst et al., 2015). This study explores how high school counselors in Curlew County
perceived their education and training related to supporting first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Time Available to Focus on Postsecondary Planning with First-Generation Students
Counselors need to devote a significant amount of time to implement college readiness
programs aligned with the comprehensive lists of knowledge, experience, and skills students
need to prepare for postsecondary experiences. Collaborative partnerships to support college
readiness, such as the one Griffen (2019) described, also take time. Goodman-Scott et al. (2018)
identified two-time barriers to high school counselors’ abilities to carry out their responsibilities:
high student-to-counselor ratios and the time counselors spent on non-counseling duties. For
counselors to be successful, high schools may need to put policies and procedures in place that
protect time for high school counselors to work with first-generation students on their
postsecondary plans.
The National School Counselors Association (n.d.) identified a number of high school
counselor responsibilities, including academic and noncognitive support for students. Some
counselors may be asked to perform duties, such as lunch or bus duty, testing, and scheduling,
that do not align with and take time away from their counseling duties (Bardhoshi et al., 2014;
National School Counselors Association, n.d.). These duties negatively impacted counselors by
contributing to burnout and reducing efficacy (Bardhoshi et al., 2014). Students are positively
impacted by the amount of time counselors spend performing counseling duties instead of on
non-counseling responsibilities. Engberg and Gilbert’s (2014) quantitative study using the High
School Longitudinal Study of 2009 found that the time counselors spent on one counseling duty,
48
college readiness activities, increased students’ college matriculation rates at four-year
postsecondary institutions. Goodman-Scott et al.’s (2018) study showed that students were more
likely to take postsecondary coursework at schools where counselors spent less time on non-
counseling duties. Bryan and Griffin (2010) recommended reducing the amount of time that
counselors spend on non-counseling duties based on their finding that counselors who had time
to devote to partnerships were more likely to be involved in partnerships generally and with
community groups.
Optimal Student- to-Counselor Ratios
Student-to-counselor ratios are a topic related to the time counselors have to spend with
students that receives significant attention in the literature. The National School Counselors
Association (n.d.) recommends a student-to-counselor ratio of 250:1. Based on a quantitative
study of a comprehensive college readiness program, Yavuz (2016) recommended an even lower
ratio, 160:1, at urban high schools. This would increase the time counselors have to spend with
typically underserved students (Yavuz, 2016). However, a quantitative look at national data
showed that only 17.8% of schools met the American School Counselors Association’s
recommendation, with the worst ratios at schools with high proportions of underserved students:
students from disadvantaged races, students living in poverty, and students from rural areas
(Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016).
Student outcomes are positively impacted by a lower student-to-counselor ratio. In a
quantitative study of 5,840 students using the 2009 High School Longitudinal Survey, Goodman-
Scott et al. (2018) found that lower ratios significantly impacted students’ graduation rates and
grade point averages. Another quantitative study using data on 481 schools from Missouri’s
Department of Education also showed that lower student-to-counselor ratios increased
49
attendance and graduation rates (Lapan et al., 2012). In addition, the study showed that students
at high schools with lower ratios had fewer reports of discipline and better attendance. However,
the study did not show a relationship between ratios and ACT scores (Lapan et al., 2012).
Reducing counselor ratios and the time counselors spend on non-counseling duties can increase
the time they have to support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Clear and Comprehensive Procedures for Postsecondary Planning with First-Generation
Students
A set of clear and comprehensive procedures that outline the postsecondary planning
process is a third cultural setting that may support high school counselors’ abilities to help first-
generation students in creating postsecondary plans. Clark and Estes (2008) discussed the
importance of clear procedures that support performance and align with organizational goals and
culture. Therefore, procedures need to align with college readiness goals and a collaborative
culture that provides the time and resources for high school counselors to build partnerships and
relationships that support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Postsecondary planning processes may be a helpful job resource for high school
counselors. Bakker and Demerouti (2007) explained that job resources could help employees
accomplish their goals and mediate the potentially negative impact of job demands on
employees. While Bakker and Demerouti (2007) did not specifically list procedures as a job
resource, procedures fit the definition provided in that they can help counselors meet their goals,
reduce the costs of job demands, and encourage personal growth.
High schools and counselors can utilize existing college readiness models and programs
to guide their creation and implementation of postsecondary planning procedures. Conley
(2007)’s holistic definition of college readiness provides an overview of the knowledge, skills,
50
and experiences students need to be college-ready. The State of Illinois’ (2018) PaCE
framework, the American School Counselor Association’s (2014) National Model, and Naviance
by Hobsons’ (n.d.) College, Career, and Life Readiness framework, and College Board’s (2010)
eight components of college and career readiness counseling operationalized college readiness
by providing structures that high schools may use to support students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. While each of these models may need to be refined to meet the unique
needs of individual high schools, they could act as a starting point for building procedures if
none currently exist. Together, a collaborative culture, access to effective training, time, optimal
student-to-counselor ratios, and clear, comprehensive procedures are organizational influences
that may impact high school counselors’ abilities to support first-generation students in creating
postsecondary plans. A brief overview of the assumed organizational influences is presented in
Table 4.
51
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments
Organizational Influence
Organizational
Influence Type
Organizational Influence
Assessment
The organization needs a culture
of collaboration that encourages
high school counselors to work
with internal and external
stakeholders to support first-
generation students’ postsecondary
planning.
Cultural Model
High school counselors will be
asked about how they
collaborate with internal and
external stakeholders (survey
and interview questions);
document review.
High school counselors need to
have access to appropriate
education and training for how to
support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning.
Cultural Setting High school counselors will be
asked about formal and informal
training they received through
their high schools and through
their counseling preparation
programs (survey and interview
questions).
The organization needs to ensure
high school counselors have
sufficient time to provide first-
generation students with
comprehensive postsecondary
planning support.
Cultural Setting
High school counselors will be
asked about how much time they
have available to support
students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning (survey
and interview questions).
The organization needs to ensure
optimal student-to-counselor
ratios.
Cultural Setting
High school counselors will be
asked about their student-to-
counselor ratios (survey
question); document review.
The organization needs to ensure
high school counselors have clear
procedures in place to support
first-generation students’
postsecondary planning.
Cultural Setting High school counselors will be
asked about formal or informal
procedures high schools have for
counselors to use as they support
students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning (survey
and interview questions);
document review.
52
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of High School Counselors’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework provides a structure that guides the questions and design of a
study and develops connections between concepts (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The conceptual framework is informed by the existing body of literature related to the topic, the
purpose of the study, and the prior knowledge and underlying assumptions the researcher has
about the topic (Maxwell, 2013). The framework lets the reader know how themes in the
research are connected and provides a context for interpreting results and making
recommendations (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
While the potential knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were presented
separately above, it is their relationship to each other that impacts high school counselors’ ability
to support 100% of first-generation students in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Therefore, this section will provide a conceptual framework that outlines the way the assumed
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences are related. As Figure 1 illustrates, the
high school counselors’ assumed knowledge and motivation influences exist within the larger
national and organizational context and together impact the ability of high school counselors to
meet their goals.
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Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for High School Counselors’ Support of First-Generation Students’
Postsecondary Planning
The researcher comes from a transformational worldview and a social capital perspective.
Researchers with transformational worldviews view their research as a means for advocating for
marginalized populations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This study is meant to determine how
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first-generation students, many of whom come from underserved populations, are being served
and to provide recommendations to improve services, if necessary. Social capital theory aligns
well with the transformational worldview. It is a way of explaining how relationships and social
contexts impact individuals and contribute to the common good (Coleman, 1988). Social capital
is built on expectations, trust, sharing information, and understanding norms, and it can be
developed within and outside of family structures. Coleman (1988) found that social capital
increased one measure of high school success: staying in school. A transformational worldview
and social capital theory are represented in the background of Figure 1, as they are the lens
through which the researcher views the national and organizational contexts and the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences.
College readiness, persistence, and completion rates in the United States are low,
especially for first-generation students (ACT, 2016; ACT, 2018; College Board, 2018; Shapiro et
al., 2017; Cataldi et al., 2018). This problem has led to a national focus on college readiness,
persistence, and completion (Complete College America, n.d.; Higher Education, n.d.; Lumina
Foundation, 2019; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2018). These
concepts, along with comprehensive postsecondary planning, which prepares students for
success, are represented by the large outside rectangle in Figure 1. The arrows connecting
concepts along the outside of Figure 1 show that college readiness is one of the intended
outcomes of and should inform comprehensive postsecondary planning for high school students.
College readiness is a predictor of college persistence, which is a prerequisite for college
completion (Davidson, 2015). The arrows connecting the remaining outer concepts demonstrate
these relationships.
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The problem of practice for this study emerged from these national issues, and Curlew
Coalition was formed to bring educational partners across Curlew County together in an attempt
to increase college readiness rates. Curlew Coalition is represented by the large white rectangle
nested within the national context in Figure 1. Multiple school districts participate in Curlew
Coalition. The two districts that participated in this study are represented by medium dark gray
rectangles within the Coalition.
Organizational influences impact individuals’ performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Assumed organizational influences can relate to culture, resources, and processes (Clark & Estes,
2008). In this study, each school district’s culture around collaboration and the time, student-to-
counselor ratios, and procedures provided to high school counselors are assumed to set the stage
for how high school counselors can support first-generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. The culture of collaboration is especially relevant to social capital
theory as counselors build internal and external relationships both for themselves and for their
students. The assumed organizational influences are represented in the medium rectangles for the
school districts.
While organizational influences are important, Clark and Estes (2008) also noted the role
individuals’ knowledge and skills play in performance. When operating in an organization with a
collaborative culture and with the appropriate resources, high school counselors also need
knowledge and skills related to supporting first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
The specific knowledge and skills that were explored during this study are high school
counselors’ abilities to identify first-generation students, understanding of comprehensive
postsecondary planning, and knowledge of how to assist first-generation students with goal-
setting. Given the breadth and depth of knowledge, skills, and experiences students need to be
56
college-ready, a collaborative culture can increase counselors’ access to others who can support
students on their paths to college. Clear and comprehensive procedures can help counselors
identify first-generation students and help them with goal-setting. In Figure 1, high school
counselors are represented by the small light gray rectangles within the high schools, and their
assumed influences are included.
Motivation is another component that influences individuals’ abilities to meet goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). If high school counselors are working in organizations that
support their work through culture and resources and they have the appropriate knowledge and
skills, they also need to believe in the value of supporting first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning and believe in their abilities to be effective in this work.
Through culture and resources, high schools may communicate the value of assisting students
with postsecondary planning. Having the knowledge and necessary organizational support may
also increase counselors’ self-efficacy. The motivation influences are included with the
knowledge influences in the light gray rectangles.
It is the combination of the national educational context, collaborative partnership
through Curlew Coalition, school districts’ cultures and resources, and counselors’ knowledge,
skills, and motivation that collectively impact high school counselors’ abilities to meet their
goals. In Figure 1, the arrow leading to the high school counselors’ goal of supporting 100% of
first-generation students in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans demonstrates this
relationship and completes the conceptual framework. This conceptual framework informs the
study methodology that is described in Chapter Three.
Conclusion
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The purpose of this study is to explore high school counselors’ capacity to support first-
generation students’ postsecondary planning in an effort to meet Curlew Coalition’s goal of
closing the college readiness gaps for first-generation students. The literature review in Chapter
Two was meant to situate the study in the national context around the problems of low college
readiness, persistence, and completion rates despite the importance of earning a college
credential. Research related to the importance of a college credential, college completion,
persistence, and readiness was presented in the first part of the chapter. The chapter continued
with an overview of Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework for identifying and evaluating
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance. Once the framework was
established, the assumed influences on high school counselors’ abilities to support first-
generation students in creating postsecondary plans were presented. The chapter concluded with
the conceptual framework for the study, which ties together the review of the general literature
and the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The methodological
approach that is presented in Chapter Three builds on the conceptual framework.
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Chapter Three: Methods
This study explores the factors that influence high school counselors’ capacity to support
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning in an effort to close college readiness,
matriculation, persistence, and completion gaps for first-generation students. This chapter
presents the research design and methods for data collection and analysis that is used to answer
the following three research questions:
1. What are high school counselors’ knowledge and motivation related to creating
comprehensive postsecondary plans with first-generation students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and high school
counselors’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
The chapter begins with an overview of the sampling criteria, rationale, and strategies for the
quantitative and qualitative portions of the study. It continues with the data collection,
instrumentation, and analysis, followed by sections related to the study’s credibility and
trustworthiness and validity and reliability. The chapter concludes with comments on the ethical
considerations related to the study.
Participating High School Counselors
While many stakeholders across Curlew County contribute to the college readiness rates
of first-generation students, this study focuses on the impact high school counselors have through
their support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. The study focuses on two
school districts in Curlew County.
School District Selection Criteria and Rationale
The following criteria were used to select two school districts with similar student
populations at each of their high schools.
Criterion 1
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School districts where at least 50% of high school students receive free or reduced lunch.
Criterion 2
School districts where at least 50% of high school students are from historically
marginalized groups.
These criteria were chosen based on the U.S. Department of Education National Center
for Education Statistics data that showed Black, Hispanic, and low-income students were more
likely to be first-generation college students (Redford et al., 2017). The criteria for selecting
participants for the quantitative and qualitative portions of the study are explained below.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The criteria below were used to select counselors from the target school districts.
Criterion 1
High school counselors in one of the school districts selected through cluster sampling.
All high school counselors in the identified districts were invited to participate.
Criterion 2
High school counselors who work directly with high school students. Counselors in
leadership roles might not work directly with high school students. High school counselors who
work directly with students are better able to describe how they support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning.
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale
The quantitative portion of this study used a mix of purposive and single-stage cluster
sampling. While the strongest and most common type of sampling for surveys is the simple
random sample, there are other types of quantitative sampling that may be used for convenience
or because they better align with the purpose of the study and the research questions (Johnson &
60
Christensen, 2015). Purposive sampling is when specific criteria are used to select samples
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Cluster sampling is when whole units, such as school districts,
are randomly selected instead of individual participants (Fink, 2013; Johnson & Christensen,
2015). Cluster sampling is usually used to reduce the time, travel, or resources required to
randomly sample the entire population (Fink, 2013; Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Single-stage
cluster sampling is a type of cluster sampling where the entire stakeholder group from an
identified unit is selected to receive the survey (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Sampling took place prior to the data collection for the quantitative portion of the study.
Cluster sampling was used to select individual school districts within Curlew County to
participate in the study. Following a typical cluster sampling protocol would require randomly
selecting the districts to participate in the study. However, this study used a purposeful selection
to determine which districts would be included. While there is not always diversity within
districts in Curlew County, the economic and racial differences between districts in Curlew
County vary greatly. To ensure the participating school districts had similar student
demographics, the criteria listed above were used to select the school districts. Consistent with
single-stage cluster sampling, all high school counselors who work directly with students within
the selected districts were invited to participate in the survey. High schools in Curlew County
typically do not have many counselors, so all high school counselors in the targeted school
districts were invited to participate in an attempt to increase the number of participants. The goal
was to have ten to 20 counselors complete the survey.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The following criteria were used to select counselors for the interviews.
Criterion 1
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High school counselors who met the criteria for and completed the survey.
Criterion 2
High school counselors who worked with eleventh and twelfth-grade students were given
preference as they may know more about the scope of support students receive throughout their
time in high school.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
One sampling technique for mixed methods research is identical sequential sampling.
Identical sequential sampling is when the same samples are used for the quantitative and
qualitative portions of the study, but the data are collected at different times (Johnson &
Christensen, 2015). Typically, qualitative research, such as interviews, involves non-probability
purposive samples instead of the random samples employed in quantitative research (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). However, because purposive sampling was utilized
during the quantitative sample selection, the participants were also relevant to the qualitative
portion of the study.
The sample was selected originally during the quantitative portion of the study. While the
ideal number of participants for the quantitative portion of the study was ten to 20, the goal for
the qualitative portion of the study was to conduct six to eight individual interviews. Identical
sequential sampling was used because it was assumed that not all participants who completed the
survey would wish to continue to the interview phase of the study. Preference was given to high
school counselors who worked with eleventh and twelfth-grade students. The goal of focusing on
counselors who worked with eleventh and twelfth-grade students was to understand the full
scope of services students receive through twelfth grade. Not enough eleventh and twelfth-grade
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counselors volunteered to participate in the interviews, so participants were expanded to include
ninth and tenth-grade counselors as well in order to reach a sample of six interviewees.
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Surveys are a tool that can be used to collect quantitative information (Robinson & Firth
Leonard, 2019). In the quantitative portion of this study, high school counselors took a survey
related to their support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. The survey helped
the researcher answer the first two research questions about high school counselors’ knowledge
and motivation as well as organizational influences at the high schools. The survey focused on
motivation and organizational influences. The interviews probed more deeply into the knowledge
influences and elaborated on the motivation and organizational influences from the survey.
Survey
Survey Instrument
The survey consisted of 19 questions (Appendix A) that explored motivation and
organizational influences on high school counselors’ support of first-generation students’
postsecondary planning. The knowledge influences were better suited for interviews where
counselors could provide further explanation and the researcher could ask follow-up questions.
Surveys can include different types of items, including open-ended questions, where participants
provide the responses, or closed-ended questions where the researcher provides response options
for participants to select (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). The survey for this study included
five opportunities for counselors to write in answers, but the survey consisted primarily of
closed-ended questions. The survey allowed the researcher to obtain a baseline understanding of
high school counselors’ support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning before
moving into the interview phase of the study.
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Survey Procedures
Explanatory sequential mixed methods research begins with quantitative data collection
and analysis before conducting the qualitative portion of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Consistent with explanatory sequential mixed methods design, the survey for this study was
administered, and the results were analyzed, before the interviews. Survey tools can be created
online or on paper and can be administered online, by mail, by phone, or in-person (Robinson &
Firth Leonard, 2019). The survey for this study used Qualtrics, an online tool, to capitalize on the
strengths of online surveys that Robinson and Firth Leonard (2019) describe: efficiency and cost-
savings. The researcher preferred to introduce the online surveys in-person to increase
participation. Therefore, the researcher requested time during counselors’ meetings at each high
school to conduct the survey. The researcher was invited in to counselor meetings at all the high
schools. However, only one of the visits took place before high schools transitioned to e-learning
in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and related state-mandated shutdowns. At the
one meeting the researcher was able to attend, she made it clear that counselors were being
asked, but not required to participate. At the meeting, the researcher distributed hard copies of
the surveys with information for how to access the online version of the survey.
For the high schools where the researcher was not able to attend counseling meetings
after schools closed their campuses in March 2020, the researcher distributed the online surveys
via email to the high school counselors listed on the high schools’ webpages. The email included
an updated information sheet as well as information in the text of the email stressing the
voluntary nature of participation in the study. For both the high school where the researcher was
able to attend a counseling meeting and the high schools where the surveys were distributed only
64
via email, the researcher followed up about two weeks after the initial survey distribution in an
effort to increase participation.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews and document analysis were the qualitative tools that were used in this study.
Interviews are often used to understand participants’ perspectives and those things that cannot be
observed (Patton, 2002). In addition to the survey, this study used interviews to gain insight into
how high school counselors’ knowledge and motivation combined with organizational factors
influenced their ability to support first-generation students in creating comprehensive
postsecondary plans. While some of these influences were analyzed initially through the
quantitative survey, the interviews provided greater depth and understanding of the counselors’
perspectives on each influence. The interviews also provided an opportunity for high school
counselors to share their suggestions related to the third research question that seeks to identify
recommendations for addressing any identified gaps in counselors’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support. This study also utilized document analysis to review high school
counseling departments’ websites and procedure manuals or documents related to first-
generation students and postsecondary planning. The document analysis provided some insight
into high school counselors’ knowledge influences related to first-generation students,
postsecondary planning, and goal-setting and organizational influences such as collaborative
cultures and clear procedures.
Interviews
Interview Protocol
This study used a semi-structured interview format with an interview guide containing 16
open-ended questions (Appendix B). Semi-structured interviews allow some flexibility in
65
exploring different topics but also ensure consistency across interviews (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Patton, 2002). The interview questions for this study were open-ended and explored all of
this study’s assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact high
school counselors in their work with first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. After
analyzing the survey data, it became clear that the interview could focus less on a collaborative
culture. However, because training, time, and procedures began to emerge as gaps during the
survey, additional time was spent on the related questions during the interviews. Some questions
were also de-emphasized during individual interviews based on the participants’ responses. The
counselors provided such rich, descriptive data and the topics related to postsecondary planning,
goal-setting, and procedures are so interconnected that many counselors covered content from
multiple questions in one response.
Interview Procedures
As is the case with explanatory sequential mixed methods research, the interviews took
place after the survey data was analyzed. The interview protocol included possible follow up
questions and prompts. After survey analysis, it become clear that some of the follow-up
questions needed to be emphasized while others were not necessary. Document analysis took
place concurrently with the interviews as documents were made available for review. Weiss
(1994) recommended that researchers conduct at least two 60-to 90-minute interviews with each
participant. However, the researcher conducted one 45-75-minute interview with each
participant. This time allocation was to be respectful of the fact that data collection occurred
during a busy time of year for high school counselors as they were be in the middle of course
registration and preparing for standardized testing and graduation, in addition to dealing with the
unexpected challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic and related shutdowns. However, the
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researcher received permission from each counselor to follow up, if needed. The total time
allocated for interviews was six to eight hours with additional time expected for follow up.
The interviews were formal and were originally scheduled to take place at the high
schools. However, due to the mandated shutdowns in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the
interviews were conducted over Zoom and the telephone. Patton (2002) recommended audio
recording interviews while taking notes to capture initial thoughts and analysis and to use in case
the recording fails. With permission from the participants, the interviewer recorded the
interviews while taking brief notes. The recordings through Zoom included both audio and video
recordings while the telephone interview and one Zoom interview, based on a counselor request,
were audio recorded using the researcher’s telephone and tablet. The interviewer used the
embedded transcriptions in the recordings to obtain transcripts of the interviews.
Document Analysis
Document analysis is often used to triangulate findings and can include a review of
public records, personal documents, visual documents, and documents related to popular culture
(Bowen, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). All these types of documents can provide additional
data about the research questions or support data obtained through other methods (Bowen, 2009;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study focused on public records. The researcher reviewed high
school counseling departments’ web pages and requested copies of any documents related to
first-generation students and postsecondary planning during the qualitative interviews. The
researcher specifically requested copies of policies and procedures and handouts or letters to
students or families. The number of documents the researcher was able to attain was limited
given all the requests for documents were made after the COVID-19 shutdowns. Many
counselors reported that they only had hard copies of documents, and that the hard copies were
67
in their offices which were inaccessible at the time of the study. The document review protocol
(Appendix C) includes the guidelines used to study the documents to gain insight into the
knowledge and organizational influences that impact high school counselors’ abilities to support
first-generation students.
Data Analysis
The survey data was analyzed after the survey closed and before the qualitative phase
began. Descriptive statistics, such as mean, median, and mode, are commonly used when
analyzing the results of surveys (Salkind, 2017). However, because the majority of the survey for
this study included ordinal items and there were fewer than 25 participants, percentage, mode,
and frequency were used to analyze most of the results. After the results of the survey were
analyzed, the interview protocol was reviewed and slightly adapted as discussed above.
Data analysis for the interviews and document analysis began during the qualitative phase
of the study and continued after the interviews and document collection ended. Analyzing
qualitative data typically involves coding the data and identifying themes that help answer the
research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Transcripts of the interviews and hard copies of
the documents were used to code the data. The transcripts were uploaded to NVivo to assist with
the coding process. The coding and categorization for this study were linked to the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to how high school counselors support first-
generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Validity and Reliability
Quantitative studies that are valid and reliable measure what they intend to measure and
do so consistently (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). One way the researcher increased the
validity and reliability of the survey was by basing it on the conceptual framework that was
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developed after a comprehensive review of the literature related to postsecondary success and
planning. Additionally, some of the survey items related to motivation were adapted from two
existing surveys: Pintrich et al.’s (1991) Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire and
Midgley et al. (2000)’s Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales. There are a number of other
strategies researchers can use to maximize the validity and reliability of their studies, including
pre-testing survey questions, using tools to assess the quality of the survey, having experts
review the survey before administering it to participants, cognitive interviewing, and strategic
sampling (Pazzaglia et al., 2016; Pazzaglia et al., 2016a; Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019).
While a full pilot of the survey questions was not feasible for this study, the researcher used two
informal methods to maximize the survey’s validity and reliability; expert feedback and
sampling strategies. The researcher asked peers and her professors to review the survey questions
to check for clarity, provide feedback, and recommend changes. When content experts and peers
review survey questions, they are able to alert researchers to issues related to the vocabulary or
hidden assumptions or biases that come through in the questions (Robinson & Firth Leonard,
2019).
Researchers must ensure their sampling strategies are appropriate for their study
(Pazzaglia et al., 2016). To increase confidence in the results, the researcher used single-stage
cluster sampling to include as many high school counselors as possible. Single-stage cluster
sampling invites everyone from the identified schools in the sample to participate in the study
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015). The researcher requested to administer the survey in person at
counselor meetings in an effort to increase participation and decrease non-response bias. At the
one high school where the researcher was able to attend a meeting in person before the COVID-
19 shutdowns, the researcher left hard copies of the survey with self-addressed, pre-stamped
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envelopes and the directions for accessing the online version for counselors who were not able to
attend the meeting. A reminder was sent by email two weeks after the in-person administration to
ask, though not require, counselors who had not yet participated in the survey to do so. For the
high schools were survey distribution only occurred over email, multiple reminders were sent
two and a half to four weeks after the initial email was sent.
There is a risk of nonresponse bias when individuals in the sample who do not complete
the survey are different from individuals who do complete the survey (Pazzaglia et al., 2016a). In
this study, it was especially important to increase participation because one of the organizational
influences explored is whether or not high school counselors have sufficient time to support first-
generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. If high school counselors had
limited time to devote to their job responsibilities, they likely had even less time to complete a
voluntary survey. To mitigate the influence of nonresponse bias, the researcher attempted to
administer the survey in person during a regularly scheduled meeting that was already on
counselors’ calendars. Because the researcher asked to administer the survey in person, she
stressed the voluntary nature of participation. The researcher also calculated the response rates
and attempted to meet Pazzaglia et al.’s (2016a) recommendation that 85% of individuals in the
sample respond to the survey, and there is an 85% response rate to each individual question.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative studies need to be credible, trustworthy, and accurately capture participants’
perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Strategies to increase the credibility and trustworthiness
of studies include triangulation, member checks, continuing to collect data until reaching a point
of saturation, seeking alternative explanations for the data, reflexivity, peer review, rich and
descriptive data, using either maximum variation or typical sampling, and using numerical data
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to support findings and make comparisons (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
study focused on rich and descriptive data, triangulation, the use of comparisons and themes
about the qualitative data, and reflexivity as the main tools used to maximize the credibility and
trustworthiness of the study.
Rich data increases credibility and trustworthiness by providing a complete
understanding of the topic through detailed descriptions of the study participants, settings, and
findings (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher created
interview questions that were intended to elicit rich, descriptive responses. During the
interviews, the researcher asked follow-up questions as appropriate to gain additional
descriptions and insight from participants. The researcher also obtained transcripts of the
interviews to enable the inclusion of direct quotations from participants in the findings.
Triangulation was also used during the data collection phase of the study to increase
credibility and trustworthiness. Triangulation requires researchers to use several researchers, data
collection methods, or settings (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study used a
variety of methods: surveys, interviews, and document analysis. Additionally, the surveys and
interviews included participants from multiple high schools. Findings that were similar across
the data collected increased the credibility and trustworthiness of the study.
During the data analysis portion of the study, comparisons and themes were used to
maximize credibility and trustworthiness. Specifically, themes were created when the responses
from multiple participants were similar across influences and settings. Numerical data and
comparisons increase the credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative studies by organizing
responses and anchoring them to more objective data (Maxwell. 2013). The data analysis from
both the quantitative and qualitative portions of the survey allowed the researcher to use numbers
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to make comparisons between the various data collection methods and settings. When the
numerical data aligned across data collection methods and settings, it supported triangulation.
When the themes did not align across data collections or settings, the researcher was be able to
make preliminary comparisons between different data collection settings.
Researchers bring their own biases and assumptions to their work (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). It would not be possible for researchers to be unbiased, so Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
recommended that researchers acknowledge how their own biases and assumptions may impact
their study, a process known as reflexivity. In this study, the researcher is not a first-generation
college student, a high school employee, a counselor, or from a historically marginalized group.
Therefore, the researcher needed to be aware of, account for, and question her biases and
assumptions about the experiences and perspectives of first-generation students and historically
marginalized populations, high school counselors, and the organizational context of high schools.
Additionally, at the time of the study the researcher was an employee of an institution of higher
education. Given the focus of the study is on how high school counselors are supporting first-
generation students’ preparation for higher education, the researcher needed to remain aware of
the ways in which her experience with college readiness differs from that of high school
counselors. The researcher also came from a transformational worldview and was grounded in
social capital theory, as described by Creswell and Creswell (2018) and Coleman (1988). The
researcher needed to be sensitive to the different worldviews and perspectives of the high school
counselors and refrain from projecting her perspectives on others or judging those with different
perspectives. This diligence in respect to biases and assumptions needed to be present across all
components of the study, from forming the research questions to designing the methodology and
research instruments to conducting the research and collecting, analyzing, and reporting data and
72
making recommendations.
Ethics
There are a number of factors researchers must consider when involving human
participants in research. Rubin and Rubin (2012) recommended three broad principles: respect
the participants, do not pressure the participants, and do not harm the participants. Following
these principles can be done in a number of ways. First, participants should be asked to
participate in the study, assured that there is no pressure to participate and that they can stop
participating at any time, and informed of the purpose and logistics of the study as well as what
their involvement may mean for them (Glesne, 2011; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The researcher asked high school counselors to participate
in a study of the ways they were supporting first-generation students’ postsecondary planning.
Counselors were also informed that the confidential data would be included in a dissertation and
may be shared with Curlew Coalition, Curlew College, and their high schools.
Informed consent forms can provide participants with relevant information about the
study and obtain their permission to continue (Glesne, 2011; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). For the quantitative portion of the survey, participants were informed of the
purpose of the study, the fact that their participation was voluntary, that they could stop
participating at any point, and how their data would be used in the online introduction to the
survey. Participants signaled their informed consent by checking a box and continuing to the
next screen to complete the survey. For the qualitative portion of the study, participants received
an information sheet about the study over email prior to the scheduled interview. The researcher
also briefly summarized the information sheet and voluntary nature of participation before any
questions were asked. Separately, participants were asked for permission to video and audio
73
record the interviews.
Another way to protect participants from harm is by protecting their information. Glesne
(2011) described participants’ right to privacy and ways researchers can protect confidentiality.
The researcher described the steps she would take to protect high school counselors’ privacy and
ensure their information was kept confidential. Survey data was anonymous, even to the
researcher. Interview data, on the other hand, was confidential. The researcher used pseudonyms
and rounded or generalized data for the interviews and throughout the study for the county,
college, coalition, school districts, high school counselors, and any individuals the high school
counselors mentioned. The researcher did not record any participants’ names on the surveys.
The hard copy of the document linking the data to participants’ names was locked in the
interviewer’s home. All records of the data, including the document with the participants' names,
will be destroyed after the project is complete. In speaking with administrators and others both at
Curlew College and the high schools, the researcher made it clear that she would not disclose the
names of the high school counselors who participated in the study. These key points were
communicated to high school counselors through the information sheets and at the beginning of
the interviews.
Qualitative researchers can play a number of roles, including exploiter, intervener,
advocate, and friend (Glesne, 2011). In this study, the researcher was both involved in and
removed from the context of the study. The researcher was one representative from Curlew
College on the Curlew Coalition. However, the researcher was not employed by the high schools
that were the sites for the research. The researcher may have, in her role fostering partnerships
with high schools, worked with some of the participants in the study. However, the researcher
made it clear that the counselors’ participation was voluntary and would not negatively impact
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any current or future partnerships with Curlew College. Patton (2002) described the importance
of remaining neutral, or nonjudgmental, throughout an interview. By remaining neutral in her
questioning and explaining that her research is part of a dissertation project that was not linked to
her role at Curlew College, the researcher attempted to emphasize her efforts to mitigate negative
consequences of participation in the study. The assurance of confidentiality was reinforced here
as well. The researcher made it clear that no one at the high school and no one else at Curlew
College would be able to link the data to the participants.
No data was gathered prior to Institutional Review Board approval. Institutional Review
Boards act as an additional checkpoint to confirm research complies with ethical standards and
that the researcher has considered ways to mitigate any potential harm to human participants
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The researcher’s submission to the Institutional Review Board and
efforts to provide informed consent, maintain confidentiality, and monitor her own biases and
assumptions were all in an effort to follow Rubin and Rubin’s (2012) recommendations by
showing respect to the participants and ensuring they were not pressured to participate or harmed
by their participation in the study.
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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This study utilized surveys, interviews, and document analysis to explore high school
counselors’ support of first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. The
data that was collected helped answer two of the research questions:
1. What are high school counselors’ knowledge and motivation related to creating
comprehensive postsecondary plans with first-generation students?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and high school
counselors’ knowledge and motivation?
This chapter provides an overview of the participants for the survey and interviews and presents
the results and findings from the survey, interviews, and document analysis.
Participating Stakeholders
Survey Participants
In the first phase of the study, surveys were distributed in person and by email to all
counselors in the target school districts. In total, 84% of the invited counselors participated, with
higher response rates at the high school the researcher was able to visit in person. Specific
numbers are not being reported to protect the identity of the high schools and school districts.
The participation rate of 84% was just short of Pazzaglia et al.’s (2016a) recommendation of
85%. However, given the impact of COVID-19 on high school counselors, and after sending
multiple reminders, the researcher decided to move forward into data analysis with the 84%
response rate.
Of the counselors who completed the survey, all the participants worked directly with
students. Almost all counselors worked with students in more than one grade, with 71% of
respondents working with 12
th
graders, 67% working with 11
th
graders, 76% working with 10
th
graders, and 76% working with 9
th
graders. Thirty eight percent of the counselors had less than
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ten years of experience as a school counselor, 43% of the counselors had 11-20 years of
experience, and 19% of the counselors had 21 or more years of experience.
Interview Participants
At the end of the survey, participants were provided a link to express their interest in and
willingness to participate in the interviews for the second phase of the study. The goal of the
study was to interview six to eight high school counselors. Six counselors volunteered to
participate in the interviews, though one counselor requested to remove herself from the study
and have another counselor participate in her place. The alternate counselor was added to the list
of participants and the original volunteer was removed. As can be seen in Table 5, participants
represented both districts. While the researcher originally intended to focus on counselors
working with 11
th
and 12
th
grade students who would have a more comprehensive understanding
of the support students received across the four years of high school, to reach the goal of
interviewing at least six counselors, the sample was expanded to include 9
th
and 10
th
grade
counselors. Additional demographic details are not reported and gender-neutral pseudonyms and
pronouns are used to protect the confidentiality of participants in the small sample.
Table 5
Postsecondary Planning Interview Participants
Counselor Pseudonym School District Pseudonym
Alex District 2
Blake District 1
Charlie District 2
Drew District 1
Eli District 1
Frankie District 2
Research Question 1: What Are High School Counselors’ Knowledge and Motivation
Related to Creating Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans with First-Generation Students?
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An analysis of quantitative and qualitative data helped determine how counselors’
knowledge and motivation impacted their support of first-generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. Interviews and document analysis were the data collection methods that
explored counselors’ knowledge related to first-generation students and postsecondary planning.
The motivation influences, utility value and self-efficacy, were explored primarily through the
survey. This section will first review the knowledge findings before continuing with the
motivation results.
Knowledge Findings
Counselors’ knowledge of the definition of first-generations students, comprehensive
postsecondary plans, and how to support students’ goal-setting was explored through the
interviews and document analysis. The findings revealed that high school counselors had the
necessary knowledge to support first-generation students as they create comprehensive
postsecondary plans. However, the data related to the knowledge influences did reveal two
organizational gaps that will be discussed later in this chapter: a need for procedures for both
formally identifying and tracking first-generation students and supporting first-generation
students’ goal-setting.
Counselors Knew the Definition of First-Generation Students
Definitions of what it means to be a first-generation student vary based on who is
considered a parent and whether parents never enrolled in a postsecondary institution or did not
earn a college credential (Toutkoushian et al., 2018). Counselors need to know at least one
definition in order to identify and support first-generation students. During the interviews, all the
counselors were able to articulate a definition of first-generation students. All the definitions
aligned to the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics’
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definition which specifies that to be defined as a first-generation student, the student’s parents do
not have experience with higher education (Redford et al., 2017). For example, Alex said “I
always look at it as . . . did their parents go to college?” Many counselors made a point of
extending their definitions by saying that students would still be considered first-generation
students even if their siblings attended college. In fact, half of the counselors agreed with Blake,
who said “even if your brothers graduated but your parents never went to school, you’re still
first-generation.” Alex’s comments regarding siblings provided justification for why they felt
this way:
Some people say if they have an older sibling that went, then they’re no longer first-
generation. But for me, if their parents didn’t go, I feel like it’s still a big accomplishment
if the children are now going, and then eventually hopefully the cycle will be that, once
they go, then their kids will go.
Even though the counselors were able to provide a definition for first-generation students,
it became clear that the school districts did not have any formal procedures in place to track first-
generation students. Counselors reported obtaining and tracking this information on their own.
Five of the six counselors stated that they either ask students directly whether their parents went
to college or the topic comes up naturally in conversations. For example, Charlie stated “(I) point
blank ask them when I meet with them,” and Alex shared “it’s just in the conversation with
them.” Eli, on the other hand, developed a survey for all their students and included a question
about whether the students’ parents went to college. Drew did not use a survey, but noted that it
would be useful, sharing “in the beginning as a needs assessment I would have to do (a survey).”
While counselors may know whether students are first-generation students, in order to provide
targeted support to all first-generation students and track their success outcomes, school districts
need to implement a formal identification and tracking process. This will be addressed as a need
in the section on organization influences.
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Counselors Had a Robust Understanding of a Holistic Definition of College Readiness as
Defined by Postsecondary Plans
In order to ensure effective preparation of students for success across all components of
college readiness, counselors need to know holistic definitions of college readiness as
operationalized in comprehensive postsecondary plans. While the term “comprehensive
postsecondary plan” was developed for the purposes of this study, it encompasses components
from national frameworks including Conley’s (2007) model of college readiness, the American
School Counselor Association’s (2014) mindsets and behaviors, College Board’s (2010) outline
for college and career counseling, Naviance by Hobson’s (n.d.) college readiness competencies,
and the Postsecondary and Career Expectations (State of Illinois, 2018). In this study,
comprehensive postsecondary plans include increasing students’ college aspirations, planning,
exploration, application, and knowledge; provide specific career exploration and planning;
academic preparation; learning strategies; social-emotional learning; and financial knowledge
and financial aid. Counselors’ understanding of comprehensive postsecondary plans was
explored through document review and interviews.
The websites for both school districts demonstrated alignment with postsecondary
planning. District 1’s website focused on providing comprehensive services and supporting
students across many of the definitions of comprehensive postsecondary plans such as college
knowledge, career exploration, academic preparation, and social-emotional learning. District 2’s
website also mentioned or provided links to information about components of comprehensive
postsecondary plans, including college knowledge, career exploration, academic preparation,
financial aid, and learning strategies. When Drew shared how they supported students, they
covered many of these components as well:
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Whether it’s academically . . . whether it’s colleges they plan to go to, financial aid
information that they need, or they’re not sure because a lot of our families it’s their first
time for college, or they’re at a point where now they have to understand the steps to get
them into college, or a career, or military. So, counselors help them navigate through
their postsecondary plan.
Overall, the counselors demonstrated their alignment with the goals on the district’s webpages by
articulating knowledge of each component of the comprehensive postsecondary plans. These
plan components will be addressed individually below.
McWhirter et al. (2014) and Perna’s (2002) studies found that educators need to support
historically marginalized students’ college aspirations and provide information about college
generally and about the selection and application process specifically. All six counselors
articulated robust knowledge about the college component of comprehensive postsecondary
plans. Their explanations of this component can be grouped into four themes:
1. College awareness and aspirations,
2. Connections to colleges,
3. College selection, and
4. The college application process.
Topics counselors discussed related to college awareness and aspirations included encouraging
students to consider college as a postsecondary option and helping students understand college
terminology and types of colleges. Counselors reported helping students connect to colleges
through visits from recruiters, colleges fairs, campus visits, and affordable summer programs on
college campuses. The majority of the comments related to college were about how counselors
helped students select a college aligned to their interests and qualifications and supporting
students through the application process, including completing the application, submitting
supporting materials, obtaining transcripts and letters of recommendation, writing essays, and
interviewing. Specific comments from counselors about each of these components can be found
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in Table 6. Additionally, many of the documents that were provided included information or
invitations to presentations about these topics.
Table 6
Counselors’ Comments Related to Knowledge of College
Participant Theme Comment
Charlie Awareness and
Aspirations
“(I) always explore that college option, even if they’re
not saying that they want to do that. Just to make sure
that they know . . . (We start) from the ground up . . .
making sure they are hearing those words, like what is
the four-year college? What is a two-year college? . . .
hopefully by junior year they know what FAFSA is,
how (to) apply for financial aid.”
Blake Connections “College recruiters (come in) four periods during the
day.”
Charlie Connections “Getting some of these students on college campuses is
huge . . . Sometimes it becomes very real when they
actually go to visit.”
Frankie Selection “Sometimes they really have no idea how to choose so
then we go through . . . you want to be looking at what it
takes to get in. What kind of school is it that you want?
Big? Small? Close to here? Far away? Do they have a
strong program in the major you’re interested in? What
kind of social things do they have? There’s so much to
look at so I have a handout I usually give them.”
Drew Application
Process
“(Our 12
th
grade presentation) is basically the college
application process. So we’re talking about things as far
as Naviance, what they need to be doing on a month-by-
month basis, preparing to attend and or complete their
financial aid . . . For juniors, it’s preparing them for
their senior year, which also includes the college
application process.”
All six counselors also articulated robust knowledge of the career exploration and
planning component of comprehensive postsecondary plans. Two themes emerged around career
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exploration: helping students select career options that may be a good fit for them and then
helping them explore those options while in high school. To support students in selecting
potential career options, counselors reported helping students learn about career options and then
aligning the options to students’ interests and the education required for each career. Counselors
explained that they helped students explore options that interested them through career fairs,
career panels, extracurricular activities, by aligning their courses and electives to their career
interests, and by providing work experience through internships and apprenticeships. Table 7
includes counselor comments for each of these themes.
Table 7
Counselors’ Comments Related to Knowledge of Career Exploration
Participant Theme Comment
Blake Selecting
Options
“I encourage you to go on to higher education, but the
world needs plumbers and truck drivers and good
mechanics. There’s nothing wrong with a job in the
trades.”
Eli Selecting
Options
“(Students will) take a career interest survey. And then
usually when we see those students in a year we’ll go
back to the survey and we’ll do activities . . . They
research their profession and they . . . see the salary and
what they need for school.”
Drew Exploring
Options
“We bring in (the technical high school) to make
presentations to the students. We take them on field
trips. We’ve had career days.”
Alex Exploring
Options
“We have more shadowing experiences because I think
real world experience is how you figure out what you
like and what you don’t like.”
The most common measures of college readiness center around standardized tests and
grade point averages that demonstrate academic knowledge (Schmitt et al., 2009). All six
counselors articulated strong knowledge of the academic preparation component of
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comprehensive postsecondary plans. Counselors’ comments about academic preparation for
college centered around two themes. The first theme was related to high school transcripts. This
included topics ranging from ensuring students know what a transcript is to knowing the
importance of grades, grade point averages, standardized tests, and credits. Counselors expressed
the need to increase student awareness about these topics as well as to track students’ progress in
each area. The second theme was the importance of ensuring students registered for courses that
aligned to their postsecondary plans and that they challenged themselves in classes like
Advanced Placement and dual credit, especially in content areas related to their career goals.
Table 8 presents counselors’ comments related to each of these themes.
Table 8
Counselors’ Comments Related to Academic Preparation
Participant Theme Comment
Drew Transcript
Awareness and
Tracking
“Letting them know about their GPA and how important
it is to maintain grades and to earn their credits for
graduation.”
Frankie Course
Selection
“You’re interested in something that would have to do
with science, so it’d be great if you could try to move up
in science, and maybe math, whereas someone else it
might be good if you could get into an AP for social
studies because you’re interested in politics.”
Learning strategies are tools that support students’ academic preparation, and they are
mentioned in many of the national and state models of college readiness (American School
Counselor Association, 2014; Conley, 2007; Naviance by Hobsons, n.d.). Counselors articulated
adequate knowledge of ways to assist students with learning strategies. While five counselors
mentioned learning strategies, it is the postsecondary plan component that was discussed the
least in the interviews. Alex and Charlie both discussed Career Cruising as a tool they use with
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students to explore learning styles, study skills, and organization. Frankie gave an example of
one-on-one support they provided to a student, and Eli described a curriculum they developed to
work with students on study skills and habits for success. While Drew stated that they did not
work directly with students on learning strategies, they said “I wish there was (support to help
students build learning strategies) here, because it’s needed.”
Five of the six counselors identified social-emotional learning as a key component of
their work. Many of the counselors mentioned working with students in crisis and those
managing depression and anxiety. Alex emphasized the importance of social-emotional support
when they said “For me that’s really important because . . . someone can be academically really
strong but if they aren’t mentally strong, it kind of breaks that.” Counselors reported responding
to students’ social-emotional needs by checking in with them regularly, leading small groups to
address social-emotional learning, and referring students to internal and external social workers
and psychologists for additional support. One challenge Drew mentioned was that “there’s been
a lot of pushback because all counselors are not trained . . . in the social-emotional aspect of
counseling students.” This is consistent with the findings about a lack of training that will be
discussed in the section on organizational influences.
Counselors had strong knowledge related to the final component of comprehensive
postsecondary plans: financial aid. McWhirter et al. (2014) and Poynton et al. (2015) found that
historically marginalized students especially needed information about financial aid and
scholarships. Consistent with their findings, most counselors addressed financial concerns as real
or perceived barriers for students. Charlie stated that sometimes students are not planning to go
to college because they “don’t have the money.” If that was the case, they had a conversation
with the student “about FAFSA and resources.” Even if students received financial aid and
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scholarships, Blake noted that some students still will not attend college because they “can’t pay
the difference” between what the financial aid covers and the cost of attendance. To support
students with financial aid and financial planning, all counselors mentioned leading presentations
and helping students individually or in groups. Counselors for both districts described events
where students and their parents could get help filling out the FAFSA and applying for
scholarships. Drew shared that “the financial aid workshops, we had those for three months, and
they’re all over the district, and parents can come, they can get assistance.” Blake described a
unique way of helping students experience early success by having students apply for
scholarships at schools where they knew students would get significant awards. They said “Say
you’re getting $20,000 for the year, so now you’ve seen it. The system works in that you are
valuable. Because a lot of them never realized that this would happen.”
Overall, counselors demonstrated knowledge of all six components of comprehensive
postsecondary plans that are necessary to effectively support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning. Frankie summed it up nicely when they said “We are very focused on
the current academics . . . the future planning, and then the social.” Each postsecondary plan
component can fit into one of the categories Frankie identified, and the categories align well to
the stated goals on the districts’ webpages and to holistic models of college readiness.
Counselors Knew How to Support Students with All Components of Goal-Setting
Clear goals help individuals focus their work on activities that are likely to increase
desired results (Clark & Estes, 2008). For goals to be effective, they should start with long-term
goals that cascade down into intermediate goals which are reviewed regularly (Clark & Estes,
2008). Most counselors were able to identify and describe how they support students across these
components of setting effective goals. All counselors cited career and educational goals as the
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long-term goals. To reach those goals, five counselors reported helping students set short-term or
intermediate goals related to their long-term postsecondary goals. Finally, the same five
counselors also reported helping students review their goals regularly to monitor progress and
adjust the goals, if necessary. Alex provided a synopsis of what a typical goal-setting
conversation with a student entailed:
So, let’s set some short-term and long-term goals . . . you’re saying you want to do this
career. What are some steps you can take to make sure that is the career you want? . . .
Freshman year we set those goals and then we revisit them every semester.
One part of revisiting the goals appeared to include ensuring that students knew their goals were
flexible and may change over time. As Eli told students, “you can always change your mind, but
we just want to make sure your high school classes (match your current goals).”
No knowledge gaps related to supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning were established. Counselors knew the definition of first-generation
students, they had robust knowledge of comprehensive postsecondary plans, and they were able
to explain how to help students set effective goals. While each of the knowledge influences were
presented separately, counselors were also able to articulate the inter-related nature of the
influences. For example, goal-setting should include each component of postsecondary plans,
and each component supports success in other components. When counselors discussed these
components, they often addressed multiple knowledge influences at the same time. Counselors’
knowledge of each individual influence as well as the interrelated nature of the influences should
help them support first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Motivation Results
The first research question regarding high school counselors’ knowledge and motivation
related to creating comprehensive postsecondary plans with first-generation students includes
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two motivation influences. The motivation influences are counselors’ value of comprehensive
postsecondary plans and their self-efficacy for supporting students in creating the plans. The
survey was the primary tool used to explore the motivational influences.
Counselors Valued Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans
When individuals value the outcomes related to completing a goal, they are more likely
to engage in the activities necessary to achieve the goal (Eccles, 2006). Therefore, the first
motivational influence states that high school counselors need to see the value in helping first-
generation students create comprehensive postsecondary plans. Five survey items addressed this
influence. The questions covered the importance of each area of comprehensive postsecondary
plans, if and how much counselors’ support differed for first-generation students, and whether
and why counselors believed that comprehensive postsecondary planning was critical to
students’ postsecondary success.
The survey asked high school counselors to report how much they agreed that
postsecondary planning is critical to students’ postsecondary success. On this item, 100% of
participants agreed (43%) or strongly agreed (57%) to the critical nature of comprehensive
postsecondary planning. When asked why they felt this way, counselors provided a variety of
responses about the importance of components of comprehensive postsecondary plans. The
themes that came across in the majority of responses were related to awareness of postsecondary
options, planning and setting goals, and how this awareness and planning is linked to future
success. Seven counselors mentioned that it is important to raise postsecondary awareness for
students. Counselors discussed awareness as it related to knowing what options are available
after high school, understanding the process and requirements for pursing different options, and
knowing what resources were available for support. Seven counselors also wrote about how
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important it is for students to have realistic goals and plans for the future if they want to be able
to meet their goals and succeed. One participant raised a concern that if counselors provided
overly specific support for students at this stage, students may not be able to succeed on their
own in the future. This was the only response that did not clearly endorse supporting students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning.
To ascertain whether high school counselors saw the utility value in each component of
comprehensive postsecondary plans, the survey asked them to rate the importance of each
component on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 10 (critically important). The data demonstrated that
high school counselors did value each component of comprehensive postsecondary plans. The
means ranged from 8.29 for support with learning strategies to 9.62 for academic support. The
lowest ranking assigned was a 4 for support with learning strategies. At least one counselor
ranked each item as critically important. A detailed breakdown of the ranges and means can be
found in Table 9.
Table 9
Importance of Each Area of Support for First-Generation Students (1: Not at all Important – 10:
Critically Important)
Component Range Mean
Academic 8-10 9.62
Career exploration 6-10 9.29
Goal-setting 7-10 9.29
Raising awareness about college 5-10 9.24
Social-emotional 5-10 9.10
Financial 5-10 8.71
Learning strategies 4-10 8.29
There was more variance in responses when high school counselors were asked how
much their support for first-generation students’ postsecondary planning differed from their
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support for non-first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. A small majority of
respondents (52%) reported that their support for first-generation students either did not differ at
all (29%) or differed very little (24%) from their support for non-first-generation students. Only
one respondent reported that their support differed to a great extent.
When asked how their support differed, of the participants who reported that their support
differed somewhat or to a great extent, six mentioned that they spent more time or provided more
support for first-generation students. Four participants reported that their support included more
time spent raising awareness about postsecondary options, plans, and procedures. Two
participants mentioned spending more time working with parents of first-generation students.
Two responses stated that the high schools offered workshops and presentations that were open
to all students. While the small majority of responses showed that high school counselors did not
provide significantly different levels of support, even those respondents mentioned that the
difference was in the amount of time spent working with and supporting first-generation
students.
The interview responses were consistent with the survey results. All six counselors
mentioned that they provided individualized support for all students. For example, Alex shared
“We’re doing the best we can to support all students, and through these conversations with
students, you learn this student’s going to need a little more help than student B . . . and you
make sure you call them down again.” While all six counselors stated that they offered the same
support to first-generation students and non-first-generation students, they all also mentioned
ways in which the support first-generation students needed was different. The most common
differences that were cited were the amount of time counselors spent with first-generation
students and families and additional support related to financial aid.
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Overall, the survey responses supported the idea that high school counselors saw the
value in helping first-generation students create comprehensive post-secondary plans. The
counselors viewed postsecondary plans as critical to students’ future success and felt each
component of comprehensive postsecondary plans were important. They also provided
customized support for all students which included additional time and support for first-
generation students.
Counselors Had High Levels of Self-Efficacy for Supporting First-Generation Students with
Each Component of Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans
The second motivational influence explored high school counselors’ self-efficacy or their
level of confidence in their ability to help first-generation students create comprehensive
postsecondary plans. Two survey questions were intended to assess counselors’ self-efficacy,
and the answers to an additional question can help provide insight into this motivation influence.
Counselors were first asked to indicate their degree of confidence in their ability to help first-
generation students with each component of comprehensive postsecondary plans. The only
components in which any counselors disagreed or strongly disagreed that they were confident in
their ability to help students were in the categories of using learning strategies, understanding
options for paying for college, and setting goals. For each of these items, there was only one
“strongly disagree” or “disagree” response. The means, listed in Table 10, demonstrate that
counselors were confident in their abilities to help students across all components of
postsecondary planning. Statistical analysis was not conducted to determine if there were
differences between the means. However, it is likely that no differences would have emerged.
Table 10
Counselors’ Confidence That They Could Support First-Generation Students (1: Strongly
Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Agree, 4: Strongly Agree)
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Component Range Mean
Learn about college 3-4 3.57
Explore careers 3-4 3.52
With social emotional learning 3-4 3.52
Understand their options for paying for college 2-4 3.52
Set goals 1-4 3.48
Gain academic knowledge 3-4 3.38
Use learning strategies 2-4 3.33
In contrast to the data that showed counselors had strong self-efficacy for supporting
students with each component of comprehensive postsecondary plans, the responses were more
negative when counselors were asked if factors beyond their control had a greater influence on
first-generation students’ ability to create comprehensive postsecondary plans. On the survey,
76% of counselors agreed or strongly agreed that factors beyond their control impacted first-
generation students’ ability to create comprehensive postsecondary plans more than they do.
Specific factors counselors cited are discussed in detail below.
While the data that counselors believed factors beyond their control had a large impact on
students may be difficult to reconcile with the result demonstrating counselors’ high self-efficacy
for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning, counselors’
responses about the biggest challenges they faced in supporting first-generation students may
help explain these differences. Via the open-ended survey items, counselors reported that their
biggest challenges were students’ ability to pay for college, a lack of parental knowledge and
ability to be involved, citizenship status and language barriers, cultural expectations, students’
lack of college aspirations and belief in themselves, and students or families being scared of or
intimidated by the college process. Some of these items, such as citizenship status are, in fact,
beyond counselors’ control and can impact students’ postsecondary planning. In looking at the
data as a whole, it appears as though high school counselors were confident that they could help
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students with each component of comprehensive postsecondary plans. However, they may have
felt that the plans alone were not adequate in ensuring students’ future success in light of all the
other challenges their students are facing.
Research Question Two: What Is the Interaction Between Organizational Culture and
Context and High School Counselors’ Knowledge and Motivation?
The second research question relates to the interaction between the counselors’
knowledge and motivation and the organizational culture and context of the high schools and
school districts in which the counselors work. As the conceptual framework illustrated, the
counselors’ knowledge and motivation are influences nested within the organizational context.
This section will explore the organizational findings that interact with counselors’ knowledge
and motivation to determine the counselors’ ability to meet the goal of ensuring all students have
comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Organizational Findings
Five organizational influences were designed to help answer the second research
question. The influences included a culture of collaboration, effective training, optimal student-
to-counselor ratios, and time and clear procedures for supporting first-generation students’
postsecondary planning. The quantitative and qualitative data showed that, while high schools
had collaborative cultures, there were gaps related to training, time, student-to-counselor ratios,
and procedures.
There Was Evidence of Collaborative Cultures in the High Schools
Collaboration in educational settings has positively impacted everything from problem-
solving and parental involvement to student attendance, postsecondary plans, and self-efficacy
(Arriero & Griffin, 2019; Griffen, 2019). Additionally, collaborative partnerships may alleviate
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some of the time pressure on counselors to be experts on and provide support across all
components of comprehensive postsecondary planning. On the survey, two questions addressed
whether high schools had a culture that supported collaboration. When asked whether they
agreed or disagreed that they were encouraged to work with various stakeholder groups, 100% of
counselors strongly agreed or agreed that they were encouraged to work with parents, 86% of
counselors strongly agreed or agreed that they were encouraged to collaborate with colleagues at
the high school, and 71% of counselors strongly agreed or agreed that they were encouraged to
collaborate with external partners. These results, as depicted in Figure 2, indicated that the high
schools are likely proactive in developing collaborative cultures.
Figure 2
Counselors’ Level of Agreement That Their High Schools Encouraged Collaboration with
External Partners, Internal Colleagues, and Parents
When asked how often they in fact collaborated with various stakeholder groups, the
majority of respondents stated that they often or always collaborated with other counselors at the
high school (77%), parents (73%), postsecondary institutions (68%), teachers at the high school
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(64%), and other staff at the high school (55%). Across these subcategories, each of the three
broader categories, internal colleagues, parents, and external colleagues, are represented. The
majority of counselors indicated that they never or rarely collaborate with community groups
(68%) and administrators at the high school (59%).
The interview findings provided additional evidence that the high schools had
collaborative cultures. All counselors stated that they collaborated with at least one internal
partner, one external partner, and with parents. The most common external collaborations were
with colleges, the state’s commission for assisting students with postsecondary plans, community
organizations, and the technical high school. Counselors also reported collaborating with Curlew
College, businesses, TRIO’s Educational Talent Search program, and mental health groups. At
the high schools, counselors reported collaborating the most with teachers, followed by
administrators and social workers or psychologists, and other counselors. Eli provided one
example of collaboration with teachers, stating:
We have team meetings now . . . I was the counselor and then the literature teacher,
science teacher, social studies, math (were there). They were common to all of our
students . . . We talk about certain students, sometimes we use that time to bring parents
in or we bring the students in . . . so it’s a vehicle to do those kinds of things.
Charlie mentioned that their level of collaboration varied based on the people involved.
After describing a positive collaborative experience running an anxiety group with one social
worker, they said, “I have one other social worker that splits my alpha, and it’s harder to
collaborate with her. I think before she came into the building, she was solo and wasn’t used to
collaborating.” This statement does not appear to imply that the overall culture is
uncollaborative, rather that it is tied to individuals within the organization and their past
experience. This was reinforced when Charlie said, “I think she’s coming along, like ‘hey, let’s
touch base on a couple students.’ So we don’t collaborate as often, but we will, as needed.” The
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fact that the social worker was “coming along” showed that she may have been becoming more
integrated into the collaborative culture of the high school despite her previous experience where
“she was solo.”
All six counselors also mentioned collaborating with parents. This collaboration was
initiated by parents, counselors, and students, and many counselors reported that some parents
were more involved than others. Alex said, “Some parents, the moment senior year hits, I get an
email. Sometimes it’s the student coming in being like ‘my mom is driving me crazy,’ . . .
(sometimes) it’s me reaching out, being like ‘hey, would you like to come in?’” In addition to
providing collaborative cultures, the high schools provided a resource, translation services, that
supported counselors’ collaboration with parents. One counselor from each district, Blake and
Charlie, discussed instances where they faced language barriers when working with parents.
However, both counselors were appreciative of translation services provided by the districts.
Providing translation services is a tangible way the districts signaled the value they place on
having staff collaborate with parents.
The results and findings supported the fact that the high schools have a culture of
collaboration that encouraged high school counselors to work with internal and external
stakeholders to support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. Not only did the
counselors report that their high schools encouraged collaboration across stakeholder groups on
the survey, the majority of counselors also indicated on the survey and in the interviews that they
did, in fact, collaborate with stakeholders in each category of stakeholders.
High School Counselors Reported Receiving Inadequate Education or Training to Support
First-Generation Students’ Postsecondary Planning
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Training and education are important factors that can increase knowledge and motivation
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Pajares, 2006). However, high school counselors’ responses to two survey
questions did not indicate that they received adequate training to support first-generation
students’ postsecondary planning. When asked whether their counseling preparation programs
prepared them to support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning, 71% of counselors
strongly disagreed or disagreed that their counseling preparation programs provided adequate
preparation for comprehensive postsecondary planning. Similarly, when asked whether their high
schools provided training to strengthen their support of first-generation students’ postsecondary
planning, 76% of respondents strongly disagreed or disagreed.
The interview findings also demonstrated a lack of adequate education through counselor
preparation programs. One counselor who had been in the field for a number of decades stated
that when they started, “there was no such thing as training. You graduated, they say . . . here’s
your room, here’s your key, and don’t open up the window more than six inches.” Of the three
counselors who graduated more recently and did mention classes as part of their master’s
programs, only one counselor, Drew, found the class particularly helpful. Drew said, “We
actually have a class that’s just considered postsecondary planning. So, I would definitely say
that was very helpful.” The variety in the responses may be attributed to the different programs
counselors attended or to varying perspectives about what was helpful.
There was a lack of consensus about the type and effectiveness of formal training
available after counselors entered the field, and counselors identified the need for continued
training. Eli explained it in this way: “It’s an ever-changing landscape . . . so (professional
development is) pretty vital, and that’s information you can’t learn with a counseling degree ten
years ago.” However, despite the fact that the districts and state require continuing professional
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development, no counselors reported receiving adequate postsecondary planning training though
their high schools. The training counselors reported was through outside agencies or colleges.
The most helpful of these appeared to be the Academy for College Admissions Counseling that
Charlie attended. To describe the program. Charlie said, “It’s about college, all the nuts and bolts
of college . . . That’s where I learned everything, so that was really helpful.”
Two specific issues related to formal training once counselors entered the field were a
lack of training that met counselors’ needs and a lack of awareness about effective training
options that were available. Two counselors shared that they would like training that covers
content they can easily apply to their professional practice, while the training they attended
focused on imparting information they already knew. Frankie expressed this by saying, “I feel
like we’re often disappointed with PD. We always want something specific that we can use with
our students, something concrete . . . so many times we go to PDs, we’re like, okay, I knew all
that already.” Additionally, two participants questioned whether postsecondary planning support
is something that can be taught. Blake directly stated, “I don’t think you can teach this.” This
may be because comprehensive postsecondary plans require individualized support for students.
As Alex said, “there’s not anything you learn in class . . . and I feel like it’s very different
depending on the kid.” In contrast, Drew felt that adequate training was available, but “it’s just a
matter of searching for it and being able to, let’s say, travel to it and pay for it.” Continuing with
the theme of awareness, half of the counselors mentioned that knowing about effective training
options was a challenge. Alex said, “If there was something I’m not aware of, (I’d like more
training). I just haven’t found anything that is amazing . . . if it’s out there, yes, I just don’t know
where it exists.”
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The lack of adequate training for first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary
planning seems incongruent with the strong results and findings in the areas of knowledge and
motivation. However, this may be explained by the fact that counselors were taking it upon
themselves to seek out and share knowledge. In fact, 75% of counselors reported that they
learned informally on the job. Blake mentioned earlier that there was no training when they
earned their master’s degree. Instead, they “was very fortunate to fall under the guidance of a
bunch of faculty members who have been there for 30-40 years. I learned through experience.”
Alex also alluded to learning from experience when they said, “It’s more of us kind of figuring
out what works for us.” Drew discussed being proactive in finding training, stating
A lot of it has been me, seeking out (training) or hearing from other organizations or
College Board or schools that are having trainings for us. It was up to me to seek them
out and then schedule or register to attend those types of trainings.
So, in spite of the fact that effective training is not required or marketed, it appeared as though
counselors sought out this information on their own.
High School Counselors Lacked Time to Provide First-Generation Students with
Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning Support
Counselors need to have sufficient time to support students across all components of
postsecondary planning. This is especially true given Bardhoshi et al.’s (2014) study that showed
time spent on non-counseling duties increased counselor burnout and decreased counselors’ self-
efficacy and Engberg and Gilbert’s (2014) study that showed time counselors spent on
counseling duties increased college enrollment rates. Survey questions and interviews helped
determine whether high school counselors had sufficient time to support first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
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When counselors were asked if they had adequate time to support their first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning, only 38% of counselors agreed or strongly
agreed. As seen in Figure 3, the responses did vary slightly by school district. In District 2, 50%
of counselors agreed or strongly agreed that they had sufficient time to support first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. In contrast, in District 1, only 31% of
counselors agreed that they had sufficient time.
Figure 3
Counselors’ Level of Agreement that They Had Adequate Time to Support First-Generation
Students’ Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning
High school counselors may not have had time to support first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning because they spent a significant amount of time on non-
counseling duties. When asked how they spent their time, the mean for the amount of time spent
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on non-counseling duties, including testing, lunch duty, and scheduling, was 31%, and the
maximum percentage of time spent on non-counseling duties was 88%. Counselors reported
spending most of their time supporting students’ high school success (mean: 86%) and personal
growth (mean: 66%). Counselors reported spending less time supporting post-secondary
preparation (mean: 44% for first-generation students and 41% for all students), career readiness
(mean: 43%), and on non-counseling duties (mean: 31%).
The interview findings also indicated that counselors needed more time to support first-
generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. All counselors at some point in
their interviews referenced wanting more time to spend with students. Most were concerned that
paperwork and non-counseling duties contributed to a gap in the amount of time they wanted to
spend with students and the amount of time they were actually able to spend with students.
Despite limitations in the available time, counselors reported doing what they could to support
students. Alex said, “I feel like in my department, we do the best that we can to make sure that
we’re meeting with kids every day, as much as possible.” Eli agreed, saying “I mean there’s
always more that we can do. But I think with the hours in the day, we’re . . . doing everything we
can do.” Despite all counselors stating that they would like more time to meet with students, two
counselors from District 1 also stated that they did have sufficient time to support students. For
example, Blake said they had sufficient time to meet with students, but this came at a cost. Blake
explained, “I’m (at work) about an hour and a half early so I can get about two hours’ worth of
paperwork done before anything occurs.” This complements Alex and Eli’s statements about
doing whatever it takes to support students.
In District 1, two of the three counselors brought up another theme related to time: they
were concerned about the loss of instructional time when they met with students during class. Eli
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said, “we don’t want to continually pull them out of class.” Similarly, Blake stated, “the time for
them to be in class is more of a priority.” This theme did not emerge and was not explored in
District 2, so it would be better addressed in more depth in a future study.
High Schools Were Not Meeting Optimal Student-to-Counselor Ratios
Recommendations for effective student-to-counselor ratios range from 250:1 to 160:1 for
high schools with high populations of traditionally underserved students (National School
Counselors Association, n.d.; Yavuz, 2016). To determine whether the districts were meeting
either of these recommendations, the survey asked counselors how many students were on their
caseloads. Answers ranged from 220 students to 1,000 students, with an average of 335 students.
However, the 1000 response is a significant outlier. When that response was removed, the range
changed to 220 to 370 with an average of 300. This average is still above the 250:1 ratio and well
above the recommended ratio of 160:1 for underserved populations. When including the 1000
student caseload outlier in the calculations for District 1, the student-to-counselor ratios for
District 1 and District 2 were similar, at 337:1 and 332:1 respectively. When removing the
outlier for District 1, the average ratio for District 1 was significantly lower, at 282:1. Given
these ratios, it is surprising that on the survey, more District 2 counselors reported having
sufficient time to support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning than counselors from
District 1. A potential explanation may be the fact that District 2 has clear procedures in place to
support counselors’ postsecondary planning work with students. The procedures will be
discussed in the next section.
One topic that emerged during the interviews provided further insight into counselor
caseloads. In addition to ensuring counselors had manageable caseloads, two counselors
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addressed the need for consistent caseloads. Frankie expressed the benefits of working with
students over their entire high school careers:
We follow them every year . . . most of my students I’ve had all four years. So, hopefully
we’ve had that freshman five-year plan. And when I meet with them sophomore year and
junior year if something changes, we added it . . . So, when it comes to senior year,
hopefully at that point, I already know what they’re interested in.
On the other hand, Drew noted that the lack of consistent caseloads in District 1 was challenging:
“Each year my caseload has changed . . . I just got a new caseload. So, we don’t have the luxury
of building those relationships with students.” If students are working on comprehensive
postsecondary plans through their four years of high school, it makes sense that they would
benefit from working with the same counselor throughout their time at the school. The impact of
changing counselor caseloads in District 1 could be explored in future studies.
The Availability of Clear Procedures for Supporting First-Generation Students’
Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning Varied by District
Clear procedures that align to organizational goals can increase employee performance
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This may be especially true for postsecondary planning given the
numerous components involved and the limited amount of time counselors have to work with
students. Two survey questions were asked to determine whether high schools had clear
procedures in place for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary
planning.
The first question asked whether high schools had any procedures in place to support
first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. The survey responses showed that, across high
schools, 57% of counselors strongly agreed or agreed that their high schools had any procedures
in place. However, when asked whether the procedures were easy to understand, only 43% of
counselors agreed or strongly agreed. For this influence, there were distinct differences between
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districts. In District 2, a strong majority (88%) of counselors strongly agreed or agreed that the
high school had procedures in place, and 75% of counselors strongly agreed or agreed that the
procedures were easy to understand. However, in district 1, only 39% of counselors agreed that
the high school had procedures in place, and only 23% found the procedures easy to understand.
The differences in whether or not counselors agreed that their high schools had procedures in
place are illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Counselors’ Level of Agreement that Their High Schools Had Procedures in Place to Support
First-Generation Students’ Comprehensive Postsecondary Planning
The qualitative findings reinforced the differences in the availability of procedures
between the two districts. During the interviews, all three counselors from District 2 addressed
three components of their counseling department’s procedures: a counseling plan with focus
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topics for each month that ranged from scholarships to registration; a five-year plan that was
established and reviewed for each student; and a shared document that was used to track
students’ plans and progress. As Alex said, “We actually started the whole cycle (of topics) . . .
we have a counseling plan . . . we have a document of all the students.” The fact that all three
participants from District 2 shared the same information about the monthly focus topics, five-
year plans, and the student tracking document provided evidence that the procedures are clear
and easy to follow.
The counseling and five-year plans provided for document analysis aligned well to
comprehensive postsecondary plans. The counseling plan included activities for fifth through
12
th
graders across four categories: career, college, academic, and social-emotional. These
categories cover four of the six components of comprehensive postsecondary plans. The
additional two categories, financial aid and learning strategies, were contained within activities
across the four main categories. The five-year plan for students is a five-page document that
covers students’ long-term (five and 10 year) goals; their interests and career options; their
postsecondary plans and what type of education is required; preliminary college planning and
exploration; graduation requirements as well as college admissions recommendations and
tracking for standardized testing; each step of the college application process; extracurricular
involvement; internships, jobs, volunteering and service learning; leadership experience, awards,
and strengths and skills; as well as an academic plan for each year of high school.
In contrast, counselors from District 1, did not report having postsecondary planning
procedures from the school district, despite wanting them. All counselors from District 1 did
mention having access to Naviance. Naviance is a technology tool to support college and career
readiness (Naviance by Hobsons, 2020). Additionally, the counselors reported completing four-
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year plans with students. However, unlike District 2’s five-year plans which incorporated many
aspects of comprehensive postsecondary planning, District 1’s four-year plans only covered
academic preparation. Drew explained the four-year plan by saying, “all it does is break down
the transcript. And it shows the courses they’ve taken and then it has a blank for what’s still
missing.”
Drew’s summary of the lack of procedures in District 1 echo Clark and Estes’ (2008)
assertion that clear procedures are an important support to help employees meet outcomes:
It’s individualized. I can’t see anything we’re doing in our district that does have that
model as holistic . . . We don’t have comprehensive programs in our school. It has not
been developed yet . . . This is something that is very important, and it should have been
developed. There should be a program, and our foundation is to have that individual
planning and building up relationships with students year after year.
When counselors from District 1 were asked how they helped first-generation students set goals,
another gap related to procedures became evident. Based on the participants’ comments, it was
clear that the counselors had knowledge about the process of setting and monitoring goals.
However, the lack of procedures for goal-setting with students emerged as a specific
organizational gap.
The results and findings related to procedures may help illuminate the reasons that more
counselors in District 2 reported having sufficient time to support first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning despite having a higher student-to-counselor ratio than
District 1. Further research may be able to determine whether clear procedures can mitigate
negative effects of high student-to-counselor ratios. In the meantime, developing procedures
similar to District 2’s five-year plan may allow District 1 to provide a job aid that would
incorporate both postsecondary planning and goal-setting in one simple document for counselors.
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One new procedural gap emerged for both districts: identifying and tracking first-
generation students. In order to properly support first-generation students and assess their
outcomes, counselors need to be able to formally identify and track first-generation students.
While high school counselors informally identified and tracked students, none of them reported
any formal procedures through the high school. However, all counselors mentioned the
importance of generally tracking students or expressed a desire to be able to track student
outcomes after high school graduation. For example, Charlie said, “One thing we lack is follow
up right after they graduate . . . Sometimes I feel like our students get lost right after they leave.”
While the focus of this study is on first-generation students, tracking outcomes for all students
could provide counselors with valuable information about whether they are meeting their
performance goals.
Despite counselors’ robust knowledge and strong motivation and high schools’ cultures
of collaboration, organizational gaps emerged as potential barriers for counselors. The lack of
adequate training, optimal student-to-counselor ratios, time to support first-generation students’
comprehensive planning, and procedures for formally identifying and tracking first-generation
students may contribute to the proportionally lower college readiness rates for first-generation
students when compared to their non-first-generation peers. An additional barrier specific to
District 1 was the lack of postsecondary planning procedures, especially as they related to goal-
setting for first-generation students.
Conclusion
Data from a survey, interviews, and documents were analyzed to answer two research
questions about knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact counselors’
ability to support first-generation students in completing comprehensive postsecondary plans. As
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outlined in Table 11, the survey, interviews, and document analysis showed that while there were
no gaps in the knowledge or motivation influences, organizational barriers may be preventing
counselors from meeting their goals. Chapter Five contains recommendations for addressing the
organizational gaps related to providing effective training, protecting time for counselors to
support first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary plans, and providing clear
procedures for postsecondary planning, with a specific focus on goal-setting and identifying and
tracking first-generation students.
Table 11
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Results and Findings
Type Influence
Data Source(s) that
Indicated Assets
Data Source(s) that
Indicated a Gap
Knowledge Identifying first-generation
students
Interview
Knowledge Comprehensive definitions of
college readiness
Interview,
document analysis
Knowledge Supporting students’ goal-
setting
Interview
Motivation Utility value for supporting
students’ postsecondary
planning
Survey
Motivation Self-efficacy for supporting
students’ postsecondary
planning
Survey
Organization Collaborative culture
Interview, survey
Organization Training
Interview, survey
Organization Time to support students’
postsecondary planning
Interview, survey
Organization Optimal student-to-counselor
ratios
Survey
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Organization Clear procedures for
supporting students’
postsecondary planning
District 2:
Interview, survey,
document analysis
District 1:
Interview, survey
Organization Procedures for identifying and
tracking first-generation
students
Interview
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Chapter Five: Recommendations
Introduction and Overview
Chapter Five answers the final research question by presenting recommendations for
increasing counselors’ knowledge and the organizational support provided by the high schools,
school districts, and Curlew Coalition as well as for reinforcing counselors’ utility value. An
integrated implementation and evaluation plan is also included. Recommendations for the
organization include marketing and developing training opportunities related to comprehensive
postsecondary plans, ensuring counselors’ responsibilities align to their goals, and providing
procedures for goal-setting related to comprehensive postsecondary planning and formally
identifying and tracking first-generation students. While no gaps emerged related to counselors’
knowledge or motivation, knowledge recommendations will be needed to provide training for the
new procedures, and a recommendation is made for reinforcing counselors’ utility value for
supporting students’ postsecondary planning.
An integrated training and evaluation program is proposed to assist counselors in District
1 in developing goal-setting procedures for each component of comprehensive postsecondary
planning and to train counselors in both districts on the new procedures for identifying and
tracking first-generation students. The program utilizes Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016)
New World Model. First, the level four results are that counselors support all students in creating
postsecondary plans. Related outcomes include increased college readiness, matriculation, and
completion rates for first-generation students. To accomplish these results, at level three
counselors need to engage in critical behaviors including meeting regularly with students,
discussing comprehensive postsecondary plans at each meeting, and tracking first-generation
students’ outcomes. Required drivers and other organizational supports are also outlined. Level
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two includes the learning program for counselors to collaboratively develop goal-setting
procedures for postsecondary planning and to train counselors on the newly developed
procedures for formally identifying and tracking first-generation students. Level one outlines
how to evaluate counselors’ engagement, perceived relevance, and satisfaction during the
training. Two evaluation tools are also proposed: a formative checklist for the trainer to complete
during the program and a counselor survey to be completed two to three months after the
program. The trainer’s checklist evaluates levels one and two while the counselors’ survey
covers all four levels. Finally, a template for reporting critical behaviors and results is included
along with strengths and weaknesses of the approach, limitations and delimitations of the study,
implications for the field, recommendations for future research, and concluding remarks.
Recommendations for Practice to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Influences
The results and findings from Chapter Four indicated there are gaps related to
organizational factors that influence counselors’ ability to support all students in creating
comprehensive postsecondary plans. Additionally, once the organizational influences related to
developing procedures are addressed, counselors will need to receive training for implementing
new procedures. Therefore, recommendations are made for addressing the organizational
influences, the anticipated knowledge influences, and to reinforce the motivation influence for
utility value. While this study originally conceptualized Curlew Coalition as the change agent,
specific recommendations for the high schools and school districts also emerged.
Knowledge Recommendations
This study examined three knowledge influences based on Krathwohl’s (2002) categories
of knowledge: whether high school counselors understand holistic definitions of college
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readiness (declarative), know how to identify first-generation students (declarative), and know
how to assist first-generation students with goal-setting (procedural). Based on the study’s
findings, none of the influences emerged as gaps. However, two additional organizational
influences surfaced: a lack of procedures for formally identifying and tracking first-generation
students and for supporting students’ goal-setting. Once these influences are addressed in the
organizational recommendations, additional job aids may be necessary. A brief overview of the
influences and context-specific recommendations can be found in Table 12.
Table 12
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
High school counselors
need to know how to
formally identify and track
first-generation students.
Reinforcement strengthens
behavior (Daly, 2006).
*Behavioral theories of
learning
Provide training on the
organization’s formal process for
identifying and tracking first-
generation students, and include
accountability structures to
reinforce the process.
High school counselors
need to know how to assist
first-generation students
with goal-setting to
complete a postsecondary
plan.
Automation reduces the
cognitive load in working
memory and can be
achieved through practice
(Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
*Information processing
system theory
Provide job aids to assist
counselors in practicing the goal-
setting process with first-
generation students until it
becomes automated.
Increasing High School Counselors’ Identification and Tracking of First-Generation Students
Because neither district has a formal mechanism in place for identifying and tracking
first-generation students, the high school counselors demonstrated varying degrees of conceptual
and procedural knowledge about this knowledge influence. The need for a formal identification
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and tracking system will be addressed as an organizational influence. However, once a formal
mechanism is in place, the counselors will need to know the new procedures. The
recommendation for addressing this future need is based on behavioral theories of learning. Daly
(2006) stated that to strengthen behavior, the behavior needs to be reinforced. This study’s data
indicated that the high schools were not requiring or providing a process for counselors to
formally identify or track first-generation students, so the behavior was not being reinforced.
Therefore, the recommendation is that the high schools provide training on the new procedures
to formally identify and track first-generation students and provide accountability structures to
reinforce the process. The training will likely include adding an identifier for first-generation
students to the demographic information that is already being tracked for reporting purposes.
Targeted training programs can have a positive impact on counselors’ knowledge. For
example, one study examined the effect of a training program for addiction counselors on how to
screen and treat patients for chronic pain (Butner et al., 2018). Fifty-two counselors completed a
pre-test before the training, participated in the training, and then completed post-tests
immediately and six months after the training. The post-tests both showed an increase in
knowledge compared to the pre-test (Butner et al., 2018). Similarly, completing training on new
procedures for formally identifying and tracking first-generation students should give high
school counselors the knowledge they need to implement the procedures while an accountability
structure will reinforce the process and encourage sustained implementation.
Increasing Counselors’ Ability to Support First-Generation Students’ Goal-Setting
While counselors knew how to support first-generation students’ goal-setting, in one
district the data revealed an organizational gap: the lack of procedures for supporting first-
generation students’ goal-setting. Once the procedures are established, high school counselors
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will need to become comfortable with the process. The recommendation to address this
anticipated knowledge influence is grounded in information processing theory. Information
processing theory emphasizes the use of practice to assist in automating processes and reduce the
load on working memory (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Creating a system and opportunities to
practice using the system will help high school counselors automate the process of supporting
first-generation students as they set and monitor goals. The recommendation to address this
anticipated need in District 1 is to provide a job aid to assist counselors in practicing the goal-
setting process with first-generation students until it becomes automated. This job aid could
address each of the steps for goal-setting, including short and long-term cascading goals and
check-in points to review goals.
Research on the use of job aids is prevalent in healthcare. Empirical articles demonstrated
the positive effects practice and job aids had on performance related to, for example, malaria
testing (Harvey et al., 2008), providing injectable contraception (Chace Dwyer et al., 2019), and
reducing blood infections in newborns (Taylor et al., 2017). While research on the use of job aids
in education is not as common, one study examined how effective job aids were in helping
therapists implement a behavioral intervention program for students with autism (Parnell, 2017).
The study of three therapists found that a job aid, along with feedback, significantly increased
the fidelity of program implementation. The goal in providing a job aid to high school counselors
is to replicate these positive effects on performance to ensure high school counselors support all
first-generation students as they set and review goals related to their postsecondary plans.
Counselors in District 2 have a job aid in the form of a five-year planning document that helps
students set postsecondary goals and build toward those goals with short-term goals. Once
procedures are established in District 1, counselors could benefit from a similar job aid, as
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recommended in Table 12, so that counselors can practice a systematic approach to goal-setting
until it becomes more familiar and automated.
Motivation Recommendation
This study examined two motivation influences: high school counselors’ self-efficacy and
utility value for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
The results and findings presented in Chapter Four indicated that the high school counselors had
high self-efficacy and utility value for providing this support. While recommendations are not
needed to increase counselors’ self-efficacy or utility value, a recommendation is being made to
reinforce counselors’ utility value for supporting students’ comprehensive postsecondary
planning. The recommendation is introduced in Table 13.
Table 13
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
High school counselors need to
see the value in helping first-
generation students create
comprehensive postsecondary
plans. (Utility Value)
Modeling enthusiasm
and value for a task
increases others’
utility value
(Eccles, 2006).
Curlew Coalition and high
school leaders to model
enthusiasm and value for
supporting first-generation
students’ postsecondary
planning.
Reinforcing Counselors’ Value of Supporting Postsecondary Planning
While the results and findings indicated that counselors valued supporting students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning, Curlew Coalition and school leaders should continue to
reinforce this value. The recommendation for reinforcing the value of supporting postsecondary
planning is rooted in utility value theory. Eccles (2006) recommended that leaders demonstrate
their enthusiasm and value for tasks which they want their employees to value. Therefore, the
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recommendation is that Curlew Coalition and high school leaders model enthusiasm and value
for supporting first-generation students’ postsecondary planning in their interactions with high
school counselors.
Educational studies about enthusiasm and value are often focused on the relationship
between teachers and students. For example, one quantitative study of 803 mathematics students
and their 41 teachers in Germany examined, among other variables, whether teachers’
enthusiasm impacted students’ value of the subject (Lazarides et al, 2018). The results indicated
an indirect positive relationship between students’ perception of their mathematics teachers’
enthusiasm and students’ utility value for the content (Lazarides et al., 2018). If Curlew
Coalition and school leaders model their enthusiasm for and value of supporting first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning, it should help reinforce counselors’ utility
value for their work in the same way teachers’ enthusiasm impacted students’ utility value for
mathematics.
Organization Recommendations
Five organizational influences were studied: high schools’ collaborative cultures, high
schools’ student-to-counselor ratios, the amount of time counselors had to support first-
generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning; whether counselors received
adequate education and training related to postsecondary planning, and whether high schools had
procedures in place to support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning. Counselors
indicated that the high schools did have collaborative cultures. However, gaps were found in the
influences related to student-to-counselor ratios and time, training, and procedures for
comprehensive postsecondary planning for first-generation students. Recommendations are made
for each of the gaps except providing optimal student-to-counselor ratios. While this influence is
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important to address, it is cost-prohibitive in that it would require nearly doubling the number of
counselors in each high school. The recommendations for the remaining influences, outlined in
Table 14, are more feasible to implement.
Table 14
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Organizations and counselor
preparation programs need to
provide training on how to
support students’
comprehensive
postsecondary planning.
(Setting)
Knowledge and continued
learning, including practical
learning opportunities, increase
organizational effectiveness
(Mezirow, 1997; Senge, 1990;
Waters, et al., 2003).
Develop learning
opportunities and increase
awareness of existing
opportunities for
counselors.
The organization needs to
ensure high school
counselors have enough time
to provide first-generation
students with comprehensive
postsecondary planning
support. (Setting)
All staff need the resources to
do their jobs, and resources
should be prioritized based on
the organization’s goals (Clark
& Estes, 2008; Waters et al.,
2003).
Review counselors’
responsibilities to better
align to the goal of
increasing first-generation
students’ college readiness.
The organization needs to
ensure high school
counselors have clear
procedures in place to
support first-generation
students’ postsecondary
planning. (Setting)
Finding One:
Postsecondary plan goal-
setting (District 1)
Postsecondary plan goal-setting
(District 1):
Effective organizations provide
evidence-based solutions
aligned and adapted to the
organization and its goals as
job resources for staff (Bakker
& Demerouti, 2007; Clark &
Postsecondary plan goal-
setting (District 1):
Engage counselors in a
process to develop a set of
postsecondary planning and
goal-setting procedures
specific to the needs of
District 1.
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Finding Two:
Identifying and tracking first-
generation students
Estes, 2008; Waters et al.,
2003).
Collaboration is important for
effective learning and
leadership (Fidishun, 2000;
Johnson, 2006).
Identifying and tracking first-
generation students:
Data should be disaggregated
by subgroups to advance the
important goals of equity and
access (Bensimon, 2005;
Darling-Hammond, 2007;
Langley et al., 2009).
External accountability can
increase internal accountability
(Kaplan & Norton, 2005).
Identifying and tracking
first-generation students:
Develop a method for
formally identifying and
tracking first-generation
students in the school
districts.
Curlew Coalition to
advocate for the inclusion
of first-generation status in
state reporting.
Developing and Marketing Learning Opportunities for Counselors
In this study, most counselors reported a lack of effective, practical training and
educational opportunities for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary
planning. Literature on learning and organizational effectiveness informed the recommendation
to address this gap. The literature shows that existing employee knowledge and access to
continuing professional development opportunities positively impact organizational effectiveness
(Mezirow, 1997; Senge, 1990; Waters et al., 2003). If high school counselors do not have
current, effective, applicable training related to supporting first-generation students’
postsecondary planning, they will not be able to effectively provide that support to students.
Therefore, the recommendation is that Curlew Coalition and the school districts develop learning
opportunities and increase awareness of existing opportunities related to comprehensive
postsecondary planning for counselors. The high schools and Coalition could do a better job of
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advertising and supporting participation in opportunities like the Academy for College
Admissions Counseling that Charlie described in their interview. The Coalition can also develop
training, host speakers, and have counselors from Curlew County share promising practices
related to supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Continued training for mental health professionals can positively impact their self-
efficacy and practice (Doumas et al., 2019; Mirick et al., 2020; Parikh-Foxx et al., 2020). In one
qualitative study where 60 mental health professionals participated in a suicide prevention
training that included multiple opportunities to apply what they learned and use tools and
techniques presented in the training, 90% of the participants reported changing their practice as a
result of the training (Mirick et al., 2020). Another study surveyed 143 mental health
professionals working as addiction counselors after they were trained on how to use motivational
interviewing (Doumas et al., 2019). The training allowed counselors to apply what they learned
through role playing activities. The data showed that the training increased participants’ self-
efficacy and that 88% of participants used motivational interviewing more as a result of the
training (Doumas et al., 2019). The goal in developing and marketing postsecondary planning
training opportunities to high school counselors is to replicate the positive impact on practice that
these studies demonstrated.
Aligning Counselor Responsibilities to the Goal of Increasing First-Generation Students’
College Readiness
The quantitative and qualitative data both showed that high school counselors needed
more time to support first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Organizational research shows that organizations need to provide all staff with the necessary
resources to carry out their job responsibilities (Clark & Estes, 2008; Waters et al., 2003).
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Additionally, resources should be prioritized and allocated based on the organization’s goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Waters et al., 2003). Given that the mean percentage of time counselors
reported spending on non-counseling duties was 31%, counselors’ responsibilities do not seem to
align with the school districts’ goals. Based on the research and reported gaps, the
recommendation is to review counselors’ responsibilities to better align the responsibilities to the
goal of increasing first-generation students’ college readiness rates.
The results and findings from this study are consistent with other studies that showed
counselors are asked to complete non-counseling duties, such as lunch duty, administering tests,
scheduling, and keeping student records (Bardoshi et al., 2014; Bardoshi & Duncan, 2018). None
of the non-counseling duties in the research align to the districts’ goal of increasing the college
readiness rates for first-generation students or the counselors’ goal of supporting students in
creating comprehensive postsecondary plans. However, quantitative research showed the
importance of devoting time to counseling duties in order to increase counselors’ abilities to
meet their goals (Bardhoshi et al., 2014; Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Goodman-Scott et al., 2018).
When the time counselors spent on duties aligned to counseling goals, measures of student
outcomes such as college matriculation and engagement in postsecondary coursework increased
(Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Goodman-Scott et al., 2018). On the other hand, when counselors
spent time on duties that did not align to their goals, their levels of burnout increased while their
efficacy decreased (Bardhoshi et al., 2014). The evidence on the importance of aligning
counselors’ work with their goals is so clear that the State of Missouri, in its manual for
counseling programs, devoted significant time to outlining appropriate responsibilities as well as
detailed procedures for tracking how counselors are in fact spending their time (Gybers et al.,
2011). The objective of recommending that school districts in Curlew County realign counselor
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responsibilities to match their goals is that students and counselors experience the positive
effects of the realignment.
Developing Postsecondary Planning and Goal-Setting Procedures
In District 1, counselors did not have procedures to help students set and meet goals
across all components of comprehensive postsecondary planning. Research findings related to
effective organizations provide the basis for the recommendation to address this gap. Bakker and
Demerouti (2007), Clark and Estes (2008), and Waters et al. (2003) reported that effective
organizations provided staff with evidence-based solutions aligned with and adapted to the
organizations and their goals. Counselors in District 1 would benefit from procedures for
supporting students’ goal-setting related to comprehensive postsecondary planning. Fidishun
(2000) and Johnson (2006) stressed the importance of collaboration for effective learning and
leadership. Therefore, the recommendation is that Curlew Coalition and District 1 engage
counselors in a collaborative process to develop postsecondary planning and goal-setting
procedures specific to the needs of the district.
Counselors in District 2 collaboratively developed monthly themes, shared student
tracking spreadsheets, and a five-year plan document to support students’ postsecondary
planning and goal-setting. Collectively, these procedures impacted counselors’ performance by
ensuring counselors consistently met with and supported all students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. Research supports the positive impact of collaboratively developing
work practices. Leana et al. (2009) studied how individual and collaborative job crafting
impacted teachers’ and teachers’ aids’ performance in childcare centers in two states. Job
crafting is the process through which employees define their roles, tasks, and work practices.
Observations, interviews, and surveys of 232 participants confirmed that collaborative job
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crafting increased participants’ job performance. Collaborative job crafting also increased job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Leana et al., 2009). In the same way that
collaborative job crafting impacted job performance for teachers and aids, engaging in a
collaborative process to develop comprehensive postsecondary planning and goal-setting
procedures should increase District 1 counselors’ ability to support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning.
Developing Procedures to Formally Identify and Track First-Generation Students in High
Schools and at the State Level
While counselors in this study may have been informally identifying first-generation
students, they were not aware of any formal measures in place to identify or track students at the
high schools or for state reporting requirements. Research on diversity and accountability
provide insight into addressing this gap. First, to advance equity and access, data should be
disaggregated by subgroups (Bensimon, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Langley et al., 2009).
Without collecting and reporting first-generation status in disaggregated data about student
outcomes at the high school and district level, counselors are not able to provide targeted support
for first-generation students and track the effectiveness of their work. The first recommendation
is to develop a method for formally identifying and tracking first-generation students in the
school districts. Additionally, external accountability can increase internal accountability
(Kaplan & Norton, 2005). If the state required school districts to report first-generation status in
disaggregated data, it would encourage high schools to identify first-generation students and
monitor their success outcomes. To address this, the second recommendation is that Curlew
Coalition advocates for the inclusion of first-generation status in state reporting.
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Data from Curlew College showed a gap between the college readiness rates of first-
generation students when compared to their non-first-generation peers. However, this data was
not being communicated to the high schools and the high school counselors did not know of any
procedures within their school districts for formally identifying and tracking outcomes for first-
generation students. State and federal requirements mandate that student data is disaggregated by
racial and ethnic categories for reporting purposes (National Forum on Education Statistics,
2016). In the five case studies the National Forum on Education Statistics (2016) presented
related to disaggregated data, each school system that disaggregated the data intended to use it to
inform targeted support for students. However, as Harris and Bensimon (2007) stated, if
disaggregated data is not being tracked and reported, it would be hard for educational leaders to
pay attention to and prioritize closing equity gaps for specific populations. One way in which
leaders may be encouraged to prioritize closing equity gaps is through external accountability
measures. In an international quantitative study, Yi and Kim (2019) found that external
accountability positively impacted principals’ leadership. Specifically, external accountability
focused principals’ goals on student outcomes which encouraged them to offer professional
development and expect teaching practices that aligned to their goals (Yi & Kim, 2019). If first-
generation students are identified and tracked at both the high school and state level, it should
increase services and support for first-generation students in an effort to close disparities in
outcomes.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) described three phases for training programs:
planning, execution, and demonstration of value. Evaluation should be included in all three
phases. The planning phase should include details about what will be evaluated, or the outcomes,
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and how they will be evaluated. Formative evaluation should take place during the execution
phase, and value is demonstrated by evaluating the results of the training (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Given the interrelated nature of implementation and evaluation, they are
presented here as one integrated plan.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model is the framework for the
integrated implementation and evaluation plan to address the influences that may be preventing
Curlew Coalition from meeting its goal that first-generation students are graduating high school
at the same level of college readiness as their non-first-generation peers. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model updated Kirkpatrick’s original model for evaluation and includes four levels
of evaluation aimed at improving training effectiveness. The first level of evaluation in the New
World Kirkpatrick Model is reaction, or how well the participants enjoy the training and how
relevant it is for them. Learning, or whether the participants gained the necessary knowledge and
attitudes, is the second level. The third level, behavior, is whether participants use what they
learned when they return to work. Critical behaviors include the essential behaviors employees
need to demonstrate in order to impact the level four results. Critical behaviors can be supported
through required drivers, or the organizational factors that reinforce, monitor, encourage, or
reward employees’ behavior. The final level, results, is whether the behavior changes achieve the
desired outcomes or long-term organizational level results. While the organizational results are
long-term metrics, shorter-term leading indicators can provide insight into whether the critical
behaviors are being utilized in a way that will impact the long-term results (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). This section will outline the integrated implementation and evaluation
framework as it relates to each level of the New World Kirkpatrick model.
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Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Curlew Coalition is an organization comprised of educational leaders from the
community college and high schools in Curlew County. The Coalition meets regularly to address
equity gaps in educational outcomes within the county. This study examined the Coalition’s goal
of ensuring that first-generation students in Curlew County graduate at the same level of college
readiness as their non-first-generation peers. This goal is important because holding a college
credential positively impacts individuals and society (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018; Ma et al.,
2016).
High school counselors are one of the stakeholder groups working to close college
readiness gaps. To do so, a goal for high school counselors is that they support all students, but
especially first-generation students, in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans. As
identified in Chapter Two, comprehensive postsecondary plans assist students in six areas
necessary for success after high school: college, career, academics, social-emotional skills,
learning strategies, and financial knowledge. The recommendations that follow are intended to
provide the time, resources, and support counselors will need to meet their goal. If, through
assisting students with comprehensive postsecondary plans, counselors are able to help their high
schools close college readiness gaps for first-generation students, other success measures should
also increase. These measures include college acceptance, matriculation, and completion rates.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
There will be a number of positive internal and external outcomes if Curlew Coalition is
able to achieve its goal of closing college readiness gaps for first-generation students. In this
study, internal outcomes are related to counselors and students because both groups are actively
involved in the development of comprehensive postsecondary plans. Increasing the number of
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students with comprehensive postsecondary plans and increasing the college matriculation and
completion rates are the internal outcomes. The external outcomes involve how colleges and
universities view first-generation students from Curlew County and are demonstrated through
increased acceptance rates and scholarships for first-generation students. Additional details about
the outcomes, metrics, and methods are included in Table 15.
Table 15
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Colleges and universities view
first-generation students from
Curlew County as highly qualified
applicants.
College admissions
rates for first-generation
students
Counseling records (based on
student self-reports)
2. Colleges and universities
increase their investment in first-
generation students from Curlew
County.
College scholarship
totals for first-
generation students
Counseling records (based on
student self-reports)
Internal Outcomes
1. All students have comprehensive
postsecondary plans.
Number of
comprehensive
postsecondary plans
completed
Counseling records
maintained by individual
counselors and the counseling
supervisor
2. The college matriculation rate
for first-generation students
increases.
College matriculation
rates
Curlew College reports,
National Student
Clearinghouse data
3. The college completion rate for
first-generation students increases.
College completion
rates
Curlew College reports,
National Student
Clearinghouse data
Level 3: Behavior
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identified behavior as the most important of the three
levels of training. Behavior is the link between level two, or what is learned during the training,
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and attaining the level four results. If participants do not change their behavior as a result of the
training, the training will likely be ineffective in impacting the organization’s goals. Whether
participants demonstrate the behaviors critical to meeting the organization’s goals and whether
the organization provides the necessary support for critical behaviors help determine whether the
training is effective at level three (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Each of these components
are addressed below.
Critical Behaviors
Counselors need to demonstrate a number of critical behaviors to achieve the internal and
external outcomes detailed in Table 15. While some counselors were already engaging in these
behaviors, they need to be enforced consistently across all districts in Curlew County. The
critical behaviors for ensuring all students have comprehensive postsecondary plans include
meeting with students regularly, discussing comprehensive postsecondary plan components and
goal-setting at each meeting, and tracking student outcomes. Additional details including the
metrics, methods, and timing are included in Table 16.
Table 16
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Counselors meet with
students at least once per
semester
Number of meetings
with students
Counseling supervisor
reviews electronic tracking
system for monitoring
which students have
completed plans in place.
Once a
month
2. Counselors discuss
components of
comprehensive
postsecondary plans with
students at every student
meting
Discussion topics
during student
meetings
Counseling supervisor
reviews electronic tracking
system for documenting
discussion topics at each
meeting.
Once a
month
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3. Counselors track first-
generation student
outcomes
Counseling meeting
agendas include a
review of data on
first-generation
students’ outcomes
High school principal
attends meetings or reviews
counseling department
meeting agendas to ensure
outcomes are being
discussed.
Once a
semester
Required Drivers
Required drivers are organizational factors that support the critical behaviors and assist in
achieving the desired outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) presented four categories of required drivers: reinforcing, encouraging, rewarding, and
monitoring drivers. Curlew Coalition and individual school districts and high schools need to
address the required drivers outlined in Table 17 to increase the number of students with
comprehensive postsecondary plans and to close college readiness gaps for first-generation
students. The required drivers are based on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences.
Table 17
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
High schools, school districts, and Curlew Coalition provide
information and reminders about professional development
opportunities related to comprehensive postsecondary
planning and first-generation students.
Ongoing 2
High schools provide job aids in the form of procedures for
goal-setting related to each component of comprehensive
postsecondary plans.
Ongoing 2
High schools provide job aids in the form of procedures for
formally identifying and tracking first-generation students.
Ongoing 2, 3
Weekly
2, 3
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High schools schedule weekly counselor meetings where
comprehensive postsecondary planning and outcome tracking
for first-generation students can be developed and discussed.
The counseling department supervisor and high school
principal provide feedback to counselors on their support of
first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary
planning.
Ongoing, at
least
monthly
1, 2, 3
Curlew Coalition and high school leaders model enthusiasm
and value for supporting first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
High school counselors share postsecondary planning and
first-generation student success stories during counselor
meetings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Curlew Coalition formally recognizes high schools with
increased college readiness rates for first-generation students.
Annually 2, 3
Monitoring
Counselors self-monitor and report to the counseling
supervisor and principal their progress on meeting with
students once per semester and discussing components of
comprehensive postsecondary plans at every meeting.
Ongoing 1, 2
During department meetings with counseling supervisors and
principals, counselors report and reflect on their progress
meeting with, discussing comprehensive postsecondary plans
with, and tracking outcomes for first-generation students.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Organizational Support
The school districts and high schools will need to provide counselors with the time and
tools they need to support first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. To
ensure counselors have sufficient time to provide the necessary support to first-generation
students, administrators and counselors will need to review the counselors’ current job
responsibilities to see where they do and do not align to the recommendations set forth by the
American School Counselor Association (n.d.) and the counseling departments’ goals. The State
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of Missouri’s manual for counseling programs provides an example of a template that can be
used to complete this work (Gybers et al., 2011). After the review, school districts may need to
reassign some of the counselors’ job duties to other individuals in the district.
High schools also need to ensure that procedures are in place that will support
counselors’ work in helping first-generation students set goals and create comprehensive
postsecondary plans. These procedures already existed in District 2, but the findings and results
indicated that District 1 did not have procedures in place. Therefore, it is recommended that
District 1 provide a collaborative opportunity for counselors and administrators to develop a set
of goal-setting procedures related to postsecondary planning that counselors can use with first-
generation students. Additionally, both districts need to develop a process for formally
identifying and tracking first-generation students so that counselors can provide targeted support
to first-generation students and so that they can determine the level of impact that support is
having on long-term success outcomes. Recommendations for the process of developing and
sharing these procedures will be discussed in the following sections.
Two additional activities that are not directly related to high school counselors should
also be addressed: the inclusion of first-generation status in state reporting and the
implementation or creation of comprehensive measures of college readiness. As was described in
the organizational recommendations, if the Coalition advocated for adding first-generation status
to the demographic information that is reported to and tracked by the state, it would highlight the
importance of supporting first-generation students and would add an additional level of
accountability. The Coalition should also either utilize existing measures or create new ways to
measure college readiness across the comprehensive definitions of college readiness instead of
relying solely on academic measures. Data on standardized testing showed that it
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disproportionately identified historically marginalized students as not being college ready (ACT,
2018; Bailey et al., 2014; College Board, 2018; DeAngelo, 2016; Murillo & Schall, 2016; Reid
& Moore, 2008). However, research validated the ability of noncognitive skills to predict student
success (Gaertner & McClarty, 2015; Gore, 2017; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013; Komarraju et al.,
2013; Soland, 2017). Therefore, if the Coalition were to measure multiple components of college
readiness, more historically marginalized students may be identified as college ready.
Level 2: Learning
Level two in the New World Kirkpatrick Model covers what participants learn as a result
of training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This level includes the learning program itself
along with the participants’ knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The following sections include an overview of the proposed
training program along with the program’s learning goals and recommendations for evaluating
the knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment of the counselors who participate in
the training.
Learning Goals
The recommended training program will address the need for goal-setting procedures
related to postsecondary planning and for training on the newly developed procedures for
formally identifying and tracking first-generation students. While District 2 already had goal-
setting procedures in place, the proposal here is for a comprehensive training program to address
both gaps. District 2 can forgo the goal-setting portion of the training and incorporate the section
related to identifying and tracking first-generation students into one of their weekly department
meetings. As a result of the comprehensive training, counselors will be able to:
1. Compare promising practices related to goal-setting and postsecondary planning
(Procedural),
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2. Evaluate existing promising practices for ease of implementation in the school district
(Procedural),
3. Design procedures for supporting students’ goal-setting across all six components of
comprehensive postsecondary plans (Procedural),
4. Implement the newly developed procedures for goal-setting across the six components of
comprehensive postsecondary plans when working with students (Procedural),
5. Identify the location for entering or reviewing students’ first-generation status in the
school district’s student management system (Factual),
6. Identify sources of information for tracking first-generation students’ outcomes (Factual),
7. Monitor progress toward closing college readiness gaps for first-generation students
when compared to their non-first-generation peers (Procedural).
Program
The training program should be implemented in person at an off-site location over two
days. By offering the training off-site, at a location like Curlew College, the counselors will be
able to fully focus on the training and will not be as easily distracted by work responsibilities at
the high school. Each day should include three hours in the morning session, a lunch break, and
three hours in an afternoon session, for a total of twelve hours. The training should be led by the
counseling supervisor, Curlew Coalition, or an outside consultant.
The first day of the recommended training should be devoted to exploring promising
practices in goal-setting and postsecondary planning. This can include presentations by Curlew
County counselors from other high schools and national experts about procedures that are
utilized and showing positive results in other schools. After exploring the promising practices,
counselors should be given time to evaluate existing options to see which procedures can be
adapted and implemented to align to the specific needs of students in and the organizational
culture of District 1.
The second day should be devoted to finalizing the procedures, developing the
implementation plan, and presenting the procedures for formally identifying and tracking first-
generation students. Before discussing the implementation plan, district administrators will need
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to share the ways in which counselors’ responsibilities will change to ensure they have sufficient
time to support first-generation students’ goal-setting and postsecondary planning. The
implementation plan should include a strategy for training any counselors who were not present,
a job aid for counselors to use with students upon completion of training, time to role play and
practice the procedures in mock student meetings, and an accountability structure with an
evaluation plan. This training recommendation is to create and begin to implement
comprehensive postsecondary planning procedures for District 1. However, in the future, it is
recommended that Curlew Coalition host annual summits or conferences for all high schools that
provide current postsecondary planning information from national experts as well as promising
practices from across the county.
Brief training for formally identifying and tracking first-generation students will need to
be implemented once the procedures are established by the districts. In accordance with standard
procedures within the districts, districts may decide that the indicator of first-generation status
will be entered either at the district level or by the counselors. While the specific details for the
training can only be established after the procedures are developed, the training will need to
include a demonstration and job aid to show counselors where to find or how to enter students’
first-generation status in the district’s student management system. Counselors will also need to
be introduced to the different data points and sources that will be used to track first-generation
students’ success outcomes and the progress that is being made in closing gaps for first-
generation students. Counselors should be given an opportunity to practice each of these
components during the training.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
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Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommended evaluating multiple components of
learning at level two. The components included participants’ declarative knowledge, procedural
skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment. Each of these components increase the likelihood
that participants will transfer what they learned to their professional practice (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The specific methods and timing for evaluating each component of the
recommended training are explained in Table 18.
Table 18
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks during the presentations on promising practices
(trainer’s notes)
During the first day
of training
Knowledge checks during the presentations on identifying and tracking
first-generation students (trainer’s notes)
During the second
day of training
Group discussions when evaluating promising practices (trainer’s
notes)
During the first day
of training
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Trainer observation of role playing (trainer’s notes) During the second
day of training
Trainer observation of the application portion of the training on
formally identifying and tracking first-generation students (trainer’s
notes)
During the second
day of training
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Trainer observations of counselors’ engagement (trainer’s notes) During both days of
training
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions about questions or concerns during implementation
planning for the goal-setting portion of the training (trainer’s notes)
During the second
day of training
Discussions about questions or concerns during the identifying and
tracking first-generation student status portion of the training (trainer’s
notes)
During the second
day of training
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Retrospective pre-and post-training assessment of confidence (post-
training survey)
Two to three months
after the training
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussion about questions or concerns during implementation
planning (trainer’s notes)
During the second
day of training
Discussions about questions or concerns during the identifying and
tracking first-generation student status portion of the training (trainer’s
notes)
During the second
day of training
Retrospective pre-and post-training assessment of commitment (post-
training survey)
Two to three months
after the training
Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) described three categories within level one reactions:
engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction. Each of these categories are relevant to the
recommended training for counselors. Table 19 outlines how and when each category will be
evaluated.
Table 19
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Participation (trainer’s notes) Ongoing during the training
Trainer observations (trainer’s notes) Ongoing during the training
Relevance
Brief pulse-check discussions (trainer’s notes) During the training
Training evaluation (survey) Two to three months after the training
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check discussions (trainer’s notes) During the training
Training evaluation (survey) Two to three months after the training
Evaluation Tools
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The New World Kirkpatrick Model stresses the importance of evaluating all four levels
of training: reaction, learning, behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For the
purposes of this study, the trainer will evaluate levels one and two utilizing a formative
evaluation checklist either during or immediately after the training. Two to three months after the
training, the participants will complete a survey to evaluate all four levels. The tools for and
timing of the evaluations are explained in more detail below.
During and Immediately Following the Program Implementation
Evaluation for levels one and two should focus on formative methods so the training can
be adjusted, if needed (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Therefore, the intention is that the
trainer will complete the recommended evaluation tool included in Appendix D either during or
immediately after each day of the training. The tool provides a framework for the trainer to
document whether the counselors who participate in the training have the necessary knowledge
(level two); demonstrate the appropriate skills, attitude, confidence, commitment, and
engagement (level two); find the training relevant (level one); and are satisfied with the training
(level one). There is also space for the trainer to add notes related to each section and to
document any barriers the counselors expect to encounter when they implement the new
procedures. These notes may provide insight into additional organizational supports the
counselors need. Overall, the goal of this tool is to allow the trainers to improve the effectiveness
of the training and increase the likelihood that the knowledge and skills counselors acquire is
transferred to their work with students.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Blended evaluation tools assess multiple levels of training using the same instrument to
reduce the number of times participants are asked to provide feedback (Kirkpatrick &
136
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Appendix E includes the blended evaluation tool for this study: a survey that
counselors will complete two to three months after the training. The goal in delaying the
evaluation is to give counselors time to apply what they learned in the training as they work with
students. The evaluation tool assesses satisfaction and relevance (level one), confidence and
commitment (level two), critical behaviors and required drivers (level three) and results (level
four) utilizing Likert-like and open-ended questions. Some of the questions were taken or
adapted from those recommended by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016). The tool will help
determine how much counselors liked the training, whether it increased their confidence and
commitment, whether they are engaging in the critical behaviors, what the organization is doing
to enable or prevent counselors from engaging in the critical behaviors, and whether the
counselors are meeting the goal of supporting all students in creating comprehensive
postsecondary plans.
Data Analysis and Reporting
After administering the evaluation instruments, data should be analyzed and reported to
key stakeholders in the high schools. Key stakeholders include those who are directly or
indirectly involved in the work and, therefore, have some control over decreasing any gaps
between the current status and the goals. In this case, counselors, counseling supervisors, and
principals should receive a report similar to the sample provided in Figure 5. The report is
intended to provide a brief snapshot of the progress counselors are making toward ensuring all
students are supported in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans and first-generation
students are identified and tracked for targeted support. As such, the graph shows the percentage
of counselors who are demonstrating each of the level three critical behaviors as well as the level
four result: how many students have comprehensive postsecondary plans in place. The report
137
should also summarize any barriers counselors identified that may be preventing them from
reaching their goals. By providing this information, school leaders will be able to remove any
organizational barriers that are identified. The report as well as plans to continue to close any
gaps that emerge should be discussed at the weekly counselors’ meetings so counselors remain
focused on actively working toward meeting their goals.
Figure 5
Counselors’ Progress Toward and Barriers Related to Supporting All Students in Creating
Comprehensive Postsecondary Plans
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model provides an integrated framework for planning,
implementing, and evaluating training programs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Following
the New World Kirkpatrick Model, this section identified the level four results and outcomes; the
level three critical behaviors and required drivers; the level two learning program, goals, and
methods for evaluating declarative knowledge, procedural skills, attitude, confidence, and
commitment; and evaluation methods for counselors’ engagement, perceived relevance, and
138
satisfaction at level one. Evaluation tools for formative and summative assessments and a sample
report were also provided. The intent of using the New World Kirkpatrick model and
preemptively identifying the desired outcomes and behaviors critical to success is to ensure the
program is aligned with the organization and stakeholder goals, that barriers are identified and
addressed as quickly as possible, that reasons for closing the gaps or failure to close the gaps are
clear, and that there is a plan in place for demonstrating the value of the program.
Implications for Practice
The results and findings from this study in many ways support existing research and can
provide implications for practice in the fields of school counseling and education more broadly.
The existing literature and this study demonstrate that counselors have inconsistent experiences
with their training and continuing professional development on how to support first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning (Brown et al., 2016; Deslonde & Becerra,
2018; Parikh-Foxx et al., 2020; Savitz-Romer, 2012; Trolley, 2011). Counselor preparation
programs should be proactive in incorporating additional information about comprehensive
postsecondary planning in their courses. School districts, counseling organizations, and
community groups should also develop and market continuing professional development
opportunities with current, application-based promising practices for supporting students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning. The term “application-based” is especially important
here as a number of counselors from Districts 1 and 2 expressed that trainings they attended
focused on sharing information rather than providing applicable recommendations they could
implement. Based on this, it is recommended that trainings provide adaptable procedures, tools,
and job aids related to goal-setting and postsecondary planning. In this study specifically,
counselors reported a desire for and proactively searching for effective training opportunities.
139
Therefore, it is likely that counselors would participate in such training opportunities if they were
aware of them.
There are opportunities to redefine the work of counselors so that they have sufficient
time to focus on work aligned to their professional practice and goals. Counselors in this study
and others stated that they were expected to perform duties unrelated to their professional role
(Bardhoshi et al., 2014; Goodman-Scott et al., 2018; National School Counselors Association,
n.d.). Recommendations were made in this chapter for reviewing counselors’ responsibilities to
ensure they aligned to counseling duties as defined by the National School Counselors
Association (n.d.) as well as to the departments’ and districts’ goals. While this has the potential
to impact counselors in Districts 1 and 2, it does not solve the challenge at the state or national
level. One implication for the field is that counseling organizations and administrator preparation
programs have an opportunity to educate school administrators about the role of counselors,
which duties are considered aligned to their professional roles in the schools, and how to ensure
that counselors’ responsibilities are defined in ways that enable them to meet their goals.
Three recommendations apply more broadly to the field of education: reporting on first-
generation students’ outcomes, developing and standardizing tools for measuring additional
components of college readiness, and providing more consistent definitions of college readiness
and what it means to be a first-generation student. There is a focus on increasing the number of
students matriculating to and completing a college credential in the United States (Complete
College American, n.d.; Higher Education, n.d.; Lumina Foundation, 2019). In order to
accomplish this, more first-generation students will need to pursue postsecondary education.
However, reporting for first-generation students’ outcomes is not as consistent as disaggregating
data by, for example, race or gender. If school, state, and national reports more consistently
140
disaggregated student data by first-generation status, it would be easier to focus on and make
progress toward closing gaps in college readiness, matriculation, and completion rates for first-
generation students.
One challenge in disaggregating the data may be that there are a variety of definitions of
first-generation students, depending on who is defined as a parent and what level of experience
parents had with postsecondary education (Toutkoushian et al., 2018). A more consistent
definition of first-generation students would make disaggregating and comparing data more
feasible. Another area where there is a lack of consistency is in what it means to be college
ready. Even when measuring academic readiness, individual states and schools determine which
test scores and grade point averages qualify students as student ready (Bailey et al., 2010).
Outside of academic readiness, there are no standardized measures of factors such as
noncognitive skills that are also predictors of college success. Creating a consistent definition of
college readiness and implementing tools to measure readiness across the multiple factors that
predict success would assist counselors and students in preparing for postsecondary success.
While this study can provide a number of implications for the fields of school counseling and
education, there were also strengths and weaknesses to the approach.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
This mixed methods study used the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to
examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impacted high school
counselors’ ability to support all students in creating comprehensive postsecondary plans. The
framework provided a strong foundation for examining specific, research-based influences on
counselors’ performance. However, the structure may have focused so heavily on individual
influences that others were missed. The case study design worked well for exploring multiple
141
influences in specific school districts in Curlew County. However, case study design limits the
ability to generalize the results and findings to other school districts within or outside Curlew
County. While the mixed method and case study designs and the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework require a significant investment of time, each contributes to offering a more complete
picture of the topics studied. In addition to the strengths and weaknesses of the approach, the
study itself had limitations and delimitations.
Limitations and Delimitations
The conceptual framework and study design provided a foundation for the study.
However, the study included limitations and delimitations. Limitations are inherent in the study
design, while delimitations are intentional components of the design. The limitations of the
current study included how many high school counselors responded to the survey, how many
counselors volunteered to participate in the interviews, and how many documents were available
for review. In addition to the inherent nature of these limitation in any study, each of these items
was negatively impacted by the shutdowns related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Another
limitation is that the researcher relied on participants to self-report. Therefore, the information
that participants chose to share as well as the truthfulness of their responses were beyond the
control of the researcher.
There were a number of delimitations of the study. Observations are often used in
qualitative research to give researchers first-hand information about behavior and experiences in
natural settings without relying on participants to accurately report their behavior (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 1987). Observations were not included in this study to protect student
privacy. As was mentioned previously, a comprehensive evaluation of postsecondary planning
and college readiness, matriculation, persistence, and completion gaps for first-generation
142
students would require participants from all relevant stakeholder groups across Curlew County.
Delimiting the study to high school counselors in two school districts was necessary due to time
and budget constraints, but only provided the perspective of one stakeholder group at a small
number of high schools. The survey and interview questions may have been delimited in similar
ways. The researcher created questions based on a thorough review of the relevant literature.
However, there may be additional influences on high school counselors’ capacity that were not
evident in the current literature. In addition, this was a preliminary study to explore the status of
high school counselors’ postsecondary planning with first-generation students. Because of this,
the study did not explore high school counselors’ metacognition, an important knowledge
influence, or conduct an in-depth examination of how high school counselors support first-
generation students across each individual component of comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Future Research
The methodology and results and findings of this study provide a number of opportunities
for future research. First, future research could address the delimitations of the study by
expanding to include counselors from other high schools in Curlew County; including other
stakeholder groups in Curlew County, such as teachers or administrators; including observations
of postsecondary planning meetings counselors hold with students; and by studying counselors’
metacognition as a knowledge influence. Additional limitations surfaced in the results and
findings. First, this study examined whether or not counselors had sufficient time to support
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. However, a number of counselors mentioned
concerns about students’ time, specifically about the lost instructional time if students are
meeting with counselors during their class time. Future research could weigh the costs and
143
benefits of the time students spend with counselors and determine how to dedicate time for
students to meet with counselors to discuss postsecondary planning.
Some of the differences between districts 1 and 2 could also be explored further, both as
they relate to this study in Curlew County and in how they may be present in other districts in the
United States. First, a counselor in District 1 mentioned that getting a new caseload of students
each year negatively impacted their ability to build relationships with students, support them, and
track their progress throughout their time in high school. In District 2, a counselor mentioned
that the ability to work with a consistent caseload enabled them to better support their students.
Further research could examine the impact of changing student caseloads on counselors’ moral,
motivation, and ability to meet their goals. Additionally, despite the fact that counselors in
District 2 had higher student caseloads than counselors in District 1, more counselors in District
2 reported having sufficient time to support students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. A
potential explanation for this is that District 2 had procedures in place for supporting students’
postsecondary planning. Future research could determine whether procedures do in fact help
mitigate the negative impact of high student-to-counselor ratios. This was an exploratory study to
understand how counselors in two districts in Curlew County were supporting first-generation
students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. As an exploratory study, it presents a number
of opportunities for further research to address the limitations and delimitations of the study and
to further explore topics that emerged through the surveys, interviews, and document analysis.
Conclusion
The purpose of this project was to explore how high school counselors in two school
districts in Curlew County were supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning in an effort to meet Curlew Coalition’s goal of closing college readiness
144
gaps for first-generation students. The mixed methods study used the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework to explore counselors’ knowledge and motivation related to assisting students with
postsecondary planning as well as how the organizational context supported or hindered
counselors in meeting their goals. The results and findings indicated that counselors had the
necessary knowledge related to the definition of first-generation students, the comprehensive
definition of college readiness, and how to support students as they set goals related to
postsecondary plans. Counselors also had high self-efficacy for and valued supporting first-
generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary plans.
The results for the organizational influences were more mixed. There was evidence of
collaborative cultures in the high schools, but counselors did not report having the recommended
student-to-counselor ratios or having enough time to support students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. Additionally, there was no evidence that the high schools had
procedures in place for formally identifying and tracking first-generation students. While District
2 had procedures in place for supporting students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning,
District 1 did not have similar procedures. Finally, counselors reported varying degrees of access
to effective training. Therefore, this chapter presented recommendations for redefining
counselors’ responsibilities, creating and marketing training opportunities, and implementing a
learning program to develop and share procedures for supporting students’ goal-setting related to
postsecondary plans and for formally identifying first-generation students. Given the key role
counselors play in supporting students across the components of comprehensive postsecondary
plans, the counselors’ strong knowledge and motivation are assets to the schools and students
they serve. Curlew Coalition and Curlew County high schools can positively impact the college
readiness, matriculation, persistence, and completion rates for first-generation students by
145
implementing the recommendations to support counselors’ work, evaluating their effectiveness,
and continuing to monitor the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences for all
stakeholders supporting students’ success.
146
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Appendix A
Survey Items
Survey Item (Question and Response)
Scale of
Measurement
Potential Analyses
In a typical week, what percentage of time are
you spending on each of these activities?
*Please give your best estimate. The sum of
the percentages does not need to equal 100%.
• Supporting students’ postsecondary
preparation (slider 0-100)
• Supporting first-generation students’
postsecondary preparation (slider 0-
100)
• Supporting students’ high school
success (slider 0-100)
• Supporting students’ career readiness
(slider 0-100)
• Supporting students’ personal growth
(slider 0-100)
Non-counseling duties (including
testing, lunch duty, and scheduling)
(slider 0-100)
Ratio Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, mean,
standard deviation,
range
In your opinion, how important are the
following areas of support for first-generation
students’ success in future postsecondary
environments?
(1-10 slider - 1: Not at all important – 10:
Critically important)
• Raising awareness about college
• Career exploration
• Academic
• Learning strategies
• Social-emotional
• Financial
• Goal-setting
Interval Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
How much does your support for first-
generation students’ postsecondary planning
differ from your support for non-first-
generation students’ postsecondary planning?
(Not at all-very little-somewhat-to a great
extent)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
166
Survey Item (Question and Response)
Scale of
Measurement
Potential Analyses
Follow up: Please explain how your support is
different (free response).
What are the biggest challenges you face in
supporting first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning? (free
response)
For this survey, comprehensive postsecondary
plans include college aspirations, planning,
exploration, application, and knowledge;
career exploration and planning; academic
preparation; learning strategies; social-
emotional learning; and financial knowledge
and financial aid.
Nominal Percentage, frequency
I believe comprehensive postsecondary
planning is critical to students’ postsecondary
success. (Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-
strongly agree)
Follow up: Why do you feel this way? (free
response)
For this survey, comprehensive postsecondary
plans include college aspirations, planning,
exploration, application, and knowledge;
career exploration and planning; academic
preparation; learning strategies; social-
emotional learning; and financial knowledge
and financial aid.
Nominal, Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
I have adequate time to support my first-
generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning. (Strongly disagree-
disagree-agree-strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
I am confident I can help first-generation
students
• Learn about college.
• Explore careers.
• Gain academic knowledge.
• Use learning strategies.
• With social-emotional learning.
Ordinal
Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
167
Survey Item (Question and Response)
Scale of
Measurement
Potential Analyses
• Understand their options for paying for
college.
• Set goals
(Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-strongly
agree for each)
Factors beyond my control have a greater
influence on first-generation students’ abilities
to create comprehensive postsecondary plans
than I do. (Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-
strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
The training I received in my school
counseling preparation program prepared me
to support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning. (Strongly disagree-
disagree-agree-strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
My high school provides training that
strengthens my ability to support first-
generation students’ postsecondary planning.
(Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-strongly
agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
My high school has procedures in place to
support first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning.
(Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-strongly
agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
The procedures my high school has in place to
support first-generation students’
comprehensive postsecondary planning are
easy to understand. (Strongly disagree-
disagree-agree-strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
My high school encourages me to collaborate
with parents. (Strongly disagree-disagree-
agree-strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
My high school encourages me to collaborate
with internal colleagues at the high school.
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
168
Survey Item (Question and Response)
Scale of
Measurement
Potential Analyses
(Strongly disagree-disagree-agree-strongly
agree)
My high school encourages me to collaborate
with external partners. (Strongly disagree-
disagree-agree-strongly agree)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
How often do you collaborate with each
stakeholder group below to support first-
generation students’ comprehensive
postsecondary planning? (never-rarely-often-
always)
• Teachers at the high school
• Other counselors at the high school
• Administrators at the high school
• Other staff at the high school
• Parents
• Postsecondary institutions
• Community groups
• Other (write in response)
Ordinal Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, range
Please write the name of the high school where
you work. (free response)
Nominal Percentage, frequency
Do you work directly with students? (yes/no)
Nominal
Percentage, frequency
Which students do you work within your role
as a counselor? (Select all that apply: 9
th
grade,
10
th
grade, 11
th
grade, 12
th
grade, other)
Nominal Percentage, frequency
How many students are on your caseload? Ratio Percentage, frequency,
mode, median, mean,
standard deviation,
range
Do you consider yourself a beginning (0-10
years of experience), mid-career (11-20 years
of experience), or end of career counselor (21
years or more)?
Nominal Percentage, frequency
169
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
Introduction
• Thank you (time and expertise)
• Goal (learn more about how you support first-generation students’ postsecondary
planning).
• Confidentiality (use of pseudonyms, not revealing who participated, identifying
information locked in my home, records destroyed after project completion)
• Information sheet (participation voluntary, withdraw or skip questions at any time)
• Permission to record (notes, but want to capture experience and perspective,
transcription)
• Start recording, get verbal permission to record.
Questions
1. I would like to begin by getting a general understanding of your work. As a high school
counselor, what would be the ideal way you would spend your workday?
• Probe: How closely does this match how you are able to spend your time on a typical
day?
2. How much time are you able to spend talking with students about their postsecondary plans?
• Probe: To what degree do you feel you have adequate time to support students'
postsecondary planning?
3. How, if at all, do you talk to students about their postsecondary plans?
• Probe: Would you walk me through your most recent postsecondary meeting with a
student?
170
• Probe: To what degree was it a typical meeting?
• Probe: What procedures, if any, do you follow to support students' postsecondary
planning?
• Probe: Who created these procedures?
• Probe: How old are these procedures?
• Probe: Do you anticipate any changes to these procedures in the future?
4. What would you consider a comprehensive postsecondary plan?
• Probe: Are there any specific components that you feel are required for postsecondary
plans to be comprehensive?
5. What is your experience in helping students set goals related to their postsecondary plans?
• Probe: How, if at all, do you help students review their progress toward their goals?
6. What training, if any, have you received about how to help students create comprehensive
postsecondary plans?
• Probe: To what degree do you feel the training was adequate?
• Probe: What additional training, if any, would you like?
• Probe: What training, if any, was part of your school counseling preparation program?
• Probe: What training if any, is provided by your school district?
• Probe: What training, if any, is available outside your high school (for example, through
professional organizations)?
7. What additional support, if any, have you received from your high school to support your
work with postsecondary planning?
• Probe: In what ways, if any, has the support been helpful?
• Probe: What other support, if any, would you like from your high school?
171
8. Now I would like to learn more about your experience working with others to support
students’ postsecondary planning. Which colleagues at your high school, if any, are you
encouraged to collaborate with to support students' postsecondary planning?
• Probe: Please provide an example of the last time you collaborated with a colleague.
• Probe: How successful do you feel the collaboration was?
• Probe: How, if at all, do you feel the high school supported this collaboration?
9. Which partners outside of the high school, if any, are you encouraged to collaborate with to
support students’ postsecondary planning?
• Probe: Please provide an example of the last time you collaborated with an external
partner.
• Probe: How successful do you feel the collaboration was?
• Probe: How, if at all, do you feel the high school supported this collaboration?
10. What advice, if any, would you give to other high school counselors about supporting
students' postsecondary planning?
11. Now I'd like to focus on postsecondary planning for first-generation students. In your work
as a counselor, how do you, if at all, identify whether a student is a first-generation student?
• Probe: How did you develop this process?
• Probe: What procedures or support, if any, does the high school provide for identifying
first-generation students?
12. Some people say first-generation students should receive the same support as any other
student. What are your thoughts about this?
• Probe: How, if at all, does your support for first-generation students differ from the way
you support non-first-generation students?
172
13. What support, if any, has your high school provided to assist your work with first-generation
students?
• Probe: In what ways, if any, has the support been helpful?
• Probe: What other support, if any, would you like from your high school?
14. What advice, if any, would you give to other high school counselors about supporting first-
generation students' postsecondary planning?
15. What additional information do you feel it is important for me to know related to how you
support first-generation students’ postsecondary planning?
16. Are there any procedures, letters, handouts, or documents you can share with me that you
think would be helpful as I study how high school counselors support first-generation students’
postsecondary planning?
Conclusion
• Thank you again (time and sharing perspective)
• Contact information (follow up questions, decision to withdraw specific answers or
completely)
• Contact for follow up questions or to confirmation of accuracy
• Interest in the completed study or overview?
173
Appendix C
Document Analysis Protocol
Websites, Letters, and Handouts
1. Does the document mention
a. first-generation students
b. how first-generation students are identified, or
c. any individualized services for first-generation students?
2. Does the document mention services related to any of the components of comprehensive
postsecondary plans?
a. College aspirations, planning, exploration, application, and knowledge
b. Career exploration and planning
c. Academic knowledge gained through high school coursework
d. Learning strategies such as time management, note-taking, and study skills
e. Social-emotional learning including self-efficacy, self-management and interpersonal
skills
f. Financial knowledge including financial aid options and how to pay for college
g. Goal-setting related to postsecondary planning
3. Does the document feature collaborative partnerships related to first-generation students?
4. Does the document feature collaborative partnerships related to postsecondary planning?
5. What is the student-to-counselor ratio?
Postsecondary Planning Policies and Procedures
1. Do the policies and procedures address identifying and supporting first-generation
students?
174
2. Do the policies and procedures address the comprehensive components of postsecondary
plans?
a. College aspirations, planning, exploration, application, and knowledge
b. Career exploration and planning
c. Academic knowledge gained through high school coursework
d. Learning strategies such as time management, note-taking, and study skills
e. Social-emotional learning including self-efficacy, self-management and interpersonal
skills
f. Financial knowledge including financial aid options and how to pay for college
g. Goal-setting related to postsecondary planning
175
Appendix D
Evaluation Tool for Postsecondary Planning Trainer
Training:
Trainer Name:
Date:
Trainers: Please answer the following questions and add your notes and reflections either during
the training or immediately after the training.
Trainer’s Notes: Day 1
Component Yes No Notes
Were counselors able to accurately
answer questions about promising
practices in goal setting for each
component of comprehensive
postsecondary plans?
Were counselors able to effectively
evaluate promising practices related
to goal setting for each component
of comprehensive postsecondary
plans?
Did counselors engage with the
training by offering you their full
attention and asking questions when
appropriate?
Did counselors participate in
activities and discussions during the
training?
When conducting pulse checks
throughout the training, did
counselors report that the training
was relevant?
When conducting pulse checks
throughout the training, did
counselors report being satisfied
with the training?
176
Trainer’s Notes: Day 2
Component Yes No Notes
Were counselors able to accurately
answer questions related to identifying
and tracking first-generation students?
Were counselors able to locate or enter
students’ first-generation status in the
student management system?
During the discussions about
implementing the comprehensive
postsecondary planning goal-setting
procedures, did counselors express
confidence in their ability to follow
the procedures in meetings with
students?
During the discussions about
implementing the comprehensive
postsecondary planning goal-setting
procedures, did counselors commit to
following the procedures during
student meetings?
What barriers, if any, did counselors anticipate facing when attempting to implement the
postsecondary planning goal-setting procedures?
During the discussions about
identifying and tracking first-
generation students, did counselors
express confidence in their ability to
follow the procedures?
During the discussions about
identifying and tracking first-
generation students, did counselors
commit to following the new
procedures?
177
What barriers, if any, did counselors anticipate facing when attempting to implement the new
procedures for identifying and tracking first-generation students?
Were counselors engaged during the
training?
Did counselors participate in activities
and discussions during the training?
When conducting pulse checks
throughout the training, did counselors
report that the training was relevant?
When conducting pulse checks
throughout the training, did counselors
report being satisfied with the
training?
178
Appendix E
Postsecondary Planning Training Survey for Counselors
Please answer the questions below about the two-day training you participated in that focused on
comprehensive postsecondary planning for first-generation students.
1. The training was a good use of my time.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
2. I am able to apply the information from the training in my job as a high school counselor.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
3. What information could be added to the training to make it more applicable for you?
4. I am confident I can help first-generation students create comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
5. What about the training, if anything, changed your confidence level?
179
6. What percentage of your first-generation students currently have comprehensive
postsecondary plans? ______%
7. Are you able to meet with all of your students at least once per semester?
No
Yes
8. What is enabling you to meet with your students at least once per semester?
9. What is preventing you from meeting with your students at least once per semester??
10. Are you discussing postsecondary plans in every meeting you have with students?
No
Yes
11. What is enabling you to discuss postsecondary planning in every student meeting?
12. What is preventing you from discussing postsecondary planning in every student meeting?
13. I am able to track the outcomes of first-generation students.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
14. What is enabling you to track the outcomes of first-generation students?
180
15. What is preventing you from tracking the outcomes of first-generation students?
16. How often is comprehensive postsecondary planning discussed in your counseling meetings?
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
17. How often do you receive feedback about your postsecondary planning work with students?
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
18. How many students are on your caseload? __________
Of those students, how many have comprehensive postsecondary plans in place? __________
19. I am able to help all my students create comprehensive postsecondary plans.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
20. What is enabling you to help all your students create comprehensive postsecondary plans?
181
21. What is preventing you from helping all your students create comprehensive postsecondary
plans?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this project was to explore the degree to which Curlew Coalition, an organization that brings together educational leaders to support student success, was meeting its goal of ensuring first-generation students in Curlew County graduate from high school at the same level of college readiness as their non-first-generation peers. The study focused on how high school counselors contributed to this goal by using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to explore the degree to which counselors had the knowledge, skills, and motivation as well as a supportive organizational culture and the resources necessary to effectively support first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. The explanatory sequential mixed methods design involved surveys of and interviews with high school counselors who worked directly with students in target school districts. Existing organizational documents related to postsecondary planning were also analyzed. Descriptive statistics and percentage, mode, and frequency from the survey data and coded and categorized findings from the interviews revealed that counselors had the necessary knowledge and motivation to support students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. Counselors had a clear understanding of the criteria for defining first-generation students, holistic definitions of college readiness, and how to help students set goals. They also valued and had high-self efficacy for supporting first-generation students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning. However, counselors lacked some of the requisite organizational supports including having access to and awareness of effective training, having sufficient time to support students’ comprehensive postsecondary planning, and having procedures in place for goal-setting related to postsecondary planning and formally identifying and tracking first-generation students. Therefore, this study culminated with recommendations for practice to address each of these gaps as well as an integrated implementation and evaluation plan based on Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Stashkiw, Sarah Katherine
(author)
Core Title
High school counselors’ support of first-generation students’ postsecondary planning: an evaluative study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
09/02/2020
Defense Date
08/03/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
counselors,first-generation,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Seli, Helena (
committee chair
), Phillips, Jennifer (
committee member
), Riggio, Marsha (
committee member
)
Creator Email
SarahStashkiw@hotmail.com,stashkiw@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-366116
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366116
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Stashkiw, Sarah Katherine
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(contributing entity),
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Tags
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