University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Cultivating culturally competent educators

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Cultivating culturally competent educators

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CULTIVATING CULTURALLY COMPETENT EDUCATORS

by
Kate Dickinson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Kate Dickinson
ii
DEDICATION
For my children who are a constant reminder that, in the words of Zora Neale Hurston,
“No matter how far a person can go, the horizon is still way beyond you,” and for my
grandparents whose believed that, “love goes forward,” in pursuit of that horizon.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to my family for understanding that learning, wondering, and creating are acts
of self-care. Anthony, thank you for your patience, love, and commitment to children
everywhere, especially ours. I appreciate you making space for me to pursue this work and I am
so thankful to do the work alongside you.
Luella, seeing the world through your eyes has been the most tremendous gift. Thank you
for your wild and creative mind, curious and critical wonderings, your fantastic plans, and fierce
sense of self. Zora, thank you for knowing my heart. Whenever I needed to be alone, you were
right there with me. Thank you for your brilliant insights into what it takes to teach for social
justice through human relationships, and for your deep connection to the feelings and needs of
people.
To the team of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and extended non-grandparents, thank you for
everything you have done to make the weeks and weekends of research and writing feel like
camp for my girls. Thank you to the friends who provided much needed humor, walks on
beaches and in forests, and homes away from home for me to work—whether a quiet space or
one filled with dogs, toddlers, bats, or other distractions that weren’t my responsibility.
Thank you to my committee members and colleagues for your willingness to continually
support me in pursuing this project, and for providing valuable insight and feedback. I owe a
special thanks to Dr. Tambascia for endless encouragement and guidance. Beyond those I have
worked with directly I want to acknowledge decades and lifetimes of tireless work and brilliant
scholarship in this field. To all of the educators and leaders who have been silenced and
marginalized but continue to bring critical consciousness to their work toward freedom and
social justice, thank you.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter One: Overview of the Study ............................................................................................. 1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice ............................................................................... 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 3
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................. 4
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................. 5
Importance of the Evaluation .............................................................................................. 6
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 6
Stakeholder Group of Focus ................................................................................................ 7
Stakeholder Performance Goal ............................................................................................ 8
Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 8
Key Definitions ................................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Paper .................................................................................................. 11

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 12
Rationale for Cultural Competency in Schools ................................................................. 12
Student Outcomes ...................................................................................... 14
Focus on Teachers ..................................................................................... 14
Social Justice, Equity, White Supremacy and the Role of Education ............................... 15
Historic Inequity & White Supremacy ...................................................... 16
Education for Social Justice ...................................................................... 18
Challenges to Teacher Cultural Competence .................................................................... 20
Demographics of Teachers and Teacher Candidates ................................. 20
Socioeconomic Factors .............................................................................. 23
Cultural Competency in Teacher Education and Preparation Programs ........................... 23
Critical Race Theory .................................................................................. 25
Bias & Cultural Competency in K-12 Professional Settings ............................................. 27
Hiring and Retention ................................................................................. 27
Cultural Competence in Professional Teaching Communities .................. 28
White Identity and Racial Literacy ............................................................ 28
Educational Implications for White Teachers ........................................... 29
Bias and Empathy in Education ........................................................................................ 30
Social, Emotional, and Relational Nature of Teaching ............................. 30
Neuroscience of Bias and Empathy ........................................................... 31
v
Cultivating Culturally Self-Aware and Competent Educators .......................................... 32
Gap Analysis Framework .................................................................................................. 33
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ................................ 34
Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................ 34
Knowledge About Systemic Bias and Diverse Experiences ..................... 36
Planning and Implementing Culturally Competent Pedagogy .................. 37
Examining Pedagogy Through the Lens of Equity ................................... 37
Motivation ................................................................................................. 40
Value .......................................................................................................... 40
Self-Efficacy Theory ................................................................................. 41
Emotions .................................................................................................... 42
Organization .............................................................................................. 44
Risk-Taking in a Learning Organization ................................................... 46
Social Justice Orientation to Develop Culturally Competent Students ..... 47
Personal Development ............................................................................... 49
Professional Coaching ............................................................................... 50
Interaction of Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context ..................... 52
Centrality of the Educator ......................................................................... 54
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 55

Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 57
Challenges in Evaluating Cultural Competence ................................................................ 57
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 58
Sampling Approach ................................................................................... 58
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale ............................................... 59
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale ........................................... 61
Explanation for Choices ............................................................................ 62
Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................................. 62
Observation ................................................................................................ 63
Observation Protocol ................................................................................. 63
Observation Procedures ............................................................................. 64
Interviews .................................................................................................. 65
Interview Protocol ..................................................................................... 65
Interview Procedures ................................................................................. 66
Documents and Artifacts ........................................................................... 67
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 68
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 68
Procedures and Protocols .......................................................................... 68
Triangulation of Rich Data ........................................................................ 69
Reflexivity of the Researcher .................................................................... 70
Ethics ......................................................................................................... 70
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................... 71

Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 73
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 75
Findings ............................................................................................................................. 75
vi
Knowledge Findings .................................................................................. 78
Conceptual Knowledge Findings .............................................................. 78
Procedural Knowledge Findings ............................................................... 81
Metacognitive Knowledge Findings .......................................................... 86
Motivation Findings .................................................................................. 89
Utility Value Findings ............................................................................... 89
Self-Efficacy Findings ............................................................................... 91
Emotions Findings ..................................................................................... 92
Organizational Findings ............................................................................ 95
Cultural Model: Supported Risk Taking in a Learning Organization ....... 95
Cultural Model: Social Justice Orientation ............................................. 100
Cultural Setting: Resources Allocated to Personal Work Around Bias .. 101
Cultural Setting: Professional Coaching ................................................. 103
Themes ............................................................................................................................ 104
Culture of Silence .................................................................................... 104
Passive Silencing ..................................................................................... 105
Structures that Reinforce Silence ............................................................ 106
Active Silencing ...................................................................................... 108
Power, Permission and Politics ............................................................... 109
Permission ............................................................................................... 110
Politics ..................................................................................................... 112
Coaching to Develop Procedural Knowledge and Increase Self-Efficacy
................................................................................................................. 113
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 114

Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................. 116
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................ 116
Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................................... 134
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach .................................................................... 134
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 134
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 135
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 136

References .................................................................................................................................. 137

Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 166
Appendix A: KMO Influences ........................................................................................ 166
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ...................................................................................... 167
Appendix C: Observation Protocol ................................................................................. 171
Appendix D: Document, Artifact, and Existing Data Protocol ....................................... 174
Appendix E: Information Sheet ....................................................................................... 176
Appendix F: Implementation and Evaluation Plan ......................................................... 177

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals ..................... 8
Table 2: Knowledge Influences ..................................................................................................... 39
Table 3: Motivation Influences ..................................................................................................... 44
Table 4: Organizational Influences: .............................................................................................. 51
Table 5: Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and Findings ........... 77
Table 6: Summary of Recommendations for Practice ................................................................. 120
Table 7: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ........................ 178
Table 8: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................... 179
Table 9: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors. .......................................................... 180
Table 10: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ...................................... 185

viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Interactive conceptual framework .................................................................................. 54

ix
ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the impact of a K-12 school organization’s professional
development program on culturally competent classroom practice. The qualitative study
interviewed White teachers to explore knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
their ability to enact culturally competent pedagogy. The study found that the organizational
influences of supported risk taking and social justice, undergirded by politics, permission, and
silence, were powerful in shaping teachers' knowledge and motivation related to culturally
competent practice. The study found that though gaps in organizational culture were the primary
influences, gaps in procedural knowledge, self-efficacy, and a need for ongoing non-evaluative
professional coaching for both teachers and administrators were also relevant. Recommendations
address an organizational culture of silence, politics and permission, as well as practical needs
for coaching to support teachers in developing skills and self-efficacy for a culturally competent
teaching practice.

1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This study focused on the cultural competence of K-12 teachers in the United States
(DeJaeghere & Zhang, 2008; Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2000). Cultural
competency and culturally relevant pedagogy have become widely adopted in the rhetoric in K-
12 education, but there is little alignment between cultural competency as an espoused value, and
understanding of cultural competence as a framework rooted in critical sociopolitical
consciousness that has practical applications in classroom practice (Gay, 2010; Morrison,
Robbins & Rose, 2008; Young, 2010).
Cultural competence is evolutionary, both as a concept in the literature and in the
development of individuals and organizations. Terminology in the research related to this topic
has evolved over time. In the 1980’s and 1990’s, the term multicultural education was prevalent,
defined by Banks and Banks (1989) as incorporating the idea that all students should have an
equal opportunity to learn in school, regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, social class, or other
cultural characteristics; this concept was undergirded in the literature by the concept of critically
examining structural and institutional mechanisms of schools that systemically denied these
rights to students (Nieto, 1992; Gay, 1995). Ladson-Billings (1994) introduced the concept of
culturally relevant pedagogy with a focus on integrating critical race theory, and using students’
cultural referents as assets. Scholars including Gay (2001) made a case for culturally responsive
teaching, examining the cultural experiences that influence the learning process and engaging
with students experiences and perspectives in the classroom. The concept of cultural competence
has also gone through considerable evolution since it was proposed by Cross et al. (1989), and
subsequently adapted and integrated across disciplines. In the context of this study, cultural
2
competence is defined as the set of values, behaviors, values, attitudes, and practices within a
system, organization, program, or individuals which enables them to work effectively cross-
culturally (Denboba, 1993). This definition of cultural competence includes critical self-
reflection and critical examination of policies and systems that influence intercultural and cross-
cultural interactions. The concept of cultural humility, which centers self-evaluation and self-
critique in order to build intercultural alliances and remediate power imbalances, has been
adopted in the disciplines of healthcare and medical education, but it not yet prevalent in the
field of education (Lund & Lee, 2018; Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998). Danso (2018) argues
that though there is semantic appeal, the construct of cultural humility is not significantly
functionally more valuable than cultural competence.
As priorities of 21
st
century education have shifted toward critical thinking, creative
problem solving, and engaged collaboration (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007, Binkley et
al, 2012, Kereluik et al, 2013), cultural competency is necessary to meet the diverse needs of
students (Nieto, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 200; Lawrence & Tatum, 2004). In the U.S., the purpose
of education includes preparing students for work and life in an increasingly diverse and
pluralistic world (Darling-Hammond, 2015). Beyond this more practical purpose, educational
theorists and philosophers have conceptualized education as liberation (Friere, 1985), revolution
(McLaren, 2000), freedom (Hooks, 1994), social justice, and a model for democratic social
reform (Dewey, 2014). In order to educate students for a changing world and develop their
capacity to build a better future, increasing educators’ capacity is essential.
For many low income and minoritized students, the persistent opportunity gap continues
to widen, driven by a wedge comprised of systemic racism, economic disparity, and historical
and contemporary oppression (Reardon, 2013; Shapiro, Meschede & Osoro, 2013; Miller, 1995;
3
Ladson-Billings, 2006; Carter & Welner, 2013; Nkomo & Arliss, 2014). Institutionally
sanctioned discrimination and oppression within the education system works to compound the
inequity in today’s schools (Darling-Hammond, 2004, 2015; Leonardo, 2004; Spring, 2016).
Research indicates that the field of education continues to be negatively impacted by systemic
structural racism, implicit cultural bias, and a lack of culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-
Billings, 2004; Sleeter, 2017). In an increasingly diverse society, teachers must engage in a
process of learning and growth that has the potential to transform their classroom practice.
Beyond moral and ethical obligations, educators have a legal obligation to provide equitable
educational access to all children, as federally mandated by the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA, 2015). In the current cultural context in the United States, organizations across
disciplines are taking steps toward training employees on issues of diversity, equity, and
inclusion. However, the efficacy of these initiatives in creating behavior change among
stakeholders is limited. This study looks to explore how inclusion, diversity, and equity
initiatives that seek to target identity and implicit bias, influence teaching practice in K-12
settings.
Organizational Context and Mission
Forest Community School (FCS), a pseudonym, is a privately funded, nonprofit,
independent K-12 school. FCS is located in the metro area of a politically progressive major U.S.
city on the West coast and has been in operation for more than 125 years. According to 2018-
2019 school profile data, FCS currently serves about 900 students, 45% of whom are students of
color, including a significant number of international students. Though FCS reports that
approximately 20% of students receive some financial assistance, annual tuition begins at over
$30,000 for kindergarteners. The mission of FCS is to prepare students intellectually, physically,
4
socially, emotionally, artistically, and spiritually to positively impact local and world
communities (FCS, 2019).
A new strategic plan was developed just over five years ago by a committee of
stakeholders including board members, community members, parents, students, alumni,
administration, staff and faculty. The FCS strategic plan includes an intentional focus on
inclusion, diversity, and equity. As part of this commitment, a new Director of Diversity, Equity,
and Inclusion (DEI) was established and broadly defined to lead and oversee inclusion and
diversity initiatives to support cultural competency at the organizational and individual level. As
part of a larger organizational goal of acting to be inclusive, teachers at FCS are expected to
apply professional learning about cultural competency to their classroom practice.
Organizational Goal
This study addressed FCS’ organizational goal is to be an inclusive institution by
becoming both individually and institutionally culturally competent. Within this organizational
goal, the organization identified four domains as areas of focus: building self-awareness,
developing intercultural communication skills, cultivating cultural knowledge, and acting to be
inclusive. Much of the organizational focus has been on providing professional development and
training related to self-awareness, intercultural communication, and developing cultural
knowledge. The identification of inclusive action as an area of focus was designed to address the
extent to which the organization and its members are able to apply and transfer learning from
professional development, in what Kirkpatrick (2005) has identified as a level 3 behavior
change. The intention put forth in FCS’s strategic plan is not a specific measurable goal, but
rather a goal with a number of indicators across stakeholder groups. For teachers, a proposed
organizational goal is that all faculty will demonstrate culturally competent action by applying
5
professional learning to inclusive and culturally relevant pedagogy. Though inclusivity,
openness, and concepts of global citizenship and inquiry have been part of the school throughout
its history, the strategic plan sought to tackle implicit bias and hegemony in a shift to align
artifacts and action with the espoused values of the organization. Reaching the goal would
indicate successful transfer of professional learning initiatives, positions, and funding dedicated
to improving cultural competency.
Background of the Problem
The demographics of teachers in the United States do not reflect the demographics of the
students served in K-12 schools. In 2014, 82% of teachers in K-12 public school settings were
White, serving students who were more than 50% non-White, a discrepancy which was present
in all 50 states (U.S Department of Education, 2016). Students of color have significantly better
social, emotional, and academic outcomes when they have teachers who share their identity
(Dee, 2014; Gershenson et al, 2017; Holt & Gershenson, 2015), but there are systemic
roadblocks throughout the journey to becoming a teacher for people of color (Brown, 2014;
Bryan et al, 2012; Bryan, 2017; Cochran-Smith et al, 2015; D’amico, Pawlewicz, Early &
McGeehan, 2017; Harper, Patton & Wooden, 2009; Simon, Johnson & Reinhorn, 2015). White
teachers are not equipped to effectively teach the communities they serve (Delpit, 1988; Ladson-
Billings, 2000; Cochran Smith et al, 2009; Gay, 2010; Gorski, 2009; Howard, 2010), and their
deficit in cultural competence undermines progress toward cultivating a more diverse workforce
(Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012; Ahmad & Boser, 2014; Amos, 2010; Cochran-Smith, 2010;
Ingersoll & May, 2011 ). This deficit is not only one of skill, curriculum, or resource (Brown-
Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 2008; Sleeter, 2017) but rather personal and relational,
6
fueled by implicit bias and understanding (Case, 2012; Chick, Karis & Kernhan, 2009;
DiAngelo, 2011; Eberhardt, 2019; King, 2015; Kohli & Pizarro, 2016; Matias, 2013).
Importance of the Evaluation
This problem is important to address in order to mitigate or remove racial barriers to
educational opportunity and increase equity in education. In order to reduce this opportunity gap,
teachers who are mostly white and mostly female need to build their capacity to reach and teach
students with identities other than their own, and the field of education must find ways to recruit
and retain teachers of color. This paper addresses short-term and long-term implications of this
problem. In the short-term, failure to address this problem sustains systemic oppression of
students of color. In the long term, teachers’ ability to facilitate meaningful and coherent
conversations about race, bias, and inequity in their classroom has far reaching societal impact.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2016) 39% of teachers had been in the
profession between 10-20 years, and an additional 23 percent had been teaching for more than 20
years. Over the course of a career, the average teacher has thousands of contact hours with
hundreds of students during formative years of social emotional and academic development. The
role of teachers is to provide expert guidance and support in all of these areas.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are numerous stakeholders who contribute to and are impacted by culturally
competent pedagogy; core stakeholders are identified as board members, administrators,
students, and teachers. The role of the board is critical in identifying, funding, and monitoring
strategic initiatives. Administrators are responsible for hiring, overseeing implementation, and
providing professional resources for teachers. The student experience is the focus of the
planning, curriculum, and pedagogy in a K-12 organization. Students potentially have the most
7
to gain from successful implementation of culturally competent and inclusive pedagogy, both in
their direct experience, and in developing an understanding of multiple perspectives as part of
their formative school experience. Teachers are the primary contact for children and families,
and serve as leaders and facilitators with students in the classroom.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
Though a comprehensive analysis would include all stakeholder groups, this study
focused specifically on the capacity and efficacy of classroom teachers in inclusive and
culturally competent pedagogy. FCS has approximately 125 full time teachers, about 90% of
whom are White. Teaching certification is not a requirement of all teachers in the organization;
however, all job descriptions for new teacher hiring require a master’s degree and at least five
years of experience in a full-time teaching position, with a strong preference for teachers holding
state certification. The majority of teachers were employed by the school before the adoption of
the most recent strategic plan and public-facing commitment to inclusion and diversity. Though
teachers often shift positions, there is relatively low teacher turnover, with some teachers
remaining in the organization for up to forty years.
Teachers were selected as the stakeholder focus because it is their cultural competency
and depth of understanding of culturally proficient pedagogy that creates the most variation in
the student experience. The stakeholder goals were determined with attention to pedagogy and
transfer of professional learning into practical application in the classroom setting.
Administrators, the teacher leadership team, and the DEI director collaborate on goal
identification and measurement. Application to classroom practice was measured through semi-
structured interviews, observations of collaborative team curriculum planning sessions, and
analysis of documents and artifacts provided by teachers. Full time teachers at all grade levels
8
have common planning time to work collaboratively in grade-level or departmental teams, in
addition to all-staff meetings and division (lower, middle, upper school) weekly professional
development sessions.
Stakeholder Performance Goal
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goal
Organizational Mission
The mission of FCS is to prepare students intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally,
artistically, and spiritually to positively impact local and world communities (FCS, 2019).
Organizational Performance Goal
One of the DEI goals for FCS is: to become both individually and institutionally culturally
competent through self-awareness, developing intercultural communication skills, cultivating
cultural knowledge, and inclusive action.

Stakeholder Performance Goal
This study addressed a goal related to inclusive action that all teachers will demonstrate culturally
competent inclusive action by applying professional learning to enact culturally competent
pedagogy.

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study FCS’s professional development program’s
impact on culturally competent pedagogy related to a larger problem of practice, culturally
competent pedagogy in K-12 classroom settings. The analysis focused on influences in the areas
of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources on teachers’ ability to enact
culturally competent pedagogy. While a complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes teachers were the focus of this analysis to answer the following research
questions:
9
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to culturally competent
pedagogy?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teacher
knowledge and motivation?
Key Definitions
The following are definitions of key terms used throughout this study. Though uniformity
in terminology would yield greater consistency, terminology presented in this study is
representative of the terminology used by individual researchers. The focus on cultural
competency and culturally competent pedagogy is derived from the literature, and mirrors the
language from the organizational goal this evaluation seeks to address.
Bias: Bias is prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person or group compared with another,
usually in a way considered to be unfair (Eberhardt, 2019).
Cultural Awareness: Recognition of the nuances of one's own and other cultures.
Cultural Competence: A set of values, behaviors, values, attitudes, and practices within a
system, organization, program, or individuals which enables them to work effectively
cross-culturally. (Cross et al, 1989; Denboba, 1993)
Cultural Diversity: Differences in race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender, sexual identity,
socioeconomic status, physical ability, language, beliefs, values, behavior patterns, or
customs among various groups within a community, organization, or nation.
Cultural Humility: a construct for understanding and developing a process-oriented approach to
cultural competency. a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique, a desire
to fix power imbalances where none ought to exist, aspiring to develop partnerships with
people and groups who advocate for others (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).
10
Culturally Competent Pedagogy: For the purpose of this study, this term is used to identify
pedagogy that reflects cultural humility of the educator and fosters cultural competency
and develops critical consciousness in students.
Culturally Relevant Teaching: Pedagogy that empowers students […] by using cultural
referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and focuses on student learning,
cultural competence, and sociopolitical or critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Culturally Responsive Teaching using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and
perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively
(Gay, 2002).
Equity: The creation of opportunities for historically underrepresented or minoritized
populations to have equal access to resources and opportunities to participate in all parts
of society.
Implicit Bias: Bias or stereotype that is inaccessible to conscious awareness, regardless of a
belief that the bias exists (Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998).
Inclusion: The active, intentional and ongoing engagement with diversity—in people, in the
curriculum, in the co-curriculum, and in communities (intellectual, social, cultural,
geographical) with which individuals might connect—in ways that increase one’s
awareness, content knowledge, cognitive sophistication and empathic understanding of the
complex ways individuals interact within (and change) systems and institutions.
Oppression: Conscious and unconscious, nonrandom, and organized harassment,
discrimination, exploitation, prejudice and other forms of unequal treatment that
marginalize groups of individuals based on identity and maintains institutional power
through domination.
11
People of Color: used in the United States to describe any person who is not White; the term is
meant to be inclusive among non-White groups, emphasizing common experiences
of racism.
Race: A socially constructed concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis
of various sets of physical characteristics (Bonilla-Silva, 2006).
Racism: a system of advantage based on race (Wellman, 1993; Tatum, 2001).
Social Justice: is both a process and a goal. The goal of social justice is full and equal
participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs for
equitable access and physical and psychological safety (Adams & Bell, 2016).
Organization of the Paper
Five chapters are used to organize this study. The first chapter has provided an overview
of the key concepts and terminology commonly found in the literature about cultural competence
in the field of K-12 education. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the
review of the evaluation framework was provided. Chapter Two provides a review of current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of cultural competency in schools, social
justice, challenges to teacher cultural competence, bias and cultural competence the teaching
profession, and bias and empathy in education will be addressed. Chapter Three details the
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences examined as well as methodology in
sampling, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and findings are described and
analyzed. Chapter Five provides recommendation for practice, based on data and literature as
well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

12
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will examine research on cultural competence in K-12 education in
the United States. The review begins with an overview of foundational literature on the rationale
for, and role of, cultural competency among education in K-12 settings. This is followed by a
review of research identifying deficits in culturally competent pedagogy in school settings,
including gaps in teacher preparation programs. The review provides an in-depth discussion of
literature focused on the social, emotional, and relational nature of teaching, identity
development and how that connects with cultural competency. Finally, the review explores
literature identifying characteristics of effective professional learning practices that lead to
behavior change, with a focus on cultural competency. Following the review of general research
literature, the Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual gap analysis framework is discussed and used to
identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps.
Rationale for Cultural Competency in Schools
Public education in the United States has historically failed to provide equal access to
students of color, which has led to continued disparities in academic success between White
students and students of color in today’s classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, 2017;
Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2016). Educators are responsible for teaching an increasingly diverse
student population according, and the K-12 student population will continue to become
increasingly more diverse, and less White (Hussar & Bailey, 2014; U.S. Department of
Education, 2017). These changing demographics, paired with the existing performance
disparities between White students and students of color, have important implications for
students, teachers, teacher preparation programs, and education policy initiatives.

13
Student Outcomes
There is a well-documented equity gap in social, emotional, and academic education
outcomes for students of color. The most recent data from the National Center of Education
Statistics (U.S. Department of Education, 2017) documents trends in the education of racial and
ethnic groups. In 2017, White fourth and eighth grade students scored 25 or more points higher
in reading and math than Black students, and at least 20 points higher than Latinx students. In
2017, Black students were suspended at three times the rate of White students. Students of color
are more likely to attend schools with fewer resources. In 2016, the percentage of children under
the age of 18 living in poverty was highest for Black children (31%), followed by Latinx
children (26%), and White and Asian children (10% for each) (U.S. Department of Education,
2017). Black and Latinx students are underrepresented in high level math and science courses,
gifted and talented programs, and advanced placement courses; and are disproportionately
referred to special education (Blanchett, 2006) and suspended or expelled from school (U.S.
Department of Education, 2017).
Teachers of color have a positive impact on academic outcomes for students of color,
including improved test scores, increased high school graduation rates, and better school
attendance (Dee, 2014; Gershenson et al, 2017; Holt & Gershenson, 2015). Teachers who share
the racial identity of their students serve as important role models for social, academic,
professional, and economic development. Gomez and Rodriguez (2011) explored ways in which
teachers of color can serve as cultural brokers with the community, engage families, and bring an
empathic lens toward understanding students’ lived experiences. Their study found that when
students and their families see teachers who share their racial identity or cultural background,
they perceive school as welcoming and a place where they belong.
14
Focus on Teachers
Teachers play a pivotal role in shaping students’ school experience. Students of color
frequently face a culture of low expectations from White teachers, with detrimental impact on
student’s academic identity and academic outcomes (Gay, 2013; Ladson-Billings,1995;
McKown & Weinstein, 2008). Culturally responsive pedagogy uses the cultural characteristics,
experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more
effectively (Gay, 2002). Culturally responsive pedagogy is deeply rooted in a mindset that
respects and honors students’ experiences, cultures, and histories, as opposed to a curriculum,
specific set of strategies, or derivative of preconceived notions about what others need (Nieto,
2013). Culturally relevant pedagogy empowers students by using cultural referents to impart
knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1994). In developing a conceptual framework
of culturally relevant pedagogy, Brown-Jeffy and Cooper (2011) conducted a meta-analysis of
the extant literature and identified five themes: identity and achievement, equity and excellence,
developmental appropriateness, teaching the whole child, and student-teacher relationships.”
Though scholars are in widespread agreement about the benefits of culturally competent
pedagogy (Gay, 2002; Howard, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2008), scholars also agree that many
teachers in the US are not prepared to lead and teach with cultural competency in K-12
classrooms (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 2014). Darling-
Hammond (2015) cited evidence that teachers lack consistent access to the kind of teacher
preparation and professional development that can be instrumental in shifting mindsets and belief
systems.
Self-actualization and critical consciousness through self-reflection are imperative in
building teacher capacity for culturally relevant pedagogy (Gay & Kirkland, 2003; Howard,
15
2003; Ladson-Billings, 1998). Culturally relevant pedagogy first requires teachers to recognize
who they are racially, culturally, and economically and how they have learned to view others
who are different from themselves (Shujaa, 1995). Howard (2010) argued that self-reflection
about race and culture of teachers and students is a prerequisite for enacting culturally relevant
teaching. Hooks (2014) wrote about the importance of self-actualization of teachers as a
necessary prerequisite to the engaged pedagogy that has transformative power for equity and
freedom. A component of this self-actualization is developing the capacity to think critically
about identity, power and privilege, in order to bring an equity-minded approach to the field of
education. In a review of literature, Ryan (2006) identified a strong sense of self and an
awareness of how broader social and historical issues affect teaching and learning, as
requirements for teachers in addressing the equity gap through culturally relevant pedagogy. This
is to say that culturally competent pedagogy is only as good as the teachers who are applying it.
This means acknowledging the limitations of educators who have grown up in an unjust society.
In order for educators to develop the capacity to teach all students, they must first understand the
context and history of inequity and bias in education.
Social Justice, Equity, White Supremacy and the Role of Education
The notion of public education as a “great equalizer” introduced by Horace Mann in 1848
has become part of the popular discourse in the U.S. This concept of education as a lever for
economic development and social mobility has been conflated with the misconception that
education in the U.S. has been or is truly about providing equal access to education and its
potential corollary outcomes. The false promise of education as the great equalizer in this sense,
is rooted in an incomplete understanding of the ways race and inequitable social, political, and
economic policies have served to reproduce social stratification of the communities in which
16
public schools are built (Abrams & Gibson, 2007; Lewis, 2001; Ogbu, 1994; Rothstein, 2017;
Sleeter & Grant, 1987). There is neither history nor data to suggest that public education is a
great equalizer (Darling-Hammond, 1998, 2004; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Spring 2016),
but is marked by a “legacy of inequality” (Darling-Hammond, 2015). The history of education in
the US is characterized by inequity and White supremacy (Gillborn, 2005), but also has the
capacity to be a function of and mechanism for social justice (Esposito & Swain, 2009;
Ukpokodu, 2007).
Historic Inequity & White Supremacy
Educational inequity was designed for at the inception of public education and was later a
product of constructing an understanding of people of color as intellectually inferior (Doane &
Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Feagin & Ducey, 2018; Tate, 1997). Public systems and structures in the
United States have been designed to create and perpetuate racial inequity and establish and
maintain White supremacy (Gillborn, 2005; Nkomo & Ariss, 2014; Omi & Winant, 2014). Du
Bois argued in the early 20
th
century that public education operated to pass down white racial
privileges and maintain a caste system in the U.S. (Du Bois, 1935). Modern case studies in
education demonstrate an active protection of White supremacy by teachers and teacher
education (Picower, 2009; Rodriguez, 2009). The history of education in the U.S. is marked by
numerous examples of systemic racial inequity including legally limiting access to education for
people of color, disparate funding and facilities, segregated schools, and unequal access to
qualified teachers (Cremin, 1974; Darling-Hammond, 1998, 2004; Kozol, 2012; Meier, Stuart &
England, 1989; Spring, 2016).
The educational equity gap is inseparable from the racial wealth gap because of
neighborhood (and therefore school district) segregation, and discrepancies in state funding
17
structures, even in states that outlaw inequitable funding of public schools (Knight, 2017;
Ushomirsky & Williams, 2015). According to statistics from the Institute for Policy Studies
(2018), in 2016 the median White family had more than 40 times more wealth than the median
Black or Native American family and 22 times more wealth than the median Latinx family in the
U.S. The racial wealth gap has its roots in slavery, when it was illegal for Black people to own
property or accumulate wealth, and has persisted through intergenerational reproduction of
inequity due to racialized policies in labor, credit, and housing markets (Herring & Henderson,
2016). Racially discriminatory policy prohibiting home ownership has had a lasting impact on
the racial wealth gap, as the majority of transfer of wealth from generation to generation is
through home ownership (Rothstein, 2017). These socioeconomic disparities are compounded by
mass political disenfranchisement of people of color (Brewer & Heitzeg, 2008; Moore, 2017).
Inequity in school funding, disparities in teacher quality, and re-segregation persist as
contemporary challenges. According to NCES (2017), in 2015 30% of students in the US
attended a school that served 75% or more minority students. A 2019 analysis of school funding
statistics found a 23 billion dollar funding gap between predominantly White school districts and
in predominantly non-White districts (EdBuild, 2019). According to state reports to the US
Department of Education in 2015, unqualified and inexperienced teachers were found in
disproportionately high numbers in high-poverty schools and/or schools serving primarily
students of color. These examples, as well as evidence of a persistent opportunity and
achievement gap, are evidence of the false promise of equitable access to education as a right of
US citizenship (Darling-Hammond, 2015).
Teachers must develop a deep understanding of what it means to uphold their
responsibility to teach all students embedded within a sociopolitical system that historically has
18
not equitably included Black and brown citizens (Cochran-Smith et al., 2009; Emdin, 2016;
Zeichner, 2006). White educators seeking to educate for equity must understand that inequity in
educational opportunities and outcomes to date is not a flaw, but a design (Fischer et al., 1996;
Logan, Minca & Adar, 2012). Howard’s (2016) book, We Can’t Teach What We Don’t Knot:
White Teachers, Multiracial Schools examines the role of White teachers within a context of
racial ignorance and white dominance. Emdin (2016) argued that, though well-intended, White
educators are conditioned to teach through an ethnocentric and assimilationist lens, without
critical examination of the underlying assumptions teachers have about students and
sociopolitical histories that influence the educational experience. Well-meaning educators guided
by altruistic beliefs about the transformative power of education are not prepared academically,
or conditioned socially, to bring a historical perspective about the intentionality of inequity (Gay
& Kirkland, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1998; Ryan, 2006). If K-12 public educators are going to be
held to the potential of deconstructing these historic in equities and providing an antidote to
oppressive systems in their professional practice, it is critical that these educators have a deep
working knowledge of the system they are working to dismantle.
Education for Social Justice
Social justice in the context of education is defined as both a goal and a process driven by
collaboration toward equity-minded and justice-oriented social change (Adams & Bell, 2016).
Developing critical consciousness and a lens toward social justice education is indispensable in
teachers’ ability to provide equitable education for students. Social justice education is a
dynamic process of acknowledging pervasive societal inequity and actively addressing privilege
and oppression through self-examination (Cochran-Smith, 2004; Crosby, Howell & Thomas,
2018; Sensoy & Di’Angelo, 2009). Though there is no singular approach to social justice
19
education, Hackman (2005) proposed that social justice educators focus on developing tools in
five categories: content mastery, critical thinking, action and social change, personal reflection,
and tools for awareness and multicultural group dynamics. In a systematic review of educational
research, Pajares (1992) found that teachers’ beliefs have a profound influence on their practice.
Gay (2010) makes the assertion that teachers’ beliefs about racial, cultural, and ethnic
differences are at work at a deep structural level influencing teaching decisions. How educators
conceptualize their role in education, informs the kind of education they provide. Cochran-Smith
et al. (2009) argue that teacher candidates who explore social justice from a perspective of
critical consciousness are able to effectively bridge that perspective to their classroom practice.
Scholars agree across disciplines that in order to dismantle systems of structural racism
and inequity in schools, adults who work with children, including teachers and parents, need to
be able to lead and facilitate meaningful conversations about race and racism during the
formative stages of children’s personal and social development (Bonilla-Silva, 2013; Helms,
1990; Harries, 2014; Nieto, 2000; Tatum, 1992). Adults often lack these critical skills, and
remain silent on the topic of race, or avoid conversations about race altogether (Acosta &
Ackerman-Barger, 2017; Tatum, 1992; Watson, 2012). A number of studies related to race and
identity have found that these first responses to race and racism to children model societal norms
and taboos (Delpit, 1988; Tatum, 1997, 2017; Quintana, 1998). Adults who are not able to talk
about race in a meaningful way are unable to facilitate these discussions with children; children
who are socialized in classrooms and homes where conversations about race are taboo do not
develop those critical skills as they grow in to adults (Shields, 2004; Tatum, 1997). This
generational reproduction of silence and race-avoidance prevents progress toward social justice
(Shields, 2004; Solomona, Portelli, Daniel & Campbell, 2005).
20
Challenges to Teacher Cultural Competence
It is increasingly evident in the current sociopolitical climate, that US citizens have failed
to deconstruct structural inequities and racist systems. In Racism Without Racists, Eduardo
Bonilla-Silva (2006) investigated colorblind racism, and found that many White people are
explicitly and implicitly discouraged from engaging in critical discussions about race, on the
basis of a culture of colorblindness, which denies that racism exists and insists that race does not
matter. Bonilla-Silva argues that the pervasive colorblind orientation prevents many White
people from engaging in an informed discourse around issues of race. In White Fragility,
Di’Angelo (2018) examines the historical development of the White racist/good-person false
binary as a construction which effectively protects White individuals from confronting their own
experience in a racist society and acknowledging racism exists, if they identify as a good person.
Di’Angelo’s research indicates this is a particular barrier for White progressive women who
identify themselves as committed to equity (Case, 2012; Di’Angelo, 2018; Trepagnier, 2010).
This is notably closely aligned with the demographic of the majority of teachers, who are 82%
White and 77% women (U.S. Department of Education, 2018).
Demographics of Teachers and Teacher Candidates
Lack of diversity in the teaching profession impacts teachers’ ability to understand,
empathize, and connect with students they serve. Although the benefits of a diverse teacher
workforce are well documented, the racial gap between White teachers and students of color
continues to grow, as the trajectory of teacher diversity growth is at a much slower rate than the
increasing diversity of the student population. Between 2000 and 2016, students of color
increased by 10%, compared to a four percent increase in people of color in the teaching
workforce (NCES, 2017). Though a number of programs and initiatives have emerged in recent
21
years intended to increase diversity in the teacher workforce, barriers still persist (Gist, Bianco &
Lynn, 2018). The lack of diversity among teachers in the US is perpetuated by systemic inequity
in higher education access, inequity in teacher preparation programs, inequitable hiring practices,
and marginalization of teachers of color who make it in to the teaching profession (Achinstein &
Ogawa, 2011; Ahmad & Boser, 2014; Ingersoll & May, 2011).
Given that White educators make up about 80% of the teacher workforce in the United
States (U.S. Department of Education, 2018), it is important to examine the cultural competency
and capacity of these White educators. White teachers may unwittingly perpetuate White
dominance by leading ethnocentric classrooms in schools designed to teach from a White
perspective and benefit White students (Howard, 2016; Gillborn, 2006; Picower, 2009). Lived
experience plays a role in shaping the understanding of White educators (King, 2015;
Merryfield, 2000). Solomona et.al (2005) found consistent patterns in how White teacher
candidates engaged in a “discourse of denial” when confronted with race, racism, and White
privilege. Discourse analysis surfaced three primary strategies that White teachers employed:
ideological incongruence, liberalist notions of individualism and meritocracy, and the dismissal
of the concept of White capital (Solomona et al., 2005). Though there are numerous complex
factors at work in actualizing culturally relevant pedagogy theory in classroom practice, Young
(2010) identified key challenges as deep structural issues related to teachers’ cultural bias, the
nature of racism in school settings, and the lack of support to implement theories into practice.
An implication of these studies by Solomona et al (2005) and Young (2010) related to teacher
preparation and culturally relevant pedagogy is that teacher education must help candidates
understand their own racial identity formation and provide the learning space to work with the
range of emotions and feelings of indignation that evolve from an exposure to White privilege.
22
Racial Disparities
Data from the United States Department of Education (2016) indicates that people of
color graduate from high school, attend college, and complete college at significantly lower rates
than their White counterparts (Ahmad & Boser, 2014; U.S. Department of Education, 2018). The
current data are consistent with the history of inequitable access to higher education based on
race (Yosso, Parker, Soloranzo & Lynn, 2004; Karen, 1991). Lower high school graduation rates
for people of color sustain lower college enrollment rates and limited higher education access to
students of color (Harper, 2006; Harper, Patton & Wooden, 2009), reproducing a system of
limited opportunity to access the teaching profession through traditional higher education
pathways (Ahmad & Boser, 2014).
Once in college, students of color are less likely to enroll in teacher preparation programs
than other programs, and those who do select teacher education likely will not complete the
program. In 2012-2013, 37% of college students identified as Latinx, Black, or Asian; however,
students of color made up only 25% of students in teacher preparation programs (U.S.
Department of Education, 2016). Some students of color who pursue a degree in education
report that they are not adequately supported within their teacher education programs and feel
hurt, silenced, or marginalized by their White peers (Amos, 2010; Haddix, 2012; Jackson &
Kohli, 2016). This lack of support, in addition to other obstacles, has a negative impact on degree
completion. College students of color are less likely to complete degree programs within 6 years;
73% of total education majors completed their bachelor’s degree within six years, compared to
only 42% of Black students and 49% of Hispanic students (U.S. Department of Education,
2016).

23
Socioeconomic Factors
Beyond academic access, college students of color cite financial barriers that affect
college completion (Ramirez, 2010). College students of color indicate that debt is a significant
deterrent in completing college and pursuing a career in education (Gasman et al, 2017; Ahmad
& Boser, 2014). The U.S. Department of Education (2017) indicated that 88% of Black teachers
and 76% of Latinx teachers took out federal student loans to complete their bachelor’s degree,
compared with only 73% of White teachers. Teacher education programs that utilize the most
effective practices in field experiences are financially prohibitive to many teacher candidates
(Darling-Hammond, 2006; Cochran-Smith et al., 2015). In an examination of field experiences in
the United States, Ken Zeichner (2010) surfaces the issue that there is insufficient funding for
promising practices in high-quality teacher residency programs that are better in preparing
teachers for successful practice in diverse urban schools. These high-quality residency
experiences are unpaid, while also requiring tuition. This implicit prerequisite of socioeconomic
privilege limits access to teachers of diverse backgrounds. Alternative pathways to teacher
licensure have been developed in response to teacher shortages and as one mechanism to support
teacher diversity; however, an initial small longitudinal study suggested that teachers who enter
the profession through alternative pathways have a higher turnover rate than those who enter
teaching through traditional residency programs (Zhang & Zeller, 2016).
Cultural Competency in Teacher Education and Preparation Programs
Teacher education programs, curriculum, coursework, and field experiences are largely
not designed for critical examination and reflection on the roles race, power, and privilege play
in the historical and contemporary context of public education; but rather focus on celebrating
diversity and multiculturalism in isolated courses (Cochran-Smith et al. 2015; Gorski, 2009;
24
Sleeter, 2017). Scholars have characterized teacher education programs by an overwhelming
culture of White normativity that is marginalizing rather than culturally affirming (Jackson &
Kohli, 2016; Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Amos, 2010). In a study of 200 teacher candidates,
when asked to discuss White privilege, qualitative discourse analysis surfaced three themes that
were salient among White participants: denial of racism and White privilege at an ideological
level, denial of White capital, and a focus on meritocracy and individualism when being asked to
discuss White privilege (Solomona et al, 2005). Teachers and teacher education programs often
avoid race-related discourse, using euphemisms such as “urban,” “underserved,” or “culturally
diverse” as part of deficit-based and racialized characterizations of students (Frankenberg, Taylor
& Merseth, 2009; Watson, 2012).
Teacher education faculty are instrumental in framing discourse and pedagogy within
their programs. In 2017, 73.2% of full-time higher education faculty were White (American
Council on Education, 2019). There are some examples in the literature highlighting practices of
White faculty members who actively work to transform White dominance in higher education
through critical pedagogy, openly challenging White hegemony and disclosing personal
racialized experiences (Bergerson, 2003; Charbeneau, 2013). Though these examples exist,
predominantly White teacher education faculty often lack the critical skills and lived experience
to prepare predominantly White teacher candidates to teach in racially diverse classrooms. In a
study of race-related conversation in doctoral-levels education coursework, researchers found
that critical conversations about race in education were inconsistent and varied widely by the
cultures, values, and disciplines of individual faculty members (Bryan, Wilson, Lewis & Willis,
2012). The identities of these individual faculty members play a role in shaping teacher
education programs. Maxwell, Able-Boone, and Zimmer (2009) studied over 400 early
25
childhood teacher education programs and found that greater faculty diversity increased the
coursework focus on working with students from culturally diverse backgrounds, while
predominantly White faculty groups were less likely to have this focus.
In an analysis of the needs of teacher education, Nieto (2010) calls for teacher education
programs to center equity and diversity through a transformative social justice approach. Bryan
et al., (2012) recommend intentional integration of racial literacy throughout higher education
coursework, such as regular opportunities to engage in “race talk” to analyze racial norms,
policies, patterns, and practices, as an essential practice to prepare educational leaders. Despite
these recommendations, teaching “multicultural education” or “diversity” as an afterthought is
indicative of ethnocentric practices in teacher education research (Cochran-Smith et al., 2009). In
an analysis of multicultural teacher education coursework syllabi, Gorski (2009) classified
coursework in to three tiers: conservative (assimilation), liberal (celebratory), critical (dismantle
inequity). Gorski’s analysis yielded a more stratified classification of 5 tiers: (1) Teaching the
‘‘Other,’’ (2) Teaching with Tolerance and Cultural Sensitivity, (3) Teaching with Multicultural
Competence, (4) Teaching in Sociopolitical Context, and (5) Teaching as Resistance and
Counter-Hegemonic Practice. Though research in culturally relevant pedagogy and teacher
cultural competency calls for the necessity of this fifth tier of engagement, Gorski found that the
vast majority of syllabi fail to address these 4
th
and 5
th
tiers.
Critical Race Theory
For almost three decades scholars have called for the inclusion of critical race theory in
teacher education (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso 2001; Dixson & Rousseau, 2005).
Critical race theory constructs racism as a system and structure that frames institutions,
experiences, and relationships. Gloria Ladson-Billings, whose seminal work framed culturally
26
relevant pedagogy in the 1990’s (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1998), is
critical of how her own work has been misrepresented in teacher education programs and is
misapplied in classroom practice, shifting away from critical consciousness and direct
engagement with race in the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 2014). White teacher candidates enter
field experiences in urban schools without a depth of understanding of their own racialized
experiences, or institutionalized and structural inequalities (Johnson, 2002; Solomona, Portelli,
Daniel & Campbell, 2005; King, 2015; Matias, Viesca, Garrison-Wade, Tandon, & Galindo,
2014). Without critical scholarship, White teachers, who generally do not have personal
connections to communities of color, default to hegemonic discourse and deficit frameworks as
they attempt to engage with students and communities of color (Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Scholars have highlighted the importance of critical race theory as foundational in
engaging future teachers of color as agents in their own experience, and as holders of knowledge
(Ladson-Billings, 1998; Delgado Bernal, 2002; Dixon & Rousseau Anderson, 2018), but little
has been done to effectively incorporate critical race theory in teacher education programs
(Ladson-Billings, 2014; Dixon & Rousseau Anderson, 2018). Teacher candidates of color report
feeling unsupported within teacher education programs (Amos, 2010; Montecinos, 2004; Jackson
& Kohli, 2016). The pathways to and through teacher education programs for all teacher
candidates fail to create inclusive programs for critical inquiry and engaged scholarship around
deep systemic equity issues. Efforts have been made in recent years to build capacity for
culturally relevant pedagogy, but there is a gap in the literature around dismantling implicit bias
and structural racism, or increasing cultural competency of educators in order to bring a critical
lens to their pedagogy and to their engagement with students, families, and colleagues.

27
Bias & Cultural Competency in K-12 Professional Settings
Evidence highlights barriers to improving diversity in the teacher workforce at every
level. Racial disparities in high school and college graduation rates, and inequity in hiring
practices and professional experiences marked by racial bias are all cited examples. Research
underscores a deficit in the understanding of racism, power, and privilege by White people in
society, compounding the problem of a homogeneous and hegemonic teacher workforce.
Hiring and Retention
Despite research indicating the benefits of a diverse teaching force, bias continues to
impact the hiring and retention of teachers of color. Implicit bias, and structural inequity in
teacher hiring remain prevalent in today’s schools. In a 2017 study of racial discrimination in the
teacher labor market, D’Amico, Pawlewicz, Earley, and McGeehan (2017) analyze applications
and hiring data, finding that that Black applicants were significantly less likely than their White
counterparts to receive a job offer. They found evidence of workforce segregation in teacher
placement when hired: Black teachers were more likely to be placed in schools identified as
struggling, with large populations of children of color and in poverty.
Teachers of color made up 25 percent of first year teachers in 2015-2016 (Warner-Griffin
et al, 2016). Research indicates that even in schools and districts that report prioritizing diversity
in their hiring practices, schools still have a hard time recruiting, hiring, and retaining teachers of
color (Ahmad & Boser, 2014; Jackson & Kohli, 2016; Simon, Johnson & Reinhorn, 2015).
Though there has been an increase in teachers of color joining the teaching profession, those
teachers leave the field at a rate 24 percent higher than their White colleagues (Ingersoll & May,
2011).

28
Cultural Competence in Professional Teaching Communities
Contributing factors to teacher retention include supporting a sense of community,
engagement, and personal and professional connection (Darling-Hammond & Carver-Thomas,
2016), but these are not the common experiences of teachers of color. In a study of new teachers
of color committed to social justice, Achinstein and Ogawa (2011) identified restrictive
curricula, silencing of racial dialogues, and a lack of access to supportive colleagues among the
key challenges of their professional environments. Another study found that teachers of color in
diverse urban schools, report experiencing a hostile racial climate marked by a colorblind
orientation and microaggressions from White colleagues (Kohli & Pizarro, 2016).
The collective hegemonic experiences of White people impede their ability to engage in
meaningful discussions about race (Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Tatum, 2017). There is an increasing
body of research which discusses White people’s inability to deal with racial stress (Smith,
Yosso & Solorzano, 2011; Di’Angelo, 2018 ). Lack of experience and exposure to meaningful
racial discourse and low tolerance for racial stress are caused by structural racism; the lack of
skills caused by the lack of experience prevents meaningful discourse in dismantling structural
racism.
White Identity and Racial Literacy
White teachers may enter the field without practical experiences in diverse communities,
and with critical deficits in cultural proficiency, which limits their effectiveness in working with
diverse groups of students and colleagues (Cochran-Smith et al., 2015; King, 2015; Merryfield,
2000; Sleeter, 2017; Solomona et al., 2005). White teachers must develop cultural competency to
develop the skills necessary to respectfully communicate and engage in diverse collaborative
teaching environments.
29
Developing a White racial literacy is a crucial and often overlooked step in creating safe
and productive spaces for students and teachers of diverse backgrounds to learn, grow, and
thrive. As the 80% of teachers are White (NCES, 2016), it is necessary for those White teachers
to develop White racial literacy and an anti-racist approach in teaching social justice (Case,
2012; Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010, Lawrence & Tatum, 1998). Scholars have argued that
in order to shift away from false notions of post-racialism and colorblindness toward a more
culturally competent and anti-racist practice, educators themselves must learn and grow through
a psychological shift toward understanding the nature of racial identity development (Case,
2012; Nkomo & Ariss, 2014; Tatum, 2017). Janet Helms (1995) identified six stages of White
identity development: contact, reintegration, pseudo-independence, immersion /emersion, and
autonomy. Embedded in this model is the acknowledgement that White supremacy is prevalent
and unavoidable in the United States, and the idea that it is a necessity to actively unlearn racism
in define a non-racist identity.
Educational Implications for White Teachers
In order for White teachers to connect with students, families, and colleagues of color in
a culturally responsive way, they must first understand that they bring a racial and cultural
identity perspective to those relationships. Social scientists have found that White people
generally interpret culture and race as belonging to others, compared to their experience as
normal (Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Helms, 1990). Early childhood anti-bias initiatives that have a
positive impact on classroom practice, call on teachers to know themselves by engaging in their
own identity work first (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Self-knowledge and an
understanding of identity are crucial in developing culturally proficient discourse (Gay &
Kirkland, 2003; Ryan, 2006; Howard, 2003). However, sociological research indicates that this
30
kind of self-knowledge is largely absent from lived experience of White individuals in the United
States who experience segregated insulation from realities and complexities of racism (Bonilla-
Silva, 2013; Anderson, Austin, Holloway, & Kulkarni, 2012). Educators with a critical race
theory lens can effectively examine how curriculum is designed, the delivery of instruction is
executed, and facilitate culturally relevant and responsive decision making in schools (Smith-
Maddox & Soloronzo, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1998; Cochran-Smith, 2010). These tactical
teaching decisions are framed by teachers’ tacit cultural competency.
Bias and Empathy in Education
Social, Emotional, and Relational Nature of Teaching
Recent research has turned toward seeking to understand the role relationships play in
learning in schools. Sociocultural factors drive the nature of relationships in dynamic learning
environments (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007; Cohen, 2006); and relationships are central
to the social and emotional factors in learning (Frymier & Houser, 2000; Zins, Bloodworth,
Weissberg & Walberg, 2007). Student-teacher relationships play a pivotal role in children’s
social and cognitive development by mechanisms of attachment, motivation, and sociocultural
learning (Davis, 2003). Advances in the field of social neuroscience have allowed for further
investigation into the connections between learning, cognition, and emotion (Immordino-Yang &
Damasio, 2007). Researchers have explored the need to establish classroom culture of trusting
relationships guided by developments in cognitive neuroscience (Bergin & Bergin, 2009;
Goswami, 2006; Tomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne & Moll, 2005), and create learning
opportunities where students learn new information with positive emotions (Seligman et al.,
2009).
31
Several scholars have determined that teachers’ ability to effectively lead social
emotional learning in the classroom is dependent on their own emotional competence (Brackett
& Katulak, 2006; Hen & Goroshit, 2016; Jennings & Greenburg, 2009). Across social emotional
literature, empathy is at the core of social emotional competence (Allermand, Steiger & Fend,
2015; Decety & Yoder, 2016; Jennings & Greenburg, 2009; Pfeifer, Iacoboni, Mazziotta &
Dapretto, 2008). Brene Brown (2015) defined empathy as recognizing emotion in others, taking
the perspective of others, staying out of judgement, and communicating understanding. Bernstein
(2000) explored the way identity informs and is informed by power dynamics in classrooms, and
found that power and control play a consequential role in the classroom experience for students
and teachers, influencing discourse, use of physical space, and emotional engagement. Cohen
(2006) argued that social, emotional, ethical, and academic education is a human right that all
students are entitled to as a matter of social justice.
Neuroscience of Bias and Empathy
Identity, race, and culture influence empathy (Gallese, 2001; Eberhardt, 2019). The
convergence of research in the areas of neuroscience and psychology have provided insight into
how empathy operates in the brain through mirror neurons, and found that mirror neuron activity
can be shaped by shared experience and action (Gallese, 2001; Iacoboni, 2009). Subsequent
studies have made significant connections between mirror neurons, empathy, and racial bias.
These studies indicate that racial bias operates at a neurological level, demonstrated by
significantly reduced empathic response to vicarious pain for members of different racial groups,
and a greater empathic response for those in the same racial group (Avenanti, Sirigu, & Aglioti,
2010; Riečanský, Paul, Kölble, Stieger & Lamm, 2015). Scholars argue that understanding the
32
neural basis for in-group bias can lead to less bias (Burgess, Van Ryn, Dovidio & Saha, 2007;
Eberhardt, 2019; Molenberghs, 2013).
Scholars in racial identity development, critical race theory, anti-bias education, and
racial justice all cite personal understanding of one’s own identity and deep investment in one’s
personal work, as a basic underlying principal in developing positive racial relationships with
others (Derman-Sparks, 2010; Lin, Lake & Rice, 2008; Tatum, 2017). Neuroscientists have
found promising practices in training to develop intergroup empathy through exercises in
perspective taking that include critical examination of identity and differences (rather than a
colorblind approach), intentional mimicry exercises, and opportunities to express anger at
outgroups and repair relationships (Vanman, 2016). In the context of child development,
Gonzales, Steele, and Baron (2017) found that exposure to positive out-group exemplars reduced
children’s implicit racial bias and increased out-group empathy. These findings that racial bias
and out-group empathy are malleable, paired with findings that cognitive empathy predicts
sensitivity to injustice (Decety & Yoder, 2016), provide physiological context for social justice,
empathy, bias, and cultural competency among teachers and in the classroom.
Cultivating Culturally Self-Aware and Competent Educators
Building capacity for cultural competency in the classroom must be adaptive and
relational rather than procedural. In her book, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the
Cafeteria (2016), Tatum asserted that White people must develop fluency in critical
conversations about race necessary to engage in meaningful, active cross-racial dialog in order to
promote equity and social change (Tatum, 2017). Teachers are in a position of agency to act as
allies in actively dismantling oppressive systems. Culturally relevant pedagogy is also adaptive
and relational, rather than procedural. In Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain, Zaretta
33
Hammond (2014) explores ways to operationalize the intersection between brain-based teaching
and culturally responsive teaching practices. Hammond (2014) argues that culturally responsive
teaching is often employed as a method to reduce behavior problems rather than an approach
rooted in cognitive neuroscience and learning theory that honors the cognitive capacity of
students. Research suggests that engaging in critical discourse, talking directly about White
power and privilege, can reveal implicit bias and combat White complicity in institutionalized
racism and oppressive patterns around race (Leonardo, 2004).
Review of the literature provides the background of research that informs the conceptual
framework for this study. The implications from social neuroscience indicate that understanding
mechanisms of bias and empathy can reduce bias. Implications from psychology and sociology
indicate that confronting bias and critically examining lived experience are critical steps in
dismantling racist systems. Social, emotional, and cultural competence of the educator influence
their success in the classroom. These competencies can be cultivated through social, cognitive,
and training interventions. Research related to the knowledge and motivational, and
organizational influences on cultivating culturally self-aware and competent educators are
explored in the next section.
Gap Analysis Framework
The gap analysis framework developed by Clark and Estes (2008) outlined a systematic
approach to identifying and analyzing gaps between stakeholder performance and organizational
goals. Once gaps are identified and analyzed, the framework can be used as a tool to guide the
selection and implementation of interventions to improve organizational performance. Within
this conceptual framework, performance gaps are analyzed in terms of knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences.
34
Knowledge influences problems of how, when, where, and why to perform in a given
way. Krathwohl (2002) defines knowledge within the structure of four specific knowledge types:
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Motivation plays a critical role in learning,
and accounts for facilitating or inhibiting performance. Motivation is the process whereby goal-
directed activity is instigated and sustained (Pintrich, 2003). Motivation is defined by three
elements: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Organizational influences include elements of organizational culture, defined as a way of
behaving according to a set of shared values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes that are
developed and learned by a group over time (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schein, 2017).
Stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences will be examined as they relate to the
stakeholder goal that all teachers will demonstrate cultural competency, as part of the larger
organizational goal of acting to be individually and institutionally inclusive. Assumed knowledge
influences examined include conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Assumed motivational
influences discussed in this section include value, self-efficacy, and emotion. Assumed
organizational influences presented here include cultural models of supported risk-taking in a
learning organization as well as social justice orientation; and cultural settings of a focus on
personal development and professional coaching. Each of these assumed influences were
assessed and analyzed according to the methodology outlined in chapter three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and motivation are interconnected and play an essential role in learning.
Alexander et al. (2009) describes learning as a multidimensional process that results in long term
and lasting change. Within Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, organizational
35
performance problems can be broken in to three categories: knowledge, motivation, and
organization. Knowledge problems include problems of how, when, where, and why to perform
in a given way. In analyzing skills and knowledge gaps that influence performance, it is
important to identify the knowledge types at work. In a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Krathwohl (2002) defines knowledge within the structure of four specific knowledge types:
factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.
In this model, these four areas are defined as follows: factual knowledge consists of the basic
elements of a discipline, including terminology and details. Conceptual knowledge is
characterized by meaning and connection between basic elements within the historical and
scholarly context of a discipline. Procedural knowledge includes methodology for selecting and
performing skills and techniques within a discipline. Finally, metacognitive knowledge is
defined by self-awareness of knowledge through strategic and reflective practice.
The literature presented here focuses on knowledge-related influences that impact the
stakeholder goal of teachers at FCS. The FCS strategic plan includes an intentional focus on
inclusion, diversity, and equity, with an organizational goal to become both individually and
institutionally culturally competent through self-awareness, developing intercultural
communication skills, cultivating cultural knowledge, and inclusive action. The stakeholder goal
is that all teachers will demonstrate culturally competent inclusive action by applying
professional learning to enact culturally competent pedagogy.
In a review of academic literature on professional training, Aguinis and Kraiger (2009)
highlight elements of effective training programs and positive impact on organizational
performance, and point to the need to further study effective transfer of learning in to
professional practice. Learning transfer is crucial in changing behavior of individuals that can
36
impact organizational performance outcomes (Grossman & Salas, 2011; Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2005; Mayer, 2011). Transfer of professional learning to culturally competent
pedagogy must be analyzed in terms of potential knowledge influences. Conceptual knowledge
about systemic bias and diverse experiences, procedural knowledge planning and implementing
culturally competent pedagogy, and metacognitive skills of examining pedagogy through a lens
of equity, were identified as knowledge influences to assess and analyze in this study.
Knowledge About Systemic Bias and Diverse Experiences
Teachers need to understand how historically biased systems influence the contemporary
experiences of individuals from diverse backgrounds. This kind of conceptual knowledge is
needed to frame teachers’ perspectives on cultural competency. Research in the area of culturally
competent pedagogy identifies theoretical knowledge about race and bias as foundational in
developing cultural competency at the individual and professional level (Ladson-Billings, 1998;
Sleeter, 2011; Tatum, 2017). Primarily White teachers in the stakeholder group may demonstrate
what Bonilla-Silva (2006) calls a colorblind orientation, and lack conceptual knowledge about
the history of structural bias and racism, and the role it continues to play in educational practice.
These positivist and colorblind perspectives on issues of diversity and racism are reflected in the
teacher preparation experience. In an analysis of course syllabi in teacher education programs,
Gorski (2009) found that the only 29% of multicultural education courses explored systemic
inequity and oppression, and more than half focused on celebrating diversity rather than
examining inequality. This pervasive colorblind orientation is contrary to practices that
demonstrate potential to dismantle racist systems. Research found that engaging in critical
discourse, and talking directly about White power and privilege, can combat White complicity in
37
institutionalized racism and oppressive patterns (Di’Angelo, 2011; Lawrence & Tatum, 2004,
Picower, 2009).
Planning and Implementing Culturally Competent Pedagogy
Teachers need procedural knowledge of how to plan and implement lessons that focus on
cultural competency. This procedural knowledge is key in teachers’ ability to transfer conceptual
knowledge to their classroom practice. In an analysis of diversity management and cultural
competency assessment tools, Trenerry and Paradies (2012) found that policies and
organizational goals related to cultural competency often fail to identify and assess cultural
competency in practice. The stakeholder goal of culturally competent pedagogy requires that
professional learning leads to behavior change. Procedural knowledge is a critical part of
performance—not only what to do, but the dynamic ability of knowing how and when to do it.
Though FCS teachers may be receptive to learning about diversity and cultural competency,
planning and implementing culturally competent curriculum and pedagogy requires that they
know how to consider culture and bias in the planning process (Gay, 2010; Hammond, 2014;
Santamaria, 2009).
Structured observations of planning, analysis of planning documents, and interviews were
used to assess this area of procedural knowledge. Observations and interviews focused on
teachers’ application of conceptual knowledge about culture and bias to make curriculum and
pedagogy decisions in planning.
Examining Pedagogy Through the Lens of Equity
Teachers need to know how to apply metacognitive knowledge to examine their planning
and pedagogy through a lens of equity. Dowd and Bensimon (2015) examined the pervasive
racial inequity in higher education, and argue that achieving equitable outcomes for students
38
requires an equity-minded approach. This equity-minded approach relies on metacognitive
examination of internal and external processes, including experience and identity of individuals,
in the context of a larger system. Metacognitive knowledge plays a significant role in the
development and analysis of pedagogy and professional classroom practice in terms of cultural
competency and equity.
Engaging in metacognitive practice as part of race-related diversity education increases
empathy, emotional regulation, and supports understanding multiple perspectives (Chick, Karis
& Kernahan, 2009). Early childhood anti-bias initiatives that have a positive impact on
classroom practice, call on teachers to know themselves by engaging in their own identity work
first (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Culturally competent pedagogy requires the practitioner
to engage in metacognitive understanding of their own perspective based on their identity and
experience, and provide alternative or counternarratives. Not only do educators require the
factual and procedural knowledge in order to develop critical competencies in their practice, they
must have the metacognitive tools to reflect upon their own practice in order to monitor, analyze,
and improve (Baker, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Qualitative interviews were used to assess this area of metacognitive knowledge, in order
to provide stakeholders the opportunity to demonstrate metacognitive engagement behaviors.
Interviews examined metacognitive processes of critical reflection and analysis of practice. Table
2 identifies assumed knowledge influences, knowledge types, and assessments of those
knowledge influences as they relate to the stakeholder and organizational goals.

39
Table 2
Knowledge Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of FCS is to prepare students intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally, artistically, and
spiritually to positively impact local and world communities (FCS, 2019).
Organizational Global Goal
One of the goals and initiatives to inclusion and diversity is for FCS to become both individually and
institutionally culturally competent through self-awareness, developing intercultural communication skills,
cultivating cultural knowledge, and inclusive action.

Stakeholder Goal
All teachers will demonstrate culturally competent inclusive action by applying professional learning to
enact culturally competent pedagogy.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
(i.e., declarative/
conceptual,
procedural, or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers need to
know historically
biased systems have
influenced
contemporary
experiences of
individuals from
diverse backgrounds.
Declarative
(conceptual)
Interview
Teachers are asked to identify elements of structural bias.

Sample Interview Items:
o What does it mean to be culturally competent?
o What would you say are elements of structural bias?
o How do you interpret bias at work at FCS?

Teachers need to
know how to plan
and implement
lessons that focus on
cultural competency.
Procedural Structured observation
Teachers are asked to provide examples of positive models.
Structured observations of classroom teaching and
collaborative team curriculum planning sessions
Sample Interview Items:
o Can you give an example of how your classroom
practice promotes equity?
o What are some of the challenges you face regarding
equity in your classroom?
What kinds of resources do you access in planning
instruction?
Teachers need self-
awareness to examine
their planning and
pedagogy through a
lens of equity.
Metacognitive Interview
Teachers are asked to reflect on their classroom practice in
light of equity.
Sample Interview Items:
o What are some things that guide how you’re
designing your classroom space?
Can you give an example of a time that you were faced with
a challenging conversation and you weren’t sure how to
proceed?
o What did you do?
o How would you approach that kind of situation
again?
What informed your thinking in that moment and after?
40
Motivation
Motivation plays an essential role in learning, and accounts for facilitating or inhibiting
performance. Motivation is defined by three elements: active choice, persistence, and mental
effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is
instigated and sustained (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Though there are numerous motivational
influences that relate to this problem of practice, for the purpose of this literature review, value,
self-efficacy, and emotion will be the primary focus.
Value
The expectancy value motivational theory breaks down motivation in two fundamental
categories: expectancy considers whether the individual believes that they can perform a given
task, and value considers if the individual has a desire to complete that task (Eccles, Wigfield &
Schiefele, 1998; Schunk et. al., 2008; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The concept of value includes
four components: intrinsic value, defined as the benefit one expects from engaging in a task;
attainment value, defined as the extent to which engaging in a task supports the individuals’
identity; utility value, defined as the extent to which the activity supports long term goals; and
the perceived cost of engaging in the activity (Eccles et. al.,1998).
Utility Value. Utility value is identified as a key motivational influence in the context of
organizational and stakeholder goals at FCS. Teachers need to see the value of inclusive,
culturally competent pedagogy to improve the student experience, and as a lever for supporting
progress toward long-term goals of the organization related to inclusion, diversity, and cultural
competency. For decades, research in the area of culturally competent pedagogy has been rooted
in expectancy value theoretical models. Students of color frequently face a culture of low
expectations from White teachers, with detrimental impact on student’s academic identity and
41
academic outcomes (Gay, 2013; Hooks, 2014; McKown & Weinstein, 2008; Ladson-
Billings,1995). Culturally competent pedagogy is founded on an asset-minded approach to
teaching students from diverse backgrounds, that includes supporting self-efficacy, intentionally
designing curriculum and instructional practices that are relevant and valued by students, and
creating learning environments where all children feel welcome and emotionally safe. Studies
have focused on the positive impact culturally competent pedagogy has on student achievement.
Additionally, there is a vast body of research supporting positive student achievement outcomes
when individuals have a sense of self-efficacy and value the task at hand (Bandura, 2006; Mayer,
2011; Pajares, 1996; Pekrun, 2006; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Understanding the multifaceted
value of cultural competency may be a critical motivational factor for stakeholders. In this study
the motivational influence of value was assessed in structured qualitative interview questions.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy is defined as the confidence or belief that goals are achievable with
adequate effort and appropriate support (Bandura, 2006; Pajares, 1998; Rueda, 2011). Scholars
argue that high self-efficacy positively influences motivation, and is a necessary factor in
engaging skills and knowledge to predict future performance (Bandura, 2006).
Developing self-efficacy is dependent on four sources: mastery experience, vicarious
experience, social persuasions, and physiological reactions. Teachers in the United States are
predominantly White and lack formative lived experiences in diverse communities (Bonilla-
Silva, 2006; Delpit, 1988; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2016; Castro, 2010; Case, 2012). This limited
experience leads to pervasive deficits in cultural competency and limits their self-efficacy and
effectiveness in working with diverse groups of students and colleagues. Teachers may have low
self-efficacy regarding cultural competency, and are more likely to report efficacious feelings
42
when teaching students who they are able to make a personal connection with (Siwatu, 2007).
The academic literature examining cultural competency among teachers highlights limited
multicultural experiences, limited positive vicarious experience, and stressed physiological states
that can prevent efficacy.
The research of Combs and Luthans (2007) focused on the intersection of self-efficacy
theory and diversity training effectiveness, and indicates a positive correlation between self-
efficacy and diversity training learning and transfer. They found that cultural competency and
self-efficacy increased with diversity training, and further identified these high levels of self-
efficacy as an indicator of an individual’s likelihood to intentionally engage in difficult diversity-
related situations in the future (Combs & Luthans, 2007). In order to adequately and equitably
support students, teachers must develop self-efficacy. Research indicates that teachers’ self-
efficacy has a positive impact on student achievement (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Anderson,
Greene & Loewen, 1988; Bandura, 1993; Caprara et. al., 2006). Teachers need to believe they
are capable of facilitating critical conversations about race, bias, and difference in a culturally
competent and inclusive way (Gay & Kirkland, 2003).
The motivational influence of self-efficacy was be assessed through qualitative interview
questions and observations. Self-efficacy was be examined in relation to cultural competency in
classroom practice.
Emotions
Scholars continue to examine the complex relationship between emotions, motivation,
and learning (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz & Perry, 2002; Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012; Sutton &
Wheatley, 2004). It is important to note the interconnected nature of emotion, efficacy, learning,
motivation. The emotional state that frames how an individual’s experiences an event is
43
formative in how that individual learns, and can have a significant impact on organizational
behavior (Lord & Kanfer, 2002; Bono et.al., 2007). Kelchtermans (2005) found that teachers’
emotions must be understood with respect to the interconnected nature of teachers’ identity and
their professional practice, and further argues that there is an implicit political component to
teaching that is influenced by identify and emotions. Positive emotions derived from feeling a
sense of belonging in the learning environment has a positive impact on motivation and success
in those environments (Yeager, Walton, & Cohen, 2013; Walton & Cohen, 2011).
In a meta-analysis of literature about the role of teachers’ emotions, Sutton & Wheatley
(2003) found evidence that teachers’ emotions influence student motivation, cognition, and
behavior. Research in the area of cultural competency in teacher education and professional
learning, conclusively indicates that self-understanding and teacher identity development is
critical to teachers’ ability to engage in culturally competent practice (Ladson-Billings, 1998;
Merryfield, 2000; Tatum, 2017; Sleeter, 2017; Soloronzo & Yosso, 2001). Emotional
engagement, awareness, reflection and regulation are necessary in order for individuals to
develop their own identity (DiAngelo, 2011; Helms, 1990). Engagement in critical race theory-
based professional learning requires activating negative emotions such as anxiety and shame
(Tatum, 2017). Pekrun (2014) found that in specific cases, these negative activating emotions
have the potential to strengthen information processing. When teachers are emotionally
competent and exhibit prosocial behaviors, Jennings and Greenberg (2009) found that students
achieved superior outcomes in the classroom.
The motivational influence of emotion was assessed through interviews. Table 3
identifies the key assumed motivation influences, and assessments of those knowledge influences
as they relate to the stakeholder and organizational goals.
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Table 3
Motivation Influences
Organization
Organizational culture is defined most simply as a way of behaving (Schein, 2017).
Culture can be understood as a set of shared values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes that
Organizational Mission
The mission of FCS is to prepare students intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally, artistically, and
spiritually to positively impact local and world communities (FCS, 2019).

Organizational Global Goal
One of the goals and initiatives to inclusion and diversity is for FCS to become both individually and
institutionally culturally competent through self-awareness, developing intercultural communication skills,
cultivating cultural knowledge, and inclusive action.

Stakeholder Goal
All teachers will demonstrate culturally competent inclusive action by applying professional learning to enact
culturally competent pedagogy.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivation Influence Assessment

Utility Value – Teachers need to see the value of
inclusive, culturally competent pedagogy.
Sample Interview Items:
o What role, if any, do you think educators should
have in facilitating conversations about equity,
diversity, and inclusion?
o Tell me about why you became a teacher and
how you ended up here?

Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to believe they are
capable of facilitating critical conversations about
race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent
and inclusive way.
Sample Interview Items:
o How do you feel about your ability to facilitate
critical conversations about race, bias, and
difference?
o How do you lead and facilitate class discussions
about equity, diversity, and inclusion with
students?
• (if not articulated in the previous
response) Can you walk me through
what that might look like?

Emotions—Teachers need to activate and
overcome and overcome their own anxiety, fear,
and shame in order to engage in culturally
competent pedagogy with positive emotions.
Sample Interview Items
o Can you give an example of a time that you
were faced with a challenging conversation and
you weren’t sure how to proceed?
• What did you do?
• How would you approach that kind of
situation again?
• What informed your thinking in that
moment and after?
45
are developed and learned by a group over time. Culture shapes patterns of decisions,
motivation, knowledge, perspectives, and performance in powerful ways. The gap analysis
framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) is built upon understanding the misalignment between an
organization’s performance and goals. In order to effectively drive change, leaders must first
analyze elements of organizational culture such as belief systems, structures, policies, and
procedures.
Culture works at many levels. Erez and Gati (2004) proposed a conceptual framework for
understanding the dynamic nature of culture consisting of both top-down and bottom-up
processes across levels of culture with a focus on possibilities of culture change. Schein (2017)
describes organizational culture as consisting of three levels: artifacts, espoused values, and basic
underlying assumptions. In this model, artifacts are those elements of culture that are observable
and visible; espoused values include elements such as strategies, goals, and mission statements;
and basic underlying assumptions include unconscious beliefs, thoughts, and feelings. Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) discuss culture in terms of cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural
models make up the beliefs, attitudes, and intangible shared assumptions at work within an
organization. Cultural settings are the concrete activities, policies, and practices within an
organization.
In the contemporary socio-political context, as the demographics of the United States
shift toward being more racially diverse, countless organizations in business and education, both
public and private entities are looking toward the future considering how to intentionally
incorporate issues of inclusion, diversity, and equity into their organizational practice (Eberhardt,
2019). This study evaluates the FCS growth toward achieving its organizational goal of acting to
be inclusive both at an individual and institutional level. There are numerous potential influences
46
at work within FCS that either support or inhibit progress toward achieving its organizational
goals. This study focused on analyzing two cultural models: 1) supported risk-taking in a
learning organization, and 2) social justice orientation in developing culturally competent
students; and two cultural settings: 1) focus on personal development, and 2) professional
coaching.
Risk-Taking in a Learning Organization
There needs to be a culture of supported risk taking founded on relationships, openness
and vulnerability to enact positive changes in classroom practice. Trusting relationships,
emotional and psychological safety, and a culture that supports risk taking in service to an
organization’s mission and goals, are critical in facilitating organizational change (Kezar, 2001;
Senge; 1990). Across disciplines, researchers have found that trust, vulnerability, and
trustworthiness within organizations, increases the likelihood of risk-taking (Colquitt, Scott &
Lepine, 2007; Mayer, Davis & Schoorman, 1995; Rousseau, Sitkin Burt & Camerer, 1998).
A learning organization is defined as being in a continual cycle of inquiry and
improvement, fueled by individuals skilled at acquiring, creating, and transferring knowledge
(Garvin, Edmondson & Gino, 2008; Senge, 1990). Garvin et al. (2008) identify three essential
building blocks of a learning organization as: a supportive learning environment, concrete
learning processes and practices, and leadership that reinforces learning. Within the supportive
learning environment, Garvin et al (2008) highlight four distinguishing characteristics as
psychological safety, appreciation of differences, openness to new ideas, and time for reflection.
Psychological safety is foundational in a culture of supported risk taking. Psychological safety
can be supported by cultural settings within the organization of time and resources allocated to
47
the personal and relational aspects of cultural competency development, and through non-
evaluative external coaching.
The social, emotional, and relational nature of developing individual cultural competence
requires a deep conceptual understanding of bias, power, and privilege, within a culture of
emotional safety. A culture of supported risk taking includes an element of trust and emotional
safety; however emotional safety is insufficient for encouraging individuals within an
organization to engage in the emotional discomfort of critical reflection to counteract bias and
improve cultural competency and organizational equity. Similarly, positivist, abstract liberalist,
and colorblind approaches to inclusivity are insufficient in defining shared beliefs social justice
education. FCS needs a culture of kindness, service, and emotional safety for students and staff,
with espoused beliefs of inquiry, innovation, and inclusivity.
Social Justice Orientation to Develop Culturally Competent Students
There needs to be a shared belief that it is the role of educators to prepare students to be
culturally competent. The FCS mission highlights positive community impact and social action
at the core of K-12 programming. Developing cultural competency through formative
educational experiences can prepare students to improve society through social justice. As
discussed in the review of general literature, social justice in the context of education is defined
as both a goal and a process driven by collaboration toward social change (Adams & Bell, 2016).
A strong culture is one with high levels of homogeneity in its members’ beliefs and perceptions
(Schneider, Salvaggio, & Subirats, 2002). At the organizational level, developing strong culture
through a shared commitment to developing culturally competent students can be enabled by a
culture of collective efficacy.
48
Bandura (2000) found that the perceived understanding of collective efficacy within an
organization has a positive impact on performance by directly linking collective beliefs, through
collective agency, to collective action. In a social justice-oriented organization, the commitment
to counteracting racism and inequity must be stronger than the desire to be perceived as non-
racist, inclusive, and diverse. DiAngelo (2018) outlines a socially constructed binary in the post-
civil-rights-era United States whereby it is impossible to reconcile being racist with being a good
person, and argues that in order to combat racism, White people must first be able to take an
honest account of their own perspective and worldview in the absence of a racist/good person
binary. The organizational focus on education’s positive community impact and social action
requires teachers and students to be culturally competent and critically reflective. Social justice
education rests on critical self-knowledge and understanding of social identity of educators
(Adams & Bell, 2016).
When examined through the lens of Schein’s three-level model, this problem of practice
is reflective of the misalignment between the three levels of culture. The mission statement and
strategic plan of FCS espouse values of inclusion, diversity, and equity. The strategic plan to
develop and align inclusive actions illustrates an intention to close the gap between those
espoused values and actions or artifacts. Literature focusing on critical race theory, identity,
emotion, and identity highlights the need to examine the underlying assumptions and
philosophical beliefs of the individuals within the organization in order to bridge the gap
between espoused values and artifacts; however, many resources designed to support cultural
competency in the classroom focused on providing technical and tactical guidance. Shein’s
(2010) model provides a framework for the importance of supporting growth and development at
the level of beliefs and assumptions level using holistic and relationally-focused interventions.
49
Underlying assumptions that include unconscious bias may impact the organization’s ability to
achieve its goals, though Schein notes that this level of culture is most difficult to examine.
Personal Development
There needs to be time and resources allocated to focused personal work around bias and
cultural competency in order to develop an equity-minded reflective practice. Professional
development in the field is necessary for existing K-12 educators in order to help create more
culturally proficient, inclusive schools. Kirkpatrick (1994) identifies four levels of evaluation for
professional trainings: 1. reaction, 2. learning, 3. behavior change, and 4. results. In an analysis
of diversity management and cultural competency assessment tools, Trenerry & Paradies (2012)
conclude that policy, accountability, and organizational goals in this area, fail to identify cultural
competency in practice. Theoretical literature suggests that supporting the development of
individuals’ belief systems and identity through conceptual and metacognitive learning
experiences may be critical in achieving inclusive and equitable practice in the long term. The
literature identifies the need for the individual, nested within a within a culture of supported risk
taking with a commitment to social justice, to look inward and engage in critical self-
examination with respect to race, power, privilege, and positionality in order to take action
toward inclusion and equity (Nieto, 1999; Sleeter, 2017; DiAngelo, 2018; Tatum, 2017; Ladson-
Billings, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). Developing culturally competent individuals requires
guiding stakeholders through a process of personal and emotionally engaged inquiry. In
designing structures that support positive interdependence and promote individual and
organizational growth, organizations must attend to the personal, social, and emotional
dimensions of professional learning (Burke, 2002; Elmore, 2002; Northouse, 2016). While this
50
kind of professional development may not yield short-term measurable outcomes, there is
tremendous potential in an organizational investment in personal development.
Professional Coaching
Teachers need access to non-evaluative professional coaching within the organization to
analyze inclusion and equity in action with an intentional focus on moving through discomfort
toward alignment. Professional coaching can facilitate individual and organizational growth by
attending to individual stakeholder knowledge and motivational influences (Zepeda, 2013).
Allocating specific coaching resources at the organizational level influences stakeholders by
providing time and resources to metacognitive development and reflective practice, in addition to
training focused on developing conceptual and procedural knowledge to gain practical skills
(Chick et al, 2009). Instructional coaching has been linked to improvements in school culture,
teacher collaboration, improved teacher attitudes, skill transfer, feelings of efficacy, and student
achievement (Desimone & Pak, 2017). Effective coaching requires trust and vulnerability, is
non-evaluative in nature, and provides an opportunity for individuals to take risks and receive
personalized support without judgement, within an organization that values and supports
coaching (Cox, 2012; Koch, 2008).
Table 4 identifies the key assumed organizational influences, and assessments of those
influences as they relate to the stakeholder and organizational goals.

51
Table 4
Organizational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of FCS is to prepare students intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally,
artistically, and spiritually to positively impact local and world communities. (FCS, 2019)
Organizational Global Goal
One of the goals and initiatives to inclusion and diversity is for FCS to become both individually
and institutionally culturally competent through self-awareness, developing intercultural
communication skills, cultivating cultural knowledge, and inclusive action.

Stakeholder Goal
All teachers will demonstrate culturally competent inclusive action by applying professional
learning to enact culturally competent pedagogy.
Assumed Organizational Influences

Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs a culture of
supported risk taking

Sample Interview Items:
o How have your colleagues responded to
strategic initiatives (inclusion and diversity)?

Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs a shared belief
that a social justice orientation will
prepare students to be culturally
competent.

. Sample Interview Items:
• What does is mean for students to be
culturally competent?
• What role, if any, do you think educators
should have in facilitating conversations
about equity, diversity, and inclusion?
• Can you tell me a little bit about FCS’
strategic initiatives around equity and
diversity?
o (if not articulated in the previous
response) Do you know what the
strategic mission and vision is?

Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to provide time
and resources allocated to focused
personal work around bias

Sample Interview Items:
Can you tell me about opportunities you
have for professional development or
coaching? (specifically related to inclusion
diversity equity). What kinds of resources do
you access in planning instruction?
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to provide
teachers access to non-evaluative
professional coaching to analyze
inclusion in action with an intentional
focus on moving through discomfort
toward alignment.
Sample Interview Items:
o How is the FCS mission/ vision/ strategic
initiative/ organizational goal actualized in
practice?
o Can you tell me about opportunities you have for
professional development or coaching?
(specifically related to inclusion diversity equity)

52
Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context
The purpose of the conceptual framework is to provide a theory about the phenomena
studied, and a framework that reflects the researcher’s understanding of the way things work
with respect to that phenomena (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual the
framework was constructed from an intersection of contributing theories and research (Maxwell,
2013), and drove the study methodology, sampling strategy, and types of data collection and
analysis.
Maxwell (2013) identified four critical resources for developing the conceptual
framework: empirical literature, theoretical literature, personal experience, and thought
experiments. The framework for this study draws on empirical research and theoretical literature
in critical race theory, culturally relevant pedagogy, anti-bias education, andragogy, and social
emotional learning, and is embedded within Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework
which is constructed from theories of learning, motivation, and organizational culture.
Experiential knowledge of the researcher contributed to the construction of the
conceptual framework, providing critical insight into identifying problems of practice and
framing questions and hypotheses that guide the inquiry. Given the researcher’s close
relationship with the problem of practice, researcher bias may influence the design, collection,
and analysis of data (Maxwell, 2013). In the case of this study, the researcher has considerable
experience in leading professional learning communities of K-12 educators in school
organizations with a focus on social emotional learning, cultural competency, and social justice.
The researcher holds foundational beliefs that educators who are more socially and emotionally
competent are able to implement social emotional learning in classroom environments with
greater efficacy (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Kelchtermans, 2005). Though social emotional
53
learning is not the central focus of this study, there is a significant intersection between the role
of identity and bias, and social emotional skills such as self-awareness and empathy. The
researcher has experience in organizations where practical training about inclusion and culturally
competent pedagogy has not resulted in behavior change, and holds a hypothesis that individual
educators’ beliefs, mindset, and implicit bias play a critical role in their ability to effectively
access and implement tools and strategies, that support inclusive and equitable action through
culturally competent classroom practice.
The larger problem of practice this study addresses is the lack of culturally competent
pedagogy in K-12 classrooms. More specifically, this study explores the role an individual
educator’s cultural competency plays in their ability to access and activate professional learning,
coaching, tools, resources, curriculum, and opportunities for critical reflection in order to
develop culturally competent classroom practice. This study examines the conditions within an
organization, that effectively facilitate professional learning transfer and behavior change for
inclusion and equity in action.
The visual representation of the conceptual framework in Figure 1 illustrates the complex
factors at work in developing culturally competent educators as catalysts for implementing
culturally competent pedagogy. Within this visual representation, specific knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences are identified.

54
Figure 1. Interactive Conceptual Framework: Developing Culturally Competent Educators as
Catalysts for Implementing Culturally Competent Pedagogy.

Centrality of the Educator
As outlined in the review of general literature in this chapter, considerable body of
research exists indicating that culturally competent pedagogy has positive impact socially,
emotionally, and academically on all students, particularly students of color and those whose
identity has a history of oppression in the United States (Gay, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Researchers have sought to identify common practices and characteristics of culturally
competent pedagogy in order to develop models and conceptual frameworks to guide educational
practice (Gay, 2010; Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). Though these include an understanding
cultural and racial identity as a component of developing culturally competent practice, these
frameworks focus largely on valuing and affirming diversity in others (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper,
School Organizational
Context:
Organizational culture of
supported risk taking and
trust, committed to aligning
culturally competent action
with social justice mission
and vision.
Social,
Emotional,
Relationship
Competencies
Deep
Understanding
of Power,
Privilege, and
Positionality
Foundation
in Critical
Race Theory
Stakeholder
Organizational Goal
Knowledge: Conceptual
Organization: Cultural Models
Motivation: Self Efficacy
Motivation: Emotion
External
Support &
Coaching
Inclusion and
Equity in Action:
Culturally
Competent
Pedagogy
Equity-
Minded
Reflection
Training,
Tools,
Resources,
Curriculum
Knowledge Metacognitive
Culturally
Competent
Educators
Organization: Cultural Setting
Knowledge: Metacognitive
Knowledge: Conceptual & Procedural
Organization: Cultural Setting
Motivation: Utility Value
Motivation: Utility Value
Motivation: Self Efficacy
Organization: Cultural Setting
55
2011; Santamaria, 2009; Gay, 2010; Hammond, 2014). A significant body of literature identifies
the critical need for the individual, nested within a supportive community, to look inward and
engage in critical self-examination with respect to race, power, privilege, and positionality in
order to take action toward inclusion and equity (Nieto, 1999; Sleeter, 2017; DiAngelo, 2018;
Tatum, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001).
The capacity and role of the educator is essential in this framework. A culturally
competent educator is able to catalyze, engage, and activate inputs and processes that are
supported as strong practices in culturally competent pedagogy. Within the organization, cultural
settings may provide tools, training, curriculum, and resources; as well as training and coaching
focused on the personal development of educators. Without the culturally competent educator,
those resources and practices remain inactive. Cultural models, values, and belief systems
influence individuals ability to effectively engage tools, resources, policies, or curriculum
(Gallimore & Goldenberg (2011). Factual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and skills may be
easier inputs to track in terms of short-term measurable outcomes (Schommer, 1990), but they
may be minimally effective without considerable attention given to the implicit beliefs of the
educator (Gay, 2018). Theoretical literature suggests that supporting the development of
individuals’ belief systems and through conceptual and metacognitive learning experiences may
be critical in achieving change toward organizational goals in the long term (Schein, 2017).
Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the extent to which the organization is meeting
its goal of acting to be inclusive and becoming both individually and institutionally culturally
competent. The study sought to further explore the role an individual educator’s cultural
competency plays in their ability to access and activate professional learning, coaching, tools,
56
resources, curriculum, and opportunities for critical reflection in order to develop culturally
competent classroom practice. The review of the literature identifies a number of factors as
potential influences on the organizational goal for inclusion and equity in action. There is not
widespread agreement about what specific measurable outcomes indicate effective inclusion
diversity and equity initiatives; however, scholars cite the development of identity of self in
context of a larger sociopolitical system is a necessary first step in being able to lead initiatives
around race, equity, and bias. The conceptual framework in this chapter provides a schema
highlighting the centrality of the educator as a catalyst or inhibitor to inclusive action. Within the
gap analytic framework, these assumed influences in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organization were assessed and be validated through the methodology described in chapter three.

57
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This project examined culturally competent pedagogy in K-12 classroom settings. The
organizational goal addressed by this project is to act on an individual and institutional level to
be inclusive by becoming both individually and institutionally culturally competent.
Additionally, the study explored the role an individual educator’s cultural competency plays in
their ability to access and activate professional learning, coaching, tools, resources, curriculum,
and opportunities for critical reflection in order to develop culturally competent classroom
practice. This study also examined the conditions within an organization, that effectively
facilitate professional learning transfer and behavior change for inclusion and equity in action.
The study drew on the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework and focused on the assets
and needs in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. While a
complete study would include all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in
this analysis was teachers.
Challenges in Evaluating Cultural Competence
Though cultural competence is embedded in common discourse, scholars are not in
agreement about how to measure it due to inconsistencies in defining cultural competence and
bias in measurement methods. One challenge to effectively assessing intercultural competence is
the wide array of different terms used to describe these competencies (Capell, Veenstra & Dean,
2007; Kumas-Tan, Beagan & Loppie, 2007). Cultural competence is complex, dynamic,
contextual, and subjective. Fantini (2009) defines intercultural competence as the set of complex
abilities that are required to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting with others
who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself; however, “effective” and
“appropriate” are culturally subjective. Rather than defining cultural competence as the ability to
58
interact with others, others authors point to assessing self-knowledge and racial identity
development as a proxy for measuring cultural competence (McAllister & Irvine, 2000). A
critical limitation of cultural competence measures is that they are largely self-reported
assessments and there is pervasive bias in the self-report of bias itself (Loftin, Hartin, Branson &
Reyes, 2013; Fantini, 2009; Kumas-Tan et al., 2007). Kumas-Tan, Beagan, Loppie, MacLeod &
Frank (2007) conducted a systematic review of 20 years and more than 50 instruments of
quantitative measures of cultural competence and found that the tools held implicit underlying
bias, assumed Whiteness as normative and culture-less, and ignored power and privilege. In this
meta-analysis, Kumas-Tan et al., (2007) concluded that future assessments of cultural
competence must measure both cultural humility and actual practice.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this study is the Forest Community School (FCS)
teachers. The population consists of about 125 full-time teaching staff members serving students
PreK-12. Teachers are defined in this way to include classroom teachers as well as other full-
time employees who teach, facilitate, and lead groups of students during instructional minutes in
the school day. This study sampled 12 full-time White teachers in the FCS lower school (grades
K-5) whose employment at FCS ranged from 1-22 years, with a median of 10 years in the
organization. The sample included classroom teachers across the grade levels, specialist teachers
(as defined by the organization to include music, PE, foreign language, art, library, science) as
well as non-classroom-specific teachers.
Sampling Approach
According to Johnson and Christiensen (2015), questionnaires are useful in obtaining
information about internal characteristics of the participants such as thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
59
beliefs, values, perceptions, and behavioral intentions. In qualitative research, small and
purposeful samples are most appropriate (Johnson & Christiensen, 2015). This study used
interviews, observations, and analysis of documents and artifacts to qualitatively construct
meaning regarding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to teachers’
practice. Secondary and existing data such as personal documents, lesson and unit plans, teacher-
created curriculum, video lessons, and classroom websites were used as additional sources of
information to triangulate the data obtained from the observation and interview participants.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
This study used purposeful sampling to select 12 teachers to participate in qualitative
interviews and observations. This sample was large enough that it yielded valid and reliable
results, but small enough to be feasible for deep analysis and coding of the data by the researcher
given the time frame of the study (Johnson & Christiensen, 2015). The sampling criteria intended
to rule out alternative influences or explanations such as lived experiences of people of color,
professional challenges of newer teachers, or lack of organizational knowledge. These eligibility
criteria narrow the sample from the larger population in order to restrict findings from this study
to experienced White teachers with organizational knowledge and experience.
Criterion 1
Teachers who identify as White. This study is related to the larger problem of practice
that White teachers, who comprise the vast majority of teachers in the United States, lack
cultural competency. At FCS, fewer than 10% of teachers identify as people of color. Sampling
teachers of color may compromise their anonymity, and would likely yield results reflecting
lived experience rather than organizational effectiveness.
Criterion 2
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Teachers who have been employed full time in an instructional capacity at FCS for at
least one full academic year. Full time teaching positions at FCS are hired with a minimum
requirement of three years of prior experience. Implicit in the organizational experience criterion
is participant access to recent initiatives to advance toward achieving organizational goals.
Sampling included teachers whose employment ranged from 1-22 years to better understand the
long-term approach and impact of the professional learning program targeting inclusion,
diversity, and equity.
Criterion 3
Teachers who self-identified as having a sense of commitment to inclusive practice and
culturally competent pedagogy. This study included teachers who have participated in DEI
training, espoused shared values with the organizational mission and goals related to diversity,
equity, and inclusion, and voiced a commitment to live these values in their professional
practice. The methodology of data collection in this study used multiple data points to determine
if self-reported intent is consistent with teachers’ action and impact.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
Teachers received communication from division heads and members of the DEI team via
staff email or staff meetings indicating the study would be taking place. Teachers were invited to
participate in the study via email containing an outline of the study and criteria for participation.
The researcher privately cross-referenced the list of interested participants with a list of teachers
identified by the DEI director as meeting the criteria. Interested participants who met the criteria
were included in the study; however, participation was confidential, and will not be shared.
Research indicates that developing trust and establish rapport are important elements in
collecting interview data (Bogdan & Bilken, 2007; Patton, 2002; Rubin & Rubin 2012). Trust
61
and confidentiality within the interview is critical, particularly within this problem of practice
which examines issues of trust, vulnerability, and the personal social and emotional issues of
implicit bias and cultural awareness. In order to develop this rapport to gain informative
responses in the interview process, the researcher established clear guidelines about
confidentiality, and provided participants with the specific intentions of the study, framed by
organizational goals.
The data collection period for this study took place at the end of the school year
following three months of extended school closure and remote learning due to COVID-19.
Interviews were initially planned to take place in the teacher’s classroom or other private
workspace; however, interviews took place via videoconference and were audio recorded witb
the consent of the participants. There was no external incentive for participation as it is not
appropriate in the context of the FCS culture. Participation was voluntary and interviews were
conducted after the closing of school for the summer, taking place on teachers’ own time, rather
than during planning time as initially proposed.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Observation participants were intended to be the same pool of individuals as those who
participated in the interview. Elements of this study assessed metacognitive knowledge and self-
reflection; observations and interviews work in conjunction to explore the alignment between the
self-report interview about their practice and observational data of their practice. Observations
sought to identify characteristics and practices of teachers related to cultural competency, equity,
diversity, and inclusion.
62
Observation Sampling Strategy and Rationale
Observations were planned to be two hours in length during a team planning time and
occur in one day. Observations took place up to two weeks before interviews are conducted. The
order was selected as such because acknowledging that the interview and observation both had
the potential to impact the other. The content and reflective nature of the interview process could
influence the teacher’s practice when the observer was present by heightening the awareness of
the participant, invalidating results of the observation.
Explanation for Choices
These methods of data collection and sampling were chosen to gather rich data from
multiple data points related to the research questions and larger problem of practice. Sampling is
designed to be representative of the demographics of the stakeholder population in the
organization. Individual interviews and group observations allowed sufficient time to glean rich
data about the complex experiences of participants in the organization related to their
professional practice. The sample size and limited timeframe of the study were chosen
considering the context of the organization, and accessibility to the researcher.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study used qualitative interviews, observations, and analysis of documents and
artifacts to explore the interaction of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The
purpose of qualitative research is to understand social phenomenon through descriptive and
contextual research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative data sets aimed at understanding the
beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, qualities, and experiences of educators related to their classroom
practice. Qualitative methods were selected for this study to use this understanding to answer the
research questions in a meaningful way.
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According to Maxwell (2013), using multiple data collection methods can be beneficial
in triangulation described as using multiple methods to check one another, as well as providing
multiple perspectives in exploring different aspects of a phenomenon. Methodology for this
study included face to face or videoconference interviews, structured observations of educational
practice in collaborative planning sessions, and document analysis of existing data, curriculum
and instruction planning. Documents can provide researchers valuable information in framing
the context of a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents and artifacts were examined as
existing data and collected within the interview process.
Observation
Observation in research is defined as watching the behavioral patterns of people. For the
purpose of this study, a naturalistic observation of teachers during their instructional team
planning was used (Johnson & Christiensen, 2015). Observations provide an opportunity for the
researcher to observe participants behavior in a natural context, leading to a greater
understanding of both the behavior and the context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations are
important data for this study to guide understanding about how teachers’ cultural competency as
individuals translates to inclusive and culturally competent action in their professional practice.
These observations were used to triangulate self-report data (Maxwell, 2013) and as referents for
subsequent interviews (Meriam Tisdell, 2016).
Observation Protocol
Observations consisted of six key elements proposed by Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
including 1. The physical setting, 2. Participants, 3. Activities and interactions, 4. Conversation,
5. Subtle factors, and 6. The researcher’s own behavior. With respect to the research questions of
this study, observations sought to understand individual behavior and group dynamics related to
64
organizational goals of cultural competency and inclusive action. Observations sought to identify
and contextualize examples of cultural competency and bias that occur in process, practice, or
discourse. These observations focused on identifying the presence or absence of planning for
strong practices identified by in culturally relevant pedagogy research, and the presence or
absence of biased language or action. Because observations occurred virtually during team
planning rather than classroom practice, observation tools were selected and adapted to meet the
needs of the context and research questions. The observation protocol for this study, which can
be found in Appendix C, has been adapted from the School-wide Cultural Competence
Observation Checklist (Nelson, Bustamante, Wilson & Onwuegbuzie, 2008). Observation data
was be collected using by taking low-inference descriptive notes, capturing as much verbatim
language as is possible. Observation field notes include time stamps, research questions, and the
conceptual framework of the study.
Observations allow researchers to construct an understanding of actual behavior in
context beyond a more biased self-report of participants in an interview (Maxwell, 2013). The
focus of the observation is to verify procedural knowledge of how to design classroom
experiences in an inclusive and culturally relevant way; however, observations also provided an
opportunity for the researcher to validate metacognitive knowledge influences, and yield data
about motivational influences of emotion and value.
Observation Procedures
Observations were planned to occur in teachers’ classrooms during teaching team
planning sessions when children were not present. Since data collection took place during state-
mandated closure of physical school buildings, available observations took place virtually.
During these sessions, teachers worked in collaborative teams to design curriculum and plan
65
instructional experiences. These sessions yielded data about perspectives considered when
planning instruction, and intentional or unintentional decision making. This procedure was been
selected for this study to focus on teachers as primary stakeholders, and limit observation access
of the researcher to settings where all individuals present are adults who are able to give
informed consent.
Observations took place up to two weeks before interviews are conducted. The time
frame served to allow the researcher to collect all observation data before moving on to interview
data. Allowing time between the observation and interview supports the understanding of the
participants that the interview does not function as a debrief of the observation (as it may be
interpreted if the phases were to take place within a few days). This sequence was selected
because of the potential influence of the sequence on credibility of the observation.
Interviews
Qualitative interviews are intended to obtain in-depth information about the inner world
of participants thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, feelings, motivations, knowledge, and reasoning
(Johnson & Christiensen, 2015). Interviews were approximately one hour in length and were
scheduled in a manner where one interview and the related transcription and initial open coding
could be completed before the next interview began to allow for simultaneous data analysis
(Johnson & Christiensen, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). Interviews covered all
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Interview Protocol
The interview protocol used for this study was semi-structured, designed with open-
ended questions with subsequent follow-up probes to gain clarity and glean additional
information from the respondents. Semi-structured interviews are guided by a set of questions
66
but allow flexibility in wording and sequence (Merriam & Tisdell). These were selected to allow
for probing and open dialogue about the lived experience of participants (Patton, 2002). Open-
ended questions were designed to yield rich responses by encouraging participants to share their
experiences, beliefs, opinions, and knowledge. Question design was informed by research related
to types of questions that encourage meaningful responses. Questions in the interview protocol
sought to answer the research questions of this study by exploring knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences. Questions and subsequent probes focused on conceptual and
metacognitive knowledge, as well as motivational influences of emotion, attainment value, and
self-efficacy. Interview questions were designed to explore the social, emotional, personal, and
relational aspects of the study.
Interview Procedures
Following the conclusion of observations, one on one interviews were conducted with
each participant. Interviews were planned to take place in the teacher’s classroom or other
private workspace of the teacher’s choosing, but due to school closure and the timeframe of the
study, interviews took place via videoconference and were audio recorded. The location of the
interviews was intended to allow teachers to participate in their own space so that they feel
comfortable, which was maintained in the videoconference model. The classroom location was
also intentional as it would allow for specific interview questions to reference the classroom
space, validate procedural knowledge, and lead participants through some self-reflection as it
relates to metacognitive knowledge influences. In the absence of a physical location, the
researcher was able to access classroom websites, blogs, or other digital representations of the
teachers’ space in order to contextualize interview questions. In order to develop rapport to gain
informative responses in the interview process, the researcher established clear guidelines about
67
confidentiality, and provided participants with the specific intentions of the study, framed with
the in the organizational goals. Participants were given the opportunity for a follow-up interview
or additional information sharing if they chose.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents and artifacts were collected and considered as part of existing data, and as
supporting documents embedded within interviews. Documents and artifacts can be useful in
triangulating data in the process of inductive qualitative research, but are often insufficient as a
stand-alone data set due to the limitations of validity, authenticity, accuracy, and reliability
(Bowen, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents and artifacts were also examined to
validate organizational influences. Documents included current and historical curriculum
planning documents from teachers, some asynchronous video lessons from the spring semester’s
remote learning, work samples provided by teachers, calendar records for DEI professional
development and parent workshops, documentation and communication from the DEI team, and
public facing documentation and data from the school at large.
Documents can provide researchers valuable information in framing the context of a
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These documents serve to validate organizational influences,
particularly the organization’s assertion of dedicating time and resources to professional
development and personal growth. This documentation is necessary to establish what
professional learning opportunities have been put in place to provide context to the effectiveness
of those opportunities in transferring to behavior change toward achieving organizational goals.
These documents may also be useful in understanding the nature of professional development
teachers have been offered in light of other interview and observation data.

68
Data Analysis
Initial analysis of interview and observation data took place during the data collection
process. Memos were completed following each of the interviews and observations to capture
thoughts, perceptions, questions, and initial conclusions about the data collected in relation to my
research questions and conceptual framework. Interviews were be transcribed by a third-party
transcription service, coded, and stored securely in a password protected cloud storage file. Open
coding took take place in the first phase of analysis to apply a priori codes from the conceptual
framework and identifying empirical codes. This phase of analysis was followed by analytic
coding. The third phase of analysis identified patterns and emergent themes from the data as they
related to the conceptual framework and research questions. Multiple data sets and supported an
integrated analysis of patterns and themes from multiple data sets.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative research it is imperative that findings are credible and trustworthy
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013). Credibility in qualitative research indicates that the
data and findings are accurate and plausible; trustworthiness is the idea that data and findings are
consistent, dependable, and confirmable (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Multiple strategies werre
used in this study in order to increase credibility and trustworthiness and mitigate potential
sources of error, including procedures and protocols, triangulation, rich data, member checking,
and reflexivity of the researcher through continual clarification of bias.
Procedures and Protocols
The sequencing of observation and interview methods is designed to yield the most
credible data possible. Either sequence (observation then interview, or interview then
observation) could have an impact on the credibility of the data collected in the later part of the
69
sequence. The researcher determined that the content-specific and reflective nature of the
interview process may likely lead participants to behave differently during the observation,
perhaps with a heightened awareness of planning as it relates to cultural competency based on
their experience with the interview. Additionally, conducting the observation second could lead
to bias on the part of the researcher, potentially seeking to confirm or validate self-report
interview data. A limitation of this study was the relatively short time frame. As such, it was
essential that the data collected was high-quality and credible data.
Data collection protocols in this study supported credibility and trustworthiness. The
researcher maintained fidelity to protocols to mitigate potential bias. Protocols were designed for
rich descriptions including third-party transcriptions of interviews, collection of personal
documents and artifacts, analysis of existing data, and depth of the data sets, were strategies used
to support credibility. Data was organized within a qualitative data coding program and stored
securely in a password protected secure cloud-based drive. This along with process
documentation supports trustworthiness. Member checking is the process of validating emergent
findings with participants in order to increase credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016.) Embedded
in the sequencing data collection, and embedded within the interview itself, were opportunities
for the researcher to member check and validate responses with the participants.
Triangulation of Rich Data
Triangulation is the process of using multiple data points to validate findings (Creswell,
2008; Maxwell, 2013). This study uses triangulation of data at the participant and organizational
level from in-depth qualitative interviews, observations, and documents. Rich data gathered from
interviews and observations is intended to yield in-depth results. The researcher had the
opportunity to ask follow up questions to clarify understanding and interpretation of the data.
70
Reflexivity of the Researcher
The researcher is the instrument in qualitative data collection and analysis (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Reflexivity requires the researcher to critically reflect on positionality throughout
the research process, and bring critical consciousness to (Pillow, 2003). The researcher
documented perceptions and bias through reflective memos during the data collection process.
This regular reflection on the potential influence of researcher bias throughout the process of
data collection and analysis is important in increasing credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell,
2008; Maxwell, 2013). Ethical considerations, though separate and complex, are connected to
credibility and trustworthiness. The credibility and dependability, which can also be considered
as similar to internal validity and reliability of the data, is dependent on the ethical behavior of
the researcher or research team (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Ethical practices are outlined in the
next section.
Ethics
Ethical principles and practices guided all phases of the study. Researchers have an
ethical obligation to ensure no harm to, and maintain respect for participants (Glesne, 2011).
This study was reviewed and approved by the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB). The IRB process protects human subjects by ensuring research adheres to
ethical principles of researchers’ obligation to do no harm, uphold respect for individuals by
requiring including informed consent, and make ethical decisions with respect to equitable
access to benefits of research (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
To ensure informed consent, participants received and acknowledged receipt of
communication from the researcher that participation in the study was voluntary, optional and
confidential. Participant identities and the content of participant interviews were not disclosed to
71
the organization. Informed consent is defined by voluntary participation, the right to withdraw,
separate permission for recording, confidentiality, and secure data collection and storage
(Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Participants gave consent to record at the beginning of
each interview and were given the option of not being recorded. Individuals were able to opt out
at any point during the study if they choose not to participate. Identifying information was be
scrubbed from transcripts in the data cleaning process. Trust and confidentiality within the
interview was critical, particularly within this problem of practice which examines issues of
trust, vulnerability, and the personal social and emotional issues of implicit bias and cultural
awareness.
The researcher is not an employee of the organization. The researcher’s professional
relationship with the DEI Director and other members of the organization who were not part of
the study, were clearly defined with respect to confidentiality. There was no external incentive
for participation. The researcher holds a hypothesis that individual educators’ beliefs, mindset,
and implicit bias play a critical role in their ability to effectively access and implement tools and
strategies, that support inclusive and equitable action through culturally competent classroom
practice. In the process of data collection and analysis, the researcher maintained fidelity to
interview guide protocols in order to increase consistency and mitigate potential bias (Rubin &
Rubin, 2006).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of this study design include factors that are not in the control of the
researcher. These limitations include the individuals who are willing to participate in the study,
the truthfulness of the participants, and the number and composition of individual teachers
present in curriculum planning team meetings being observed. Another limitation is that the
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interview protocol and questions had not been validated by previous studies. Finally, since the
researcher is not an employee of the organization, unknown factors related to organizational
culture may have influenced the establishment of trust between the researcher and participants.
Delimitations are related to the choices made by the researcher. A delimitation of this
study is the focus on White teachers. As the study evaluated the extent to which the organization
is meeting its organizational goals, new teachers were excluded from the sample. The focus on a
the teacher stakeholder group rather than rich qualitative data from multiple stakeholders is a
delimitation of the study that framed organizational findings primarily through the lens of the
teacher experience. Another delimitation of the study is that the observed practice is that of
teacher planning and documentation of the planning process rather than classroom instruction.
This decision was made to observe cultural competency and culturally relevant or inclusive
action in a natural social context, while not observing minor human subjects.

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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
The purpose of this project was to study the FCS professional development program’s
impact on culturally competent pedagogy. This chapter will focus on the data analysis related to
the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources, their influences on
teachers’ ability to enact culturally competent pedagogy. The study sought to answer the
following research questions:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to culturally competent
pedagogy?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and teacher
knowledge and motivation?
Due to constraints of the timeline for data collection, and some limitations at the closing
of the school year, not all participants were able to be observed for two hours prior to their
interview. In lieu of these observations, documents and artifacts were analyzed to validate
knowledge and motivation influences that were self-reported in the interviews. These documents
and artifacts included public-facing classroom and teacher websites, asynchronously recorded
lessons that were voluntarily provided by teachers, as well as lesson and unit plans. Interviews
were conducted after the closing of school for the summer and took place on teachers’ own time,
rather than during planning time as initially proposed.
Data collection took place during the historic Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests in June
and early July 2020, following the killing of a number of unarmed Black people by police
officers, including Breonna Taylor in March and George Floyd in late May. BLM started in 2013
after the acquittal of Treyvonn Martin’s killer and grew to a national network after the killing of
Mike Brown and subsequent protests in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014. On July 6, 2020 the New
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York Times called BLM the largest movement in US history, citing polls that found between 16
and 25% of people in the U.S. reported participating in one or more than 4,700 demonstrations in
June alone. Demonstrators called to defund the police and demanded reforms to the justice
system. Companies, schools, politicians, celebrities, athletes made public statements in support
of BLM. Coverage of protests took over the news cycle and books about racism dominated best
seller lists. The movement brought collective attention to structural inequities in healthcare,
education, wealth, housing, and the justice system, and galvanized people across sectors to call
on leaders to actively dismantle systems rooted in White supremacy and anti-Black racism. The
historical context and significance of BLM is important to note, as discussions about race and
equity with research participants were undoubtedly charged by collective consciousness during
this time of societal upheaval.
Students, parents, alumni, and teachers from schools, including FCS, publicly and
privately sought institutional accountability for complicity in perpetuating racial inequity. In
June, there was significant official and unofficial communication from FCS on the school’s
website and on social media. These documents were also considered as data. In June 2020, the
head of school made several public and community statements and held a community townhall
meeting to discuss anti-racism and anti-Blackness at FCS. During the data collection period, the
organization began using the phrasing “anti-racist” instead of, and in some cases in addition to,
“cultural competency” in public-facing communication and resource lists, though not officially
in the organization’s mission, policy, or on the inclusion and diversity webpage.
Interview questions asked participants to discuss organizational influences related to DEI
work at FCS. Documents and artifacts were also examined to validate organizational influences.
Documents included current and historical curriculum planning documents from teachers, some
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asynchronous video lessons from the spring semester’s remote learning, work samples provided
by teachers, calendar records for DEI professional development and parent workshops,
documentation and communication from the DEI team, and public facing documentation and
data from the school at large. Documents and artifacts included FCS’s written and video
response to racial violence, police brutality, and resistance, as well as a video recording of a live
town hall meeting held to address community concerns related to the institutional response.
Participating Stakeholders
This study sampled 12 full-time White teachers in the FCS lower school (grades K-5)
whose employment at FCS ranged from 1-22 years, with a median of 10 years in the
organization. The sample included classroom teachers across the grade levels, specialist teachers
(as defined by the organization to include music, PE, foreign language, art, library, science) as
well as non-classroom-specific teachers. Stakeholders in the sample espoused shared values with
the organizational mission and goals related to diversity, equity, and inclusion, and voiced a
commitment to live these values in their professional practice. While some perspectives of
teachers of color, parents, alumni, students, other staff members and administrators were
included through documents and artifacts as they related to organizational influences, the sample
focused on White teachers.
Findings
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were evaluated in this study
to analyze gaps in organizational performance. Table 5 provides a summary of influences and
findings. Findings related to the validation of these influences have been classified as follows:
• No: the data did not reveal a gap
• Yes: the data revealed a gap
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• Critical: the data revealed a consistent and pervasive gap that operated independently and
interdependently with other validated influences

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Table 5
Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and Findings
Assumed Influence Findings
Validated a Gap
(No, Yes,
Critical)
Knowledge
Conceptual: Teachers need to know historically biased and inequitable systems have influenced
contemporary experiences of individuals from diverse backgrounds.
Yes
Procedural: Teachers need to know how to plan and implement culturally competent pedagogy. Critical
Metacognitive: Teachers need to examine their planning and pedagogy through a lens of
equity.
Yes
Motivation

Utility Value: Teachers need to see the value of inclusive, culturally competent pedagogy as a
lever for supporting progress toward long-term goals of the organization related to inclusion,
diversity, and cultural competency.
No
Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to believe they are capable of facilitating critical conversations
about race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent and inclusive way.
Critical
Emotions—Teachers need to activate and overcome anxiety, fear, and shame in order to
engage in culturally competent pedagogy with positive emotions.
Yes
Organization

Cultural models: supported risk-taking in a learning organization. Critical
Cultural model: a shared belief that a social justice orientation will prepare students to be
culturally competent.
Yes
Cultural setting: The organization needs to provide time and resources allocated to focused
personal work around bias.
No
Cultural setting: The organization needs to provide teachers access to non-evaluative
professional coaching to analyze inclusion in action with an intentional focus on moving
through discomfort toward alignment.
Critical

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Knowledge Findings
Knowledge influences in this study were examined using Krathwohl’s (2002) four
knowledge types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. The assumed knowledge
influences of this study were:
1. Conceptual: Teachers need to know historically biased and inequitable systems have
influenced contemporary experiences of individuals from diverse backgrounds.
2. Procedural: Teachers need to know how to plan and implement culturally competent
pedagogy.
3. Metacognitive: Teachers need to examine their planning and pedagogy through a lens of
equity.
Conceptual Knowledge Findings
This study found a gap in teachers’ knowledge of how historically biased and inequitable
systems have influenced contemporary experiences of individuals from diverse backgrounds,
though there was variability among participants. Conceptual knowledge was examined via
planning documents and curriculum decisions, as well as responses and examples provided in
interviews. Teachers reported discussing race and bias outside of their role as an educator, “all
the time,” “several times a week,” “every so often,” and “before this last month?...never ever.”
When asked about bias in the school environment, responses ranged from one teacher who said,
“I don’t see bias,” to three teachers who reported observing bias “all the time.”
Three-fourths of teachers talked about their lack of racial literacy or cultural competency
as a result of their lived experience in segregated White spaces. This was described in their own
K-12 experiences, as one participant noted, “I went almost 20 years of my life without a single
teacher of color.” Other participants shared, “the more that I learn about race...the more I realize
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how many gaps I have,” and “I was really upset and I felt like I had been lied to...I really grew
up thinking that racism was over. Like that’s what I was taught. And it’s a real point of
frustration for me.”
A third of individuals reported not having strong conceptual knowledge in this area. As
one participant stated, “it’s so hard, because like I feel like a toddler when it comes to really
getting to the meat and the deeper level of understanding and awareness surrounding equity and
inclusion” Another teacher shared that, “this last month has kind of been our start to our journey
of learning,” referring to the last month of BLM protests. While this group of teachers believed it
was important to grow their conceptual knowledge, some identified the limitations of the impact
of conceptual work on their practice as teachers. “I don't know if having conversations and being
like, super educated will help me really enact change.”
A third of teachers interviewed demonstrated conceptual knowledge and strong racial
literacy. These teachers discussed racial identity in a way that was nuanced, complex, and
demonstrated an understanding of both intersectionality and diversity within a racial group.
These participants were able to identify patterns of oppression and bias in school environments
and apply that knowledge to their current practice. One participant noted an experience in a
previous school where they challenged their colleagues in an admissions meeting in a discussion
about a prospective Black student with a discipline record from preschool, saying, “There is a
problem with young Black boys being sent to the principal's office or being suspended or
expelled at a higher rate than their White peers and like this looks to us like this is that case.”
Another had experience in other organizations leading equity-related initiatives.
Despite all participants demonstrating conceptual knowledge, analysis of documents and
interviews found examples from five participants of each of the four frames of colorblind racism
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identified by Bonilla-Silva (2013) as: abstract liberalism, naturalization, cultural racism, and
minimization of racism. Abstract liberalism, framing race-related issues as choice or
individualism while ignoring de facto racial inequality, was present when discussing students
and families of color who, “just decided to leave.” Naturalization, or framing racial phenomena
as “natural” occurrences, was provided as an explanation for a lack of diverse friendships and
interaction with communities of color, “I think it's easy to find people that think similarly
politically when comes to social issues, but so few of my friends in my community look different
than me or have different backgrounds than me, and I don’t know why that is, really.” Cultural
racism, a frame that relies on culturally-based arguments or stereotypes, was present in the
practices of individuals who were intentional and informed by some personal or professional
learning, but also invoked stereotypes or overgeneralized information that they had learned about
specific racial or cultural groups. For example, when talking about a parent of color who was
upset, a participant “had a hard time articulating it in a way that was constructive,” while another
noted that Black students may have difficulty participating in a family history project, “because
of the history of oppression, and knowing where you came from is a privilege.” Minimization of
racism, which frames racism and discrimination as historical or improved, was present in
participants who described the work of the school to become more culturally competent and
inclusive as, “sort of a striving school with DEI work.” Organization-wide communication from
the Head of School and Chair of the Board of Trustees demonstrated minimization and lack of
conceptual knowledge, saying, “we have long upheld the right principles that everyone and every
voice matters,” and in responding to stories of racist experiences of alumni and families of color
saying, “many students of color, and others, did not have such a positive experience.” Though
some individual participants demonstrated a strong antiracist lens, engrained patterns of
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colorblind racism were evident at all levels of the organization, and consistently reinforced in
organizational communication.
Procedural Knowledge Findings
The study found a critical gap in teachers’ ability to plan and implement culturally
competent pedagogy. All teachers self-reported procedural knowledge as an area of need for
individual and institutional growth, as one teacher explained, “I feel like this faculty wants to
have those conversations… we just don't know how.” The study surfaced two themes in the area
of procedural knowledge: philosophical alignment, and procedural deficits as secondary to other
influences.
Philosophical Alignment--Reactive vs. Proactive Practice. According to internal and
public facing communication, FCS lower school follows an inquiry-driven approach to teaching
and learning and Reggio Emilia inspired pedagogy. One of the themes that emerged with respect
to procedural knowledge was an inconsistent understanding of the relationship between this
philosophical approach and an anti-racist, anti-oppression, or culturally competent pedagogy.
Central to an inquiry or Reggio Emilia approach is the idea that children of all ages deserve to
have their voices heard, and the teacher's responsibility is to facilitate learning in a way that
respects and values those voices (Malaguzzi, 1996; Scheinfeld, Haigh, & Scheinfeld, 2008;
Wien, 2008). A critical pedagogy lens rejects the hegemonic epistemology of White, American
centricism and relies on educators to develop critical consciousness in their classrooms and
disrupt systems of oppressive power. (Freire & Macedo, 1987; Han, Madhuri, & Scull, 2015).
Like the Reggio Emilia approach, critical pedagogy centers student voices and values students as
agents of social change (Darder, Torres, & Baltodano, 2017).
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Though the gap in procedural knowledge was self-reported by all participants, and the
study found a gap overall, data indicated variation among participants and identified some
practitioners who consistently demonstrated strong culturally competent practices. Those
teachers who consistently demonstrated culturally competent pedagogy discussed ways in which
their critical lens on issues of race, bias, and oppression were in direct alignment with an inquiry-
driven model of education. When asked how they went about facilitating conversations about
race and bias in the classroom, one teacher responded, “I don't have a recipe. I don't have a
formula. But I think it begins with questions. And like any kind of good inquiry approach, it’s
proactive, critical, and responsive.” Another teacher identified inquiry-driven anti-bias practice
as,
…not just interrogating some piece of writing or curriculum, but looking inward at
ourselves, at our community, just walking around and asking, ‘I wonder why that is?
What does that communicate about the values of our community? What do you notice?
Let’s look at it. I wonder if there’s a pattern?’ It’s just such a developmentally
appropriate way to allow kids to really develop their own critical lens. Is also a way that I
can lead the way but not have it be in a way that is really just pushing my agenda.

A teacher who did not demonstrate a high level of cultural competency in their pedagogy agreed
that an inquiry approach philosophically aligned but cited their conceptual knowledge and
procedural deficits by saying, “I have so little understanding of the complexities that I don’t
know how to ask the right questions to actually get to the root of the issue.” Teachers who
believed that good teaching means asking good questions were limited by their knowledge of
what questions to ask; this limitation reflected questions that had been asked of them and
questions they had asked themselves.
The deficit in procedural knowledge most commonly surfaced in teachers’ discomfort
and inability to respond to racially sensitive and microaggressive incidents in the classroom. This
was particularly prevalent in instances where student behavior may be perceived as either benign
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and innocent or as a bias-related incident when considered in a larger historical and sociopolitical
context. One example that was shared by several participants was the issue of White students
touching a Black student’s hair. Teachers commonly addressed this issue by “talking a lot about
consent and making sure we know what consent means.” In one instance the teacher noted that
“the little girl in the situation always wanted to be at the back of the line,” but despite the urging
of the teacher did not ever feel comfortable saying to her peers, “you can’t touch my hair.”
Others were conflicted and silent because they were not sure how to address the issue because,
“kids play with each other’s hair all the time and it can be about connection.” Teachers struggled
to identify developmentally appropriate practices regarding racial identity development and
facilitating discussions about race and bias. This was significantly different from the comfort and
deep knowledge teachers referenced about developmentally appropriate practice in other content
areas.
When the few strong practitioners talked about ways in which they facilitate anti-bias
teaching in the classroom, they discussed the importance of “bringing it up” and expressed guilt
or shame when reflecting on their earlier practices of only discussing race, oppression, and
addressing bias as a responsive or reactive rather than proactive practice. One participant noted,
“I’m sorry to say that as I was coming into this work ...it was more responsive and reactive,”
echoed by another who reflected on early-career practice saying, “at the beginning I was really
more responsive and not as proactive.” Others noted that recent events of racial violence and
movements for racial justice highlighted gaps in their practice. One teacher described their
decision to not facilitate a discussion about the killing of George Floyd and subsequent protests
in their classroom, citing their own failure to lay the groundwork for that conversation. Three
teachers identified the challenge of an education driven solely by student-led inquiry in a
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predominantly White and affluent student population, as one teacher stated, “it’s one thing if you
have a super diverse cohort, and then that’s all you need to really go deep and have a lot of
critical conversations. But it’s another thing when you’re teaching a largely White cohort that
has a lot of misconceptions about otherness and diversity.” While some teachers took the
challenge of homogeneity as a gap that they needed to close as a teacher, others employed the
lack of a diverse cohort paired with an emergent and inquiry-based curriculum as an excuse for
not addressing racial identity in the classroom. This was exemplified by a teacher who explained,
“when I have had Black students in my classroom I’ve done a much better job at it, and in other
years where all of my students are mostly White, we basically haven’t talked about it. Just kind
of ridiculous when I say it out loud now.” Teachers lacked a clear and cohesive understanding of
who conversations about racial bias and justice were for and how to start those conversations.
Masking or Modeling Discomfort. When presented with racial stress, a challenging
conversation in the classroom, strong practitioners discussed the importance in modeling
discomfort and engaging in inquiry alongside students. One teacher explained their process as,
“it’s so essential that I’m modeling my own learning along with them. ‘How are we going to
learn more about this? What are the resources? What are some other resources so we can hear
multiple perspectives? Why don't I know this?” Teachers whose practices were not characterized
as culturally competent discussed masking discomfort when faced with a challenging
conversation about race or bias. These responses included teachers saying, “just not knowing
how much to tell them... just knowing how deep to go that has been hard and I still don't know
exactly the answer to that,” and, “I mask that with the kids more. I would not want them to sense
my uncomfortability with those more difficult topics.”
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Differences Among Teachers. The study found a difference between early elementary
(EE), teachers and intermediate elementary (IE) teachers. EE teachers’ responses to questions
related to procedural knowledge demonstrated incomplete understanding of culturally competent
pedagogy and developmentally appropriate practice with respect to racial identity development.
Teachers at all levels referenced the importance of relationship building and social emotional
learning. EE teachers referenced inclusive messaging as part of their focus on building
connections between students, explaining, “we always talked about bringing other people in,” or
describing their practice as, “the messaging is really inclusive. I think it really is about
responding to the kids,” and “just talking about our differences and beautiful ways.” EE teachers
in the study expressed a feeling of needing to “protect” or “insulate” children from difficult
conversations. EE teachers also pointed to frequent incidents of administrative silencing when
faced with bias-related challenges in the classroom and identified connections between their
procedural skill deficits and their perceived lack of permission and the resulting lack of practice.
IE teachers did not have significantly stronger procedural skills as a group, but did demonstrate
an understanding of inclusive practice: “It’s not enough to just say that we’re all different and
that’s okay. Because while that might be true, it’s also really important to unpack all of the
hidden implicit and historical messages behind those actions.” This finding is important given
the large body of child development and anti-bias education research that identifies early
childhood as a critical time to have frequent and open conversations about race, in order to
provide a counternarrative about racial bias and support children in developing positive racial
attitudes that have a lifelong impact (Derman-Sparks, 1997; Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010;
Gaias, Gal, Abry, Taylor & Granger, 2018; Kinzler, 2016; Tatum, 1992). Silencing
conversations around race and bias in the name of positivity or protection in the early elementary
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grades fails to engage children in affirming their implicit understanding of race and hegemony
during key windows of development.
Procedural Deficits as Secondary to Other Influences. Though the study found a gap
in this area, the lack of procedural knowledge never surfaced as a gap in isolation but was
secondary to other knowledge, motivation, or organizational influences such as administrative
silencing, lack of clarity with respect to the organization’s social justice orientation. Three
teachers described and had demonstrated evidence of strong procedural skills; however, they
reported low self-efficacy in their procedural knowledge. The complexity of procedural
knowledge was explained “There are all of these layers … but it’s so important to be able to have
the skills to unpack that with kids. And the permission and the time. And there’s fear...and self-
doubt. Just so many things.” Other data indicated that procedural knowledge deficits were
influenced by lack of specific training, coaching, and collaborative practice to grow those skills,
but also significantly influenced by emotions and conceptual knowledge.
Metacognitive Knowledge Findings
This study found gaps in teachers’ ability to critically reflect on their practice and
planning process through an equity lens. Disciplined metacognitive practice is deeply embedded
in the culture of FCS; however, an equity lens was not consistently applied. Metacognitive
examination of the planning process and intentional instructional decision-making was
consistently documented in available observations, communication to families about the
planning process and curriculum decisions, and interviews. Document analysis illustrated that it
was common practice at FCS for teachers to provide reflective narratives about their curriculum
and pedagogical decisions in their communication to families and on their classroom websites.
Additionally, half of teachers provided examples of specific teaching strategies that support
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metacognition and critical thinking skills for students. Though a robust culture of metacognitive
engagement was present, the study found that teachers lacked conceptual and procedural
knowledge related to equity, race, and bias necessary to inform an equity-driven metacognitive
practice in a substantive way.
Teachers who reported that they facilitate conversations related to race, bias, difference,
and oppression often in the classroom, identified bringing a critical lens to planning as central to
their planning process. These teachers also had a strong conceptual and procedural knowledge
base to draw from in designing classroom experiences with an equity lens. When discussing their
pedagogy, these teachers identified their practice as less procedural and more as a metacognitive
process that included asking, “in what ways can I bring silenced and oppressed stories and
histories to the center and to the surface?” and continuing that inquiry with colleagues and
students asking, “what do we want to know? What are we missing? Whose stories are being
told? Whose stories are missing? Whose voices and perspectives have been silenced?” Within
FCS’s framework of inquiry-based curriculum, metacognitive engagement and critical thinking
is pedagogy and process. Likewise, a critical pedagogy or critical race theory approach blends
and embeds metacognition within the procedures of teaching and learning. Teachers identified
the importance of metacognitive engagement with their curriculum and pedagogy in order to
move the school toward more culturally competent practice. One participant reported “I think
there are really powerful ways to shift existing curriculum to make it anti-racist and anti-bias. I
don’t think it necessarily has to be about adopting something new and in most cases it very much
should be about bringing that critical lens.”
Three teachers who identified their practice as anti-racist, anti-bias, or critical shared how
the metacognitive process of planning and teaching with an equity lens changed over time as
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their experiential knowledge and conceptual knowledge grew. Each of these three teachers
shared experiences of having their racist practice being pointed out to them by a colleague or
parent. When teachers reflected on powerful and transformative experiences on their journey
toward putting their intent into action and making critical shifts in their practice, they cited
humility and accountability in relationships undergirding their change. One teacher talked about
an experience of being “called out” by a parent,
I had no idea what they were talking about. I had no idea of the historical context… I
thought maybe I should have been more aware of some of these things such as the
symbols or things that would make people upset... but...I was missing such a huge piece
of actual learning. I should have known better but at the time it was from a place of trying
to do good but never really asking anyone what they thought, but instead unilaterally,
from my own perspective and in my own very narrow worldview, trying to make large
decisions.

Another shared an experience in which they became aware that they were perpetuating racial
harm in the classroom and not knowing what to do, but recognizing that moment and sharing,
“Having come to where I am so late in life…in adulthood—I think it’s just so important for
White people to deeply understand racism as it lives in you...it’s a process...you have reflect on
and live in that space and it takes time...and work to come out the other side.”
Teachers who applied a strong equity lens to examine their planning and pedagogy were
able to do so, in part, because of their ability to identify personal, institutional, and structural bias
and self-efficacy in actively seeking counternarratives. One participant described this process as,
Developing an understanding of culture, regardless of the color of your skin, the idea that
you have a culture, especially if you're White. And that you can see and have some self-
awareness about who you are and the lens and experiences that you bring to the life that
you live in the kids that you teach in your classroom. And then understanding who the
children are that you teach and who those families are. And then what does that all mean
in terms of our communication and interactions. I feel like we are always still growing
our cultural competency.

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Another participant highlighted the importance of considering her identity and positional power
when planning, saying, “as a White woman, what counternarratives need to be present just
because of the nature of me being in the room...being the teacher?” and “…really thinking about
how we can deeply integrate the critical lens into our pedagogy and practice as adults, but also
into that critical inquiry for children.” This finding is supported by the work of Darder (2012)
who found that educators must be vigilant in critically reflecting on the role of power in shaping
their practice and culture of learning.
Motivation Findings
The assumed motivational influences identified in this study were:
1. Utility Value: Teachers need to see the value of inclusive, culturally competent
pedagogy as a lever for supporting progress toward long-term goals of the
organization related to inclusion, diversity, and cultural competency.
2. Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to believe they are capable of facilitating critical
conversations about race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent and
inclusive way.
3. Emotions—Teachers need to activate and overcome anxiety, fear, and shame in
order to engage in culturally competent pedagogy with positive emotions.
Utility Value Findings
This study found strong evidence that participants valued inclusive culturally competent
pedagogy. All participants reported a social justice orientation at an individual level. In the
interview, teachers were asked to discuss their beliefs about the role educators should have in
facilitating critical conversations about race and bias. Participants responded, “it needs to be a
central point in what we do,” or that it was “imperative,” and “I think we have a huge
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responsibility and I think it should be just embedded in our community conversations.” A third
of participants were less clear in expressing a critical lens, but did affirm the value of their role
as “the ally,” or as having a role of “constantly listening and learning and questioning.” One
participant noted that teachers “have a big role,” but continued to note discomfort, saying, “it can
be really hard to know how to approach those conversations and so it’s really easy to avoid
them...it’s easier not to talk about things you’re uncomfortable with, or that you don’t know how
to approach.” A third of participants framed a social justice orientation as “the primary role of
educators,” or saying that,
…we live in this dominant culture that so invisibly permeates every aspect of what we do
and how we interact and so schools have the obligation to be the counterculture that will
push for change and encourage children to be free thinkers who can move outside of
those engrained dominant cycles.

For these teachers, “the whole point of being a teacher is to encourage critical thinking, empathy
and opportunity to create a better version of reality,” and critical conversations about race, bias,
and justice, “are embedded in everything in explicit and subversive ways,” or that this kind of
discourse in the elementary classroom “makes sense to do it in everything, like in an all subject
areas.”
There were no participants who identified feeling personal resistance to developing
culturally competent pedagogy. One participant explained the essential function of teachers to
facilitate critical conversations as such:
There’s a meme of someone in a med school class and the doctor talking about how you
must treat patients regardless of their gender expression or sexuality and a student’s
saying like, ’but what if we're not comfortable with that?’ and the doctor saying like,
‘then you need to choose a different career.’ I feel the same way about teaching...it's
really at the core of what we do, because it's dishonest to do otherwise.

This idea that resistance to moving through discomfort toward more culturally competent
practice as being incongruent with the profession of teaching was echoed by nearly half of
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participants. Although teachers consistently espoused value for culturally competent pedagogy
and felt as though these values were aligned with the school’s mission, challenges in the social
justice orientation at an organizational level were cited as roadblocks. This dynamic will be
discussed in the organizational influence section.
Self-Efficacy Findings
This study found a critical gap in teachers’ self-efficacy in facilitating conversations
about race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent and inclusive way. Nearly all (eleven
of twelve) participants identified low self-efficacy in this area. This remained constant regardless
of observed or documented ability to enact culturally competent pedagogy. Teachers who were
strong in this area still felt that their approach was “imperfect,” or “I don’t know….I don't really
have a formula,” or as “striking out on our own and hopefully get it right.”
Teachers identified not wanting to make a mistake, “you always feel like you want to get
it just right like as a teacher…you want to be super prepared,” or as another participant said, “I'm
just not sure what to say.” Low self-efficacy was most often paired with or attributed to
emotions. Participants reported feeling, “a little apprehensive, or a little like uncomfortable,” and
“like whatever I was going to say...whatever narrative where I knew what to say, wasn't exactly
honest.” Teachers identified organizational influences such as lack of collaboration or coaching
as factors contributing to their low self-efficacy. One teacher told a story of seeing the DEI
Director facilitate a lesson about race after feeling like they did not have the skills necessary to
do so themself and being “blown away. It was a huge aha moment for me of seeing how such a
hard topic can be discussed in a really powerful age appropriate way,” but added, “I haven’t had
an opportunity to do it...but I definitely learned a lot.”
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All participants expressed a desire to grow their practice to become more intentional,
explicit, or strategic. Racial identity and lived experience played a role in White teachers’
perceptions of who was able to effectively facilitate critical conversations with students. All
participants directly or indirectly cited their lived experience and lack of racial literacy as
contributing factors to their low self-efficacy. These responses included, “we should all be more
educated about racial literacy, which I'm still learning what that means,” and, “I'm kind of
teaching myself.” “I think that it’s very difficult to become a culturally competent individual
when you live in a very homogenous environment, work in a very homogenous environment,
learn in a very homogenous environment. There’s a lack of human understanding about people
because you don’t have relationships.” The importance of relationships and the role of the
community in shaping self-efficacy was consistently referenced by participants and is discussed
later in the organizational findings section.
Emotions Findings
This study found a gap in teachers’ ability to productively engage with negative emotions
such as anxiety, fear, and shame in order to engage in culturally competent pedagogy with
positive emotions. Participants in this study consistently identified emotional influences on their
pedagogy and professional growth. Themes that surfaced in the data included emotional
responses attributed to personal internal factors, and emotional responses attributed to external
organizational factors.
Internal Factors. Emotions such as guilt, shame, discomfort, and sadness surfaced as a
result of internal factors. Three participants shared feelings of guilt and five talked about both
guilt and shame as emotions that shape their practice. When asked about addressing oppression
and bias in the classroom, one teacher responded, “I feel like I really don't have much to say. I
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feel very guilty. There's a lot of guilt and shame.” Another participant was careful to delineate
guilt from shame, saying, “I think being able to come to that place free from the guilt and shame
… actually, specifically the shame because I think that shame tells you you're a bad person. Guilt
says you've done a bad thing.” Three teachers shared feeling sad when faced with stories of
racial bias at FCS. In response to the school’s statement on racial violence, many alumni,
students, former and current teachers, and other community members posted stories and
experiences of bias and discrimination to FCS’ social media pages. For two participants, reading
these stories was the first time that they had considered bias at FCS, and responded, “it makes
me really sad,” and “I was so sad that that was their perception of their experience.” This sadness
centered White teachers’ feelings, a sentiment echoed by another teacher who shared a story of
an incident of racial bias involving a former student, “I was so sad that something like that
happened in my classroom.” In talking about incidents of racial tension in the classroom,
individuals who centered their own feelings of sadness, guilt, and shame for not having the
conceptual or procedural skills necessary to lead critical conversations with students, were not
able to move forward and take action. They described being “confused,” or that they “didn’t
know what to do” and either moved forward without addressing the issue or outsourced the
incident to a person of color by calling on the DEI director or one of few teachers of color to
intervene.
More than half of participants identified feeling frustration, anger, discomfort, or a sense
of urgency when faced with a challenging incident of racial bias in the classroom. These teachers
centered the stories and feelings of students in their stories, saying “I didn't know what to do…
and I had harmed a child who I loved and cared for,” and seeking support from colleagues to
unpack complex racial dynamics, asking “how can I make it right?” These individuals were able
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to shift their emotional response of frustration or discomfort to feelings of curiosity and
determination, and activate those emotions as motivation to learn and grow their practice.
According to Walker (2017) shame impedes learning, but can be leveraged as motivation
if adults are able to courageously engage with shame and other unconscious emotions. “I have an
emotional response, but it isn’t useful at some point.” Another articulated this clearly in
connection to brain research and learning, saying, “sadness and shame doesn't really lead to
learning and change.” Teachers who expressed sadness and shame did not describe a process of
shifting and activating those emotions in order to learn and grow, but rather as an endpoint that
was unchangeable, including two participants who described or expressed their sadness as a
current emotion, even when discussing a past event. Emotional responses of sadness and shame
impeded professional growth. While these emotional influences were a result of internal and
individual factors, emotions resulting from external factors were significant.
External Factors. This study found that emotions related to external organizational
factors influenced teachers’ practice and professional growth. In identifying roadblocks to
achieving the goals of becoming culturally competent at an institutional and individual level,
teachers cited “White fear and White fragility,” along with “fear of driving away certain donors.”
All participants who had been teachers in the organization for two or more years indicated
anxiety or fear of potential pushback or backlash from administration or parents as a primary
roadblock to their progress in growing their practice. This was described as “fear of rocking the
boat” and “fear of repercussions with families.” This fear and anxiety was described as a result
of organizational culture limiting risk taking and professional growth related to culturally
competent or explicitly antiracist practice. Organizational influences cited as contributing to
anxiety and fear are discussed further in the next section.
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Organizational Findings
This study examined two cultural models and two cultural settings as potential influences
within FCS that either support or inhibit progress toward achieving its organizational goals.
• Cultural models:
1) The organization needs a culture of supported risk-taking in a learning
organization.
2) The organization needs a shared belief that a social justice orientation will
prepare students to be culturally competent.
• Cultural settings:
1) The organization needs to provide time and resources allocated to focused
personal work around bias.
2) The organization needs to provide teachers access to non-evaluative
professional coaching to analyze inclusion in action with an intentional focus on moving
through discomfort toward alignment.
Cultural Model: Supported Risk Taking in a Learning Organization
The study found a significant gap in the organization’s supported risk taking culture. The
study found that though the teachers had a strong sense of community and felt supported in
taking professional risks among their colleagues and close team members, FCS, as a whole does
not provide a culture of supported risk taking. This dynamic was described to some extent by all
participants, but perhaps most clearly by one teacher who said, “the good stories feel like they all
involve me and my team and some really great collaborative synergy. But the big picture
institutional stories are really often just icky and seem to always really miss the mark.” Findings
related to supported risk taking surfaced in three categories: 1. Strengths and challenges of
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community, relationships, and collaboration, 2. Inclusion, diversity, and Whiteness, and 3.
Silencing.
Strengths and Challenges: Community, Relationships, and Collaboration. A
common value of community and relationships was present in all interviews, observations, and
documents. Practitioners identified relationships as central to their life as an educator. This was
true in how individuals came to be a teacher, why they chose to work at FCS, their curriculum
choices, pedagogy, and collegial collaboration. Participants stated, “ultimately I'm here because I
have a heart for education and I have a heart for each child to build relationships that impact
them in a deep and profound way,” and, “I try to go in all situations through a relationship lens.”
All participants expressed a strong connection and a strong sense of vulnerability with a very
small group of trusted colleagues (either on their grade level team or another small group of like-
minded practitioners). This was described as, “there’s room for a lot of mistakes and
vulnerability with my team,” and, “our relationship is very big. It’s pretty personal and we laugh
and we cry all the time,” or simply, “I go to my colleagues.” In sharing about personal
experiences in the interview, participants described common fears, anxieties, missteps, stories of
unintended harm, misunderstanding, and inadequacy; however, these stories of vulnerability
were not often shared between colleagues as potential opportunities to build connection and
support. While the BLM movement spurred some direct conversation about race, bias, and
oppression within the school community, few participants described engaging in meaningful or
collaboration with colleagues on these areas of their practice on an ongoing basis.
Community, relationships, and collaboration were common themes in why teachers chose
to work at FCS. One participant talked about coming to campus and feeling “a true sense of a
nurturing and caring community.” Another participant shared that “there was something about
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the attitude of the admin and the other teachers at FCS that just felt welcoming and supportive,
and it felt like a community of teachers that really cared about working together and
collaborating.” Veteran teachers who participated in the study all provided examples of their
willingness to break from tradition and embrace change in their practice. Two veteran teachers
gave examples of making radical shifts in their curriculum and pedagogy and discussed the
freedom to change and grow as practitioners as central to their decision to stay at FCS for so
many years despite its challenges.
Willingness to be vulnerable and a commitment to ongoing professional learning was
strong among groups of teachers who shared close proximity or another connection; however,
teachers noted relational distance from colleagues outside of their close circles, or “like we’re on
an island with our team.” Teachers who had been at the school for more than five years
referenced changes to the schedule and physical space as structural changes that unintentionally
created relational distance. Before the move, participants, “felt like we were able to have a lot
more informal relationships with lots of people” but now, “there's not a lot of opportunity for it
to happen organically.” This resulted in colleagues feeling, “less connected ...just because we
don’t spend as much time together.” Specific to collaboration related to equity and inclusion
work, these islands and insular teams resulted in fragmented work, as one teacher noted, “I know
there are definitely pockets of people who are in a good spot and have their little sphere of
influence. But related to DEI work, it so often lives with individuals.” These disconnected
pockets of strong culturally competent practitioners appeared to remain siloed as a result of low
self-efficacy and fear related to a culture of silence, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Inclusion, Diversity, and Whiteness. Participants identified challenges related to
inclusion, diversity, and Whiteness as factors in the relational nature of supported risk taking and
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change. A sense of belonging is critical to individuals’ ability to learn and change (Masika &
Jones, 2016). Those individuals who joined FCS with a clear sense of their own social justice
and anti-racist lens, stated that they did not find the FCS community to be particularly inclusive
and it took them a long time to feel part of the community, if at all. “FCS is a place where it
takes a really long time to find your people. I don’t think that FCS felt like a home for me for a
really long time.” “When I began I felt so isolated...It felt weird because everybody was super
polite.” Teacher’s responses to the question of whether or not FCS was inclusive varied widely.
Notably, eight of the participants began with “that’s such an interesting question,” or “that's a
really interesting question.” Overall responses indicated both an inclusive intent and a culture of
Whiteness.
FCS espoused values of inclusion, but that this inclusive intent does not translate to
impact. Teachers had some difficulty explaining this tension between inclusion and diversity
clearly. One teacher explained that, “there's a genuine inclusive intention but it isn't testable
without a certain level of diversity that isn't present.” One teacher who joined FCS in the last
three years connected her experience to their identity as a White woman, “coming in as a new
person …but I'm a White woman… I felt included. Do I feel like it's diverse? No. I feel like
people are accepting.” There was some evidence that the inclusive intent does sometimes
translate to practice. One teacher shared that they “had a parent of an Indian American student
talk about how very welcome their child feels.” Another teacher identified the dissonance
between espousing inclusive values but being an exclusive institution by saying, “private schools
naturally are not as diverse as public schools… private schools are sort of naturally part of the
problem. They’re exclusive-- you have to apply to get in.” In comparison to previous
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organizations they were a part of, a third of the teachers interviewed felt that FCS was more
inclusive, as one responded, “I do think it is more inclusive but it has work to do.”
Despite inclusive intention, data indicated that FCS culture is one of Whiteness. Teachers
who had experience living and working in diverse urban settings, including those who worked at
independent schools in those cities, described FCS as “just so overwhelmingly White,” having “a
clear White presence,” or as another teacher referenced, “I was kind of like just blown away by
the Whiteness of the school the first year, and I continue to be.” Whiteness was described in ”the
actual demographics of the people,: as well as “cultural Whiteness...the choice of music ...stories
being so White, in every faculty meeting the quotes that were always chosen were from White
people...it was clear that it was just not on anyone's radar to have a diverse voice set of voices.”
FCS sustains a culture of Whiteness which undermines or limits efforts toward diversity and
inclusion. One teacher talked about diversity efforts as tokenization and as being separate from
critical examination of Whiteness,
We need more diversity and we need more families of color, teachers of color, children
of color, but at the same time, I don't know how welcome they feel because of how
people of color are really treated here…so…I don’t know…I mean, if we just try to hire
or work on admissions, who’s really benefiting? If we’re adding people of color to our
community without shifting our thinking and our practices, are we only doing it to make
us feel good about ourselves? The public facing inclusion really ends up being more
about tokenization than inclusive practice.

Cheryl Harris’ (1993) phrase “Whiteness as property” is the result of an exploration of the legal
entitlements and power of Whiteness as identity, privilege, and property. Chris Emdin (2016)
draws on Langston Hughes’ The Ways of White Folks, when defining “White Folks” as not only
a racial classification, but an identifier of a group that is associated with power that uses power to
disempower others. This definition of Whiteness was present in a teacher’s description of an
equity-related challenge, one participant talked about a former Black student, saying that, “I
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think FCS culture just wasn’t a good fit...And I haven’t felt like I could really break through
those cultural barriers to help them...I guess those families can’t just get over that sense of
otherness.”
Silencing. Silencing erodes a culture of risk taking for those practitioners attempting to
move their practice forward, limits the professional growth opportunities for all teachers, and
excludes stakeholders such as parents and community members from knowing about or
contributing to the work. One participant stated, “there’s so much power in one’s voice, so when
voices are silenced then they’re rendered powerless.” Silencing and a culture of silence was a
key finding that will be explored further later in this chapter.
This study found that the lack of a strong culture of supported risk taking, growth, and
change has a significant influence on FCS’s ability to reach the organizational goals related to
inclusive action and cultural competency.
Cultural Model: Social Justice Orientation in Developing Culturally Competent Students
This study found that though the FCS mission and identity statement identified social
justice and critical inquiry as central components, the organization does not consistently support
social justice related to race and equity in an operational way. FCS teachers shared a social
justice orientation as a group of individual practitioners (discussed previously in the utility value
section of motivation influences). The social justice mission was cited by culturally competent
participants as a key factor in attracting them to the school, saying “the mission statement was
really inspiring and the diversity statement, which is a little bit harder to find on the website, but
I was like, all right, this is real,” and “they seem to really be passionate about the same things
that I am. It seemed like a good fit pedagogically.” The social justice orientation in the mission is
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the reason other participants cited for their willingness to teach at a private school, as one teacher
explained,
These kids are privileged and ...they’re the most likely individuals to be elected to
government office and lead businesses and have their hands controlling massive amounts
of financial resources…and they need to be kids who can think critically and ask the right
questions and make truly informed decisions with their power.

Institutional fear of change related to deficits in the culture of supported risk-taking was
embedded in FCS culture related to a social justice orientation. One newer teacher referenced
being told about “what happened when Trump was elected and how...we have to be really
cautious because we’re afraid of upsetting this kind of invisible faction that seems to be really
conservative and seems to hold a lot of weight.” Another participant expressed their
understanding that “there are some deep pocketed super conservatives...I think that this is where
it becomes really uncomfortable when the school says, ‘it’s political and you can’t talk about it
or we’re going to lose our nonprofit status.’” This study found significant challenges at the
administrative level in delineating mission-aligned social justice orientation and politics. Politics
is discussed in depth later in this chapter.
Cultural Setting: Time and Resources Allocated to Focused Personal Work Around Bias
The study found FCS has provided a consistent allocation of professional resources and
professional development on bias and identity. White teachers need consistent and sustained
opportunities to understand the role their unconscious bias and racial identity play in their
professional relationships and teaching practice (Lawrence & Tatum, 1997; Moule, 2009;
Vaught & Castagno, 2008). School-wide and division-specific DEI professional development
opportunities were focused on critical examination of personal identity and personal and
relational aspects of implicit bias, as well as learning from the personal stories and lived
experiences of colleagues and guest speakers. Professional development has been provided in
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different iterations at FCS for more than a decade, as reported by different stakeholders and
validated by internal documents. Several participants indicated that the extended time frame for
identity and implicit bias work was strategic “go slow to go fast.” One participant said with
skepticism, “I don't know...maybe people really couldn't handle harder conversations about
race,” a perspective consistent with what Gorski (2019) calls pacing for privilege. “[DEI
Director] was always saying we have to move slow to go fast, go slow to go fast and I was a little
bit skeptical...and I feel like now I have such a better understanding of where she was coming
from and where the resistance was, because it was, again, from the top...but she really did lay the
groundwork for this moment.”
All of the participants indicated that they found this work to be valuable at a personal
level, and described it as “really powerful” and “the kind of trainings that allow me to have this
introspective experience and to critically analyze myself and my bias.” There was wide variation
in how this personal work translated into classroom practice. A third of participants reported that
the work invested in awareness and consciousness raising has encouraged them to bring a critical
lens to the role their own identity plays in the classroom, as one teacher shared, “I had so few
interactions with people that look different than [me] and come from different cultures and…I
just did not realize how much that has shaped who I am as an adult person and as a teacher.”
Though consciousness raising and identity work has been beneficial, over half of participants felt
that there was insufficient explicit connection to practice. One teacher explained, “what we have
done, I think is good…we went through kind of examining ourselves and really thinking about
our own backgrounds and cultures and how that plays into our teaching. I think that that’s very
beneficial,” but later shared, “I feel like the DEI work doesn’t translate into our teaching…
which is what I really would like.”
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Participants who had been at FCS for more than five years who also demonstrated strong
cultural competency in their practice indicated that though the personal identity and bias work
was necessary, that there was systemic failure in moving the work forward and supporting
teachers with a framework to put their personal work into practice. One teacher stated, “that’s
been the sticking point…the work for us as adults has been focused on ourselves, and not on our
work as professional teachers, which I get is probably super important, but it’s also skirting the
issue after 10 years.” Two of these participants identified this failure as connected to the political
fear of taking a public facing stand that may be divisive for some parents of wealthy
stakeholders, saying that “I think for the admin, it felt a lot less risky to just do this work behind
closed doors with teachers, without really putting it out there,” and “any next step would really
require taking a stand.” The process of personal examination was designed to “lead folks down
the road of being able to integrate a critical equity lens” into their instructional decision-making
in a way that would be sustained rather than formulaic and programmatic. Sustained work related
to implementation, instructional planning, and pedagogy was not indicated by any participants
and will be discussed in the next section.
Cultural Setting: Professional Coaching
This study found that teachers at FCS needed access to non-evaluative professional
coaching to analyze inclusion in action with an intentional focus on moving through discomfort
toward alignment. Data indicated a critical organizational gap in this area. Eight participants
expressed a strong desire to have practical support through coaching or modeling culturally
competent practice because, as one teacher stated, “there’s something really powerful to be said
about mentors and trailblazers and people who can inspire you in their boldness and their craft,”
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and as another pointed out, “there hasn't been time to really dive deep into these practices that we
need to be working on.”
Cornett’s and Knight’s (2009) review of coaching models found that coaching research
demonstrates a positive impact on teacher attitudes, increased implementation or skill transfer,
increased feelings of teacher efficacy, and improved student achievement. FCS teachers have not
had access to ongoing coaching related to DEI work; however, participants in the study and
members of the administrative team indicated that in addition to the DEI director in the 2020-
2021 school year, a part time DEI coach position will be shared by two lower school teachers in
addition to their instructional duties.
Themes
The study found that the organizational influences of supported risk taking and social
justice, undergirded by politics, permission, and silence were powerful in shaping teachers'
knowledge and motivation related to culturally competent practice. The study found that though
gaps in organizational culture were the primary influences, gaps in procedural knowledge, self-
efficacy, and a need for coaching persisted. This section discusses three themes: 1. The ways in
which a culture of silence operates at FCS, 2. Dynamics of power, permission, and politics, and
3. The need for professional coaching to develop procedural knowledge and increase self-
efficacy.
Culture of Silence
This study found that equity and inclusion-related work, and the individuals who seek to
move that work forward, are silenced through mechanisms of passive, structural, and active
silencing. This silencing limited opportunities for teachers to support one another in developing
self-efficacy and procedural skills to implement culturally competent pedagogy.
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Passive Silencing
Passive silencing was described as a result of fear of pushback from parents and deficits
in racial literacy of administrators. Three teachers noted that the shift to distance learning posed
unique challenges in terms of professional risk taking related to facilitating critical conversations
around race and bias. One teacher noted that they “wimped out” in leading a synchronous
conversation with young elementary students about racial violence and resistance for fear of
judgement from the parents who were just off screen. Teachers reported feeling silenced by an
“invisible faction” of parents. Though nine of twelve participants reported fear of parent
pushback for actively engaging with conversations about racial equity, only one of these
participants actually experienced pushback from a parent at FCS. When leading students in
conversations about racial violence and resistance, one teacher said, “I worry about, I’m going to
get phone calls about this tonight? But I haven’t...I think the parents are more onboard than we
think they are.” Another participant shared that they sought engagement with families related to
gender equity in the classroom, but was met with silence, and said, “I think pushback would have
been easier to navigate.” I only heard from one parent and they asked me for “only good news.”
Racial Literacy of Administrators. Racial literacy of administrators plays a role in their
ability to recognize, highlight, and communicate about critical practices. The academic
leadership team at FCS consists of the head of school, an assistant head, three division heads,
and five assistant heads, all of whom are White. When asked directly in a town hall meeting
about the practices in lower school related to race and bias, upper level administrators were not
able to identify any critical practices taking place in classrooms, despite significant evidence of
culturally competent, anti-racist, and anti-bias pedagogy. Though not labeled as anti-bias, anti-
racist, or culturally competent, and not present in a uniform way across lower school, this study
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found a multitude of examples of strong practice in this area. Teachers whose practice included
critical examination of racial identity, anti-oppression project work, and active engagement in
dismantling stereotypes suggested that these were unrecognizable to administrators because of
deficits in racial literacy, reporting ‘I don’t feel like the work I do in the classroom is understood
by administration at all” and, “our administration is so woefully incompetent when it comes to
racial literacy.” Another teacher identified the racial literacy deficit by saying, “I think
administration needs to be trained in a significant way. I know [administrators] went to POCC
(NAIS People of Color Conference), but that evidence is not clear.” In instances where the
organization may be reluctant to openly endorse these culturally competent practices, one teacher
suggested that the racial literacy deficits of administrators allow critical anti-racist work to move
forward unnoticed, “because when you are doing it well, anti-racism and that critical lens is in
everything, it also makes it easy to embed in disguise as less objectionable.” Seven teachers
described incidents in which administrators ignored or dismissed reports of bias-related incidents
or microaggressive behavior. A teacher explained, “there isn’t direct pushback
but…apathy…when a teacher goes to administration's like need to do something about this (bias-
related), they get a little bit of a shoulder shrug, or a little bit of a ‘kids will be kids.’ That’s not
helpful.” This came up for another participant, “especially with issues of inequity, whether it be a
race or sex or racism or sexism it’s a very stock, professional, and official sounding reaction.”
Two EE teachers shared experiences in which the response from administrators was that the
teacher was just “interpreting this through an adult lens.” Interview participants found this
dismissal or lack of reaction to be confusing and indicated that the accumulation of these
incidents over time reinforced a culture of silence.
Structures that Reinforce Silence
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Structures that reinforce silence limit risk-taking and professional growth. These included
specific structures such as schedules and employment agreements, as well as generalized
structures of siloed communication. A third of participants indicated that constraints of the
schedule, though designed to allow considerable team planning time and provide students with
extended blocks of time with specialist teachers, significantly limited the breadth of their
collegial relationships and therefore organizational learning beyond siloed teams: A teacher who
valued their deep collaborative relationship with their team explained, “you might interact with
the same three or four people….and there’s other people that I never see, whereas before we
were able to have a lot more informal relationships with lots of people.” Participants did not
identify this as a challenge related to planning or professional learning time, but rather a
challenge to their ability to develop sustained trusting relationships built over time in informal
passing opportunities. Another participant highlighted employment agreements as structures that
reinforced administrative silencing, noting, “the fact that we are at-will employees, with zero
protections, certainly has the power to silence a lot of conversation. People don’t feel safe.”
Another pointed out that there is “zero oversight of upper administration in terms of
communication with people who work under them.”
Siloed hierarchical channels of communication at FCS rely on White educators and
administrators in positions of power to interpret and disseminate DEI-related work within the
school. According to Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila and Wallerstein (2008), institutionalized
privilege perpetuates a dominant culture and works to reproduce imbalances in power. An
analysis of documents including resource lists for families, affinity group documentation,
agendas for parent partnership meetings, found that there are practitioners within the
organization who have a high level of conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.
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Furthermore, there have been consistent efforts to engage families in meaningful ways, including
community reads, book clubs, guest speakers, and parent partnership meetings. Across the
organization there was no evidence that these resident experts are recognized or known to their
colleagues or administrators, or that they are given opportunities to engage in a comprehensive
and connected way, but rather, operate in isolation. Those with the most meaningful insight to
offer the community related to DEI work have limited reach and purview to connect and engage
others, hindering progress.
One way that structures of siloed communication and silence surfaced is in lack of a
comprehensive or systematic way of understanding microaggressions and patterns of bias-related
incidents within the school. In the interview process this became evident as teachers shared
stories about challenging situations they had faced confronting bias in the classroom. For
example, four teachers shared four different incidents in which one specific student of color was
the target of a microaggression. These incidents all occurred within the current school year in
different settings (in class, on the playground, in a digital classroom, and in a specialist
classroom). With one exception, these incidents were not shared with the classroom teacher or
administrator, or documented because in isolation, “it didn’t seem like that big of a deal” or was
“probably an isolated incident,” as another teacher shared, but continued “but I guess I’m not
sure.” Lack of communication about these incidents, paired with variability in racial literacy of
practitioners illustrates a structure that reinforces silence rather than consciousness raising and
action in addressing microaggressive patterns in the student experience.
Active Silencing
This study identified active silencing as having a significant influence on organizational
culture with respect to risk taking. Risk taking at an organizational level in a public-facing way is
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not supported. As one participant described, “it’s the public facing expression of the mission and
values that is so hard for the school.” Document analysis of public facing communication from
FCS prioritizes tradition alongside professed values of inquiry, inclusion, community, and
diversity, which practitioners identified as tenuous. When talking about places where these
values are at odds with one another, a teacher said, “I think that tradition is so deeply steeped in
the community and feels extremely painful to let go of things.” Specific to culturally competent
practices a silencing pattern that emerged in the data was “the willful denial of moving forward
is coming from the very top.” This more active silencing that was attributed to the board and
head of school, was reinforced by passive silencing due to the lack of racial literacy of divisional
administrators and instructional leaders.
When those who hold power in an organization are resistant to change, even in cases of
passive resistance, it is much more difficult to sustain the change effort (Stevenson, Bartunek,
Borgatti, 2003; Lewis, 2011). Analysis of interview data illuminated the pattern of a few
gatekeepers who have tremendous power to limit inertia of the majority of community members.
This dynamic was described in terms of a culture of supported risk taking, organizational
learning, and change by a participant who said, “pushing against some of the admin is just not
worth the effort, because whatever you say or whatever you do, you just know it’s going to move
up the hierarchy and eventually just be silenced and minimized.” Active and passive silencing
mechanisms operated within an existing hierarchical organizational structure.
Power, Permission and Politics
This study found a complex dynamic within the hierarchical power structure linking
permission and politics related to the social justice orientation and supported risk-taking needs of
FCS.
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Permission
Those practitioners who exhibited the strongest practices indicated that they did so
subversively or under the radar. One participant explained, “it’s okay to do things without
permission. But you won’t want to talk to too many people about it. The struggle with
permission is part of the silencing mechanism.” Another described an experience of actively
changing curriculum and pedagogy with a critical anti-oppression lens, saying, “we weren’t
asking for permission. We just did it until we got to a point where ...we couldn’t secretly do it
anymore.” Another participant described, “now it’s about bringing the top of the school along,
and it feels like more and more people are emboldened to sort of do it on their own, and even
some divisions are sort of moving forward ...before everyone was just waiting for permission.”
In the majority of these cases individuals felt that the administration was silently supportive by
way of not firing or actively asking teachers to change their practice. “It’s not difficult for the
school to give us permission to do it in our classrooms and with our students… or at least it’s not
that hard for admin at the division level to be complicit in allowing teachers to really do work
that’s anti-racist and anti-oppression in the classroom. But it’s the public facing values that are
the hardest. It’s the public facing institutionalized messaging that is so difficult.”
Silence on the part of administrators is powerful and decisive in individual teachers’
willingness to act on their own to take professional risks. One participant described this as,
“administrative permission…or better yet, the administrative decision around equity.” Teachers
with strong conceptual and procedural knowledge about culturally competent pedagogy,
bolstered by a strong social justice orientation and oftentimes a supportive team, were willing to
operate without express permission from administration. For example, after seeking and not
receiving permission to send a letter to families about an equity-related topic, a participant noted,
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“I sent it. And the school let me. I still have a job.” Without the foundational knowledge or
institutional support to develop that knowledge, other teachers pointed to a need for explicit
permission to make changes to align their practice more closely with their values. As one teacher
noted, “I feel like I have to ask and if I ask...there is always resistance or reluctance ...to approve
something like that in advance.” A few participants indicated that reluctance at a divisional level
may be a reflection of the larger hierarchical structure. This knowledge that a division leader,
“could be on board, but not outwardly” is a pattern that was reflected in the statements of former
employees, parents, and alumni in a town hall meeting, and best summarized by the feelings of a
teacher, “one of the most human moments I’ve ever had with [administrator]... I knew [they
were] being silenced too… I could feel it. And I don’t know if that’s the truth, but that’s what it
was.”
Teachers reported being, “hopeful for what’s going to happen in this given moment,”
and, “excited that there’s now a clear directive to be anti-racist as an institution...to have that
kind of permission, but we were afraid to step in and do the work more confidently.” Though
most were hopeful, some still expressed concern that the administration would move slowly
despite urgency, “I feel like students and faculty are far more ready than the board and some
admin are for forward movement...we have waited far too long. We have to get started.”
In considering the intersection between administrative permission and a social justice
orientation in their classroom practice, one participant explained, “I don't know if I have the right
to do that in my classroom, to have that kind of conversation with these families. It might not be
my right, but it’s also, I feel, my responsibility. So I guess my question is, do I have permission
from admin to invite the hard conversations? Not just respond to kids.”

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Politics
Challenges related to the intersection of social justice and politics were salient in
examining FCS’ organizational culture. Teachers were clear in delineating the social justice
orientation from a partisan political agenda, saying, “that the whole point of being a teacher is to
encourage critical thinking, empathy, and opportunity to create a better version of reality. The
job is not to indoctrinate students into any particular way of thinking.” Though teachers made a
clear distinction between partisan politics and an organizational social justice orientation, they
consistently described ways in which the school has not been able to successfully navigate this
distinction. Teachers described being surprised, skeptical, and hopeful when communication
from the organization shifted from being ambiguously inclusive toward being more decidedly
committed to antiracist action in response to ongoing BLM demonstrations. Some teachers
acknowledged the complexity of political ideology, and the perceptions of what is political, “I
think the school has decided that it has conflated politics with human rights and human
decency.”
One participant questioned the slippery slope of the tension between partisan politics and
the social justice orientation of the school,
…schools aren’t allowed to push a political agenda...but are critical thinking, human
dignity, and fundamental basic human rights political? We classify racial slurs as hate
speech as a school…if the President is using and normalizing racial slurs, is our policy all
of the sudden partisan?

This notion of an identity gap in the organization was described by another teacher who said,
I think that the school’s mission is clear. And if all of a sudden human rights issues are
political, then where do we stand? And let's take a stand. If our political climate has
decided that basic human dignity and ethical and moral behavior is political, then
anything we do is political. So let’s take a political stance if that’s how we need to label
it. Because if we are really upholding our mission, we cannot stand for human rights
violations and we cannot be complicit.

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Need for Coaching to Develop Procedural Knowledge and Increase Self-Efficacy
The study found interdependent gaps in ongoing professional coaching, self-efficacy in
facilitating conversations about race and bias, and teachers’ procedural knowledge of how to
plan and implement lessons that center cultural competency. Teachers expressed a sense of being
rudderless in how to bring a more culturally competent or critical lens to their pedagogy and
were uncertain as to where to turn for support and professional growth. Teachers identified the
need to be more systematic about critical conversations that support cultural competency and
racial literacy both at the individual classroom level and school-wide, “as cool as it is for us
teachers to be able to do inquiry and do things with our own style, we have to be able to do this
work as a whole... it can't be piecemeal.” This was echoed by others who said that they needed
“to know how to be more intentional,” and to have “specific curriculum and guidance for
teaching...for teachers like me who don’t know where to begin with talking to their students
about racism and inequity.”
Teachers were somewhat uncertain about where to turn to develop these skills in order to
improve their self-efficacy. Low self-efficacy surfaced in how to facilitate critical conversations
about race and bias in the classroom, along with who can and should facilitate these
conversations. When asked about collegial relationships that may support this work, nine of
twelve participants named at least one of the two classroom teachers of color in the lower school
as colleagues who they believed were strong practitioners and leaders in DEI work. Of those,
eight referenced the “natural ability” of their colleagues of color or “cultural factors” as
instrumental in their ability. Only three of these teachers mentioned ever observing or working
directly with the teachers of color. Two participants identified a White teacher (in addition to a
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teacher of color) who they believed to bring a strong critical lens to their pedagogy. In addition
to the exploitative and stereotyped nature of this perspective, low self-efficacy is implicit.
Teachers identified a need for coaching to “challenge me in ways to bring my practice
more in line with my values,” and grow procedural knowledge. One teacher shared the impact of
an experience of observing a teacher talking about race with her students by saying, “it was
really powerful to me because I wanted to hear the language she was using. And I wanted to use
some of that language. And I want to practice and want to be better at that...I need to be able to
be more explicit.” Teachers need these opportunities to grow and be held accountable to their
own professional goals as well as the goals of the organization.
Summary
Chapter Four presented the findings of the qualitative interviews and qualitative
observations and document analysis as they related to the research questions. In doing so, this
chapter discussed the assumed influenced presented in chapter three along with the conceptual
framework and related literature. The findings offer an examination of the complexity of
personal, relational, and organizational factors that influence educators’ ability to enact culturally
competent pedagogy in their classrooms.
The data revealed that there are several necessary ingredients teachers must possess that,
when cultivated in an organizational environment, support cultural competency in action. White
teachers noted ways in which their own K-12 education and lived experiences in segregated
communities influenced their racial literacy and cultural competency, and expressed a
commitment to remedy those deficits in their teaching practice. Teachers who held a necessary
strong belief that educators have a pivotal role in facilitating critical conversations about race and
bias found that this belief was still insufficient in putting those beliefs into action. Professional
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development supported consciousness raising and personal reflection, but required additional
mentorship, modeling, and coaching to build procedural knowledge and self-efficacy.
One unexpected finding was the extent to which few individuals in power stifled change
efforts through passive or even unconscious resistance. This was present in the uniformity with
which teachers with strong foundational beliefs about social justice in an organization with
espoused shared beliefs, and significant resources to develop strong practices, were stymied due
to few but crucial points of passive power and ambiguity. Other unexpected finding included
structural gaps in formal and informal communication systems within the organization that
inhibited organizational learning. These gaps included failure to communicate about patterns of
microaggressions and lack of opportunity for teachers to informally and frequently connect with
one another. When these structural gaps intersected with power dynamics, the result was
significant. Most notably, the impact of those with significant expertise and resource related to
DEI work was limited by communication channels that depended on the racial literacy and
expertise of those in power. This resulted in a game of telephone that silenced, diluted, or
appropriated practices that may be most beneficial in achieving organizational goals.
Next, Chapter Five outlines recommendations related to the findings. The
recommendations address an organizational culture of silence, politics and permission, as well as
practical needs for coaching to support teachers in developing skills and self-efficacy for a
culturally competent teaching practice.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This chapter will discuss findings related to these validated influences and provide
recommendations. The recommendations and integrated implementation and evaluation plan
proposed in this chapter were informed by the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick,
2016). This model is reverse engineered to scaffold progress toward the result of achieving an
organizational goal. Recommendations also take into consideration the historical context of the
BLM movement and societal pressure to enact substantive change toward social justice and
antiracist practice.
FCS’ organizational goal is to “be an inclusive institution by becoming both individually
and institutionally culturally competent.” This study addressed the stakeholder goal that all
teachers will demonstrate culturally competent action by applying professional learning to
inclusive and culturally competent pedagogy. Teachers were selected as the stakeholder focus
because it is their cultural competency and depth of understanding of culturally proficient
pedagogy that creates the most variation in the student experience. This study sampled White
teachers in the FCS lower school (grades K-5) whose employment at FCS ranged from 1-22
years with a median 10 years in the organization. Teachers in the sample espoused shared values
with the organizational mission and goals related to diversity, equity, and inclusion, and self-
identified a commitment to live these values in their professional practice.
Recommendations for Practice
The gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) is built upon understanding the
misalignment between an organization’s performance and goals related to knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences.
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Knowledge influences in this study were examined using Krathwohl’s (2002) four
knowledge types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. This study validated a
significant gap in teachers’ procedural knowledge. A less significant gap and some variability
across participants was present in conceptual understanding of the history and impact of biased
and inequitable systems, and metacognitive knowledge of examining planning and pedagogy
through a critical equity lens. The study found FCS has consistently provided necessary
resources and valuable professional development on bias and identity, but identified a gap in
teachers’ ability to integrate a critical equity lens into their instructional decision-making and
classroom practice. Motivation plays a critical role in learning, and accounts for facilitating or
inhibiting performance. This study validated a critical gap in teachers’ self-efficacy in facilitating
conversations about race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent and inclusive way. The
study also validated a gap in teachers’ ability to overcome anxiety, fear, and shame as a result
internal and external influences.
Organizational culture shapes patterns of decisions, motivation, knowledge, perspectives,
and performance in powerful ways. This study validated critical gaps in cultural models of
supported risk taking and an institutional social justice orientation fueled by a culture
characterized by silence and hierarchical structures framed by politics, power, and permission.
The study found that professional development related to identity and bias has bene consistently
provided, but validated a need for ongoing coaching related to culturally competent pedagogy.
Organizational recommendations presented here are based on careful consideration of the
complexity of organizational goals, practices, mission, stakeholder culture, policies, processes,
and resources.
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These recommendations also take into consideration the historical context and
sociopolitical climate. Though the relevance and applicability of these recommendations is not
limited to the current moment, there are a number of ways context is considered in the
recommendations. At the end of the 2020 school year, during the data collection period, the
organization asserted a commitment to take antiracist action. Many teachers and families have
engaged in their own protesting, learning, and self-reflection to develop critical consciousness.
The findings of this study highlighted themes of silence and politics as key influences on
culturally competent practice. This significance of a nationwide culture of White silence around
institutionalized racism and White supremacy continues to surface amid over three months of
BLM protests, fueled by still more police shootings of Black people. The new school year will
begin against the backdrop of a historic movement for racial justice. The school year will also
begin less than two months from a presidential election in which issues of racial justice and
White supremacy have been explicit, including open attacks on critical inquiry and teaching
about racial oppression in schools. While the recommendations would not be different without
this context, decisions related to implementation will likely be magnified through this historical
and political lens.
Recommendations address the influences examined in this study in a way that best aligns
with the connected and complex nature of the ways the influences operate in the organization.
Table 6 provides an overview of the gaps to be addressed and identifies which of these ten
recommendations have been chosen to close those gaps. The ten recommendations referenced in
the table are as follows:
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1) Provide teachers with training, modeling, and practice to increase their procedural
knowledge and self-efficacy in leading critical conversations about race and bias in the
classroom.
2) Provide teachers with professional learning specific to child development and
developmentally appropriate antiracist practice
3) Design frequent structured opportunities for teachers to collaborate with colleagues using
planning protocols with a critical equity lens.
4) Provide integrated capacity building opportunities for teachers, families, and children to
learn and for engaged community learning.
5) Create affinity groups for mentorship and peer coaching.
6) Align internal divisional practices with the organization’s social justice mission and
growth toward antiracist action.
7) Provide clear communication to the school community regarding FCS’s mission in
practice.
8) Assess and work toward eliminating patterns of bias through structured communication
pathways.
9) Allocate resources to provide ongoing structured coaching for teachers and
administrators.
10) Analyze and improve communication pathways that perpetuate hierarchical power.

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Table 6
Summary of Recommendations for Practice
Gap to be Addressed Influence
Type
Critical,
Priority,
Secondary
Recommendation
Numbers
Teachers need to know how to plan and implement
culturally competent pedagogy.
K (P) Critical 1,2, 4
Teachers need to believe they are capable of
facilitating critical conversations about race, bias,
and difference in a culturally competent and
inclusive way.
M(SE) Critical 1,2, 3, 4, 5
The organization needs to provide a culture of
supported risk-taking and organizational learning.
O(CM) Critical 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10
The organization needs to provide teachers access
to non-evaluative professional coaching to analyze
inclusion in action with an intentional focus on
moving through discomfort toward alignment.
O(CS) Critical 1, 4, 9
Teachers need to activate and overcome anxiety,
fear, and shame in order to engage in culturally
competent pedagogy with positive emotions.
M(E) Priority 1, 4, 5, 6, 8
Cultural model of a social justice orientation. O(CM) Priority 4, 6, 7
Teachers need to know historically biased and
inequitable systems have influenced contemporary
experiences of individuals from diverse
backgrounds.
K (C) Secondary 8, 9
Teachers need to examine their planning and
pedagogy through a lens of equity.
K(M) Secondary 3, 8

Recommendation #1: Provide teachers with training, modeling, and tools to increase their
procedural knowledge and self-efficacy in leading critical conversations about race and
bias in the classroom.
The findings of this study indicate a gap in teachers’ procedural knowledge of how to
plan and implement culturally competent pedagogy. The recommendation to support growth in
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this area is rooted in social cognitive theory of learning. Modeling to-be-learned strategies or
behaviors improves learning and performance, and is more likely to be adopted if the model is
credible and similar (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009). The school should provide time for
teachers to observe models, then organize and rehearse, and finally practice what they have
learned (Mayer, 2011). Performance is enhanced when subsequent feedback is private, specific,
and timely (Schute, 2008). This would suggest that providing teachers with credible and similar
models and opportunities for practice, in conjunction with private, specific, and timely feedback,
would help them develop procedural knowledge and skills necessary to make progress toward
implementing culturally competent pedagogy. The recommendation is for the organization to
provide regular ongoing instructional coaching, modeled teaching and co-teaching opportunities
can help teachers acquire new behaviors through demonstration, and supported practice (Denler
et al., 2009).
Actively engaging with concepts of racial bias and bringing a critical race theory lens to
the practical aspects of classroom planning are necessary practices in implementing culturally
competent pedagogy (Gay, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1998, 2014). Instructional coaching includes
social interaction, cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships that allow individuals to
access difficult tasks in partnership with others to support construction of new knowledge (Scott
& Palincsar, 2006). Developing this procedural knowledge is key to teachers’ ability to transfer
conceptual knowledge to their classroom practice; however, diversity training, policies, and
organizational goals often fail to address cultural competence in practice. Instructional coaching
by mentor teachers was found to be an effective approach to improve teachers’ ability to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy (Irvine, 2010). While professional development alone
often results in less than 20% of new practices transferring to the classroom setting, professional
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development paired with coaching leads to skill transfer in 80 to 90% of new skills (Joyce &
Showers, 1982) To develop mastery, individuals must acquire component skills, practice
integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned; providing modeling and
scaffolding can support individuals in knowing when to apply skills and knowledge (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006). Frameworks that include key knowledge and scaffolds for processes support
teachers in leveraging the knowledge they have about racial bias and inequity to design culturally
competent pedagogy (Hammond, 2017; Nieto, 2010).
Recommendation #2: Provide teachers with professional learning specific to child
development and developmentally appropriate antiracist practice.
This study found that though teachers were able to clearly articulate developmentally
appropriate practices for academic and social emotional learning, there was a gap in teachers’
understanding of racial identity development as it related to their ability to facilitate
conversations about race and bias with students. The recommendation to help close this gap is
derived from principles of cognitive load theory. Decreasing extraneous cognitive load by
effective instruction, particularly when intrinsic load is high, enables more effective learning,
while increasing germane cognitive load by engaging the learner in meaningful learning and
schema construction facilitates effective learning (Kirshner, Kirshner, & Paas, 2006). Procedural
knowledge increases when declarative knowledge required to perform the skill is available or
known (Clark et al., 2008). This suggests that identifying developmentally appropriate practice
related to racial identity development and decreasing elements of extraneous load that teachers
encounter by providing adequate guidance via scaffolding and modeling, can result in more
effective learning. The recommendation is for the organization to provide ongoing coaching and
modeling using reflective discussion protocols, check lists, concept maps, and other graphic
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organizers for individual teachers and teaching teams to help frame and activate knowledge and
encourage meaningful learning and learning transfer (Mayer, 2011).
White teachers often contribute to racial bias and oppression by believing that young
children are too young to talk about race (Husband, 2010; Derman-Sparks, 2010).
Developmentally appropriate practice requires an understanding of racial identity development
and children’s construction of racial bias, much of which is malleable in early childhood, but
requires a life changing experience to reassess after age nine or 10 (Derman-Sparks & Edwards,
2016). Though colorblind approaches are employed with an intention to be politically neutral,
this approach supports what Friere (1972) calls false consciousness leading children to believe
that racism and oppression is insignificant (Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, 2006).
Recommendation #3: Design frequent structured opportunities for teachers to collaborate
with colleagues using planning protocols with a critical equity lens.
The findings from this study indicated a metacognitive knowledge gap in
teachers’ ability to examine their planning and pedagogy through a lens of equity. While there
was considerable time allocated to team planning, with the exception of few participants,
teachers reported inconsistent and incomplete integration of consideration of race and equity in
the planning process. The recommendation to support the organization in closing this gap is
rooted in sociocultural learning theory. Social interaction, cooperative learning, and cognitive
apprenticeships facilitate construction of new knowledge (Scott & Palincsar, 2006) facilitated by
self-talk, which can help people guide and direct their own behavior through difficult tasks in the
same way more capable others may have previously guided them (APA, 2015). This suggests
that teachers can develop metacognitive awareness through a combination of apprenticeship and
facilitated self-reflection. Instructional coaching designed to activate metacognitive self-
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reflection related to cultural competency is recommended to engage teachers in the co-planning,
co-teaching, self-reflection, and self-explanation necessary to develop metacognitive awareness
and influence their classroom practice.
Culturally competent pedagogy requires the practitioner to engage in metacognitive
understanding of their own perspective based on their identity and experience, and provide
alternative or counternarratives. Engaging in metacognitive practice as part of race-related
diversity education increases empathy, emotional regulation, and supports understanding
multiple perspectives (Chick, Karis & Kernahan, 2009). Planning and implementing culturally
competent curriculum and pedagogy requires that teachers know how to consider culture and
bias in the planning process (Gay, 2010; Hammond, 2014; Santamaria, 2009). Not only do
educators require the factual and procedural knowledge in order to develop critical competencies
in their practice, they must have the metacognitive tools to reflect upon their own practice in
order to monitor, analyze, and improve performance (Baker, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Providing
protocols and frameworks to integrate into the planning process may be particularly beneficial,
as teachers return to the planning process following a summer of historic BLM social activism,
and as the school’s commitment to antiracism, cultural competency, and inclusion has been
brought in to focus,
Recommendation #4 Provide integrated capacity building opportunities for teachers,
families, and children to learn and for engaged community learning.
The recommendation is to create collaborative learning cohorts of students, families, and
teachers in the early elementary grades, led by coaches or colleagues who are able to model best
practices for teachers and facilitate conversations with both children and parents. The study
found siloed communication, complex dynamics of emotions, silence, permission, politics, and
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inconsistent alignment between internal and public facing communication related to the social
justice mission in action. Some participants in the early elementary grades described
conversations with families following the death of George Floyd in which parents sought support
in talking with their children in developmentally appropriate ways about racial violence and
resistance. Teachers consistently identified deficits in procedural skills and anxiety related to
family engagement as impediments in their practice. Collaborative family engagement
opportunities that link learning through shared experiences can simultaneously build the capacity
of both educators and children (Mapp & Kuttner, 2013). FCS families, especially in early
elementary grades, are accustomed to frequent engagement in the classroom for learning
celebrations that take place in the classrooms with students. Change efforts are most effective
when they are communicated about frequently with all stakeholders and are initially embedded
in already-existing forms of communication (Clark & Estes, 2008). This existing pathway for
shared experience between family, student, and teacher, has nearly a 100% participation rate in
early elementary classrooms. The recommended integrated collaborative learning cohorts
support open lines of communication between students, teachers, and families, and create a
common framework and language to reference when addressing racism and bias with children.
This study found that teachers do not believe that they have the knowledge and
facilitation skills necessary to facilitate critical conversations about race, bias, and difference in a
culturally competent and inclusive way. The recommendation to close this gap is derived from
self-efficacy motivational theory. Feedback and modeling increases self-efficacy, and high self-
efficacy can positively influence motivation (Pajares, 2006). White teachers often cite not
wanting to make a mistake or offend as a rationale for remaining silent in conversations about
race and bias. This practice will provide structured opportunities for teachers to perform new or
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difficult tasks in partnership with mentor teachers who have expertise in facilitating
conversations about race and bias in the classroom, and who can provide both modeling and
feedback in order to increase teachers’ self-efficacy.
Recommendation #5: Create affinity groups for mentorship and peer coaching.
This study found that White teachers are not consistently able to overcome their own
anxiety, fear, and shame related to structural inequity and racial bias in order to engage in
culturally competent pedagogy with positive emotions. While the BLM movement spurred some
direct conversation about race, bias, and oppression within the school community, few
participants described engaging in meaningful discussions about race, bias and equity with
colleagues on an ongoing basis, and many noted that these conversations only took place during
DEI professional development. In sharing about personal experiences in the interview,
participants described common fears, anxieties, missteps, stories of unintended harm,
misunderstanding, and inadequacy; however, these stories were mostly not shared between
colleagues as potentially meaningful opportunities to build connection and support. The
recommendation to close this gap is derived from the emotional theory of motivation. Enhancing
positive emotions, including epistemic emotions, and reducing negative emotions enhances
learning and motivation (Lord & Kanfer, 2002). Furthermore, positive emotions can be enhanced
when individuals have opportunities to share positive and negative experiences, and define
mistakes as opportunities to attain beneficial long-term outcomes (APA, 2015). This would
suggest that supporting teachers in sharing positive and negative experience in the context of
long-term growth and goals, can positively influence emotions and therefore motivation. The
recommendation is to provide teachers with structured opportunities to share positive and
negative experiences related to cultural competency, inequity, and racial bias in their classroom
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practice; and actively reflect on mistakes as opportunities for future growth. This practice will
reduce negative emotions of anxiety, fear, and shame, and increase positive emotions.
Motivation is influenced by individuals’ emotional state. The White teachers at FCS who
demonstrated strong culturally competent and anti-racist practices identified past experiences of
supportive collegial accountability as instrumental in their ability to move beyond fear and
shame in order to transform their practice. Gorski (2019) argued that “racial equity cannot be
achieved with an obsessive commitment to ‘meeting people where they are’ when ‘where they
are’ is fraught with racial bias and privilege.” This model of maintaining emotional safety is, in
essence, pacing for privilege, and obscures direct and uncomfortable engagement with racism
and power.
Recommendation #6: Align internal divisional practices with the organization’s social
justice mission and growth toward antiracist action.
Participants in this study identified a culture of silence related to race and bias and
practices that reinforced tradition and status quo as cultural settings that hinder progress toward
organizational change. Explicit and implicit messaging within the organization validated existing
strong practices rather than intentionally valuing the process of growth and change toward
alignment. A recommendation rooted in organizational performance theory has been selected to
close this organizational gap. Clark and Estes (2008) indicate that performance challenges occur
when there is a lack of alignment between the organizational culture and organizational goals,
policies, and procedures. This suggests that teachers’ deficits in implementing culturally
competent pedagogy may be a result of inconsistent or misaligned goals. The recommendation is
for the organization to align practices and policies with values of inclusion, diversity and
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antiracist action. For example, allocating time in staff meetings and in organization-wide
communication to highlight teacher growth practices toward culturally competent pedagogy.
Agocs (1997) suggested that individuals resist change for a number of reasons, including:
habit or inertia, fear of the unknown, absence of the skills, and fear of losing power. Resistance
to change can be institutionalized in both organizational structures and processes. With respect to
organizational culture, Schein (2004) states that a strong organizational culture controls
organizational behavior and can block an organization from making the changes necessary to
adapt to a changing environment (Schein, 2004).
Recommendation #7: Provide clear communication to the school community regarding
FCS’s mission in practice.
The recommendation is for FCS to provide clear public-facing operational guidance
regarding the school’s mission and values in action, specifically as they relate to DEI work. This
recommended approach is proactive rather than responsive and may be instrumental in providing
clarity, especially coming into an election year in which BLM, critical consciousness, and
representative history have become highly politicized. Teachers described being surprised,
skeptical, and hopeful when communication from the organization shifted from being
ambiguously inclusive toward being more decidedly committed to antiracist action. According to
Senge (1990), it is important that organizational leaders hold a vision of what might be. This
would constitute a move toward clarity rather than equivocality in formal communication. A
clear statement from the board and the head of school can clearly delineate values in action from
partisan politics.
This study found that organizational fear of powerful politically-motivated stakeholder
pushback supported a culture of silence and inaction related to culturally competent and
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inclusive practice. The unspoken rules to not rock to boat, give “only good news” and silence
anything that feels uncomfortable or may alienate a donor when adherence to the mission
approaches perceptions of partisan politics. A recommendation rooted in leadership and diversity
theories has been selected to close this organizational gap. Effective leaders are aware of the
organization and its community’s historical and socio-cultural context (Chavez, Duran, Baker,
Avila & Wallerstein, 2008); and organizational effectiveness increases when leaders identify,
articulate, focus the organization’s effort on and reinforce the organization’s vision, and lead
from the why (Schein, 2004). This suggests that FCS needs to actively engage in deconstructing
past practices as a critical part of growth in articulating and reframing the current vision and
goals.
Social justice in the context of education is defined as both a goal and a process driven by
collaboration toward social change (Adams & Bell, 2016). Effective change efforts are
communicated regularly and frequently to all key stakeholders (Clark & Estes, 2008; Lewis, ).
This process of providing clarity for the whole FCS community may support stakeholders at all
levels of the organization. Teachers can be confident in understanding the explicit agreement
between families and the school delineating practices and politics. Knowing what to expect,
families can make informed decisions about their children’s education. Leaders whose espoused
values are not in sync with the organization’s culture have difficulty leading (Schein, 2004). The
board and senior administration may benefit from engaging in the process of collective reflection
on the FCS history, mission, and values as a social-justice oriented organization; and clearly
define the organization’s social justice role in the contemporary context.
Recommendation #8: Assess and work toward eliminating patterns of bias through
structured communication pathways.
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This study found a gap in in teachers’ and administrators’ ability to recognize and
respond to patterns of racial bias and microaggressions. This gap was due in part to the racial
literacy, conceptual, and procedural knowledge of practitioners, but also due to a lack of
structured opportunities to collect, reflect, and communicate internally about seemingly small
and inconsequential microaggressive acts to understand patterns. A recommendation rooted in
expectancy-value theory and metacognitive theory has been selected to close this motivational
gap. According to Eccles (2006) learning and motivation are enhanced when the learner values
the task, and Pintrich (2003) found that providing rationales about the utility value of a task can
increase value. This would suggest that providing teachers with rationales about the value of
identifying, responding to, and communicating about these microaggressive incidents would
increase teachers’ motivation improving their practice. The recommendation is for the
organization to create a systematic way to communicate about microaggressions. Normalizing
the lack of clarity and complex social dynamics in bias-related incidents will help bolster the
supported risk-taking culture of the organization and will support the racial literacy skills of
teachers and administrators in being able to recognize bias when they see it. This will support
teachers in building procedural knowledge through coaching and modeling, as well as rehearsing
and workshopping critical conversations with children.
In the context of this study, teachers equipped with knowledge about positionality,
power, privilege, and oppression, may only leverage this knowledge if they are motivated to do
so. Many teachers leaned toward what scholars have called a discourse of denial, silence, and
colorblindness (Corchran-Smith, 2011; Bonilla-Silva, 2006 etc.). Kendi (2019) argues that in the
context of the United States, it is impossible to be neutral--only racist or anti-racist, and that
perceived passive neutrality amounts to silent complicity in perpetuating inequity. There is
131
significant evidence to suggest that teachers’ belief systems are a key factor in influencing their
practice. Participants engaging in reflective work need to have complete and accurate
information about the topic for discussion, be free from bias, and meet in an environment of
acceptance, empathy, and trust (Mezirow, 1997, 2000).
Recommendation #9: Allocate resources to provide ongoing structured coaching for
teachers and administrators.
This study found interdependent gaps in ongoing professional coaching, self-
efficacy in facilitating conversations about race and bias, and teachers’ procedural knowledge of
how to plan and implement lessons that center cultural competency. Data also revealed that
though there is an institutional focus on inclusion, diversity, and equity; much of the work being
led by the DEI director was compartmentalized rather than integrated by administrators.
Participants indicated that critical engagement was lacking from their immediate supervisors and
division heads. A recommendation rooted in leadership and diversity theory have been selected
to close this organizational gap. Organizational effectiveness increases when leaders insure that
employees have the resources needed to achieve the organization’s goals. In school settings,
ensuring staff resource needs are being met is correlated with positive student learning outcomes
(Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003). Effective leaders consider equity in the process of
allocating resources and demonstrate a commitment to valuing diversity through inclusive action
and cultivate an atmosphere where diversity is viewed as an asset to the organization and its
stakeholders (Angeline, 2011; Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2009). While training is important, it is
only beneficial if there is an organizational framework with which to leverage and support it.
This suggests that providing resources to reduce bias and support inclusive practice at all levels
of the organization may have a positive impact on pedagogical outcomes. The recommendation
132
is for the organization to allocate resources to provide both teachers and administrators access to
coaching that integrates reflective critical practices to confront personal and institutional bias.
In a qualitative analysis of school leaders, Bustamante, Nelson, and Onwuegbuzie (2009)
identified numerous barriers to cultural competence, and recommend future research focusing on
school leader preparation on examining personal biases, privilege, and beliefs about others who
are different, as well as guiding leaders to develop culturally responsive skills and knowledge
and the ability to assess schoolwide cultural competence. Allocating DEI-specific coaching
resources at the organizational level influences stakeholders by providing time and resources to
metacognitive development and reflective practice, in addition to developing conceptual and
procedural knowledge to gain practical skills (Chick et al, 2009). Professional coaching can
facilitate individual and organizational growth by attending to individual stakeholder knowledge
and motivational influences (Zepeda, 2013), and provides an opportunity for individuals to take
risks and receive personalized support without judgement, within an organization that values and
supports coaching (Cox, 2012; Koch, 2008). Engaging in metacognitive practice as part of race-
related diversity education increases empathy, emotional regulation, and supports understanding
multiple perspectives (Chick, Karis & Kernahan, 2009). Scholars in anti-bias pedagogy identify
personal identity work as critical in developing the capacity to plan instruction (Derman-Sparks
& Edwards, 2010). Teachers in the study identified teachers of color as those most equipped to
lead conversations about race in bias in the classroom. While effective coaching is personal and
relational, it is also important in this context for coaching relationships with White teachers to
highlight practices rather than racial identity as it relates to their capacity to enact culturally
competent or antiracist pedagogy.
133
Recommendation #10: Analyze and improve communication pathways that perpetuate
hierarchical power.
This study found a pattern of active, passive, and structural silencing related to DEI work
influence teachers’ ability to grow toward a more culturally competent or anti-racist practice.
According to Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila and Wallerstein (2008), institutionalized privilege
perpetuates a dominant culture and works to reproduce imbalances in power. This study found
that despite expertise and significant work by a number of community members, DEI work at
FCS is fragmented, and often communicated through dominant power structures. Most notably,
the impact of those with significant expertise and resource related to DEI work was limited by
communication channels that depended on the racial literacy and expertise of White people in
power. In the larger context of the BLM movement, this pattern within this school community
resonates as one of many calls to listen to and believe Black and Brown voices in all facets of
society. White people in power controlling the narrative, and controlling communication through
hierarchical structures, regardless of how it is justified, it’s still White power. A recommendation
drawn from organizational change and communication theories has been selected to close this
gap. Rather than relying on traditional hierarchical structures, the leadership team should build
strong communication skills among members of the organization in order to build capacity. (Fix,
B., & Sias, P. M. (2006).
Effective organizations insure that organizational messages, rewards, policies and
procedures that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of
organizational goals and values (Clark and Estes, 2008). Effective leaders are aware of biases
and prejudices that occur in the organization at the individual and structural levels and
acknowledge and challenge their own explicit and implicit biases in order to protect the
134
organization from their negative impact (Bensimon, 2005; Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila &
Wallerstein, 2008). Critical examination of hierarchical communication channels can support
the organization in collapsing power structures that inhibit growth toward meeting the
organizational goals related to cultural competency and antiracist action.
Implementation and Evaluation Plan
In order to effectively apply these recommendations and support organizational
improvement, an integrated implementation and evaluation plan is proposed in Appendix F. The
proposed comprehensive implementation and evaluation plan was informed by the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model identifies internal and external outcomes for
the stakeholder of focus as well as metrics and models to evaluate stakeholder behavior
throughout the implementation process. The four levels of the Kirkpatrick model for training
evaluation are: 1. Reaction 2. Learning 3. Behavior, and 4. Results. This model is reverse
engineered to scaffold progress toward the result of achieving an organizational goal.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
There are inherent strengths and weaknesses in all methodological approaches. The Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was effective in surfacing the significance of
organizational influences. A more comprehensive study focusing on different stakeholders in the
organization, most importantly the leadership team, would provide additional perspectives which
may or may not support organizational findings or surface additional considerations.
Limitations and Delimitations
Due to constraints of the timeline for data collection, and some limitations at the closing
of the school year, not all participants were able to be observed for two hours prior to their
interview. In lieu of these observations, documents and artifacts were analyzed to validate
135
knowledge and motivation influences that were self-reported in the interviews. These documents
and artifacts included public-facing classroom and teacher websites, asynchronous recorded
lessons that were voluntarily provided by teachers, as well as lesson and unit plans. Interviews
were conducted after the closing of school for the summer and took place on teachers’ own time,
rather than during planning time as initially proposed. The study was initially intended to include
a broader range of teachers in the sample to represent K-12; however due to constraints of the
organization, the study sampled teachers in K-5. This study sampled White teachers in part
because the extant literature has identified gaps in the culturally competent practice of White
teachers, and in part due to their overrepresentation in the field of K-12 education. White
teachers make up over 90 percent of full time faculty at FCS. Given the small sample size,
teachers of color would likely be identifiable by members of the organization in the findings.
The recommendations could apply to other organizations that have invested time and
resource into professional learning in alignment with mission and vision that values social justice
and inclusion. Recommendations could also apply to organizations in which shared intent or
espoused values of educators and the organization does not consistently result in the desired
impact.
Future Research
Future research could explore the extent to which either educators or students of color
experience microaggressions in the school environment. Research more closely examining the
characteristics and experiences of White teachers who consistently demonstrate cultural
competency and a critical equity lens in their classroom practice may also be beneficial.
Additional research could examine the influence of racial literacy of administrators on
educational practices within a school organization.
136
Conclusion
Building capacity for inclusive action serves the organization’s mission and is in
alignment with the values FCS was founded on. Providing coaching and training in cultural
competency to educators at FCS including instructional leaders, division heads, and
administrators is designed to foster supported risk-taking for professional growth and cultivate
cultural competency for multiple stakeholders. Building the capacity of classroom teachers,
while also building the capacity of the leadership teams who supervise and evaluate those
teachers, supports alignment in vision and values, and provides a framework for discourse and
accountability. Developing capacity within the organization for self-assessment and data driven-
decision making supports sustainable growth after initial program implementation is complete.

137
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APPENDIX A
KMO Influences
K Declarative—Teachers need to know historically biased systems have
influenced contemporary experiences of individuals from diverse
backgrounds.

K Procedural—Teachers need to know how to plan and implement lessons
that focus on cultural competency.

K Metacognitive—Teachers need to know how to examine their planning
and pedagogy through a lens of equity

M Attainment Value – Teachers need to see the value of inclusive, culturally
competent pedagogy.

M Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to believe they are capable of facilitating
critical conversations about race, bias, and difference in a culturally
competent and inclusive way.

M Emotions—Teachers need to activate and overcome anxiety, fear, and
shame in order to engage in culturally competent pedagogy with positive
emotions.

O Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs a culture of supported risk taking founded on
relationships, openness and vulnerability.

O Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs a shared belief that a social justice orientation will
prepare students to be culturally competent.

O Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to provide time and resources allocated to focused
personal work around bias and cultural competency in order to develop an
equity-minded reflective practice.

O Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to provide teachers access to non-evaluative
professional coaching to analyze inclusion and equity in action with an
intentional focus on moving through discomfort toward alignment.

167
APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Thank you so much for making time to meet with me today. I would like to go over a few
things regarding the purpose of the study and ethical considerations before we begin the
interview. This study is exploring teachers’ experiences related to inclusion, diversity, and equity
in professional practice. Your participation in the study and the content that we talk about will be
confidential. I will be using a pseudonym for the organization and a pseudonym for your name to
protect your confidentiality. I will store all of the data I collect securely, and any identifying
information will be kept separately. Your participation in this study is optional and you may
decide to not answer any of the questions. You may also choose to withdraw from the study at
any time.
I have your informed consent form for participation in the study. I will be recording and
then all of the recordings will be transcribed by a third party. Can I confirm that I have your
consent to begin recording?
Thank you.
We have an hour blocked for this interview session. We may not need the whole time. If
we need additional time we can schedule another interview session. I have about 15 questions
and some additional follow up questions.

1. First, will you tell me about why you became a teacher and how you ended up here?
2. What are some things you think about when you’re designing your classroom space?
(interviews will take place in teachers’ classrooms)
3. Walk me through how you go about unit and lesson planning.
168
• What do you consider when you plan?
• What kinds of resources do you access in planning instruction?
• What are some of the challenges you face regarding equity in your classroom?
• Does that/do those influence your planning?
4. Can you tell me a little bit about FCS’ strategic initiatives around equity and diversity?
• (if not articulated in the previous response) Do you know what the strategic
mission and vision is?
5. How do you feel FCS is doing in terms of fulfilling the mission and goals related to DEI?
• Do you feel that the FCS community is inclusive?
6. Can you tell me about opportunities you have for professional development? (specifically
related to inclusion diversity equity)
• What kinds of things have you done in those PD sessions?
• How have your colleagues responded to the DEI work (PD, etc)?
7. Can you tell me about the relationship you have with your colleagues?
• Have you ever had a conversation with a colleague that changed your
perspective?
• Do you feel like you can challenge the beliefs and opinions of your colleagues?
8. Have you had the opportunity to work with an instructional coach?
• Can you tell me about that experience?
9. What role, if any, do you think educators should have in facilitating conversations about
equity, diversity, and inclusion?
10. How do you feel about your ability to facilitate critical conversations about race, bias,
and difference?
169
11. How do you lead and facilitate class discussions about equity, diversity, and inclusion
with students?
• (if not articulated in the previous response) Can you walk me through what that
might look like?
12. Can you give an example of a time that you were faced with a challenging conversation
and you weren’t sure how to proceed?
• What did you do?
• How would you approach that kind of situation again?
• What informed your thinking in that moment and after?
13. Outside of your role here, do you often have discussions about race, bias, cultural
competency, inclusion, diversity, and equity?
• Can you give some examples about what that looks like in your life outside of
school?
• Have those kinds of conversations been present throughout your life?
14. What would you say are some elements of bias?
• How do you interpret bias at work at FCS?
15. The FCS language around the DEI work talks about being “culturally competent”
• What does it mean to be culturally competent?
• What does is mean for students to be culturally competent?
16. What do you think are some of the roadblocks for FCS in becoming culturally competent
as an institution?
• What kinds of supports or resources do you think would be beneficial?
17. Is there anything you would like to share that I haven’t asked?
170

Thank you. I really appreciate your thoughtful responses and willingness to share. As a
reminder, all of what we talked about today is confidential. After I have conducted all of the
interviews and other data collection, I will be analyzing the data and writing about the results and
recommendations. If you are interested in the results of the study, I will share the abstract once
everything is complete. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions or think of
something you would like to pass along.

171
APPENDIX C
Observation Protocol
Observation Area/Domain Observed Evidence
K Declarative—Teachers need
to know historically biased
systems have influenced
contemporary experiences of
individuals from diverse
backgrounds.

K Procedural—Teachers need
to know how to plan and
implement lessons that focus
on cultural competency.

K Metacognitive—Teachers
need to know how to
examine their planning and
pedagogy through a lens of
equity

M Utility Value – Teachers
need to see the value of
inclusive, culturally
competent pedagogy in
reaching organizational
goals.

M Self-Efficacy - Teachers
need to believe they are
capable of facilitating
critical conversations about
race, bias, and difference in
a culturally competent and
inclusive way.

M Emotions—Teachers need
to activate and overcome
anxiety, fear, and shame in
order to engage in culturally
competent pedagogy with
positive emotions.

O Cultural Model Influence
1:
The organization needs a
culture of supported risk
taking founded on
relationships, openness and
vulnerability.

172
O Cultural Model Influence
2:
The organization needs a
shared belief that a social
justice orientation will
prepare students to be
culturally competent.

O Cultural Setting Influence
1:
The organization needs to
provide time and resources
allocated to focused personal
work around bias and
cultural competency in order
to develop an equity-minded
reflective practice.

O Cultural Setting Influence
2:
The organization needs to
provide teachers access to
non-evaluative professional
coaching to analyze
inclusion and equity in
action with an intentional
focus on moving through
discomfort toward
alignment.

Instructions: Rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (1= Never 2= Almost Never 3=Sometimes 4= Almost Always
5=Always) the extent to which you observe each of the following criteria for cultural competence. Please note
or provide evidence or documentation to support your rating.
Observation Area/Domain Scale Evidence
Literature selections in the
curriculum reflect a variety of
cultural perspectives.

1 2 3 4 5
Global perspectives are integrated
into curricula at all grade levels.

1 2 3 4 5
Plans for student voice to be
considered in decision-making.

1 2 3 4 5
Identified support programs to
promote achievement and
retention of lower achieving
groups.

1 2 3 4 5
173
Community engagement and
service opportunities for students.

1 2 3 4 5
Teachers team vertically and
horizontally according to
individual strengths, leadership
abilities, and interests.

1 2 3 4 5
Efforts are made to consciously
integrate diverse teacher teams.

1 2 3 4 5
Connections are made to
students’ culture and prior
knowledge.

1 2 3 4 5
Teaching strategies accommodate
the needs of culturally and
linguistically diverse learners
using a variety of grouping
strategies, hands-on activities,
visuals, oral language
development, reading/writing
workshops, etc.

1 2 3 4 5
Family engagement considered in
the planning process.

1 2 3 4 5
The inevitability of intercultural
conflict is recognized by peer
mediation programs and/or other
proactive approaches to conflict
resolution.

1 2 3 4 5
Practices to promote positive
student relationships.

1 2 3 4 5
Organizational traditions are
examined periodically to check
for exclusive/inclusive practices.

1 2 3 4 5
Celebrations reflect various
cultures and introduce the
community to new cultures.
Representation at events and
celebrations is diverse.

1 2 3 4 5

174
APPENDIX D

Document, Artifact, and Existing Data Protocol

Document/Artifact (description: digital, physical, website, video, etc.)

Observation Area/Domain Documented Evidence
K Declarative—Teachers need to know
historically biased systems have
influenced contemporary experiences of
individuals from diverse backgrounds.

K Procedural—Teachers need to know
how to plan and implement lessons that
focus on cultural competency.

K Metacognitive—Teachers need to know
how to examine their planning and
pedagogy through a lens of equity

M Utility Value – Teachers need to see the
value of inclusive, culturally competent
pedagogy in reaching organizational
goals.

M Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to believe
they are capable of facilitating critical
conversations about race, bias, and
difference in a culturally competent and
inclusive way.

M Emotions—Teachers need to activate
and overcome anxiety, fear, and shame
in order to engage in culturally
competent pedagogy with positive
emotions.

O Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs a culture of
supported risk taking founded on
relationships, openness and
vulnerability.

O Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs a shared belief
that a social justice orientation will
prepare students to be culturally
competent.

175
O Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to provide time
and resources allocated to focused
personal work around bias and cultural
competency in order to develop an
equity-minded reflective practice.

O Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to provide
teachers access to non-evaluative
professional coaching to analyze
inclusion and equity in action with an
intentional focus on moving through
discomfort toward alignment.

176
APPENDIX E
Information Sheet

177

APPENDIX F
Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The design of the integrated implementation and evaluation plan proposed in this section
was informed by the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model identifies
internal and external outcomes for the stakeholder of focus as well as metrics and models to
evaluate stakeholder behavior throughout the implementation process. The four levels of the
Kirkpatrick model for training evaluation are: 1. Reaction 2. Learning 3. Behavior, and 4.
Results. This model is reverse engineered to scaffold progress toward the result of achieving an
organizational goal.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
FCS strives to align its inclusive values and action by becoming both individually and
institutionally culturally competent. During the course of this study, FCS has shifted its language
to reflect a commitment to antiracist practice. This study examined the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that either support or inhibit cultural competency in teaching
practice. The proposed recommendations rely on critical examination of hegemony and silencing
in organizational structures and communication by school leadership, creating a strong culture of
supported risk taking that values critical inquiry and collaboration related to race and bias among
teachers, and providing ongoing coaching to teachers and administrators.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4 of Kirkpatrick’s model evaluates the results, defined as the degree to which goals
and targeted outcomes occur as a result of the implementation of recommended solutions.
Leading indicators are defined by Kirkpatrick as measurable and observable short-term
objectives that suggest behavior is on track to produce the desired results. Internal indicators
178
include teacher, leadership team, student, and parent behaviors and responses. External
indicators include student outcomes, data related to hiring and retention, and additional school-
wide metrics designated by NAIS. Leading indicators signaling teachers’ progress toward
achieving the organizational goal include external and internal outcomes. Table 7 outlines the
external and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods.
Table 7
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased % of graduates who
identify as students of color.
% of students of color graduating
compared yearly
Graduation and
admissions
records
The organization will hire and
retain teachers of color.
% of teachers of color employed for more
than 3 years
HR Records
All community members will
identify an increased sense of
inclusion and belonging.
% growth on key indicators in the
NWAIS dashboard survey
NWAIS
inclusion
dashboard
survey
Internal Outcomes
Teachers will demonstrate
cultural competency in their
teaching practice.
Results of teacher observation using CRP
protocol
Observation
using CRP
protocol
Parents will value inclusion
and anti-bias action as critical
to the FCS community.
% of parents of students of color and % of
parents of White students participating in
affinity groups and family engagement
opportunities.
DEI director
records
Administrators will be able to
clearly articulate the impact of
DEI coaching in their
department.
Number of different examples of
culturally competent or anti-racist
pedagogy highlighted by division leaders
Weekly internal
staff newsletter

Level 3: Behavior
Level 3 behavior change is defined by Kirkpatrick as the degree to which participants
apply their learning and how the organization supports that learning transfer. Planning for level 3
179
requires a twofold approach: identifying participants critical behaviors, and identifying the
required drivers, processes, and systems that reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward
performance of the critical behaviors.
Critical Behaviors
Critical behaviors that teachers will demonstrate in order to achieve their goal are
outlined in table 8, along with the metrics, methods, and timing of evaluating those behaviors.
Behaviors identified as part of the recommendations of this study are that teachers will skillfully
facilitate open conversations with students about race and bias, actively engage students in units
of study that focus on social justice, actively reflect on and consider racial bias in their
curriculum development, and select instructional materials that reflect diverse perspectives.
Table 8
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Teachers will actively
engage students in units of study
that focus on social justice.
Student work samples reflect
social justice curriculum. Social
justice issues identified in
planning materials.
Teacher observation,
student work samples,
teacher planning records.
Monthly
2. Teachers will actively
reflect on and consider racial bias
in their curriculum development.
Amount of time dedicated to self-
reflection.
Self reflection in staff
meetings, team planning,
and coaching sessions.
Weekly
3. Teachers will select
instructional materials that reflect
diverse perspectives.
Audit of instructional materials
inventory
Anti-bias children’s
literature checklist.
Weekly
4. Teachers will skillfully
facilitate open conversations with
students about race and bias.
Observation checklist. Teacher observation Monthly

Required Drivers
In order to support teachers in gaining the skills necessary to enact culturally competent
pedagogy and examine their planning through a lens of equity, FCS needs to provide
180
motivational and organizational support. Methods for supporting critical behaviors are outlined
in table 9.
Table 9.
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing

Equity-lens toolkits for planning instruction Weekly 2, 3
Teacher collaboration Weekly 2, 3
Encouraging

Instructional coaching 2x/month 1, 2, 3, 4
Samples or templates for teachers’ websites, newsletters, and
family communication (learning celebration slides etc)
Monthly 1, 3, 4
Rewarding

Staff meetings Weekly 2
Staff newsletter Weekly 1,4
Monitoring

Instructional coach observations Monthly 2, 4
Teacher self-assessment Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4

Organizational Support
Reinforcing
Strategies to reinforce critical behaviors include providing equity lens toolkits for
planning instruction and weekly opportunities for teacher collaboration. Equity lens toolkits for
planning instruction support the critical behaviors of actively reflecting on racial bias in the
process of curriculum development and selecting instructional materials that reflect diverse
perspectives. Teacher collaboration time specifically allocated to making progress towards these
identified goals will reinforce the acquisition of critical behaviors.
Encouraging
Two strategies identified to encourage development of critical behaviors include
instructional coaching and samples or templates for teachers websites, newsletters, and family
181
communication. Provision of instructional coaching facilitates teachers’ ongoing professional
growth through modeling, collaboration, and supported risk-taking. For teachers websites,
newsletters, and family communication will provide modeling and encouragement necessary for
teachers to actively reflect on the development of critical behaviors when sharing about teaching
and learning with families. This will serve to encourage community-wide focus on inclusion in
action and help to establish cultural norms within the organization.
Rewarding
Weekly staff meetings and weekly staff newsletters from the head of school and division
heads are natural community forums that reinforce organizational values and reward individuals
and teams. Both newsletter and meetings are an opportunity for leaders to highlight positive
examples of growth toward achieving organizational goals. Allocating time in staff meetings for
teachers to share successes and challenges in facilitating discussion related to race and bias in the
classroom, and selecting curriculum materials,
Monitoring
In order to monitor critical behaviors, teachers and instructional coaches should assess
progress monthly. Self-assessments completed by teachers can be used in conjunction with
observations of instructional coaches to identify progress and set individual monthly goals. This
collaborative ongoing monitoring has embedded support from the instructional coach so that
teachers are both accountable and are provided with adequate supports and resources necessary
to improve.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2 learning is the degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge,
skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment based on their participation in the training. Level 2
182
evaluations seek to ascertain whether or not individuals have learned what they are supposed to
learn from training. Kirkpatrick identifies this confidence and commitment in the New World
model (2016) as critical elements in leveraging level 2 learning to impact behavior changes that
occur at level 3.
Learning Goals
• Teachers will identify examples of racial bias and inequity in education.
• Teachers will identify and effectively manage and understand their own negative
emotions related to racial literacy and discourse.
• Teachers will identify racial bias in their classroom practice and relationships
with students.
• Teachers will engage in racially literate discourse with colleagues.
• Teachers will develop self-efficacy in facilitating critical conversations about
race, bias, and difference in a culturally competent and inclusive way.
• Teachers will develop an understanding of developmentally appropriate practices
related to racial identity development.
• Teachers will communicate clearly in writing and verbally to families about their
instructional decisions related to bias, equity, and inclusion.
• Teachers will identify a social justice issue that is in alignment with the teaching
goals of their class, grade level or content area.
• Teachers will select materials and literature to support their teaching.
• Teachers will engage with colleagues to revise and refine their lesson plans using
tools, checklists, and other resources.
Program
183
In order to achieve the learning goals outlined in the previous section, the
recommendation is to provide a dedicated instructional coaching program that aligns with a long-
term professional development program for FCS educators. The program is designed for FCS
teachers to increase their knowledge and capacity to plan and implement culturally competent
pedagogy. The two primary components of the recommended program are school-wide
professional development and individual professional coaching for teachers and administrators,
focused on applying prior learning and enacting a culturally competent practice. DEI and
professional development leaders will use formative assessment to guide strategic coaching
partnerships, and use data from coaches to inform the larger PD sessions. Coaching is
individualized for administrators, teachers, and teaching teams. It is essential that the
instructional coaches participate in collaborative planning with the DEI director and faculty
committee to continually assess the needs across the organization, highlight promising practices,
and facilitate positive peer coaching and mentoring opportunities.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program and progress toward achieving
learning goals, it is imperative that the organization provide structured opportunities to monitor
progress. The evaluation tools outlined in this section support the organization in gathering
evidence of progress. The program will be evaluated to assess the quality of the program,
effectiveness of the programs in supporting learning transfer to change participants practice, and
the larger value of the program to the organization. Evaluation tools have been designed with
consideration to keeping participant engagement with the tools manageable and appropriate in
length, gather specific and unambiguous results, and provide structures to support high response
rates.
184
The purpose of the training program is to build organizational capacity and facilitate
individual and institutional behavioral change. The FCS goal of becoming both individually and
institutionally culturally competent reflects a long-term commitment to inclusive action. The
blended evaluation follows a New Kirkpatrick Model and includes tiered evaluation tools at
different intervals to evaluate program effectiveness at multiple levels across an extended period
of time. Evaluation tools used during the program implementation (during professional coaching
sessions or professional development) target Level 1 and Level 2 learning, while delayed
evaluation tools focus on Level 3 and Level 4 learning but can be used to evaluate the program at
all levels. As such, Table 10 lists the evaluation methods and timing for the components of
learning.

185
Table 10
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

CRT In PD or coaching sessions
Understand the mechanism and impact of
implicit bias
In PD or coaching sessions
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Facilitating conversations about race and
bias.
During active engagement in PD sessions
Coaching or administrator observations
Responding to/capitalizing on teachable
moments in the classroom.
Peer and facilitator review during PD sessions
designed for role play and practice with real
scenarios.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Utility value of social justice pedagogy--
survey
In PD sessions or coaching sessions
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Survey about teachers’ confidence to
facilitate critical conversations?
Survey item immediately post-PD session.
Coaching notes documenting conversations
between teachers and instructional coaches.
Quarterly review between coaches and division
heads.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Teachers individual lesson plans that
indicate implementation of their new skill
Monthly
Exit tickets or intention statements from PD
sessions.
Monthly PD session

Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 evaluation is defined as the degree to which participants perceive training to be
favorable, engaging, and applicable to their work in the organization. Level 1 evaluation methods
include observations of teacher and administrator engagement in PD sessions, observation of
teachers’ ability to sharer examples of their classroom practice that connect to the PD sessions,
and short exit ticket surveys at the end of PD sessions.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
186
In order to assess the effectiveness of the professional development and coaching
programs, participants will complete short surveys designed to gather formative feedback.
During professional development sessions, facilitators will embed short and informal Level 1
data collection breaks in the form of responding to a one-question digital survey in a Google
form or poll. To address Level 2 learning, during or immediately following professional
development sessions, participants will complete an exit ticket and share their next steps for
operationalizing new learning in their classroom practice. Participants will complete a short
monthly survey related to their coaching experience, with checks for understanding and
applicability.
Delayed for a Period After Program Implementation
In order to assess longer-term growth and multi-level change, program evaluation will
take place at staggered intervals. Considering the challenges of evaluating cultural competence,
discussed in chapter 3, delayed evaluation of the training program will include multiple
measures. Measures include self-report surveys of training, classroom observation by
instructional coaches using the observation protocol, and longitudinal multi-year review of
existing data such as student enrollment graduation rates, family engagement and participation
data, and scores on key indicators on a community-wide inclusion dashboard survey.
Assessment Analysis and Reporting
Ongoing analysis of formative and summative assessments will allow the organization to
make data-driven decisions and maximize the impact of resources allocated to training and
coaching. Data will be analyzed immediately following the administration of the evaluation tool.
This will allow the organization to use the findings from the data to inform the next steps in
program implementation. Results of ongoing formative assessments will be overseen by the
187
Director of Inclusion and will be made available to division heads in monthly meetings, and in
the form of a report to the board of trustees. The following questions will be addressed in the
analysis and reporting process:
• Level 1: Does the level of reactions meet expectations during the implementation of the
solutions for engagement, relevance, satisfaction?
• Level 2: Does the level of learning meet expectations for knowledge and skills obtained
and demonstrated during the implementation of the solutions? Attitude about forming
new skills? Confidence to apply knowledge or skills on the job, and commitment to apply
knowledge or skills on the job?
• Level 3: Does the level of behavior meet expectations for the critical behaviors you have
identified? Does the performance monitoring meet expectations? Does the reinforcement
of critical behaviors meet expectations? Is there encouragement to perform critical
behaviors? And the alignment of a reward system with the performance of critical
behaviors, do these all meet expectations?
• Level 4: Are there results in moving toward the leading indicators for level 4 learning?
Findings in response to each of these questions provide a foundation for further
analysis. If the expectations at each level are not being met at the time of evaluation, analysis
will yield information as to why those expectations are not being met. If the expectations are
being met, analysis will yield information as to why that is the case. This data can be used to
determine the underlying causes for a learning or performance gap, and drive decision making
with respect to future program implementation.
Data will be presented in a mixed qualitative and quantitative timeline highlighting
perception data from multiple stakeholders, reflections of classroom practice , and data analyzed
188
from classroom observations. Integrating the data into a format of storytelling for organizational
growth is consistent with the FCS’ history and tradition of working to align practice with values
through a sense of community and story.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study evaluated the impact of a K-12 school organization’s professional development program on culturally competent classroom practice. The qualitative study interviewed White teachers to explore knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on their ability to enact culturally competent pedagogy. The study found that the organizational influences of supported risk taking and social justice, undergirded by politics, permission, and silence, were powerful in shaping teachers' knowledge and motivation related to culturally competent practice. The study found that though gaps in organizational culture were the primary influences, gaps in procedural knowledge, self-efficacy, and a need for ongoing non-evaluative professional coaching for both teachers and administrators were also relevant. Recommendations address an organizational culture of silence, politics and permission, as well as practical needs for coaching to support teachers in developing skills and self-efficacy for a culturally competent teaching practice.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Dickinson-Villaseñor, Kate (author)

Core Title Cultivating culturally competent educators

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 12/12/2020

Defense Date 09/03/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag antiracist,critical pedagogy,critical race theory,cultural competence,culturally competent pedagogy,culturally relevant pedagogy,inclusive,K-12,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogy,Race,silencing,teacher,teacher diversity,teacher professional development,White racial literacy,White teacher

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair), Canny, Eric (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email mskatedickinson@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-413053

Unique identifier UC11666592

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Legacy Identifier etd-DickinsonV-9198.pdf

Dmrecord 413053

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Dickinson-Villaseñor, Kate

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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