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Choice making: A unit of study for tenth grade students

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Choice making: A unit of study for tenth grade students

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Content CHOICE MAKING: A UNIT OF STUDY
a
FOR TENTH GRADE STUDENTS
A Project
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
by
Verda Mary Etta Ullman
IV «
August 19 6 7
UMI Number: EP52124
All rights reserved
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Dissertation P^tslisWing
UMI EP52124
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This project report, written under the direction
of the candidate's adviser and approved by him,
has been presented to and accepted by the faculty
of the School of Education in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of M aster of
Science in Education.
Date.
..^
Adviser
Dean
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
PART I. INTRODUCTION
I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS IMPORTANCE........... 2
Statement of the Problem ............... 3
Importance of the Study ......... 3
Method of Procedure ............. 5
Organization of the Study ........ 6
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................. 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................ ....... 49
PART II. CHOICE MAKING: A UNIT OF STUDY
FOR TENTH GRADE STUDENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ........................ 56
Purposes .......... 56
Sequential Steps Which
Form the Structure................... 57
Introduction to the U n i t ............... 57
II. PRESENTATION OF UNIT .................... 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR UNIT ON CHOICE MAKING............... 77
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL FOR STUDENTS AND/OR
REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHERS . 82
1 __________ ii
PART I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS IMPORTANCE
For the past two decades and more the schools have
been concerned with occupational information and so the es
tablishment of vocational guidance. For the past decade
the schools have been increasingly aware of the need for
young people to have a better understanding of themselves
and so the development of pupil personnel services.
Although much thought and speculation have been
given to the general theory of occupational choice as pro
posed by Ginzberg, Roe, Hoppock, Super, Tyler, and others,
the schools have not seemed to consider this knowledge of
importance to the individuals making the vocational choice.
After several years of counseling and many years of
teaching, the writer has determined that since choosing a
career involves making a choice, that the choice maker
should have information on choice making and that such a
study should be appropriate and meaningful to the school |
I
counselors and to the students. It is the intention of the!
writer to show that the presentation of information about
choice making along with that of self and occupations is of
utmost importance to students as they participate in the
3
complex business of preparing themselves for the world of
work.
Statement of the Problem
I The purpose of this study was to suggest how the
'counselor at the Secondary level can present information
about choice making that may help the student to make a
vocational choice that might be more satisfying to himself
and to the students.
The writer realizes that before the student can
make a realistic choice he should have a knowledge of him
self and of at least the occupation in which he is inter
ested. However, it is not the purpose of the study to
pursue occupational information and self-knowledge to a
greater extent than is necessary to show how they are an
integral part of choice making.
The problem is such that the entire school should
be involved, but it is the purpose of the writer to show
how the counselor, through initiating a course in Occupa
tions, can include a unit in Choice Making that should be
profitable to the student and to the society in which he
lives.
Importance of the Study
If the school is to help the student find a satis
factory place in our present changing environment, someone,
or some department of the school, will have to accept
4
responsibility of giving the kind of help he requires. It
is a service in which the guidance department should find
itself deeply involved. It is the guidance worker or coun-t
t
selor who should be prepared to initiate and plan such ser-,
vices as are needed. The way in which the school prepares j
its students to enter the age of space and automation may
be the basis for judging the success or failure of the
guidance department and its counselors.
Each student should be prepared to meet the present
day world of work with its thousands of jobs, new and old;
I
many of which will be created before he finishes his train-j
ing; while others will be outmoded before or after he has j
entered the world of work. It is a threatening situation 1
i
t
and the counselor should accept the responsibility of help
ing the student in school to choose and prepare for a job
that will help to satisfy not only his primary needs but a
job that will help him to have a feeling of worth and
satisfaction.
Most high schools are assuming the responsibility
of offering occupational information services. Likewise,
through group guidance, individual and group counseling,
the schools try to help the student understand himself.
However, the student needs help in obtaining a better un
derstanding of the process of choice making. He must be
helped to see that it is not a once-and-for-all "matching"
of his self with a job. Just as the student is growing and
5
developing so jobs are changing and materializing. He must
be given information that will help him to avoid a feeling
jof dilemma and frustration when he finds it so difficult to
make a choice. The student must be helped to become aware
of modern theories of choice making.
Method of Procedure
An extensive survey of the literature in the field
of the process of decision making and choice making was
made with special emphasis on the material that seemed ap
plicable to decision or choice making when choosing a voca
tion. Although during the last decade the study of deci
sion making seems to have made definite progress in almost
every field of the social and behavioral sciences, very
little literature was found that seemed relevant to deci
sion making in daily life. There were studies devoted to
decision making in the field of business, administration,
economics, research, statistics, sociology, psychology,
philosophy, and national and international relations, how
ever, they were not found to be sufficiently related to the
topic under study. j
Nevertheless, there is considerable literature to j
i
help with the understanding of the process of occupational ;
I choice. Also research has been done and is continuing to |
I be done in an effort to form a theory of occupational
choice and much of this was reviewed.
t
Some literature showing the need for information
about occupations and self as a basis for making an occupa
tional choice was examined and representative selections
were considered.
Based on what was believed to be the needs of high
school students to know how to make decisions and to have
practice in making them, a four- to six-weeks unit was out
lined to be used in an Occupations course at the senior
high school level.
Organization of the Study
Part I consists of two chapters and a bibliography.
Chapter I contains a statement of the problem, the
importance of the study, the method of procedure and the
organization of the study.
Chapter II is devoted to a review of the related
literature. The material under study deals with the choice
process and shows how knowledge of self and occupational
information are necessary to making a choice. A concluding
statement shows how schools are helping.
Part II presents a unit of study on choice making
I
and suggests the implementation of the study.
A list of source materials will conclude Part II.
!
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter was the result of an investigation of
books and periodicals dealing with material related to
choice making. Today each individual is obliged to make
many more choices than his predecessors were called upon to
do. He also has to make them in a much more complex situ
ation. It is therefore harder for him to see the possible
outcome and to know if he is about to make a wise choice.
The early theories of vocational guidance are no
longer considered adequate; for example, the single theory
underlying all vocational guidance practice which was for
mulated between 1905 and 1908 by Frank Parsons was once
considered satisfactory. However, no longer accepted as
adequate are his statements that the wise choice of a voca
tion involves "three broad factors:" j
I
1. a clear understanding of yourself, your attitudes, j
abilities, interest, ambitions, resources, limita- [
tions and their causes. ^
i
2. a knowledge of the requirements and conditions of |
success, advantages and disadvantages, compensa
tions, opportunities, and prospects in different *
lines of work. ;
1
3. true reasoning on the relations of these two groups
8
of facts. (31)
By 1958 objection-was made to the implied time se
quence of the statement and it was pointed out that both
the study of the counselee and the study of occupations
"should be pursued simultaneously as a single process"
(2) .
Hoppock stated.
It is obvious that knowledge of occupations can be ef
fectively applied only when one knows something about
oneself. It is equally obvious that knowledge of one
self can be effectively applied to the choice of an
occupation only when one knows something about
occupations. (24)
He continued to say that "either without the other is in
complete . "
Likewise Roe (34) has said that in order to under
stand the role of the occupation in the life of the indi
vidual we must first have some understanding of the under
standing of the individual and of his needs. Therefore,
before turning to the problem of choice making, it seems
necessary to discuss, in a limited way, knowledge of self
and occupational information as well as choice process.
Knowledge of Self
Norris, Zeran, and Hatch (29) state that "The goal
of guidance is to develop within each student full under
standing of himself so that he can make appropriate voca
tional, educational, and social choices." They continued
to say that in order to arrive at self-understanding, young
people need certain general information about human behav
ior. According to these authors (29), young people need to
understand that the term personality includes a person's
total behavior and characteristics. They also need to know
that personality does not just happen but is influenced by
both heredity and environment and that personality changes
can be made.
They continue to say that young people need to un
derstand in what respects people in our society are alike
as well as in what respects they differ from one another.
They should have information about our common organic or
physical needs and about the social and emotional needs we
share with others, including our needs for social approval,
for success or recognition, and for love and affection.
The authors state that young people need to under
stand how people try to satisfy their basic needs and what
problems may develop when the needs are not satisfied.
That is, individuals need to understand "defense
mechanisms" or common responses to unsatisfied primary
needs. They should understand that unsatisfied needs may
cause the individual to increase his efforts to reach his
objective, whereas, as Norris, Zeran, and Hatch state,
others may cause him to run away from a distasteful situa
tion. Still others may suggest a change in goal or a
compromise.
Sorenson and Malm (37) state that young people can
10
hardly understand their own behavior without understanding
the more common defense mechanisms, and that this is all
part of understanding one's personality and characteris
tics .
Roe (34) explains that at present there is no con
sensus among psychologists on the structure of a basic
personality theory. Some emphasize one aspect and some
another; such as, the role of libidinal development, the
self-image, motivation theory, perceptual components.
Whether there is agreement or not about theories of person
ality, Roe mentions that the meaning of the occupation for
the individual cannot be more than superficially investi
gated without some idea of what sort of things are signifi
cant for the individual. Among the several different theo
ries is Maslow's arrangement of basic needs in a hierarchy
structure.
As Roe suggests, this hierarchical concept is suc
cessful in explaining many aspects of normal and neurotic
behavior. These basic needs are:
1. The psychological needs
2. The safety needs
3. The need for belongingness and love
4. The need for importance, respect, self-esteem,
independence
5. The need for information
6. The need for understanding
7. The need for beauty
8. The need for self-actualization (26)
Roe points out that this order of potency is con
sidered usual but not invariable for all persons.
11
Maslow (34) does not make a special point of indi
vidual differences in the strength of the basic needs, but
Roe states that these surely exist and are of considerable
importance and that it is obvious that some higher needs
are very much stronger in some individuals than in others,
and the strength of these needs is of direct importance to
occupational choice. "All that a man can be he must be if
he is to be happy." "The more he is fitted to do, the more
he must do." That is self-actualization is important. In
fact, it seems necessary for good health and well-being.
Roe suggests that in our society there is no single
situation which is potentially so capable of giving some
satisfaction at all levels of basic needs as is the occupa
tion. The occupation needs to be one that satisfies the
needs or at least some of the needs of the individual.
Tyler (47) explains the basic understanding of the
individual differently. She views the whole developmental
process in an individual as a single, unbroken line extend
ing from the moment of conception to the moment of death.
She seems to think that patterned change is continuous and |
!
inflexible. Tyler finds the following outline useful: I
1. Infancy First two years
2. Early childhood Preschool age— 2 to 5 years
3. Middle childhood Elementary school age--6 to 11
years
4. Adolescence Approximately 12 to 20 years
5. Adulthood Approximately 20 to 40 years
6. Middle age About 4 0 to 6 0 years
7. Old age From 60 years on. (17)
12
Tyler continues to say that from a broad social
point of view, the whole developmental process is one of
socialization. She says that if one looks at this process
solely from the point of view of the society as a whole,
one can see it as an enormously complex machine in which
lives are shaped to built-in specifications. But when one
looks at it from the psychological point of view, one sees
choice, decision, and selection going on. She maintains
that an individual is not molded by his culture but reacts
to its pressures and selects from its many alternative pos
sibilities those that best suit his emerging self. She
shows how the developing self and occupational choice are
related. In this she agrees with Erickson (12), who states
that the process of choosing an occupation is a process of
establishing an identity. These take place, according to
Erickson, during the adolescence stage when the young per
son must also strive to attain economic independence, ex
pand and change the quality of his social relationships,
channel his sex impulses into a mold sanctioned by society,
sort out his values and organize them into a coherent
philosophy of life.
Ginzberg and his associates (16), following sugges
tions of Lazarsfeld and Buehler, introduced a developmental
approach to occupational choice. They hypothesized, and
according to Super (42) to a limited extent demonstrated,
that there is a progressive development in the vocational
13
thinking of boys as they move towards adulthood. These
authors described three distinct periods in the process of
making occupational choices, which they believe coincide
fairly well with certain ages : the period of fantasy
choice, during latency; the period of tentative choice,
during adolescence ; and the period of realistic choice,
during early adulthood (16). They divided the period of
tentative choice into four stages: interest, capacity,
values, and transition (16), and they divided the period of
realistic choice into three stages : exploration, crystal
lization and specification (16). They concluded that occu
pational choice is determined largely by fantasy prior to
pubescence, then by interest, then by capacity considera
tions, then by values, and finally, at the time of entry
into the world of work, by reality considerations, which
the authors defined as consideration of opportunity in
relation to ability, interests, and values.
Somewhat different in concept from the studies de
scribing developmental sequences in terms of stages charac-j
teristic of different age levels, are studies of life j
patterns as conducted by Hollingshead (23). In the life ,
i
pattern approach, the individual's behavior and his roles j
I
over a period of time are analyzed to ascertain persistent j
and recurrent themes or trends. Determining these trends j
should make it possible to describe an organized system of
roles and behavior which may be termed a life pattern.
14
I That is the life pattern approach helps an individual to
I predict, from the observed behavior in one current situa-
jtion, the probable behavior in another current situation.
j Friend and Haggard (14) endeavored to show rela-
t
tionships between early family adjustment and later work
adjustment. They decided that there were significant rela
tionships between the type of parent-chiId relationship and
the type of work adjustment. The pattern of social adjust
ment in the family during the subject's childhood influ
enced the pattern of social adjustment on the adult job.
Their findings support the hypothesis that aspects of the
adult life pattern can be predicted with some accuracy from
the early life pattern.
Super has attempted to synthesize current knowledge
and to begin formulation of a comprehensive theory of voca
tional development. However, Darley and Hagenah (10) have
pointed out that Super did not present a theory. Neverthe
less, the ten propositions which he suggested seem to be
accepted as a framework upon which a theory may eventually
be constructed. They are:
1. People differ in their abilities, interests and
personalities.
2. They are qualified, by virtue of these character
istics, each for a number of occupations.
3. Each of these occupations requires a characteris
tic pattern of abilities, interests and personal
ity traits, with tolerances wide enough, however,
to allow both some variety of occupations for each
individual and some variety of individuals in each
15
occupation.
4. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situ
ations in which people live and work, and hence
their self-concepts, change with time and experi
ence (although self concepts are generally fairly
stable from late adolescence until late maturity),
making choice and adjustment a continuous process*
5. This process may be summed up in a series of life
stages characterized as those of growth, explora
tion, establishment, maintenance, and decline, and
these stages may in turn be subdivided into
(a) the fantasy, tentative and realistic phases of
the exploratory stage, and (b) the trial and
stable phases of the establishment stage.
6. The nature of the career pattern (that is, the oc
cupational level attained and the sequence, fre
quency, and duration of trial and stable jobs) is
determined by the individual's parental socio-eco
nomic level, mental ability and personality char
acteristics, and by the opportunities to which he
is exposed.
7. Development through the life stages can be guided,
partly by facilitating the process of maturation
of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in
reality testing and in the development of the self
concept.
8. The process of vocational development is essen
tially that of developing and implementing a self
concept: it is a compromise process in which the
self concept is a product of the interaction of
inherited aptitudes, neural and endocrine make-up,
opportunity to play various roles, and evaluations
of the extent to which the results of role playing
meet with the approval of superiors and fellows.
9. The process of compromise between individual and j
social factors, between self concept and reality, j
is one of role playing, whether the role is played;
in fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in |
real life activities such as school classes, clubs]
part-time work, and entry jobs. |
10. Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend
upon the extent to which the individual finds ade
quate outlets for his abilities, interests, per
sonality traits, and values; they depend upon his
16
establishment in a type of work, a work situation,
and a way of life in which he can play the kind of
role which his growth and exploratory experiences
have led him to consider congenial and appropri
ate. (39)
In these propositions the concepts of self, role,
and the compromise process are emphasized and are consid
ered important in the formulation of broad principles ex
planatory of occupational choice. However, Super (42) ad
mits that more studies need to be done before these con
cepts can be considered as having real predictive quali
ties .
The discussion in this portion of the chapter sug
gests that although there is not complete consensus on a
personality theory, there is an increasing effort to have a
better understanding of the adolescent and the relation of
his growth and development to occupational choice. There
is also the realization that young people need to under
stand their basic needs and how a vocation helps to satisfy
them.
Occupational Information
Tyler (47) states that "we must never lose sight of
the importance of occupational choice." Although she is
quick to explain that knowledge of self is also important,
she emphasizes the necessity for students to be given the
relevant information about fields of work in a form that
enables them to assimilate it.
Norris, Zeran, and Hatch (29) suggest that the pre-
17
sentation of occupational information should be a continu
ous process throughout the school life of young people and
even into the post-school period. However, this study will
limit its discussion to the study of the occupation at the
high school level. The same authors suggest that for this
age level some of the most important types of information
should help the young person:
1. To utilize means for continuous exploration of the
world of work and study of specific occupational
fields.
2. To develop tentative occupational plans when he
graduates or leaves high school. The plan may
hinge upon whether he continues his educational
training or goes directly into the armed services.
' 3. To have knowledge of or access to the present and
possible occupational opportunities if he expects
to secure employment in the vicinity. This would
include specific aids for job hunting and job hold
ing.
Since 1790, as provided in the American Constitu
tion, the Bureau of the Census has gathered demographic
data every ten years. Occupational data has been included
since 1820. Occupational information is currently gathered
from some 77 million workers of 14 or more years of age who
are either employed or unemployed but seeking work.
The approximately 22,000 occupations in today's
world of work are grouped into eleven broad categories.
They are based upon the location of the work, the kind of
industry or enterprise in which the worker earns his living,
Caplow (8) points out that socio-economic classifi-
18
cations are based on five assumptions which he believes form
the basis of prestige attitudes in Western culture. They
are :
1. White collar work is superior to manual work.
2. Self-employment is superior to working for others.
3. Clean occupations are superior to dirty occupations.
4. Larger enterprises are superior to smaller enter
prises in the business field but not necessarily in
farming.
5. Personal service is degrading, hence it is better to
work for an enterprise than do the same work for an
individual.
Super states that Caplow's analysis seems to be
generally valid and reflects, if nothing else, the middle
class value. Here the focus is on the worker.
Another approach to the classification of occupa
tions is represented by studies of the personalities of
workers engaged in an occupation, the implication being that
the occupation attracts individuals with certain personality
traits or molds them according to its requirements once the
worker is identified with the occupation.
Hatch et al. (29) points out that comprehensive
knowledge of the nature of an occupation requires a study of
the divisions of the work, the specific tasks performed by
workers, other occupations with which the work may be com
bined, and the tools, machines, and materials used in per
forming the job.
Most occupational literature gives a composite pic-
19
ture of the tasks performed by typical workers in a given
occupation throughout the nation. The job seeker must also
know the qualifications necessary for obtaining employment
in an occupation and for fulfilling the job duties, includ
ing requirement of age, sex, citizenship, special personal
characteristics, and certain other requirements established
through legislation.
Today, every state in the nation publishes some type
of occupational educational and social materials, and the
number of independent publications and publishers has in
creased many times over. Each year, new publishers enter
the field and established ones expand their services.
Criteria for and methods of evaluating published
resources of information should be tested for validity and
reliability. In 1964 the terms outlined by the National
Vocational Guidance Association included the following basic
concepts (28):
1. A basic standard for any occupational publication
should be the inclusion of a clear statement as to
its purpose and the group to whom it is directed.
2. Occupational information should be related to devel
opmental levels, which will vary with age, educa
tional attainment, and social and economic back
ground.
3. Consideration should be given to the implications
of the material for all groups in our society.
4. The description of an occupation should be an accu
rate and balanced appraisal of opportunities and
working conditions which should not be influenced by
recruiting, advertising, or other special interests
20
5. Occupational information should include the nature
of personal satisfactions provided, the kinds of
demands made, and the possible effects on an indi
vidual's way of life.
Tyler (47) states that the first characteristic of
occupational information is that it must be accurate and
free from bias. Norris, et al..(29), point out that there
should be no general advantages or disadvantages--merely
facts about the occupation, and that in this respect, inclu
sion of information based on Roe's two-way classification of
occupation as to group and level (34), Super's three-dimen
sional classification as to level, field, and enterprise
(40), or Super's classification according to life span might
be helpful.
Choice Process
Some major current approaches to the problem of oc
cupational choice will be discussed. Investigations and
attempts to verify theories will be included. Information
on the decision-making process and how it is related to oc
cupational choice will be presented.
Current writers stress different phases of occupa
tional choice. Some studies emphasize vocational develop
ment and are oriented to the prediction of successive
choices, or patterns of choices. Others emphasize voca
tional choice, that is, the prediction of the occupational
role that the individual is fulfilling at a particular point
in time. Some stress the need for self-understanding and
21
occupational information. All realize the need for further
study.
Several decision-making theories are presented. The
author hopes that the simplicity with which some are out
lined will not be misleading but challenging and that the
reader will say along with Tyler "I have come to feel that
this realm of choice is our peculiar heritage. . . . The
realm of choice is where I expect to be traveling in my re
search journeys of the next few years" (45).
Ginzberg (16) emphasizes that in modern society
practically every individual must choose an occupation. In
fact the author of this study is beginning to realize that
individuals may have to choose more than once as their occu
pational choice becomes obsolete. Ginzberg, et al., contin
ue to show that one of the outstanding characteristics of
our culture, since the beginning of modern capitalism, is
the right of the individual to choose his work. They point
out that another characteristic is its high degree of spe
cialization. This specialization is paralleled by a high
degree of individual freedom of choice. Ginzberg, et al.,
show that there are two aspects to the freedom of occupa
tional choice. One relates to the individual seeking his
place among the range of opportunities which confront him.
The other relates to society. Certain occupations and pro
fessions must be staffed in order that the health and wel
fare of the group be safe guarded. They show that the
22
occupational choice affects both the individual and society.
In every decision many people are concerned. The problem
becomes "How does a person make a decision about choosing a
career?"
Theories of Vocational Choice
Ginzberg (16) states that he and his associates had
learned that despite thousands of investigations into vari
ous facets of occupational decision-making, no adequate the
ory had been developed to explain how the multiplicity of
factors within the environment and forces within the indi
vidual act and react on each other so that the individuals
could finally resolve the problem of their occupational
choice. Their basic assumption was that an individual
reaches his ultimate decision not at any single moment in
time, but through a series of decisions over a period of
many years, the cumulative impact is the determining factor.
The basic elements in the theory which they devel
oped were--
1. Occupational choice is a developmental process which
typically takes place over a period of some ten
years and includes three periods of occupational
choice.
2. The process is largely irreversible.
3. The process of occupational choice ends in a compro
mise between interests, capacities, values and op
portunities and is an essential aspect of every
choice.
The theory suggests the type of decisions individ-
uals should be making at different periods and stages of____
23
maturity.
Ginzberg emphasizes that the theory of occupational
choice which he and his associates have developed is only a
first approach to a general theory and that it has not been
validated.
Super (39), admitting that Ginzberg's theory is in
deed an important contribution in constructing a theory of
occupational choice, sets forth four limitations such as:
it does not build adequately on previous work; "choice" is
defined as preference rather than as entry or some other
implementation of choice and means different things at dif
ferent age levels; there is no sharp distinction between
choice and adjustment; they did not study the compromise
process.
Since Super blieved that an adequate theory of vo
cational choice and adjustment would synthesize the results
of previous research and take into account the main elements
essential to a theory of vocational development, he at
tempted to synthesize these elements into a summary state
ment of a comprehensive theory which is in the series of ten
propositions, as previously recorded in this study.
In developing a possible theory of vocational choice
Roe (33) first offers five general hypotheses considering
personality variables as they are impressed in behavior such
as intelligence, interests, and special abilities.
She suggests that in some instances genetic elements
24
limit the degree of development rather than directly deter
mining the type of expression. Emphasis is given to the
statement that the things to which the individual gives
automatic attention are keys to his total behavior. Also
attention is drawn to the patterning of early satisfactions
and frustrations. Here mention is made of Maslow's hierar
chical classification of needs. Roe implies that all accom
plishment is based on unconscious as well as conscious needs]
and that this is relevant to eventual vocation.
In three additional hypotheses patterns of early
experience within the family emotional structures are di
vided into three major divisions;
1. Emotional concentration on the child ranging from
over-protection to over-demanding.
2. Avoidance of the child ranging from emotional rejec
tion to neglect.
3. Acceptance of the child as a full-fledged member of
the family ranging from casual to loving acceptance.
From these Roe concludes that depending upon which
of the above situations are experienced, there will be de
veloped basic attitudes, interests, and capacities which
will be given expression in the general pattern of the
adult's life, in his personal relations, in his emotional
reactions, in his activities, and in his vocational choice.
In an effort to test a part of Roe's theory (33)
relative to early determinants of vocational choice, Utton
(48) hypothesized that :
1. those subjects employed in occupations oriented____
25
toward persons would manifest greater altruistic
love of people than those subjects employed in occu
pations which were primarily non-person oriented.
2. the subjects employed in person-oriented occupations'
would recall their early childhood environment as
having been warmer than that of subjects employed in
non-person orientcd-occupations.
Four professional groups of women were used; social
workers and occupational therapists, whom Roe describes as
oriented chiefly toward persons. These were compared with
dietitians and laboratory technicians who are described as
oriented chiefly toward non-person activities.
The evidence from the study did not support Roe's
theory as a whole. Consistent with Roe's theory the social
workers and the occupational therapists were found to mani
fest a greater altruistic love of people than did the dieti
tians and the laboratory technicians. However, the hypothe
sis that those subjects employed in person-oriented occupa
tions would recall their childhood family environment as
being warmer than the subjects employed in non-person-ori
ented occupations was not supported by the study.
Switzer (43) attempted to further the investigation
of predictions based upon Roe's theory. In their study, an
analysis was made to determine if there are differences be
tween the perceived attitudes of the two parents and if the
interaction of maternal and paternal attitudes is mure
predictive of occupational choice than the combined atti
tudes of the parents taken as a single unit.
26
Two groups of 40 students each were employed. They
were ministerial students (M) and Chemistry majors (C). An
additional group, graduate theology students (T), was also
included as a check for possible influence of drop-outs with
age.
On the basis of Roe's hypothesis the prediction was
made the M group would perceive their parents as having beer
more over-demanding than the C group. In addition, separate
scores for mothers and fathers were obtained and the inter
action between the perceived attitudes of parents was stud
ied as to its effect on later occupational choice.
The results of the study are not in agreement with
the prediction. M scores are not higher on the over-demand
ing scale and C scores are not higher on the rejecting
scale. However, significant differences were observed be
tween recall of fathers' and mothers' attitudes. It was
found that magnitude of the difference between attitude of
parents was predictive of occupational choice.
Likewise investigations by Grigg (19) and Hagen
(20) to verify Roe's assumptions about the influences of
parental attitudes on vocational choice have had negative
results. Commenting upon the investigations. Roe (32) ad
mits that "my own studies confirm the hypothesized associa
tions between early parent-child relations and also support
studies which have failed to find early parent-child rela
tions related directly to occupations in the general
27
patterns which I had hypothesized."
The question has arisen as to why Roe's predictions
on the relation of parental attitudes have not been substan
tiated. One of the most reasonable explanations is that the
measuring instruments used to assess parental attitudes have
been unreliable and/or invalid (7). Further shortcomings
are listed as Bordin, et al. (5), also refers to Roe's
classification of occupations. He shows that her classifi
cation of occupations has arisen out of factor analysis of
interest inventories, stressing the activities of primary
focus in the occupation. He draws attention to his observa
tion that "Her use of this classification in connection
with her theory of the early determinants of vocational
choice suggests that she had only one personal dimension in
mind, namely, the degree of orientation toward persons or
non-persons." However, although he acknowledges that Roe's
basic direction is fruitful, he stipulates that it suffers
from incompleteness.
With what he believed to be shortcomings of other
studies, especially Roe's, Bordin, et al. (5) set about to
establish a framework for the theoretical formulation of
work and vocational choice. It was based on three studies
(35, 37, 15) by a painstakingly thorough analysis of the
occupation to identify what needs might be gratified and
through what modes of expression, through participation in
it. With such analyses as a base, relevant personality
28
measures reflecting these needs or childhood experiences
which fix these needs were selected for study. They at
tempted to set up a series of dimensions (needs, motiva
tions, impulses, activities) which could count for all of
the major gratifications which work can offer--which would
make it possible to describe any occupation in terms of the
relative strengths and the particular modification of these
component dimensions. There was concern for the entire age
span and with all levels of skills and status and all areas
of occupations. There was one definite limitation. Their
theory did not include people who are motivated or con
strained by external forces. Theirs is a theory of voca
tional commitment. They also realize that they need to
know a great deal more about the worker on the job. They
realize that this calls for a new conception of job
analysis.
In commenting upon the study Roe (32) challenges
their apparent limitation in excluding persons who have
little gratification from their work. She also points out
that in reality they do not cover the life span as they
claim. She also challenges their assumption that complex
adult activities retain the same instinctual scores of
gratification as the simple infantile ones.
However, at the same time she admits that their
attempt at detailing specific need gratifications as re
lated to occupational choice and behavior is most welcome.
29
She believes that which applies to occupations as well as
to the person in them will lead to further fruitful study.
Holland, dissatisfied with other theories which he
found either too broad, e.g., Ginzberg's and Super’s, or
too specialized, e.g., Bordin's and Roe's, brought forth
the following statement:
Essentially, the present theory assumes that at the
time of vocational choice the person is the product of
the inter-action of his particular heredity with a
variety of cultural and personal forces including
peers, parents and significant adults, his social
class, American culture and the physical environment.
Out of this experience the person develops a hierarchy
of habitual or preferred methods for dealing with en
vironmental tasks. From an ecological standpoint,
these habitual methods are associated with different
kinds of physical and social environments, and with
differential patterns of abilities. The person making
a vocational choice in a sense "searches" for situa
tions which satisfy his hierarchy of adjustive
orientations. (22)
The embryonic form of the theory has three
divisions :
1. The occupational environment which are classified
so as to include all the major kinds of American
work environments.
2. The person and his development which is now called
personality pattern. The theory suggests that at
the time of vocational choice, the individual has
adjustive orientations corresponding to the six -
occupational environments and designated as mo
toric, intellectual, supportive, conforming, per
suasive, and esthetic methods of orientations.
Each orientation represents a somewhat distinctive
life style which is characterized by preferred
methods of dealing with daily problems and includes
such variables as values and "interests," prefer
ence for playing various roles and avoiding others,
interpersonal skills and other personal factors.
For every person, the orientation may be ranked,
according to their relative strengths, in a
30
quasi-serial order of hierarchy. The life style
heading the hierarchy determines the major direc
tion of choice.
Holland suggests using a category of intel
ligence levels in ranks in conjunction with cate
gorized levels of self-evaluation in ranks, and by
averaging these levels find the occupational level
of the person. Occupational Level = Intelligence
and Self-evaluation, where the latter is a function
of socio-economic origin, need for status, educa
tion and self-concept.
3. The Role of the Development Hierarchy or the Per
sonality Pattern is such that a person has an or
dering of preferations for the six major environ
ments .
The necessity for Personal and Occupational Knowl
edge suggests the following hypotheses :
— that persons with inaccurate or limited self-
knowledge including self-evaluation will make inadequate
choices more frequently than do persons with more adequate
self-appraisals. In contrast, persons with relatively ac
curate self-knowledge will make more adequate choices.
— the external Influences limit the range of possi
ble choices; likewise the social pressures created by sig
nificant persons affect both the level and direction of
choice.
It would seem that Holland has come no closer to
dealing adequately with the psychological process of deci
sion making than Tyler who defines counseling as "The proc
ess through which individuals are enabled to make good
choices and thus improve their relationships to the world
and to their fellow men as they set the pattern for their
31
unique patterns of development" (47).
This study is concerned with the process of voca
tional choice and its subsequent need for understanding of
self and occupations, however, the author hopes that in
giving consideration to the decision-making process that
some understanding may be made as to "how" the individual
makes the choice.
Theories of Decision-Making
Some philosophists, sociologists, and psycholo
gists, such as Tyler, believe that man's behavior is made
up of purposeful "rational" planned action, and that people
do seem to independently make and implement decisions.
They also recognize that as a result of learning,
much of an individual's behavior becomes routine and habit
ual and deliberate thinking is not necessary. If the indi
vidual recognizes the situation as the same or similar to
one that has gone before, he will no doubt respond in the
way that previously best satisfied his needs or desire^s. ,
In new situations some people use the coin-flipping
method, act on the impulse of the moment, and still others
respond to the "hidden persuaders" (30). According to
Mailich (25) research indicates that decision-making is an
ubiquitous concept, referring variously to change, to a
choice, to a climate of opinion, to a condition of agree
ment, to communication, or to a vaguely-felt state of
.offers _ which, like ice, melts in the hands of anyone who
32
stops to examine it. He defines decision as a choice among
alternatives. He shows that a decision involves a series
of choices that have been made in sequence. This sequence
involves phases of decision-making activity under the fol
lowing headings :
1. Defining goals.
2. Looking for alternative course of action and for
information that can be used to evaluate them.
3. Testing proposed "solution" to choose one.
4. Implementing, that is translating decision into
action.
5. Evaluating or testing the results of previous
choices and actions.
He continues to say that different kinds of deci
sions require different amounts of time and different sorts
of skills. He also suggests the title "recurring" and "non
recurring" to separate a class of decisions which are going
to be made time after time from those cases that occur once
or only once in a while.
Griffiths (18) defines decision as a judgment or
conclusion arrived at after consideration. A decision may
initiate action, change or correct a course of action, or
sustain the present course of action. He points out the
sequence, procedure, and the interrelated nature of deci
sions. He indicates that practically every decision is one
of a series, or a sequence. "Each decision is based upon
one or more previous decisions."
33
He recognizes six steps in decision making. They
are :
1. Recognizing, defining and limiting the problem.
2. Analyzing and evaluating the problem.
3. Establishing criteria or standards by which the
solution will be evaluated or judged as acceptable
and adequate to the need.
4. Collecting data.
5. Formulating and selecting the preferred solution or
solutions.
6. Putting into effect the preferred solution.
He suggests that data be collected continuously and
that testing and evaluating be carried out during each step
or oftener.
However, if rational decision-making is to proceed,
a problem must be evaluated in terms of the probabilities
of success; preferential ordering of outcomes must be made ;
performance of one or more actions must occur.
Brim (6) proposes that the decision process is made
of linked sequential phases such as :
1. Identification of the problem.
2. Obtaining necessary information about the problem.
3. Prediction of possible solutions.
4. Evaluation of such solutions.
5. Strategy selection and decision.
6. Implementation of the decision.
Each decision may not involve all of these phases.
However, they do provide a possible structure for the
decision-making process.
_____Strong (38) indicates that the most important step__
34
in the decision-making process is that of identifying the
problem. She proposes three levels:
1. Long range policy decisions.
2. Current operating decisions.
3. Emergency decisions.
The importance of defining the problem is also
stressed by Crucher (11). He maintains that before a deci
sion is made one must discover and define, with accuracy,
the problem to be solved. Once this difficult task is ac
complished, making the decision requires merely choosing
between alternative solutions. Drucher also points out the
necessity of motivation. He shows that not only the de
cision-maker must be motivated but also the other people
involved in the execution or implementation of the decision
Tannenbaum and Massarik (44) indicates that the
three steps to decision-making involve :
1. becoming aware of behavior alternatives.
2. determing all possible consequences of each
alternative.
3. making the choice.
Bates (3) in his model for the Science of Decision
showed that the decision-making process involved :
1. a decision maker,
2. an environment in which the decision-maker must
operate,
3. a set of action available,
4. a set of goals to be accomplished.
Also making an optional decision in terms of an
35
operation which chooses a member of the set of actions with
the importance of the goals in mind. The model must include
some measure of the efficiency of an action for a goal, a
measure of the value or importance of the goal, and a meas
ure of the adequacy and effectiveness of the operation.
Hilton (21) makes five possible models suggesting
the process by which individuals typically make career
decisions, and a sixth one formed by himself. They are :
1. The Attribute-Matching Model.
The assumption is that the individual first takes
an inventory of his personal attributes; then he
ascertains the attributes required for successful
adjustment in each of some set of occupations; and
lastly he selects that occupation the requirements
of which best match his attributes. This has also
been referred to as the Trait-and-Factor Theory by
Super and Bachrach (43). It emphasizes individual
differences and how they should influence the proc
ess of occupational choice.
2. The Need-Reduction Model.
This model of career decision-making supports the
approach to career development associated with
dynamic personality theory. The goal of the proc
ess is to reduce need tension. With varying degrees
of awareness of their behavior, individuals seek
out or gravitate to those occupations which satisfy
their needs. To the extent that conscious decision
making goes on, the individual appraises his own
needs and estimates the need-reducing value of some
set of alternatives.
3. The Probable Gain Model.
The assumption is that the individual is faced with
some set of alternatives, each of which has certain
outcomes which have a certain value to the individ
ual and a certain probability of occurring. The
individual chooses an alternative which will maxi
mize his gain. This may be done by minimizing his
maximum possible loss. This model is closely
36
related, says Hilton, to the various models of
rational behavior employed in economics. He sug
gested that reference be made to the rules as out
lined by Arrow (1).
4. The Social Structure Model
This model emphasizes the mobility provided and the
limits imposed by the various social structures
through which an individual career carries him.
The sociologists assume that given certain alterna
tives, pathways, or careers, the probabilities of
certain outcomes occurring are very high, so high
in fact that they can be regarded as certainties.
Another assumption is that the number of alterna
tives which the environment provided may be severe
ly limited, particularly if the individual is a
member of a minority group, and that the individual
has highly circumscribed power to influence the
number. Becher (45) develops this sociological
approach as related to our modern world.
5. The Complex Information Processing Model
The individual is faced with multitudinous behav
ioral alternatives and that it is his limited capac
ity to handle information about them which limits
the rationality of decision-making. The incompara
bility of different outcomes is particularly
critical in career decision-making. Simon (36)
points out that there is lack of evidence that, in
actual human choice situations of any complexity,
concepts of rationality are or can be carried out.
Instead the individual simplifies the choice proc
ess by considering those that are more satisfactory
for him. Hilton continues to say that evaluating
the possible models of career decision-making is
difficult for there has been little direct, deliber
ate testing of one against the other. He found
each to have some useful emphasis but most of them
involved assumptions not consistent with available
research findings or informal observations. He
then turned to what Festinger (13) has called cog
nitive dissonance.
6. Cognitive Dissonance in Career Decision-Making
Hilton, drawing mostly from the complex information
processing approach to human problem solving and
from interviews with students in the process of
decision-making, presented a tentative model of the
37
decision-making process which incorporates Festing
er ' s theory of cognitive dissonance. He proposes
that the reduction of dissonance among a person's
beliefs about himself and his environment is the
major motivation of career decision-making. The
decision-making process is instigated by inputs
from the environment which raise dissonance to an
intolerable level and terminate when Lhe individual,
by one of several means succeeds in reducing dis
sonance. (Fig. 1.)
Relationship of a Decision-Making Process
to the Vocational Development Process
Super's (42) writings about vocational development
provide a clear outline of its process and its investiga
tion. However, says Tiedeman (46), there is still need for
an explicit statement of the process of decision in voca
tional development. The structure of decision, he says,
must be specified before investigations of the theory of
vocational development can enter new phases.
According to him the analysis of vocational devel
opment is oriented by each of several decisions with regard
to school, work, and life which a person makes as he
matures. With regard to each decision, the problem of
deciding may be divided into two periods or aspects and
seven phases.
I A Period of Anticipation with four stages.
(1) Exploration with its alternatives or possible
goals.
(2) Crystallization which is not irreversible.
(3) Choice with varying degrees of certainty.
(4) Specification which readies the individual to
act upon his decision.
II The Period of Implementation and Adjustment with
38
Career Decision-Making
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39
three stages
(5) Induction and its resulting experience.
(6) Transition with the gaining of confidence.
(7) Maintenance with at least temporary satisfac
tion.
Tiedeman applies the theory to the life of an indi
vidual (Fig. 2). Considerable exploration takes place in
adolescence. Taking up work immediately after leaving
school is a major problem in transition. Trial of work,
i.e., the failure to pass beyond induction with regard to a
series of job decisions followed by establishment or transi
tion. Then maintenance, and decline, seem to Tideman, a
good characterization of the high order of the interdepend
ent career decision.
The process of evolving and of acting upon a concep
tion of self, as it is expressed through vocational behav
ior, transpires through a series of decisions. Each
decision consists of the seven distinct phases. Each de
cision is also to be considered in relation with a wider
context of past and future decisions ultimately heading to
a career presented to the world in pride and in confidence.
What Schools Are Doing
Recently attention has been focused in facilitating
educational-vocational decision-making. The results of this;
consideration is beginning to be felt at the secondary high
school level.
Mention in this study will be made of two schools;
4 0
H o i i i b i e
• \ v T c J F o r Agt
1?-
6
13-
7
U'-
8
1
9
16-
10
1
1 1
18-
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19-
13
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14
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1 6
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16
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2 9 -
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4 5 -
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Work
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....
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} Î
P l i / i i c o i ond
PiychoioOICul
Solid Line ( .........."} Indicafe? fioia *nen a decivio-i n u il be coniidered.
Broken Lire ( ■ ■ ■ — ••) indicafoj time when problem con and mcy exijt.
Dotted Line (* • • * * ) ind icotoi a p«riod /.hen problem can exist but usuoi ly dooi rot.
I'iC.URK 2
41
one in California, U.S.A., one in Alberta, Canada.
The California project will be limited to certain
aspects of the decision-making function as applied to the
Palo Alto Unified School District. As a result of surveys,
Clarke, et al. (9), in a paradigm, presented three assump
tions. They all referred to the need for relevant informa
tion if a "good" decision is to be made. These led the
authors to declare that the student needs adequate informa
tion concerning:
a. the possible alternative actions, e.g., entering the
State University, enrolling in a local vocational
school, enlisting in the army, etc.
b. the possible outcomes of the various actions, e.g.,
failing out of the university after one year, ob
taining a job as a technician after vocational
school, learning a useful trade in the army.
c. the relationship between actions and outcomes, e.g.,
the probability that entering the state university
would eventually lead to a college degree.
d. his relative preferences for the various outcomes.
The authors believed that those helping young people
in educational-vocational development need such information
as :
a. what the individual in question does and how well he!
does it.
b. the conditions under which he does it.
c. how he feels about the experience.
The need for such information was in keeping with
recent theory and research which suggests that an individ
ual's educational-vocational development proceeds gradually.
42
over time, as a sequence of many decisions and experiences.
Based on the theory that career choice is an ongoing process
of making choices, obtaining additional information and ex
perience, and revising previous choices, Clarke, et al.,
presented what they called a "Game tree conception of se
quences of experiences (Fig. 3),
The researchers of the Palo Alto project gathered
and organized material to determine;
a. whether the results proved that the decision to at
tend university and college had been realistic.
b. which of the many factors were most useful for pre
dicting success within the various academic courses
at Palo Alto High School.
c. how adequately and realistically students in the
past year had planned their academic programs.
The results of the research showed that much educa
tional-vocational decision-making was often carried on in
the absence of adequate relevant information. The study
emphasized the importance of information specific to the
local situation and that research within the local school
district was essential. After the local information was
gathered it was incorporated in a special experimental pro
gram of group guidance for ninth graders.
This experimental program involved 34 8 ninth-grade
students who were given four weeks of daily intensive group
guidance on vocational and educational planning prior to the
experimental treatment. This four-week program, according
to Yabroff (50) utilized the best general information
43
E _
€S XI
t -
X S
w
II
44
available to counselors in these areas and included a spe
cially prepared TV series, outside speakers, extensive
library work, special testing, etc.
Following the group guidance program the students
were randomly divided into three ability groups. Each of
these groups were subdivided into three "treatment" groups.
The first treatment group received one additional week of
training in decision-making using local probability data;
the second treatment group received training in decision
making using general probability data similar to that pre
sented in the previous four-week program; the third group,
the control group, received no further information.
Performance in high school courses, overall high
school grades, and performance in high school activities
were reported in the form of "experience" tables. The term
"experience" table was used because the data showed what had
happened to other students in the school district or the
experience of previous students who had similar grade point
average (50). The experience tables, along with materials
on the process of decision-making, were included in a 21-
page workbook entitled "Design for Decision." Audio-visual
materials illustrating the experience tables and other con
cepts discussed in the workbook were prepared.
The workbooks, along with the students' present aca
demic grade point average, were distributed as the local
data.
45
Yabroff (49) reports that the group who had studied
the local data scored significantly higher than the group
who had general data, and both groups scored higher than the
control group at all ability levels in;
a. knowledge about the process of decision-making,
b. awareness of high school and college alternatives,
c. knowledge of the probabilities involved in these
alternatives.
According to Yabroff, the results of this experiment
suggest that:
a. It is both feasible and helpful to train ninth gradej
students in decision-making using locally developed
probability data.
b. This method of using local data was more effective
than training students in a similar manner but usingj
general probability data.
c. The local data also proved more effective than a
well-planned structured guidance unit based on gen
eral information alone.
d. It also appears that local probability data can be
meaningful to students at all ability levels, and
equally effective with boys and girls. (49)
In the fall of 1965, Canadian Federal Department of
Labour in cooperation with the ten Provincial Departments
of Education launched a Canada-wide study of the "Career
Decisions of Canadian Youth."
The objective of this study was to provide informa
tion about the educational and occupational aspirations and
plans of young Canadians to assist educational and training
policy-makers, employers, and guidance personnel in helping
young people to make a successful transition between school
46
and work.
The study was designed to focus on the questions:
1. How and what kind of decisions do young people make
about the length and kind of education and training
they intend to pursue?
2. How do young people come to choose their careers; in
what ways do they arrive at their choice of occupa
tions?
3. To what extent and in what ways does the school sys
tem influence the career of goals of young people?
4. What is the relationship between educational and
career choices ; how do the career goals formed by
young people in school compare with their subsequent
experience in the working world?
In order to collect the sorts of information needed,
a sample of 356 publicly-operated secondary schools was
selected for study. Included in the sample were schools
located in each of the ten provinces ; both large and small
schools, urban and rural schools, and schools of different
types : academic, technical and vocational, commercial, and
"composite" schools. Approximately 151,000 students drawn
from grades nine through twelve were involved. To determine
how their attitudes and perceptions changed stages, the
project included two enumeration stages : one in October,
1965, and one in May, 1966. The data obtained from five
Edmonton Public Schools were made available to the Pupil
Personnel Services Department of the Edmonton Public School
Board (50).
The research results reflected attitudes and percep
tions of students. It discussed the image of guidance, and
47
counselor responsibilities in meeting student educational,
vocational, and personal needs.
It showed that while students tend to disagree as
much as agree with a belief in personal responsibilities
and the ability to control their future, they are, nonethe
less, optimistic about their future and seemingly aware of
the need for flexibility in their planning. They also ex
press confidence in their self-knowledge. A majority of
them seem to feel that they are sufficiently well-informed
about different kinds of jobs to make effective career
choices.
A large percentage of students indicated that they
sought no assistance in making career decisions while a
larger percentage are influenced most by parents, others
seek advice elsewhere. The Edmonton Pupil Personnel Ser
vices Department have not had time to classify, organize,
and use the material as they hope to do.
In October, 1966, a study of 1,269 students from
Eastglen Composite High School was made. The purpose was toj
determine what happens to each of the high school students
attending the school. Also information was sought to form
a basis to evaluate how the various programs of the school
had been used to prepare the students for their future. The
results of the study are still being studied. An evaluation
has not yet been made. The Pupil Personnel Services Depart
ment of the Edmonton Public School will use the results to
48
help in curriculum building, placement of students in school
programs, and guidance for the new "Placement and Career In
formation Centre" which the Edmonton Public School Board has
established.
The compilation of results of the survey included
students who were still in school, who had "dropped out" of
school, who had moved out of the district to attend other
high schools. If the student had graduated, a record was
made of his place and level of work; where he was in train
ing, or where he was continuing his education at college,
university, or Technical school.
The results, on a percentage basis, were made known
to parents and students of the Eastglen School. The results
were not presented in a formal manner, however, it was hoped
that the knowledge of what others had done might help
future students as they make decisions about their courses
and vocations.
In September, 1966, the Pupil Personnel Services
Department of Eastglen Composite High School outlined an
Occupation X, two credit course. It consisted of three
units; a study of self, occupations, and choice making.
The second section of this study will consist of the
suggested outline for the "Choice Making Unit."
49
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books and Periodicals
Arrow, K. J. "Alternative Approaches to the Theory of
Choice in Risk-Taking Situations," Economet-
rics, XIX (1951), 404-437.
Baer, Max F., and Roeber, Edward. Occupational Infor
mation . Chicago: Science Research Associ-
ates, 1964.
Bates, James. "A Model for the Science of Decision,"
Philosophy of Science, XXI (1954), 326-339.
Becker, J. S., and Strauss, A. "Careers, Personality,
and Adult Socialization," American Journal of
Sociology, 19 56, pp. 2 53-2 63.
Bordin, E. S., Nachmann, B., and Segel, S. J. "An
Articulated Framework for Vocational Develop
ment," Journal of Counseling Psychology, X,
No. 2 (1963).
Brim, O. G., et al. Personality and Decision Proc-
esses. Stanford : Stanford University Press,
1962.
Brunkan, R. J., and Crites, J. L. "An Inventory to
Measure the Parental Attitude Variables in
Roe's Theory of Vocational Choice," Journal of
Counseling Psychology, XI (November 1,1964).
8. Caplow, T. The Sociology of Work. Minneapolis : Uni-
versity of Minnesota Press, 19 54.
9. Clarke, Robert, Gelatt, H. B., and Levine, Louis. "A
Decision-Making Paradigm for Local Guidance
Research," Personnel and Guidance Journal,
September, 1965.
10. Darley, J. G., and Hagenah, Theda. Vocational Inter-
— --■ ------------------ 50 _______________
51
est Measurement. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1955.
11. Drucher, Peter F. The Practice of Mangement. New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1954.
12. Erickson, E. H. Childhood and Society. New York:
W. W. Norton, 1950.
13. Festinger, L. A. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
Illinois: Patterson and Co., 1957.
14. Friend, Jennette G., and Haggard, E. A. "Work Adjust
ment in Relation to Family Background," Appl.
Psychol. Monogr., 1948, No. 16. Stanford,
Calif.: Stanford University Press. (Pub
lished for American Psychological Association.)
15. Galinsky, M. E. "Personality Development and Vocation
al Choice, " Journal of Counseling Psychology,
VI (Spring, 1959), 35-44.
16. Ginzberg, E., Ginsberg, S. W., Axelrad, S., and Herma,
J. L. Occupational Choice. New York: Colum
bia University Press, 1951.
17. Goodenough, F. L., and Tyler, L. E. Developmental
Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, Inc., 1959.
18. Griffiths, Daniel E. Administrative Theory. New
York : Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959.
19. Grigg. "Childhood Experiences with Parental Attitude:
A Test of Roe's Hypothesis," Journal of Coun
seling Psychology, VII (1960), 251-256.
20. Hagen, I. "Careers and Family Atmosphere: A Test of
Roe's Theory," Journal of Counseling Psychol-
ogy, VII (1960), 251-256.
21. Hilton, Thomas L. "Career-Decision-Making," Journal
of Counseling Psychology, IX, No. 4 (1962).
22. Holland, John L. "A Theory of Vocational Choice,"
Journal of Counseling Psychology, VI (Spring,
1959), 35-44.
23. Hollingshead, A. B. E1ms town's Youth. New York :
John Wiley and Sons, 1949.
52
24. Hoppock, R. Occupational Information. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963.
25. Mailich, Sidney. Concepts and Issues in Administra
tive Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
26. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1954.
27. Nachmann, B. "Childhood Experiences and Vocational
Choice in Law, Dentistry and Social Work,"
Journal of Counseling Psychology, VII (1960),
243-250.
28. National Vocational Guidance Association, Occupational
Research Division. Guides for Preparing and
Evaluating Occupational Materials. Washington,
D.C., National Vocational Guidance Associa
tion, 1964.
29. Norris, Willa, Zeran, Franklin R., and Hatch, Ray
mond N. The Information Service in Guidance.
2d ed.; Chicago : Rand McNally and Company,
1966.
30. Packard, V. The Hidden Persuaders. New York: Pocket
Book, 1957.
31. Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation. Boston:
Houghton, Mifflin, 1909.
32. Roe, Anne. "Comment," Journal of Counseling Psychol
ogy , X, No. 2 (1963).
33. _________. "Early Determinants of Vocational Choice,"
Journal of Counseling Psychology, IV, No. 3
(Fall, 1957).
34. _________. The Psychology of Occupations. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.
35. Segel, S. J, "A Psychoanalytic Analysis of Personal
ity Factors in Vocational Choices," Journal of
Counseling Psychology, VIII (1961), 202-210.
36. Simon, H. A. "A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice,"
Quarterly Journal of Economics, XLIX (1955),
99-118.
53
37. Sorenson, Herbert, and Malm, Marguerite. Psychology
for Living. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., 1964.
38. Strong, Lydia. "Everyday Is Doomsday, Ordeal of Exec
utive Decision," Management Review, XLIV (No
vember, 1955), 746-755.
39. Super, D, E. "A Theory of Vocational Development,"
American Psychologist, VIII (1953), 185-190.
40. Super, Donald E. Psychology of Careers. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1957.
41. Super, D. E., and Bachard, B. Scientific Careers and
Vocational Development Theory. New York :
Teachers College, 1957.
42. Super, Donald, Crites, John, Hummel, Raymond, Moser,
Helen, Overstreet, Phoebe, and Warnath,
Charles. Vocational Development a Framework
for Research. New York: Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1957.
43. Switzer, D. D., Grigg, A. E., Miller, J. S., and
Young, R. K. "Early Experiences and Occupa
tional Choice : A Test of Roe's Hypothesis,"
Journal of Counseling Psychology, IX, No. 1
(1962) .
44. Tannenbaum, R., and Massarih, F. Participation by
Subordinates in the Managerial Decision-Making
Process, Reprint No. 14, Institute of Indus
trial Relations , University of California, 1950
45. Tyler, Leona C. "Research Explorations in the Realm
of Choice," Journal of Counseling Psychology,
VIII, No. 3 (1961).
46. Tiedeman, David V. "Decision and Vocational Develop
ment: A Paradigm and Its Implication," Per
sonnel and Guidance Journal, XL (September,
1961), 15-20.
47. Tyler, Leona E. The Work of the Counselor. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1961.
48. Utton, Alden C. "Recalled Parent-chiId Relations as
Determinants of Vocational Choice," Journal of
Counseling Psychology, IX, No. 1 (1962).
54
49. Yabroff, William W. "An Experiment in Teaching Deci
sion-Making, Palo Alto, Unified School Dis
trict," Research Brief, No. 9, Bureau of Pupil
Personnel Services, California State Depart
ment of Education, Sacramento, September,
1964.
50. Unpublished report. Guidance in Edmonton Public Sec
ondary Schools, "A Comparative Study of Guid
ance Aspects in Provincial and Selected Edmon
ton Public Secondary Schools Derived from 'The
Career Decisions of Canadian Youth' Project."
Prepared in Co-operation with Federal Depart
ment of Labour, Ottawa and the Guidance
Branch, Alberta Department of Education, Pupil
Personnel Services Department, Edmonton Public
School Board, August, 19 66.
PART II
CHOICE MAKING
A Unit of Study for Tenth Grade Students
55
I. INTRODUCTION
The structure of this unit is based upon the se
quence of phases of a decision-making process (1). The out
line is consistent with the developmental and interactional
nature of vocational choice (2). The material is based on
the need to know self, occupations, and the decision-making
process (4, 5). The content of the unit is presented in
general outline form. It provides an overview of the prob
lem with analysis into subtopics.(6). The aim of the unit
is to present a flexible guide that can be adapted to meet
individual needs. The amount of time allotted to the Unit
depends on whether the suggested "collection of data" is new
material or review.
The material may be presented by a variety of
methods.
A. PURPOSES
The general purpose is to help the student learn how to
make a career choice.
The specific purposes are as follows;
1. To help the student see that choosing a career is a
part of decision-making.
2. To help the student see the relationship of knowl
56
57
edge of self to choosing a career.
3. To help the student see the need for occupational
information when choosing a career.
4. To help the student see the need to set up alterna
tives when making a career choice.
5. To help the student see the possibility of testing a
tentative decision.
(A tentative choice only is suggested since Grade X
students are ages 14 to 16 years old and reality
considerations which were on the periphery of con
sciousness move into a more central position at the
age of 17 and later (7, 8).
B. SEQUENTIAL STEPS WHICH FORM THE STRUCTURE
1. Recognize the problem
2. Analyze the problem
3. Collect or review data
4. Choose alternatives
5. Test alternatives
6. Make a tentative choice
7. Implement the choice
8. Verify the choice
9. Recognize the limitations
C. INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIT
1. Discuss type of experience to be gained through
information.
2. Discuss need for this experience and information.
3. Discuss method of presentation which will depend
58
upon the ability of the students and whether the
students have previously studied self and occupa
tions. At the appropriate time the method of teach
ing can be discussed and a suitable method chosen,
such as :
a. A personal data plan to be kept by each student
(9, 10).
b. A career notebook with compilation of informa
tion regarding one individual, along with analy
sis of occupational and educational information
pertinent to that person.
c. Reports by students.
d. Films, film strips, records.
e. Group discussions, "buzz sessions."
f. Case problem method involving, analyzing a prob
lem, collecting facts, suggesting solutions, and
evaluating the solutions presented.
g. Dramatization.
h. Role playing
i. Community job survey of representative occupa
tions in the community, especially jobs for
young workers.
j. Field trips.
k. Speakers, panels.
1. Interviews.
m. Writing letters of application.
59
n. Survey of what previous students of the school
have done.
o. Measuring and testing by the use of standardized
tests, teacher-made tests,
p. Arranging for individual interviews to learn re
sults of tests or for other personal reasons.
II. PRESENTATION OF UNIT
A. RECOGNIZE THE PROBLEM
Suggested development
1. Present and obtain environmental information about
what other students have done (11, 12).
2. Study general information (13, 14).
3. Trends in employment (15).
4. Through generalization students realize they will
have to make a decision about the world of work and
their place in it, or just drift (16).
5. Through questions and discussion establish a need tq
understand the nature of the problem.
6. Establish the fact that the problem to be attacked
is "Making a Vocational Choice."
B. ANALYZE THE PROBLEM
1. Realize the need to know self
2. Realize the need to know occupations
3. Realize the need to collect data about self and
_ occupations ____________________ ; ______ „
60
C. COLLECT DATA OR REVIEW INFORMATION
1. To know self
a. Introduction
(1) Discuss such questions as; Are there cer
tain particulars or characteristics about a
student that are of little or no importance
in career planning? Are there other facts
about him that are of considerable or utmost
importance in career planning? Does every
one have "personality?" Is the personality
of a person of importance when planning for
a career?
(2) Discuss such various characteristics of an
individual that makes him different from
others, such as: values, abilities, apti
tudes, intelligence, interests, disposition
or temperament, physical make-up, other
characteristics.
(3) Discuss and decide whether a personal data
blank is to be kept by each student or other
procedure (9, 10).
b. Values— Discuss values under such headings as
(1) Understanding the meaning of values.
(2) Influence upon career choices and individ
ual's plans and the way they affect a job
and the way he lives his life (17).
61
(3) Discuss what each wants out of life, what
things are important to him, what habits he
has already formed that are important to
him.
(4) Discuss the importance of "social prestige"
and the part it might play in a vocational
choice.
Abilities--Discuss abilities under such headings
as
(1) Understanding the meaning.
(2) How various abilities such as academic, me
chanical, social service, persuasive, mana
gerial, clerical, musical, verbal, scientif
ic, agricultural, and creative might affect
choice of career.
(3) Discuss how the subjects each student is
taking at school develop; in him skills
likely to aid in his everyday life, includ
ing his occupation, whatever it may be; in
earning a living in a specific occupational
field, no matter what his particular occupa
tion may be; in his success and happiness.
(4) Discuss how a student's present success in
school or "drop-out" affects his future
(18) .
(5) Discuss how a student's present success with
62
extracurricular and other activities provide
some indication of his ability levels.
(6) Discuss the possibility of taking or discus
sing results of one or more of the following
standardized tests: Academic Intelligence,
Learning Capacity, Mental Ability, Mechanic
al Aptitude, Clerical Ability, Clerical Ap
titude, Interest Inventories, Preference
Records (18).
d. Aptitudes--Discuss aptitudes under such headings
as
(1) Understanding the meaning.
(2) How an individual's aptitudes affect his
present choice of school subjects and his
possible choice of a career.
(3) Review some of the aptitude areas already
discussed such as: academic, mechanical,
social service, persuasive, managerial,
clerical, musical, artistic, physical agil
ity, numerical, verbal, scientific, agricul
tural, creative.
(4) Discuss the possibility of discovering and
measuring aptitudes by noting school sub
jects and extra-curricular activities in
which each easily excels.
(5) Discuss standardized tests and whether
63
students wish to take one or more (19).
e. Intelligence— Discuss intelligence under such
headings as:
(1) Understanding the meaning.
(2) Discuss the effect of inheritance and envir
onment on the level of intelligence.
(3) Discuss the probability of being intelligent
if one is consistently at the head of a
medium- or large-size class; if he can see
relationships and solve problems quickly.
(4) Discuss the fact that there are literally
thousands of occupations that do not require
high intelligence.
(5) Discuss standardized tests and whether stu
dents wish to take a test and have the re
sults discussed individually (20).
f. Interests--Discuss under such headings as
(1) Understanding the meaning.
(2) Discuss how interests in occupations seem to
change with experience in everyday activi
ties .
(3) Discuss the possibility of developing inter
est in occupations by following the practice
of being curious about occupations, by
observing, by sampling, by experimenting, in
part-time work, or related activities (21).
64
g. Disposition or Temperament--Diseuss under such
headings as
(1) Understanding the meaning.
(2) How emotional responses or reactions can
affect vocational choice (22).
(3) A study of individual's disposition or tem
perament such as— excitable or calm, opti
mistic or pessimistic, explosive or even-
tempered, warm or cold in attitude toward
people, happy or unhappy, pleasant or un
pleasant (23) .
(4) Discuss how answers to the above could af
fect an individual's vocational choice.
(5) Discuss whether, within limits and given
time and effort, if it is possible to modify
temperament.
(6) Discuss whether the student considers it
necessary to modify or change his tempera
ment, and if so, does he know how he wishes
to change. Discuss the possibility of dis
cussing the question with parents, peers,
teachers, counselor, minister, possible
employer, or others.
h. Physical Make Up--Discuss under such headings as
(1) Whether a person's physical make-up of
height, weight, pose and posture, voice and
65
manner of speaking, physical handicaps, and
general health effect vocational choice.
(2) Have the individual consider physical hand
icaps or defects as well as assets which
should be considered in planning a career.
(3) Discuss the possibility that everyone may
be handicapped in terms of one occupation
or another, and that what might be a disad
vantage in one occupation might be an ad
vantage in another.
(4) Discuss the importance or lack of impor
tance of physical appearance (24).
i. Other Characteristics— Discuss under such head
ings as :
(1) Importance of initiative.
(2) Importance of dependability.
(3) Importance of self-confidence and self-
reliance .
(4) Importance of honesty.
(5) The place of persistency.
(6) The merit of punctuality.
(7) The importance of industriousness.
(8) The importance of care and accuracy.
(9) The importance of efficiency.
(10) The importance of loyalty.
(11) When and where to be tolerant.
66
(12) The place of a sense of humor.
(13) The importance of courtesy.
(14) Each student tries to determine whether his
tendencies about the above characteristics
are satisfactory or unsatisfactory in terms
of resulting in happiness or unhappiness,
success or lack of success in his chosen
vocation.
(15) Discussion about modifying or changing
characteristics if student is not satis
fied .
(16) Discussion about how to change or modify
habits of thought and action.
(17) Summary— The information that has been col
lected should be organized in such a way
that it is meaningful and provides a help
ful experience of knowing self.
To know occupations
a. Introduction
(1) Discuss briefly the overview of the world of
work, including those areas in which the
students are most interested, or those occu
pations from which results of a follow-up
study or community occupational survey indi
cate most students who leave high school,
drop-outs or graduates, find employment
67
(10:416).
(2) Begin at whatever level in occupational
planning pupils may be.
(3) Discuss the meaning of work, jobs, occupa
tions , careers, so that students see that
choosing a career is more than just choosinc;
work.
(4) Encourage students to discuss what they hope
to achieve in high school and to outline
tentative plans beyond the high school.
(5) Students should be encouraged to think in
broad vocational terms, to consider related
groups of occupations or job families, and
to study major sources of employment in
their own community (10:460).
b. Discuss under the following headings :
How occupations differ : nature of the
work : working conditions: qualifications
necessary for salary and success : remuner
ation : opportunity for employment and ad
vancement: and general outlook.
c. Discuss how inventions, improved work methods,
new projects, governmental and other regula
tions, and unions, etc., have changed today's
opportunities.
d. Trends (15)
68
(1) Discuss the importance of trying to find out
about significant trends likely to affect
occupations in which the students are inter
ested.
(2) Learn how to find out about trends and how
to consider them when planning a career.
e. Sources of occupational information (13).
Students should learn that information about"
occupational opportunities can be obtained
through use of public, school, and counse
lor's libraries as well as from governmen
tal, professional, industrial, business, and
educational institutions. Information can
also be obtained from individual clubs and
organizations, newspapers, career days,
conferences, workshops, and individual class
speakers.
f. Sources of educational opportunities (25).
Information about educational opportunities
can be obtained from sources similar to that?
above, with special emphasis on calendars
from educational institutions, lists of
scholarships both governmental and private.
g. Survey of employment agencies (26).
The survey of employment agencies could in
clude governmental, public, private, and
69
community. It could also include service
clubs, professional associations, business
and industrial institutions and unions,
h. Basic outline for the investigation of an occu
pation (27) .
(1) History and importance--The history and im
portance of the occupation include such
information as to its origin, service to so
ciety, its development, geographical dis
tribution of workers.
(2) Nature of the work— The nature of the work
includes such topics as : what the worker
does, the tools he uses, and the extent to
which the work is manual, automated, or
mental.
(3) Working conditions— Under this topic, place
of work, hours of work, hazards, and other
workers are discussed.
(4) Qualifications and preparation necessary for
entry and success— Here necessary physical
qualities, academic intelligence, other per
sonality traits, are considered. Also the
amount of education, training, or previous
experience is investigated.
(5) Method of entering the occupation and ad
vancing— This topic could include how one
70
finds out about becoming employed, how to
apply, the possibility of advancement, and
the general outlook for workers in the
field.
(6) Remuneration— Here an investigation should
be made of the wage of entry and of advanced
and exceptional workers. Information should
include the annual work days, stoppage due
to layoffs or strikes, maximum work years,
and whether earnings are paid in wage, sal
ary, or commission, and whether there are
sharing and bonus systems.
(7) Advantages and Disadvantages--What may seem
an advantage to one student may be consid
ered a disadvantage to another. Allowance
must be made for personal outlooks, however,
as students look back over the information
they have obtained from the investigation,
they may be able to decide what, for them,
are advantages and disadvantages.
(8) Related occupations--Here students investi
gate the possibility that the training for
one occupation will help or qualify them for
another, or that if one occupation becomes
obsolete, they are prepared to enter
another. They also compare occupations as
71
to the nature of the work, the working con
ditions, qualifications, and service to
society.
D. REVIEW OF THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
When two choices are present, the decision involves
alternatives. Most choices are multitudinous possibili
ties. Even "doing nothing about it" or "putting it off"
is making a decision, for it means deciding to take no
action right now.
Students must realize that"there is always the chance of
risk and uncertainty. Also that it is not always possi
ble to tell in advance how decisions will work out.
They must realize that even a carefully planned decisiori
involves taking a chance.
However, the chances of making the wrong decisions are
much reduced by applying as many as possible of the
steps outlined in the beginning of the Unit, namely:
1. Recognizing the problem.
2. Analyzing the problem.
3. Collecting information.
4. Choosing alternatives.
5. Making tentative choices.
6. Making a choice.
7. Verifying the choice.
8. Implementing the decision.
72
E . CHOOSE ALTERNATIVES
Students should be encouraged to select alternatives.
The careers could be from related fields or from unre
lated fields to establish a contrast.
F. TEST ALTERNATIVES
The students should be encouraged to test the outcomes
of the alternatives as to the degree of possibility,
desirability, and timing that they find satisfactory.
1. Possibility could be considered under such headings
as :
a. Possible or certain
b. Probable or a risk
c. Unknown or uncertain
2. Desirability could be considered as being:
a. Desirable
b. Less desirable
c. Undesirable
At this time the students could be encouraged to see
that the study of advantages and disadvantages should be
considered,
3. Timing relates to the immediacy of the outcome as
to—
a. Immediate present
b. Near future
c. Far future
For Grade X choosing a career could be for the immediate'
73
present if they are going to drop out of school, however
it is more likely to be for the near future.
4. Practicality of the choice
a. Realistic
b. Wishful thinking.
At this point the student would try to apply his knowl
edge of self to knowledge of occupations before he makes
a tentative choice. Here, too, students should be en
couraged to study or review the results of the local
survey (if there is one available) or the general
trends, and other information that helps them to consid
er how occupational choice should be based upon realis
tic, rather than wishful thinking.
G. MAKE A TENTATIVE CHOICE
Grade X students should realize that their choice is one
that they should continue to study. This means that
they should study occupational interests and trends and
keep abreast of possible change in their interests as
well as possible change in occupations. They should be
encouraged to keep themselves in a position which per
mits maximum flexibility so that they can change their
career choice.
H. IMPLEMENT THE CHOICE (or implement the tentative choice)
For Grade X the implementation could be:
1. "Role playing" interviews and learning interview
deportment.
74
2. Filling out application forms
3. Writing letters of application
4. Learning how to act, or dress, for the job of their
choice.
I. VERIFY OR TEST THE CHOICE (or the tentative choice)
For Grade X the testing could be done through:
1. Part-time work during school term.
2. Summer work in the occupation of their choice.
3. Field trips Which include visiting institutions and
offices of the occupation of their choice.
4. Talking with people on the job of their choice.
J. RECOGNIZE THE LIMITATIONS IN MAKING A SUCCESSFUL CAREER-
CHOICE
Students should be made aware of the limitations to sci
entific planning and career choice-making. Examination
of the following should help them to understand the dif
ficulties without destroying their confidence in the
possible help that the decision-making process can be.
1. Multitudinous opportunities make it very difficult
to gather sufficient information about the many
careers and impossible to learn about the numerous
particular jobs in a given career.
2. Different people have different values and'different
concepts of success and these change and modify as
the individual develops. In studying the following
or similar topics the student might begin to see
75
what aspect or aspects of a job might be most mean
ingful to him.
a. Ease and free time.
b. Self-satisfaction.
c. Wealth and material possessions.
d. Power and influence over others.
e. Adventure and travel.
f. Prestige.
g. Sociability and friendliness.
h. Security.
i. Happiness.
j. Usefulness, constructiveness, or worthwhileness.
3. Difficulty in ascertaining the importance of person
ality and attitudes necessary for various jobs.
Also, the difficulty in measuring personality and
attitudes and interests by observation, standardized
tests, and other means.
4. Difficulty in ascertaining the need for certain
abilities and aptitudes necessary for different
jobs. Also the difficulty in measuring aptitudes
and abilities by observation, standardized tests,
and other means.
5. Realization that maturation and experience modifies
and changes interests and behaviors and abilities,
and that this makes prediction difficult and
hazardous.
76
The other people involved, as employees and em
ployers, affect the possible success of the job and
therefore the success of a choice and yet the indi
vidual can not foresee the possible interpersonal
relationships.
Inventions, and trends, and effects of the many
ramifications of science can not be sufficiently
foreseen to make career-choice-making a certainty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR UNIT ON CHOICE MAKING
77
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR UNIT ON CHOICE MAKING
1. Maelich, Sidney. Concepts and Issues in Administration
Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1962.
2. Super, Donald E., et al. Vocational Development: a
Framework for Research. New York: Bureau of
Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni
versity, 1957.
3. Tiedeman, P. O. "Decision and Vocational Development:
a Paradigm and Its Implications," Personnel
Guidance Journal, 40 (1961), 15, 21.
4. Hoppock, R. Occupational Information. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1963.
5. Clarke, Robert, Gelatt, H. B., and Levine, Louis. "A
Decision-making Paradigm for Local Guidance Re
search," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Sep
tember, 1965.
6. Gilbough, John. How to Organize and Teach Units of
Work in Elementary and Secondary Schools. San
Jose : Modern Education Publisher, 19 57.
7. Ginzberg, E., Ginsberg, Axelrad S., and Herma, J. L.
Occupational Choice. New York: Columbia Uni
versity Press, 1951.
8. Strong, E. K. Vocational Interests of Men and Women.
Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press, 1943.
9. Parmenter, Morgan D. You and Your Career. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada: Ontario College of Education,
University of Toronto, 1962. Chap. 12.
10. Norris, Willa, Zeron, Franklin, and Hatch, Raymond.
The Information Service in Guidance. Second
edition. Chicago, Rand McNally & Co. Page
436.
78
79
11. Canadian School Survey. Unpublished report. "Guidance
in Edmonton Public Schools; a comparative study
of Guidance Aspects." Prepared in co-operation
with the Federal Department of Labour, Ottawa,
Alberta Department of Education and Pupil Per
sonnel Services, Edmonton Public School Board,
August, 1966.
12. Yabroff, William W. "An Experiment in Teaching Deci
sion-making," Palo Alto Unified School Dis
trict, Research Brief, No. 9, September, 1964.
13. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1963-64. Washington,
D.C.: United States Department of Labor.
14. Career Guide for Demand Occupations. Edmonton, Al
berta, Canada, Guidance Branch, Dept, of
Education.
15. Occupational Trends and Employment Opportunities. Ed
monton, Alberta, Canada, Guidance Branch, Dept,
of Education.
16. "The Ways" from Selected Poems, by John Oxenham. Ed
ited by Charles L. Willis. Harper & Row, Pub
lishers.
17. Values for Teenagers : The Choice is Yours. A produc
tion of Guidance Associates of Pleasantville,
New York, U.S.A. (Record.)
18. The Drop Out. A production of Guidance Associates of
Pleasantville, New York, U.S.A. (Record.)
19. Tests obtained from local pupil personnel services.
Differential Abilities
1. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). (Num
erical ability, abstract reasoning, space
reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, spell
ing, sentences.)
2. Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey.
20. Variety of Intelligence Test
A. Individual, to be administered by quali
fied people.
(1) Wechsler-Bellevue Scale of Intelli
gence .
80
(2) Stanford-Binet.
B. Group
(1) Otis Self-Administering Test of Intel
ligence
(2) Kuhlmann (Anderson, Booklet).
(3) Terman-McN emar
(4) Henmon-Nelson (Form A)
(5) Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test
Educational Achievement Batteries--Cronbach, Lee J.
Essentials of Psychological Testing. Second
edition. New York, Evanston, London; Harper &
Row, Publishers. Pages 382-40 0.
(1) California Achievement Tests
(2) Iowa Tests of Educational Development
(ITED)
(3) Sequential Tests of Educational Progress
(STEP)
21. Interest Inventories
(1) Kuder Preference Record
(2) Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)
22. Personality Inventories--to be used with discretion and
by experienced counselors only.
(1) Kuder Preference Record, Form A--Personal
(2) Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
23. Speaker; Psychiatrist, Psychologist, Social Worker,
Doctor, Nurse.
24. Sorenson, Herbert, and Malm, Marguerite. Psychology
for Living. Part III. Second edition. New
York, McGraw-Hill Company Inc.
25. Cainadian Universities and Colleges. The National Con
ference of Canadian Universities, Ottawa,
Canada, 1962.
81
26. Clarke, S. C. T., and Woodsworth, J. G. Youth and the
World of Work. McClelland and Stewart Ltd., 2 5
Hollinger Road, Toronto 16, Ont., Canada.
27. Occupational Outlines. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
Guidance Branch, Department of Education.
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL FOR STUDENTS
AND/OR REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHERS
82
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL FOR STUDENTS
AND/OR REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHERS
A Job for You, by H. O. Barrett. Toronto, Ontario: Long
man's, Green & Co., 196 0.
Alberta Grade Index. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Department
of Industry and Development.
Are You Thinking of Leaving School? Ottawa, Ontario, Cana
da : Unemployment Insurance Commission, 1959.
Canada 1963, 1964, or 1965, or Canada Year Book.
Canada 1964. Ottawa, Ontario: Dominion Bureau of Statis
tics, 1964.
Canadian Institutions of Higher Learning. Ottawa, Ontario :
Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1961.
Canadian Occupations Monographs. Ottawa, Ontario, Depart
ment of Labour.
Canadian Universities and Colleges. Ottawa, Ontario : The
National Conference of Canadian Universities,
1965.
Can I Get the Job? Detroit, Mich.: General Motors Corpora
tion, 1954.
Career Guide for Demand Occupations. Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada, Guidance Branch, Department of
Education.
Changing Times Reprint Service. "The Fabulous Years Ahead."
Washington, D. C., 1962.
Choosing a Career in a Changing World, by Virginia Veeder
Westervelt. IStew Yorki G. P. Putnam's Sons,
1959.
83
84
Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Volume 1. Washington,
D. C.: United States Department of Labor,
1949. (New edition, 1965.)
Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Volume 4. Washington,
D. C.: United States Department of Labor,
1944.
Exploring Occupation, by Morgan D. Parmenter. Toronto, On
tario, Canada: Ontario College of Education,
University of Toronto, 1964-67.
Fitting Yourself for Business, by E. G. MacGibbon. New
York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., 1955.
Graphs of Growth. Government of Province of Alberta. (Sup
plied by Guidance Branch, Department of Educa
tion, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.)
Getting Job Experience, by 'Thomas E. Christensen. Chicago,
111.: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1949.
(9)
How and When to Change Your Job Successfully, by Walter
Lowen. New York, N. Y.: Simon and Shuster,
Inc., 1954.
How to Get and Hold the Job You Want, by Ruth Hooper Lari-
son. New York, N. Y.: Longmans, Green and
Company, 19 50.
How to Get That Part-time Job, by S. Norman Feingold and
Harold List. New York, N. Y.: Arco Publishing
Co., 1958.
How to Get the Job, by Mitchell Dreese. Chicago, 111.;
Science Research Associates Inc., 1949.
How to Land the Job You Want, by Jules Z. Willing. New
York, N. Y.: The New American Library of World
Literature, Inc., 1954.
How to Make the Most of Your Job, by Eugene Carr. New
York, N. Y.: Coward McCann, Inc., 1956.
How to Use Your Imagination to Make Money, by James D. Woolf
and Charles B. Roth. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-
Hill Book Company Inc., 1948.
I Find My Vocation, by H. D. Kitson. New York, N. Y.:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 53.
85
If You're Not Going to College, by Charles Spiegler and
Martin Hamburger. Chicago, 111.: Science Re
search Associates, Inc., 1959.
Industry and the Way People Live. Toronto, Ontario: Cana-
dian Association for Adult Education, 19 52.
Job Guide for Young Worker. 1963-64 edition. Washington,
D. C.: United States Department of Labor,
1963.
Jobs in Unusual Occupations, by S. N. Feingold, and H. List,
Chicago, 111.: Science Research Associates,
1963.
Job Letters, by A. A, Liveright. Washington, D. C., B'nai
B'rith Vocational Service Bureau.
Job Monographs. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Guidance Branch,
Department.of Education.
Money Making Ideas. New York, N. Y.: Arco Publishing Com
pany Inc., 1954.
National Student Aid Information Service. Toronto, Ontario :
Industrial Foundation on Education, 1961.
i New Manufacturing Establishments in Canada. Ottawa, Ontar
io. (Published in June and December.)
Occupational Classification Manual, Census of Canada, 1961.
Ottawa, Ontario : Dominion Bureau of Statis
tics, 1961.
Occupational Information Monographs. Toronto, Ontario, The
Guidance Centre.
Occupational Outlines. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Guidance
Branch, Department of Education.
Occupational Trends and Employment Opportunities. Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada, Guidance Branch, Department of
Education.
Occupational Outlook Handbook. 1963-64 edition. Washing
ton, D. C.: United States Department of Labor,
1963.
Pamphlets and Booklets from Economics and Research Branch.
Department of Labour, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
86
Personality and School, by W. B. Bliss. New York, N. Y.:
Allyn and Bacon, 19 51.
School Subjects and Jobs, by John H. Brochard. Chicago,
111.: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1961.
Standard Industrial Classification Manual. Ottawa, Ontario :
Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1960.
Success in the World of Work, by Morgan D. Parmenter. To
ronto , Ontario : Ontario College of Education,
University of Toronto, 1961.
University Entrance Awards. Ottawa, Ontario: Education Di-
vision, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1960.
Ways to Improve Your Personality, by Virginia Bailard and
Ruth Strang. New York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., 1951.
What Employers Want, by James C. Worthy. Chicago, 111.:
Science Research Associates, Inc., 1950.
What Good Is High School? by E. F. Lindquist, Lauren A. Van
Dyke, and John R. Yale. Chicago, 111.: Sci
ence Research Associates, 1961.
What Will New Industry Mean to My Town? Washington, D. C.:
United States Department of Commerce, 1955.
Why Bother to Graduate? Ottawa, Ontario : Department of
Labour, 1962.
You and University, by M. D. Parmenter. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada : Crest Publishing Company Ltd., 1961,
You and Your Career, by Morgan D. Parmenter. Toronto, On-
tario, Canada : Ontario College of Education,
University of Toronto, 19 62.
You and Your Career, by M. D. Parmenter. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada : Crest Publishing Co., Ltd., 1964.
Your High School Record, Does It Count? by R. D. Falk.
Pierre, Sl Dakota; South Dakota Press/ 1953.
You and Your Work Ways, by Morgan D. Parmenter. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada : Ontario College of Education,
University of Toronto, 1965-68.
87
Your First Job. New York, N. Y.: National Association of
Manufacturers, 1958.
jYour Further Education, by M. D. Parmenter. Ontario edi-
tion. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Crest Pub
lishing Company Ltd., 1962.
Your Letter Is You. New York, N. Y.: Alumnae Advisory
Centre, Inc., 1953.
Your Personality and Your Job, by Paul W. Chapman. Chicago,
111.: Science Research Associates, 1954.
Your Vacation Job and Your Career. Washington, D. C.;
B'nai B'rith Vocational Service Bureau, 1952.
Youth and the Modern World of Work, by S. C. T. Clarke and
J. G. Woodsworth. McClellan and Stewart
Limited, 2 5 Hollinger Road, Toronto 16; Printed
and bound in Canada by T. H. Best Printing Com
pany Limited.
1975 : and the Changes to Come, by A. B. Barach and the
Kiplinger Washington Editors. New York, N. Y.
Harper & Brothers, 1962.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ullman, Verda Mary Etta (author)

Core Title Choice making: A unit of study for tenth grade students

School School of Education

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 1967-08

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c37-141635

Unique identifier UC11640817

Identifier EP52124.pdf (filename),usctheses-c37-141635 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP52124.pdf

Dmrecord 141635

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Ullman, Verda Mary Etta

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA