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A comparative study to determine whether self-selective reading can be successfully used at the second grade level

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A comparative study to determine whether self-selective reading can be successfully used at the second grade level

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Content A COMPARATIVE STUDY TO DETERMINE WHITHER SELF*
SELECTIVE READING CAN BE SUCCESSFULLY
USED AT THE SECOND GRADE LEVEL
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
by
Antoinette McChristy
June 1957
UMl Number: EP55690
All rights reserved
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a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissattafen P W M ls M f ig
UMl EP55690
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• Ed '51
This thesis, w ritte n under the direction of the
C hairm an o f the candidate^s Guidance Comm ittee
and approved by a ll members of the Com m ittee,
has been presented to and accepted by the F a cu lty
of the School of E ducation of The U niversity of
Southern C a lifo rn ia in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the
requirements fo r the degree of M a ste r of Science
in Education.
Dean
Guidance Committee
urmt
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED . . 1
The problem..................... 1
Statement of the problem ............... 1
Limitations of the study ............... 2
Importance of the s t u d y ............... 2
Definition of terms used................. 3
Self-selection ......................... 3
Individualized reading ................. 3
Self-selective reading ................. 3
Conventional reading method ........... 3
Ability groups ................. .... 3
Sociometric grouping ................... 4
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............ 5
Literature on grouping practices ........ 6
Evaluation of grouping practices ........ 8
Literature on the concept of self-
selection................... 9
Literature on the individualized reading
method ................................ 11
Literature on the teaching of skills in
the self-selective method ............. 12
Research studies ......................... 15
iv
CHAPTER PAGE
Limitations of previous studies .... 17
III. PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES.......... 19
Formation of.groups . ................. 19
Identification of classes and teachers
for the s t u d y ................ 19
Procedure for the selection of subjects 22
Size and characteristics of the groups 23
Reading method used in control groups . 34
Arranging the environment ........ 35
Selection of readers ................. 36
Reading period ....................... 36
Class organization ........... 37
Reading records ..................... 38
Summary.............. 39
Reading method used in experimental
groups........................... 40
Source of b o o k s ................ 40
Arranging the environment ........... 42
Grouping in the self-selective reading
program....................... 43
Classroom organization ............... 45
Self-selection of books ............. 46
Reading records ..................... 47
Reading plan..................... 47
V
CHAPTER PAGE
Reporting plan................... 48
Keeping the reading records ........ 49
Furniture arrangement ............... 50
Individual instruction ............... 5I
Summary......................... 53
Analysis and measurement procedures . . 5^
IV. COMPARISON OF READING GAINS ACHIEVED BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS .... 56
Gains achieved by individual subjects . 56
Reading gains achieved by subjects in
the control classes.......... 56
Reading gains achieved by subjects in
the experimental classes ........... 6l
Reading gains achieved by control and
experimental groups ................. 68
Total reading g a i n s ............. 70
Reading vocabulary gains ............. 72
Reading comprehension gains ........ 74
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS............. 77
Procedures.......................... 78
Selection of groups................. 78
Selection of teachers ............... 79
Procedures followed in the study . . . 80
Findings............................ 82
Vi
CHAPTER PAGE
Status of the groups at the beginning
of the study....................... 82
Status of the groups at the conclusion
of the study....................... 83
Conclusions ................... 84
Recommendations ....................... 85
Suggestions for further study ........ 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................... 8?
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Distribution of Subjects According to
Chronological A g e..................... 25
II. Distribution of Subjects According to
Mental A g e ............................ 27
III. Distribution of Subjects According to
Intelligence Quotients............ . 29
IV. Distribution of Subjects According to
Reading Grade Placement (October 1954) 31
V. Occupational Rank of Parents of Subjects 33
VI. Control Class A: Reading Grade Placement
and Total Reading Gains Made by
Individual Pupils ..................... 58
VII. Control Class B: Reading Grade Placement
and Total Reading Gains Made by
Individual Pupils ..................... 59
VIII. Control Class C: Reading Grade Placement
and Total Reading Gains Made by
Individual Pupils ..................... 60
IX. Control Class D: Reading Grade Placement
and Total Reading Gains Made by
Individual Pupils ..................... 62
TABLE
X. Experimental Class ¥: Reading Grade
Placement and Total Reading Gains Made
by Individual Pupils .................
XI. Experimental Class X: Reading Grade
Placement and Total Reading Gains Made
by Individual Pupils . . . ...........
XII. Experimental Class Y: Reading Grade
Placement and Total Reading Gains Made
by Individual Pupils........ .. . . .
XIII. Experimental Class Z: Reading Grade
Placement and Total Reading Gains Made
by Individual Pupils ............. . .
XIV. Distribution of Subjects According to
Reading Grade Placement (October 1955)
XV. Comparison of Total Reading Gains Made by
Control and Experimental Groups . . . .
XVI. Comparison of Vocabulary Gains Made by
Control and Experimental Groups ....
XVII. Comparison of Comprehension Gains Made by
Control and Experimental Groups ....
Vlll
PAGE
63
65
66
67
69
71
73
75
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED
During recent years a number of leading educators
have developed a new approach to the teaching of reading
which allows the classroom teacher to give reading in-
. struction on an individualized basis. Several studies
i have shown this method to be successful in the middle
and upper grades and the question naturally arises as
■ to whether the same approach could be adapted for use
r
in the primary grades.
I
: I. THE PROBLEM
I
I
Statement of the problem. It was the dual purpose
, of this study (l) to show how an individualized reading
I
I program which included the self-selection of reading
materials was adapted to the physical, emotional and
i academic needs of second grade pupils; and (2) to compare
reading gains made by pupils taught by conventional meth
ods with those made by children who were taught by the
individualized self-selective techniques.
Limitations of the study. This study was con
cerned with pupils of the second grade level. The one
hundred sixty subjects selected for the study were en
rolled in eight classrooms, located in four schools in
I
: a suburban school district. The investigation was lim-
j ited to a period of one calendar year.
I Importance of the study. Educational research
has produced an extensive amount of information concern
ing the ways in which children learn and the conditions
under which most effective learning occurs. Attention
has been focused upon the unique learning pattern of each
individual. Educators, generally, have accepted the
validity of these findings and have recognized the effec
tive nature of individualized instruction, as can be seen
from reviewing the procedures used in most remedial teach-
I ing situations. However, even though it was recognized
! that individual instruction was most desirable, there
! appeared to be no practical way to apply such procedures
i
I in a regular classroom. This study presents procedures
and methods for teaching reading on an individualized
basis to second grade children in a regular classroom
situation.
II. DEFINITION OF TERMS USED
Self-selection. The term self-selection implies
I that the child, himself, selects the material which he
i will read during the instructional reading period. His
I choice is made from a carefully prepared class library
I i
I
I which contains a wide selection of books on many reading
levels and on a variety of subjects.
Individualized reading. In this study the term
I
individualized reading refers to a situation where the
child brings his self-selected reading material to the
teacher for daily individual reading instruction.
Self-selective reading. As used in this work,
the terras "self-selective reading" and "individualized
I reading" are used synonymously.
I
! Conventional reading method. Throughout this
I study the term "conventional reading method" refers to a
: procedure where pupils are grouped on the basis of reading
I proficiency. Each group meets with the teacher for a
! daily reading lesson and the reading material is selected
I by the teacher.
I Ability groups. In this investigation the term
"ability groups" applies to groups of pupils which the
teacher has formed on the basis of reading ability.
Sociometric grouping. Sociometric grouping is
interpreted as the grouping of pupils on the basis of
mutual friendships as indicated by a sociometric test
which revealed the friendship choices of each child in
the class.
III. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS
The remainder of the thesis is organized in the
following manner. Chapter II contains a review of the
; literature. Chapter III describes the procedures and
I techniques used in the study. Chapter IV presents a
; comparison of the reading gains achieved by the control
and experimental groups. The concluding chapter presents
the summary and conclusions of the study.
I CHAPTER II
I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
I '
I The purpose of this chapter is to review briefly
the literature which reveals the teaching practices lead-
, ing to the development of the self-selective reading
j method. A description of this method as indicated by
authorities in the current educational publications is
presented, followed by a critical review of two master’s
I theses on the subject. Finally, the limitations of pre-
■
i vious investigations are discussed.
:
Since the revision of the Binet scale by Terman '
in 1916, there has been an increased interest in the
; study of individual differences among people. The grow-
■ ing awareness of physical, emotional and academic differ-
j ences in children resulted in a revamping of the reading
! procedures in that area. The search began for reading
! i
! methods and techniques which would adequately meet the
! wide range of abilities normally found in the classroom. 1
! I
I The class reading lesson began to be supplanted by the |
I teaching of reading to smaller groups of children. |
I :
The purpose of the smaller groupings within the
classroom was to draw together children of similar 1
6
academic abilities in order that the instruction could
be tailored to the needs of the particular group. Usually]
this practice resulted in the formation of three reading
groups,
; ahead of the earlier one-presentation practice.
The ability grouping plan proved to be a stride
1
Literature on grouping practices. As the findings
on individual differences began to accumulate, newer and
more adequate grouping techniques were attempted. Some
educators felt that grouping within the self-contained
classroom was not selective enough to challenge the bright
students and still provide for the slow learner. Thus,
a variety of grouping practices began to develop.
Educators dissatisfied with the attempts to care for the
broad range in abilities found in the heterogeneously i
grouped classroom began to compose the class structure on
2
the basis of reading proficiency. Carlson and Northrup
experimented with this procedure on the fourth grade
level. On the basis of results of the Gates Reading Survey
I
\ Dan Dawson, "Some Issues in Grouping for Reading,"
Thirty-Fourth Yearbook of National Elementary Principal,
I Department of Elementary School Principals, National Edu-
cation Association, 1955, PP* 48-52.
' 2
Esther Carlson and Joyce Northrup, "An Experiment
: in Grouping Pupils for Instruction in Reading," Thirty-
: Fourth Yearbook of National Elementary Principal, Depart-
i ment of Elementary School Principals,National Education
Association, 1955, PP* 53-57•
7
they assigned children to the following reading classes:
(l) superior, (2) average, (3) low average, and (4) re
tarded. The children met in heterogeneously grouped
homerooms for 45 minutes, and then each child attended
his own assigned reading room for one hour. The report
of this practice did not mention any further grouping
within the homogeneous groups even though the smallest
class had twenty-eight pupils and the largest class had
thirty-four*.
3
Other administrators have organized their primary
classes into an ungraded school in order to circumvent
the problems of grouping and yet satisfy the needs of the
individual students. With this plan, most children com
plete the primary unit within three years, but some may
take four or even five years. This plan allows the child
j to progress at his own speed, and, even if he is a slow
I
j learner, he is not required to repeat work he has already
■ completed.
!
f .
I The literature revealed innumerable studies on
i grouping practices. All urged that grouping on any basis
I
: should not be considered static but should be constantly
i
be re-examined to meet the changing needs and capabilities
I o
■ Erma Bennett and others, "Schools Can Change
i Grouping Practices," Childhood Education, 30:64-68,
1 October 1953»
8
of the members of the group.
Although many grouping procedures have been ad-
' vanced, none has furnished a complete solution to the
, problem of meeting the individual needs of the child.
i Few researchers are completely satisfied with the methods
I
j they have explored, and all recommend further study of
i grouping procedures.
i
! Evaluation of grouping practices. An urgent re-
I
; quest for an evaluation of current ability grouping comes
4
j from Dolch, a recognized reading authority. He believes
! that if children actually were grouped according to read-
I
! ing levels, there would need to be five or more reading
I
I
: groups in each classroom. He points out that frequently
there are two grade levels found in each of the three ,
ability groups. In summing up his views Dolch states,
^ "The only possible way to have every child reading at his
I
I own level is through the individual reading period with
' 5 I
j books at all levels and on many interests." '
I
I Another criticism of the grouping procedure is
' 6
' advanced by Combs, who is concerned over the effect of
^E. W. Dolch, "Groups in Reading," Elementary
English, 31:477-^84, December 1954.
^Ibld., p. 482.
^Arthur W. Combs, "From Democratic Practices,"
Childhood Education, 32:160-163, December 1955-
9
the classification of children into levels of ability.
He believes that the levels and labels attached to chil
dren in their formative years build within the child his
concept of himself. Enlarging upon this idea. Combs
states, "We teach children that they are liked or unliked,
I
j able or unable, acceptable or unacceptable by the way we
behave with respect to them.’ The child who is repeat-
; edly classified as the slow reader soon becomes resigned
to that position and usually has little hope of advancing.
Thus, it appears evident that the current grouping prac
tices are not completely meeting the needs of children
in the classroom.
I
i Literature on the concept of self-selection. While
I
I many educators and school administrators were grappling
I with the interminable problems of grouping, others were
i turning more to the study of the individual child with his
I unique pattern of physical, mental, social and emotional
I growth. One of the leaders in this study of child growth
iand development was Willard C. Olsen at the University of
I
[Michigan, who made many prolonged and detailed studies of
1 8
'babies, children and adolescents. For example, Olsen and
7
Ibid., p. l6l.
8
Willard C. Olsen, Child Development (Boston: D. C.
Heath and Company, 1949), PP» 32-68.
10
his colleagues found that babies knew better than anyone
else when they needed to eat and how much they needed to
I consume. The wisdom of these findings was endorsed by
; pediatricians, and rigid feeding schedules began to be
j
supplanted by self-demand schedules. Experiments with
older children proved that they could be trusted to bal
ance their own diets when allowed to select from an ade
quate variety of foods. A study of the daytime sleeping
needs of children again indicated that the child had the
innate ability to choose what he needed for his well
being.
Olsen and his colleagues discovered that the child
could be trusted to seek his own nurture, whether to
satisfy the need for food or for intellectual growth,
when the environment was carefully planned to include a
full and adequate offering. The "lush environment," as
I
I Olsen termed it, was a necessary prerequisite before the
self-selective process could operate to the complete i
satisfaction of the individual.
I
The teachers’ responsibility in arranging an appro- '
priate environment is described by Olsen as follows:
The teacher’s task is to guarantee that every
classroom situation or its immediate surroundings, [
will have in it tasks which are interesting in
terms of intrinsic content, and which also cover :
a range of difficulty as great as the variability :
11
9
in the human material with which he deals.
It was found that the child selected from the
environment the reading material which met his immediate
I need. He appeared more able than anyone else to judge
I his own capabilities and interests. Since each child
read his personally selected book, the reading instruction|
automatically became an individualized procedure without
any further necessity for ability-grouping. Reverbera
tions from the research in Michigan began to reach other
educators. The term self-selection began to be used
interchangeably with "individualized reading." Actually,
the terms are synonymous, and self-selection is also an
integral part of the individualized reading method.
Literature on the individualized reading method.
An introduction to individualized reading is given by
Veatch:
Individualized reading is not difficult, even
with a large class. But it is different. . . .
Erase from your mind the usual pattern of ten or
twelve children sitting in a semi-circle, reading
the same paragraph, in the same book, at the same
time. Be prepared for more enjoyable and inter
esting reading periods, too, and especially so
9
Willard C. Olsen, "Seeking, Self-Selection and
Pacing in the Use of Books by Children," The Packet, Vol.
7, No. 1 (Boston: D. G. Heath, Spring 1952), pp. 3-10.
12
if you have been using the same basal text for
several years.10
The teacher interested in beginning such a program j
should first check the reading ability levels of the ]
children in the class. With this information in mind, the!
teacher brings into the classroom a wide variety of read- j
1 ing material which range in difficulty a grade or two be- !
low and beyond the known abilities of the pupils. Brogan '
11 '
and Fox contend that when the teacher provides a wide •
choice of reading materials which meets the individual ■
i
needs of pupils, he not only adds to the quality of class-[
room living but actually makes easier his job of helping
i
children learn. j
" Literature on the teaching of skills in the self- !
selective method. As the children make their selections ^
j and begin their silent reading, the teacher proceeds
into the individual instructional aspects of the program.
The inclusion in the self-selective method of private in
structional conferences sharply distinguishes this method !
Jeannette Veatch, "Individualized Reading for
Success in the Classroom," The Educational Trend (New
London, Connecticut: Arthur C. Croft Publication No.
654, 1954).
Peggy Brogan and Lorene K. Fox, Helping Children
Learn (Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company,
1955), p. 104.
13
from "free" reading or recreational reading plans.
12
Burrows suggests that the teacher develop a flexible
; plan for individual conferences during which time the j
I pupil is given individual reading instruction. Frequently !
I the conference begins with the child giving a review of
I the story up to the point where he is reading. This
; briefing indicates his general comprehension of the read-
I I
I ing and, in addition, gives experience in selecting perti-
I
nent facts relative to a central theme. Discussion fol
lows about such things as the accuracy of the information
in the case of non-fiction, or the plausibility of the j
situation and characters in fictional material. Re-reading
I '
I of a passage or page may be necessary to clarify a ques-
I '
tion raised during the discussion. Usually oral reading ;
I
is included in the conference period. This allows the
teacher to determine whether the child needs help with
word-recognition skills, phrasing or, perhaps, expressive ,
i
interpretation. The conference period enlarges the I
I
teacher's opportunity to help the child improve his j
reading skills, enrich and enlarge his vocabulary, and |
13 I
refine his reading taste. Maib felt that the individual
12
Alvina Treut Burrows, Teaching Children in the
Middle Grades (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1952),pp. 177-203.
Frances Maib, "Individualizing Reading," Elemen
tary English, 29:84-98, February, 1954.
14
approach to the teaching of skills was highly effective
since the immediate personal problem was dealt with at the
! time the child, himself, saw the need for it.
I There was general agreement in the literature that |
I an essential part of the self-selective method was the |
I 14
I maintenance of individual reading records. Garrettson
j
I observed that the middle and upper grade children took
I
I great pride in keeping their own personal reading records.
' However, she recommended that in addition to the child’s
record, the teacher also keep a reading card for each
; pupil. Essential but brief comments concerning the child’s
! reading needs or accomplishments should be jotted down
; at the time of the individual conference. These reading
[
records serve as a valuable aid to the teacher in plan-
I
ning the reading skills program for each individual pupil.!
! In addition, teachers, parents and children find that an
I '
j objective evaluation of reading progress may be made by i
]
I studying these records. '
15
! Jenkins describes how teachers of first through
I sixth grades have adopted self-selection to their
! 14
; Grace Garrettson, "How One School Read the Needs
I of the Slow Learner," Claremont Reading Conference,
Nineteenth Yearbook (Claremont, California: Claremont
College Reading Laboratory, 1954).
15
Marian Jenkins, "Here’s to Success in Reading,"
Childhood Education, 32:124-131, November 1955*
15
particular groups. No stereotyped procedure was used;
each teacher introduced and developed the program in a
way in which he felt secure and comfortable. Jenkins
indicates that there appears to be a change of emphasis in
! the role of the teacher in self-selection. "The teacher
becomes the encourager, the listener, the approver, the
recorder, and the appreciator of the child’s decision and
„16
plan. Jenkins points out that in self-selection there
is no burden of having to cover any certain amount of
reading material during a particular period of time. The
emphasis is on furthering the growth of each individual
in the classroom.
17
Bonney and Hanigan describe the flexible nature
of the method and indicate that as teachers become more
experienced in the individualized approach, they will find
better ways to adapt this program to their own abilities
and to the abilities of their pupils.
Research studies. In order to determine the re
action of a fourth grade class to a program using self-
^^Ibid., p. 128.
17
Jill Bonney and L. B. Hanigan, Individualized
Teaching of Reading," Thirty-Fourth Yearbook of the Na
tional Elementary Principal, Department of Elementary
School Principals of the National Education Association,
1955, pp. 76-82.
16
18
selective reading material. Palmer conducted reading
instructional periods for one and one-half hours per day
for a period of six weeks. Not only was she interested
i
I in determining the reading gains of the children but she |
I wished to appraise any additional growth. At the termina- |
I I
I tion of the study she concluded that the children had done |
more reading under the self-selective plan than under the j
ability group plan, and, in addition, had had greater !
opportunity for creative endeavor and critical thinking. |
Palmer believes that self-selective instruction may be
one way in which knowledge of individual differences and
growth patterns of children may be incorporated into
classroom practices.
19
Another study was initiated by Criqui in an at
tempt to investigate the practicability and value of
teaching reading to a class of eighth grade pupils using
a method of individualized instruction. Pupils were
allowed to read books of their own interest at their own
speed and received individualized help from the teacher
l8
Delores Palmer, "To Determine the Reaction of a
Fourth Grade to a Program of Self-Selection of Reading
Materials" (Unpublished Master's thesis. University of
Utah, Salt Lake City, 1953).
^^Orvel Criqui, "A Study in the Teaching of Indi
vidualized Reading in the Eighth Grade" (Unpublished
Master's thesis, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia,
Kansas, 1954).
17
when needed. The results of the study show that substan
tial reading gains were achieved by the pupils engaged in
the individualized reading program for the entire school
year. The gains compared favorably with standardized
gains made by pupils under all types of reading programs.
The investigator felt that the method met the needs of
the individual pupils in a better manner than they had
been met before. He cited several examples of favorable
comments from members of his local community which he
considered as significant indications of the success of
the program.
Limitations of previous studies. There appeared ;
: I
to be four major limitations in the literature concerning !
I
the self-selective reading method. |
I
1. The primary limitation was the lack of published
material on the subject.
2. The research that was available dealt mainly
with the method as it applied to the middle and ;
1
upper grades. i
j
3. Both the Palmer and Criqui studies limited ;
I
their observations of the method to single |
i
classrooms. For this reason, very small num- '
I
bers of children were included in their j
I
studies.
18
4. Finally, the most crucial limitation was the
apparent lack of any comparative studies on
matched subjects.
The present study attempts to fill some of the
voids in the available literature on the subject of self-
selective reading.
I CHAPTER III
I
I PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
I This chapter sets forth the sources of data and
I the methods of procedure which were used in this study.
! The selection of the subjects for the control and experi
mental groups is outlined and the reading methods followed
I in the comparative groups are discussed and examined.
I Finally, a description of the statistical treatment of
! the data obtained is included.
FORMATION OF GROUPS |
I
Identification of classes and teachers for the
' study. The initial procedure in this study was to iden-
I '
I tify second grade classes from which a control and an
I
I experimental group could be formed. There were twenty-two '
1 ;
I second grade cla^sses in the school district at the time ;
! of this investigation. In four of these classes, self- I
!
I selective reading techniques were being used, while con- |
! I
I ventional reading methods were being employed in the other ;
i '
I eighteen classes. Since it was desirable to have as many
i
I subjects as possible in the study, all of the classes
I i
20
which were taught by the self-selective reading method
were automatically included in the experimental group.
A survey was made of the remaining eighteen classes
in order to determine those which most nearly matched the
experimental group on the basis of teacher personnel and
socio-economic background.
Permission was granted for the investigator to
study the school district's official records of the teach- i
ers. Data were gathered concerning the educational back
ground and professional experience of the experimental
teachers. The records were analyzed further in order to
identify teachers whose backgrounds and experience most
! nearly matched those of the experimental group teachers.
i
I
j The official information on six of the teachers
j appeared to tally very closely with the data concerning
I the teachers of the self-selective reading group. However,
' in addition to matching personnel, it was necessary to
, select teachers whose classes were drawn from comparable i
j j
I socio-economic areas. Therefore, a survey was made of ,
I - I
I the school neighborhoods.
i
j Of the six teachers identified, two were found to |
' be assigned in the same school with an experimental class, i
1 I
I
I and two others were selected who taught in neighborhoods j
I very similar to those in which the remaining self- !
I selective groups were located.
I
i '
r
21
Before a final decision was reached regarding
the selection of teachers for this study, visitations
were made to the classrooms. An individual conference
was held with each teacher concerning the reading methods
and techniques which she employed. These precautions
were taken in order to be assured that the same basic
reading methods were used by all teachers in the control
group, and that all teachers in the experimental group
had used the self-selective methods in its entirety.
The eight teachers who were finally chosen for ;
I
the two groups were balanced in training, experience and ;
ability. Each had a bachelor’s degree and held a regular ;
elementary teaching credential in the state of California.
Of the four teachers of the control group, one had been i
with the district for more than fifteen years, and natur- j
ally had tenure. On the other hand, one teacher was just
beginning her teaching career. The remaining two teachers!
!
were starting their second and third years. The experi- '
mental group matched this record closely, except that the :
j
tenure teacher had been with the district slightly less i
I
than fifteen years. The remaining three were first, |
second and third year teachers, exactly as were those of j
the control group. All were considered successful teach- i
i
ers as was verified by the fact that all were recommended
for re-employment for the following year by their school
22
principals.
Procedure for the selection of subjects. After
I the teachers and their classes had been selected, atten-
i
I tion was directed to the formation of the exact groups
I
I to be studied. Certain criteria were set up and adhered
to in order to select the subjects on a scientific basis.
Only children who satisfied the following seven require
ments were included as group subjects. They must have:
1. Attended second grade in the district for the
complete school year.
2. Had regular school attendance records.
3. Taken the reading achievement test at the
beginning of second grade, and also at the
beginning of third grade.
4. Taken a standardized mental maturity test in
second grade.
5. Had comparable socio-economic backgrounds.
6. Attended schools in comparable socio-economic
neighborhoods.
7. Been taught by capable teachers of balanced
training and experience.
The primary source of data for this portion of the
study was the cumulative record cards maintained for every-
child in the school district. A thorough examination was !
23
made of the cumulative record card of each child in the
eight selected classrooms. If the data on the record
showed that the child met the seven criteria, an indi
vidual data card was made concerning him. On this card
was recorded the child’s name, his I.Q., his reading
achievement test scores, his mental maturity test score,
his attendance record during the previous year, and the
occupation of his father or guardian.
Size and characteristics of the groups. There
were 225 children enrolled in the eight classrooms se
lected for the study. The class enrollments ranged from j
twenty-five to thirty pupils, with an average of twenty- |
eight. After surveying the cumulative records of the |
children, it was found that there were 160 who satisfied !
the seven criteria set up for the selection of subjects.
Eighty children were in classrooms where reading was
taught in the conventional manner, using three ability
I
groups. These pupils made up the control group. The re- j
j maining eighty were in classrooms where an individualized |
I self-selective reading method was used. These children
I I
I comprised the experimental group. i
The chronological ages of the subjects were computed
as of October 1954, since this was the date when the study:
was begun. The ages of the children ranged from six
24
years and nine months to eight years and eight months.
There were twenty-two children in the control group whose
ages were above eight years. There were only three in ■
I
the experimental group who were in this category. The j
i
mean chronological age for the control group was 91 j
months (or seven years and seven months), as compared to j
87 months (or seven years and three months) for the ex- !
I I
j perimental group. When the critical ratio formula was
! !
! applied, it was found that the difference in chronological 1
I i
age between the two groups was significant at the one per j
! I
, cent level of confidence. Table I shows the complete age
distribution for the two groups.
As a part of the district’s testing program, |
20
California Test of Mental Maturity for Primary Grades :
was administered to all second graders during the month of !
February. This instrument tests the child’s mental matur
ity in the following four areas: (l) spatial relationships
which involves his sensing of right and left, and also his |
ability to use spatial imagery in manipulatory patterns of i
various forms; (2) logical reasoning which tests the abil- :
I ity to make decisions and to make discriminating choices; |
20
Elizabeth T. Sullivan, Willis W. Clark and Ernest
W. Tiegs, California Short Form Test of Mental Maturity
for Primary Grades"~THollywood, California: California
Test Bureau, 1953)»
TABLE I
DISTRIBUTION OP SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO
CHRONOLOGICAL AGE
2 5
Chronological
age in months
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
100 - 104
7
1 8
95 - 99 13
2
15
90 - 94 18
19 37
85 - 89
34
35 69
80 - 84 8
23 31
Total 80 80 160
Mean
91 87
Standard deviation
5.5 4.3
Critical ratio 5.7*
* Significant at the one per cent level.
2 6
(3) numerical reasoning which requires the ability to
recognize likenesses and differences and to do quantita
tive thinking; and (4) verbal concepts which are measured
by presenting twenty-eight key words which must be identi
fied from eighty-four picture forms. This purports to
measure the child’s perceptual and conceptual abilities.
The mental ages of the subjects, computed from
scores obtained on the California Short Form Test of
Mental Maturity are shown in Table II. The control group,
it may be noted, had an average mental age of 97 months
I (or eight years and one month), while the experimental
j group had an average of 93 months (or seven years and
i
nine months). Thus, the control group had a mental age
! four months in advance of the experimental group. It
will be noted that four months difference in chronological
age was previously found to be significant; however, the
critical ratio test indicated that the four months dif
ference in mental age approaches significance only at the
five per cent level. The reason for this apparent anom
aly lies in the fact that the standard deviation in this
case is large, indicating a wide spread in the distribu
tion of mental ages. The spread in chronological age,
as might be expected in second grade, was relatively
small.
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE II
OP SUBJECTS
MENTAL AGE
ACCORDING TO
27
Mental age Control Experimental
in months group group Total
140 - 144 1 0 1
135 - 139
0 0 0
130 - 134 1 0 1
125 - 129
2 0 2
120 - 124 2 0 ' 2
115 - 119
2 4 6
110 - 114 12 6 18
105 - 109 6
9 15
100 - 104 10
9 19
95 - 99 9
11 20
90 - 94 6
7 13
85 - 89 14 12 26
80 - 84
7 7
14
75 - 79 5 9
14
70 - 74 2 6 8
65 - - 69
1 0 1
60 - 64 1 0 1
Total 80 80 160
Mean
97 93
Standard deviation 15.6
12.7
Critical ratio 1.78*
* Not significant
28
The intelligence quotient for each subject was
calculated from scores achieved on the mental maturity
test. The intelligence quotients are listed in Table III.
The mean for both groups was found to be 107. Although
the intelligence quotients proved to be identical, indi
cating the comparability of the two groups, the control
group has been shown to be four months older, both chrono
logically and mentally. Therefore, the control group
normally could be expected to achieve at a somewhat higher
level.
An organized testing program was maintained in the
district in which this study was made. It was therefore
i
not necessary to give special tests to the subjects who j
I '
I made up the control and experimental groups. The California
I 21 I
j Reading Test, Primary Form BB was administered to all
' second graders in the fall of the year. The test is avail-
' able in four forms— AA, BB, CO, and DD— allowing the child;
I to be re-tested the following year with new items.
The test consists of two parts, Reading Vocabulary
and Reading Comprehension. The Reading Vocabulary test
j is made up of the following three sections: A— Word
Forms, B--Word Recognition and C--Meaning of Opposites.
21
Ernest Tiegs and Willis W. Clark, California
Reading Test, Primary Form BB (Hollywood, California:
California Test Bureau, 195T7.
TABLE III
DISTRIBUTION OP SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS
2 9
Intelligence
quotient
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
150 - 154 1 0 1
145 - 149 0 0 0
140 - 144
3
0
3
135 - 139
1 1 2
130 - 134 4
3 7
125 - 129 6
9 15
120 - 124 1 6
7
115 - 119 5
8
13
110 - 114
7
8
15
105 - 109
14 8 22
100 - 104
15 7
22
95 - 99
8 8 16
90 - 94
7 13
20
85 - 89
2
5 7
80 - 84 2
3 5
75 - 79
2 0 2
70 - 74 1 1 2
65 - 69
1 0 1
Total 80 80 160
Mean 107 107
Standard deviation
Critical ratio
15.7 14.9
0*
* No significant difference
30
The Reading Comprehension test is also divided into three
sections: D--Pollowing Directions, E— Directly Stated
Pacts, and P--Interpretation of Meanings. The reading
comprehension test samples seven different functional
elements of reading comprehension. There are ten items
which test the subject's ability to follow specific direc
tions. In the following section, the child first is re
quired to read each of the stories on the page and then
to follow the directions given. This exercise tests the
ability to read and then comprehend directly stated facts
which refer to the text. The last portion of the test is
designed to measure the child’s ability to interpret
meaning and to make inferences. In other words, it tests
his ability to do critical reading.
Table IV shows grade placement values based on
scores on the California Reading Test which was adminis
tered in October 195^• Column one in the table shows
grade placement in school years. The figure following
the decimal point indicates the month of the school year.
For example, 3*7 signifies the third school year, the
seventh month. Grade placement for the control group
ranged from beginning first grade to the ninth month of I
!
third grade with 64 per cent of the pupils at or above ■
grade level. The experimental group showed a spread from '
first grade to fourth grade, eighth month, with 56 per
i
cent of the pupils at or above grade level. The means '
TABLE IV
DISTRIBUTION OP SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO
READING GRADE PLACEMENT
(OCTOBER 1954)
31
Reading grade
placement
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
4.6 - 4.8 0 1 1
4.3 - 4.5
0 1 1
4.0 - 4.2 0 0 0
3.7 - 3.9
1 2
3
3.4 - 3.6 2 2 4
3.1 - 3.3
0
3 3
2.8 - 3.0
5
4
9
2.5 - 2.7 7
2
9
2.2 - 2.4
13 7
20
1.9 - 2.1 23 23
46
1.6 - 1.8 16
15 31
1.3 - 1.5
12
19 31
1.0 - 1.2 1 1 2
Total 80 80 160
Mean 2.06 2.07
Standard deviation .48 .72
Critical ratio
0.103*
* No significant difference
32
for the two groups were very close--2.06 for the control
group, and 2.07 for the experimental group. The critical
' ratio was O.IO3, indicating no significant difference in
I reading achievement of the two groups at the beginning
i
I of the study.
I In order to be sure that the home background of
j the children in both groups was reasonably comparable,
1
I an occupational survey was made. The occupation of the
: father or guardian of each child was obtained from the I
' cumulative record cards. Edwards’ Scale of Occupational
i 22 j
1 Rank was used to determine the socio-economic status |
; which each position represents. Edwards lists the follow- ;
, ing six major divisions in occupational rank: (l) Profes-
: sional Group, (2) Proprietors, Managers, and Officials,
j (3) Sales, Clerical and Kindred Workers, (4) Foremen,
Craftsmen, Protective Service Workers and Skilled Labor,
I
I (5) Semi-skilled Service Workers, and (6) Unskilled
I Workers.
i
! Table V shows the distribution of the control and
!
j experimental groups in these occupational ranks to be
: very nearly equal. Forty parents were engaged in
22
Alba M. Edwards, Population and Comparative
Occupation Statistics for the United States, 1590-1^43
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1943)*
TABLE V
33
OCCUPATIONAL RANK OF PARENTS OF SUBJECTS
Occupational
rank
Control Experimental
group Total
I. Professional
19
21 40
II. Proprietors, managers
and officials 11
15
26
III. Salesmen, clerical
and kindred 12 14 26
IV. Foremen and craftsmen,
protective services,
skilled labor 21
19
40
V. Semi-skilled,
service workers
13 7
20
VI. Unskilled labor 4 4 8
Total 80 80 160
34
professional activities. Of these parents, twenty-one
had children who were in the experimental group and nine
teen had children who were in the control group. Twenty-
six fathers were found to be proprietors of their own
business or managers and officials in large companies.
Eleven of them had children in the control group and the
remaining fifteen had children who were in the experi
mental group. Rank which included salesmen and cleri
cal and kindred positions, had almost equal numbers of
children in each group. Foremen and craftsmen occupations
were held by one fourth of the parents, nineteen of chil
dren in the experimental group and twenty-one of children
in the control group. Semi-skilled work was done by
seven men who had children in the experimental group,
and thirteen parents of children in the control group.
There were only eight unskilled laborers in the total
number, and the children of these parents were evenly
divided between the two groups. Thus, it may be seen
that the socio-economic backgrounds of the children in
the two groups were very similar.
READING METHOD USED IN CONTROL GROUPS |
I
. 1
The reading instruction in the control classrooms
I
was usually conducted according to the procedures outlined :
in the teachers' guides which accompanied the reading j
35
textbooks. In each class the children were divided into
three groups on the basis of reading ability. The ability
of each child was determined by his previous reading
record, his reading score obtained on the California
Achievement Test, and the teacher’s judgment. Generally,
the groups were flexible in order to accommodate the indi
vidual needs as nearly as possible.
Arranging the environment. The control class
rooms were inviting and attractive. Colorful bulletin
I
boards related to the social studies unit and other timely i
interests were evident. There were interest centers per-
I
i taining to such areas of the curriculum as music, science
I and art. Every room had a "traveling bookshelf" which
I was sent from the school district's central library,
j Often attractive books from this shelf were put on display
I or arranged on a library table. The city library furnished
an additional source of books for two of the control class
rooms which were located within the city limits. The
children made selections from the collection of library
I books which were brought to the schools bi-monthly. The
i teachers reported that usually the books which the children
I chose were too difficult for them to read. However, they ,
j enjoyed browsing through them during their library period ;
and frequently requested the teacher to read favorite »
books to the class. The two classes outside the city
3 6
limits who were not eligible for the city library service
were provided with an additional shelf of books by the
school district library.
Selection of readers. The books used by the chil
dren in the reading groups were selected by the teacher.
The selections were made from the California State reading
textbooks and from a wide assortment of basic readers
found in the school district's central library. The
library orders placed by the control teachers indicated
that they usually ordered from ten to fifteen readers of
the same title, and in most cases had from three to four
sets of readers in their classrooms at any given period.
The teachers conscientiously attempted to select readers
of an appropriate level for the majority of the readers i
in each group.
i
Reading period. Each reading group had an instruc-
I ;
! tional period which lasted approximately twenty minutes i
I per day. During this time the children gathered around j
j the teacher at a large reading table. Generally, the |
j reading period proceeded in the following manner. Inter-
1 /
est in the story was motivated by discussing the situation
pictured on the first page. Usually the children would
I
recall similar experiences. New vocabulary was introduced;
through the use of flash cards. Guided silent reading
37
followed. The teacher posed pertinent questions, and the
children studied the pages to find the answers. If a
child did not know a word, the teacher assisted him at
this time. After silent reading, the story was discussed
I and the sentences or passages containing the answers were
I read orally by individual children. A variety of ways
! were used to practice oral reading. Often the children
would pretend to be characters in the story and would
read their chosen parts. While one child had a turn to
read orally, the other children in the group were reminded
to keep the place and to read along silently. Sentences
or phrases which presented difficulty were often recorded
j on the chalk board for additional study. At the conclu-
j sion of the period the teacher motivated interest in the
I next day's work by mentioning something interesting or
exciting about the story to follow. Frequently the con-
’ trol groups were.given follow-up work sheets which the
teachers had designed to correlate with the story just
I read.
I Class organization. Each reading group was usually
; composed of one third of the class. Rotating schedules !
I were discussed and agreed upon by the teacher and the
I !
! children during the early weeks of the school year. The j
plan usually operated in the following manner. During thej
3 8
first twenty minute block of time, the average readers
met with the teacher for reading instruction. The "high"
group engaged in planned independent work. These children
worked with such materials as reading and arithmetic
activities (games), work sheets related to the reading,
or library books. The "low ability" group pursued
creative art activities. They experimented with such
media as calcimine paint, clay, and finger paint. Inter
esting new materials and activities were introduced
periodically during the year.
During the second twenty minute period, the low
group read with the teacher. The high group shifted to
the art center for creative work, while the average group 1
went to their tables to pursue various independent
activities. I
The third period was instructional reading time
for the high ability group, independent work period for
the low group, and creative art time for the average
group. Usually there were class charts indicating the
time and the activities for each group which assisted the i
children in knowing exactly where they were to work
during each period.
Reading records. In order to maintain a record
of the reading accomplishment made by each child, the
school district provided mimeographed sheets which listed i
3 9
the titles of the readers available to the classroom
teachers. The teachers filled out a sheet for each child
in his class. A check was placed beside the title of
t
j each book which the child had read during the current
I
; school year. This reading record was filed in the cumula
tive record folder and forwarded to the child's next
teacher. The.children usually were not aware that such
reading records were being kept. However, parents were
often shown the records during private conferences.
Summary. The teaching of reading in the four
control classrooms was similar to the procedures suggested
in the teachers * guides which accompanies many of the
basic readers. Teachers were aware of the prevalent abil
ity grouping practices; therefore, on the basis of objec
tive data and their own judgment, they assigned their
: pupils to either high, average or low reading ability
j groups. The structure of the groups was flexible, since
I children frequently were moved about if the teacher felt
j
I it necessary. Readers were selected by the teachers from ,
an amply stocked central library, and additional books
were provided by city library service. The classes were
well organized on a three-work-period plan which enabled !
the teacher to work with each reading group daily. j
40
READING METHOD USED IN EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
The reading instruction in the experimental group
was conducted on an individualized basis, with the chil- |
!
dren selecting their own reading material from a pre- |
arranged environment. The teachers' first step in initiat-l
ing the self-selection reading method was to ascertain the |
reading level and interests of each child in the class.
I
This was done by studying the reading records which had
been prepared by the children's previous teachers, and
the scores obtained on the standardized reading tests.
Through observation, group discussion, and informal con
versations the teachers gained some knowledge of the past
experiences and current interests of their pupils. With
these factors in mind, the teachers proceeded to gather
I together the books needed for the reading program. A
i
I supply of books three times the number of children en
rolled was considered a satisfactory amount.
Source of books. There were four major sources
from which to draw books. In each classroom there were
on hand the current California state textbooks published
for that particular grade level. In addition to the books
kept in the classroom, the schools had central bookcases
where previous state texts and several series of health
I 41
I
and science books could be obtained. The school district
maintained a library where a wide selection of text and
trade books could be borrowed by the teachers. This
library also sent a circulating bookshelf to every class
room. These shelves usually contained about thirty-five
books, the majority being especially selected trade books.
About every five weeks a new shelf arrived, and the old
one was sent on to another classroom. The fourth source
was the city public library which offered a unique service
to the schools within the city limits. Every two weeks
the librarians brought books to the school buildings.
Every child had a library card and was privileged to se
lect a book to take to. his classroom. The books selected
were frequently read at the scheduled reading period. One
librarian reported that the children from the experimental
classes usually sought out books which they could read
rather than selecting those for the teacher to read to
them. Through this service, therefore, a new supply of
books equal to the class enrollment was brought into the
rooms every two weeks.
There was still another source which was not
counted upon but which appeared. As the class libraries
began to expand an enthusiasm for books was engendered.
The children began to bring their own books. However,
there was one stipulation in regard to these books. They
L.
42
were put on the teacher’s desk first, so that she could
determine whether they were properly identified and
whether they were appropriate for the class library.
Arranging the environment. Prior to the actual
initiation of the self-selective reading program, two or
three days were spent in setting up the book corner or
class library. During this period of preparation there
was much discussing and handling of the books. This
direct contact with the books proved to stimulate the
children’s eagerness to begin the reading program. The
children, with the teacher’s guidance, worked out plans
for the storage and display of the reading material. Each
class had its own unique system. In one class, it was
decided to classify the books according to content. They
found their books fell quite naturally into several cate
gories, as follows; Dogs, Pets, Stories about Boys and
Girls, Animals, and Boats and Trains. The books were ar
ranged on the book shelf according to categories, and each
section was appropriately labeled. Several attractive
books on various subjects also were arranged on a library
table. Books brought in by the children were often dis
played with an accompanying label, such as: "This is
John’s favorite book."
Interest centers about the room suggested the ar
rangement of books to another group. At the science
4 3
j center there were displays of some current science inter-
I est with an opened book containing a picture or story
j related to the live exhibit, and other books with scien-
I tific content were placed near by. The social studies
I resource books were exhibited along with the unit materials
I Stories of people and places were grouped with booklets
I
j containing original stories written by the children about
^ themselves, their families, their friends, and places
they had visited.
Each class developed the room environment which
best suited the needs of that group. However, one basic *
I
practice was common. The books were invitingly arranged '
and easily accessible to the children. |
I
Grouping in the self-selective reading program. i
It was found that the children in primary grades were more
free to pursue their reading when they could gather around
the teacher and hence be assured of her immediate help.
In order to keep this intimate contact between the chil- ;
I
; dren and the teacher, some sort of grouping was necessary.I
[ I
; The teachers of the experimental classrooms were i
i desirous of avoiding any grouping plan based upon the '
; I
! reading proficiency of the pupils, since this would
I counteract the very environment which they were striving
to create. Also, more equal distribution of the teacher’s
assistance could be given if groups were composed of
44
approximately equal numbers of slow, average, and fast
readers. With these factors in mind, each teacher devel
oped her own method of grouping. In general, groups were
formed on the basis of friendships, common^interests,
or common problems. A combination of the various types
of grouping were frequently employed. For example, in
one classroom the children were grouped on a sociometric
basis for their daily meeting with the teacher; in addi
tion, once a week they met in groups based on the topics
about which they were reading. One teacher decided to
base her groups on the results of a simple sociometric
test. She asked each child in a casual manner the follow-i
ing question: "Whom would you like most to sit near at '
reading time?" Each response was unobtrusively jotted |
down, and from these data a sociogram was drafted. On
the basis of children's choices, three groups were formed.
In each group there was approximately an even distribution j
of readers on all levels of ability. This method of |
grouping proved to be very satisfying to the children and ,
to the teacher.
The reading choices of the individual children
were the basis of grouping in one of the experimental
classrooms. Most of the books in the class library were
found to fall into the following broad categories:
stories about people, stories about animals, and stories
45
about nature and science. Therefore, it was a simple
matter to form three groups based upon the mutual reading
interests of the children. As new books were selected,
the structure of the groups changed. ;
After studying the children's reading records and |
observing the friendships and interests which were devel- |
oping in the class, one of the teachers selected three j
I groups of children who in her judgment were balanced i
emotionally, socially, and intellectually.
!
I
Classroom organization. The general classroom |
organization of the experimental group was very similar I
to that used in most second grades in the Los Angeles area.
To the casual observer there would appear to be no differ-!
ence between the classroom using the individualized read- ^
ing and those using the conventional reading method. The
children who were reading would be seated around the
I teacher in a quiet corner of the room. Another group of i
I !
j children would be pursuing various creative activities |
I ' • '
t such as painting at the easel, experimenting with finger-'
j
I paint or modeling clay. The remaining third of the class
might be engaged in copying original stories for a class j
I
booklet, preparing reports on the stories they had read, |
or working in couples or small groups with number and |
reading games.
46
Upon closer examination, however, it could be dis
covered that the children in the reading group were each
reading a different book. While the rest of the group
read silently, one child would be seated close to the
I teacher. This would be his individual instruction time.
He might read aloud, the teacher might question him, he
might ask the meaning of a word, or they might discuss
word endings. The child'sparticular problem for that
day would be appraised and dealt with. When his turn was
over, another child would take his place in the chair.
The other children in the group continued their reading,
occasionally asking a neighbor or raising their hand
when they needed the teacher's help with a word.
Self-selection of books. As soon as the class
library had been set up and a feasible grouping plan had
been worked out, the actual program began. The teacher
1
j called up the first group and explained to them that they
j could browse through the books and choose just the one
j they wanted to read. There was no pressure exerted to
I hurry the selection. In fact, the children were invited
I to sample many books in order to find just the right one
1
for them. Some children already knew the books they
wanted and immediately made their choices. Others browsed
for two or three days before making a final selection,
while a few needed encouragement and guidance from the
47
teacher before they were sure of a choice.
Reading records. After a child had made his se
lection he reported his choice to the teacher who recorded
I
; it on his reading record. This record became his reading
I J
contract and was regarded as highly important by the child
and the teacher. It consisted of a 5" x 8" file card
with the child's name across the top and the five headings
of (1) date, (2) title, (3) reading level, (4) reading
plan, and (5) comments. Under the heading of "reading
level," the teacher listed the books as pre-primer,
primer, first, etc.
Heading plan. In the reading plan column, the
first item recorded was the child's plan for reading the
I book. The plan could be to read the entire book, and
this was the usual pattern when the book was one complete
story. Sometimes the decision was to read a certain part
of the book. This choice was often made with a basic
! reader which was divided into distinct sections. On 1
i '
I other occasions only certain stories or pages were chosen
I
i to be read. This was especially true when a child was
i I
j reading about one particular subject in the fields of 1
I nature or science. j
48
Reporting plan. The second item was a brief
statement as to what the child planned to do about the
book when he finished his reading. Possible ways of re-
j acting to a book had been discussed by the total class
!
I and the ideas had been recorded on a large chart. The
I list included reporting by means of story telling, drama-
; tizing, writing, painting, clay modeling, performing an
experiment, reading special parts, making models, and
many others. The child was free to choose an idea from
the chart or to use his own initiative. Frequently chil
dren who were reading the same story or were in the same
interest area joined together in working out their plans.
Preparation for the reporting activity was carried
j on during the children's independent work period while
j another group was reading near the teacher. Since there
I was no correlated seat work in the self-selective reading
I program, the children had an opportunity to work on
j individual projects. Usually they were simple projects
: which were given recognition by the teacher but were not
I always drawn to the attention of the total class. How-
I
ever, if the teacher felt that the project was of par
ticular interest to the entire group, or that the experi
ence would be especially beneficial to the child, then
a time would be set aside for presentation to the class.
49
In the second grade it was found unnecessary to
require a report on every hook, since the teacher worked
I with each child daily and therefore received an oral re-
I port at each conference. Furthermore, the able readers
j often finished a book in a day or two, and requiring re-
I ports on each book read might have deterred pupils from
i
I more reading. The reporting procedures were found to
enrich the language arts program, but care was taken to
avoid their becoming a burden to the child or the
teacher.
Although the reports were very simple, they con
tributed a vital spark to the program. Keen interest in
books and reading began to blossom. It was observed that
a child’s endorsement of a book would cause it to rise
in popularity. The enthusiasm generated by the children
: themselves gave momentum to the program.
Keeping the reading records. Keeping the reading
records was a part of the daily routine and, therefore,
I
! did not become an after-school task for the teachers.
I
I As each group came up to read, the teacher removed from
!
the file box the record cards for that group. While each
child read individually, the teacher jotted down the
basic words with which he needed help. In addition to
vocabulary needs, she added pertinent notes concerning
his problems and progress. The teachers frequently used
50
the information on the reading cards as a basis for plan
ning class lessons and also for drawing together small
groups of children who needed help with similar reading
problems. The following remarks were taken from one set
of reading records: "slow--but knew most of words," "good
reading and comprehension," "discussed story well," "too
timid yet for free discussion," "has speech difficulty—
th--s— d (refer to speech consultant)," "needs help with
! initial consonants," "needs help with endings— finished,
i started," "interest holds him to this difficult book,"
I
"reads with ease--no vocabulary help needed," "shared
with class this morning--shows interest and pride," "reads
rapidly--encourage to read more difficult books," "decided
to change because of difficulty," "very good retention,"
"needs confidence," "gave good outline of books," "needs
to be encouraged to ask for help," "help with oral read
ing," "excellent oral interpretation," "re-reading this—
enjoys it."
j The information recorded dealt with the child’s
: physical well being and his attitudes toward reading as
, well as the reading skills which needed to be improved.
I
I
j Furniture arrangement. Usually, the children read
I at tables. Kidney-shaped tables were desired, but, since
' these were not available, some teachers used three two-
51
place tables fitted together to form an open "U" shape.
The children's chairs were arranged around the outer edge
of the tables; the teacher placed herself and one extra
chair in the inner area. The extra chair was used by
j each child as he came up for his individual reading in-
I struction. This arrangement of furniture made it possible
I for the teacher to observe and assist the silent readers
j and yet give individual help to the child at his side.
Individual instruction. During the reading period
a library atmosphere prevailed in the experimental class
rooms. Since the child reading orally needed only to be
I heard by the teacher, there was no need for loud voices.
1
I The other children in the reading group read silently
j until their turn came for individual instruction. This j
j procedure allowed the child to be actually reading instead
I of merely keeping the place while others read orally.
I i
j Each child met daily with the teacher for approximately
I two minutes. During this time the teacher helped the |
j child with his particular problem. Daily reference ^as j
j i
I made to the reading record in order to ascertain whether ^
I the difficulties of yesterday had been mastered or still j
j persisted. This practice gave continuity to the individ- '
j ualized instruction and kept the child and the teacher
I aware of just what the problems were and what progress
had been made. I
52
The individual instruction was very flexible and,
therefore, precluded any set pattern of teaching. Never
theless, there were some practices which were frequently
included in the lesson. The child’s silent reading com
prehension was checked by discussing with him the events
and personalities in the story. During the discussion it.
was frequently necessary for the child to re-read in order
' to verify an important detail. At such times, instruc
tion in the techniques of skimming was often introduced
to the able readers. This was followed by the oral read-
I ing of a portion of the story of the child’s choice, and/
or a part suggested by the teacher. During the oral read-
; ing the child was given guidance in sensible phrasing and
! expressive interpretation. Word recognition skills were
taught when the child met an unfamiliar word. He was
helped to develop more acute visual discrimination by
noting the general configuration of new vocabulary and
I was encouraged to utilize the context as an aid in /Qg^rd
I recognition. In addition, phonetic analysis was pre-
' sented. As a child approached a new word the initial
I
consonant was introduced, later final consonants, blends
and syllables were pointed out. Since the teachers ad-
I justed the method of instruction to the needs of the
, child with whom he was working, the reading skills were
presented and developed in various ways.
53
After the child finished reading his book, and
after he had completed his plan for reporting, he then
; proceeded to repeat the cycle by selecting another book
for reading.
I Summary . The teacheis of the experimental group
I employed the self-selection or individualized reading
I method in their classrooms. Briefly stated, the method
! included the following phases:
I
] 1. The teacher gained information about the
!
child’s reading ability and special interests,
j 2. The teacher built up a class library of books
I
I which extended at least a grade below and be-
! yond the known reading range in the class, and
which included subjects of special interest to
the children.
3. Each child was invited to browse through the
class library and select a book for reading.
4. The teacher prepared a reading record card for
each child. The title, grade level, plan for
reading and reporting was included for each
book. Particular reading accomplishments or
problems were recorded by the teacher during
the Individual instructional period.
5. The children in the class were assigned to
heterogeneous groups. No grouping was made on
ün
the basis of reading ability.
6. Each group met with the teacher daily for a
reading period. During this time each child
had a turn for individual reading instruction ;
with the teacher. He checked the child's com- i
I
prehension and helped him to refine and develop j
word attack skills. The remainder of the group :
read silently asking for vocabulary help when ;
needed. i
ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES
The data presented in this study fall into two dis
tinct categories: (l) those concerned with the selection
of subjects, and (2) those concerned with a comparison of
gains made by the control and experimental groups. The
I
; California Primary Reading Test was given at the beginning
I
j and conclusion of the study. Individual gains or losses
I for each subject were recorded. These data were then
; grouped in order that gains and losses of the control and
I experimental groups as a whole could be examined. Indi-
I vidual scores were averaged and the two groups compared
I on the basis of the mean gains made. Standard deviations
: were calculated to indicate the range in individual scores
within the groups, and critical ratios were used to deter
mine whether differences between the means were statisti-
55
cally significant. Each time a comparison was made
between two means, the "null hypothesis" was set up and
either retained or rejected on the basis of a five per
I
I cent or a one per cent level of significance. Differences
I were considered significant at the five per cent level
j when the critical ratio was 1.96 or larger, and were con-
! sidered significant at the one per cent level when the
I critical ratio was 2.58 or larger. These values and all
I calculations made were based on statistical formulae
23
I given by Garrett.
21
Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and
Education (New York: Longmans, Green and Company,
1947), passim.
CHAPTER IV
COMPARISON OP READING GAINS ACHIEVED
BY CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
The purpose of this chapter is to compare the
reading gains made by the individual subjects, and by the
control and experimental groups. An examination is made
of the gains achieved by the individual subjects in the
eight classes involved in this study, followed by a com
parison of the achievement gains made by the two groups
in the areas of total reading, reading vocabulary, and I
reading comprehension. The data are tabulated for easy ^
reference. ■
GAINS ACHIEVED BY INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTS
I
In this section, the control classes are considered j
first, and then a similar analysis is made of the experi- '
I
mental groups. The enrollment and number of subjects I
I
selected from each class are indicated and a table is in
cluded for each class showing the reading gains made by
each subject in the study.
Reading gains achieved by subjects in the control
classes. The four classes from which the subjects of
57
the control group were selected had a total enrollment
of 112, with class loads ranging from twenty-six to
thirty children. However, only eighty children were
found to satisfy the criteria for the selection of subjects'
for this study. In most cases children were eliminated
because they had not taken the reading achievement test
both in October 1954 and in October 1955- Other pupils
were omitted because of a record of irregular school
attendance.
In Miss A ’s second grade there were twenty-nine
children enrolled; of these, twenty-one were selected for
this study. Reading grade placement and total reading
gains achieved by the individual pupils are shown in
Table VI. It will be seen that reading gains ranged from
0.1 to 2.4. Ten of the subjects gained one year or more
in reading.
There were twenty-six children in Miss B's class,
and eighteen were selected as subjects for the control
group. Table VII shows the individual reading scores for
these subjects. The reading gains ranged from 0.3 to 3.4.
Twelve of these children made gains of more than one year.
Miss C had the largest enrollment of the control
classes, with thirty pupils in her group. Table VIII
shows that of the twenty-two children used in the study,
fourteen were found to have made a year or more gain in
58
TABLE VI
CONTROL CLASS A: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade placement,
school years
Total read
ing gains—
school years 1954
1955
1 1.4
2.9 1.5
2
1.5
2.2
0.7
3
1.6 2.1
0.5
4
1.9
2.4
0.5
5 1.9
2.6
0.7
6
1.9 2.9
1.0
7
2.0 2.1 0.1
8 2.0
3.1
1.1
9
2.1 2.2 0.1
10 2.1 3.4
1.3
11 2.1
3.7
1.6
12 2.2 2.2 0.0
13
2.2
3.5 1.3
14
2.3
2.2 - 0.1
15 2.3 2.7
0.4
16
2.3 3.3
1.0
17
2.4
2.5
0.1
18 2.4 3.0 0.6
19
2.4
3.5
1.1
20
2.5
4.6 2.1
21
2.5 4.9
2.4
59
TABLE VII
CONTROL CLASS B: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade placement,
school years
Total read
ing gains--
school years 1954
1955
1 1.4 2.0 0.6
2 1.4 2.1
0.7
3
1.4 2.2 0.8
4 1.4 2.2 0.8
5
1.4 2.8 1.4
6 1.4
2.9 1.5
7 1.6 2,4 0.8
8 1.6 5.0 3.4
9 1.7
3.2
1.5
10 1.8
3.7 1.9
11
1.9
2.2
0.3
12
1.9 3.5
1.6
13 1.9 3.7
1.8
14
1.9
4.1 2.2
15
2.0
3.1
1.1
16 2.0 4.0 2.0
17 2.3
4.6
2.3
18 2.4
4.7 2.3
6 0
I TABLE VIII
CONTROL CLASS C: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
I INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade
school
placement,
years
Total read
ing gains—
school years 1954
1955
1 1.1 2.6
1.5
2
1.3 2.3
1.0
3
1.4 1.8 0.4
4 1.4 2.0 0.6
5 1.5
2.6 1.1
6 1.6 1.8 0.2
7
1.6 2.0 0.4
8 1.6 2.8 1.2
9
1.6 2.8 1.2
10
1.7
4.0
2.3
11 1.8 2.2 0.4
12 1.8
2.3 0.5
13
2.1 4.4
2.3
14 2.1 3.6 1.5
15
2.2 4.2 2.0
16 2.6
3.5 0.9
17
2.6 4.7
2.1
18 2.8
4.3 0.5
19
3.0 4.2 1.2
20 3.0 5.2 2.2
21 3.4
4.7 1.3
22 3.8 4.9
1.1
61
reading. The reading gains ranged from 0.4 to 2.3*
Of the twenty-seven pupils enrolled in Miss D's
class only nineteen satisfied the criteria for this study.
The greatest reading gain was 2.8 and the lowest zero.
Individual scores may be seen in Table IX. Ten children ,
in this class made gains of one year or more in reading.
The individual scores reveal that forty-four chil
dren, or 55 per cent of the control group, made total j
■ reading gains of one year or more.
Reading gains achieved by subjects in the experi-
I mental classes. The enrollment in the four experimental i
I classes ranged from twenty-five to thirty, with a total of j
i
113 pupils. Of this number, eighty were found who satis
fied the criteria for the selection of subjects for this
study. The remaining pupils either had not taken the
reading achievement test both in October 1954 and October ,
1955 or their cumulative records showed irregular school |
attendance. |
I
The experimental class taught by Miss W had a total |
enrollment of thirty children. Twenty of these children
were selected as subjects for this study. The individual ;
test scores and reading gains achieved by these pupils are '
listed in Table X. Seventeen of the twenty made reading j
gains ranging from 1.0 to 3«O* '
62
TABLE IX
CONTROL CLASS D: READING GRADE .PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade
school
placement,
years
Total read
ing gains—
school years 1954 1955
1
1.7 4.5
2.8
2 1.8
1.9
0.1
3
1.8 2.2 0.4
4 1.8 2.4 0.6
5 1.9 2.3
0.4
6 1.9 3.7
1.8
7
2.0 2.0 0.0
8 2.0 2.4 0.4
9
2.0 3.2 1.2
10 2.2 2.6 0.4
11 2.2
3.3
1.1
12 2.2 4.0 1.8
13 2.3
1.2
14
2.5
2.8
0.3
15
2.6
4.0 1.4
16 2.6 4.6 2.0
17 2.9
4.2
1.3
18
2.9 4.5
1.6
19
3.4 3.8 0.4
. J
63
TABLE X
EXPERIMENTAL CLASS W: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade
school
placement,
years
Total read
ing gains--
school years 1954
1955
1 1.4 1.8 0.4
2 1.4 2.8 1.4
3 1.5
2.0
0.5
4
1.5 2.5
1.0
5 1.5 2.5
1.0
6
1.5 2.7
1.2
7 1.5
3.0
1.5
8 1.6 2.4 0.8
9
1.6 2.8 1.2
10 1.6
3.9 2.3
11
1.7
2.8 1.1
12
1.7 3.5
1.8
13 1.7 4.7
3.0
14 1.8 2.8 1.0
15 1.9
3.8
2.9
16 2.0
3.1
1.1
17
2.0 4.4 2.4
18
2.3
4.0
1.7
19 2.5 4.9
2.4
20 2.8 5.0 2.2
64
In Miss X ’s class of twenty-nine pupils it was
possible to select only eighteen subjects for this study
because an unusually large number of children transferred
! in and out of the school. Table XI gives individual
I scores of the subjects in this class. Total reading gains j
j ranged from 0.3 to 2.6, with twelve of the eighteen pupils |
I showing a gain of one year or more.
I
Of the twenty-five children in Miss Y’s class all
but three were included in the study. The reading scores
for each subject are listed in Table XII. The gains range
I from 0.2 to 2.5, and gains of one year or more were
I
I achieved by eleven of the subjects.
There were twenty-nine children in Miss Z’s class,
and twenty were selected as subjects for the experimental
group. Table XIII shows the scores made by each subject
; in this class. Fourteen of the nineteen made reading
I gains of 1.0 to 2.8. It may be seen that the gains for
I
I the total group ranged from 0.2 to 2.8.
I A survey of the individual reading scores reveals
I
I that fifty-four subjects, or 67*5 per cent of the experi-
I
mental group, made gains of one year or more. Thus it
!
may be seen ïha,t more children made greater-than-average
gains in the experimental group than in the control
i group.
65
TABLE XI
EXPERIMENTAL CLASS X; READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Reading grade placement,
Pupil ______
1954 1955 school years
1 1.2 2.1
0.9
2 1.4
2.9 1.5
3
1.4 3.4 2.0
4
1.5 1.9
0.4
5 1.5
2.6 1.1
6 1.6
3.3 1.7
7 1.7 2.9
1.2
8 1.8 2.1
0.3
9
1.8
3.9
2.1
10 2.0
2.9 0.9
11 2.0 3.8 1.8
12 2.0 4.6 2.6
13 2.3 2.9
0.6
14
2.3
4.2
1.9
15
2.4 4.0 1.6
16 2.8 5.0 2.2
17 3.3
5.4 2.1
18 3.8 4.6 0.8
66
TABLE XII
EXPERIMENTAL CLASS Y: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade
school
placement,
years
Total read
ing gains—
school years 1954
1955
1
1.3 1.9
0.6
2 1.4
1.9 0.5
3
1.4
1.9 0.5
4
1.5
1.6 0.1
5 1.5
2.0
0.5
6
1.5 2.5
1.0
7 1.5 4.3
2.8
8 1.6 2.2 0.6
9 1.7
4.0
2.3
10
1.9
2.1 0.2
11
1.9
2.1 0.2
12
1.9 3.5
1.6
13
2.0 3.6 1.6
14 2.0 3.8 1.8
15 '
2.0
4.5 2.5
16 2.1
3.1
1.0
17
2.1
3.1
1.0
18 2.1 4.2 2.1
19
2.1 4.2 2.1
20
2.3 2.9
0.6
21
2.3 3.3
1.0
22 4.4 5.0 0.6
23
4.8 5.4 0.6
67
TABLE XIII
EXPERIMENTAL CLASS Z: READING GRADE PLACEMENT
AND TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
INDIVIDUAL PUPILS
Pupil
Reading grade
school
placement,
years
Total read
ing gains—
school years 1954 1955
1
1.4 1.8 0.4
2
1.5
2.8
1.3
3 1.6
3.3 1.7
k 1.6
3.5 1.9
5 1.7
4.4
2.7
6
1.9 2.5
0.6
7 1.9
3.8
1.9
8 2.0 2.4 0.4
9
2.0 2.8 0.8
10 2.1
4.9
2.8
11 2.4 4.0 1.6
12
2.7
4.4
1.7
13
2.8
4.7 1.9
14
2.9 2.7
- 0.2
15 3.1 5.5
2.4
16 3.3
5.4 2.1
17 3.5
5.4
1.9
18 3.6 4.6 1.0
19
3.8
4.7 0.9
6 8
READING GAINS ACHIEVED BY CONTROL AND
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
The subjects in the study were given the California
I 24
I Reading Test, Primary Form BB at the beginning of their
I year in second grade. It will be recalled that results
of this test were summarized in Table IV, page 31, and
that the average reading achievement grade placement
scores for the control and experimental groups were shown
to be essentially equal at the outset of the study in
October of 1954.
One year later, in October 1955, the California
25
Reading Test, Primary Form CC was administered through
out the school district. All subjects included in this
study were retested at this time. Table XIV shows a
compilation of the results made by the control and experi
mental groups. A comparison of the data given in Tables
IV and XIV reveals some interesting facts. It may be
seen in Table IV that among the eighty subjects in each i
group, fifty-one control pupils (64 per cent) and forty - !
five experimental pupils (56 per cent) were at or above |
grade level at the beginning of the study. After |
24
25
Tiegs and Clark, o£. cit. Form BB.
Ibid., Form CC.
TABLE XIV
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO
READING GRADE PLACEMENT
(October 1955)
6 9
Reading grade
placement
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
5.5 - 5.6
0 1 1
5.2 - 5.4 0 4 4
4.9 - 5.1 3 5
8
4.6 - 4.8 6 6 “ 12
4.3 - 4.5
4
5 9
4.0 - 4.2 10
9 19
3.7 - 3.9 5
6 11
3.4 - 3.6
7 5
12
3.1 - 3.3
6 6 12
2.8 - 3-0 8 12 20
2.5 - 2.7
6 7 13
2.2 - 2.4
14
3 17
1.9 - 2.1
8 8 16
1.6 - 1.8 2
3 5
Total 80 80 160
Mean
3.19 3.49
I 70
!
being taught for one year by the respective methods, the
re-test shows (see Table XIV) that the control group had
only forty-nine pupils (6l per cent) who were at or above
grade level, while the experimental group had fifty-nine
(74 per cent) who were at or above grade level. This
substantial Increase (with fourteen more experimental
pupils, or 18 per cent, reaching the higher level, while
the number in the control group remained essentially the
same) would seem to indicate a definite advantage in
favor of the selective reading program. Similarly, it
may be seen also that, while the number of pupils below
grade level remained practically unchanged in the control |
group, the number of sub-grade-level pupils in the ex- j
perimental group decreased from thirty-five to twenty-
one .
In order to examine more critically the gains made
by the two groups, reading achievement test scores were |
broken down into the three areas measured by the test, |
I
and gains were compared on the basis of total reading {
scores, reading vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
The experimental group, it will be noted, scored higher
in each area tested. !
I
I
Total reading gains. Total reading gains made|
by the two groups during the one year period between
October 1954 and October 1955 are summarized in Table XV. !
TABLE XV
COMPARISON OP TOTAL READING GAINS MADE BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
71
Total reading
gains
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
3.2 - 3.5 1 0 1
2.8 - 3.1 1 4
5
2.4 - 2.7 1 6
7
2.0 - 2.3 11 10 21
1.6 - 1.9 7 17
24
1.2 - 1.5 16 8 24
0.8 - 1.1
13
16
29
0.4 - 0.7 20 14 34
0.0 - 0.3
10
5 15
Total 80 80 160
Mean 1.14 1.41
Standard deviation
0.775 0.765
Critical ratio 2.22*
* Difference significant at the 5 per cent level
72
Column one shows grade placement gains in intervals of
four months. The whole numbers to the left of the decimal
point indicate school years, while the fractional parts
I denote school months. Numerals in the succeeding columns
j indicate the number of pupils in each group who made gains
I falling within the four-month intervals. It may be seen
! that the total reading gains ranged from zero (no gain)
to 3*5 (three years and five months). While the very
highest gain made by any child was scored by a control
group pupil, it is of interest to note that only twenty
i
I control group pupils (25 per cent) gained more than one
[and one half years during the test period, and thirty-
I seven experimental pupils (46 per cent) scored within
I this range. The mean average gain for the total control j
jgroup was 1.14, while the experimental group made an !
■average gain of 1.41. The critical ratio was calculated
i
to be 2.22, indicating that the difference between the two
means was significant at the five per cent level. '
■
!
Reading vocabulary gains. Reading vocabulary |
gains made by the control and experimental groups are
given in Table XVI. The subjects are classified according
to the gains made, and are placed in groups at four-month
intervals. In this case, however, it was necessary to
extend the range on the low side to minus 0.8 because three
TABLE XVI
COMPARISON OP VOCABULARY GAINS MADE BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
73
Vocabulary
gains
Control
group
Experimental
group To tal
3.2 - 3.5 1 1 2
2.8 - 3.1 0
3 3
2.4 - 2.7
5
4
9
2.0 - 2.3 4
7
11
1.6 - 1.9 12
9
21
1.2 - 1.5 16 18 34
0.8 - 1.1
19 13
32
0.4 - 0.7 8 16 24
0.0 - 0.3 12
9
21
-0.4 to -0.1 2 0 2
—0.8 to — 0.5 1 0 1
Total
Mean
Standard deviation
Critical ratio
80
1.09
0.777
80
1.26
0.756
1.40*
160
* Difference not significant
r ' ' 74
members of the control group tested lower in 1955 than
they did in 1954 and thus scored negative gains. The
mean or average gain made by the control group was 1.09
(essentially one year and one month), and that made by
the experimental group was 1.26. A statistical analysis
showed the difference between these two means to be
not significant (the critical ratio was 1.40). However,
the fact that even slightly higher gains were made by
the experimental group in this area appears worthy of
note because the control classes had emphasized vocabulary
drill through the use of supplementary materials such as
flash cards and follow-up work sheets.
I
Reading comprehension gains. The experimental
group scored exceptionally high gains in the very important
area of reading comprehension. Table XVII shows r,the dis-
; tribution of reading comprehension gains made during the
I
' calendar year from October 1954 to October 1955* The
I I
I total ranges (6.7 years for the control group, and 5*9 i
years for the experimental group) would seem to be very j
I '
j high. However, this great difference is not too surprising
I 1
I when it is recalled that the intelligence quotients of the ^
subjects ranged from 65 to 154 (see Table III). The ;
t
average reading comprehension gain for the control group
I
was 1.31 years which would be considered very good. The
TABLE XVII
COMPARISON OF COMPREHENSION GAINS MADE BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
7 5
Comprehension
gains
Control
group
Experimental
group Total
4.8 - 5.1 1 1 2
4.4 - 4.7 0 0 0
4.0 - 4.3 1 1 2
3.6 - 3.9
0 2 2
3.2 - 3.5 1 2
3
2.8 - 3.1 4
3 7
2.4 - 2.7 8
15 23
2.0 - 2.3 4
23 27
1.6 - 1.9 12 11
23
1.2 - 1.5 12
7 19
0.8 - 1.1 12 6 18
0.4 - 0.7
10
5 15
0.0 - 0.3 9
2 11
-0.4 to -0.1
3
1 4
-0.8 to -0.5 1 1 2
—1*2 to —0*9 0 0 0
—1.6 to —1.3
2 0 2
Total
Mean
Standard deviation
Critical ratio
80
1.31
1.01
4.
80
1.96
1.01
07*
160
* Difference significant at the one per cent level
76
average gain for the experimental group was I.96 years,
which must be considered excellent. In fact, it may be
seen from the data shown in Table XVII that forty-seven
children in the experimental group (59 per cent) gained
i two years or more in reading comprehension during the one-
year period between tests. The difference in reading
comprehension gains made by the two groups was shown to
be statistically significant at the one per cent level
by the critical ratio of 4.07; which was calculated from
raw test scores. Thus, it appears certain that these
gains could not be attributed to sampling errors, and
similar results would be shown if the study were repeated
with other subjects. |
It should be noted that both the control and experi
mental groups averaged more than one year’s growth in j
every area tested, indicating that very satisfactory
I
I progress was made by both groups. However, the findings
I of this study indicate that the children in the self- |
\ 1
j selective reading program made greater reading achievement |
I gains than did those taught by the conventional method. ;
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to compare the re
sults of two teaching procedures in terras of reading
progress achieved by two carefully matched groups. The
study extended over a period of one calendar year and
compared reading gains made by 160 subjects selected from
eight second grade classrooms in a suburban school dis
trict. Teachers also were matched on the basis of com
parable educational background and teaching experience.
Subjects in the two groups were comparable in number,
mental age, intelligence, and socio-economic background.
At the beginning of the study, the California Read-
26
ing Test, Primary Form BB was administered and the two
groups were found to be equal in reading achievement.
After one year's reading instruction by the respective
methods, the subjects were re-tested with the California
27
Reading Test, Primary Form C C and gains were compared |
I
in the three areas measured by the test— reading vocabulary.
26
Ibid., Form BB.
2 7
Ibid., Form CC.
7 8
reading comprehension, and total reading.
All test data were grouped, tabulated, and treated
in the following manner: (l) direct comparison was made
between two groups; (2) raw test scores were used to cal-
! culate the means and standard deviations; and (3) critical |
ratios were used to measure significance. Each time a |
comparison was made between two means, the "null hypothe- j
sis" was set up and either retained or rejected on the
basis of a five per cent or a one per cent level of sig- I
i
nificance. i
!
I. PROCEDURES I
Selection of groups. In order for children to be
selected as subjects in this study it was necessary that
I
they satisfy the following pre-determined criteria: i
I 1. All subjects must have attended second grade
I I
in the district for the complete school year.
I I
I 2. They must have had regular school attendance |
i
records. i
I
3. They must have taken the reading achievement !
test at the beginning of second grade and also ;
at the beginning of third grade. !
4. Subjects must have taken a standardized mental ,
maturity test in the second grade.
5. Subjects must have had comparable socio- j
79
economic backgrounds.
6. They must have attended schools in comparable
neighborhoods.
7. Subjects must have been taught by capable
teachers of matched training and experience.
Preliminary data were secured from four major
sources: (l) the official files of the school district,
(2) the pupils’ cumulative records, (3) observations in
classrooms, and (4) interviews with teachers.
! On the basis of the data used, 225 children in
j
I eight classrooms were identified as possible subjects
I for inclusion in the study. The cumulative records of
I children in this initial group were carefully studied in
I order to eliminate those who failed to meet the estab-
^ lished criteria.
I
' Selection of teachers. In order to assure compar-
I
I able data, care was taken in the selection of the teachers 1
I I
, included in the study. The four teachers of the control |
classes were matched with four teachers of the experi
mental classes on the following bases:
1. Educational background. The teachers in both i
I
groups had bachelor’s degrees and held regular *
teaching credentials in California.
2. Professional experience. One teacher from
8 0
each group had been In the school district for
more than twelve years. One from each group
was a beginning teacher, and the remaining four
had had two and three years of teaching experi
ence .
3. Professional competence. The teachers in both
groups were recommended for re-employment by
their school principals and were offered con
tracts for the following year by the school
district.
Procedures followed in the study. Information con
cerning each subject was recorded on individual file cards.
I
These data were grouped, tabulated, and treated in the
following manner: (l) direct comparisons were made be
tween two groups, (2) raw test scores were used to calcu
late the means and standard deviations, and (3) critical
ratios were used to measure significance. Each time a
comparison was made between two means, the "null hypothe
sis" was set up and either retained or rejected on the
basis of a five per cent or a one per cent level of sig
nificance.
Comparisons of the control and experimental groups
were made in the following areas:
1. Chronological age. The mean chronological age
81
for the control group was 91 months as compared
to 87 months for the experimental group.
Statistical analysis revealed that the differ
ence in chronological age between the two
groups was significant at the one per cent
level in favor of the control group.
2. Mental status. A comparison on the basis of
mental age and intelligence quotient indicated
no significant difference between the two
I
groups.
3. Socio-economic status. A survey of the occu- |
pations of the fathers of the subjects revealed ^
that the two groups were equally balanced as ■
to occupational rank.
4. Reading grade placement at beginning of study.
At the beginning of the study, the California
Reading Test, Primary Form BB was administered.j
Analysis of the results indicated no signifi- ;
cant difference between the control and the j
I
experimental groups.
I
5. Reading procedures. The respective reading
procedures described in Chapter III were ap
plied in the control and experimental groups |
during an entire school year. j
6. Reading grade placement at conclusion of study.j
82
Following the one-year period of instruction,
the subjects were again tested, this time with
Primary Form CC of the same reading test.
7. Analysis of reading scores. Gains made in
the areas of reading vocabulary, reading com
prehension, and total reading were tabulated
and analyzed. Groups means were computed and
compared, and critical ratios were used to
determine whether the differences were statis
tically significant.
II. FINDINGS
Status of the groups at the beginning of the study.
Analysis of the results of the reading test administered
at the beginning of the study produced the following in
formation.
1. The mean grade placement of the control group
was 2.06 and that of the experimental group
was 2.07. The critical ratio applied to these
means indicated no significant difference.
2. Sixty-four per cerit of the pupils in the con
trol group and 56 per cent of the pupils in
the experimental group were at or above grade
level.
83
Status of the groups at the conclusion of the study
Analysis of the results of the reading test administered
at the conclusion of the study showed the following infor
mation.
1. The mean grade placement of the control group
was 3"i9, and that of the experimental group
was 3.49. The critical ratio applied to these
means revealed the differences to be statisti
cally significant in favor of the experimental
group.
2. Sixty-one per cent of the pupils in the control
group and 74 per cent of the pupils in the ex- |
I perimental group were at or above grade level. *
I 3* The control group averaged 1.14 years in total j
reading gains, while the experimental group
* averaged 1.4l years. The critical ratio indi-
I cated these means to be significantly different.
j 4. Twenty-five per cent of the pupils in the con-
! I
trol group had total reading gains of more !
j I
I than 1.6 years, while 46 per cent of the pupils I
I in the experimental group scored within this 1
■ I
I range. ,
I
I 5. The control group averaged I.09 years in read- !
I
I ing vocabulary gains, while the experimental
I
I
84
group averaged I.96 years. The critical ratio
was applied and the differences were found to
be significant.
Fifty-nine per cent of the subjects in the
experimental group gained two years or more in
reading comprehension during the one year test
period, while only 24 per cent of the control
group scored within this range.
III. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of this investigation it appeared
that the following conclusions could be drawn.
1. The self-selective reading method may be used
successfully at the second grade level. The
study indicated that second grade pupils are
able to choose, from an appropriately stocked
class library, reading material which promotes
their reading growth. In addition, self-
selective reading was shown to be a method
whereby individual reading instruction may be
offered within the regular classroom.
2. The self-selective reading method produced
greater gains than did conventional reading
methods in the areas of reading vocabulary.
85
reading comprehension, and total reading.
IV. RECOMMENDATIONS
On the basis of the conclusions drawn from this
study, the following recommendations are offered.
1. School administrators and teachers who are al
ready employing self-selective techniques
should initiate and publicize research studies
of these groups. Long-range studies would be
of particular value.
2. School administrators should encourage their
teachers to utilize reading procedures which
allow for individual instruction within the
regular classroom. I
I
3. Teachers should employ reading procedures
which allow for individual instruction within
the regular classroom. !
4. Teachers should keep individualized reading !
[
records of their pupils, regardless of the i
method of instruction employed, in order to
I
accumulate objective data on the reading i
I
progress of children. ,
8 6
V. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
As this study developed, there were many problems
which were provocative but were beyond the limits of
this investigation. They are indicated here as possible
problems for future study.
1. Although reading records indicated that the
subjects in the self-selective reading groups
read greater numbers of books, no tabulation
was made for this investigation. However, a
study presenting the amounts and types of
reading material covered in the two programs
would offer another means of comparison.
2. The pupils of Mexican-Arnerican background ap
peared to adjust to the reading of English
more easily in the individualized instructional
program. In the face-to-face relationship
their natural reticence seemed to diminish. j
I
A study comparing children from foreign- j
!
speaking homes in an individualized reading j
program with those in a conventional reading |
program would be a valuable study, particularly ^
in locations where there is a large foreign !
population. ;
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
i _ .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
Betts, Emmett A. Foundations of Reading Instruction
New York: American Book Company, 1946* ~
Brogan, Peggy, and Lorene Fox. Helping Children Learn.
Yonkers-on-Hudson, New Yorkl World Book Company,
1955.
Burrows, Alvina Treut. Teaching Children in the Middle
Grades. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1952.
Edwards, Alba M. Population and Comparative Occupation
Statistics for the United States, 1890-1945.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1943.
Garrett, Henry E. Statistics in Psychology and Educa
tion. New York: Longmans, Green and Company,
I W .
Hildreth, Gertrude H. Learning the Three R*s.
Bloomington, Illinois: Educational Publishers,
1947.
Olsen, Willard C. Child Development. Boston: D. C
Heath and Company, 19^9-
Russell, David H. Children Learn to Read. Boston:
Ginn and Company, 1953-
8 9
B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES
Bennett, Erma, and others. "Schools Can Change Grouping
Practices," Childhood Education, 30:64-68,
October 1953«
Combs, Arthur W. "Prom Democratic Practices," Childhood
Education, 32:160-163, December 1955*
Dalch, E. W. "Groups in Reading," Elementary English,
31:477-484, December 1954.
Jenkins, Marion. "Here’s to Success in Reading,"
Childhood Education, 32:124-131, November 1955*
Maib, Prances. "Individualizing Reading," Elementary
English, 29:84-98, February 1954.
Veatch, Jeannette. "Individualized Reading for Success
in the Classroom," The Educational Trend. New
London, Connecticut: Arthur C. SlFaft Publication
No. 654, 1954.
C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS
Bonney, Jill, and L. B. Hanigan. "Individualized 1
Teaching of Reading," Thirty-Fourth Yearbook of the !
National Elementary Principals. Washington, D.C.:
National Education Association, 1955j pp. 76-82. j
!
Carlson, Esther, and Joyce Northrup. "An Experiment in
Grouping Pupils for Instruction in Reading," Thirty- f
Fourth Yearbook of the National Elementary Princi- {
pals. Washington, D.C.l National Education Asso- |
elation, 1955^ pp. 53-57.
9 0
Dawson, Don T. "Some Issues in Grouping for Reading,"
Thirty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Elementary
Principal. Washington, D.C.: National Education
Association, 1955, pp. 48-52.
Garrettson, Grace. "How One School Read the Needs of
the Slow Learner," Claremont Reading Conference,
Nineteenth Yearbook. Claremont, California:
Claremont College Reading Laboratory, 1954, pp.
59-68.
D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Criqui, Orvel. "A Study in the Teaching of Individual
ized Reading in the Eighth Grade." Unpublished
Master’s thesis, Kansas State Teachers College,
Emporia, Kansas, 1954.
Palmer, Delores. "To Determine the Reaction of a
Fourth Grade to a Program of Self-Selection of
Reading Materials." Unpublished Master’s thesis.
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1953*
University o f Southern C alifornia U6ia it

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Creator McChristy, Antoinette (author)

Core Title A comparative study to determine whether self-selective reading can be successfully used at the second grade level

Degree Master of Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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