University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An evaluation of a concept formation test for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing pupils

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An evaluation of a concept formation test for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing pupils

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Content AN EVALUATION OF A CONCEPT FORMATION TEST FOR TWO AND THREE YEAR OLD DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING PUPILS A Project Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education by Diane Richards Miller January 1960 UMI Number: EP49982 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dlssertaiion Rjbiishsng UMI EP49982 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 -1346 £ r c l Gù This project report, written under the direction of the candidate's adviser and approved by him, has been presented to and accepted by the faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M aster of Science in Education. Date / /-erf viser Dean TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM ....................... 1 The Problem...................... . . 1 Statement of the problem ........ 1 The importance of the study .... 2 Scope and Limitations of the Study . . 3 Organization of the Remainder of the Study.......................... 3 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.............. 5 III. THE MATERIALS USED AND PROCEDURE FOLLOWED 9 The Materials U s e d .................. 9 The examining t e a m ................ 9 The testing device ................ 9 The Test Items...................... 10 Derivation of the items used .... 12 Items in Test Age 2 .............. 14 Items in Test Age 3 .............. 17 Standardized Procedure .............. 20 Equipment and environment .......... 20 Standardized procedure for scoring . 20 Standardized procedure for practice sessions .............. . 21 Standardized procedure for the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 .................. 24 Ill CHAPTER PAGE IV. THE GROUP TESTED ..... ............ 26 The Two Year Old Group Tested.... 26 The Three Year Old Group Tested ... . 28 V. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINED...... 31 Summary of Subject * s Performance ... 31 The Test Items.................. 35 Criteria for evaluation of test items 35 Evaluation of test items...... 37 Test Age 2 .................. 37 Test Age 3 ................ 39 Recommendations for Test Items .... 41 Test Age 2 .................... 41 Recommendations .................. 43 Test Age 3 ........* ........... * . 43 Recommendations ...................... 44 The examining t e a m ............ 44 The testing device............ 45 Procedure...................... 45 VI. TEST RESULTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE SCORES AND LANGUAGE U S E D ........ 47 Summary of Subject's Performance with Regard to Intelligence............ 47 Conclusions.............. 49 iv CHAPTER PAGE Test Scores in Relation to Language U s e d .................. 49 Summary of subject * s performance . . 50 Conclusions........................ 52 VII. RETESTING.............................. 53 The Purpose of Retesting............ 53 Materials and Procedure ............ 54 The test group.................... 54 The time elapse between original testing and retesting ............ 54 Summary of the Subject * s Performance • 55 Retest scores as compared with original scores.................. 55 Conclusions ..... 58 Recommendations ..... ............ 59 VIII. A REVISED CONCEPT FORMATION TEST AGE 2 AND TEST AGE 3 ............ 61 The Examining T e a m ............... . 61 The Testing Device.................. 62 The Test Items...................... 62 Standardized Procedure .............. 65 Equipment and environment .......... 65 Scoring............................ 65 CHAPTER PAGE Standardized procedure for practice sessions...................... 66 Standardized procedure for the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 .............. . 70 Recommendations ............ ..... 71 IX. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 73 Summary....................... 73 Conclusions................... 75 Recommendations ........................ 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................... 79 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Concept Formation Test Age 3 ...... 19 II. Two Year Old Children Tested........... 27 III. Three Year Old Children Tested......... 29 IV. Summary of Subject’s Performance on Test Age 2 and 3— Two Year O l d s .......... 32 V. Summary of Subject’s Performance on Test 3— Three Year Olds Only.............. 36 VI. Per Cent Passing Each Item at Each Age Level................ 38 VII. Individual Per Cents Correct and Intelligence Scores .................. 48 VIII. Individual Per Cents Correct and Language Used........................ 51 IX. Retest Scores for Two Year Group on Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 ............ 56 X. Per Cent Passing Each Item on Retest as Compared with Initial Test ..... 57 XI. Reyised Concept Formation Test Age 2 . . 63 XII. Revised Concept Formation Test Age 3 . . 64 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. The Testing Device: the Tracy Box .... 11 2. Items of Test Age 2— Objects............. 15 3. Score Sheet for Practice Session ......... 33 4. Score Sheet for Test Session............ 34 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Deaf and hard of hearing children benefit to the greatest degree when their handicap is discovered during their first year of life. Speech training is most effective when it begins during the period in which speech normally develops in all children. Any teaching is made more effective when pertinent tests are admin istered and their results utilized to help the individual according to his needs. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. It was assumed that experiential or conceptual levels could be successfully measured by a skillfully created test program designed for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing pupils. For want of any adequate test of the formation of concepts at the two year age level, this investiga tion has been conducted. The purpose of this project was to: 1. Determine the characteristic concept levels of two and three year old children through a review of pertinent literature. 2. Develop test items validated against the review of the literature which would have 2 merit for the purposes of appraisal and evaluation. 3. Administer these test items to a small normative sample of deaf and hard of hearing children at the two and three year age levels. 4. Critically evaluate the appropriateness and discriminatory value of the test through a critical analysis of the subject’s perform ance. 5. Make appropriate recommendations based on the findings of this investigation. The importance of the study. Unfortunately, due to the early age of the pupils who most benefit from speech training, it is extremely difficult to test them, and few tests have been found effective. Apart from the intellectual capacity of the child, the level of con ceptual development, which is the ability to understand and make relationships, is a primary factor in speech training. This conceptual development is obviously handicapped without the benefit of language, and, in turn, language is more easily developed with an increased ability to make relationships. Both of these abilities are based upon the past experiences of the child. It would appear to prove beneficial, therefore, to establish some manner of measuring the extent of 3 this conceptual handicap in each child, as it would provide a more enlightened basis upon which speech training could begin. II. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY In making a sincere evaluation of this test, several limitations of the study should be mentioned. One of the chief disadvantages was the relatively small number of available two year old deaf and hard of hear ing children. Twenty-three of these children were available for testing. Another limitation was the amount of time these children were available to be tested. The test was conducted during the six week summer session at the John Tracy Clinic for Pre-school Hard of Hearing and Deaf Children. The group was available for testing in the mornings only. III. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY Chapter II of this evaluation will present a brief review of the previous literature concerning concept development as it applies to this study. Fol lowing this, in Chapter III, a discussion of the materials used in administering the test will be 4 presented, which includes a description of the testing ( device, the test procedure, and a derivation of the items used in the test. Chapter IV will give a brief description of the group of children used in the testing program. With this background carefully understood, the results of the testing will be brought out in Chapter V. Chapter VI will present test results in relation to intelligence scores as measured by the Leiter Scale and the amount of language used during the testing period. The next chapter, VII, will concern retesting sessions, their purposes, and results. Chapter VIII will present a Revised Concept Formation Test for two year old deaf and hard of hear ing children based on test results, established criteria, and previous recommendations. A summary, with conclusions and recommendations concerning the project, will be presented in Chapter IX at the close of the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Much has been written with regard to concept formation in terms of human development. Some informa tion has been gathered to the effect that concept development seems to follow certain patterns as the child matures and that it is closely related to lan guage. Only a brief summary of some of the studies which have described and defined concept formation, and just those which are closely related to the study at hand, will be presented here. Numerous studies on the relation of language to concept formation have revealed that language is not an indispensable factor in realizing relationships, but one which greatly facilitates this development. In light of this, deafness would greatly reduce a child’s ability to form abstract concepts. The abil ity to state concretely the parts of a relationship helps to form the whole concept 2 The formation of a concept, according to Ruch, Louis W. Gellerraan, ’ ’Form Discrimination in Chimpanzees and Two-Year-Old Children,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 42:3-27, March, 1933. 2 Floyd L. Ruch, Psychology and Life (Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1953), p. 492. 6 involves such processes as perception, sensation, and thought. In his study these processes were utilized in making connections between objects and grouping them accordingly. Perception and abstraction were most used in forming concepts. In Leeper’s theory of the formation of concepts, most persons relate materials or make relationships according to certain common elements after a sensory experience. This inductive process is utilized most frequently. Vinacke^ conducted an examination in which he found that the ability to form concepts increases with chronological age rather than in specific stages of development. It would follow then that, with an increase in age, more abstract concepts could be formed. In another investigation of the formation of 5 concepts by children, HazJLitt discovered that the g Robert L. Leeper, ’ ’Cognitive Processes,” Handbook of Experimental Psychology, edited by S. S. Stevens %New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1951), pp. 730-757. 4 W. Edgar Vinacke, The Psychology of Thinking (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952), pp. 97-135. ^Victoria Hazlitt, ’ ’ Children’s Thinking,” British Journal of Psychology, 20:354-361, April, 1930. 7 ability to classify developed faster than the ability to explain the classification verbally. The lack of experience is the primary reason for childish reac tions, not the inability to think. In light of this, it may be possible to test the deaf for concept devel opment as well as the normal child, if language is eliminated or assumed to be unnecessary in some situa tions gauging this development. Gellerman, in his study of the concept of form, found that children classify objects more readily on the basis of form rather than on the basis of color. This fact is supported by several other investigations. 7 Another study of concept development revealed that children appear to be more familiar with the idea of "big” than with any other concept involving size. Q In Oleron’s observation of deaf and hard of hearing children as compared with hearing children, it was discovered that deaf children depend more readily on observation than on subordinating observed ^Gellerman, loc. cit. 7 Martha E. Thrum, ”The Development of Concepts of Magnitude,” Child Development, 6:120-140, June, 1935. Q Pierre Oleron, "Conceptual Thinking of the Deaf,” American Annals of the Deaf, 98:304-309, May, 1953. 8 data to an overall concept. The degree of hearing loss also appears to have considerable bearing on a child’s ability to reason, although this depends on the type of reasoning measured. Previous studies on the formation of concepts by young children have produced no reliable test of this development, particularly in those children at the two and three year levels. These age levels are of particular importance to those interested in the ultimate welfare of the deaf and hard of hearing. The test presented in this paper is designed to throw further light on the subject of the ability of deaf children to form concepts, as well as to attempt to verify whether this ability can be successfully meas ured during the second and third year of life. Due to the fact that this investigation was not a library study but an experimental investigation, emphasis on a review of the literature is necessarily brief. Important references for a library oriented study will be found in the Bibliography. CHAPTER III THE MATERIALS USED AND PROCEDURE FOLLOWED Before any test can be evaluated it is necessary to understand and become familiar with the materials used to administer the test and the procedure followed by both the examiner and the examinee. I. THE MATERIALS USED The Examining Team The administration of the Concept Formation Test required an examiner and a scorer. The examiner worked directly with each child by placing the items on the machine, switching the dial for the correct response, and presenting the reward. The scorer served as a demonstrator under the direction of the examiner to show each child his part in the session and what was expected of him. After the demonstration by the scorer, the child took the scorer’s place while the scorer retired to the back of the room to record responses. Both examiner and scorer were careful to betray no clues for answers through expression or gestures. The Testing Device The Tracy Box, the machine used to help in 10 administering the Concept Formation Test, is pictured in Figure 1. It consisted of a wooden box with six red lights placed in two rows of three, with a telephone jack beside each light. A wooden ledge, 36 inch by 436 inches, was located above each light to hold the 4 inch by 4 inch cards. A six way light switch was located in the back of the box and was turned by the examiner to select the key position for each of the test items. When the telephone jack was pulled or pushed, the examiner switched the light on and the child was aware of his correct response. If the light did not go on, the examinee knew he had made an incorrect response. II. THE TEST ITEMS The selection and creation of the test items were based upon the following criteria, and it was hoped that in the final evaluation of results each item would meet this criteria; 1. The tasks should be highly motivating. 2. The tasks should be such that fatigue will be minimized. 3. The tasks should be arranged so as not to require drastic shifts of set. 4. The complexity of the concept should be related to the ease of attainment. 11 0 % % FIGURE 1 THE TESTING DEVICE: THE TRACY BOX 12 5. The difficulty of the task items should be a function of age, 6. The items for a given age level should have an average difficulty level with 40 to 60 per cent of a given age group passing, 7. The items for each yearly test should be presented in ascending order of difficulty. 8. The items should be uniform in color, except where color conceptualization is being measured. 9. The test stimuli should be of comparable size. 10. The tasks should provide a non-verbal knowledge of results. 11. All forms of psychological feedback should occur automatically. 12. Per severat ive response set patterns should be minimized through variation in answer placement. Derivation of the Items Used Some of the items used on this test were based on previous research in this area done at the John Tracy Clinic. This former research was not primarily 13 concerned with the age two group with which this study is concerned. The first test, Test Age 2, developed expressly for this study, was used with two and three year olds and was expressly developed for the two year level. The second test given for this study was developed for the three year old child, and as a consecutive step in difficulty for the two year old children tested. The items used on each of the tests were the chosen items from the previous study which were found to be most easily understood and recognized by the three year old children preyiously tested.^ They were also based on the literature presented in this study in the review of the literature, and on the established criteria. Objects were found previously to be more mean ingful to the youngest of the children tested and for this reason the Test Age 2 deals with objects. Pic tures were found to be just as understandable as objects to the three year age group, and as a result the Test Age 3 deals with pictures. The more meaning- 9 Vivian Moravec Stedry, ”A Critical Analysis of the Concept Formation Test and Reinforcement Apparatus Developed at the John Tracy Clinic" (unpublished Master’s thesis. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1958). 14 fui items were found previously to be those which were concerned with articles found in the child’s daily life, such as clothing and toys and utensils. Items in Test Age 2. A picture of this entire test may be found in Figure 2, The items are explained and defined as follows: 1. Item No. 1 consists of two circles and a triangle. These objects are made of wood, unpainted, and of approximately the same size. This item appeared first because of research stating that form discrimination was easiest for the young child. This item appeared first to insure some measure of success to the beginner. 2. The second item presents two shoes, one with laces and one with a buckle. The opposing article is a square of unpainted wood of nearly the same size. The shoes are obviously familiar articles and the square a familiar form, but not over- attractive, and one which would serve as a transition from the first item of the test to the second. Item No. 1. Circle Circle 15 Triangle 2. Square Shoe Tie Shoe 3. Cup Sock Cup 4. Horse Cow Baby 5. Truck Boat Sail Boat 6. Ball Apple Ball ITEMS OF FIGURE 2 TEST AGE 2— OBJECTS 16 3. Item No. 3 is a combination of articles representing eating utensils and clothing. The two cups were of differing shape and the sock was of the same color as the cups. These are articles each child would have had some experience with through repeated use and handling, but none stood out in attractiveness over the other. These articles are to be related in terms of their use. 4. Item No. 4 appears to be more abstract and is designed to be more difficult than the preceding items. A relationship is to be recognized between four-legged animals and human beings. The cow and the horse repre sent familiar animals and the human being is in the form of a baby of about the age of the children being tested. 5. Item No. 5 was included to measure the con cept of transportation. The boats and the truck were of similar size but of all dif ferent colors. The boats were of different types, a motor boat and a sail boat, while the truck was a trailer-type vehicle. 17 6. The last item on this test, Item No, 6, was included to test the relationship of edible and inedible articles of the same size and color. The two red balls and the red apple were used to illustrate this relationship. Great effort was exerted to eliminate or minimize form and color in this item. An overall view of the first test reveals items on familiar subjects such as form, clothing, utensils, animals, transportation, and food. These items were included on the assumption that these concepts are, or should be, generally understood in their simplest forms at this age level. The results of the test, it was hoped, would verify or refute these assumptions. Items in Test Age 3. The next test. Test Age 10 3, was based on a previously developed test and should prove to be progressively more difficult than Test Age 2. This test consists of a series of pic tures. Objects were proven in previous tests to be unnecessary at the third year level. This test is a Revised Concept Formation Test for the three year age level. It was given to this 18 two year age group for two reasons: 1. To further establish the fact that objects are more meaningful to younger children than pictures, and 2. To further prove its discriminatory value for the three year age group as it is expected to be too difficult for the two year age group. Because this test has been proven previously to be fairly acceptable for the age three level, and as such is covered in previous literature, it was deemed unnecessary to describe the bases for the inclusion of each of its items. Test Age 3 is described in Table I. The pictures used for the items in the test were drawn with India ink on cards of the same dimension as those used in Test Age 2. They were made as simple and clear as possible, eliminating color except for the item designed to measure color only. This color item. Item No. 2, was made with construction paper fastened to the card. The items were unchanged in content from the Revised Concept Formation Test Age 11 3, but some which lacked realism or clarity were redrawn before the testing began. 19 TABLE I CONCEPT FORMATION TEST AGE 3 Test Item No* Key (positions) 1 2 3 1. star square square 2. red white red 3. chair chair lamp 4. car plane car 5. hunny rooster duck 6. bicycle dog tricycle 20 III. STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE Equipment and Environment The equipment and environment were standardized during all testing periods with each child as follows: 1. The Tracy Box was placed standing on a slant on a kindergarten table. 2. The child was seated on a stool that could be raised or lowered for comfort. 3. Two kindergarten sized chairs were employed to seat the examiner and scorer. 4. The same room was used each time and decora tions were eliminated to alleviate unneces sary distractions. Standardized Procedure for Scoring All responses of the subjects tested were recorded by the scorer as follows: 1. Correct responses were recorded as plus. 2. Incorrect responses were recorded as minus. 3. A plus minus score was recorded for a response that was originally correct but final action by the child resulted in failure to pull or push the correct handle. 21 4. Any additional comments deemed necessary concerning test behavior or conditions having some bearing on final scores were also recorded by the scorer. Standardized Procedure for Practice Sessions Previous testing revealed that practice sessions were necessary to clarify instructions to the child and to allow him to become acquainted with the examiner and relaxed in the testing situations. At this time rap port was built between the child and the examiner. Due to the youth of this group tested, rapport was vital in securing adequate results from the testing sessions. The practice sessions were standardized in the follow ing manner: 1. The scorer moved into the child’s place and demonstrated the items in the practice first for the child, but waiting each time for the directions of the examiner. 2. The examiner indicated for the scorer to hide her eyes while the examiner placed the cards on the Tracy Box and switched the dial for the correct response light to be lit. 22 3. The scorer was then asked to examine the cards and the examiner said, slowly and carefully, with the child watching, ’ ’Show me the one that is not the same.” 4. The scorer scanned the cards slowly and deliberately, pointing out outlines of importance and exaggerating her actions for clarity while the child watched care fully. 5. The scorer then pointed to the card and the light for the correct response, and pulled the handle and the light went on. 6. Rewards were presented to the scorer by the examiner in the form of praise, or some tidbit of food. 7. The demonstration was repeated by the scorer and examiner as described in sec tions one-six. The examiner and scorer showed the child the ones that were not the same after each demonstration. 8. After two such demonstrations, the child had a turn and took the scorer’s place to perform on the same items already answered by the scorer. 23 9. The child hid his eyes, the examiner put the same cards up, tapped the child, said, "Show me the one that is not the same,” and presented a reward for a correct response. 10. If a child made an incorrect response, no reward was given. The examiner explained the correct response to the child and the item was continued until the child could furnish two correct responses. 11. When the child responded with two correct answers consecutively, he proceeded on to the next practice item. 12. Correct responses on three practice items, whether learned or originally correct, warranted continuance to the test itself. 13. During the practice session both scorer and examiner were constantly vigilant for signs of discomfort or fatigue displayed by the subject. Any indications of these feelings were given attention and the practice was discontinued until a later time. 14. Upon satisfactory completion of the prac tice, the scorer retired to the back of 24 the room to avoid distracting the subject, and the examiner administered the actual test items. Standardized Procedure for the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 The following procedure was used in giving the Concept Formation Test; 1. The child was asked to hide his eyes by the examiner. The examiner then placed the items on the Tracy Box and switched the dial for the correct light to be lit. 2. The examiner secured the child’s attention and directed his eyes toward her to watch while she said, "Show me the one that is not the same." 3. The child was directed to pull or push the plug to make his response. When the sub ject was correct the light went on and a reward was given with much praise. When the subject was wrong the light did not go on, no reward was offered, and the examiner went on to the next item. If the child was uncomfortable, and indicated a wish to know 25 the correct answer, he was shown by the examiner. 4. At the completion of the test some reward was given to the child in the form of food tidbits, gummed stickers, or special praise, depending on which was termed most important to the particular child tested. CHAPTER IV THE GROUP TESTED The group of children to whom the test was administered were enrolled in the Summer Session at the John Tracy Clinic at Los Angeles, California. The following information is supplied for both groups tested. None of the children had been to the Clinic preyiously and were not regular session pupils. I. THE TWO YEAR OLD GROUP TESTED Table II represents a brief history of each two year old child tested. The first column in the table presents the child’s number, which eliminates refer ences to the child’s given name. The next column presents the child’s chronological age in years and months, and his birth date. Column three tells the sex of the child, and column four involves the hearing loss of the child as determined by the Clinic. The fifth column describes the language used during the test as observed by the examiner and scorer, and the sixth column indicates the intelligence quotients as measured by the Leiter Scale when possible, and the Pintner Non-Verbal Test when the Leiter Scale was not yet given and scored. The remaining column presents general observations of the examiner concerning test 27 TABLE II TWO YEAR OLD CHILDREN TESTED Subject * s Number Birth Date and Chrono logical Age Sex Hearing Loss Language (Subjective Appraisal) Intelligence Quotient Comment s 1. 6/21/56 2.0 F Severe 1 or 2 words 104 (on Non- Verbal) Rather inconsistent on test, passed it at one time and missed it at another ; cooperative, quiet; needed blanket, some perseveration. 2. 6/6/56 2.2 M Severe None— some vocalizing 108 (on Non- Verbal) Probably no comprehension, plugs anyone, much perseveration on position B, chance plays large part here, atypical, may be vision difficulty. 3, 5/24/56 2.2 M Severe None 96 (on Non- Verbal ) Very little comprehension if any, perseveration on each item on three year test, does not correct mistakes. 4. 4/17/56 2.3 M Severe Some, when became relaxed 115 (on Non- Verbal) Very quiet, would not use plug at first, tester successful on floor but he would not plug on his own, wanted to be told, would point but not do it himself. 5. 3/10/56 2.4 M Hard of hearing None 121 (on Non- Verbal) No perseveration, imitates, corrects own mistakes, good attention, pointed to same ones. 6. 2/10/56 2.5 F Profound Vocalizes, tries Average Would not use board for first few practices, worked on floor, then used board, would not do it when unsure, many practices. 7. 2/7/56 2.6 M Profound Said "same” and "not same" 131 (on Non- Verbal) Eager, always does tasks, corrects mistakes, became inattentive, some perseveration. 8. 2.7 F Severe Some 131 (on Leiter) Would not use plug at first but pointed, verbalized for "not same,” happy when right. 9. 11/10/55 2.9 F Severe None in test ing situation 140 (on Leiter) Very tense in testing situation, cried first two times but was ill, happy when right, we waited her out, she learned when she was wrong, some per severation. 28 behavior and/or pertinent personal information about / each child. There were nine children tested ranging in age from 2.0 to 2.9 years. One child, number ten, was not tested due to a severe vision handicap. Of these children there were four girls and five boys, ranging in IQ from 140 to 96. Most of those tested were handi capped with a severe or profound hearing loss. One child was termed "hard of hearing." II. THE THREE YEAR OLD GROUP TESTED Thirteen children were tested in the three year age group. They were given the Test Age 3. Table III describes this group in the same manner as Table II describes the two year old children tested. It supplies information concerning each child in terms of age, sex, hearing loss, IQ, language, and pertinent observations and comments by the examiner. Of the thirteen tested, six were girls and seven were boys. They ranged in age from 3.1 to 3.11 years. Their hearing losses were described mainly as severe or profound. IQ’s ranged from 81 to 133. 29 TABLE III THREE YEAR OLD CHILDREN TESTED Subject * s Number Birth Date and Chrono logical Age Sex Hearing Loss Language (Subjective Apprai sal) Intelligence Quotient Comments 10. 6/5/55 3.1 F Severe Tries lan guage, fair, "not same" 90 (on Leiter) Starts for one that was correct before, had trouble leaving nursery, tries to verbalize, imitates, cried first time. Suspected emotional overlay. Parents first cousins. 11. 5/6/55 3.3 M Severe None during test 103 (on Leiter) Has tendency to pick one that was right before, discourages easily when wrong, looks for reinforce ment, bites fingers, perseverates, makes sound with mouth, cooperative and happy, corrects mistakes. 12. 1/3/55 3.6 M Severe None during test 103 (on Leiter) Became angry, on higher level, can correct items, could do task but board too distracting, did better without board, inconsistent, believe does not care. 13. 3.6 F Moderate o Lots of lan guage, named items, said "not same" but did not know what it meant 111 (on Leiter) Imitates, says what tester says but without meaning, looked for reinforcement, asked for more, on medica tion, happy. 14. 1/1/55 3.6 F Severe Some, when retested said "same” and "not same" 133 (on Leiter) Very active first time, felt she could do better on whole test given more practice, imitated, did not look at first, pointed right and plugged wrong. 15. 12/21/54 3.7 M Severe Vocalized without mean ing, pounds 109+ (on Non- Verbal) (Leiter unscored) Uncontrollable in testing situation, four year test impossible to give, threw items, would not sit, would not look, looks only at holes, hyperactive, fell, pushed cards off. 16. 12/23/54 3.7 M Profound None at testing 91 (on Non- Verbal) (Leiter not given) Continued Hears at some times and not at others, little comprehension, perseverates, only looked at light, chance, no learning, did not want reward, just wanted love. 30 TABLE III (Continued) Subject * s Number Birth Date and Chrono logical Age Sex Hearing Loss Language (Subjective Apprai sal) Intelligence Quotient Comment s 17. 3.7 F Severe None at test ing but has some language 88 (on Non- Verbal) (Leiter not given yet) Very imitative, passive resistance sometimes, short attention span, not interested, likes praise, not much comprehension, shy, wanted to be held. 18. 11/11/54 3.8 F Profound None at testing 102 (on Leiter) Very meticulous, put cards up herself, brought friend first time, looked when directed, imitated examiner, became upset on high level when she was wrong. 19. 10/6/54 3.9 M Hard of hearing Used lan guage Said "choo choo " 93 (on Leiter) Could understand tester, happy when right, perseveratei some, watched, did not want friend to help, understood 20. 9/26/54 3.9 M Severe None during testing 117 (on Leiter) Liked to put up own cards, perseveration when he did not know it, almost expressionless, shy, withdrawn, did not want to be touched, sad when he missed. 21. 8/13/54 3.11 F Profound None during testing, nodded or shook head 122 (on Leiter) Responds to praise, got idea, some perseveration, learned easily, happy when right, imitative some, perseverated when did not know. 22. 9/18/54 3.10 F Profound None during testing 81+ (on Leiter) Vision difficulty, very attentive, happy when right, pointed but needed help to plug board, needed to be very close, may be chance, perseverated on bottom plug, has trouble holding head up. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINED The two year old children tested were given both Test Age 2 and Test Age 3, while the three year old children tested were given only Test Age 3. The results of these test sessions will be presented here in a summary of the subject’s performance. The test items will be discussed individually; following this the scores will be evaluated in terms of their relation to the intelligence of the children tested and the amount of language used by each child during the test. I. SUMMARY OF SUBJECT’S PERFORMANCE The test was somewhat difficult to administer due to the age level of the children tested. The examiner feels, however, that the scores finally obtained represent the general concept capacities of the test group. These results are presented here in Table IV. The scores were recorded by the scorer on the printed scoring sheets found in Figures 3 and 4. The sheet presented in Figure 3 was utilized in recording performance during practice sessions. Figure 4 is an example of the scoring sheet utilized during the actual test session. 32 > M I s CO 3 O od i 0 » G g G G > O O O •H ( f i •H •H +) +> G ( f i ( f i O G +> - * G G G G G 'H % G O G G G -P X -H X ( f i d o «H G ( f i G G O > G G ’ H G O * O G G d > d'à ( f i O C h o g g G G • O G o •*T3 ( f iG O X G G G +> G O G -p G 'G G •H O ^ • G 'H ( f i G G O +> G G H -P *H •P G <H G g -P -P G g ( f i ( f i g G >> fH -P G +> •H -P G H - G •H G -P G ( f i m G > # G G p - 4 > G G G -P G G Ü'H G G S O G G ( f i Æ G «H % ( f i G S Ü *H G G o G «H G G G o G G H G G,G'H G G O O H CfÆ d d G 'G > d G G 10 O G G G bC 1 1 1 B < lO CD G O +» <H ( f i + + + G G (N to O G ÊH d. G <M G G G G b£ 1 1 1 a < O CD G O +> <H ( f i + + + G G CD O OJ G H d rH G o •H bO O G (M (M •H b£ • • • O < (M (M (N g G X! Ü ( f i ■P G O G G X2 « • • •rj g p H (M to Æ G G Z (O o +> ’ X S I o ( f i Q > ( f i a o ( f i C 3 c d Q X! p t i t e Q X C d o <p fl C d o Ü H g G k o G xs _ _ . t i +» iH ' G o ' G 0 3 «H G G * - G -H *H -P -H G G î > > G C h O G fH O •H ^ G +» G +) M O c y * G G * * 'G «H rH p> >> bO ( f i o G G G ( f i O *H 0 ) m - 4 G +) O G G G G Æ ^ ( f i ( f i H G > A G co Gj^ G I K) + K> I to - h to to (N ( f i ( f i ( f i G X G G G G g p 1 p 1 g G ^ P G 03 1 G G G G P 43 G G ( f i G G G O G G • G P G P P * • ♦H bO *H G 'H G X! P P G "G ( f i •H ( f i 'O CH - G g d P P O 43 G P g G G _ m G p O G G G bO ( f i ^ ^ p g •H ^ G 'd G o d G O G P P P *H G O G O g O G bCGS O G P % G G *"P P G ‘ H ^ O O > G G G ( f i P d ^ g G % O G G P % G P P G G ( f i d O O *H * * G O ( f i P ( f i • d G G G P G G G •H g G d ^ 'G P P G G •H O X5 P 43 G "G P O G G Ü G G P G O P G P G G G G'^ ( f i G O ( f i • G G fXX ( f i d P * * P P G f P G G P G G G G 'H G bO >> TJ p g O G G G •H P G G G G bO P G d G G p G G > G p P "G G G O G g -H P G P d W P P % G G G p O G G G ( f i Ü b f i O P O ^ N G G G G G ( f i P P G G G G ( f i bO G P Æ G O ( f i O G G G • G G • *G 0*0* G * * P P G • * Ü G G P G d G G G ( f i •'G " G P G 0 * P d G -G ( f i P P O G G G G p W 42 G >)G 43 * - G O G G O G O G bO^ > P G G G g G O P bOP O O O *H O ^ G P -G G G P G O P G G G P G P G % G bOP ^ P d P ^ W P P JD ^ P > ( f i > P Æ G O +1 + 1 +1 P 1 P P 1 to 1 1 ( N 0 * Th (M + + OJ » » to 0 * + + + to P to + 1 1 1 1 1 P to to to to 1 . . O + + + + to to to to 0* + (N lO lO lO (M CO (M (N 0) (N CD 00 œ TEST NO.: CHILD NO.: TESTER:___ SCORER: NAME_ DATE_ AGE SCHOOL^ SCORE__ Practice I 33 Subject Items Answers Comment s Cl C2 Extra Practice Practice II Cl C2 Extra Practice Additional Comments FIGURE 3 SCORE SHEET FOR PRACTICE SESSION 34 NAME TEST NO: DATE CHILD NO: AGE TESTER: SCHOOL SCORER SCORE TEST AGE 2 Answers No Items Comment s TEST AGE 3 Additional Comments FIGURE 4 SCORE SHEET FOR TEST SESSION 35 A summary of each child's performance is pre sented in Table IV, page thirty-two* Comments regarding pertinent test behavior are also shown, which might alter or help to explain the obtained scores. This table shows that the two year test was somewhat easier for the two year old children than the three year test was for the same children. Table V gives the same information for the three year old children tested on the Test Age 3. Of these scores, approximately half of those tested obtained plus answers. 11. THE TEST ITEMS Criteria for Evaluation of Test Items The evaluation of each of the test items will be based on the following criteria, which are repeated here for purposes of clarity: 1. The tasks should be highly motivating. 2. The tasks should be such that fatigue will be minimized. 3. The tasks should be arranged so as not to require drastic shifts of set. 4. The difficulty of the test items should be a function of age. I I o a 0 Pi 1 o P -g • * 73 k O Q ) hO bû 1 g P 1 g P 0 ^ 8 •H g g g O g g g 1 • > Q ) g g 73 <H *H g O > o 43 g O ü g 43 g P U O 0 3 H - > g *H o g g g g O g m 43 g • • g >> g # • X o g ^ P p g g O * • U p o g P g g 43 o g P 1 *H -P g g g 43 o % P P A73 p g A • O >>g g P g 43 a 43 g <P g 0 3 Ê g g * g bOg g g g g g CM P ^ g O ^ C v bO g O -P g g g g ü P g P g g P g P P g g P g % g o P g Q ) ‘ H P A O P g P U g P P g g g O P g g o g g O k * - < H • g & O -H g g g O p •H M g bO g P • * g 43 g 73 U >i >> Xi O P g O O g g s o 0 3 p < p g p g g > g O OS P >>Ü g o p p g g g - A g P 044 a g g 73 # » g g O O 0 ) iH P g p > P O O 73 g o g A - g ^ • 43 43 C Q *H S - i g P **P g g g B P S Q ) • o p g 0 ) g p bO ^ Ü 0 3 g g O g g P P g g 43 g 'O 73 bO P P P g 73 p g g g Ü P g P C O g O > O g g g g P g X g 70 g g g P P P H g g > g p g O % g ^ g O g g g O 43 g g g P O g g g g g p o g g P g A ^ X s bO g o p g g S h g g P g g g g p g P g g A +> f a C 0 3 iH ü g g g g g P p o g P ^ P _ O g o o g p A g g g • » g g Q ) g •H g Ü P g P g g p g —« i 4 73 • ' g p g g g • A g 0 3 43 g -H -P g A bO g P O P g •B ^ 73 B 73 g P g g a % A g g 73 g g O 'P > g O g O g g P ^ • * p p g P g > g p g p # p g p •*P g +) 'H O g P g g g bOTS p bO O P P p g o % -P 4 * 3 g g 73 44 P 0 ) g "H "P P g g P O • ‘ P g g g 43 * * bO g ^ P P 43 g p g g P 43 g g g g g g p g O O p g g % P g g X g P g g g g g ^ P o 44 43 g g O *H s >iO g g X g g g g C D P Æ • » g 43 a g g O P P g P O g P g g g ü g g p g ^ O g g >> • g P A g g g G A g P g_r43 g O _ _ > g 1 - 4 g p bO g g g A g > g P B g 73 g B o g g o 73 Ü P g 73 g O ^ g 'd g "g g % g P g • B A O P g 'd P g A P O 73 > P 43 g O P g O g ( H g N g g o A g g P g g g p p g O P % 73 P g O •H g P P P # * 4 3 O g O -H P g • ‘ P A P g g P 43 P g o g g P 43 g «'P a g O ^ P g g g g P O g g g g B . -g P g g g p P ^ * * g g •H # - g "d a c o g A # Q ) P P g g P g g X! B 'do g O • * Ü g ^ • ‘W g p p g g g g p g % s g mO A O M g p g p 43 p p X g 43 O g 44 73 g P 43 P >5 g g p g g g P S g g* g g g p o g ü o g P P P g 73 g g bO g g O g g P bO g s p g g g g 73 B P o P g g g g g o g g g o o S P g g g P P g 43 O g g P P g g p g g g g A g O g u CQ Æ > g œ 43 p g CQ g 43 g M ^ B S > P g p p p ü S3 P P ^ > p p s 6 >•0 3 p g p 36 Q to O o s 6 < S h O 'P ch C O L , O Q ) H P h O •H f e O O Q > •H & C O < G 0 1 0 3 -P k O Q > < D Xi T3 g p I + (N I to + to I + CM I + to I to + to I lO + I + Cd 1+ H I (M + to I fH + lO to to to <o to CO to (O to to to to 00 to CM to lO C O 00 I to + to CJ> to Oi 1 - 4 d d g g g d g g > d g g 43 g P d g 43 d g g g p g g g g g g g % d o • ' p O g p g g g d g 43 p p p 43 g g G g g g a ^ > g p g g g #-p G > #'43 g d • » «'d 43 g g g g g p g g g O P p p g 43 p G g g P g o g g bO g P g P g g g 43 P *H • A g P A g g g G g A O g g > % A % g P g o o g P g G g g ^ p g g p O P P d d g g g 43 g ü g g g P g g g Ü ^ 43 g g g O d g A P >s43 g A g g ^ P % bO g X • o ^ P A g g bû 43 g d bO A g P A P > g o p g g % g d g bO P g #'d o g A g jg bo g d o g b g Abo g g 43 p p g " g g G »"P G g g # * 4 3 d P g A G 43 o g ^ g g W > P p g g g 0 ) m g P P g g g g 43 d % s g > p p 73 P d d p p o g g g 43 g g 43 p g g g g A d g 44 g P d p g g a P P g G P 43 P g o g o g G P g g g g O g p g C O g 43 g P I to + to 05 to o CM I CM + I + CM to o 1 - 4 to f - 4 CM CM CM 37 5. Between 40 and 60 per cent of those taking the test at the age level for which it was, designed should pass the item. 6. The items should be uniform in color and comparable in size except where these con cepts are being measured. 7. The items for each yearly test should be presented in ascending order of difficulty. 8. Perseverative response set patterns should be minimized through variations in answer placement on the Tracy Box. Evaluation of Test Items Table VI illustrates the per cent passing each of the items on Test Age 2 and Test Age 3. A total per cent of correct answers given for each entire test at each age level is also included. Each test will be evaluated item by item with regard to the established criteria. Those parts of the item which do not meet the criteria will be brought out. Test Age 2. The following information was gathered from Table VI. Items considered discriminatory should have been between 40 and 60 per cent of a given age group passing. TABLE VI PER CENT PASSING EACH ITEM AT EACH 38 AGE LEVEL Per Cent of Per Cent of Two Year Three Year Olds Passing Olds Passing Items (N = 9) (N = 13) TEST AGE 2 1. Circle, circle, triangle 44 2. Rectangle, shoe, shoe 44 3. Cup, sock, cup 66 4. Horse, cow, baby 33 5. Truck, boat, boat 66 6. Ball, apple, ball 55 Total per cent passing 51 TEXT AGE 3 1. Star, square, square 22 46 2. Red, white, red 66 46 3. Chair, chair, lamp 33 53 4. Car, plane, car 22 46 5. Bunny, bird, bird 55 53 6. Bike, dog, bike 11 89 Total per cent passing 35 49 , 39 1. Item No. 1 appeared to be discriminating. Forty-four per cent passed. This per cent, however, indicates that the item is too difficult to remain in the first position. 2. Item No. 2 appeared to be discriminating. Forty-four per cent passed. This item may be too difficult for the second position at this age level. 3. item No. 3 appeared to be non-discriminat ing. Sixty-six per cent passed. This item, however, might be modified and retained. 4. Item No. 4 appeared to be non-discriminat ing. Thirty-three per cent passed. 5. Item No. 5 appeared to be non-discriminat ing. Sixty-six per cent passed, indicating that the item was too easy in this position. 6. Item No. 6 appeared to be discriminating. Fifty-five per cent passed the item. A summary of the preceding results suggests that Items No. 3, 4, and 5 appear to be non-discriminating. Fifty-one per cent of those tested made correct answers on Test Age 2. Test Age 3. Both age groups were given Test Age 3. The results presented in Table VI, page thirty- 40 eight, are further enumerated here for the three year old children: 1. Item No. 1 appeared to be discriminating. Forty-six per cent passed. A larger per cent passing the first item would better meet the established criteria. 2. Item No. 2 appeared to be discriminating. Forty-six per cent passed. 3. Item No. 3 appeared to be discriminating. Fifty-three per cent passed. 4. Item No. 4 appeared to be discriminating. Forty-six per cent passed. 5. Item No. 5 appeared to be discriminating. Fifty-three per cent passed. 6. Item No. 6 appeared to be non-discriminat ing. Eighty-nine per cent passed. A summary of Test Age 3 results shows that Item No. 6 was the only item that appeared to be non discriminating. The per cent passing Item No. 1 indi cates that the item is too difficult for a beginning item. Forty-nine per cent of the three year olds tested gave correct answers to Test Age 3. The two year old children were also given Test Age 3. The results tabulated in the same Table VI, page thirty-eight, are summarized as follows: Items No. 41 1, 3, 4, and 6 appeared to be too difficult for the two year olds tested. From 11 to 33 per cent passed these items and indicated that they are non-discriminating for that age level. Item No. 2, the color item, was passed by 66 per cent, showing that the two year age level was able to discriminate color on this test. Item No. 5 was passed by 55 per cent of the two year old children tested, and remains the only discriminating item in the Test Age 3 for the two year age group. A non-discriminating 35 per cent of the answers given were correct. 111. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TEST ITEMS Test Age 2 On the basis of the results obtained and stated in Sections 1 and 11 of this chapter, several recom mendations are suggested here. They were validated against the criteria set up in Section 11 and are pre sented as follows for Test Age 2; 1. Item No. 1 appears to be too difficult for a beginning item. Item No. 3, with 66 per cent passing, would meet the criteria here more closely. Articles should be of a more uniform color and size. 42 2. Item No* 2 appears to be too difficult for the beginning position. Item No. 6 in this position would meet the criteria more closely. These items should be of similar size and color. 3. Item No. 3 appears to be non-discriminating in this position. Item No. 5, with 55 per cent passing, appears to be a better choice for this position. No changes are recom mended in the articles. 4. Item No. 4 appears to be too difficult for this test. The examiner feels the item should be eliminated and a color item included in this position due to the fact that 66 per cent of the two year olds correctly answered the color item on Test Age 3. 5. Item No. 5 appears to be non-discriminating in this position. It is suggested that it be moved into the No. 2 position to meet the criteria more closely. It is recommended that Item No. 1 be placed in the No. 5 posi tion. All items should be uniform in color here. The truck may be too attractive, therefore two trucks and one boat are 43 recommended to break the response set based on attractiveness. 6. Item No. 6 appears to be discriminating, but a change in position is recommended. This item would meet the criteria more closely if it were in the No. 3 position. It is recom mended that Item No. 2 be placed in the No. 6 position. Recommendations. A summary of the preceding recommendations suggests that considerable changes be made in Test Age 2. A summary of the recommended changes follows: 1. Item No. 4 should be eliminated, with a new color item designed to take that position. 2. Items should be presented in the following order: 3, 5, 6, a new color item, 1, and 2* 3. Item No. 5 needs article changes. Test Age 3 The items in Test Age 3 appear to meet the established criteria in nearly all areas. The criterion that items should be presented in an ascending order of difficulty, however, is not met here, and some changes in placement are recommended. According to results in Section II of this chapter. 44 the items should be presented in the following order: 6, 3, 5, 1, 2, 4. Item No. 6, the only item which appears to be non-discriminating, with 89 per cent passing, should be retained for two reasons: it is an easy item with which to begin Test Age 3, and it appears to have discriminatory value in that it appeared very difficult for the two year age group (11 per cent passed) and very easy for the three year age group (89 per cent passed). Further investigation is recom mended to determine the value of this item. A revised Test Age 3 will be presented in Chapter VII. IV. RECOM^NDATIONS Several recommendations were suggested for the administration of the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3. The Examining Team 1. The examining team should be the same for all children in a given testing program. 2. The examiner should be accustomed to activ ities involving deaf children and should be confidently at ease before actual testing begins. 3. The scorer and examiner should work easily 45 together and both should have some background as to procedure in giving and scoring tests. 4. The examiner should be prepared before any sessions begin. The Testing Device The Tracy Box described previously appears to be a satisfactory device for the Concept Formation Test and no further recommendations are made concerning this device. Procedure The procedure previously described should be continued in the administration of the Concept Formation Test with the exception of the following suggestions; 1. The child should not be requested to hide his eyes while the examiner displays the articles for each item. When the child is allowed to watch this, his attention is directed to each article and is usually undivided at this time. Hiding the eyes in a strange situation is often frightening for this age child. 2. If the child is unduly nervous with both the scorer and examiner with him at first, the examiner should be authorized to conduct the demonstration without the scorer's help. 46 These observations should be recorded, how ever, by the scorer. 3. Practice sessions should be so relaxed that the first session could be utilized at the two year level, merely to acquaint the child with the room, the Tracy Box, and the scorer. No further recommendations were made for changes in the procedure for administering the test. CHAPTER VI TEST RESULTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE SCORES AND LANGUAGE USED An investigation of individual Concept Formation Test scores and their relation to the intelligence scores for the same children was performed. A summary of the Subject's performance is presented here with some suggested conclusions. I. SUMMARY OF SUBJECT'S PERFORMANCE WITH REGARD TO INTELLIGENCE Table VII shows individual scores of the Concept Formation Test for each child, along with intelligence scores for the same children. The scores for the two year age group are summary per cents computed from the number of correct answers given on both Test Age 2 and Test Age 3, or on twelve items. The per cent scores presented for the three year olds tested are based on the number of correct answers given on ^est Age 3 and 12 Test Age 4. Test Age 4 is not discussed in this paper but was given and scored to provide an equal number of twelve items from which these per cents could be computed for both groups. This test was constructed 48 TABLE VII INDIVIDUAL PER CENTS CORRECT AND INTELLIGENCE SCORES Subject's Number Per Cent Correct Intelligence Scores TWO YEAR OLDS 1. 66 104 9. 66 140 4. 50 115 6. 50 Average 7. 50 131 5. 41 121 8. 25 161 2. 25 108 3. 8 (vision difficulty) 96- THREE YEAR OLDS 18. 75 102 13. 58 111 19. 50 98 22. 50 122 11. 41 103 20. 41 117 10. 33 90 14. 33 109 16. 33 91 17. 33 88 21. 33 81 15. 25 133 12. 16 129 49 and given in the same manner but is on a higher level of difficulty, designed for four year olds, and was constructed and evaluated previously. Table VII, page forty-eight, shows that there were more high scores on the Concept Formation Test for children with average or just above average intelli gence scores. It appears from this table that those children with exceptionally high intelligence scores or low intelligence scores obtained the lowest scores on the Concept Formation Tests given. Conclusions The conclusions gathered from the information presented in this table remains, that scores on the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 do not necessarily correlate with intelligence scores. It appears that an examiner cannot predict accurately the performance on the Concept Formation Test through knowledge of intelligence test scores. II. TEST SCORES IN RELATION TO LANGUAGE USED An investigation of the Concept Formation Test scores and the amount of language used by each child during the test was performed. The test results used were those of the two year 50 old age group on Test Age 2 and Test Age 3, and the three year old age group on Test Age 3 and Test Age 4. Per cents presented in Table VIII represent items correct out of twelve items given. The amount of language used during one testing session was considered an inadequate account of the child's general language usage while performing a task, therefore, the per cents were based upon total performance on two tests of six items. Summary of Subject's Performance In Table VIII are found the individual per centages correct for each child and the language used as evaluated and observed by both the examiner and scorer. The scores are presented in order of increas ing percentage correct. Among the two year old age group it appears that those using more language received higher per cents correct. The same appears true for the age three group in nearly all instances. The term "none" is explained as the amount of language used during the time when the child was actually being tested, or, the child was silent during the testing session. The amount of lan guage used during the test by these children varied from much language with much meaning to no language used at all, or meaningless vocalizing. 51 TABLE VIII INDIVIDUAL PER CENTS CORRECT AND LANGUAGE USED Subject * s Number Per Cent Correct Subjective Evaluation of Language Used TWO YEAR OLDS 3. 8 None 2. 25 None 8. 25 None 5. 41 None— nodding 4. 50 Several words 6. 50 Several words, vocal ized 7. 50 "same" and "not same" 1. 66 About two key words 9. 66 None at testing, much before and after THREE YEAR OLDS 12. 16 None 15. 25 None 10. 33 Tried "not same" but unclear imitation 14. 33 None 16. 33 None 17. 33 None 22. 33 None 11. 41 None 21. 41 None 20. 50 Named items recognized 23. 50 Noded and shook head meaningfully 13. 58 Much language, "same" and "not same," named items 18. 75 Nodded and shook head meaningfully 52 Conclusions A review of the language used by the examinees during the test, when compared with actual test scores, indicated that those children who used language to some degree, however small, performed better on the Concept Formation Test than those who used no language at all during the session. On the basis of these tabulations it would follow that the amount of language used during this test is related to the test score. The more lan guage, the better the score or, language apparently facilitates the formation or recognition of a concept. CHAPTER VII RETESTING The children in the testing group at the two year level only were retested on the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3. The retesting sessions were as similar as pos sible in every way to the original testing sessions. This chapter will include the purposes, materials, procedure, a summary of performance, and some conclu sions drawn concerning the Concept Formation Test as shown by the retest sessions. I. THE PURPOSE OF RETESTING The children in the test group were retested on the Concept Formation Test for three reasons: 1. To find out how much was absorbed by the two year old children during the original testing sessions. 2. To determine how much "chance” responses contributed to scores. 3. To determine to what degree, if any, emo tional factors due to the strange test situation influenced performance on the first test session. 54 II. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE The materials, including the examining team, the Tracy Box, test items and practices, and environment were as identical as possible to the original testing sessions. Chapter III covers these materials as well as the standardized procedure utilized to administer the Concept Formation Test. These standardized pro cedures were carefully adhered to in the retest sessions. It is deemed unnecessary to state these procedures again here. The Test Group The subjects were the same two year old children as those used in the original sessions and are described in Chapter IV. The three year olds were not retested due to lack of time, therefore no retesting data are included for the three year age group. The Time Elapse between Original Testing and Retesting It was necessary to standardize the amount of time between the original testing session and the retesting session. At least two full weeks, or in some cases three weeks, elapsed between the finish of the actual testing 55 session and the beginning of the retest. Charts were kept on timing in order to allow at least two weeks before each two year old was tested again on the same material. The two week time elapse was decided upon in order to allow for a maximum forgetting period and still leave time for the completion of the retesting before dismissal of the summer training sessiôn at the Clinic. III. SUMMARY OF THE SUBJECT'S PERFORMANCE The tests were readministered to the two year olds and scores were recorded and tabulated in the same manner as they were in Chapter V for the original testing sessions. Table IX shows the performance of each child on the Test Age 2 and Test Age 3. The scores on the retesting were higher than the original test scores. Retest Scores as Compared with Original Scores Table X shows the retest performance as compared with original test performance for the two year old age group. On Test Age 2 scores computed into per cent correct were higher than original scores on the same 56 TABLE IX RETEST SCORES FOR TWO YEAR GROUP ON TEST AGE 2 AND TEST AGE 3 Subject * s Number Initial Test Scores Retest Scores 1. Test Age 2 6+, 0- 2+, 4- Test Age 3 2+, 4- 54-, 1- 2. Test Age 2 0+, 6— 3-k, 3- Test Age 3 34-, 3- 44-, 2- 3. Test Age 2 24-, 4- 14-, 5- Test Age 3 04-, 6- 0-H, 6- 4. Test Age 2 34-, 3- 4+, 2- Test Age 3 34-, 3- 3-h, 3- 5. Test Age 2 34-, 3- 6+, 0- Test Age 3 24-, 4- 5-f, 1- 6. Test Age 2 34-, 3- 54-, 1- Test Age 3 34-, 2-, 1± 44-, 3- 7. Test Age 2 3-f, 3- 3-h, 3— Test Age 3 34-, 3- 54-, 1- 8. Test Age 2 34-, 3- 6+, 0- Test Age 3 1+, 4-, 17 34-, 3— 9. Test Age 2 54-, 0-, IT 4+, 2— Test Age 3 34-, 2-, 17 44-, 2— TABLE X PER CENT PASSING EACH ITEM AS COMPARED WITH INITIAL 57 ON RETEST TEST Test Per Cent Passing Per Cent Passing Items Initial Test Retest TEST AGE 2 1. 44 33 2. 44 77 3. 66 77 4. 33 44 5. 66 77 6. 55 66 Entire test total 51 63 TEST AGE 3 1. 22 77 2. 66 66 3. 33 55 4. 22 66 5. 55 66 6. 11 33 Entire test total 35 61 58 items. Item No. 1 is the exception to this as 44 per cent passed this item originally and 33 per cent passed it in the retest session. On the retest of Test Age 2, 63 per cent of the items were passed whereas 51 per cent of the items were passed originally. On the retest of two year olds on Test Age 3, 61 per cent of the items were passed whereas 35 per cent of the items were passed originally. All retest scores were higher than original scores on Test Age 3 by at least 20 per cent in all cases. The subjects were observed to be considerably more at ease during the retest sessions than original sessions, and appeared to understand directions more quickly and perform more willingly. IV. CONCLUSIONS The performance of the subjects on the retest as compared with the performance on the original test shows that retest scores were generally higher than original scores. Some assumptions are made here to explain these results: 1. The two year age group did appear to learn during the original test sessions. 2. The element of chance was found to be somewhat less important on the retest and 59 the child's thoughtful performance appeared to govern the resulting scores rather than the element of mere chance. 3. Two year old children, it appears, can be tested with some degree of success. 4. Emotional factors may have direct bearing on the performance. The retest sessions were less strained for the child as he was well acquainted with the examiner and the test situation. This, it is assumed, left him at ease to perform to his best ability. V. RECOMMENDATIONS Several recommendations were suggested for the Concept Formation Test Age 2 on the basis of the con clusions drawn as the result of the retesting: 1. Practice sessions for two year old children should be more numerous than originally planned, with great emphasis placed upon rapport and relaxation in the test situation. 2. Only after several successful practice sessions, during which at least six items are given and the child has learned to relax in the test situation, should the examiner 60 proceed to the actual test. In this manner some detrimental emotional factors would be eliminated and truer estimates of the child's concept capacities would be recorded. TABLE VIII A REVISED CONCEPT FORMATION TEST AGE 2 AND TEST AGE 3 This revision of the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 was based upon the recommendations suggested in Chapters V and VII. This chapter includes the revision of the test items and the standardized procedure to be followed in the performance of the tests. I. THE EXAMINING TEAM The Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 required an examiner and scorer. It was suggested that the examining team be qualified for the administra tion of the test. The examiner should be acquainted with the habits and needs of deaf children, should be at ease in the testing situation, should be firm but pleasant, and should be adequately prepared before giving the test. Both the examiner and scorer should have some background and experience in giving and scoring tests. The examiner worked directly with each child by placing the items on the Tracy Box, switching the dial for the correct response, and presenting the reward. The scorer served as a demonstrator under the direction 62 of the examiner to show each child his part in the session and what was expected of him. After the demon stration by the scorer, the child took the scorer's place while the scorer retired to the back of the room to record responses. Both examiner and scorer were careful to betray no clues for answers through expres sion or gestures. II. THE TESTING DEVICE The Tracy Box as pictured in Figure 1, page eleven, was used to administer the test. It was sug gested that the lower row of three lights be used in giving Test Age 2 and Test Age 3. III. THE TEST ITEMS The selection or retention of the test items was based upon the criteria and recommendations brought forth in Chapters III and V. The Revised Concept Formation Test Age 2 is described in Table XI. Displayed are the position of the cards in each item and the per cent of two year olds that passed each item originally. The Revised Concept Formation Test Age 3 is described in Table XII. Displayed are the position of the cards in each item and the per cent of three 63 TABLE XI REVISED CONCEPT FORMATION TEST AGE 2 Item No. .....Key Per Cent Passed 1 2 3 1 cup sock cup 66 2 apple ball ball 55 3 truck truck boat New item 4 pink blue blue New item 5 circle triangle circle 44 6 square shoe tie shoe 44 64 TABLE XII REVISED CONCEPT FORMATION TEST AGE 3 Item No. Key Per Cent Passed 1 2 3 1 bicycle dog tricycle 39 2 chair chair lamp 53 3 bunny rooster duck 53 4 square star square 46 5 red red white 46 6 car plane car 46 65 year olds that passed. Each item is not discussed again here as each was analyzed carefully and recommendations were made for each item in Chapter V. IV. STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE Equipment and Environment The equipment and environment were standardized in all test periods in the following manner: 1. The Tracy Box was placed standing on a slant on a kindergarten table. 2. The child was seated on a stool that could be raised or lowered for comfort and con venience . 3. Two kindergarten sized chairs were employed to seat the examiner and scorer. 4. The same room was used each time and decora tions were eliminated to alleviate unneces sary distractions. Scoring The scorer should follow a rigidly established pattern of recording responses. The following procedure for scoring was established to meet the criteria: 1. Correct responses were recorded as plus. 66 2. Incorrect responses were recorded as minus. 3. A plus minus score was recorded for a response that was originally correct but final action by the child resulted in failure to pull or push the correct handle. 4. Any additional comments deemed necessary concerning test behavior or conditions having some bearing on final scores were also recorded by the scorer. Standardized Procedure for Practice Sessions The main consideration for the practice session was good rapport with the child. The age level with which this test was concerned makes testing nearly impossible unless a good relaxed association can be built up between the child and the examiner. The fol lowing procedure was standardized for the practice session with the inclusion of some suggested changes: 1. The scorer moved into the child's place and demonstrated the items in the practice, waiting each time for the directions of the examiner. 2. The examiner indicated for the scorer to hide her eyes while the examiner placed the 67 cards on the Tracy Box and switched the dial for the correct response light to be lit. It was suggested that the hiding of the eyes be made optional for the children and scorer. 3. The scorer was then asked to examine the cards and the examiner said slowly and carefully, with the child watching, "Show me the one that is not the same.” 4. The scorer scanned the cards slowly, delib erately pointing out outlines of importance and exaggerating her actions for clarity, while the child watched closely. 5. The scorer then pointed to the card and the light for the correct response, pulled the handle, and the light went on. 6. Rewards were presented to the scorer by the examiner in the form of praise or a tidbit of food. 7. The demonstration described in sections one- six was found to be too distracting and tension-producing in some cases at the two year old level. For this reason the session was conducted occasionally entirely by the examiner, with the scorer recording in the 68 background. Often two people were too many in working with this age child. 8. The demonstration was repeated by the examiner with or without the scorer, as described in sections one-six. The child was shown those items that were not the same after each demonstration. 9. It was suggested that the examiner utilize the shaking or nodding of the head along with the words "same” and "not the same" in giving the child the directions or when showing the correct response. 10. After two such demonstrations, the child had a turn and took the scorer's place to perform on the same items already answered by the scorer. 11. The child hid his eyes or did not, as he chose. The examiner put the same cards up, tapped the child, said, "Show me the one that is not the same,” and presented a reward for a correct response. 12. If a child made an incorrect response, no reward was given. The examiner explained the correct response to the child and the 69 item was continued until the child could furnish two correct responses to that item. The examiner was careful not to discourage the child at this time. 13. When the child responded with two correct answers consecutively, he proceeded on to the next practice item. 14. Correct responses on three practice items, whether learned or originally correct, warranted continuance to the test itself. It was suggested that more practice items be made and used so* that at least four or five items were given during the practice sessions and were answered willingly and correctly. This age level needed more practice items. 15. During the practice session, both scorer and examiner were constantly vigilant for signs of discomfort or fatigue displayed by the subject. Ample time should be allowed for these practice sessions, and any indications of adverse feeling were given attention and the practice was dis continued until a better time. 70 16. Upon satisfactory completion of the prac tices, the scorer retired to the hack of the room to avoid distracting the subject and the examiner administered the test items. Standardized Procedure for the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 The following procedure should be used in giving the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3: 1. The child was asked to hide his eyes by the examiner. If the child did not choose to do this it was made optional. The examiner then placed the items on the Tracy Box and switched the dial for the correct light to be lit. 2. The examiner secured the child’s attention and directed his eyes toward her to watch while she said, "Show me the one that is not the same." 3. The child was directed to pull or push the plug to make his response. When the subject was correct the light went on and a reward was given with much praise. When the subject 71 was wrong the light did not go on, no reward was offered, and the examiner went on to the next item. If the child indicated a desire to know the right answer, he was shown by the examiner. 4. At the completion of the test some reward was given in the form of food, gummed stickers, or special praise depending on which was termed most important to the particular child tested. V. RECOMMENDATIONS Several recommendations were made concerning the Revised Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3; 1. The Revised Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 should be administered to as many pre-school deaf children as possible. 2. Items should be reviewed after enough sub jects have been given the test. 3. Test Age 2 should be given to three year olds and four year olds to establish its dis criminatory value for the two year age group. 4. Test Age 3 should be administered to two and four year olds to further establish its dis- criminatory value for the three year age group CHAPTER IX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. SUMMARY A summary of the preceding eight chapters of this project shows that two Concept Formation Tests for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing children have been created. The tests have been admin istered, scored, evaluated, and revised. In Chapter I the problem, its statement, and limitations were brought out, and the remainder of the study was outlined. This project was basically an experiment to investigate the values of a new Concept Formation Test for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing children. A brief review of the literature on formation of concepts and their application to this study was presented in Chapter II. The materials used and procedure followed to administer the test were explained in Chapter III. This chapter included sections on the examining team, the testing deyice, the test items, and the standardized test procedure. The group of pupils tested was described in Chapter IV. This group consisted of two and three year old children at the John Tracy Clinic summer session 74 for Pre-school Deaf and Hard of Hearing. They were described in terms of age, sex, hearing loss, language, intelligence scores, and additional subjective informa tion pertinent to the testing program. The tests were then given according to the standardized procedure and the data obtained were presented and analyzed in Chapter V. This chapter included sections on the pupil's performance, test item responses, and recommendations concerning these items and the procedure used. The Concept Formation Test scores were further examined in Chapter VI to discover the correlation, if any, between test scores and intelligence scores. The relationship between test performance and the language used by each subject during the test sessions was also discussed. In Chapter VII the Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 was readministered to the two year old test group. The purposes of the retest session, the materials and procedure used, a summary of the sub ject's performance, and an evaluation of the results obtained were included in this chapter. Some conclu sions and recommendations based on the retest investi gation were presented to be incorporated into a revised edition of the test. 75 A Revised Concept Formation Test for both ages two and three was outlined in Chapter VIII. This new test was based on the findings and recommendations presented previously. The examining team, testing device, test items, and standardized procedure were revised here, and further recommendations for the improvement of the test were described. II. CONCLUSIONS As a result of this investigation, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The two year old deaf and hard of hearing children tested showed knowledge of the following concepts: form, food, clothing, utensils, transportation, and color. 2. The three year old deaf and hard of hearing children tested indicated knowledge of the following concepts: form, color, furniture, transportation, animals, and toys. 3. The scores on the Concept Formation Test have little correlation with scores on the Leiter Scale measuring intelligence. 4. The scores on the Concept Formation Test given appear to parallel, to some degree, the amount of language used by the subject 76 during the test period. Language appears to facilitate the formation or recognition of a concept, 5. It appears that two year old deaf and hard of hearing children can be tested with regard to concept formation. It also appears that two year olds may be expected to obtain scores governed by thoughtful performance beyond mere chance. III. RECOMMENDATIONS Several recommendations concerning this study were made and are outlined as follows: 1. The Revised Concept Formation Test Age 2 and Test Age 3 should be given to as many two, three, four, and five year old deaf and hard of hearing children as possible. 2. The items in the Revised Concept Formation Test Age 2 should be further evaluated, and if necessary, revised after its admin istration to many more two year old deaf and hard of hearing children. 3. The validity and reliability of the Concept Formation Test should be computed statis tically and further evaluated from these 77 statistics. 4. A more extensive investigation of the test scores and their relation to intelligence scores and language should he conducted. 5. Additional retesting should be carried on to attempt to strengthen the assumption that two year old children can be success fully tested with regard to the formation of concepts. 6. An experienced clinician, if possible, should be employed to judge the performance of the youngest subjects, to increase the validity of the test for children from 2.0 to 2.6 years of age. This investigation has been conducted to create a concept formation test designed for two year old deaf and hard of hearing children. It is hoped that these findings may be utilized in the final construction of a valuable and reliable test instrument for that purpose. An accurate measure ment of the conceptual levels of those who are handi capped by their hearing losses may provide further understanding of these exceptional children. A deeper understanding may help to overcome some of the problems these children face. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Bruner, Jerome S., Jacqueline J. Goodnow, and George A. Austin. A Study of Thinking. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1956. Campbell, William Giles. Form and Style in Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1954. Gesell, Arnold. The First Five Years of Life : A Guide to the Study of the Preschool Child. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940. Ruch, Floyd L. Psychology and Life. Chicago: Scott Foresman and Company, 1953. Vinacke, W. Edgar. The Psychology of Thinking. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952. B. PERIODICALS Brian, Clara, and F. L. Goodenough. "The Relative Potency of Color and Form Perception at Various Ages,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12:197- 213, June, 1929. Cantor, Gordon N. "Effects of Three Types of Pretrain ing on Discrimination Learning in Preschool Children,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49:339-342, May, 1955. Gellerman, Louis W. "Form Discrimination in Chimpanzees and Two-Year-Old Children," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 42:3-27, March, 1933. Grigsby, 0. J. "An Experimental Study of the Develop ment of Concepts of Relationship in Preschool Children as Evidenced by the Expressive Ability," Journal of Experimental Education, 1:144-162, December, 1932. 80 Hazlitt, Victoria. "Children's Thinking,” British Journal of Psychology, 20:354-361, April, 1930. Hicks, J. A., and F. D. Stewart. "The Learning of Abstract Concepts of Size,” Child Development, 1:195-203, September, 1930. Larr, Alfred L. "Perceptual and Conceptual Abilities of Residential School Deaf Children,” Exceptional Children, 23:63-66, November, 1956. Long, L., and Livingston Welch. "The Development of the Ability to Discriminate and Match Numbers,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 59:377-387, September, 1941. Oleron, Pierre. "Conceptual Thinking of the Deaf,” American Annals of the Deaf, 98:304-309, May, 1953. Thrum, Martha E. "The Development of Concepts of Magnitude,” Child Development, 6:120-140, June, 1935. Welch, Livingston. "A Preliminary Study of the Inter action of Conflicting Concepts of Children between the Ages of Three and Five Years,” The Psychological Record, 2:439-459, December, 1938* "The Development of Form and Area,” Journal of Psychology, 7:37-54, January, 1939. "The Development of Size Discrimination between the Ages of Twelve and Forty Months," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 55:243-268, December, 1939. "The Genetic Development of the Associational Structures of Abstract Thinking,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 56:175-206, March, 1940. . "The Span of Generalization Below the Two-Year Age Level," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 55:269- 297, December, 1939. 81 C. ESSAYS AND ARTICLES IN COLLECTIONS Leeper, Robert L. "Cognitive Processes,” Handbook of Experimental Psychology. Edited by S. S. Stevens. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1951. McCarthy, Dorothea. "Language Development in Children,” Manual of Child Psychology. Edited by Leonard Carmichael. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incor porated, 1946. Templin, Mildred C. "The Development of Reasoning with Normal and Defective Hearing," Institute of Child Welfare Monograph No. 24. Minneapolis: n.n., 1950. D. TESTS, UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS, PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES Leiter, Russell Graydon. Part II of Manual for 1948 Revision of the Leiter International Performance Scale. Washington: Psychological Service Center Press, 1950. Stedry, Vivian Moravec. "A Critical Analysis of the Concept Formation Test and Reinforcement Apparatus Developed at the John Tracy Clinic.” Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1958. Wells, Cord Orvey. The Development of Abstract Language Concepts in Normal and Deaf Children. Chicago: University of Chicago Libraries, 1942. .Qflhier^ty of Southern CaUfornla l i h n ^

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Creator Miller, Diane Richards (author)

Core Title An evaluation of a concept formation test for two and three year old deaf and hard of hearing pupils

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