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A qualitative analysis of student-athletes' engagement in synchronous, virtual learning environments at the secondary level

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A qualitative analysis of student-athletes' engagement in synchronous, virtual learning environments at the secondary level

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Content Running head: STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 1

A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF STUDENT-ATHLETES’ ENGAGEMENT IN
SYNCHRONOUS, VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AT THE SECONDARY
LEVEL

by

Stefanie Sarte Baduria

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Stefanie Sarte Baduria
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 2

Acknowledgements
Completing this dissertation was a demanding, iterative process that challenged me to
persist and commit to the end. Throughout the process, my amazing chair, Dr. Corinne Hyde
coached and supported me; for that I am very grateful. I could not have reached the end of this
chapter without my best friend, my fiancé, Chloe. She rode the highs and lows of the fulfilling
and rewarding waves. She lifted me up when I felt I did not have the capacity to complete the
process, and she was my champion from beginning to end. I would also like to thank my
Dissertation Committee members, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Karie Huchting. I was humbled and
honored to have three intelligent women on my committee, and I will forever see them all as role
models and mentors. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my parents for always being my
biggest fans and my toughest critics. They push me to strive for my best, and they support me in
all my endeavors.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 3

Table of Contents
List of Figures 5
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 7
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Significance of the Study 10
Organization of the Study 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review 12
Student-Athletes 15
Balancing School and Sport 15
Sports Influence on Academic Performance 16
Positive Factors for Student-Athletes 16
Student Engagement 19
Definition of Engagement 19
Student Engagement at the Secondary Level 22
Online Learning 24
Asynchronous Learning 24
Synchronous Learning 26
Synchronous Webcam Enabled Learning 29
Student-Athletes and Engagement 31
Student-Athletes and Online Learning 32
Online Learning and Engagement 33
Conceptual Framework 39
Chapter Three: Methods 42
Sample 42
Setting 43
Participants 45
Data Collection and Instruments/Protocols 45
Interviews 46
Observations 47
Document Collection 48
Data Analysis 48
Issues of Trustworthiness and Credibility 48
Limitations and Delimitations 49
Ethics 50
Chapter Four: Findings 51
Answering the Research Question 52
Behavioral Engagement 53
Adhering to Norms 53
Participation by Listening 54
Disconnected from Online Peers 56
Preference for Physical Interaction 57
Virtual Platform and Technological Difficulties 58
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 4

Traits of an Athlete in a Student 61
Cognitive Engagement 61
Self-Regulation Promotes Understanding 62
Persistence and Investment 64
Emotional Engagement 67
Lack of Interest 67
Boring but Important 68
Athletic Identity Inhibiting Virtual Student Identity 70
Face-to-Face Resources in Physical Learning Environment 71
Summary of Facets of Engagement 72
Student Context 72
Family Involvement and Support 73
Goals and Commitments to School and Sport 73
Summary 76
Chapter Five: Discussion 78
Summary of Findings 78
Implications 79
Bolster Emotional Engagement in Synchronous Learning Environments 80
Elite Student-Athlete Engagement 81
Recommendations for Future Research 82
Conclusion 83
References 85
Appendix A: Online Interview Items 97
Appendix B: Observation Protocol 98

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 5

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework 41
Figure 2: Age of respondents from the online interviews 42
Figure 3: Ethnicity of respondents from the online interviews 43
Figure 4: Languages spoken in the homes of the respondents from the online interviews 43

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 6

Abstract
This study examined student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous, virtual learning environments
at the secondary level. A multidimensional perspective of engagement was used: behavioral
engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. The study aimed to fill gaps in
the research discussing how engagement and online learning intersect for student-athletes at the
secondary level. To collect data, student-athletes were given open-ended online interviews. In
addition, recordings of student-athletes engaging in synchronous class sessions and recordings of
the synchronous class sessions were analyzed. Lastly, documents were collected. The findings
revealed that the student-athletes had strong commitments to school and sport, resulting in
rigorous goals for their educational and athletic pursuits. The dual pursuits were reflected in the
student-athletes behavioral and cognitive engagement. For example, the students adhered to
synchronous class norms, listened to their teacher, and persisted through difficult academic tasks.
Conversely, the findings revealed that the student-athletes were emotionally disengaged, lacking
enjoyment for synchronous class sessions and being disconnected from their online peers. The
findings have implications for the intersection of student-athletes and online learning at the
secondary level. Further research can add to the body of literature to inform the developmental
philosophy and approach of those working with elite adolescent athletes.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 7

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study used a social constructivist theoretical framework to examine student-athletes’
engagement in synchronous virtual learning environments at the secondary level. A
multidimensional perspective of engagement was used: behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional. The social constructivist theoretical framework recognized the student-athletes’
context and goals and commitments to their sport and school. The study illuminates how
engagement and online learning intersect for the student-athlete at the secondary level.
Background of the Problem
Discourse about the tensions and dynamics of student-athletes’ dual pursuits of school
and sport has been ongoing for the last few decades (Brettschneider & Klimek, 1998; Cresswell
& Eklund, 2006; Sowa & Gressard, 1983). Studies argue that elite student-athletes perform
poorly academically because of the time commitments to sports, extra stressors (Sorkkila,
Aunola, & Ryba, 2016), and a lack of motivation for educational aspirations (Eitzen, 2009).
Conversely, more recent research suggests that engaging in sports has a positive effect on
adolescents’ development and academic performance (Brettschneider, 1999; Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Umbach et al., 2006; Watt & Moore, 2001). Amateur athletes are said to have
higher self-esteem, healthy mental and physical well-being (Crocker et al., 2000), and strong
time management skills (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002). The positive characteristics play an
important role in increasing student-athletes’ academic performance. Scholars on both sides of
the discussion highlight the importance student-athletes and academic engagement. Recent
research emphasizes the importance of considering student-athletes’ context, parental influence
(Harris et al., 2014), and individual goals and commitments to their sport and schooling as
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 8

significant influencers on academic performance and engagement (Comeaux and Harrison,
2011).
Engagement is a construct that has been significantly linked to academic performance. It
is multi-faceted and can be defined in various dimensions (i.e. behaviorally, cognitively, and
emotionally). Engagement can be described as participating in class, feelings of belonging in
class and school, and valuing learning (Newman, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992). Meaningful
student engagement involves interaction between student-student, student-teacher, student-
content (Moore, 1989, 1990), and student-activity (Meyer, 2014). At the secondary level,
meaningful interactions on all dimensions foster a collaborative environment in which
knowledge is co-constructed, resulting in effective learning (Marks, 2000) and lower dropout
rates for adolescents (Finn, 1989). Engagement is a student-centered construct that is supported
by constructivist theories of learning. Therefore, when examining the intersection of student-
athletes and engagement, a constructivist theoretical framework must be utilized in order to
emphasize the importance of student interaction and observation in creating an effective learning
environment (Bandura et al., 1961; Vygotsky, 1978), while a sociocultural perspective gleans the
importance of context and culture for scholarly research.
Education is shifting from traditional brick-and-mortar settings to learning environments
that exist virtually. In 2009, the U.S. Department of Education found that about 53 percent of
public school districts in the country had students in secondary education enrolled in virtual
courses. Online learning can take place in various settings: asynchronous (Chen & You, 2007),
synchronous (Fita et al., 2016), and webcam enabled synchronous (Bondi et al., 2016). Over the
last decade, much research has been dedicated to analyzing the effectiveness of online teaching,
best pedagogical practices for each environment (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000; Slagter
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 9

van Tyron & Bishop, 2009), and level of student satisfaction with virtual learning environments
(Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004). Recent research finds that synchronous settings create a
strong sense of community (McBrien, Jones, & Cheng, 2009), foster collaboration
(Allmendinger, 2010), and facilitate interaction to avoid feelings of isolation (Yang et al., 2010).
In addition, synchronous learning facilitates rich, simultaneous interaction that is seen in
a traditional classroom from the convenience of any location (Bondi et al., 2016; Huang et al.,
2008; Park & Bonk, 2007; Wimba, 2011). Webcam enabled synchronous settings establish a
more robust sense of discourse in courses (Celik, 2013); however, more research must be done to
explore the proper utilization of the new technology. Synchronous virtual learning environments
have the potential to outperform their asynchronous counterparts and traditional classroom
settings (Chen et al., 2005); however, scholars must continue to analyze its effectiveness and best
pedagogical practices in achieving student engagement.
Statement of the Problem
There is research analyzing the dual pursuits of student-athletes and their commitments to
sports’ influence on academic engagement (Carter-Francique, Hart, & Cheeks, 2015; Cooper,
2016; Cooper & Hall, 2016; Horton, 2015; Stone, Harrison, & Mottley, 2012). However, there is
not enough research at the secondary level. Studies must be done to delve into student-athletes’
engagement in high school from a sociocultural approach, considering individual attributes,
cultural background, and family influence (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011).
Elite student-athletes are beginning to utilize online learning (Nichols & Levy, 2008).
The virtual environment accommodates the rigors of amateur athletes’ schedules and training
demands (Kreb, 2009). Research analyzing the pairing of student-athletes and virtual courses is
in its infancy, and therefore is scarce. The limited research that does exist examines student-
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 10

athletes’ engagement in online learning in higher education settings, not at the secondary level.
This study aims to enhance the scarce body of research.
Finally, there are gaps in the research regarding the intersection of online learning and
engagement at the secondary level. A review of the literature shows an analysis of online
learning and its effectiveness, level of student satisfaction with online learning, and pedagogical
practices in the virtual, higher education setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore elite student-athletes’ engagement in a
synchronous learning environment. The study analyzed the student-athletes’ engagement in
secondary level, online learning from a multidimensional perspective: behavioral engagement,
cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. A sociocultural and constructivist theoretical
framework was used to examine how student context and commitments to sport and schooling
relate to engagement at the secondary level, with a focus from the student perspective.
Research question:
How do secondary student-athletes engage in synchronous, virtual learning environments?
Significance of the Study
With the fast growing prominence of online learning, and the increased utilization by
elite student-athletes, it is important to explore the effectiveness of learning and engagement in
the synchronous setting for these student-athletes. The goal of this study was to explore how
student-athletes engage in synchronous settings, in order to draw preliminary conclusions and
offer suggestions for future studies to further the discourse about student-athletes and
engagement in an online environment. The findings contribute to suggestions for increasing
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 11

student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous settings. The discourse ultimately informs those
who oversee and support the development of elite adolescents’ athletic and schooling aspirations.
Organization of the Study
The following chapter presents a synthesis of the literature, critically evaluating the past
research. The literature review was broken into three main topics: student-athletes, engagement,
and online learning. Each topic of the review was further divided into subsections, highlighting
important unanswered questions and magnifying the significance of past studies. The literature
review ends by merging the main topics into subsequent sections: student-athletes and
engagement, student-athletes and online learning, and online learning and engagement, and
presenting a conceptual framework for the study.
Chapter three discusses the methodology for the study. The chapter includes information
about the sample and population. The type of sampling used, criteria for selection, process of
selection, sample selected, and sampling issues are discussed. The chapter also describes the
instrumentation and its relationship to the research question and conceptual framework. Chapter
three also includes a description of the procedures and methods used to collect data. Finally,
chapter three discusses the limitations and delimitations of the study.
Chapter four discusses the findings of the study and includes a reflection on the results
and their meaning. The final chapter briefly summarizes the findings while addressing
implications of how the study contributes to knowledge about theory and practice relating to
student-athletes’ engagement in a synchronous, virtual learning environment. The final chapter
also suggests future research that is needed as a result of the study.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Over the last decade, developments in technology have contributed to the growing
prominence of online learning (Hampel & de los Arcos, 2013). Many universities and K-12
schools are implementing distance learning techniques and delivering instruction digitally.
Instructors and students have found many benefits of delivering information outside of the
traditional, brick-and-mortar school. Online courses provide accessibility, flexibility, and
financial advantages to educational institutions, instructors, and students. According to Allen,
Seaman, Poulin, and Straut (2016), online education is defined as a course that delivers more
than 80% online and does not offer any face-to-face instruction. Blended education integrates
face-to-face instruction and is less than 80% online. Traditional education is delivered face-to-
face in a classroom, with less than 30% online learning. With the development of new avenues
for instruction, researchers are analyzing the implications that online learning can have on the
students’ learning experiences. Traditional pedagogical practices and instructional strategies
must create an online learning environment that meets the needs of students to be engaged and
immersed in the learning process (Levy & Stockwell, 2006).
Discussions regarding pedagogy and student engagement in online learning environments
must take into account the difference between asynchronous and synchronous online learning.
Chen and You (2007) point out that asynchronous learning does not take place in real-time.
Students are provided with content and assignments and deadlines for submission. The majority
of interaction takes place through virtual discussion boards. Conversely, synchronous learning
environments require the instructor and students to interact online simultaneously. Similar to a
webinar, participants interact through text, video, or audio chat. Examining the differences in
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 13

communication and participation patterns in asynchronous environments versus synchronous
environments, Chen and You (2007) discuss the advantage of real-time interaction and feedback.
Synchronous online courses can create a community of learning and inquiry; however,
administrators and instructors must be sure to provide students with a full learning experience
(Murray, 2012). Because of the physical separation of students and teachers, feelings of isolation
may occur among students. Murray (2012) asserts that mindful efforts are required to engage
students in virtual learning. For decades, extensive research has determined the instructional
techniques and pedagogical practices teachers can employ to capture and sustain the interest of
students in a traditional school setting; however, in a virtual setting, strategies can also be
implemented to bring best practices to the development of a new student experience (Bryant &
Bates, 2015). Improved teaching and learning strategies are necessary in order to provide
students with the kind of access to real-time interaction with the instructor and classmates that
replicate the traditional classroom setting.
Concurrent with the advancing of technologically enabled virtual classrooms, is the
burgeoning research around student-athletes and their academic performance (Wartenberg,
Borchert & Brand, 2014). The tension between athletics and academic performance has existed
for decades. Specifically, the academic performance of collegiate athletes compared to their non-
athlete counterparts is a heavily researched topic. In a study examining the relationship between
student-athletes and academic performance, the findings concluded that being a student-athlete is
not associated with a lower cumulative GPA (Payne et al., 2014). Conversely, Eitzen (2009)
asserts that student-athletes at the collegiate level underperform academically in comparison to
their non-athlete counterparts; however, the definable cause for the lack of academic success is
unclear. Wolverton (2008) and Sack (2001) discuss the disproportionately high amount of time
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 14

student-athletes dedicate to their sport during the week in comparison to other activities. A
review of the literature shows that Comeaux and Harrison (2011) analyze academic success with
the most robust framework. The researchers’ constructivist framework takes into account
individual students’ context, commitment to goals, sport, and institution, and the various factors
that influence social and academic systems at the university level. This research is connected to
the sociocultural theory of the dissertation. It shows differences between student-athletes and
their non-athlete counterparts; therefore, it is important to note how commitments to goals and
sport affect academic success, whether positively or negatively.
Due to the prominence of young athletes engaging in highly competitive sports while
managing their schoolwork, it is important to understand how student-athletes engage in their
education (Park, Hong, & Lee, 2015). The literature shows research on student-athletes at the
collegiate level, in a traditional school setting; however, there is a clear lack of analysis
performed on student-athletes’ academic performance at the secondary level in online learning
environments. In order to examine student-athletes’ engagement in online learning environments,
it is important to recognize the commitments and athletic-related goals that drive their motivation
(Comeaux & Harrison, 2013).
The purpose of this dissertation is to examine student-athlete engagement in synchronous
virtual learning environments from a multidimensional perspective: behavioral engagement,
cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. A sociocultural and constructivist theoretical
framework will be used to examine how student context and commitments to sport and schooling
have an effect on engagement at the secondary level, based on the student perspective. To that
end, the following sections will present literature related to the dynamics and tensions of being a
student-athlete, the importance of student engagement for academic success, and the emergence
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 15

of online learning options. Additionally, the chapter discusses how engagement and online
learning intersect for the student-athlete at the secondary level.
Student-Athletes
Balancing School and Sport
Elite high school student-athletes have the unique challenge of balancing their
commitments to school and to their sport (Borggrefe & Cachay, 2012). The path toward
becoming an elite professional athlete starts in youth, requiring these young people to also
balance sport and school requirements. These amateur athletes must manage rigorous athletic
training and competition schedules with the demands of being a student. However, only a small
number of elite student-athletes advance their sports careers to the professional level; therefore, it
is paramount for these amateur athletes to focus on their schooling just as much as their sport.
Competitive student-athletes who experience the challenges of a typical student in high school
can also endure sport-related struggles that can compromise their academic motivation and class
attendance (Parker et al., 2016). These sport-related challenges include injuries, exhaustion, and
competitions. Taken together, research shows that elite student-athletes are more susceptible to
stress and burnout in their sport, schooling, or both (Sorkkila, Aunola, & Ryba, 2016).
Concurrently pursuing an athletic career while enrolled in school is demanding for
student-athletes (Stambulova & Wylleman, 2015). According to Cresswell and Eklund, (2006)
elite student-athletes are more susceptible to stress from being overworked. Due to being
overworked, research suggests that elite student-athletes also have minimal possibilities for
social interaction outside of school and sport, contributing to their stress (Brettschneider &
Klimek, 1998). Researchers have analyzed higher stress levels in elite student-athletes
(Brettschneider, 1999) and have found that highly talented adolescents can only endure the
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 16

tremendous pressure from dually engaging in school and sport if they have access to the proper
coping resources. In other words, young athletes have the potential of handling their stress
properly and navigating the challenges presented by pursuing sport and school simultaneously, if
they have the resources available to develop a healthy self-concept.
For high level amateur athletes, coinciding sport and school stressors can result in
immense pressure. Adolescent student-athletes are held to the same academic requirements as
their non-athlete counterparts, and must therefore take advantage of resources in their
developmental programs to thrive in both.
Sports Influence on Academic Performance
In addition to the stress student-athletes experience in balancing both school and athletic
commitments, much early research has been dedicated to exploring the damaging relationship
between student-athletes and academic performance (Coleman, 1961; Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, &
Hannah, 2006), such as athletes having lower graduation rates (Purdy, Eitzen, & Hufnagel,
1982), lower grade point averages (Purdy et al., 1982), and difficulties creating academic goals
(Sowa & Gressard, 1983). Some current research still relays this sentiment. For example, Eitzen
(2009) asserts that collegiate student-athletes underperform academically to their non-athlete
counterparts. To explain a cause for the underperformance, Wolverton (2008) and Sack (2001)
discuss the disproportionately high amount of time student-athletes dedicate to their sport during
the week in comparison to other activities. In addition, the researchers point out that academics
become less of a priority to athletes due to the pressures put on them to succeed in their sport.
Positive Factors for Student-Athletes
While much of the past research focuses on reasons for student-athletes’ low academic
performance, some recent research suggests that elite adolescent athletes perform well in their
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 17

sport and academics (Brettschneider, 1999; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Umbach et al., 2006;
Watt & Moore, 2001). These researchers have found that elite student-athletes perform better
academically than their non-athlete counterparts. Althouse (2007) analyzed precursor variables
that are positively correlated to academic success for student-athletes. He used a conceptual
model that shows a positive correlation between student-athletes’ academic success with high
school GPA, parent level of education, and culturally relevant educational experiences outside of
school. In other words, while research suggests that time is a factor contributing to lower student
achievement among student-athletes, other research suggests that their academic success is
related positively to factors outside of school such as time management skills (Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002) and cultural experiences. Moreover, sports participation has been found to
benefit adolescent development by enhancing physical and mental well-being (Crocker et al.,
2000), higher self-esteem (McHale, 2001), and fewer discipline issues (Marsh, 1993).
The importance of cultural contexts for student-athletes was examined in a study by Park,
Hong, and Lee (2015). These researchers aimed to understand the relationship between athletic
identity and athletic and academic achievement of Korean university student-athletes. The study
magnified the significance of taking sociocultural context into account when trying to analyze
student-athletes’ motivation toward performance in their sport and school. They found that
student-athletes from different countries and cultural backgrounds held varied levels of athletic
and academic motivation. For example, South Korean student-athletes showed higher athletic
motivations but lower academic motivation compared to their American counterparts. The
researchers placed the discrepancy on the country of origin and the significance cultural context
plays. In other words, because South Korea does not have well developed sporting and education
systems for elite student-athletes, younger amateur athletes had a lack of educational
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 18

involvement in their earlier academic years resulting in lower academic motivation in their later
years.
Gayles and Shouping (2009) performed a study examining factors that influence
students-athletes’ engagement in educationally purposeful activities, the educational activities’
influence on cognitive and affective outcomes, and the effect of student engagement on college
outcomes. Gayles and Shouping chose this area of focus for their study to fill the gap in existing
research. Existing research on student-athletes has primarily emphasized the comparison
between athletes and their non-athlete counterparts. The Basic Academic Skills Study (BASS)
was implemented to measure student athletes’ interests, attitudes, and academic skills. The study
found that student-athletes who engaged with non-athlete peers were positively affected in how
they viewed themselves, their cultural attitudes, and reported gains in learning and
communication skills.
The study provides insight to the importance of student-athletes engaging in activities
outside of their sport to positively influence their character development and overall cognitive
and affective growth. The study does contain limitations because the (BASS) survey cannot
compare students from different universities. In addition, the background information of the
student athletes, such as high school grades and parental level of support that Comeaux and
Harrison (2011) emphasize, were not taken into account. Lastly, the study relied solely on
student self-reported data, and it did not compare student-athletes to non-athletes.
Moreover, in a literature review examining student-athletes and academic performance,
Comeaux and Harrison (2011) created a conceptual model to explain the factors that led to
academic success among student athletes. The researchers examined the student-athlete based on
his or her own individual characteristics (i.e. race, gender, academic motivation), while also
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 19

analyzing the effects from social and academic systems. Comeaux and Harrison’s conceptual
model is strong because it integrates culturally relevant awareness as a means to increase
student-athletes’ motivation and engagement to learn. Student-athletes enter the collegiate realm
from a variety of contexts and with different previous experiences; however, the framework
presented by the researchers can aid advisors and counselors in fostering academic success.
Much of the research regarding student-athletes focuses primarily on reasons for
underperformance (i.e., Brettschneider, 1999; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Eitzen, 2009;
Sack, 2001; Umbach et al., 2006; Watt & Moore, 2001; Wolverton, 2008). The discourse as to
whether sports participation hinders or fosters academic performance (Braddock, 1980), should
not be a discussion at all because either outcome is a possibility (Dawkins, Braddock, & Celaya,
2008). To fill the gap in research and better understand student-athletes and their academic
performance, more holistic approaches of analyzing students’ previous academic experiences
and performance should be taken into account. In order to consider student-athletes’ individual
contexts and previous educational experiences, a sociocultural theoretical lens can be used. To
provide a more robust analysis of student-athlete academic achievement, researchers must
examine the individual’s context and commitments to sport in conjunction with their
commitments to school. One indicator of a student’s commitment to school may be found in their
engagement.
Student Engagement
Definition of Engagement
Engagement is typically recognized as a multifaceted construct. Finn (1989) defines it as
both affective engagement and behavioral engagement, where affective engagement takes into
account how students feel about school and behavioral engagement is seen in students’ school
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 20

behaviors. For example, Newman, Wehlage, and Lamborn (1992) look at participation in class,
feelings of belonging in class and school, and valuing learning in secondary schools. Fredricks et
al. (2004) assert that student engagement aligns with aspects of motivation such as interest, goal
orientation, self-regulation, and value. The researchers break down engagement into three
dimensions: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive. Similarly, Appleton, Christenson, Kim, and
Reschly (2006) created a self-report instrument designed to measure student engagement
cognitively and psychologically in the secondary setting. The scholars constructed the Student
Engagement Instrument (2006) as a means to assess specific cognitive and psychological
subtypes related to student engagement.
Although Fredricks et al.’s (2004) three types of engagement often overlap and are
commonly defined as one construct, the researchers conducted a study analyzing each type as its
own, self-standing construct. Behavioral engagement involves the directly observable actions
that exhibit positive behavior, participation in student activities, and involvement in school-
related activities. Students’ affective responses, such as happiness, sadness, anxiety, and
boredom, are referenced in terms of emotional engagement. Emotional engagement also involves
student identification with school and student reactions to the school and the instructor.
Cognitively engaged students are self-regulated learners who utilize strategies such as rehearsal,
summarizing, and elaboration to remember, organize, and understand the content (Fredricks et
al., 2004).
Engagement was also defined by Moore (1989) by three types of interactions: student-
student, student-teacher, and student-content. Student-content interactions include ways in which
students feel connected to the material, including culturally relevant curriculum. Student-student
interactions are found in classroom discussions or group work. Interaction between classmates is
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 21

pivotal in fostering collaborative construction of knowledge. Student-teacher interactions are
seen in asking questions. Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002) also assert that students seeking
assistance from a teacher or their peers in order to increase their understanding of the material
indicates behavioral engagement. Overall, student interactions with each other, the teacher, and
content impact perceptions of satisfaction with school. For instance, Zhao and Kuh’s (2004)
study found a positive correlation between participating in learning communities and student
engagement. In addition, the students reported overall satisfaction with college. The findings are
significant because they magnify the importance of engaging in academics in a way that builds
the social and intellectual connections between students. Zhao and Kuh’s study took place in the
postsecondary setting; therefore, the results may not necessarily be applicable to this study.
In addition to connecting with other students, Schilling (2009) asserts that it is important
for course content to be delivered in a variety of modes. Schilling discusses the use ofmultiple
means to deliver content, rather than text-only at the graduate level. She found that students are
able to better connect with the course. The instructor is also crucial in the learning process, as he
or she guides instruction and fosters critical thinking (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005).
Furthermore, Meyer (2014) added a fourth dimension to Moore’s interaction types: student-
activity. This fourth interaction enables course instructors to focus on pedagogy and instructional
activities that can increase student engagement.
Kuh (2009) describes engagement as a student’s involvement in the learning process.
When immersed in the learning experience, students participate and are active contributors to the
process. Participating in class encourages future involvement in the curriculum and course.
Chickering and Gamson (1987) developed Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate
Education: (a) student-faculty contact, (b) cooperation among students, (c) active learning, (d)
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 22

prompt feedback, (e) time on task, (f) high expectations, and (g) respect for diverse talents and
ways of learning. Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) seven principles provide useful insight about
good practices to increase student engagement; however, it is important to note that their
intended audience is the postsecondary setting. Taken together, student engagement must involve
students in the learning process and therefore captures student behaviors, interactions with others
and the content, and even student attitudes and perceptions.
Student Engagement at the Secondary Level
Increasing student achievement is an area of research that sustains interest amongst
educators. Educators and researchers in the field are specifically fascinated by the construct of
engagement as academic success positively correlates to student engagement in classroom
learning tasks (Patrick et al., 2007). According to Fredricks et al., (2004) student engagement is a
construct that can be molded and that can vary among different environments. This quality
makes the construct worth analyzing as variations in student context and learning environments
can alter the level of engagement. Students can become engaged in school-related tasks through
social or academic paths. For example, engagement can be attained through opportunities in the
educational institution at large or within the setting of a classroom. Interpersonal relationships
with peers and critical thinking moments also spark engagement. Moreover, echoing this
assertion, Marks (2000) argues that high student engagement leads to effective learning and
understanding, fulfilling learning experiences, and completion of high school graduation
requirements. Therefore, if students are effectively engaged in what they are learning, the
potential exists for increases in academic performance.
At the high school level, student engagement is often analyzed as a means to
understanding student dropout rates (Finn, 1989; Rumberger & Larson, 1998; Wehlage et al.,
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 23

1989). Archambault et al. (2009) used behavior as a significant indicator of student engagement,
disengagement, and dropping out. The researchers used behavior as a measurable means to
identifying at-risk students because decrease in engagement has been empirically linked to
dropout rates. Their goal was to create an instrument that would measure student engagement in
hopes of promoting success in high school.
Studies at the secondary level have described high school students as bored, or
disengaged from the learning process (Goodlad, 1984; Larson & Richards, 1991). In an effort to
increase student engagement through homework assignments, Bujis and Admiraal (2012)
discovered that enhanced student activities increased time spent on tasks and class participation.
Students also found a fragmented test assignment as meaningful and challenging. The study
shows that teachers can increase knowledge and engagement by enhancing student activities and
instructional design.
Placing students at the center of instructional design is a concept supported by
constructivist theories of learning. For example, Social learning theory and constructivist theory
emphasize the importance of student interaction and observation in creating an effective learning
environment (Bandura, 1977; Vygotsky, 1978). Klem and Connell (2004) argue that there is
reliable empirical evidence to correlate engagement, achievement, and school behavior across
levels of socioeconomic status and social advantage and disadvantage. Building off
constructivism, a learning theory that is dependent upon student engagement, Kolb (1984),
asserted that learning occurs in four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation. The four stages take place as a learner is engaged
in experiential and active learning. In order for active and experiential learning to happen, the
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 24

instructor must create a learning environment that provides students the opportunity to get
involved in the content, discussing and reflecting with their peers.
Online Learning
With the increase in online learning, educational institutions seek to deliver distance
learning courses that implement effective teaching and learning strategies. The leading research
shows that creating a community of learners increases learning and academic performance
(Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). In studying the effectiveness of online learning,
researchers shifted their focus to analyzing the student perspective of virtual learning
environments. Student feedback identified a need for a sense of community and quality
interaction (Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004). Yeng et al. (2010) also uncovered the students’
desire for opportunities to co-construct knowledge. In an empirical investigation, Sun et al.
(2006), looked into factors affecting student satisfaction with online learning. The results of the
study discussed timeliness of instructor feedback and an emphasis on interaction with others.
Before examining student engagement in online settings, it is important to distinguish the types
of online settings commonly found in education.
Asynchronous Learning
Asynchronous learning does not take place in real-time (Chen and You, 2007). When
compared to face-to-face learning environments, online learning has been described as
inadequate in facilitating interaction needed for construction of knowledge (Slagter van Tyron &
Bishop, 2009). Online discussion has been implemented in asynchronous learning environments
to bridge the gap between virtual classrooms and traditional classroom settings (Darabi et al.,
2010). According to Reonieri (2006) and Birch and Volkov (2007) the use of discussion boards
is very important in asynchronous learning environments. The researchers assert that students
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 25

and faculty believe discussion boards facilitate learning. There are still gaps in the current
literature justifying the ability of discussions boards to promote learning; however, current
studies assert that discussion boards create learning communities. For example, Ringler et al.
(2015) explains that discussion boards build a sense of community in the virtual classroom,
increase time for student reflection, providing additional support when necessary, and fostering
exploratory learning. In measuring learner satisfaction with asynchronous learning environments
from the student perspective, Giese and Gote (2003) found that learner satisfaction was
dependent upon content, user interface, and learning community.
Moreover, also approaching their research from the student perspective, Song, Singleton,
Hill, and Koh (2004), surveyed 76 online graduate students to analyze their perceptions of the
benefits and drawbacks of asynchronous online learning. The researchers concluded that time
management, student knowledge in online learning technologies, and instructional design
improved the learning experience. Conversely, lack of community, technical issues, and
undefined goals and objectives were challenges. It was also concluded that learners must adopt
individual learning strategies to navigate the unique learning environment. Fostering a
community of learners through best teacher practice and instructional design is paramount in
asynchronous learning.
Asynchronous online discussions attempt to mirror the continuous feedback found in
traditional classroom settings; however, they still lack the deep and sustainable social
construction of knowledge in a face-to-face classroom (Gunawardena et al., 1997).
Asynchronous learning platforms give students the flexibility of pace and timing in their studies;
however, the asynchronous interaction is a disadvantage due to the lack of real-time interaction
with the teacher (Fita et al., 2016). The in-depth interaction that is able to take place in a
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 26

traditional, spontaneous classroom discussion (Slagter van Tyron & Bishop, 2009) fosters higher
levels of learning (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Synchronous Learning
Unlike asynchronous learning, synchronous environments simulate a traditional
classroom environment by bringing students and the instructor together in real time. Students and
teachers are able to share documents instantly, watch as a teacher writes on the computer (as in
an e-blackboard) (Fita et al., 2016), and participate in group activities in breakout rooms,
simulating face-to-face interaction (Wimba, 2011). In addition, synchronous classrooms offer a
variety of convenience-related advantages. For example, students can receive tutoring from
teachers without physically reporting to their office, students can also collaborate on projects
from a distance, and professionals can offer seminars to students at a great distance (Bondi et al.,
2016; Huang et al., 2008; Park & Bonk, 2007).
Not only does synchronous learning make educational and collaborative opportunities
more available and convenient, it also has an advantage in establishing a sense of community and
increasing student satisfaction and academic performance (McBrien, Jones, & Cheng, 2009). The
literature shows a need for synchronous learning within online learning environments. This is
consistent with the assumptions of sociocultural learning theory in that learning is social in
nature, not individual (Cobb & Yackle, 1996). Synchronous learning helps to avoid feelings of
isolation from the instructor, other students, and the content. Synchronous communication
increases involvement in the course, offers opportunity for collaboration, and brings identity to
virtual learning environments (Rybarczyk, 2007). Rybarczyk (2007) discusses the benefits of
synchronous learning as reducing students’ feelings of invisibility due to the communication
barrier and lack of interaction with the instructor and classmates found in asynchronous settings.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 27

Synchronous learning immerses students in the learning process through real-time interaction
with the teacher and other students. It is essential for instructors to encourage student
participation in order to create a foundation for effective communication in the form of listening,
responding, and questioning. By doing so, teachers facilitate construction of new knowledge
through social interaction, cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (Wertsch, 1991).
In the synchronous setting, cognitive apprenticeships place focus on the development of
cognitive and metacognitive knowledge by facilitating collaboration and interaction between the
teacher (expert) and the student (apprentice) (Ding, 2008). Oriol et al. (2010) developed seven
teaching strategies in the synchronous environment by applying a cognitive apprenticeship
framework: modeling (Bandura, 1977), coaching (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989),
scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1978), fading, reflection, articulation, and exploration. With modeling,
students learn by observing the teacher. Instructors coach students with immediate feedback to
develop problem-solving strategies. Scaffolding involves a teacher’s focused awareness on the
student’s skill level and appropriate level of difficulty. Fading entails the gradual decrease in
level of support being provided by the teacher. Reflection requires the student to compare their
process with that of the expert, or instructor. Articulation is a process that challenges the student
to explain their process and rationale for decision making. Lastly, exploration encourages the
student to consider other ways of solving problems or tasks.
In that way, synchronous learning may have several benefits. Chen et al. (2005) assert
that synchronous learning can outperform traditional face-to-face instruction and its
asynchronous counterpart; however, more emphasis should be placed on pedagogical practice.
The researchers describe an online synchronous learning model that is based on mirroring the
traditional instruction dynamics. They then conducted a case study to examine student
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 28

perceptions of the implemented synchronous learning model. According to their survey results,
students reported a high commitment to the live class sessions. In addition, the students liked the
live class sessions because the classes felt very similar to instruction in a traditional, face-to-face
setting. Lastly, the students preferred the synchronous learning model because there were more
opportunities for interaction.
Moreover, Allmendinger (2010) underlines the significance of collaboration in a
synchronous setting. By creating a community of learners, students are able to view enthusiasm
from their teacher and peers. Synchronous learning classrooms also enable students to be
comfortable interacting with the teacher, a vital skill of post-secondary education and career
success. When students are engaged in a course, they are able to interact and engage in a
meaningful learning process.
In a research review by Allmendinger (2010), it is asserted that the promotion of student
presence within a synchronous online learning environment is paramount to foster student
motivation. This mirrors the results of Hampel and de los Arcos’s (2013) study, in which
students reported feeling autonomous in their learning when they engaged in individual quizzes
and assessments. Placing importance on each student’s identity fosters collaboration
(Allmendinger, 2010). Yang et al. (2010) used artifacts of student work and semi-structured
interviews to collect data. The findings of their study highlight the importance of fostering
student-to-instructor and peer-to-peer interaction in online learning environments. The
researchers discuss the importance for instructors to encourage interaction in order to avoid
students’ feelings of isolation and to build a productive learning community. Stemming from the
social constructivist theory, the researchers emphasized the importance of social interaction to
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 29

promote learning and the construction of knowledge. Students reported the advantages of
interacting with their peers and instructors to boost student success and learning.
McBrien, Jones, and Cheng (2009) performed a collaborative research study to explore
the ways in which a synchronous learning environment affects students’ learning experiences.
The researchers attempted to identify students’ perceptions of their strengths and weaknesses in
distance learning (Moore, 1993) by examining dialogue and learner autonomy. This qualitative
research study was designed to inform the development and implementation of effective online
learning environments by exploring, from both teacher and student perspectives, what constitutes
effective online learning experiences. The study found that synchronous sessions in an online
course increase students’ sense of social presence and community; however, students did have
trouble with simultaneous interactions, would have preferred a webcam enabled synchronous
setting, and were frustrated by technology issues.
Synchronous learning environments fill the interaction gaps that exist in asynchronous
learning environments (Allmendinger, 2010; Chen et al., 2005; McBrien, Jones, & Cheng, 2009;
Oriol et al., 2010). Synchronous, real-time interaction foster a community of learners and
collaboration in the learning environment. A more meaningful learning process of co-
constructing knowledge takes place through the simultaneous exchange of information. To
improve synchronous learning environments, webcam enabled learning platforms have been
created (Fita et al., 2016).
Synchronous Webcam Enabled Learning
Synchronous, web-enabled learning tools can overcome the limitation of synchronous
learning environments (Fita et al., 2016). For example, webcam-enabled environments allow
students to watch the teacher talk. Examples of software that enhance synchronous virtual
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 30

learning environments, allowing students to communicate with and see teachers in real-time, are
Adobe Connect, ConferenceXP, Skype, and GoToMeeting (Bondi et al., 2016; Huang et al.,
2008; Park & Bonk, 2007). These webcam enabled classrooms allow audio and video to be heard
and seen by multiple students simultaneously in real-time.
Current research is examining how teachers utilize webcams during synchronous
instruction (Develotte, Guichon, & Vincent, 2010) and student and teacher perceptions of
webcam-enabled virtual classrooms (Kozar, 2015). Develotte, Guichon, and Vincent (2010)
found five degrees of teacher utilization of webcams: (1) the teacher does not appear in the video
window, (2) the teacher does not look at the computer screen, (3) the teacher looks at the open
video window on the computer screen, (4) the teacher looks at the open video window on the
computer screen and uses facial expressions or gestures to convey a message, and (5) the teacher
looks straight into the webcam. Kozar’s (2015) study analyzed experienced online teachers and
learners’ perceptions and found that teachers only utilized webcams at the beginning of a course
term to establish a sense of community and rapport, and then discontinued use after the first two
to three weeks. In addition, teachers reduced the use of webcams to avoid feelings of self-
consciousness and privacy concerns. These studies indicate that teacher training and adoption of
pedagogical skills are needed to facilitate synchronous learning sessions effectively.
Conversely, in their study of the effects of webcams on interactive learning, Codreanu
and Celik (2013) found that students’ comprehension increased and teachers were able to
establish a stronger sense of discourse to engage learners. Guichon and Cohen (2014) explored
the value provided by webcams in a synchronous setting. The researchers discovered that the
effect of the webcam on the virtual pedagogical interaction was not as critical as they had
predicted. Echoing both sides of the research, Olson et al., (2012) found that the integration of
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 31

webcams to a synchronous session created a more robust and authentic interaction; however, the
new technological tool heightened stress level and decreased overall effectiveness of the learning
environment.
Due to the newness of webcam enabled synchronous learning environments, more
research is required to explore the use of webcams and pedagogical implications of webcam use;
however, scholars believe it is critical in establishing a smoothness of interaction and
collaboration in a real-time setting (Satar, 2013; Yamada & Akahori, 2009)
Student-Athletes and Engagement
Student-athletes have the task of balancing sport and school (Borggrefe & Cachay, 2012;
Parker et al., 2016; Sorkkila, Aunola, & Ryba, 2016). They navigate the stressors of a typical
adolescent, in conjunction with the demands of their rigorous sport schedule. Much of the
research shows a negative correlation between the level of athletic pursuit and academic
performance. (Eitzen, 2009; Purdy, Eitzen, & Hufnagel, 1982; Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, &
Hannah, 2006; Sowa & Gressard, 1983). Some research has examined student-athletes and
academic performance. It is also important to analyze the intersection of student-athletes and
academic engagement. Harris et al., (2014) analyzed student engagement and academic success
of black male student-athletes in high school. They found that a collaborative support system
(i.e. teachers, school administrators, and parents) and cultural competence are both necessary to
facilitate positive academic outcomes for student-athletes.
In a case study by Dawkins, Braddock, and Celaya (2008), the researchers analyzed the
academic engagement of an African American male who aspired to be a professional athlete.
Their results echoed that of Harris et al. (2014) in that elite student-athletes may be at-risk of
academic disengagement if parents, coaches, teachers, and administrators do not emphasize the
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 32

importance of educational values. The researchers also assert that when regulatory bodies, such
as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), create strict rules for high school-aged
athletes to be eligible to compete in college or professionally, athletes become overly concerned
with eligibility rather than genuinely engaging in academics. The student-athletes settle for
minimal engagement to satisfy the governing bodies’ rules.
A review of the literature shows an emphasis on examining student-athletes and
engagement focuses on the African American demographic (Dawkins, Braddock, & Celaya,
2008; Harris et al., 2014) and athletes in higher education (Carter-Francique, Hart, & Cheeks,
2015; Cooper, 2016; Cooper & Hall, 2016; Horton, 2015; Stone, Harrison, & Mottley, 2012).
Scholars have focused on the specific demographic because the NCAA (2011) highlighted a
persistent academic performance gap between Black male student-athletes and their student-
athlete peers in institutions of higher education. A gap in the research shows a need for more
analysis of student-athletes and engagement at the secondary level.
Student-Athletes and Online Learning
A review of the literature shows the intersection of student-athletes and engagement in
higher education settings. Likewise, the relationship between student-athletes and online learning
is mostly being examined at the postsecondary level (Kreb, 2009; Nichols & Levy, 2008). Kreb
(2009) asserts that student-athletes are turning to online education because their travel and
competition demands cause them to miss traditional classes. In addition, online courses provide
the student-athletes the flexibility in timing and location needed to accommodate their rigorous
athletic schedules. Not only does online learning enable student-athletes to balance their
schooling and their sport, Kreb (2009) also claims that the characteristics of a student-athlete
(Crowley, 2006) are very similar to the characteristics of a successful online learner (Simonson,
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 33

2006). Crowley (2006) describes student-athletes with the following terms: hard working,
coachable, goal-oriented, teamwork, time management, self-discipline, perseverance, passionate,
and highly motivated. Simonson (2006) describes a successful online learner with the following
terms: self-discipline, self-motivation, time management, goal-oriented, self-responsible, self-
esteem, relating to others, ability to conduct self-study, and comfortable with technology. The
parallels between the two list of characteristics strengthens Kreb’s (2009) assertion.
Kreb (2009) reported student-athletes’ feedback to enrolling in online courses. The
student-athletes expressed the desire to still attend class in a traditional classroom setting in order
to get guidance and direction from the instructor, rather than a fully online course. Nichols and
Levy (2008) also analyzed the relationship between student-athletes and online learning from the
student perspective. The researchers discovered that students’ earned high school grade point
average (GPA) was a significant predictor of their persistence in an online course.
Online Learning and Engagement
The review of literature defining student engagement clearly asserts engagement as a
multifaceted construct involving affective as well as behavioral dimensions. With the increase in
online learning environments, researchers question whether student engagement looks similar or
different from traditional classroom environments. Returning to the literature examining
traditional classrooms, the seven principles of good practice (Chickering & Gamson, 1987)
strongly align with literature on student engagement and have been widely pertinent to the design
of online learning environments (Sun et al., 2008). Specifically, the seven principles include
aspects of behavioral and affective engagement such as, student-faculty contact, cooperation
among students, and respect for ways of learning. This shows that principles of student
engagement in face-to-face traditional settings, are not much different than those in online
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 34

learning settings. In fact, research on students’ satisfaction with online learning environments
clearly suggests the importance of student-to-student interactions and opportunities to co-
construct knowledge (Yeng et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2006).
Bonk and Dennen (2002) analyzed the resources, teaching strategies, and tools that can
be utilized to improve the effectiveness of online courses. The authors created five frameworks
as a means of evaluating online learning: psychological justification of online learning;
participant interaction, levels of technology integration, instructor and student roles, and
pedagogical practices. Collectively, the frameworks discuss the sense of community in online
courses and the overall learning environment. Echoing the importance of two of those
frameworks -- “instructor and student roles” and “pedagogical practices” -- in comparison study
of four students in a traditional classroom setting and their four distance learning counterparts,
Park and Bonk (2007) did not find differences between the two groups in terms of their learning
strategies; however, the students in the online learning environment did report value in
spontaneous feedback, meaningful interactions, multiple perspectives, and instructors’ supports.
This similarity highlights the importance of pedagogy and interaction an online learning
environment.
In his evaluation of blended learning environments, Banerjee (2011) highlights that
student satisfaction increases when pedagogical practices support interactivity and maintain
connections with teachers and peers. Similarly, Brown, Rich, and Holtham (2014) conducted a
quantitative action research through a constructivist lens. The purpose of the study was to assess
the impact of a new undergraduate module that focused on altering the learning environment.
The module aimed to foster a high level of student engagement. The study found that instructors
in online learning environments must create opportunities that foster student interaction and
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 35

create a community of learners, echoing the assertions from a review of the literature, previously
discussed. In sum, a review of the literature shows the clear advantages to synchronous learning
environments. The real-time interaction in a virtual classroom, enables teachers and students to
interact and co-construct knowledge, creating a community of learners who are engaged in the
content.
Various researchers studying online learning environments and student engagement
highlight the positive correlation between interaction, experiential learning with reflection, and
teacher support and guidance with academic performance. Student engagement is a measure that
can aid in evaluating the effectiveness of online learning. Robinson and Hullinger (2010)
measured the level of student engagement in online learning by analyzing the responses of 201
undergraduate students’ self-administered questionnaires. The researchers utilized a modified
version of the well-established National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) to create the
survey. The NSSE measured student engagement based on four benchmarks: level of academic
challenge, active and collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, and enriching
educational experiences. The authors note that their findings provide an understanding of the
type and level of student engagement in online learning. It is the role of the faculty to create an
engaging curriculum design and academic activities. The online curriculum eliminates time and
place constraints, so curriculum design should take advantage of the flexible and innovative
channels for interaction.
Moreover, Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000) created the Community of Inquiry
(CoI) framework in order to measure the effectiveness of online learning. The CoI framework
has gained considerable attention because of its emphasis on creating collaboration and academic
discourse within an online, distant learning community. Consistent with constructivist
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 36

approaches to learning, the researchers broke down the framework into three main components:
social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching presence. Social presence relates to openness
of communication, group cohesion, and affective expression. Cognitive presence, the most
difficult component to analyze and develop in online courses, pertains to the exchange of
information, connecting and applying new ideas, and sparking a sense of puzzlement in the
learners. Teaching presence involves the design and organization of the course, facilitation of
discourse, and direct instruction techniques.
The CoI Framework discusses the three presences that are needed for a learning
environment to build a community of inquiry: social, cognitive, and teaching. The three
components facilitate the engagement of students in academic discourse. Student engagement in
academic discourse is critical for effective learning in an online environment (Robinson &
Hullinger, 2010). Being a construct that is difficult to define, The National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) created five groups of activities in an effort to determine level of student
engagement: level of academic challenge, a supportive campus environment, enriching education
experiences, student-faculty interaction, and active and collaborative learning. In order to
measure student engagement in an online environment, Dixson (2010) created the Online
Student Engagement Scale (OSE). The OSE strives to measure what students do both actively
and in their thought processes, how connected students feel to their instructor, peers, and the
course content, and how they are feeling about their learning.
Discovering that meaningful student interaction contributes to the success of learning,
Song, Singleton, Hill, and Koh, (2004) echo Hampel & de los Arcos’s (2013) discovery that
students who have experienced distance education appreciate the convenience. However,
students are also asking for more ways to interact with each other in real-time - synchronous
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 37

learning. According to Hampel and de los Arcos, (2013) synchronous learning increases student
participation and encourages group collaboration. This type of online learning is popular;
however, more research needs to be conducted to examine its effectiveness. Moreover, Hampel
and de los Arcos’s two-year study exploring the design and implementation cycle of online
activities in a virtual learning environment uncovered that by incorporating strategies such as
discussion forums, group projects, video sessions, and live chats, teachers can bring students
together in a learning community in order to bring a rich and dynamic experience to the virtual
learning process. Synchronous learning also brings an added layer to virtual learning
environments. It enables students to interact with students and teachers in real-time, creating a
greater opportunity for collaboration and conversation.
Just as Hampel (2013) found value in meaningful interactions in an online learning
environment, Warden et al. (2013) performed action research over a nine-year period to discover
effective communication practices in a virtual classroom. Warden wanted to find ways that
online learning environments can create communication avenues that mirror a traditional school
setting. The progress made in technology and the financial savings for educational institutions
has made it paramount to discover the ways for teaching effectiveness and academic
performance to be achieved. The researchers found that challenges in online learning were due to
how individuals engaged with the technology, not the technology itself. For example, instructors
had to find a balance between directing the virtual classroom, while also enabling students to
control the virtual space to encourage participation and engagement. It was also important for
instructors to provide opportunities for collaboration and self-directed learning.
Researchers have begun to look at online learning through the perspective of the student.
By analyzing the student experience in a virtual learning environment, studies have shown the
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 38

need for digital delivery of instruction to contain opportunities for collaboration and interaction.
Yamagata-Lynch (2014), performed a qualitative self-study on a 15-week blended graduate
course she instructed. The course topic was online learning environments, and the researcher
utilized her students’ feedback as data for her analysis. Through online learning, students gain
the advantages of flexibility afforded from an asynchronous, online curriculum; however,
instructors must implement proper structures for students to effectively engage in the curriculum
and build a community of learners.
Moreover, Yamagata-Lynch sought to explore how students felt they benefited by adding
synchronous learning to the asynchronous learning experience. Students reported richer
experiences in their level of participation, feeling more connected to the course, and flexibility of
location and materials while still having real-time interactions. Much of Yamagata-Lynch’s self
study echoes findings from studies that report students engaging in communication more
consistently, staying on task, participating, and completing their courses when synchronous
learning is implemented (Chen & You, 2007; Mabrito, 2006; Hrastinski, 2010).
Due to the substantial use of the internet in postsecondary education, Chen, Lambert, and
Guidry (2010) investigated how student engagement and learning outcomes are affected by Web-
based learning. These researchers utilized data obtained from the National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) to explore (1) how often students use the Web for course-related purposes,
(2) if individual traits affect the probability of enrolling in online courses, and (3) to study the
relationship between student engagement, approach, and learning outcomes in terms of quantity
of technology used in a course. Overall, the data suggest a positive relationship between student
engagement and self-reported learning outcomes with the use of Web-based learning. Students
who use the Web for educational purposes were found more likely to employ deep methods of
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 39

learning, such as integrative and reflective learning. Additionally, these students reported greater
competence in personal and social development when compared to students who do not utilize
the internet for educational purposes.
The Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) includes items
developed for online learning. In a study utilizing the CCSSE, students in asynchronous online
courses were less engaged than students in blended courses (Fisher, 2010). Fisher asserts that the
lack of student engagement was not due to the online learning environment; however, she did
attribute lower levels of engagement to pedagogical practices that did not encourage active
interaction and collaboration. The students reported a lack of one-on-one interaction with the
instructor. In addition, the students voiced a need for more social and academic support. This
study magnifies the importance of implementing meaningful pedagogical practices to facilitate
student involvement and boost levels of engagement in online learning.
Conceptual Framework
Research in student-athlete academic achievement provides evidence that the student’s
background context and commitment to sport matter (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Park, Hong,
and Lee (2015). In other words, family support, cultural background, and individual attributes
contribute to engagement in school in complex ways. Figure 1 outlines a conceptual model of
contextual factors at the student-athlete's level that are associated with commitments and goals to
one’s sport and schooling, ultimately affecting engagement. The model was developed from a
review of the literature on the factors influencing student-athletes and academic success. Much
of the insight on considering the student-athlete’s individual context comes from Eddie Comeaux
and Keith Harrison’s (2011) conceptual model of academic success for student-athletes.
Comeaux and Harrison’s conceptual model analyzed the contextual factors as influencers for
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 40

post-secondary education; however, for the purposes of this study, the student’s context will be
influencing their secondary education.
Looking at the present study through a sociocultural and constructivist lens, it is
important that the conceptual model includes family support, cultural background, and individual
student attributes when analyzing student engagement in an academic environment. Bandura
(1961) and Vygotsky (1978) emphasize the importance of activities students engage in when
learning. Moreover, sociocultural theory emphasizes the cultural origins of cognition and
development and explores how individuals develop through their involvement in cultural
practices (Cobb & Yackle, 1996). For these reasons, a student’s individual context must be
included in the discussion of their academic engagement.
In Figure 1, family background pertains the amount of parental support. Individual
attributes account for a student’s race, gender, and academic motivation. Each of these
characteristics has an implicit effect on academic success for student-athletes. The input
characteristics student-athletes bring to their secondary educational careers interact with one
another and impact commitments and goals in one’s sport and schooling. Furthermore,
commitments and goals pertaining to both sport and schooling are placed between student’s
context and student-athlete engagement because it is important to consider the behaviors that
student-athletes bring into their high school experience. Bean and Metzner (1985) assert that
goals and commitments relate to students’ educational aspirations and highest level of degree to
which they desire.
Ultimately, the student-athlete’s context and the student-athlete’s goals and commitments
to sport and school affect engagement in synchronous learning environments. As seen in Figure
1, engagement is broken down into three dimensions: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive. This
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 41

portion of the conceptual framework is heavily drawn from Jennifer Fredricks’s (2004)
multidimensional view of engagement. Fredricks discusses the importance of analyzing all three
facets of engagement simultaneously to provide a more robust picture of learning (Fredricks,
Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). Behavioral engagement is related to attendance, participation, and
desired conduct. This dimension of engagement includes participation in classroom learning,
school-related tasks, and school-related activities. Cognitive engagement pertains to students’
level of commitment to learning and involves the willingness to put in extra effort to understand
cognitively complex tasks. Lastly, emotional engagement has to do with the positive and
negative reactions to school-related individuals and tasks.
To fill the gap in the research, this study will analyze student-athletes’ engagement with a
multidimensional perspective. Looking through a sociocultural and constructivist lens, the study
will take into account the individual context each student brings to the synchronous learning
environment.
Student’s
Context

Figure 1. Conceptual framework. This figure illustrates the social constructivist conceptual
framework for the study.
Family Background
Cultural Upbringing
Individual Attributes

Goals / Commitments
to School

Goals / Commitments
to Sport

Student-athlete Engagement
(1) Behavioral
(2) Cognitive
(3) Emotional
Synchronous
Learning
Environment
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 42

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
This qualitative study aimed to discover how student-athletes engage in a synchronous,
virtual learning environment at the secondary level. The study was based on a social
constructivist theoretical framework, in addition to a multidimensional perspective of
engagement: behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement
(Fredricks et al., 2004).
Sample
The population for this study consisted of male, high school-aged student-athletes who are
part of the Lion Soccer Academy High School (LSAHS). LSAHS is a pseudonym. The student
body of Lion Soccer Academy HS consists of elite soccer players who engage in synchronous,
virtual learning environments, making it an ideal setting for the study. The 42 student-athletes,
ages 14 to 18 years old are enrolled in an online, public high school. The students physically
attend school at a site provided by LSAHS staffed with Learning Coaches and Content
Specialists, where they engage in their synchronous online learning with off-site instructors. The
following figures visually represent the demographic information of the sample.

Figure 2. Age of respondents. This figure illustrates the age of the respondents from the online
interviews.
Age
17 years old
16 years old
15 years old
14 years old
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 43

Figure 3. Ethnicity of respondents. This figure illustrates the ethnicity of the respondents from
the online interviews.

Figure 4. Languages spoken at home. This figure illustrates the languages spoken in the homes
of the respondents from the online interviews.
Setting
This study was set at Lion Soccer Academy High School. LSAHS is located in a major
city in the country. LSAHS was created in 2015 with the goal of providing a comprehensive,
holistic developmental program for elite youth soccer players who aspire to be professional
soccer players. The student-athletes of LSAHS were enrolled in an online high school to provide
the curriculum and online instruction for the high school-aged student-athletes. LSAHS also
consisted of a learning environment and Education Staff to provide structures for the online
learning and face-to-face support of the online curriculum for the student-athletes. LSAHS
Ethnicity
Hispanic/Latino
Caucasian
Mixed Race
African American
Declined to state
Languages
English
English & Spanish
Spanish
English & Hungarian
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 44

consists of 42 student-athletes with one eighth grader, three freshmen, 11 sophomores, 15
juniors, and 13 seniors. The study body consists of 59.5 % students of Hispanic/Latino descent,
28.5% White, and 12% other and mixed race. The students of LSAHS have been enrolled in the
online school for one to two years. Previous to their enrollment at LSAHS, the students were
enrolled at their respective traditional schools.
The accredited online, public high school program consisted of a college preparatory
curriculum that aligned with state standards. The online high school provided core and elective
courses, Honors and Advanced Placement courses, and NCAA-approved courses. The courses
were taught by credentialed teachers who facilitated weekly synchronous class sessions at the
secondary level. The online school reached students like the LSAHS elite athletes who had
difficulty fitting into the typical brick and mortar school schedule due to their demanding athletic
schedules.
Lion Soccer Academy High School was an ideal setting for the study because its student
body consists of student-athletes, whose engagement in synchronous, virtual learning
environments could be analyzed. LSAHS provides the student-athletes with a physical setting
where they engage in their online studies with off-site instructors. The online curriculum and off-
site instruction is supplemented with an Education Staff provided by Lion Soccer Academy. The
Education Staff consists of two Learning Coaches and Content Area Specialists (English,
History, Math, and Science) for each of the four core content areas. The Learning Coaches help
the students navigate the online learning platform, ensure proper pace in the curriculum, and
foster study skills and self-regulation. The Content Area Specialists provide face-to-face
instruction to small groups and provide 1-1 support for the student-athletes. I had access to the
setting and participants because I have a connection to the school.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 45

Participants
Because of my connection to the school, in order to avoid any potential for power
dynamics and in alignment with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved procedures, a
colleague solicited student-athletes from the ages of 14 to 17 for voluntary participation in the
study. I attempted to recruit 32 of the 42 student-athletes to be respondents in the anonymous
online interviews because ten students were 18 years of age. Of the 32 solicited student-athletes,
16 student-athletes returned signed informed parent consent and student assent forms. I
distributed a link to an anonymous, online, qualitative, open-ended interview to the 16 student-
athletes. Of the 16 student-athlete respondents, I received consent to observe six in a
synchronous class session. The six observed student-athletes also consented to sharing
documents for analysis.
Mindful of ethical data procedures, I obtained a sample from the population by having
the study announced by someone other than myself to ensure students did not feel coerced to
participate. My colleague also informed the students that participants would be included in a
raffle for an autographed soccer jersey to incentivize participation. I utilized a participation
incentive to obtain as many participants and as much data as possible. These procedures were
reviewed and approved by the University IRB.
Data Collection and Instruments/Protocols
I used an anonymous, online interview to collect data from the student-athletes about how
they engage in synchronous, virtual learning environments. Per IRB requirements, I was unable
to physically observe the student-athletes engaging in synchronous class sessions. Instead, I
performed observations of the student-athletes during synchronous, virtual class sessions by
simultaneously capturing two video recordings. One video recording was of the student in his
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 46

physical classroom environment, and the second recording was of the student’s laptop screen in
the synchronous session. Lastly, I obtained relevant documents (i.e. students’ notes, course
syllabi).
Interviews
I distributed a link to an online, anonymous, open-ended interview to the participants
rather than conducting face-to-face interviews. Due to my role at the LSAHS, it was important to
obtain information about how the student-athletes engage in synchronous learning environments
in a manner that encouraged honesty and avoided response bias. The open-ended interview
questions were based on Fredricks et al.’s (2004) three facets of engagement: behavioral
engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. The online interview questions
also delved into each student’s context (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011) considering his family
background, cultural background, individual attributes, and goals and commitments to school
and sport. The online interview responses were anonymous and confidential.
I constructed the online interview after thoroughly reviewing published research
instruments that measure engagement. I modified the existing instruments items in order to fit
the purpose of the study. Modified online interview items came from the following instruments:
Engagement versus Disaffection with Learning (EvsD) (Furrer & Skinner, 2003), Identification
with School Questionnaire (ISQ) (Voelkl, 1996), Research Assessment Package for Schools
(RAPS) (IRRE, 1998), School Engagement Measure (SEM) (Fredricks et al., (2005), and
Student Engagement Instrument (SEI) (Appleton et al., 2006). All five existing instruments are
student self-report surveys. Modified online interview items that were intended to measure
behavioral engagement came from the EvsD, RAPS, and SEQ. Modified online interview items
that were intended to measure cognitive engagement came from the SEM and SEI. Modified
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 47

online interview items that were intended to measure emotional engagement came from the
EvsD, ISQ, RAPS, SEM, and SEI. Items from the existing instruments were structured as Likert
scale statements. I changed Likert scale items to open-ended questions in order to elicit more
information from the students and increase the data of how student engage in synchronous,
virtual learning environments.
Observations
Video recordings of the students engaged in synchronous class sessions took place at the
physical classroom site at the Lion Soccer Academy High School’s location. The student being
video recorded was on his laptop, participating in a synchronous class session with an off-site
instructor and online classmates. While a video recording of the student was being captured in
the physical learning environment, the synchronous session on the student’s laptop was recorded
simultaneously. I watched the two recorded videos simultaneously to obtain data of observable
behaviors of engagement and disengagement in the student’s physical environment (i.e. affect,
posture, pencil and paper note taking), while also analyzing the data seen within the virtual class
session (i.e. what the online teacher says and displays, what online peers type and submit, what
the observed student types, deletes, submits, clicks).
I observed six student-athletes engaged in synchronous class sessions in this manner. I
collected and analyzed the data. The observational protocol was based on Fredricks et al.’s
(2004) multidimensional definition of engagement. The observational protocol included items
that I looked for while watching the video recording of the student engaged in a synchronous
class session, including the signs of engagement or disengagement, which were categorized as
behavioral, cognitive, or emotional engagement.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 48

Document Collection
I collected students’ notes for each synchronous class that was observed. I collected
documents provided by the instructors of the synchronous classes that were observed. I collected
syllabi in order to see what the courses entailed and what was expected of the students. I also
collected assignment rubrics when the synchronous class session was focused on how to
complete a class assignment. The documents were accessed through the online school’s
educational management system.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began as soon as data collection began and was ongoing. Data from the
recorded synchronous class sessions was collected until saturation (Creswell, 2009) was reached.
I read through the online interview answers, observation notes, and collected documents. While
reading through the online interview answers and observation notes, I took careful notes on what
was seen in the data. I began with a priori codes because pre-existing themes existed from
Fredricks et al.’s (2004) multi-faceted perspective of engagement. Stemming from the a priori
codes, I noted initial ideas about categories and relationships, based on the conceptual
framework. I used open coding (Creswell, 2009), highlighting recurring concepts and categories
in the data. I then used axial coding (Creswell, 2009) to ensure that the concepts and categories
accurately represented the participants’ responses and examined relationships between concepts
and categories. From the discovered categories, narrative analysis (Creswell, 2009) took place.
Issues of Trustworthiness and Credibility
An important issue of credibility (Creswell, 2009) to discuss is researcher bias (Creswell,
2009). Being a former student-athlete, I have preconceptions about how I balanced sport and
school. I also have perceptions about my own engagement in high school while competing in
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 49

soccer at a high level. I combatted these preconceptions by sharing codes with my dissertation
advisor for feedback. Another possible threat to credibility was reactivity. For observations,
reactivity (Maxwell, 2013) was not considered a serious credibility threat, because the students
were observed in their natural setting through a small video camera, and I observed the video at a
later time. Reflexivity (Merriam, 2009) may have occurred with online interview responses as I
have an administrative role in the setting and authority over the population being studied. The
participants’ responses may be influenced; however, in order to decrease reflexivity, I utilized
anonymous, online interviews instead of face-to-face interviews. The open-ended structure of the
online interviews also provided rich data.
Because I have regular access to the natural setting, I was able to capture recordings of
the students’ processes and make meaning of their visible signs of engagement and
disengagement. I collected data from a diverse range of individuals, using a variety of methods
to employ triangulation.
Limitations and Delimitations
The main limitation of this study was its lack of transferability. The site had a number of
unique characteristics. Because of the need for anonymity, those characteristics cannot be
disclosed, but they limit the generalizability of the study. Also, having a connection to the
program brings limitations to the study and brings credibility to question. I shared coding and
data analysis with my dissertation advisor to avoid researcher bias.
Conducting the research in a single setting was a delimitation. The setting created
conditional parameters regarding the participants’ ages, gender, and sport. For example, the
student-athlete participants were all male soccer players between the ages of 14 and 17. While
the limitations and delimitations affected the generalizability of the study beyond this context,
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 50

the benefit of a narrow context for the study was the ability to gather a lot of data that provided
rich description about engagement in a synchronous class for student-athletes.
Ethics
The voluntary nature of the study was emphasized as participants were recruited and
informed parent consent and student assent forms were collected. I obtained informed parent
consent and student assent forms from all parents and participants of the study because they were
under the age of 18. The informed parent consent and student assent forms acknowledged the
protection of the participants’ rights. The data collection methods of online interviews,
observations, and document collection remained confidential and anonymous. Individual student
interviews were anonymous. I anonymized data when discussing student observations. I gave the
setting a pseudonym to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. I secured data in a locked cabinet
in a secure office during collection and analysis. Data will be discarded after five years.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 51

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine student-athletes’ engagement in
synchronous learning environments at the secondary level. The study focused on engagement
from a multidimensional perspective: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional (Fredricks et al.,
2004). I used a social constructivist lens in order to consider student-athletes’ parental influence,
cultural background, and goals and commitments to school and sport (Comeaux & Harrison,
2011). Current research contains gaps in illuminating the online learning experience for
secondary learners, specifically elite student-athletes. In this research study, I conducted online
interviews and observed high school-aged, elite soccer players enrolled in a virtual learning
school in order to gain knowledge about their academic engagement in synchronous learning
environments.
Participants in this study were between the ages of 14 to 17. A detailed analysis of the
responses from 16 online interviews from online learners is included in this chapter. The
interviews were analyzed to develop emerging themes from a priori coding from Fredericks et
al.’s (2004) definition of multidimensional engagement while gleaning insights from students’
individual context. The emerging themes stemming from Fredricks et al. (2004) were used to
describe the engagement of the elite athletes in a synchronous learning environment.
Along with distributing online interviews, I observed student-athletes from Lion Soccer
Academy High School (LSAHS) during synchronous class sessions, and I collected and analyzed
documents. I triangulated the data to provide findings with rich detail and description of the
student-athletes’ engagement. The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings for the study.
I represented a priori coding from Fredricks et al.’s (2004) multidimensional framework of
engagement with major headings. I created sub-headings based on the themes that emerged from
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 52

the data, to portray a robust description of the elite student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous
virtual learning environments. Throughout the detailed description, I kept the conceptual
framework in mind, and I took the students’ contexts into account and related their contextual
background and commitments back to the online interviews, observations, and documents
collected.
Answering the Research Question
My approach to analyzing the student-athletes’ behavioral, cognitive, and emotional
engagement, while gleaning insights from their individual context and background, was to first
read through the responses from the online interviews. From the responses in the online
interviews, recurring themes emerged through the respondents’ use of the same words and
phrasing in their answers to the questions. I then compared and contrasted the themes from the
online interviews to the trends seen in the observations and document analysis. I revised and
fleshed out the themes. This allowed for the opportunity to develop a comprehensive
understanding of each facet of engagement (behavioral, cognitive, and emotional) in the unique
setting and population, with student context in mind.
Throughout the analysis process, as themes emerged from the a priori codes, it became
very evident that because the population of students was very unique, elite student-athletes
enrolled in an online high school with face-to-face support structures, student context weighed
very heavily in the data. The conceptual framework took into account family involvement and
support, cultural background, and goals and commitments to school and sport; however, the
influence of the Lion Soccer Academy High School learning environment and Education Staff
was very apparent in the data.
RQ: How do secondary student-athletes engage in synchronous, virtual learning environments?
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 53

Behavioral Engagement
Data revealed that the student-athletes have strong behavioral engagement in
synchronous learning environments in terms of following the rules set forth by the online
instructor. The students were observed as passively compliant and on task. Documents collected
also showed detailed note taking, illustrating that the students were listening to their teacher.
Conversely, the data illustrated that the student-athletes reported minimal interaction with their
online peers. The student-athletes were observed typing and submitting answers to teachers’
questions; however, they were not seen actively constructing knowledge with their classmates.
Adhering to Norms
Online interview data revealed that the student-athletes have a high level of behavioral
engagement in terms of positive conduct, such as following the rules and adhering to class norms
in the synchronous lesson. Students reported being attentive, listening to and responding to the
teacher’s instruction and directions, and putting forth effort. For example, when asked to
describe their participation in synchronous class sessions, a student responded, “I’m fully
engaged and focused.”
This sentiment was mirrored in the observation data of student-athletes participating in
synchronous class sessions. The student-athletes displayed signs of strong behavioral
engagement. For example, I observed students typing and submitting responses to teachers’
questions, with their bodies facing the desk and laptop, sitting up straight in their chair, and with
their eyes focused on the laptop screen. Observed student-athletes consistently showed focus,
concentration, and attention to the synchronous class session. Documents collected from the
class sessions showed notes that relate to the content being taught and diligent recording of the
information displayed on the PowerPoint slides. The practice of note taking is echoed in a
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 54

student’s response from an online interview: “I take notes during the LiveLessons, so I will have
the information later on in the unit.” The reported and observed behavioral engagement aligned
with Marsh’s (1993) assertion that sports participation has been found to benefit adolescent
development by promoting discipline and resulting in fewer conduct issues.
From a social constructivist lens, the student-athletes’ proclivity for adhering to the
norms of synchronous class sessions may stem from their commitment to school as indicated by
the data from the online interviews. The student-athletes at LSAHS reported goals of attending
four-year universities after their secondary education. Comeaux and Harrison (2011) analyzed
academic success of student-athletes by taking into account individual students’ context,
commitment to goals, sport, and institution, and the various factors that influence social and
academic systems at the university level. The researchers asserted the importance of recognizing
the commitments and athletic-related goals that drive student-athletes’ motivations. In this study,
by taking the high school-aged students’ context and individual goals into account, the data
illuminated the influence commitments and goals toward academics and athletics had on their
behavioral engagement, in terms of following the rules and doing their work.
Participation by Listening
The majority of participants reported listening well during synchronous class sessions.
When asked with an open-ended question about how well students listened to their teacher
during a synchronous class session, a student reported, “I listen to my teacher very well.” The
data showed that the student-athletes listened to information delivered by the teacher that the
student-athletes deemed as “important.” The student-athletes believed it was important to listen
to information relayed about tests, quizzes, and larger projects and assignments: “I listen to every
close detail so I do not miss anything that will be important on a test or a quiz.” The student-
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 55

athletes perceived the synchronous learning environment as an important and helpful time to
listen to and interact with their online teacher. For example, in regard to participation during
online class sessions, a student responded, “I listen to my teacher thoroughly.” Another student
stated: “I think I listen well and I am able to take notes on the important parts of the lesson.”
Here, the theme of listening to important parts of the synchronous class session is revealed.
The data from the students’ online interview responses and observed behaviors exhibited
consistencies with previous research magnifying the importance of synchronous communication
because it avoids feelings of isolation and breaks down communication barriers between the
students and instructor (Yang et al., 2010). For example, an observed student responded
promptly to every question the teacher posed with thoughtful answers in the dialogue chat box.
When the teacher made a comment about the observed student’s submitted answer, the student
smiled. Without the interaction taking place in the synchronous class session, the important
dynamic between student and teacher would not have been established. The student smiling after
receiving positive feedback from his teacher signified that he appreciated the positive
reinforcement for being on task and understanding the content. The synchronous environment
was able to bridge the distance between the online teacher and the student-athlete.
Students described themselves as “engaged” and “focused.” One student stated, “I listen
to every close detail.” Moreover, the observed student-athletes demonstrated behavior that
indicated they were listening to the teacher and authentically on task such as, nodding their head,
shaking their head, or quietly talking to self. By physically responding to the online teacher
through head nods, head shakes, and thinking aloud to themselves, the students displayed their
engagement to the lesson and what the teacher was conveying. The students’ behaviors and
desire to listen during synchronous class sessions demonstrated a strong student-teacher and
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 56

student-content engagement; however, the data highlighted the students’ tendencies to lack
student-student interactions.
The discrepancy between the desire for the Lion Soccer Academy student-athletes to
interact with their teachers versus their online peers is illustrated in a student’s response: “I’d
rather call my teacher and talk with her individually, since I don’t interact with other kids.” In
addition, another student reports, “I feel that they [LiveLessons] are necessary for students.
Student interaction is not necessary, but teacher interaction is.” The data showed an emphasis on
engaging in synchronous learning environments to bridge the gap from student to teacher and
student to content, but the student-athletes expressed an explicit disinterest for student-student
interaction.
Disconnected from Online Peers
The data from the online interviews and observations displayed behavioral
disengagement in terms of interacting with their peers during a synchronous class session.
Students reported only interacting with their classmates during synchronous class sessions if the
teacher requires it as an assigned task. The responses from the online interviews and
observations of students in virtual class sessions showed that the students’ degree of behavioral
engagement related to doing the work, following the rules, and maintaining focus; however,
there was not a deep sense of participation and desire to be fully immersed into the class
dynamic of the synchronous session: “Rarely ever do I interact with other students during a
LiveLesson.” When asked about the interactions with other online students, student-athletes
responded with:
S1: “I don’t really interact with any of the students.”
S2: “I do not interact with any of the students in the LiveLesson.”
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 57

S3: “Not at all. I never had to interact in a LiveLesson with another student. I only
answered the teacher’s question.”
The data highlighted the theme of student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School being
disconnected from their online peers.
Moreover, the student-athletes at LSAHS lacked the classroom discourse and group work
within the synchronous learning environment that their counterparts at traditional schools have
access to. The disconnectedness from peers is detrimental in fostering a collaborative
construction of knowledge in the virtual environment. The data showed a lack of interaction with
their peers because 1) the student-athletes did not see the interaction as necessary to their
academic success, 2) the student-athletes displayed their engagement in a physically observable
manner, and 3) there were barriers created by technology and the virtual platform.
Preference for physical interaction. Additionally, the data revealed that a lack of
student-student interaction led to behavioral engagement that manifested as passive and
compliant within the synchronous environment. For example, a student reported, “I do not
frequently interact with other students during LiveLessons. For the majority of the time I keep to
myself unless the teacher asks a question.” The student-athlete’s previously mentioned
circumstance, in which I observed the student’s behavior of physically responding to a teacher’s
feedback, but not explicitly responding within the synchronous class session demonstrated the
passivity and compliance that the students conveyed in the virtual class session. By observing the
student-athletes in the physical classroom setting at the Lion Soccer Academy High School, I
was able to see the nuanced physical behavior from the student-athletes that can be interpreted as
behavioral engagement; however, an observer or member of only the synchronous virtual
classroom would not see the student who gave feedback via physical responses. The fact that
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 58

students showed a strong preference to not engage with their online peers, coupled with their
tendency to react to their teacher through note taking, or other behaviors that can only be
physically observed, perpetuated their lack of identity and robust engagement within the virtual
classroom.
Furthermore, in an observation of freshmen English synchronous class session, the
teacher posted four questions about the short story, “A Sound of Thunder.” The teacher asked the
students to submit their answers to the four questions in the “chat pod.” The questions are below:
1. What does Eckels kill and how does it change the future?
2. What does the change in the spelling of TIME SAFARI represent?
3. The author builds to Eckles’ death by doing all of the following things EXCEPT:
4. All of the following elements of the setting impact the theme EXCEPT:
Once the questions were posted, the observed student-athlete picked up his pencil and began
writing the answers to the questions in his notebook, on lined paper. This behavior showed that
the student-athlete was listening to the teacher and following directions, but displayed his
engagement within his physical environment, not the virtual classroom. The student
demonstrated a preference for physically writing his answer rather than typing and submitting his
answer. Based on data collected from the online interviews, the students found the information in
their synchronous class sessions as important because they used the information from the teacher
and the notes they took to study for their exams. The student-athletes may have preferred taking
physically written notes because they could access the information at a later date without
referring back to the recorded synchronous session.
Virtual platform and technological difficulties. In the above-mentioned observation,
the teacher posed four questions to 23 students in a virtual classroom. The teacher asked all 23
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 59

students to submit their answers to “one question, all the questions, whatever you know the
answer to.” With this prompting, after 30 seconds, students’ responses began showing in the chat
pod. The first four students’ responses are below:
1. good morning
2. he kills a dino
3. Eckels kills a T. rex. He stepped on a butterfly going to the ship, and does that changed
the future. First question
4. 1. He kills a butterfly and the english language changes
As the answers from other students appeared in the chat pod, the observed student-athlete
continued writing his answers on his paper. The Lion Soccer Academy student glanced at the
other student’s responses once very briefly, and then continued writing his answers. As the
student-athlete continued writing his answers on his paper, the teacher began commenting on the
answers the other students submitted. The teacher asked if students disagreed with what other
students had submitted. Meanwhile, the observed student-athlete continued writing his answers
on his lined paper.
The data showed that the student-athlete was disengaged from his online peers and the
learning discourse the online teacher was facilitating because he showed a preference for writing
his answers rather than typing his answers. The preference for the student-athlete to engage in a
synchronous learning environment in the same manner that he engaged in a traditional classroom
setting, showed a lack of knowledge for how to properly engage in a classroom that has a virtual
format. The student displayed a comfort for tactile tools that he had been accustomed to from his
previous learning experiences at traditional schools, such as pencil and paper.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 60

The lack of interaction within the synchronous class session, due to the barrier created by
technology was also illustrated during the observation of a student in a Spanish II virtual lesson.
The Spanish II teacher facilitated an activity in which she would display a verb in Spanish and
allowed students to type the translation in English into the chat box in the virtual classroom. The
observed student began typing the translation for the verb that the teacher provided in Spanish.
The student then paused from his typing, read the other students’ varying answers, deleted his
own answer, and began typing a new answer. The student did not submit his answer into the chat
box, even though the answer he typed was correct because he typed too slowly and reacted too
slowly within the virtual learning environment.
The other students in the chat box regularly typed their thoughts, impressions, and
reactions to the teacher’s instruction and questions; however, the observed LSAHS student-
athlete listened and read passively and typed an answer without submitting it to the rest of the
class because the teacher would move onto the next verb before the student could share his
response. The observed behavior displayed the student’s engagement in the thought processes
being facilitated by the synchronous instructor, but his inability to interact within the online
learning community because he lacked the technological skills to keep up with the lesson.
The student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy were seen off-setting this circumstance of
being disconnected from their online peers and bystanders to the online learning community by
turning to their online teachers with 1-1 emails or phone calls, inquiring with their on-site
LSAHS instructors, and discussing content with other Lion Soccer Academy student-athletes. By
turning to their on-site classmates and instructors, the student-athletes created their own sense of
community and quality interaction (Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004); however, the
interaction did not take place within the synchronous learning environment.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 61

Traits of an Athlete in a Student
The student-athletes’ behavioral engagement mirrored the traits used to describe athletes
by Crowley (2006), such as hard working, goal-oriented, self-disciplined, and highly motivated.
The data revealed that the student-athletes adhered to norms in the synchronous learning
environments. They followed the rules, listened to their teacher, and displayed behaviors
showing they were either authentically on task or passive and compliant.
The student-athletes’ character traits and behavioral engagement data lent themselves to
gleaning insights into their cognitive engagement. Because the student-athletes are self-
motivated, self-disciplined, and goal-oriented they displayed academic self-regulation. The data
from the online interviews, observations, and document analysis made it apparent that the
student-athletes were very aware of their understanding in course content. The elite student-
athletes had a strong awareness of their level of comprehension in their various courses and
knew the resources to turn to in order to better gain competency and show their knowledge.
Cognitive Engagement
Data revealed that the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School had goals of
attending four-year universities after high school. This long-term goal positively influenced the
students’ cognitive engagement as it motivated and directed students (Pintrich, 2003). The data
depicted a contrasting level of engagement from past research finding that student-athletes had
difficulty creating academic goals (Sowa & Gressard, 1983) and placed less of a priority on
academics due to athletic pressures (Sack, 2001; Wolverton, 2008). The triangulated data
showed that the cognitive engagement of the students-athletes of LSAHS resonated with more
recent research suggesting that elite adolescent athletes performed well in their sport and
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 62

schooling (Brettschneider, 1999; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Umbach et al., 2006; Watt &
Moore, 2001).
Self-Regulation Promotes Understanding
Interview data uncovered that the student-athletes found the synchronous class sessions
to be helpful in supplementing the asynchronously-delivered course information. The student-
athletes believed the synchronous class sessions assisted them with remembering information
and thinking about the content in their courses: “They do help me fairly well with remembering
information and thinking about content.” The student-athletes reported an average to above
average cognitive engagement in their schooling in general. The data from the student-athletes’
online interviews signified that the Lion Soccer Academy athletes were thoughtful about their
education and had a willingness to participate in synchronous class sessions because they aided
in their understanding and comprehension of the online curriculum. For example, a student
stated, “The LiveLessons give me extra information about the topic we are learning and help me
understand.” Just as the student-athletes’ strong commitments and goals to schooling positively
influenced their behavioral engagement, the same trend was seen for cognitive engagement. A
student stated, “LiveLessons assist me greatly with remembering and learning new information.
It tests me on my knowledge and further enhances my learning.” This suggested that there is an
important and influential role in the student-athletes’ commitment to schooling after high school.
According to the responses from the online interviews, most students found the
synchronous class sessions as helpful in their courses. The students reported finding value in
hearing information in the synchronous class session and relating it to the asynchronous
information they read about the topic they were learning. A student stated, “LiveLessons help me
in my course because the teacher explains material that isn’t talked about in the day to day
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assignments.” This was important because it demonstrated the value the student-athletes placed
in being able to simultaneously interact with their teacher to better understand the asynchronous
course content. The synchronous nature of the online lessons helped the students understand the
curriculum. It also enabled them to gain more insights into the assignments and requirements for
their courses. Data showed that the students appreciated synchronous class sessions as part of
their learning process because teachers “go over a unit’s study,” “explain materials that are
confusing”, “teach small details”, and “relay the information verbally.”
The data from the online interviews demonstrated the student-athletes’ desire to interact
with their online instructor rather than construct learning independently with the asynchronous
course material: “They help me by giving me more insight into the lesson and its requirements.
For example, when I feel like I need more information on a lesson then I will attend a
LiveLesson.” The real-time interaction that the synchronous learning environment offered
increased involvement in the course and brought identity to the virtual learning environment
(Rybarczyk, 2007) for the LSAHS student-athletes. For example, a student stated, “The
LiveLessons go over concepts we are learning more in depth. They also might go [over] any
questions I would have during a portfolio.” When asked about how synchronous environments
help in the students’ courses, they reported: “It helps when you don’t understand a subject,” and,
“The LiveLesson helps me see real-life examples, which benefits me a lot.” The interview data
in this section magnifies the Lion Soccer Academy HS student-athletes’ strong academic self-
regulation and ability to monitor and control their learning (Zimmerman, 2001). The student-
athletes had an awareness of how they learn best. They understood what they require in order to
reach comprehension in the content, and they reported a methodical process in accessing
resources when they were faced with a difficult concept. The students at Lion Soccer Academy
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High School were able to assess the various academic tasks they were faced with, evaluated their
level of understanding, and integrated the synchronous lessons into their approach as a strategy
that aided them in comprehension. A student reported: “LiveLessons assist me greatly with
remembering and learning new information.” The data showed that the student-athletes
perceived a benefit in the simultaneous and collaborative interaction with their teacher in
supporting their learning.
Persistence and Investment
In terms of cognitive engagement, it is key to note that the data revealed that the Lion
Soccer Academy student-athletes had an awareness and understanding of resources to which they
could turn to when faced with difficult concepts and complex ideas. For example, when asked
how they react when something in school is hard, a student responded, “I usually try to work
through the problem myself by going to the Message Board and looking on the Message Board. I
also try to get extra help from my tutors and content specialists because they are helpful in those
situations.” When struggling with the content, students reported referring back to the
asynchronous information, visiting the Message Board where the teacher posts all course-
specific information. They also re-watched recorded synchronous class sessions that went over
the difficult topic, referred to the textbook, or researched information on the Internet. Another
student reported, “I look for more information in the lesson and discussion board.” This same
sentiment is mirrored by another student’s response: “First I look on the message board and the
live lesson to see if I can solve it myself, and if I cannot, then I ask help with a Learning Coach.”
A “Learning Coach” is a member of the LSAHS Education Staff who works closely with the
student-athletes to ensure they are progressing through the online curriculum and utilizing
appropriate study skills.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 65

The data from observations also showed signs of strong cognitive engagement. Students
were seen persisting through tasks, despite difficulty. For example, a student in a Precalculus
synchronous class session was given a problem to solve from his teacher. He referred back to his
previously taken notes for support in solving the problem. The student submitted the correct
answer to the problem. The same student, later in the lesson, answered a problem incorrectly.
After realizing his answer was incorrect, the student took careful notes as the teacher modeled
the correct manner in which to solve the problem. The student then answered the subsequent
problem correctly and displayed a happy affect, showing pride in his persistence to reach
comprehension of the concept. The student’s persistence was demonstrated when he referred
back to his previous notes to solve a problem. He also demonstrated his investment in
understanding the difficult concept by watching the teacher model a problem he answered
incorrectly. The student-athlete exhibited self-regulation by acknowledging his misunderstanding
of the concept, using strategies to obtain proficiency, and demonstrating the understanding of the
skill.
Furthermore, most students turned to the above-mentioned resources and independently
persisted before asking help from another individual, such as their online teachers, on-site
instructors, or their LSAHS peers: “When something is hard, I check the lesson again, the
message boards, look it up, or check the textbook.” Based on the triangulated data from
interviews, observations, and document analysis, the student-athletes persevered through difficult
tasks and displayed a willingness to understand the content: “When something in school is hard I
practice at it (if possible) until I fully understand the concept.” The documents collected from the
observed synchronous class sessions, also showed notes taken on portions of the instructional
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 66

period that were more difficult for the students. These data suggested that the students are
cognitively engaged and working to understand the content that does not come naturally to them.
Remembering the influential role a student’s commitment to school can play in
engagement, it is important to note that the interview and observation data reflected the student-
athletes’ high commitment to school. With the conceptual framework of this study in mind, the
students’ persistence through difficult concepts was strongly related to their understanding of the
importance of proficiency in the curriculum for promotion to the next grade level and acceptance
into a top university. For example, when asked about the importance of school and soccer in
reaching their future goals, a student-athlete reported, “School and soccer are extremely
important for my future goals.” The aspiring professional athletes understood the importance of
school in reaching their goals, alongside their pursuit toward a professional career. In response to
the same question, two students stated: “Both are very important to me. I want to become a
professional but after also having a good job and career,” and, “I wanna go pro but if that doesn’t
work out then I’ll fall back to my education.”
The data showed a consistency in the Lion Soccer Academy HS student-athletes’
academic goals, despite varying individual context and background. The post secondary goal to
attend a four-year university, regardless of professional athlete status, spoke to the values being
instilled into the student-athletes at LSAHS. The trend in the data confirmed the significance the
learning environment, and the impact the academic setting was having in the shaping the
aspirations of the adolescent student-athletes. This indicated the important role an organization
plays when they take on the academic oversight of aspiring athletes’ educational pursuits.

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Emotional Engagement
The data revealed that the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School
demonstrated and reported emotional disengagement in synchronous learning environments.
Within the interview data, the student-athletes explicitly stated their lack of interest in the
synchronous class sessions. The observation data confirmed a lack of excitement and enjoyment
during the virtual classes. The emotional disengagement inhibited the student-athletes from fully
identifying with their virtual school and robustly constructing learning within the synchronous
learning environment.
Lack of Interest
The first theme that emerged from the interview data, in terms of emotional engagement
was that the participants did not enjoy the synchronous class sessions. For example, a student
explicitly stated, “I don’t enjoy LiveLessons.” Another statement served as an indication of what
the student-athletes perceived their degree of enjoyment for the synchronous virtual
environment; when asked about emotional engagement, a student responded, “No excitement, no
fun, no nothing.” As previously stated, the student-athletes at LSAHS lacked student-student
interaction within the synchronous learning environments. The lack of interaction with peers that
is seen in the data resonated with Zhao and Kuh’s (2004) findings that participating in learning
communities positively correlates with satisfaction with one’s educational institution. In other
words, because the student-athletes at LSAHS lacked interaction with their online peers, their
emotional engagement was being hindered in the synchronous learning environments.
Additionally, their enjoyment in virtual schooling in general was also being affected. Thus,
despite the behavioral and cognitive engagement of the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy
HS, the emotional disengagement and genuine interaction in synchronous class sessions was
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 68

negatively influencing their social and intellectual connections with their online learning peers
(Zhao & Kuh, 2004).
Boring but Important
According to the respondents, they did not enjoy synchronous class sessions, but they
attended them because they were helpful and could be a good resource. For example, a student-
athlete stated, “I don’t really enjoy them, but they are helpful to me in some situations, so I do
like having them in my resources.” This statement relates back to the data regarding the student-
athletes’ behavioral engagement. The observation data showed student-athletes who are
behaviorally engaged in the lessons, but had a flat affect the majority of the virtual lesson. The
flat affect from the observation data, coupled with the interview data, revealed boredom in the
synchronous class sessions.
It is also key to note that observed students who appeared focused on the synchronous
lesson by having their eyes on the laptop screen, sitting up straight in their seat, and both feet flat
on the ground, likewise displayed behaviors of shifting in their seat, tapping their fingers on the
desk, and/or shaking their leg. Additionally, a student reported, “For me, LiveLesson isn’t
something I would say I enjoy, but I am aware that there will be important keys the teacher will
go over so I make sure to take advantage of it. Like it or not.” This statement relates to the
student-athletes’ behavioral disengagement with their online peers. The student-athletes did not
enjoy the virtual class sessions, but they were aware of their value in relaying important
information, so they attended; however, there was a lack of immersion into the class dynamic of
the synchronous class session. Based on the data collected through interviews, observations, and
document analysis, the LSAHS student-athletes’ emotional disengagement from synchronous
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 69

class sessions and their disinterest in interacting with their virtual counterparts mutually affected
each other.
The data uncovering emotional disengagement echoed the research of Gayles and
Shouping (2009). According to Gayles and Shouping (2009), minimal interaction within a virtual
learning environment and a lack of engagement in educationally purposeful activities during
synchronous class sessions can hinder students’ affective growth and communication skills. It is
important to highlight that the student-athletes’ flat affect and non-communicative nature within
the synchronous learning environments could negatively influence their growth in these areas. In
addition, Yeng et al. (2010) and Sun et al. (2006) asserted that students’ satisfaction with online
learning environments is heavily influenced by their interaction with other students and the
opportunities to construct knowledge. Therefore, the LSAHS student-athletes’ minimal
engagement with their online peers in synchronous class sessions was a strong impetus to their
emotional disengagement.
The data showed that although the student-athletes did not enjoy the synchronous class
sessions, they found them important to the learning experience and believed they may contain
important information from the teacher. For example, a student stated, “I do not enjoy them, but I
understand their importance to the learning experience.” This statement spoke to the student-
athletes’ cognitive engagement and self-regulation. In addition, the data showed that students
attended the synchronous class sessions mainly for the interaction with their teacher and the
simultaneous nature of content delivery. In other words, the synchronous aspect of the class
sessions appealed to the Lion Soccer Academy HS students because it provided a variety in the
way the content was delivered.
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The data revealing emotional disengagement while also uncovering behavioral and
cognitive engagement, suggested that the student-athletes were going through the motions of
their synchronous class sessions in order to earn good grades, to ultimately attend a four-year
university. When asked how the students felt about synchronous class sessions and the
opportunity to interact with teachers and classmates, a student responded: “During LiveLessons I
don’t really engage with other students because I am only trying to get more information for the
lesson. If I need to talk to a teacher I call them, I don’t ask the questions on the LiveLesson.” The
statement was indicative of the students wanting to obtain the necessary information to be
successful in their coursework, but they had no desire to genuinely engage in the virtually
facilitated construction of knowledge. The elite student-athletes at LSAHS were not deeply
invested in their virtual high school; rather, they wanted to comprehend the information needed
to demonstrate proficiency in the content to earn grades that make them eligible for top
universities where they hope to compete as collegiate athletes. The data demonstrated that
because the student-athletes heavily identified with their soccer team and teammates, they felt
there was no need to closely associate with and belong to their online school.
Athletic Identity Inhibiting Virtual Student Identity
According to Brettschneider and Klimek (1998), the high level of commitment that elite
student-athletes have to their sport results in less possibility for social interaction outside of
soccer and school. However, because the student-athletes at LSAHS attended an online
institution and the data revealed emotional disengagement in synchronous class sessions, the two
characteristics influenced an isolation from their online classmates and deterred from bringing
identity to the virtual learning environment for the student-athletes. On the other hand, the
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students’ athletic identity and well-developed sporting and education system (Park, Hong, and
Lee, 2015) resulted in higher academic motivation and engagement.
Face-to-face resources in physical learning environment. Moreover, the data
suggested that the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy HS did not identify with their virtual
high school; however, the online interview data showed that the LSAHS students had a strong
association with the face-to-face environment. For example, when asked how they react when
something in school is hard, a student stated, “I usually ask the content specialist for help or I try
to figure it out myself.” The Content Specialists are members of the LSAHS Education Staff.
They serve as subject matter experts who provide face-to-face instruction to supplement the
virtual high school’s online curriculum. The statement above signified that the Lion Soccer
Academy HS students turned to their Education Staff support system to gain clarity on topics
that were more challenging for them.
The data also revealed that the student-athletes turned to their teammates and face-to-face
peers to construct knowledge content that was delivered asynchronously. For example, when
something was difficult in school, a student reported, “First I will try to find it in a textbook or
ask my fellow classmates.” Without the face-to-face environment created by LSAHS, the
student-athletes would not have a fulfilled learning experience in which they construct
knowledge with their peers and reach deeper levels of understanding from their face-to-face
instructors. On the other hand, without the presence of face-to-face interaction and a physical
learning environment, the LSAHS student-athletes would have fewer resources and be
encouraged to utilize the resources provided by their virtual high school.

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Summary of Facets of Engagement
The data revealed that the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School adhered
to norms in the synchronous learning environment and had an awareness that synchronous class
sessions helped them understand the asynchronously delivered content; however, the students
also reported and displayed emotional disengagement. The student-athletes did not interact with
their online peers, nor did they enjoy the synchronous learning sessions; however, they
understood that information from the virtual class sessions helped them learn and be successful
in school. It is important to understand the complexity of elite student-athletes’ engagement in
virtual learning environments. While they appeared on task, engaged, and self-motivated in their
learning, they were not genuinely enjoying the process of learning online or deeply engaging in
the virtual school. This type of engagement may lead to elite student-athletes being more
susceptible to losing their behavioral and cognitive engagement were they to endure outside
stressors from their sport or extracurricular lives.
Student Context
In analyzing the student-athletes’ data from a social constructivist lens, I took into
account the influences of family involvement and support, goals and commitments to school, and
goals and commitments to sport. The online interview data indicated that the student-athletes at
LSAHS have high levels of commitment to school and sport. The data uncovered that the sample
of this unique population displayed the desire to dually attain a professional soccer career and an
undergraduate degree from a four-year university. The duality of commitments from the student-
athletes magnified the importance of the culture and vision that was being fostered by the adult
support system that was overseeing the adolescents’ secondary education. It must be further
researched to understand if LSAHS recruited elite student-athletes who displayed a genuine
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 73

commitment to both school and sport, or if the commitment to school and sport had been
instilled by LSAHS.
Family Involvement and Support
The interview data revealed that students who reported a significant amount of parental
support and influence in their academics were positively influenced and had above average
engagement in all three dimensions. For example, a student who reported talking to his parents
everyday about school also stated: “School and soccer are both important to me in reaching my
future goals.” On the other hand, the interview data revealed that student-athletes within the
LSAHS organization also came from a family background where there was minimal parental
involvement. Despite having less parental support, the LSAHS student-athletes also remained
consistent to their counterparts in their commitments to school and sport. For example, when
asked how often they talk to their family about school, students stated: “not often,” “not very
much,” and “I rarely speak about my school with friends and family.” The same respondents
also indicated goals to go to college. The data indicated that the level of parental involvement
and support varied across the sample, but the commitment to school and sport and engagement
remained consistent. This consistency in the data showed that despite varying parental support,
family background, and ethnicity, the value of education was a common thread woven through
the student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School.
Goals and Commitments to School and Sport
Previous research on student-athletes and engagement understands the task of balancing
sport and school. Student-athletes must navigate the stressors of a typical adolescent, in
conjunction with the demands of rigorous sport schedule and academic challenges school
(Borggrefe & Cachay, 2012; Parker et al., 2016; Sorkkila, Aunola, & Ryba, 2016). The interview
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 74

data, observation data, and document analysis revealed that the student-athletes at Lion Soccer
Academy HS negate previous research highlighting a negative correlation between the level of
athletic pursuit and academic performance (Eitzen, 2009; Purdy, Eitzen, & Hufnagel, 1982;
Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, & Hannah, 2006; Sowa & Gressard, 1983). Rather, the student-athletes at
LSAHS exhibited a positive correlation between athletic pursuit and academic engagement and
commitment, ultimately affecting their academic performance. For example, a student stated:
School and soccer are both important to me in reaching my future goals. My goals are to
attend college and get a degree, then, hopefully get drafted and/or signed professionally. I
want to go to college because I know getting a degree will significantly help with
employment after my soccer career.
This quote signified the LSAHS student-athletes’ awareness of the dual importance in
pursuing both their athletic and academic pursuits. The student-athletes demonstrated that they
do not sacrifice their academic performance in order to competitively strive for their soccer
goals. When asked about the importance of school and soccer, a respondent mirrored the above
sentiment: “It is very important for me to at least one of my goals which is either going pro or
being a doctor.” This response indicated rigorous goal setting in both aspects of the student-
athlete’s life.
The setting of the LSAHS consisted of on-site Education Staff and a face-to-face learning
environment to supplement the online high school curriculum. The on-site collaborative support
system facilitated positive academic engagement and outcomes for the student-athletes at
LSAHS (Harris, et al., 2014). As previously mentioned, respondents often communicated the
importance of both soccer and school. For example a student reported, “My plans after high
school is play soccer professional and to get a Bachelor’s degree in Finance.” When asked about
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 75

the plans after high school, the data showed that the high school-aged student-athletes had a
strong desire to attend four-year universities and play professional soccer. For example, a student
stated, “Probably college. I would be excited about going to college and studying something I am
passionate about.” Another student responded, “To go to a university and get a free education
through sports.” It is important to note that the student indicated sports as the vehicle to make an
affordable education attainable. This displayed the priority on education, and the importance of
soccer as a conduit to reaching the ultimate goal of an undergraduate degree. Another student
showed his commitment to school: “My plans after high school is attending a college. The way I
feel about college is excited. I see it being a challenge that I want to accomplish. I feel that I will
have a better idea of my life job after college.”
The dual commitment positively influenced the students’ behavioral and cognitive
engagement in the synchronous learning environment. It also compensated for the emotional
disengagement with the online school. Because the LSAHS student-athletes did not interact with
their peers during synchronous class sessions, they lost the opportunity to identify with their
virtual school and their online peers; however, they were able to construct knowledge with their
teammates in the classroom. For example, when asked about the frequency of interaction with
online peers, a student responded, “I do not, but I do talk to my other classmates [LSAHS peers]
to discuss the lessons.”
The aspirational goal setting for both school and sport positively influenced the student-
athletes’ cognitive engagement, in terms of exhibiting self-regulation and being invested in their
learning. The student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School were elite in both aspects of
their identity, school and sport. The student-athletes shared the perception that soccer and school
were necessary to reach their goals. For example, a student reported, “I plan on attending a four
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 76

year university either in California or North Carolina. I then plan on getting scouted by a
professional team overseas or in the United States, to be able to pursue my dreams as well as
being able to have a back up plan after it.” The data revealed that the student-athletes at LSAHS
mirror Kreb’s (2009) claim that the characteristics of a student-athlete (Crowley, 2006) are very
similar to the characteristics of a successful online learner (Simonson, 2006). The traits of a
student-athlete are defined by Crowley (2006) as hard working, coachable, goal-oriented, self-
disciplined, and highly motivated. These traits related back to the student-athletes strong
behavioral engagement. The impact of goal setting was seen in a student’s response:
School and soccer plays a huge role in reaching my career goals. I have the goal of
playing professional soccer. Soccer is something I enjoy doing, so making a living off of
that would be perfect to me. I also have the goal of running a business. I want to know
how to invest my money in something that will make me more successful. The goals I
have all have a huge effect on each other. So in order to accomplish my long term goal, I
need to complete the ones before.
Summary
With this study’s conceptual framework in mind, the student-athletes at Lion Soccer
Academy High School represented various racial and ethnic backgrounds. They also differed in
the level of parental support they received. Despite the fact that within the sample the student-
athletes had unique contextual backgrounds, there was still a consistent theme. The student-
athletes at LSAHS reported a strong dual commitment to school and soccer. In other words, the
student-athletes aspired to attend four-year universities and earn an undergraduate degree, and
simultaneously desired to be a professional soccer player. The strong commitments to school and
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 77

sport greatly influenced the student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous, virtual learning
environments.
The participants reported and displayed strong behavioral and cognitive engagement;
however, they lacked student-student interaction with their online peers and had low emotional
engagement. The students adhered to the norms, displayed self-regulation, and persevered
through difficult concepts; however, they did not enjoy the synchronous class sessions of their
online high school. The students reported dissatisfaction with the synchronous learning
environments, and it was likely due to the lack of interaction with their online counterparts.
The students at LSAHS engaged in their virtual high school within a physical learning
environment and Education Staff. The student-athletes reported turning to their teammates and
on-site instructors within the learning environment at Lion Soccer Academy High School.
Having face-to-face resources simultaneously discouraged interaction with their online
classmates, but also provided a community of learners outside of the virtual high school. The
drawbacks of low emotional engagement were offset by the support structures and physical
classroom site provided by the Lion Soccer Academy High School; however, the lack of
emotional engagement with their online school could prevent the student-athletes from having
deep, rich engagement in virtual learning.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This study set out to explore elite student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous, virtual
learning environments at the secondary level. I used a social constructivist theoretical framework
to understand how the student-athletes’ commitments to school and sport and parental
involvement influenced academic engagement. I analyzed engagement with a multidimensional
lens to delve into the facets of behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement (Fredricks et al.,
2004). I triangulated data from online interviews, observations, and document collection to
examine the student-athletes’ engagement. The design of the study aimed to fill current research
gaps by focusing on the multi-faceted engagement of the subset demographic of elite student-
athletes in synchronous learning environments at the secondary level. As discussed in Chapter 1,
prior research has not explored the intersection of elite student-athletes and virtual education at
the secondary level. This study was designed to provide rich description of the engagement of
elite students-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy High School’s (LSAHS) in synchronous learning
environments.
RQ: How do secondary student-athletes engage in a synchronous, virtual learning environments?
Summary of Findings
The findings revealed that the student-athletes at LSAHS had strong commitments to
school and sport, resulting in rigorous goals for their educational and athletic pursuits. The dual
commitments and goals influenced their engagement in synchronous learning environments. The
students’ commitments and goals were reflected in their reported and observed behavioral and
cognitive engagement. For example, the student-athletes adhered to norms, listened to and
interacted with their teachers, and displayed self-regulation and persistence within synchronous
learning environments. Conversely, the findings revealed that the student-athletes reported and
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 79

displayed emotional disengagement, which was portrayed through their disconnectedness from
online peers and lack of interest and enjoyment in the synchronous class sessions. The minimal
interaction with their online counterparts and lack of enjoyment for the synchronous virtual
environment deterred the student-athletes from constructing knowledge with their online peers
and identifying with their online educational institution.
Moreover, the findings indicated that the student-athletes’ displayed emotional
engagement in their face-to-face learning environment and peers at Lion Soccer Academy. For
example, they reported discussing the online curriculum with their LSAHS peers and turned to
their LSAHS Education Staff members as a resource when academic tasks were difficult. The
emotional disengagement in synchronous class sessions coupled with the emotional engagement
in the physical environment, revealed the importance of face-to-face support structures and staff
for secondary-level students enrolled in virtual schools. The data also revealed consistent
engagement in schooling for the sample, regardless of the LSAHS students’ individual contexts,
thus highlighting the importance of instilling dual commitments to school and sport in elite
student-athletes in the adolescent age group. Finally, the data revealed descriptive details about
the elite student-athlete who engaged in school and soccer.
Implications
The findings provided robust meaning to the intersection of school and sport for elite
student-athletes enrolled in virtual learning environments. The descriptive data offered insight
into the unique setting and traits of the population. After an extensive analysis of the data, it was
discovered that Lion Soccer Academy High School student-athletes were self-motivated, driven,
and goal-oriented. With these common traits seen in the elite, adolescent-aged student-athletes,
an overarching dual commitment and goal-setting in academic and athletic pursuits resonated
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 80

within the population in the unique setting. The findings added meaning to how being coached,
mentored, and counseled by an adult support group and like-minded peers, high school-aged
soccer players were influenced to set simultaneous goals to be professional soccer players and
get into four-year universities.
The study added knowledge to how the dual commitments and goals impacted the
student-athletes’ engagement in their synchronous learning environments. The students did their
work and followed the rules, in order to achieve their goals; however, there was not a sense of
enjoyment for the process of constructing knowledge with their online peers. The findings
suggested that with high school-aged student-athletes being exposed to athletic stressors in
addition to the typical adolescent stressors, it is important to provide support, structure, and
encouragement for emotional engagement in order to avoid burn-out for school and sport at a
young age.
Bolster Emotional Engagement in Synchronous Learning Environments
The findings also provided evidence and implications for how the student-athletes’
emotional disengagement from synchronous learning environments manifested itself as a
disinterest in joining the online community of learners and constructing knowledge with their
online peers. The reported lack of interest in synchronous class sessions was found to influence
the student-athletes’ engagement with their online peers, thus hindering the LSAHS student-
athletes’ social growth. The data revealed that the student-athletes primarily identified with their
LSAHS peers and with Lion Soccer Academy as a whole. For this reason, it is important for the
Lion Soccer Academy to encourage and support emotional engagement in the virtual learning
environment, in addition to the provided face-to-face learning environment.
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This study also explained that it was necessary for elite student-athletes to identify with
supportive adults and teammates that support their success in soccer and school; however, the
heavy reliance on their LSAHS interactions and resources discouraged the student-athletes from
exploring resources outside their daily setting. By bolstering the student-athletes’ emotional
engagement in their main educational online institution, enjoyment for the distance learning
process could be fostered. To provide engagement for the online education process in all facets
(behavioral, cognitive, and emotional), it is necessary for Lion Soccer Academy to recognize and
foster the importance of the student-athletes’ enjoyment of constructing knowledge with their
online peers within the synchronous learning environments. This approach will support the
holistic development of the elite student-athletes.
Elite Student-Athlete Engagement
Furthermore, this study established that it is paramount for parents, coaches, teachers, and
other individuals who provide support for elite student-athletes at Lion Soccer Academy to
understand that the adolescents’ outward expression of behavioral engagement, and their finely
honed cognitive engagement is not indicative of a rich buy-in to their virtual school. The learning
environment and staff must be aware of the emotional disengagement of the LSAHS student-
athletes in synchronous learning environments. The awareness can arm them with the knowledge
to mentor and counsel the student-athletes toward making an effort to interact with their online
peers, in order to support a robust engagement in the virtual high school and the learning process.
By doing this, the elite student-athletes will be less prone to burn-out and stress toward
academic-related pursuits because they not only will they reach their educational goals, but they
will also enjoy the process.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 82

Given the popularity of professional sports, this study further magnified the importance
of a holistic developmental approach for elite adolescent student-athletes. Adults working with
elite student-athletes need to be mindful of their needs and their academic and athletic
development. As seen in this study, the student-athletes had both academic and athletic future
goals, suggesting that their support system must provide the opportunity for their growth in both
domains.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study offers recommendations for future research. First, this study revealed insights
about a unique context where elite student-athletes attend online school but also have face-to-
face interactions with their teammates, who are also in online school. Based on the findings, I
recommend that researchers explore other approaches for educating elite, adolescent student-
athletes to further contribute to our understanding about online school settings. It is
recommended that other settings with similar populations be examined to get a more robust
description of the unique demographic subset of adolescent elite student-athletes and their
engagement in academics.
In addition, this study has set the stage to examining how student-athletes engage in
synchronous learning environments. As more student-athletes are enrolled in virtual learning, it
is important to research the connection between online learning and high school-aged student-
athletes in terms of their engagement in the virtual setting. Based on the discovery of behavioral
and cognitive engagement, but emotional disengagement in the synchronous class sessions, it is
recommended that further qualitative research be conducted to explore the instructional
strategies being implemented by online instructors at the secondary level to increase engagement
and satisfaction with synchronous learning environments.
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 83

Furthermore, more research on pedagogical practices of online instructors at the
secondary level could explore teaching strategies that encourage a community of learners and
foster student-student interaction at the high school level as current research primarily explores
post-secondary virtual learning environments. Lastly, more research should be conducted to
inform organizations that create programs for elite high school-aged athletes on offering the
resources for coping with stress from pressures of dually pursuing school and sport to offset the
distance from school, teachers, and classmates and take advantage of high commitment to sport
and school.
Conclusion
It was my intent in this study to analyze student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous,
virtual learning environments. The study reached its intent and provided detailed description of
the unique setting and sample in order to make assertions and discuss implications. With student
context taken into consideration, I was able to examine the intersection of elite student-athletes
and online learning at the secondary level. This study highlighted the importance of student-
athletes’ identifying with an organization that instilled the value of education at the secondary
level, in order to positively influence post-secondary goals and commitments to those
aspirations. Because of the malleable nature of elite student-athletes’ context at the secondary
level, it is important that organizations and institutions that are involved in the adolescent
development of this specific demographic are dedicated to a holistic approach.
The conceptual framework for taking students’ context into account when examining
academic engagement in online learning can be used to inform educators who seek to build out
programming similar to that at LSAHS. However, before we can improve the engagement of
STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 84

elite student-athletes in online learning, we must first explore the developmental philosophy and
approach of those working with elite student-athletes, on the field and in the classroom.

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 85

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STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 97

Appendix A
Online Interview Items

1) How well do you listen to your teacher during a LiveLesson?
2) How frequently do you interact with other students during LiveLessons?
3) How do you react when something in school is hard? (i.e. quit and move on to something
else, ask a teacher for help, look for more information in the lesson or on the Discussion
Board)
4) How frequently do you do schoolwork outside of the classroom? (i.e. How often do you do
schoolwork at home? How often do you do schoolwork on the weekends?)
5) How do the LiveLessons help you in your courses? (i.e. How often do you relate the
LiveLesson discussion to your course material?)
6) To what degree do you enjoy LiveLessons?
7) How do you feel about LiveLessons, and being able to interact with your teacher and
classmates?
8) To what degree do the LiveLessons assist you with remembering information and/or thinking
about the content in your courses?
9) How important are LiveLessons to you?
10) How often do you talk to your family about school, what you're learning, and the grades
you're earning?
11) What are your plans after high school? (i.e. How do you feel about college?)
12) How important are school and/or soccer in reaching your future goals? What are your career
goals?
13) Tell us about yourself.
a) Age
b) Ethnicity
c) Language spoken at home

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 98

Appendix B
Observation Protocol

Name of Observer Date Time

Location Study

Brief Summary of Observation

Physical Space
Define the physical
space.

Utility: What is the
purpose of
event/setting?

Participant reactions to
physical setting

Other
People/Participants
Who are the
participants taking
place in
observation/event?
How many
participated?

Demographical
information: Ethnicity,
Grade

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 99

Behavioral
Engagement:
• Responding to
teacher’s directions
• Initiating student
activities
• Adhering to class norm
• Effort
• Persistence
• Concentration
• Attention
• Asking questions
• Cooperative
participation
• Contributing to class
discussion
• Body language
• Tone of voice
• Where are eyes
focused

Time
Stamps:
Emotional
Engagement:
• Interest
• Boredom
• Happiness
• Sadness
• Anxiety
• Visible affect via facial
expressions
Time
Stamps:
Cognitive
Engagement:
• Correctly answering a
question
• Contributing
constructively to class
discussions
• Referencing textbook
or notes
Time
Stamps:

Observer Role
What am I doing?
What is my role
throughout the
observation?

Describe some of my
interactions with other

STUDENT-ATHLETE ENGAGEMENT 100

participants throughout
the observation.
How did my
interaction/presence
affect the observation
participants?

Other

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examined student-athletes’ engagement in synchronous, virtual learning environments at the secondary level. A multidimensional perspective of engagement was used: behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. The study aimed to fill gaps in the research discussing how engagement and online learning intersect for student-athletes at the secondary level. To collect data, student-athletes were given open-ended online interviews. In addition, recordings of student-athletes engaging in synchronous class sessions and recordings of the synchronous class sessions were analyzed. Lastly, documents were collected. The findings revealed that the student-athletes had strong commitments to school and sport, resulting in rigorous goals for their educational and athletic pursuits. The dual pursuits were reflected in the student-athletes behavioral and cognitive engagement. For example, the students adhered to synchronous class norms, listened to their teacher, and persisted through difficult academic tasks. Conversely, the findings revealed that the student-athletes were emotionally disengaged, lacking enjoyment for synchronous class sessions and being disconnected from their online peers. The findings have implications for the intersection of student-athletes and online learning at the secondary level. Further research can add to the body of literature to inform the developmental philosophy and approach of those working with elite adolescent athletes.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Baduria, Stefanie Sarte (author)

Core Title A qualitative analysis of student-athletes' engagement in synchronous, virtual learning environments at the secondary level

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/16/2018

Defense Date 05/21/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag engagement,OAI-PMH Harvest,online learning,student-athlete,synchronous,virtual learning

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hyde, Corinne (committee chair), Huchting, Karie (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email sbaduria@usc.edu,sbaduria5@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-18040

Unique identifier UC11670736

Identifier etd-BaduriaSte-6406.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-18040 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BaduriaSte-6406.pdf

Dmrecord 18040

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Baduria, Stefanie Sarte

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA