University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

College academic readiness and English placement

(USC Thesis Other)

College academic readiness and English placement

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 1

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT

by

Hagop Ohanessian

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Hagop Ohanessian

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like first to thank my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ for guiding me throughout the
process of completing this doctorate degree.
I would like to further thank my parents Ohanes and Astghig Ohanessian for
encouraging and believing in me to earn this degree. As immigrants to this country, you made
numerous sacrifices. You instilled in me the value of an education and the opportunities that
would lie ahead for me in the future. Mom and Dad, thank you! I could not have done this
without you. My sister and her family always believed in me and encouraged me to continue
forth throughout this challenging but amazing experience. Thank you, Arsho, Hakop, and Aram!
I want to sincerely thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Paula M. Carbone, for all your patience,
support, and expertise. From day one, I trusted the process that you graciously instilled in me to
make it all the way to the end. I am truly honored and blessed to have had you serve as chair. I
cannot thank you enough for helping me develop into the academic scholar that I am today.
Thank you! I would also like to thank the rest of my dissertation committee, Dr. Jenifer
Crawford and Dr. Bridget Herrin. Thank you for your support, expertise, and guidance
throughout this entire process.
Thank you to the 2015 Los Angles Weekend Cohort. The friendships and bonds made will
always be in my heart. I will never forget the lasting memories we made. Fight On! I would also
like to thank Adrean Askerneese, co-editor of this dissertation. Thank you for your commitment,
contribution, and experience to this study. We did it! I look forward to our co-edited publication
soon. Thank you Adrean!
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 3
Finally, I would like to thank all my friends, colleagues at California State University,
Fresno and Clovis Community College for your support in always checking in on me regarding
my progress throughout this academic journey. Thank you all! This is only the beginning!
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2
ABSTRACT 6
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 7
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 16
Purpose of the Study 17
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Study 19
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 21
History of Community Colleges 22
College Academic Readiness 25
Testing and Placement 36
Gaps in Developmental Education 38
K-12/Community College Academic Readiness Disconnect 40
Opportunity Gaps 44
Educational Policy 46
A Nation at Risk 48
Maldef vs. California Community Colleges Lawsuit 50
No Child Left Behind 51
Opportunity Gaps in Educational Reform 52
NCLB to ESSA 56
Cultural Capital Framework 58
Educational Cultural Capital 59
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS 62
Methods 63
Research Question 64
Rationale 65
Sample and Site Selection 65
Data Collection 67
Artifacts 69
Analysis 69
Researcher Biases/Positionality 70
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 71
Setting and Participants 72
Setting 73
Participants 75
Understanding and Perception of College Academic Readiness 76
Academic Rigor and Expectations 91
Developing into a College Academic Student 107
Academic Resources and Courses 123
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH 134
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 5
Discussion of Findings 137
Recommendations and Implications for Practice 139
High Schools and Districts 140
Community Colleges 144
Future Research 146
Conclusion 149
REFERENCES 152
APPENDIX A Background Questions 163
APPENDIX B College Academic Readiness: Introduction and Interview Protocol 164
APPENDIX C Informed Consent 168

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 6
ABSTRACT
This dissertation served as a study to address opportunity gaps that exist in urban
education. The focus was exploring the problem of college academic readiness of First-
generation community college minoritized students enrolled and placed into developmental
English courses. One community college in the state of California was used to highlight the
experiences of First-generation minoritized students transitioning from high school to
community college and their subsequent enrollment in developmental English courses. In doing
so, an educational cultural capital framework was utilized to further understand their preparation
for college. Furthermore, cognitive and non-cognitive skill sets were used as a foundation for
college academic readiness. This dissertation examined the following research question: What is
the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation minoritized community
college students and their perceived understanding of college academic readiness and English
remediation? Interviews served as the primary method for data collection. The findings suggest
that there was a relationship between educational cultural capital and the participants’ perceived
understanding of college academic readiness through cognitive and non-cognitive skills. In
addition, there was English remediation through their lack of understanding of the English
placement test and its effects of not successfully passing. The participants demonstrated a lack of
understanding of educational cultural capital, which is an important component of college
academic readiness. Implications for the field include bridging opportunity gaps in urban
education with emphasis on addressing the impact that placement testing has on First-generation
community college minoritized students who are disproportionately enrolled in developmental
English classes. Developing educational cultural capital early on their high school academic
career is also important when addressing college academic readiness and English remediation.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
1

Opportunity gaps in education continue to be a problem in urban education especially
among students who are First-generation. Schools and educators must ensure effective academic
support programs and a consciousness of their student’s background and help them succeed.
Opportunity gaps exist due to foundational educational deficiencies within the education system,
which affects students’ preparation for college (Carter & Welner, 2013). Many incoming high
school students are academically underprepared when they enter college. As a result, they are
taking remedial courses to develop academically by investigating the effectiveness of required
remedial courses. Impacted students who are not academically ready for college take non-credit
bearing courses or remedial classes before taking credit-bearing courses. Non-credit bearing
courses refer to units that do not count towards an associate’s degree and transfer requirements.
In many cases, they are also struggling with credit-bearing General Education (GE) classes
(Armstrong, Stahl, & Kantner, 2016). There needs to be a better understanding of student’s
perceptions with their enrollment in remedial courses like English (Bettinger & Long, 2009).
There is a problem of access and opportunity for large populations of poor and minority students
disproportionately represented in remedial courses (Castro, 2013). “In 2005, 76% of Blacks and
78% students at community colleges across the nation took at least one remedial course
compared with 55% of White community college students over the process of a ten-year period”
(Castro, 2013, p. 298). Under the current CC design, successful completion of college depends
on a student’s writing ability. Many low-income, First-generation, and minorities are struggling
in writing upon entering college are required to take remedial English classes because they lack
writing skills for matriculation (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014).

1
This study is co-written with Adrean Askerneese
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 8
In this chapter, there will be an explanation for the background of the problem to set the
context for the study. In addition, the statement of the problem will be presented, the purpose,
and significance of the study, as well as limitations and delimitations of the study. The focus of
this dissertation is to understand college academic readiness of First-generation minoritized
students as they transition into community colleges. First-generation refers to students whose
parents have not attended college (Bui, 2002). “Minoritized refers to the objective outcome,
experienced by “minority” racial-ethnic groups, of the exclusionary practices of more dominant
groups resulting from historical and contemporary racism” (Chase, Dowd, Pazich, & Bensimon,
2014). The lack of college academic readiness (also referred to as college readiness) is an issue
for this population because there is an overrepresentation in remedial courses compared to the
White/Asian student and students from higher-SES backgrounds. The lack of college academic
readiness is a problem because it impacts their ability to be successful in their courses leading to
other problems such as dropping out of school. In addition, there is a disconnect between high
school academics/grades and college placement tests. Furthermore, First-generation community
college minoritized students do not progress in their college education (Scott-Clayton, 2012).
Background of the Problem
There is growing scholarly research on college academic readiness and preparing for
college. Researchers have tried to understand college readiness through multiple lenses. Porter &
Polikoff (2012) argue, “Readiness is the level of preparation a student needs to enroll and
succeed-without remediation-in a credit-bearing general education course” (p. 397). The
definition reflects the non-cognitive or non-academic facets, such as a student’s work ethic, their
willingness to aspire and persist in attaining a college or university degree, and the role family
plays like parents and siblings in assisting in the process (Porter & Polikoff, 2012). In contrast,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 9
some of the literature takes more into consideration factors such as the student’s academic
performance like their test scores, grades, or class rank (Gaertner & McClarty, 2015; Hassel &
Giordano, 2015; Porter & Polikoff, 2012).
There is consensus that community colleges are inaccurately using assessment scores
from Accuplacer and Compass to place students in basic skills or remedial courses (Belfield &
Crosta, 2012). Accuplacer and Compass are Computer Adaptive Tests used to measure a
student’s academic ability in reading (information and ideas, rhetoric, synthesis, and
vocabulary), writing expression of ideas (development, organization, and effective language
use), standard English conventions (sentence structure, usage, and punctuation), and math.
Accuplacer is managed by College Board, a nonprofit organization founded in 1900 that exists to
promote excellence and equity in education (The College Board, n.d.a). College Board claims it
also provides access to education by providing standardized exams such as the Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT) and Advance Placement (AP) to support the transition for students pursuing
college. Accuplacer indicates that colleges will gain a more holistic picture if they implement
multiple measures. For example, high school Grade Point Average (GPA), the number of years
since a student took a particular course or was in school, other test scores, and other non-
cognitive measures (The College Board, n.d.b). Accuplacer also indicates that multiple measures
should be instituted at the discretion of each college and determine what validated measures
should be used to support student success (The College Board, n.d.b).
Compass is administered by the American College Testing (ACT) which is also a
nonprofit organization designed to assist students with the transition to college by providing the
ACT standardized test and other college preparatory resources. As of 2012, ACT made the
decision to phase out all versions of Compass (first created in 1983) by 2013. ACT made the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 10
decision because they saw a decrease in the number of students who were taking the assessment
and research by Scott-Clayton (2012) of Columbia College’s Teacher College indicated a
significant number of students are misplaced into developmental courses when community
colleges rely on standardized tests such as Accuplacer and Compass. It is important to include
Compass in this study because it was widely used by California Community Colleges and
colleges throughout the country until it dissolved in 2013. Accuplacer and Compass are
discussed for this study to emphasize that placement examinations are not intended to predict
placement. However, Accuplacer and Compass are utilized to assess “residual skills in a
particular set of subjects like math and English to help determine the best point for the student to
begin study in those subjects” (College Board, 2013, p. 2). When placement examinations are
inaccurately implemented, it can shift the trajectory of college academic readiness for First-
generation community college minoritized students.
Belfield and Crosta (2012) suggest the need for Community Colleges (CCs) to use
multiple measures such as high school GPA and transcript data to place students accurately.
Hughes and Scott-Clayton (2011) also believe that English and math assessments should not be
the sole factor for placing community college students. More than half of entering students at
community colleges in the United States place into developmental education courses and the
majority of those students are First-generation (K. L. Hughes & Scott-Clayton, 2011). Mejia,
Rodriguez, and Johnson (2016) claim that the improper use of assessments is significantly
impacting First-generation community college students. Recent CC’s indicate 87% of both
Latino and African American students enroll in developmental education compared to 70% of
Asian American and 74% of White students (Mejia et al., 2016). It is evident that more incoming
First-generation community college students will continue to place at a higher rate in
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 11
developmental education than other groups unless more community colleges implement multiple
measures. Students may be less prepared for college courses resulting in more students enrolling
in developmental English and math (K.L. Hughes & Scott-Clayton, 2011).
The lack of college academic readiness affects many First-generation minoritized
students. There needs to be a better connection between colleges and high schools to make sure
students receive the preparation for the transition. The evidence is key “to help students develop
an understanding for the academic and non-academic expectations of entering and succeeding at
postsecondary institutions” (Barnes, Slate, & Rojas-LeBouef, 2010, p. 2). Secondary English
teachers and postsecondary English instructors can support college academic readiness for
incoming First-generation minoritized students if they approach the transition as a continuum
rather than a divided educational process. Secondary teachers who teach English were
interviewed and indicated they teach to the test, whereas postsecondary English faculty focus on
the writing process without stifling students to write a specific way (Fanetti, Bushrow, &
DeWeese, 2010). It will most likely be useful if First-generation minoritized students receive
support not only in high school but in the middle school grades as well. Surveying middle school
students based on achievement, behavior, motivation, social engagement, family circumstances,
and school characteristics have been shown to yield whether or not students are college ready
(Gaertner & McClarty, 2015).
Educational reforms have historically impacted opportunity gaps among First-generation
minoritized students. Not only have educational reforms failed to properly address opportunity
gaps, but also government mandates have contributed to the disparities among minoritized
students within the U.S. Educational system. Neoliberal and neoconservative ideas are a few
examples of educational reform that have not adequately addressed persistent opportunity gaps in
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 12
education. For instance, it is not inclusive of individual economic and personal security,
traditional values of different households passed on to their children, and social relations of
gender, race, and socio-economic class in the larger society. Historical and educational reform
measures continue to impede the opportunity for providing equitable practices in education for
the most vulnerable students across the United States. Historically, groups like African
Americans have had a challenge to equal access to education. In 1896, the Supreme Court case
Plessy vs. Fergusson and the Jim Crow-era that followed segregated and excluded groups such
as African Americans from equal access to education (Howard, 2015). Opportunity gaps focus
on inequities that produce significant privileges in education among non-First generation-high-
SES students and First generation minoritized students. In other words, educational disparities
highly correlate with skin color, ethnicity, linguistic, and social class status. According to Carter
and Welner (2013), “Calling the persistent achievement disparities between Black and Latino
students and White students a “gap” suggests that something inherent in Black and Latino
students, their families, communities, cultures, schools, and teachers are responsible for the
disparities” (p. 13). Minoritized communities not included in the process of civic engagement
will affect the students who live in those communities. Civic engagement for students from non-
dominant communities can contribute to more equitable schools and it can assist in decreasing
the participation gap for non-dominant communities (Carter & Welner, 2013). The lack of
resources for minoritized students impedes their ability to thrive in education. Latinos, African
Americans, and Native Americans live in poor communities and attend schools that are not
equally funded (Carter & Welner, 2013). The access to quality education for students based on
one’s standard of economics, social mobility, and quality of life contribute to the unceasing
opportunity gaps our nation’s minoritized students face every day. Ladson-Billings (2006) argue,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 13
“What we see as an achievement gap could be described as an educational debt” (p. 5).
Educational debt is “forgone schooling resources that could have (should have) been invested
(primary) low-income kids, which deficit leads to a variety of social problems (e.g., Crime, low
productivity, low wages, low labor force participation)...” (Ladson-Billings, 2006, p. 5). There
are four characteristics of educational debt: 1) Historical Debt referring to race, class, and
gender; 2) Economic debt referring to funding disparities within schools and socioeconomic
status; 3) Sociopolitical debt referring to minoritized communities of excluded from civic
process; and 4) Moral debt referring to what is right versus what we do (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Educational legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which promoted
common standards and high stakes testing, did not sufficiently close the opportunity gap among
minoritized students. In 2001, NCLB reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) of 1965 to close student achievement gaps by providing all children with fair, equal, and
significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education (No Child Left Behind, 2002). What
NCLB failed to do is consider K-12 struggling students access to quality education by placing
standardized testing as the key to college readiness (Barnes et al., 2010) and promoted English-
only instruction as opposed to bilingual instruction (Rueda, 2005). No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) cause low-performing schools to focus more on subjects related to the test as opposed to
other disciplines that tap into students’ creativity and intelligence (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Legislation such as the NCLB does not adequately address opportunity gaps among First-
generation minoritized students. ESSA, which replaced NCLB, remains to be seen on how it will
address this gap.
Considering factors framed through the lens of opportunity gaps provides a way to
understand inequity, such as the five frameworks highlighted in the book ‘Why race and culture
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 14
matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in America's classroom’ (Howard, 2015).
Howard (2015) identifies five points explaining the achievement and opportunity gap
minoritized students face:
• Eugenics Movement- a biological basis for superiority of Whites against certain racial
groups, most active in the early 1920s.
• Deficit Based Thinking- poor schooling performance is blamed on student’s inabilities
(e.g. Cognitive and motivational deficits).
• Cultural Mismatch Theory- low-income students are different in their culture and
cognitive abilities (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
• Opportunity Gap and Availability of Sources- social and educational inequities based on
race, class, and gender and excluding people of color from a civil process and moral debt
(Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2013).
• Stereotype Threat- performance tests based on ability. For example, most Hispanic and
minoritized students performed well when not told of the purpose of the ability test
(Steele, 1997)
Poverty is a critical component of opportunity gaps within education (Carter & Welner, 2013;
Milner, 2015; Tate, 2008). Black and Latino students are attending schools with nearly twice as
many classmates who are poorer that the enrolled White students.
There is not one clear definition of poverty. However, Milner (2013) notes “a family is
considered to be poor if its income for a particular year is below the amount deemed necessary to
support a family of a certain size” (p. 7). The geographical location of students can increase the
opportunity gap. Research has shown minoritized students tend to live in poor communities and
attend schools that inequitably fund since schools receive funding from property taxes (Carter &
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 15
Welner, 2013). Children from low-income families are the least academically successful by
conventional measures and are the hardest to teach by traditional methods (DeShano da Silva,
Huguley, Kakli, & Rao, 2007). Poverty is a significant factor contributing to opportunity gaps,
but the lack of knowledge as it relates to cultural capital from an educational viewpoint for First-
generation community college minoritized students is a noteworthy component to explore.
First-generation minoritized students tend to have less knowledge regarding the nuances
of college compared to their white and high-SES counterparts, who often have parents that have
graduated from college. Aschaffenburg and Maas (1997) refer to these educational expectations
as cultural capital, first developed by Pierre Bourdieu, which is defined as “a proficiency in and
familiarity with dominant cultural codes and practices” based on parents’ educational experience
(p. 573) or educational cultural capital as I will refer to it in this dissertation. In other words,
students with parents who have graduated college understand the educational expectations more
than students whose parents who have not graduated from college lead to opportunity gaps. The
concept of cultural capital, developed by Pierre Bourdieu (1984), who argues “cultural capital is
used by dominant groups to mark cultural distance and proximity, monopolize privileges, and
exclude and recruit new occupants of high status positions” (p. 31). The mastery and ability to
respond to the expectations of a professor or understanding the different academic, college
language terms, and policies reveal that a student has developed the mastery of what it takes to
be a college student. It is critical that First-generation college students understand institutional
processes because it is key to their success. Within cultural capital theory, a key transition from
high school academic expectations to college academic readiness includes the knowledge and
skills to understand the difference between the high school student role compared to the college
student role (Conley & French, 2014). The more cognizant students of First-generation
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 16
backgrounds can distinguish the role of a high school student versus a college student; then it
supports their transition and success as a community college student. Students cannot be
successful if social and cultural exclusion takes place when students have limited exposure to the
institution’s high academic standards and faculty’s expectations of what it means to be a college
student and preparing for college (Arum, Beattie, & Ford, 2010) (see Chapter 2 for discussion of
cultural capital theory and how researchers have used it to frame understandings of college
readiness).
Statement of the Problem
This dissertation addresses the issue of college readiness among First-generation
minoritized students entering California community colleges. College readiness is “the level of
preparation a student needs to enroll and succeed-without remediation- in any credit-bearing
course at a postsecondary institution” (Conley, 2010, p. 21). Research shows that 80% of
students entering community colleges enroll in at least one developmental course in math or
English, and from that figure, 15% enroll in an English developmental course sometime during
their college journey (Mejia, Rodriguez, & Johnson, 2016). The evidence highlights that the
California Community Colleges (CCC) and the Board of Governors (BOG) have indicated that
historically underrepresented students in postsecondary education need to have an equal
opportunity for successful completion of basic-skills courses (California Community Colleges
Chancellor's Office, 2015). This problem is important to address because there is an increasing
educational inequity among First-generation minoritized students compared to general
community college student population. An assertion made that implementing policies or
practices aligning high school and community college curriculum will assure students will be
more college academic ready.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 17
Purpose of the Study
I examined, through qualitative research, the problem of college academic readiness of
incoming First-generation minoritized students. I wanted to better understand their experiences
and perceptions of remediation for those whom community colleges labeled not college ready,
and the academic transition from high school to community college in the context of their
enrollment in basic skills English courses. My research question is:
What is the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation
community college minoritized students and their perceived understanding of college
academic readiness and English remediation?
I used the concept of cultural capital theory in the context of educational resources needed for
college access/opportunity and academic readiness to acquire insight to college academic
readiness of First-generation College minoritized students.
Significance of the Study
The importance of the study was for practitioners in both secondary and postsecondary
education, administrators, and education policy-makers to gain insight about First-generation
community college students. In addition, there is potential to increase understanding of First-
generation students and their perceived understanding of college academic readiness and English
remediation. Teachers need to be conscious of how experiences and realities outside the
classroom impacts First-generation students. Milner (2012) pointed out that research indicates
crucial insights about the intersection of home and school. He also discussed how he has
observed teachers struggle with deciding if they should attempt to understand students’
experiences outside of school. Many teachers believe that they should only be concerned with
what happens at school, in their classrooms. Milner (2012) makes the argument that if students’
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 18
experiences out of the classroom are taken into consideration, then teachers may be better
positioned to respond to the intersection of home and school and meet the needs of students
living in poverty.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations I will most likely encounter such as, the number of student
participation by ethnicity, race, and SES varies from region to region within the state of
California. The measurements used for assessing student’s enrollment in remedial English
classes varies from district to district; as well as resources and interventions relating to college
academic readiness for First-generation community college students vary from district to district.
I was also anticipating issues of external validity for this study such as the number of First-
generation minoritized students and the lack of time for conducting the study.
Definition of Terms
• College readiness – Applies to four dimensions (Conley & French, 2014) which are:
o Key cognitive strategies – References a student’s thinking skills.
o Key content strategies – Understanding of content presented.
o Key learning skills and techniques - Ownership of learning, self-regulatory behaviors for
being an effective learner.
o Key transition knowledge and skills – Understanding the culture of college and
understanding the role of a college student and how it differs from high school (e.g.
cultural capital).
• [College] academic readiness - the level of preparation a student needs to enroll and
succeed-without remediation- in any credit-bearing course at a post-secondary institution
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 19
(Conley & French, 2014). Academic readiness aligns with key cognitive strategies, key
content strategies, and key learning skills and techniques.
• Basic Skills/Remediation/Developmental Education- Remediation refers to non-credit
bearing coursework designed for incoming students who have not demonstrated college
ready skills (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014).
• Cultural Capital/Educational Cultural Capital- A student’s mastery or preparedness of
the college student role and derived from Bourdieu and Passeron’s theory of cultural capital
on “a proficiency in and familiarity with dominant cultural codes and practices” based on
parents’ educational experience (Aschaffenburg & Maas, 1997, p. 573).
• First-generation - refers to students whose parents have not attended college (Bui, 2002).
• Feeder high schools – refers to high schools that are within the boundaries of a community
college’s service area.
• Minoritized – refers to the objective outcome, experienced by “minority” racial-ethnic
groups, of the exclusionary practices of more dominant groups resulting from historical and
contemporary racism.
• Non-credit - bearing courses refer to units that do not count towards an associate’s degree
and transfer requirements.
• Sociocultural theory- Focuses “on the environments in which writers write and learn to
write-the home, school, workplace, and community-and the relationships between these
environments and writers development” (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014, p. 214).
Organization of the Study
Chapter two will focus on the scholarly literature surrounding First-generation
minoritized students, learning theories as well as college academic readiness and its definition/s.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 20
Chapter Three explains the research design, sample, population, methodology, data collection
process, and method of data analysis. Chapter Four will present the findings from interviews and
synthesizes patterns and themes across the cases as they relate to the conceptual framework
introduced in Chapter Two. Chapter Five concludes the dissertation with a discussion and
recommendations for college academic readiness for First-generation community college
minoritized students and how it can be applied for other First-generation students entering
community college.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Over the course of a century, many community colleges continue to be established in
both rural and urban cities across the United States, serving students from all socio-economic
and ethnic backgrounds. Cohen and Brawer (2003) define community colleges “as any
institution accredited to award the Associate in Arts or the Associate in Science as its highest
degree” (p.33). However, according to the American Association of Community Colleges,
roughly 13% of community colleges award bachelor’s degrees (American Association of
Community Colleges, 2016). Community colleges have historically provided access to higher
education for students who are underrepresented or denied the opportunity to attend four-year
institutions, in the case of First-generation minoritized students. Community colleges serve over
10 million students each year, which represents close to half of all undergraduate students
accessing higher education (Bailey, Jaggars, & Jenkins, 2015). In comparison, about 22,000
students in 1922 were attending a community college (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Community
colleges allow students to learn at any point in time of their lives while allowing them to take
advantage of low tuition costs, convenient campus locations, open enrollment and admissions,
and a wide-range of courses offered (Kasper, 2003). Traditionally, community colleges grant
students an associate’s degree that usually takes two years to complete. In doing so, students take
a variety of college-level courses leading them to finish a degree or preparing them to transfer to
a four-year institution to complete a bachelor’s degree. In recent years, community colleges are
also offering technical and vocational programs, which prepare students for a plethora of careers
(Kasper, 2003).
This study examined college academic readiness by stating the following research
question: What is the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 22
community college minoritized students and their perceived understanding of college academic
readiness and English remediation? This chapter begins with a history of community colleges,
followed by a discussion on definitions of college academic readiness, opportunity gaps caused
by educational policies, and a discourse on cultural capital theory as it pertains to opportunity
gaps among First-generation community college minoritized students.
History of Community Colleges
Two opposing ideologies have polarized the historical literature of community colleges
since its inception. One perspective is that community colleges were established to stunt the
career growth and societal status of socially and disadvantaged students from pursuing an
education that requires a baccalaureate degree (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1997). The other
perspective is that community colleges help democratize education by promoting access to
higher education for individuals who traditionally are underserved (Goodchild & Wechsler,
1997). Both claims have validity, but the latter, supported by policies in the United States to
democratize education, continues to dominate the conversation that every citizen should have the
right to access higher education (Cohen & Brawer, 2003).
In the middle of the nineteenth century, university leaders discussed the value of creating
two-year institutions that would alleviate universities from having to offer lower division
coursework. University leaders believed the focus of universities should emphasize the
importance of scholarly work and relieve themselves of lower division coursework (Cohen &
Brawer, 2003). Lower division coursework refers to the introductory classes students must enroll
and complete with “C” or better grade to take other courses such as electives and upper division
courses in their major field of study. There is some literature that suggests some high schools as
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 23
earlier as the 1870s offered collegiate-courses or a fifth year as lower division university course
work (Pedersen, 2000).
Universities ridding themselves of lower division coursework never materialized, and the
compulsory inception of community colleges (also known as two-year institutions, junior
colleges, and technical colleges) began in 1901 or 1902 with Joliet Junior College (JJC), located
in Joliet, Illinois. During the first year, JJC began offering experimental post-high school
graduates courses to only six students (Joliet Junior College, 2017). The courses are equivalent to
the first two years of a university baccalaureate degree program, although high school teachers
who meet university standards to instruct lower division coursework teach the course (Cohen &
Brawer, 2003). High school teachers differentiate from community college instructors because
university accreditation standards require community college instructors to hold a master’s
degree as a minimum prerequisite for employment (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1997). Community
colleges operated as public, private, or independent and it was a great asset for local
communities to attract industry and skilled labors (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). The admissions
process for community colleges, due to the lack of university space in its early years, was
restricted to entering college students who met the same admission requirements as the
university requirements (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1997).
At the beginning of the 20
th
century, several social factors contributed to the rise of
community colleges: Child labor laws extended to adolescence and the need for trained workers
for industry, and social equality (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Child labor laws are also known as the
Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which was enacted to ensure the health, well-being,
and educational opportunities for children under 18. As a result of FLSA and the need for more
skilled workers, community colleges became a viable option for those protected by FLSA and
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 24
those who wanted technical and academic skills for employment purposes (U.S. Department of
Labor, n.d.). In addition, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, community colleges paved
the way by providing job training programs and initiatives to help counter the realities of
unemployment and poverty at the time. Even after World War II and into the 1960s, many baby
boomers began seeking opportunities in entering community colleges toward enrolling in job
training programs. Furthermore, in 1988, community colleges began to build relationships with
communities in creating partnerships with employers and providing facilities for workplace
training. These workplace programs offered to students attracted many local businesses and
companies to potentially hire students after they complete the program (Kasper, 2003). Examples
of certificate and training programs awarded at community colleges include visual and
performing arts, construction trades, computer and information science, mechanics and repairs,
agricultural business and production, health professions and related sciences and many more
programs that give students options based on their time and interests (Kasper, 2003). As the
demand and enrollment for community colleges increased, many new schools flourished in the
nation (Kasper, 2003). By 1970, about 2.2 million students were attending community colleges
in the United States, and that number increased to 4.3 million by 1980 (Kasper, 2003). The
growth of community college enrollment enabled access for underserved populations such as
First-generation minoritized students leading to social equality. Research indicates that social
equality enhanced via access to higher education. For example, in some places, dual enrollment
programs are beneficial for First-generation minoritized students (M. Hughes, Karp, & Stacey,
2012). In recent times, access to higher education, especially four-year universities, is
competitive and costly, thus the reason many students are seeking to enroll in community
colleges. Dual enrollment is nothing new as integrating high school and community college
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 25
(known as Middle College) was introduced in the early to mid-19
th
century as a means to provide
access to students who wanted to pursue an education beyond high school (Pedersen, 2000). It is
becoming more popular, in that some high school students are taking advantage of “dual
enrollment” programs, which allow high school students to enroll in community college courses
while in high school to help them with the transition to college. National data suggest that 76%
of high school students enrolled in dual enrollment with emphasis on academics, and 46% of
students are in dual enrollment classes with a prominence in career or technical-vocational focus
(N. Thomas, Marken, Gray, & Lewis, 2013).
In addition to preparing students for technical and vocational training jobs, community
colleges are also awarding associate degrees, and prepare students who intend on transferring to
four-year universities. Community colleges offer a wide variety of disciplines ranging from
degrees in the humanities, social sciences, math, science, and engineering (Kasper, 2003). No
other countries except for the United States and Canada have comprehensive community
colleges. In other parts of the world like in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America have
developed something similar to community colleges, but is not as structured like community
colleges in the United States (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). The role of community colleges in the
United States continues to play a major role in the lives of aspiring students seeking access to
higher education. It plays a vital role in attempting to strengthen the bond between high schools
and community colleges to foster academic readiness for First-generation minoritized students.
College Academic Readiness
There is growing scholarly debate on the ambiguity relating to the terms and definitions
of college readiness and college academic readiness as it pertains to the preparedness for First-
generation community college minoritized students. Following are a few definitions in the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 26
literature about how scholars have used these terms interchangeably. One definition of college
readiness focuses on a student’s level of preparation that is necessary to enroll and successfully
pass without remediation [basic-skills] in general education credit-bearing courses (Porter &
Polikoff, 2012). Blume and Zumeta (2014) define college readiness as “academic preparation (in
areas of reading, writing, and mathematics) necessary for success in two and four-year degree
program, including career-oriented programs” (p. 1072). Leonard (2013) states, “College
readiness is more than just a set of academic skills and knowledge but also depends upon student
choice and dispositions as well as familial and social networks” (p.198). Scholars have
investigated this problem in many ways. For this dissertation, I used college academic readiness
as defined by Conley and French (2014), which is characterized by cognitive and non-cognitive
definitions. Cognitive and non-cognitive measures are important to understanding college
readiness and achievement in higher education. Cognitive-factors, as it pertains to college
academic readiness consists of standardized test results like the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)
and American College Testing (ACT). In addition, high school GPA is also used to measure a
student’s cognitive abilities in determining their academic preparedness (Komarraju, Ramsey, &
Rinella, 2013). In addressing college academic readiness, scholars also focus on non-cognitive
factors in determining a student’s readiness for college. Examples of non-cognitive factors
include: psychosocial and social factors like conscientiousness, which has a positive connection
to student performance and readiness, personality, and motivational factors, studying habits,
classroom behavior, class attendance, following guidelines, and student engagement in the
classroom (Komarraju et al., 2013).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 27
Conley & French (2014) identify the following cognitive and non-cognitive considering
factors that determine student’s readiness and the various skills they must possess as they
transition from high school to community college:
1. Key cognitive strategies-Thinking skills that pertain to a student’s ability to communicate
critical knowledge effectively.
2. Key content knowledge- a student’s ability to adequately understand the content
presented.
3. Key learning skills and techniques- A student’s ability to take ownership of their learning
and self-regulate behaviors to become an effective learner.
4. Key transition knowledge and skills- A student’s ability to understand the culture of
college and the role of a college student that differs from a high school (cultural capital
theory is in the conceptual framework section) (p. 1020).
In addition, Conley and French (2014) discuss a five-part model of ownership learning which
they argue is essential to college academic readiness because it refers to “Students’ ability to
motivate and engage in learning” (p. 1030):
1. Motivation and engagement – A student’s motivation from within determine a student’s
engagement and commitment to their learning.
2. Goal orientation and self-direction – A student’s commitment to prioritize their learning
by setting academic goals for achievement and success.
3. Self-efficacy and self-confidence – A student’s experience in developing self-confidence
is directly correlated with their self-efficacy when confronted when completing complex
or challenging academic tasks.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 28
4. Meta-cognition and self-monitoring – One that gives a student control over learning, it
involves checking, verifying, and correcting one’s performance during a learning task or
while communicating.
5. Persistence – A student’s commitment to continuing their education.
As stated above, college academic readiness defined through the lens of cognitive and non-
cognitive college academic preparedness measures, consisting of: key cognitive strategy, key
content knowledge, key learning skills and techniques, and key transition knowledge and skills.
All are important in better understanding the perspectives and experiences of First-generation
minoritized students as they transition to community college.
All the measures of cognitive and non-cognitive skills are necessary for academic
readiness upon entering the community college. In many cases, some students lack those skills
needed for success in college course work. For example, incoming First-generation community
college minoritized students are not proficient and ready for the rigor of literacy in community
college writing and reading in general education courses. First-generation minoritized students
are lacking reading and writing skills for matriculation or do not pass the English placement test
before entering community college (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014). As a result, students must
enroll in basic-skills English classes (Armstrong et al., 2016).
Scholars also focus on college text readiness as it pertains to reading and writing
competencies upon entering community college. Reading and writing skills are essential for
college academic readiness (Armstrong et al., 2016). Findings indicate that there is a mismatch
between developmental reading and writing English courses and general education classes,
specifically in the text types and difficulty levels. In addition, the purpose of a text in what the
student is studying, and the text associated tasks and learning motivation are also major
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 29
components of the disconnect and lack of academic readiness (Armstrong et al., 2016). General
education course professors do not provide instructions on how to navigate the readings of
assigned texts or the guidelines for writing (Armstrong et al., 2016).
Most of the research surrounding college academic writing readiness has focused their
attention on the development of cognitive skills to perform at a level of having the ability to
successfully pass and complete a credit-bearing or transfer level English class (Duncheon &
Tierney, 2014). Duncheon & Tierney (2014) draw their research from a sociocultural theory to
consider social, cultural, and institutional contexts. Writing in the context of sociocultural theory
established a social and personal significance in that Duncheon & Tierney (2014) argue,
“Writing is intrinsically social and transformative. Composition is a vehicle for understanding
the world, inspiring action, and affecting change…writing provides a platform for analyzing and
challenging systems of power…writing is linked to identity” (p. 217). Writing is a tool of
opportunity that provides agency for First-generation minoritized students, empowering them to
fuse their life experiences with the world in which they live. In a recent study which included
focus groups of professors (15) and students (63) from a large state university to better
understand the experiences and perspectives of students in their academic preparation. Findings
indicate in contrast to the traditional dominant students, “First-generation participants reported
being unaware that papers should be typed, deadlines are inflexible, or citations require certain
formatting” (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014, p. 214). This study sheds light on the experiences of
First-generation students’ understanding of educational cultural capital, which will be further
investigated later in the chapter.
Scholars like Murillo and Schall (2016) seek to understand the experiences of
Hispanic/Latino/Latina origin students who speak out about their readiness for college literacy.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 30
According to authors, “literacy instruction is a strong predictor of college success” (Murillo &
Schall, 2016, p. 315). The authors also would like to contribute knowledge of college academic
readiness for Latino/Latina college students by taking into consideration first-year views of their
literacy preparation. This study is relevant to the scope of this dissertation because it
encapsulates an effective methodological approach that highlights the students’ experience and
perspectives on their college academic readiness from a qualitative perspective. The authors pose
the following research questions: 1) What are first-year students’ perception of academic literacy
at a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI)? HSI is defined by federal guidelines that at least 25% of
enrolled undergraduate students identify as Hispanic or Latino/Latina (Murillo & Schall, 2016);
2) How well prepared do they feel for the challenges of college reading and writing?; 3) What
factors do they perceive as supporting or hindering their prospects for success as readers and
writers at college? (Murillo & Schall, 2016).
This study, conducted at a university on the U.S.-Mexico border, serving predominantly
70% who identify as First-generation college students. The participants were first-year
undergraduate students enrolled in a survey course in American history (HIST 2313). The main
concern for the authors was their interest in students’ perception of academic reading (Murillo &
Schall, 2016). Thirty-seven students chose to participate in the study identified as first-year and
First-generation college students of Mexican origin and between the ages of 18 and 20. Students
received monetary compensation for participating in one-hour workshops twice a week. All
workshop sessions were conducted in English, which included “self-assessment of strength and
need regarding college literacy, and strategies for comprehending academic text” (Murillo &
Schall, 2016, p. 317).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 31
Murillo and Schall (2016) identify four themes in their findings: 1) Contrast between
home and school literacy forms and practices; 2) Difference between high school and college as
learning environments; 3) Linguistic discrimination experienced at school; and 4) The belief that
being a Spanish speaker is a barrier to developing strong literacy skills in English. For the first
theme, students recall their experiences from all grade levels and emphasize the extensive use of
worksheets, standardized testing, and the overuse of Accelerated Reader programs (AR). One
student by the name of Diana recounts using AR in elementary school by stating:
The AR points in elementary, I didn’t like those. I like to read. I always like to
read, but I will pressure, and then those exams were so plain, they weren’t even
deep. They didn’t connect to the book (Murillo & Schall, 2016, p. 318).
This finding is important to the study of college academic readiness to show the effect of how K-
12 educational practices and policies affect First-generation community college minoritized
students’ preparation for college literacy and writing.
The second theme of Murillo and Schall (2016) is about literacy environments in high
school and college illustrates that “high school classes were structured to the point of being
repressive, that they were seldom asked to express their opinions or feelings about what they
were learning…” (p. 318). In addition, “participants felt unprepared for the kinds of academic
writing task required in their college courses for the amount of reading and writing expected of
them as freshman” (p. 318). This theme is imperative to the study of college academic readiness
because the quality of instruction and design of curriculum is not conducive in preparing students
for the anticipated academic rigor for college.
The third theme of Murillo and Schall (2016) is about language discrimination in school-
based literacy suggests a student's language spoken at home (Spanish) does not meet the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 32
standards for success in school. Per one student by the name of Talina, a marketing student notes
“As soon as I went to first grade…everything was in English. They would help me read in
English, but not in Spanish” (Murillo & Schall, 2016, p. 319). This theme is relevant to the study
for college academic readiness because it undermines a student’s sense of belonging which
impacts self-efficacy and motivation.
The fourth theme of Murillo and Schall (2016) was a “belief that growing speaking
Spanish hinders English literacy development” (p. 319). According to Laura, she said, “Latinos
don’t practice reading [in English] at home because their families speak Spanish” (p. 319).
Another participant noted Spanish-speaking families “communicate all the time in Spanish and
cannot assist their children in reading [English]” (p. 319). This theme places the blame on
Spanish and bilingualism as the cause for low literacy in English. This in-turn impacts college
academic readiness for students who speak another language other than English at home. This
study helps to understand that students who speak another language is not the sole issue of why
students struggle with English and are placed in basic-skills courses. It is rather a lack of
institutional cultural competency.
Through qualitative study, other scholars such as Reid & Moore seek to better understand
two major themes in academic readiness from high school to college transition through the lens
of social capital theory, “(a) preparation which helped with college success [and] (b) skills
lacking college success” (Reid & Moore, 2008, p. 245). The authors interviewed 13 students who
were enrolled in postsecondary education and were First-generation African American, Latino/a,
and immigrant students (Reid & Moore, 2008). Most of the students that were interviewed
attested that they had taken at least one Advanced Placement (AP) course while in high school.
By taking an AP class like English or Biology, students were exposed to college level work. Per
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 33
one of the students, “Taking that class prepared me with a lot of things that I had to know once I
got to biology” (Reid & Moore, 2008, p. 247). Student engagement in high school is another
considering factor that enhances social capital and preparation for college academics. For
example, the participants in this study explained that it was helpful for them academically being
prepared for college, through the relationships they established with certain high school teachers,
counselors, and administrators (Reid & Moore, 2008). Extracurricular or high school programs
are improving student’s preparation for college such as interpersonal skills, which enables them
to take on leadership roles. The authors concluded that all the students who were active with
extra-curricular activities outside of their course work believed that it helped them while in
college (Reid & Moore, 2008). Qualitative research is sufficient because it allows the researcher
to better understand the firsthand account of student’s experiences such as First-generation
minoritized students as they transition into college.
The literature also focuses on the lack of skills that impact college success or readiness.
One of the challenges facing many incoming First-generation community college students in
their first year is their subpar performance skills in math and English while in high school.
Research shows that students who are seeking majors like the sciences or Engineering are
struggling in upper division math courses and in many cases, are having to take developmental
courses before taking credit-bearing courses (Reid & Moore, 2008). As a result, students do not
persist in their college or university education. Another obstacle faced by First-generation
students encompasses time management skills. In this same study, one student recounts his time
management for transitioning from high school to college by stating, “Time management is
probably the hardest to get used to. You’re used to someone waking you up. You are used to
being reminded…” (Reid & Moore, 2008, p. 255). This example illustrates the key learning
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 34
skills and techniques that a student must develop over time for academic readiness and success
while in college.
Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca (2009) discuss college academic readiness through a
multiple measures approach, which is another perspective to understand college academic
readiness of First-generation minoritized students. Three different measuring tools used by
university admissions offices attributed to college readiness consist of: high school course work
required for college admission, performance on achievement tests like the Scholastic Aptitude
Test (SAT) or the American College Testing (ACT), and GPA while in high school. Multiple
measures is not required at community colleges; however, it is beneficial if community colleges
begin implementing multiple measure requirements to better assess the accuracy of placement of
placement and academic readiness of First-generation minoritized students and low-SES students
(Roderick et al., 2009).
Within the body of existing literature on college academic readiness, there is also
research to understand how student engagement in high school has a positive impact on
academic readiness for incoming college students. Furthermore, the major themes report findings
on student preparation and motivation to do well in college, and using surveys pertaining to
student engagement for data collection (Kuh, 2007). For instance, the author presents his
findings that, “almost half (47%) study three or fewer hours a week, well below the thirteen-to-
fourteen-per-week average of first year students at four-year colleges and universities” (Kuh,
2007, p. 2). In addition, findings also showed that many of the graduating students noted that
they were not academically prepared for college courses and did not possess effective study
habits to encounter the academic rigor of college courses (Kuh, 2007). This study sheds light on
earlier definitions of college academic readiness through the lens of cognitive and non-cognitive
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 35
skills. For instance, motivation and engagement, goal orientation and self-direction, and key
learning skills and techniques are a few examples of necessary attributes that First-generation
minoritized students must possess to be successful while in community college. Research
showed that students would benefit if they develop those skills over time as they transition into a
community college (Kuh, 2007).
Other scholars have focused on discussing the experiences of First-generation students
who attend either a community college or four-year institution. Bui (2002) notes that many First-
generation students start at two-year colleges for reasons that are noteworthy in the literature
review. Bui (2002) argues, “Their academic preparation is not competitive enough to gain
admission to four-year institutions, they cannot afford tuition costs at four-year institutions, they
need the flexibility at a two-year institution to meet their responsibilities as workers, spouses or
parents” (p. 3). In a qualitative study, surveying First-generation college students at University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Bui seeks to understand their student’s characteristics, reasons
for pursuing higher education, and more importantly their first-year experience. Students who
participated included primarily African American students, Latino/a, and some Asian students.
Findings showed that First-generation students reported that during their first year they knew less
about the social environment around campus than others. In addition, they felt less prepared
about attending college, and worried more about paying for school and financial aid than other
students (Bui, 2002). The author notes that campus support service programs like academic
advisors, tutors, counselors, and other resources can help the growth and preparedness of First-
generation students as they transition into college (Bui, 2002).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 36
Testing and Placement
There are factors of college academic readiness that community colleges look for when
determining if a student will enroll in a basic skills course or a transfer level English or math
course. Cognitive and non-cognitive definitions of college academic readiness provide a more
holistic snapshot, in that it will allow researchers to develop qualitative questions to hear the
voices of student experiences and perspectives, which is lacking in the literature. Cognitive and
non-cognitive will allow for an alternative approach to studying college academic readiness in
how students will do in college-level English and math courses. A study conducted by Belfield
and Crosta (2012) seeking to understand community college student placement into transfer-
level English courses by researching “What information should be used for colleges to decide if
students are ready for college level coursework and how that information should be interpreted”
(p. 2). When using only community college placement scores, 3 out of 10 (27% to 33%) students
are severely misplaced to students’ detriment due to testing error (Belfield & Crosta, 2012) and
the lack of using multiple measures of cognitive and non-cognitive skills. There are two validity
measures utilized by community colleges when assessing English placement scores: severe error
rate and remediation rate. The severe error rate is defined as “the predicted probabilities of
success for those students who are placed in Developmental [courses] but predicted to get a ≥ B
in the college-level course and those who are placed in the college-level course but predicted to
fail it” (Belfield & Crosta, 2012, p. 28). Remediation rate refers to the percentage of students
enrolled in developmental courses based on cut-off scores, which differs among community
colleges (Belfield & Crosta, 2012). Severe error rate solely focuses on predictability rather than a
breath of measures such as GPA, SAT/ACT, and completion of high school coursework. The
authors concluded in their findings that placement test scores are not significant predictors of
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 37
course grades when placed in developmental courses (Belfield & Crosta, 2012). Furthermore,
“the tests do not have much explanatory power across a range of measures of performance
including college GPA, credit accumulation, and success in gatekeeper English and math
classes” (Belfield & Crosta, 2012, p. 39). The author’s findings further explain how using
multiple measures for placing students is especially beneficial for First-generation minoritized
students because there is a body of work assessed allowing for accurate student placement.
Not applying multiple measures when placing First-generation minoritized students
hinders the number of credits a student will complete within the first year of community college.
Community colleges are lacking the consistent outreach to high school students in explaining the
importance of doing well in high school and the necessity of the community college assessment
process, especially of First-generation minoritized students. An interesting data point is that 71%
out of the 46% of California community college students taking developmental education are
poor (California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office, n.d.) and only 16% of developmental
education students earn a certificate or associate degree within six years compared to all
certificate or degree-seeking community college students. (Mejia et al., 2016). Reforms are
underway in California not only to provide common assessments and multiple measures, but
some community colleges instituted an English and math informed self-placement that will
enable students who choose can place directly into college level English. A factor of student
misplacement occurs when community colleges only use one measure of assessing students as
opposed to utilizing a body of work (e.g. high school transcripts, GPA, SAT/ACT). The main
goal of the California Assessment Initiative (CAI), “will reduce unnecessary remediation, align
to state legislation, and provide statewide efficiencies for the academic placement process within
and between California colleges, all of which will ultimately benefit student success” (“Goals -
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 38
Common Assessment Initiative,” n.d.). CAI in collaboration with a multiple measures approach
gives students an equitable opportunity to place in a college-level English or a degree applicable
math course (Common Assessment Initiative, 2016; The RP Group, n.d.). A suggestive
perspective regarding the CAI is to ensure that First-generation minoritized students have the
opportunity to fulfill their educational goal of earning an associate’s degree and or transfer to a
university.
Students, particularly First-generation community college minoritized students enrolled
in developmental English courses affecting their ability to transition to college level English and
other courses that require a college level English prerequisite. “Only about one-fourth of students
(27%) who take a developmental math course eventually complete a college math course with a
grade of C or better, and less than half (44%) of developmental English student do so” (Mejia et
al., 2016). In addition, those students who placed into developmental courses, only 16% earn a
certificate or associate's degree within six years and 24% only transfer to a four-year university
(Mejia et al., 2016). These data connect the notion of college academic readiness and opportunity
gaps for First-generation community college minoritized students.
Gaps in Developmental Education
Failed educational policies like the NCLB have not only contributed to the opportunity
gaps that First-generation minoritized students continually face but impacts the academic
readiness for students transitioning from high school to college. First-generation minoritized
students are disproportionately represented enrollment in developmental courses (Mejia et al.,
2016). The overrepresentation of First-generation community college minoritized students in
developmental education can significantly impact how they navigate within society. For
example, effective composition skills assist in the process of how students connect with a global
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 39
society and affect real change (Duncheon & Tierney, 2014). First-generation community college
minoritized students addressing developmental deficiencies in high school as opposed to in
community college coursework has enabled students to be academically prepared for college
before high school graduation.
Some researchers argue that providing an early warning system for students before high
school graduation can help improve students’ college-readiness and support students being
academically prepared. In a recent study in Florida of two high school districts, Koon and
Petscher (2016), “sought to develop an early warning system to identify students at risk of low-
performance on college readiness in grades 11 or 12 in order to support them with remedial
coursework prior to high school graduation” (p. 1). In doing so, they pose the following research
questions: how scores on the Florida Assessments for Instruction in Reading-Florida Standards
(FAIR-FS) in grade 9 predict performance on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test
(PSAT)/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (NMSQT) in grade 10 and how do scores on
the FAIR-FS in grade 9 predict performance on the ACT Plan in grade 10. These research
questions are important because it provides a mechanism to provide developmental interventions
before graduating from high school. Findings within the two districts show that 81% and 96% of
the students were not meeting the college academic readiness benchmarks (Koon & Petscher,
2016). Koon and Petscher (2016) found preliminary evidence that addressing developmental
gaps in high school can significantly decrease the number of high school students needing
developmental English and math courses as they transition to college. The research-based
example recommends the need to identify and implement developmental education interventions
prior to high school graduation.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 40
Funding to cover the cost of developmental education in community colleges can either
shift to support Adult high school remediation for returning adults or support the community
college letters and math departments to assist high school English and math teachers with
curriculum alignment. Studies show there is a national cost of about seven billion dollars for
developmental education in community colleges (Rodríguez, Bowden, Belfield, & Scott-
Clayton, 2014). Developmental education can significantly impact the expectations of First-
generation community college minoritized students. Kingan and Alfred (1993) argue community
college placement is a means of tracking and “cooling out" students’ college aspirations.
“Cooling out” refers to an approach educators use to refocus community college students and
deter them from achieving the educational goals they initially set out from themselves (Clark,
1960). This approach currently used in community colleges. For example, a student who initially
focused on a career in Engineering is reoriented by a counselor or advisor to choose an
alternative career path or major based on their perception on a student being over ambitious and
not academically prepared (Clark, 1960). As a result, community colleges are focusing on a wide
variety of multiple measures to not only assist students with proper placement with regards to
academic readiness but also reduce the number of students impacted by the “cooling out”
approach.
K-12/Community College Academic Readiness Disconnect
Multiple factors contribute to the disconnect of college academic readiness for First-
generation minoritized students as they transition from high school to community colleges. One
contributing factor to the disconnect of college academic readiness for First-generation
minoritized students as they transition from high school to community college is partly due to
high school and community colleges’ lack of trust and alignment between the English and math
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 41
curriculum. At the community college level, 78% percent of Black students and 75% of Latino
students compared to 64% of White students take at least one remedial English or math course
(Chen, 2016). The issue of remediation for Black and Latino students is important because
minoritized students are disproportionately represented in developmental education leading to
opportunity gaps in their educational attainment.
From a socioeconomic status, 76% of low-SES community college students take remedial
courses, compared with 59% in the highest income group (Chen, 2016). However, some states
are attempting to provide transitional courses to assist with the transition from high school to
college so that more students are academically prepared (Fay, Barnett, Trimble, & Pheatt, 2014).
Thirty-eight states provide some form of early college readiness assessment; however, students
are usually left with trying to figure out what next steps to take in preparing for college once they
receive the early readiness assessment results (Fay et al., 2014). States like Illinois have passed a
College and Career Readiness Act which recommend an alignment between math and English
curriculum with the goal of addressing remediation within K-12 before entering college (Bragg
& Taylor, 2014). States like Illinois and others engaging in early college readiness assessment
serve as model to address educational opportunity gaps that arise for students like First-
generation minoritized students disproportionally enrolled in developmental education.
A second issue contributing to the disconnect of college academic readiness between high
school and community college for First-generation minoritized students is that they lack the
educational cultural capital. Educational Cultural Capital refers to a student’s mastery or
preparedness of the college student role (Collier & Morgan, 2008). Research supports the notion
that students who lack educational cultural capital (e.g., knowledge of academic expectations)
among other factors are less likely to be successful in college (Conley & French, 2014). The lack
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 42
of educational cultural capital applies to First-generation minoritized students who may lack
educational cultural capital hindering their opportunity at success.
A third factor is that most high schools and community colleges operate in silos instead
of co-constructing policies and processes that prepare students for the transition from high school
to community college. Most high schools and community colleges throughout the country miss
the opportunity to collaborate effectively due to the policies and accountability measures for
each system. The high school and community college system operate with different fiduciary
responsibilities, instructional strategies, capacity and data which contribute to the disconnect
(Vargas & Venezia, 2015). However, there are promising practices like multiple measures of
testing, dual enrollment, and career pathways, which will be discussed later in this chapter. One
type of program discussed next, summer bridge programs (SBP), strive to minimize the
disconnect between high schools and community colleges.
Summer Bridge Programs play a major role in addressing the disconnect between K-12
and community colleges. Sablan and Tierney (2016) define SBP as:
An intervention program that occurs at a postsecondary institution and is designed to
transition incoming college students into the college environment through any or all of
the following activities: academic course work (e.g. writing or math classes); academic
skills training (e.g. time management); and orientation to college environments and
resources through various seminars, workshops, or activities (e.g. financial seminars) (p.
3).
Incoming college students, especially First-generation community college minoritized
students have the opportunity to increase their college academic readiness by participating in an
SBP before the transition to the first full-time semester at college. The sample included 64% of
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 43
the students came from low-income families and reported families had an annual income below
$30,000, 88% of the students reported father had no college education and 87% of the students
reported that their mothers had no college education. Research of a pre-and post-test during and
after student's participation in the SBP, measuring their progress in writing and college
knowledge done by Sablan and Tierney (2016) indicated 80% of the students enrolled in an SBP
improved their writing and college knowledge one score or more. 13% had no change, and 8%
decreased a point. Studies have also shown that SBP helps students increase their self-efficacy,
which is another component of cognitive skills needed for college academic readiness (Sablan,
2014). SBP play a major role in helping First-generation minoritized students improve their
English reading and writing skills and their knowledge of the college environment before their
first year (Sablan, 2014).
However, other studies have shown that GPA’s are stagnant and students in SBP
sometimes do worse than other students not in the program, while others pass all their classes
their first semester of their freshman year (Sablan, 2014). The struggle with SBP studies is that
they usually lack a comparison group (Sablan, 2014; Sablan & Tierney, 2016), so more SBP
research needs to include a controlled study. Although SBP tends to support a small subset of
First-generation college students, many community colleges with the collaboration of high
schools in California are working on providing clear pathways to improve college readiness,
access, and success for its most disproportionality impacted students.
Community Colleges throughout California created the College Promise Programs which
are “partnerships which align local K-12 school districts, community colleges, and public
university segments to provide clear pathways for students to follow to achieve their educational
goals” (California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office, 2016). The California Promise
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 44
Programs are a derivative of the College Promise Campaign
2
to develop and expand College
Promise efforts (Regional Educational Laboratory, 2016). Most of the California Promise
Programs focus on making college accessible and affordable to low-income students
transitioning from high school. However, there are California Promise Programs focused on
increasing the number of students who have the college academic readiness skills to go directly
into a college-level English or math course. In addition, the goal of connecting students to
strategic coaching, advising/counseling, and mentorship so low-income students can attain
success in their English and math developmental courses (Regional Educational Laboratory,
2016). Many of the California Promise Programs want to create a college-going culture by
equipping low-income students with resources that will springboard students through
developmental coursework so low-income students can reach their educational goals in a timely
and affordable manner. The aforementioned have commonalities in their approaches to
addressing opportunity gaps for First-generation minoritized students.
Opportunity Gaps
The opportunity gap framework pays attention to the deficiencies of foundational
components of societies, schools, and communities that produce significant differences in
educational outcomes. Educational disparities highly correlate with skin color, ethnicity,
linguistic, and social class status (Carter & Welner, 2013). Carter & Welner argue, “Calling the
persistent achievement disparities between Black and Latino students and White students an
“achievement gap” suggests that something inherent in Black and Latino students, their families,
communities, cultures, schools, and teachers are responsible for the disparities” (p. 13).

2
The charitable and educational 501(c) (3) College Promise Campaign is a national, non-partisan initiative to build
broad public support for funding the first two years of higher education for hard-working students, starting in
America’s community colleges.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 45
Opportunity gap shifts responsibility to structural, institutional, and other factors beyond the
control of the stakeholders most impacted by disparities in educational opportunities. Scholars
like Carter & Welner, also discuss that because of the opportunity gaps that exists among
minoritized students, an educational debt has developed in many of those communities.
Educational debt suggests the inequity that exists in achievement and remedial placement of
students, who usually come from low-SES backgrounds and or are First-generation compared to
the general non-First-generation, high-SES White and most Asian populations (Carter & Welner,
2013; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2013). This section will discuss the opportunity gap and
how that leads to the educational debt.
In the United States, there have been efforts on behalf of the federal government to
address opportunity gaps that exist among low-achieving students. On the other hand, legislation
and educational policy have hindered and at most helped minimally, inadequately improving
opportunity gaps and the overall educational experience of minoritized students within the US
educational system. The lack of college academic readiness of minoritized students and low-SES
students contributed to issues such as narrow assessments leading to placement in basic skills
English, institutional racism, lack of access to resources such as robust curriculum and teachers.
Educational and institutional practices and policies have impacted opportunity gaps for First-
generation minoritized students in the Nation’s educational system, therefore bringing to the
forefront civil and legal issues in education affecting those groups of students.
Resulting from the famous 1896 United States Court case Plessy vs. Ferguson, the nation
embarked on a campaign to segregate men and women of color from Whites in all facets of
society, including in schools. This court case declared “separate but equal.” It was not until 1954
during the Civil Rights Movement that Brown vs. Board of Education overturned Plessy vs.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 46
Ferguson, beginning with the desegregation of schools. Following the Civil Rights Movement
that followed the newfound push for equity (Bell, 1980), the United States Federal government
began to enact legislation with the emphasis on educational policy to address achievement and
opportunity gaps specifically aimed at providing access and equity to low-SES achieving
students (often conflated with minoritized students). To name a few: Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) 1965, A Nation at Risk 1983, No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) 2002,
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) 2015, and the Seymour-Campbell Success Act 2012 and the
California Assembly Bill 705 in October 2017. These are both federal and state educational
policies addressing opportunity gaps impacting First-generation minoritized students and low-
SES students.
Educational Policy
Educational policy has impacted opportunity and achievement gaps for low-SES students
in US schools and districts across the country. ESEA implemented in 1965 by President Lyndon
Johnson was “enacted to offer equitable educational opportunities to the nation’s disadvantaged,
this legislation provides financial resources to enhance the learning experience of
underprivileged children” (J.Y. Thomas & Brady, 2005, p. 51). The early stages of this
educational reform began with the President's appointee of John W. Gardner, who was the
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President Lyndon Johnson to lead the
Gardner Commission. The mission was to establish new and innovative thinking on federal
education aid to states, which linked the President’s mission, and programs he drew up on the
“War on Poverty” based on the ideals of establishing democracy and equity in the nation’s
educational system. It aimed to address the disproportionate gaps of student achievements,
specifically for students who came from low-income families (Thomas & Brady, 2005). One of
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 47
the components of ESEA was Title I, which was to provide additional federal funding to schools
and districts serving a high concentration of low-SES students. The purpose of Title I was to
allow school agencies to expand educational programs that would address the opportunity and
achievement gaps among the students they served. In 1965, nearly 1 billion dollars of funding to
allocate and distribute to almost 94% of schools and districts based on poverty data and within
school districts across the country (Thomas & Brady, 2005).
Many of the debates surrounding ESEA’s effectiveness in helping to improve opportunity
and achievement gaps among low-SES students from 1965 to 1980 revolved around whether
funding was restricted to poor children or include any child who may be at risk of failing
regardless of their SES background (Thomas & Brady, 2005). The ambiguities of the legislation
and the minimal oversight by Congress led to misappropriations of ESEA funds, neglecting to
use the funds adequately for students who come from low-income families. Concerned about the
use of federal funding, many reports further investigated the use of the funds within school
districts across the nation. For example, a 1969 report titled Title I of ESEA: Is it Helping Poor
Children? critically addressed the ESEA funding. The report authored by Ruby Martin of the
Washington Research Project and Phyllis McClure of the Legal Defense and Education Fund and
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) analyzed and
conducted audits. Findings suggested nearly 15% of the Title I funds of ESEA were
misappropriated (Thomas & Brady, 2005). According to Martin & McClure (1969):
We found that although Title I is not general aid to education but categorical aid for
children from poor families who have educational handicaps, funds appropriated under
the Act are being used for general school purposes: to initiate system-wide programs, to
buy books and supplies for all school children in the system, to pay general overhead and
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 48
operating expenses, to meet new teacher contracts which call for higher salaries, to
purchase all-purpose school facilities, and to equip superintendents' offices with paneling,
wall-to-wall carpeting, and color televisions. (p. 57)
With considerable attention given to the Martin and McClure report during the period between
1965 and 1980, Congress amended ESEA four times, which reauthorized the legislation with the
sole attention to assist disadvantaged students who came from low-SES families (Thomas &
Brady, 2005). The money will not address opportunity gaps unless educational disparities such
as institutional racism, lack of access to resources and other tools needed for student success was
not effectively addressed.
A Nation at Risk
In 1983, under President Ronald Regan’s administration, a scathing report was produced
to inform citizens of the nation on how the educational system of high schools and colleges are
failing. A National Commission on Excellence in Education was created in 1981 by the
Secretary of Education (T.H. Bell) under President Ronald Regan and charged, as indicated in
the 1983 “A nation at risk” document (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983)
with the following goals:
• Assessing the quality of teaching and learning in our Nation's public and private schools,
colleges, and universities;
• Comparing American schools and colleges with those of other advanced countries;
• Studying the relationship between college admissions requirements and student
achievement in high school;
• Identifying educational programs which result in notable student success in college;
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 49
• Assessing the degree to which major social and educational changes in the last quarter
century have affected student achievement; and
• Defining problems that must be faced and overcome if we are successful to pursue the
course of excellence in education. (p. 4-5)
The report indicated that there was an increase in mediocrity amongst high school and college
students and the economic strength of the nation was failing. The report identified through the
standardized test that there was an increase in the number of high school students entering
college who needed remedial work in the mid-70s and early 80s and how there needed to be
interventions to assist with student progress (National Commission on Excellence in Education,
1983). The report went into depth about how education is failing by saying, “If an unfriendly
foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that
exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war” (National Commission on
Excellence in Education, 1983, p. 6). Critics of the Nation at Risk document believed its premise
of mediocrity and preeminence of the American economy’s failure was inaccurate. Guthrie and
Springer (2004) find the educational standards in 1983 were not worse off than previous years,
and that the United States’ military, economy, and technological advancements were the
strongest in the world. However, the document did ignite a national movement to reform
education. Education since the Nation at Risk Report, particularly the K-12 system, began the
inundation of federal accountability measures that have perhaps caused more opportunity gaps
among First-generation minoritized students (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). The Nation at Risk is
an example of how the government began addressing opportunity gaps by implementing
accountability measures that would impact student achievement and learning, teaching, college
admissions procedures, and other factors such as student placement. A Nation at Risk is
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 50
necessary for this study because it brings to light the reality of opportunity gaps that exists for
First-generation minoritized students and low-SES students through their enrollment in
developmental courses as they transition from high school to college.
Maldef vs. California Community Colleges Lawsuit
California community colleges passed the Matriculation Act of 1986 (AB3) in support of
enforcing regulations to use statistical validation (placement exams) so that students cannot place
directly into a college-level English course without meeting prerequisite requirements. In
addition to requiring students to take an English, math, and or English as a Second Language
(ESL) assessment, the Matriculation Act also required community colleges to provide an
application for admission, orientation and pre-orientation services, counseling upon enrollment,
and post-enrollment evaluation of a student's progress. The Matriculation Act of 1986 instituted
in 1988. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) filed suit to
address some concerns of how the act may have a disproportionate effect on tracking Latino
students into developmental courses and prevent them from enrolling in college level courses
(Duffy, Schott, Beaver, & Park, 2014). As a result of MALDEF suit, according to Lieu (2010),
MALDEF requested the following provisions:
• A requirement that all test instruments used for assessment and as prerequisites prove as
valid, bias-free and reliable.
• A requirement that matriculation plans include processes for establishing and scrutinizing
prerequisites.
• A requirement that placement bases decisions on multiple measures.
• The creation of an approved list of assessment instruments.
• Provision of a timely resolution to prerequisite challenges.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 51
• An evaluation of compliance with matriculation regulations on a statewide basis.
MALDEF dropped the suit against the California Community College system in 1991 based on
the developing guidelines. Ironically, the stipulations recommended by MALDEF regarding the
Seymour-Campbell Matriculation Act of 1986 did little in addressing the number of Latino
students placed into developmental level English, math, or ESL. As a result, the Seymour-
Campbell Matriculation Act of 1986 changed to the Seymour-Campbell Student Success Act of
2012 (SB 1456) with the goal of increasing access and success for California community
colleges. The Student Success Task Force put forth 22 recommendations that are the foundation
for SB 1456. One of the recommendations is for the state to produce a statewide common
assessment instead of each of the 113 colleges using their standardized assessment (California
Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office, 2012). The common assessment has not been
implemented because it has yet to be created, but the statewide committee charged with its
development is still working on it. The California Community Colleges Common Assessment
Initiative (CAI) is designed to develop and implement a common assessment system (CAS) for
the state. It will streamline and strengthen student assessment and placement in English, English
as a Second Language, and math coursework (The RP Group, n.d.). This will help the study
because the state realizes that a common assessment helps strengthen multiple measures efforts
needed for First-generation minoritized students.
No Child Left Behind
Nearly twenty years after the introduction of the Nation at Risk report by the Ronald
Reagan administration, an educational reform policy put forth by the George W. Bush
administration. President George W. Bush’s No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002 focuses
on achievement gaps as opposed to opportunity gaps among First-generation minoritized
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 52
students. NCLB did not help create access to quality education and did not help with the
transition of high school students to college. “NCLB placed standardized testing as the key to
college readiness, but standardized testing is more related to academic preparedness” (Barnes et
al., 2010, p. 23). NCLB appeared to be more focused on standardization rather than access and
opportunity for First-generation minoritized students as well as focusing on a one-size-fits-all
approach and the focus on basics rather than robust curriculum especially for First-generation
minoritized students further widening opportunity gaps. During its inception, most opponents of
NCLB believed looking at multiple indicators when assessing First-generation minoritized
students would assist in closing opportunity gaps that exist among this student population (Bui,
2002; Collier & Morgan, 2008; Conley & French, 2014; Milner, 2012; Rueda, 2005).
Opportunity Gaps in Educational Reform
If educational reform continues to focus on achievement gaps rather than analyzing
opportunity gaps, then our First-generation minoritized students will be in peril of continuous
inequality within the American education system. There is an issue of access and opportunity for
First-generation minoritized students in the United States, and yet the educational system has not
caught up to promising practices supporting its most underprepared student populations. Many
variables contribute to the educational system’s dysfunction when addressing the opportunity
gaps for First-generation minoritized students. The design of the educational system in the
United States based on cultural codes and practices of White society (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). It
is not entirely inclusive of groups who lack the cultural capital and role mastery as a student
which minimizes the experience opportunity of First-generation minoritized students (Collier &
Morgan, 2008). Another variable revolves around issues of expectations and race. Milner (2012)
discusses the importance of framing inequity in educational outcomes as gaps in opportunities,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 53
not achievement. He suggests color blindness, cultural conflicts, meritocracy, deficit mindsets,
low expectations, and neutral mindset and practices as contributing to the opportunity gaps, all of
which impact First-generation minoritized students. Color blindness neglects to recognize a
student’s racial identity, background, and experiences in shaping curriculum and instructional
practices (Milner, 2012). Color blindness perpetuates opportunity gaps by not acknowledging the
cultural and socioeconomic differences among students (Milner, 2012). Like color blindness,
cultural conflicts arise from a disconnect between school teachers and the differences in cultural
understanding of their student population. Research has found that conflicts and inconsistencies
among educators and students lead to limited learning opportunities for minoritized students
(Milner, 2012). The myth of meritocracy considers socioeconomic status as a contributor to the
opportunity gaps that exists between wealthy, middle class, and poor students (Milner, 2012).
For examples, a wealthy or middle-class teacher of any background may not recognize his or her
privilege as it relates to their understanding of educational cultural capital (Milner, 2012). Low
expectations and deficit mindsets lead to opportunity gaps for many First-generation minoritized
students because educators mistakenly connect socioeconomic status with their cognitive ability
(Milner, 2012). Context-neutral mindsets do not recognize the realities embedded in an
environment such as a school or community (Milner, 2012). For instance, Milner (2012) gives
one of five examples of context-neutral mindset by arguing, “Money and resources are
inequitable in different social contexts: numbers of high-need districts, where resources are low,
too often receive the same resources as districts with much greater resources” (p. 708).
Inadequate funding to school districts where there is a high concentration of low-SES students
hinders opportunity gaps. Poverty is also a contributing variable to inequities of opportunity for
the aforementioned student population. There is not one clear definition of poverty; however,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 54
Milner (2013) gives one explanation by explaining a “family is considered to be poor if its
income for a particular year is below the amount deemed necessary to support family of a certain
size” (p. 7). Poverty affects student learning and, as a result, school districts need to provide
more resources so that low-SES students can succeed (Milner, 2015). Milner (2015) suggests
four goals to support minoritized students, which are: (1) understand and practice equitable
decision-making; (2) understand and respond to neighborhood conditions; (3) reduce class size
for school-dependent students, and (4) rethink and reform the inflexible, narrowed curriculum.
Teachers need to understand the experience of poor students by educating themselves of what
community and familial issues impact students living in poverty. Educators spend a significant
amount of time talking about students rather than listening to the student experience (Milner,
2015). Noguera, Pierce, and Ahram (2016) state:
Regardless of race or class background all children can learn and grow in positive and
productive ways if they provide the opportunity and that even in the poorest communities
it is possible to build schools that serve children well. (p. 10)
The repercussions of not addressing issues of poverty within society will continue to perpetuate
inequities in school districts leading to opportunity gaps for First-generation community college
minoritized students. In a qualitative study integrating ethnographic approaches conducted in a
rural Texas school district examined Green High School (GHS) to explore how it negotiated high
“minority “and high poverty enrollment as it relates to college readiness. The authors, Welton
and Williams (2015) findings indicated that high “minority” and high poverty enrollment
perpetuate the following:
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 55
• Culture of failure and academic decline- A deficit-based stigma where teachers lower
their academic expectations of their now majority minority and low-income student
populations.
• Demographic change and shift in cultural context- A movement or shift of low-income
and minority student populations relocating to a rural white community which “alters the
racial and social class structures in the school district and surrounding community” (p.
193).
• A culture of leaving: high staff turnover- As GHS transitioned to majority minoritized
students and low-SES population, the school experienced a 40 to 50 percent teacher
turnover rate resulting in an increase of inexperienced teachers. High staff turnover
directly correlates to opportunity gaps because low-SES students’ learning is affected
hindering their academic preparation for college (Welton & Williams, 2015).
• A culture of deficit perceptions and lower academic expectations- GHS students were
perceived as not academically prepared and labeled as “academically unacceptable”
meaning that there were perceptions that GHS was a deficit-based school. A student
recounts her experience by stating, “…now the community thinks we are a ghetto school”
while another student "could sense the school-wide anxiety generated from the stigma of
the academically unacceptable state accountability label…” (p. 195). This deficit mindset
thinking impacts opportunity gaps and college academic readiness through the scope of
self-efficacy as it relates to student learning and their motivation.
• Reducing the rigorous culture in advanced courses- Testing is more important than
college preparation curriculum as one GHS student notes “…here they focus more on the
state exam stuff and all the time it is all about the state exam” (p. 197). By limiting
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 56
college preparation courses and focusing more on state testing, limits college academic
preparedness for First-generation community college minoritized students.
To put this in context, high poverty schools lacking resources, with limited rigorous course
offerings, high teacher turnover ratio, low-SES families, and stereotypes placed on schools such
as labeling a school as “ghetto” hinders a student's self-efficacy. The factors mentioned are all
contributing factors leading to opportunity gaps and the lack of college academic readiness as
many students transition from high school to community college.
NCLB to ESSA
There has been numerous legislation and educational reform attempts on behalf of the
federal government to address low achievement schools and districts, and the opportunity gaps
that exist among First-generation community college minoritized students who attend those
schools. In 2015, President Barack Obama replaced the NCLB with ESSA, which was a
reauthorization of the original 1965 ESEA implemented by President Lyndon Johnson. This
piece of legislation ensures that every child and low-achieving school districts would have the
resources to make sure that every child succeeds and prepares as they make their transition to
secondary and post-secondary education. The preparation and the quality of education that
students receive in those years impacts their academic preparation for college (Mathis & Trujillo,
2016). According to Mathis & Trujillo (2016), “The research evidence over the past 30 years
further tells us that unless we address the economic bifurcation in the nation, and the opportunity
gaps in the schools, we will not be successful in closing the achievement gap” (p. 3). Highlighted
in the Welton and Williams qualitative ethnographic study in addressing these gaps, ESSA will
allow states to create reports that will incorporate one or more non-academic indicators that will
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 57
help bring together the nation’s overall and broader educational purposes (Mathis & Trujillo,
2016).
According to Mathis & Trujillo (2016), “NCLB and ESSA, have moved the country
farther and farther away from the original principle behind ESEA, which was to use federal
funding to increase protections for historically underserved students. It was originally a civil
rights initiative” (p. 6). Research shows that under NCLB the wealthiest US public schools spend
at least 10 times more than the poorest schools ranging from over $30,000 per pupil to only
$3000 (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Furthermore, schools serving large numbers of low-income
students and minoritized students have larger class sizes, fewer teachers and counselors, fewer
and lower-quality academic courses, extracurricular activities, books, materials, supplies and
computers, libraries and special services (Darling-Hammond, 2007). While the law focuses on
test scores as indicators of school quality, it largely ignores the resources that enable school
quality. It does not provide substantial investments in the under-resourced schools where many
students are currently struggling to learn, nor does it require that states demonstrate progress
toward equitable and adequate funding or greater opportunities to learn and these disparities
contribute to a wider achievement gap (Darling-Hammond, 2007). ESSA is still considered to be
test-based. A test is mandated yearly as standardized exams in the subject areas of reading and
math, mandated in grades 3 to 8 and once in high schools. Schools are required to create reports
of their status; standardized test results are still considered the largest share of the requirement.
Schools in need identified through standardized test scores, but ESSA has included one or more
other academic indicators (Mathis & Trujillo, 2016). Like with the NCLB Act, punishment for
low-test performance continues in the form of defunding schools and districts. However, the
difference is that states now have the autonomy to decide which test-based consequences for
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 58
under-performing schools will be applied and not the federal government (Mathis & Trujillo,
2016). As a result of the many components of NCLB that still exists under ESSA, it still a
challenge for states that continue to apply aspects of the previous legislation hindering
achievement and opportunity gaps for low-performing students.
Laws like the NCLB that was supposed to help resolve and improve achievement and
opportunity gaps made it worse. The widening divide between the rich and poor today continues
to increase. The authors assert, “roughly 20 to 40 percent larger among children born in 2001
than among those born 25 years earlier” (Mathis & Trujillo, 2016, p. 8). Among other things, the
economic and social shift of society with income level being a prediction for parent education,
more students are enrolling college as First-generation. Mathis & Trujillo (2016) assert, “The
income achievement gap, which closely ties to the racial gap, attributable to income inequality,
the increased difficulty of social mobility, the bifurcation of wages and the economy, and a
narrowing of school purposes driven by test taking” (p. 8). All of which has impacted
minoritized students and those who come from low-SES backgrounds.
Cultural Capital Framework
The traditional definition of cultural capital versus its application in education and
specifically how it applies to First-generation minoritized students is an essential conceptual
framework that helps to better understand opportunity gaps and the problem of college academic
readiness within those groups. The introduction of the cultural capital conceptual framework
brought forth by Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron in 1977 to analyze the inequity that
existed within the hierarchal formation (high-SES vs. low-SES) of society and its relationship
between culture and social structure (Arum, Beattie, & Ford, 2015). According to Collier &
Morgan (2008), “Cultural capital can be defined as a proficiency in and familiarity with
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 59
dominant cultural codes and practices” (p. 428). Bourdieu & Passeron’s theory of “cultural
capital is used as means of excluding individuals from jobs, resources, and high-SES, which is
institutionalized i.e., widely shared, high status cultural signals (behaviors, preferences, formal
knowledge, behaviors, and credentials) used for social and cultural exclusion” (Arum et al.,
2015, p. 47). Furthermore, cultural capital used by dominant groups within society creates
cultural separation with groups from low-SES backgrounds. Moreover, they create a monopoly
of resources and privileges, and exclude low-SES society and recruit individuals of high-SES
status to join in on those opportunities (Arum, Beattie, & Ford, 2015).
Educational Cultural Capital
The lack of educational cultural capital emphasizes opportunity gaps for incoming First-
generation minoritized students entering California community colleges. The populations
mentioned above lack the necessary cultural capital required for understanding about the nuances
of navigating college and the significance of English assessments in college placements. This
lack of the cultural capital needed to understand these “hidden codes” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997)
contribute to the disproportionate gap of these students placed in English remediation. First-
generation community college minoritized students lack knowledge as it relates to understanding
the nuances, language, and policies when attending a community college. If it is not passed down
from the family, then many students like First-generation community college minoritized
students will lack cultural capital, a critical component of college academic readiness (Collier &
Morgan, 2008). For example, the educational cultural capital between First-generation
minoritized students compared to high-SES students is evident in their seemingly inherent
understanding of faculty expectations as one example. Collier & Morgan (2008) argue, “That
variations in cultural capital, based on parents’ educational experiences, correspond to
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 60
substantial differences in each group's mastery of student role, thus their ability to respond to
faculty expectations” (p. 425). A student’s understanding of the “college student role” is an
important aspect of a student’s preparedness and success at a college or university (Collier &
Morgan, 2008). In a 1982 study conducted by DiMaggio, he found that a conscious awareness of
educational cultural capital influenced the grades students received in schools. Non-First-
generation high-SES students are significantly advantaged because they have the financial
resources and family support and experience. The support enables them to prepare as they
already understand educational cultural capital and the nuances of being a college student. In
addition, in a later study, he found “[educational] cultural capital also influenced higher
education attendance and completion…” (Arum et al., 2015, p. 49).
A major component of educational cultural capital is the concept of “roles as resources”
which is a student’s mastery or preparedness of the college role. According to Collier & Morgan
(2008), roles as resources, “serve as resources that individuals use to pursue their goals through
interaction with others” (p. 427). Students who gain educational cultural capital and come into
college with the understanding of the role of a college student, then he or she will recognize what
their professors expect of them in each course, for example. Furthermore, role mastery is the “the
ability to perform increasingly customized or context-specific versions of a particular role”
(Collier & Morgan, 2008, p. 427). The role of mastery is important in student preparedness and
success while in college especially for First-generation minoritized students. Researchers should
go beyond general academic outcomes like GPA or SAT scores and consider factors like cultural
capital theory and roles as resources to understand the experiences of First-generation
community college minoritized students (Collier & Morgan, 2008). This framework helps to
understand college academic readiness because understanding educational cultural capital for
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 61
First-generation minoritized students is vital to the success of their college academic career.
Furthermore, it helps minimize the opportunity gaps that exist in their English placement as they
transition from high school to community college.

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 62
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
First-generation minoritized students are disproportionately represented in basic-skills
courses in community colleges and four-year institutions across the Nation. The percentage of
minoritized students enrolled in developmental courses at public two-year colleges is 76%
minoritized students and 64% of White students take remedial courses. Low-SES students
represent 76% who take remedial courses compared with 59% of high-SES students (Chen &
Simone, 2016). Another study using national data found that 58% of recent high school
graduates who entered community colleges took at least one developmental course (Attewell,
Lavin, Domina, & Levey, 2006). Students’ taking developmental courses is a problem because it
hinders students’ ability to enroll in courses that require completion of basic-skills classes. As a
result, First-generation community college minoritized students placed into developmental
education; it creates an opportunity gap for this population to reach their educational goals.
This dissertation addressed the problem of college academic readiness and basic-skills
English placement of First-generation minoritized students in California community colleges.
There is no one definition of college readiness; however, many scholars like Conley (2010)
argue it is “the level of preparation a student needs to enroll and succeed-without remediation-in
any credit-bearing course at a postsecondary institution” (p. 21). For this dissertation college
academic readiness is defined by Conley & French (2014) who identify cognitive and non-
cognitive factors that determine students’ readiness and the various skills they must possess as
they transition from high school to community college. For example, key cognitive strategies,
key content knowledge, key learning skills and techniques, as well key transition knowledge and
skills are all examples of cognitive skills needed from college academic readiness.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 63
Additionally, Conley and French (2014) discuss a five-part model of ownership learning
which they argue is essential to college academic readiness because it refers to “Students’ ability
to motivate and engage in learning” (p. 1030). They are motivation and engagement, goal
orientation and self-direction, self-efficacy and self-confidence, meta-cognition and self-
monitoring, and persistence. The definitions as mentioned above of college academic readiness is
essential for this qualitative study to better understand the perspectives and experiences of First-
generation minoritized students. This dissertation investigated the problem of college academic
readiness among First-generation minoritized students utilizing educational cultural capital as a
framework to understand the opportunity gaps that exists with their enrollment in basic-skills
English courses in California community colleges. The research was: What is the relationship
between educational cultural capital of First-generation minoritized students and their perceived
understanding of college academic readiness and English remediation. The purpose of this study
was to better understand their experiences, perceptions of remediation, and the academic
transition from high school to community college in the context of their enrollment in basic-
skills English courses.
Methods
The purpose of this chapter is to create and present a research design, establish site
selection, participant criteria and methods of contacting, data sources and data collection, and
data analysis methods vital to addressing and answering the research question that is presented
later in this section. In addressing educational research, scholars vary their methodological
approach, in that they focus on quantitative, qualitative, or a mixed-methods (quantitative and
qualitative) tactic to understand a problem of practice (Maxwell, 2013). Unlike a quantitative
study that focuses on statistical relationships and variables (e.g. Variance theory), a qualitative
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 64
approach emphasized the study of individuals, situations, events, and processes that interconnect
these (Maxwell, 2013). Furthermore, qualitative inquiries involve asking the kinds of questions
that focus on the “why and how” of human interactions (Agee, 2009). In doing so, qualitative
research created a continuous process for deeper analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative
data was also important to acquire knowledge for this study because research showed that First-
generation minoritized students are affected by educational policy (Milner, 2015). The essence of
qualitative research looked beyond statistical data, and rather it ascribes to understand the human
and social problems within society to understand and conceptualize personal experiences
(Creswell, 2014). Each aspect of the qualities mentioned above was relevant to this qualitative
study because most of studies connected to the research question lacked first-hand perspectives
from First-generation community college minoritized students.
Research Question
1. What is the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation
community college minoritized students and their perceived understanding of college
academic readiness and English remediation?
Through a qualitative study, this research question was developed to acquire an understanding of
the problem of college academic readiness for incoming First-generation minoritized students. I
wanted to understand the experiences and perceived knowledge of First-generation minoritized
students as it related to their enrollment in basic-skills English courses. I utilized cultural capital
theory in the context of educational resources to addresses opportunity gaps. This study,
measured educational cultural capital by asking specific questions (see Appendix B) that pertains
to:
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 65
Student knowledge of the English assessment process.
• Perception of college academic readiness as it relates to key cognitive strategies, key
content knowledge, key learning skills and techniques, as well as key transition
knowledge and skills.
• Preparation as they transition from high school to community college.
• In addition, I also considered ownership learning which also an important component in
the literature of college academic readiness because it refers to a student's motivation and
engagement, their goal orientation and self-direction, their self-efficacy and self-
confidence, their meta-cognition and self-monitoring, and their persistence (Conley &
French, 2014).
Rationale
This study incorporated student voices of First-generation minoritized students to
highlight their perceptions and experiences in preparing for college. I used a qualitative methods
approach because it was the most consistent method to answer the research question. Qualitative
interviews consisted of open-ended questions providing a detailed account filled with
descriptions, emotions, values, experiences, and behaviors that are difficult to inquire about in
any other research method (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There was limited qualitative data
regarding college academic readiness of First-generation community college minoritized
students, so capturing their experiences was particularly useful toward broadening the breadth of
inquiry.
Sample and Site Selection
A strength of qualitative research was understanding and making meaning of experiences
and contexts within settings or cases (Maxwell, 2013). As a faculty member within the California
community college system, it enabled me to develop working relationships with other faculty,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 66
administrators, staff, and students allowing me to gain access for this study. For this reason, I
investigated a community college within John D. Community College District (pseudonyms
were used for all districts, sites, and participants at the time of study, Fall 2017). I investigated a
local community college site Rockefeller Community College (RCC). I chose to select this
setting because many First-generation minoritized students attend RCC and according to the
literature there is an overrepresentation of the student population in developmental English
courses (Castro, 2013).
Qualitative research typically chooses its sample population purposefully (Maxwell,
2013). Qualitative researchers strive to use purposive samples. These are samples of individuals
who are selected using pre-determined criteria based on a judgment of the researchers regarding
what types of people will be good sources of data for the study (Galvan, 2013). For this study, I
provided the Director of the College Office of Research and Evaluation (CORE) a copy of my
protocol for school approval via email. I conducted my research at an institution where I was not
employed because it reduced any bias due to having no relationship or connection with any of
the faculty, staff, and student participants. When I received permission to conduct my study from
CORE, I met with the Director and the chair of the English department to plan the recruitment of
participants. The English faculty initially did the recruiting for me by presenting to their students
the purpose and criteria for my study. The criteria used for student selection remained the same
which included the following: self-identified as First-generation minoritized student enrolled in a
developmental English class, was a first semester student who was also a 2017 graduate from a
feeder high school, was at least 18 years old, who had not completed any units, and was
attending Rockefeller Community College. After receiving referrals and appointment dates and
times for students who signed up to participate, I proceeded to meet with two participants in a
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 67
designated study room in the library over the course of one week. I later ran into some problems
because other participants who signed up for an appointment failed to show up. One of the
English faculty recommended that I visit and meet with the Director of the Reading and Writing
Center to help with participant recruitment. The Director of the Reading and Writing Center was
helpful in recruiting 10 participants over a period of three weeks for a total of 12 participants.
The Director allowed me to conduct interviews in her office. I used face-to-face interviews with
each participant allowing me the opportunity to explain the study and answer any questions or
concerns the participant may have had.
When I met with the participants, each signed an informed consent agreeing to participate
in the research study (see Appendix C). In addition, I reassured each participant at Rockefeller
Community College that all information they shared with me would be kept confidential and
pseudonyms used for that purpose. As an incentive and taking the time to participate in my
research, each participant received a $10 cash gift card.
Data Collection
I drew from a narrative approach to data collection and interpretation for this study.
Narrative analysis research methodology was used to understand the lived experiences of First-
generation community college minoritized students (Creswell, 2013). Data consisted of
information from interviews that addressed student lived experiences and perceptions about the
English assessment process and their understanding of college academic readiness and
educational cultural capital. In addition, there was also a short demographic questioner that the
participants filled out regarding their background and courses they were taking (see Appendix
A).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 68
Interviews
I took field notes during all interviews and used audio recordings of all interviews with
participants’ permission. Audio recordings maintained the accuracy and quality of the data
collected. All 12 participants agreed to be audio recorded. Interviews lasted anywhere from 35 to
50 minutes. Field notes were used to help guide and stimulate early insight of the study during
the interview process, which contributed to the depth and future analysis (Patton, 2002).
Interview questions were open-ended and semi-structured. Semi-structured interviews made it
possible to engage in questioning with students while following up with probes to help acquire
valuable information needed for this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Furthermore, the interview protocol (see Appendix B) included a variety of questions
pertaining the following types:
• Experiences/behaviors questions aimed at eliciting descriptions of experiences.
• Behaviors, actions, and activities.
• Opinion/belief questions intended to understand the cognitive and interpretive processes
of people.
• Feeling questions designed to understand the emotional responses of individuals with
their experience and thoughts.
• Knowledge questions are aimed at finding out what information a participant has
pertinent to the research question.
• Background/demographic questions concern identifying characteristic of the person
interviewed (Patton, 1987).
All of which will be used in this study to address and answer the research question.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 69
I began data collection mid-way September 2017 and completed mid-way October 2017.
I began data-analysis in late October. Following the completion of data analysis, I began to write
my findings section and conclusion and completed the process in early February 2018.
Artifacts
In addition, I collected artifacts such as RCC’s policies about English placement and the
use of multiple measures when determining English placement of their students. In addition, I
received an understanding of how the testing office operated at RCC to get a holistic snapshot of
the testing process. I used web-based access and discussed it with the Director of the Assessment
at RCC. In addition, I contacted the Outreach office to understand the recruitment process for
incoming first-year students attending one of the feeder high schools associated with the district.
Analysis
Following the completion of all interviews, I utilized a professional transcribing company
called Rev (www.rev.com) for all interviews so that I can begin to analyze the data. Before
reviewing transcripts, a priori codes helped initiate themes drawn from prior knowledge to be the
basis/foundational theory for the additional data and information collected (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). For this, I considered my discussions from the literature such as: definitions of college
academic readiness, understanding of educational cultural capital, experiences of First-
generation students and their placement in developmental education, to formulate an effective
analysis and understanding of the data collected. Coding is a systematic synthesizing process to
organize and develop data to create themes, symbols, and phrases that will contribute to the
discussion of college academic readiness and English placement of First generation minoritized
students at RCC (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). By coding, I gained insight from my participants,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 70
which reemphasized what had already been discussed in the literature and insight on unique
perspectives and experiences that have not been discussed.
I used the educational cultural capital framework to determine a participants’
understanding of what it meant to be prepared for college and subsequently develop an analysis
as to some themes pertaining to basic-skills enrollment for First-generation minoritized students.
In addition, I investigated participants’ knowledge regarding the nuances and differences of a
high school student’s role in comparison to a college student’s role. Chapter five emphasizes
recommendations derived from the created themes.
Researcher Biases/Positionality
As a former First-generation student and current Community College faculty member, I
conducted these interviews keeping in mind the value of qualitative research for this study in
hearing the voices of each participants’ lived experiences and responses as unique perspectives
that will help answer the research question. My goal was to eliminate judgment and biases for
those students who were participating in this study by relaying to the participants my experiences
from the past as a First-generation student who once was enrolled in a basic-skills English
course. I assured the participants that my dissertation was aimed at not only telling their story by
including their experiences and perspectives, but my findings would allow me to make
recommendations to community colleges and high schools on better serving all First-generation
students in preparing them academically as they transition from high school to community
college. Qualitative research supported by the frameworks related to equity and closing
opportunity gaps for First-generation minoritized students.

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 71
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to examine and to shed light on opportunity gaps that exist
in urban education. Scholars like Carter & Welner (2013) argue that opportunity gaps result in
foundational educational deficiencies within the educational system, impacting students’
preparation for college. Furthermore, educational disparities highly correlate with skin color,
ethnicity, linguistic and social class status, all of which play an important role in understanding
college academic readiness (Carter & Welner, 2013). This dissertation addressed opportunity
gaps by highlighting the problem of college academic readiness of First-generation community
college minoritized students enrolled in English developmental courses.
Scholars such as Porter & Polikoff (2012) argue that readiness is the level of preparation
a student must possess to enroll and pass without remediation in a credit-bearing general
education course. This definition reflects the non-cognitive or non-academic aspects, such as a
student’s work ethic, their willingness to aspire in attaining a college or university degree, and
the role family plays like parents and siblings in assisting in the process (Porter & Polikoff,
2012). In contrast, some of the literature takes more into consideration factors such as the
student’s academic performance like their test scores, grades, or class rank (Gaertner &
McClarty, 2015; Hassel & Giordano, 2015; Porter & Polikoff, 2012). For this dissertation
college academic readiness is defined by Conley & French (2014), who identify cognitive and
non-cognitive definitions that determine students’ readiness and the various skills they must
possess as they transition from high school to community college. For example, key cognitive
strategies, key content knowledge, key learning skills and techniques, as well key transition
knowledge and skills. Furthermore Conley & French (2014) also present an argument for
“ownership learning” which they characterize are important traits students must develop to be
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 72
ready for college. They are: motivation and engagement, goal orientation and self-direction, self-
efficacy and self-confidence, meta-cognition and self-monitoring, and persistence. Based on the
definitions, this study sought to understand student lived experiences, perceptions of
developmental education, and the academic transition from high school to community college in
the context of their enrollment in basic-skills English courses.
This dissertation answered the following research question:
What is the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation
community college minoritized students and their perceived understanding of college
academic readiness and English remediation?
The first section discusses the participants’ understanding and perception of college academic
readiness, the second area highlights institutional readiness in the context of educational cultural
capital and the participants’ understanding of the English assessment and of English remediation,
the third section comprises the high school and community college disconnect through the lens
of academic rigor and expectations that were not met for incoming the First-generation
minoritized participants, the fourth aspect comprises a discussion on developing into a college
academic student, and finally, the role that academic resources and courses play in preparing
students for college.
Setting and Participants
Community colleges help democratize education by promoting access to higher education
for individuals who traditionally are underserved (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1997). For this reason,
community colleges and public high schools play an important role in helping to address
opportunity gaps for First-generation minoritized students who are enrolled in developmental
education in community colleges to help narrow and close these gaps. In doing so, educational
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 73
leaders and policy makers can address the problem of college academic readiness of First-
generation minoritized students transitioning from high school to community college.
Setting
Rockefeller Community College (RCC) was one of five schools in John D. Community
College District in the state of California (All places and people mentioned are referred to by
pseudonyms and all information was collected at the time of study, Fall 2017). RCC was in a
small suburban community with a population of 25,000. RCC served a wide range of students
from their fourteen feeder high schools. In addition, the school had a population of over 15,000
students serving a diverse ethnic student population from African American, American Indian,
Asian, Filipino, Hispanic, and White. RCC was a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI). According
to the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, “Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs)
are defined in Title V of the Higher Education Act as not-for-profit institutions of higher learning
with a full-time equivalent (FTE) undergraduate student enrollment that is at least 25 percent
Hispanic” (Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, 2017). RCC’s Hispanic student
population was over 60% and had close to a 3% African-American student population
(California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office, 2018). According to the literature, large
populations of poor and minority students, such as First-generation Hispanic and African-
American students, are disproportionately represented in remedial courses due to opportunity
gaps that exist among these groups in comparison to their White and most Asian counterparts
(Castro, 2013). When analyzing data from RCC, Hispanic and African-American students were
disproportionately enrolled in developmental English. Furthermore, the percentage of those same
students passing and completing a college-level English course was approximately 20% lower
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 74
than the general student population enrolled at RCC at the time of the study (CA community
college school report card, 2017).
Rockefeller Community College offered a variety of courses ranging from the humanities
and social sciences to classes in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM).
Furthermore, RCC offered a wide range of programs in technical fields with emphasis in job
training programs such as automotive, dental assisting, industrial technology, manufacturing, and
much more. RCC offered Associate in Arts for Transfer Degree (AA-T), Associate in Science for
Transfer Degree (AS-T), Associate in Arts Degree (AA), Associate in Science Degree (AS),
Certificate of Achievement (CA), and numerous certificate programs in many fields. Finally, all
perceptive high school graduate students interested in attending RCC must have gone through
the following admission process: 1) File a completed application and a residency statement with
the Admissions office; 2) Request the high school to forward one complete transcript to the
Admissions Office; 3) complete an online orientation and to set up an RCC email account; 4)
take a math and English placement test; and 5) arrange a meeting with a college counselor or
advisor.
The developmental English program at RCC consisted of one level below transfer or
college level English. In other words, it only took the participants one semester to complete their
developmental English coursework. There are two developmental English classes. One course
was reading skills for college while the second course was writing skills for college. All the
participants were enrolled in both the reading and writing developmental English classes. All the
participants were required to take the English placement. RCC used multiple measures when
placing the participants in their English courses as well as using the outcome the English
placement test.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 75
Participants
Twelve participants were individually interviewed, six males and six females. All
participants self-identified as First-generation minoritized college students. Ten out of the twelve
participants were receiving a Board of Governors (BOG) fee waiver. BOG is important in this
study because according to the literature, poverty is a critical component of opportunity gaps
within education (Carter & Welner, 2013; Milner, 2015; Tate IV, 2008). Eleven of the
participants self-identified as Hispanic and one participant identified as African-American. In the
literature, Latinx is commonly used to identify the participant population in this study. However,
in this chapter, I honored the participants’ self-identified answer in their questioner by using the
term Hispanic. Furthermore, language acquisition and development are important conversations
with regards to participants’ college academic preparation. Cummins (1979) presents patterns of
conversational language and academic language development. According to him, basic
interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)
are important conceptual distinctions that contribute to student success and preparation everyday
speaking and with regards to academics. According to Cummins (1979), there are critical
distinctions between BICS and CALP in the context of language acquisition and development.
Conversational fluency (BICS) is often acquired to a functional level within about two years of
initial exposure to the second language, whereas at least five years is usually required to catch up
to native speakers in academic aspects (CALP) of the second language (Cummins, 1979). BICS
and CALP serve as important discussion points for this study because eleven out of the 12
participants claimed that they spoke Spanish while at home because it was also their first
language. All participants discussed that English was their most difficult class. This is important
because the purpose of this dissertation was to better understand the experiences of First-
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 76
generation community college minoritized students who were enrolled in developmental English.
Below is a chart that highlights participants’ demographic information and their responses for
this study.
Table 1
Participants from Rockefeller Community College
Participant Race/Ethnicity First-
Generation
Board of
Governors
(BOG)
waiver
Language
spoken at home
Most
difficult class
in Fall 2017
Ronald
Alexandra
Jorge
Carl
Sarah
Gregory
Diana
Bethany
Steven
Andy
Karol
Samuel
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
African-
American
Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Spanish
Spanish/English
Spanish
Spanish/English
Spanish
Spanish
Spanish
English
English
Spanish
Spanish
Spanish
English
English
English
English
English
English
English
English
English
English &
Math
English
English &
Criminology

Two participants did not receive a BOG fee waiver and two participants only spoke English at
home. Finally, all the participants explained that English was their most difficult class.
Understanding and Perception of College Academic Readiness
In addressing the problem of college academic readiness in terms of opportunity gaps and
educational cultural capital, participants were asked about their understanding of college
academic readiness. The following data answered one part of the research question specifically
highlighting participants’ understanding of college academic readiness, or how they perceived
what it meant to be academically ready for college. By using educational cultural capital as an
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 77
analytic tool, a relationship between educational cultural capital and participants’ understanding
of college academic readiness emerged, filtered through the lens of their own understanding of
college academic readiness and their knowledge of English remediation. This section is also
organized by highlighting the participants’ understanding of college academic readiness through
non-cognitive (taking ownership of their learning) and cognitive components of college
academic readiness (Conley & French, 2014). As defined in chapter two, cognitive readiness
highlights the following: key cognitive strategies, key content knowledge, key learning skills and
techniques, as well key transition knowledge and skills. Key cognitive strategies are thinking
skills that pertain to a student’s ability to communicate critical knowledge effectively. Key
content knowledge, as used in this study, refers to a student’s ability to adequately understand
the content presented. Key learning skills and techniques is a student’s ability to take ownership
of their learning and self-regulate behaviors to become an effective learner. Finally, key
transition knowledge and skills is a student’s ability to understand the culture of college and the
role of a college student that differs from a high school (Conley & French, 2014). Non-cognitive
readiness involves non-academic components of college academic readiness. It also involves
ownership learning, which is a students’ ability to motivate and engage in the learning
environment. They are: motivation and engagement, which is a student’s motivation from within,
determines their engagement and commitment to their learning. The second is goal orientation
and self-direction, which is a student’s commitment to prioritize their learning by setting
academic goals for achievement and success. The third is self-efficacy and self-confidence,
which is a student’s experience in developing self-confidence, directly correlated with their self-
efficacy when confronted and when completing complex or challenging academic tasks. The
fourth is meta-cognition and self-monitoring, giving a student control over learning, it involves
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 78
checking, verifying, and correcting their performance during a learning task or while
communicating. Finally, persistence is a student’s commitment to continuing their education. In
addition, it portrays a correlation to the participants’ reported knowledge of college academic
readiness and educational cultural capital. Data indicated that some participants had minimum
understanding of educational cultural capital, while others lacked educational cultural capital
completely. Cognitive and non-cognitive skills are needed for participants’ understanding of
college academic readiness. In addition, those skills are also essential for their academic and
non-academic preparation for college.
Ronald focused on his perception of college academic readiness by discussing non-
cognitive aspects like self-direction and goal-orientation needed for college preparation.
Furthermore, he also talked about monitoring oneself and having self-confidence (Conley &
French, 2014). Ronald recounted,
Well what is needed to be in college is that you have to be determined. You have to have
your specific schedule and you have to stay to it. That’s what I’m doing right now. Right
now, every week I plan out my week, and so I have to meet that specific schedule and do
[each item] on that day. If I don’t do it, I’m already behind. So you have to keep up with
your work and everything. You actually have to have a mindset set you’re going into
college. It’s not high school all over again. You’re going to have to go to achieve your
goal. If you mess up, you’re going to have to re-do classes, and it’s going to backtrack
you even more. So you have to have that mindset, being focused and on-task every day,
and get in all your work (INT/RONALD/ 9/26/2017).
Ronald demonstrated goal orientation and self-direction, both aspects of college readiness from
the literature (Conley & French, 2014), when he described a weekly schedule of tasks to stay on
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 79
track. His commitment to prioritize his learning by setting academic goals for achievement and
success is grounded in his recognition of college as being different from high school. In addition,
Ronald also portrayed motivation and engagement when he noted his active weekly planning to
create a “specific schedule”, which supports the idea that when a student is internally motivated,
their engagement and commitment to their learning is heightened (Conley & French, 2014).
Finally, he also expressed self-efficacy and self-confidence shown in his comment “So you have
to have that mindset, being focused and on-task every day, and get in all your work”, which is a
student’s ability to develop self-confidence from previous or current experience that is directly
correlated with their self-efficacy when confronted when completing complex or challenging
academic tasks (Conley & French, 2014). This finding is also significant because it showed his
understanding of educational cultural capital pertaining to essential elements like non-cognitive
skills needed for college academic readiness.
Similarly, to Ronald, Sarah discussed her perceived understanding of what it meant to be
college ready through cognitive and non-cognitive definitions of college-readiness. She
specifically highlighted academic skills (cognitive skills) needed be successful. Sarah stated,
To be able to write an essay, to be able to write a five-page essay, or seven-page essay,
and not be able to stress, and be able to maintain your time through those essays, or be
able to maintain or read a 500-page book in two weeks, be able to just manage your time
wisely, is like the common things. Just take your time wisely, I guess. That’s what I think
(INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
Her response indicated that time management was important to be ready for college. This data
point suggested that she had an understanding that managing her time in college was essential in
her preparation. This was also an example of showing her understanding of educational cultural
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 80
capital. In her discussion, Sarah highlighted key cognitive learning skills and techniques, such as
academic writing and reading, which revealed her perception that taking ownership of her
learning and self-regulating behaviors would lead to becoming an effective learner, also a
definition of college academic readiness (Conley & French, 2014). She took ownership of her
learning by effectively managing her time in all her required course work.
Sarah explained that to be prepared for college she had to be able to write lengthy essays
and to read long books in short periods of time. With regards to her understanding of college
academic readiness, she also talked about the struggles she faced in her college English class,
specifically the skills she lacked to be able to effectively write essays and read books. She stated,
For reading, I can’t read a lot of big words, and I get really scared when I see how much
pages I have to read because I never had to in high school. I think that’s my weakness. I
doubt myself. Then, when it comes to writing, I don’t have the professional way to write
to a professor, so I would write if I were talking to my friend. “Oh, how you been? How
you doing?” Not like, “How have you been passing ... “I write like if I was writing to my
friend. I don't think I write professional. I think that’s my weaknesses in writing and
reading (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
Sarah demonstrated a lack of self-efficacy and self-confidence when she was confronted with
completing complex or challenging tasks like reading long books, understanding vocabulary, and
writing according to her “professionally” (Conley & French, 2014) when she stated, “I doubt
myself.” Her comment about not writing “professionally” is also an example of her lack of
educational cultural capital in the context of not knowing how to write at college level. It also
shed light on answering the research question that there is a relationship between the
participants’ understanding of educational cultural capital and college academic readiness.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 81
Furthermore, she felt that she was unprepared to read extensively in her college English class
when she stated that she could not read big words and would shy away from reading lengthy
books because she had not experienced that as a high school student. This data point was another
example of Sarah not having educational cultural capital because she lacked the cognitive skills
because she did not acquire them while in high school. It further reassures the correlation
between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness.
Andy discussed his perception of college academic readiness through cognitive skills. For
example, he explained it was important to have certain content and learning skills (Conley &
French, 2014) that were needed to be academically ready for college. For example, he discussed
the importance enrolling and succeeding in a college-level or transfer-level course.
Andy discussed his understanding of college academic readiness by stating,
For me, to be college-ready, it means that you’re ready to take on like your general ed.
classes so English, your college-level math, and like you’re going to take them, and
you’re comfortable in them, and like you know you’re going to pass them
(INT/ANDY/10/10/2017).
Andy’s definition of what it meant to be prepared for college emphasized Porter & Polikoff’s
(2012) definition that college readiness focuses on a student’s level of preparation, necessary to
enroll and successfully pass without remediation in general education credit-bearing courses.
This was also similar to Sarah’s experience because she claimed that she lacked communication
and literacy skills in terms of reading and writing. Andy, who was also enrolled in
developmental English, understood that if students are not prepared to take college-level general
education courses, they must take developmental courses to help prepare them for that college. In
describing that aspect, he recounted, “I feel like if the student doesn’t … like if they feel that
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 82
they’re not ready for those classes, they could use those tools, those classes to get ready for
college-level coursework” (INT/ANDY/10/10/2017). Andy’s understanding of college academic
readiness was presented in the context of enrolling in general education courses and passing
them.
Other participants, such as Samuel, found that college academic readiness had to do with
a student’s past academic experience in terms of what they learned and how they learned. For
example, he claimed,
I have to be patient. I have to really break down and understand what the teacher is telling
me to do and really use what I know, what I’ve learned from past teachers to understand
what my teacher now is talking to me about (INT/SAMUEL/10/10/2017).
He continued by stating, “... if I don't understand…just to ask questions and really break it down,
so that way, one person can understand it” (INT/SAMUEL/10/10/2017). Samuel and other
students commented by stressing necessary non-cognitive skills needed to be successful in
college (Conley & French, 2014). For example, he demonstrated meta-cognition and self-
monitoring when he stated that he had to be “patient” to understand what he was taught. That is
an example of a non-cognitive skills pertaining to college academic readiness, where Samuel was
taking ownership of his learning environment (Conley & French, 2014). Furthermore, Samuel
also demonstrated another aspect of ownership learning, meta-cognition and self-monitoring,
which argues a student’s control over their own learning. It involves checking, verifying, and
correcting one’s performance during a learning task or while communicating (Conley & French,
2014). He did this by stating “I have to really break down and understand what the teacher is
telling me…” (INT/SAMUEL/10/10/2017). By sharing that he did not understand something,
Samuel was self-evaluating what he needed to do by taking decisive action of correcting the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 83
circumstance by asking the teacher a question. This connects to educational cultural capital
because it reflected Samuel’s ability to actively engage himself in the learning process. He
provided examples of what he did in the learning environment constituting to his understanding
of educational cultural capital and its role in college academic readiness.
Jorge explained his understanding of college academic readiness. Similarly, to Sarah, he
discussed that students must have reading skills and a positive mindset to complete assignments
and to be prepared for college. He stated,
I think one of the most important skills would be to at least to know how to read and have
like a positive mindset of what to do and how things would help you reading first of all.
It’s because you pretty much have to read everything or at least listen to it and having a
positive mindset. If you have a positive mindset, you pretty much can-do things more
easily … Basically, if you have a positive mindset, you can pretty much just do things
more clearly and it helps you because if you’re always thinking negative and thinking
that you can’t do it, then you’re going become depressed. You’re going to start believing
that you can’t do it, but if you have a positive mindset, you know you can do it. If you
try, at least you tried (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
Jorge discussed that there are necessary skills needed to be ready for college. For example, he
discussed one of those cognitive skills in reading. He claimed he lacked the ability to read and
understand the material, making it difficult to be ready for college academically. According to
him, “…I think one of the most important skills would be to at least to know how to read”
(INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). Unlike Sarah, who stated she had yet to learn how to read lengthy
books, Jorge believed that reading generally was an important skill he needed to be prepared for
college. In this respect, Jorge positioned reading comprehension as vital to content knowledge.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 84
Lacking that skill is also an example that he lacked educational cultural capital in the context of
readings skills needed. Moreover, Jorge explained that students must have a “positive mindset”
to be ready to meet the challenges of college. He argued that a positive mindset leads to college
preparation in the form of developing confidence and the ability to complete tasks. On the other
hand, he also presented that a “negative mindset” impacts self-efficacy and self-confidence
(Conley & French, 2014), indicating his understanding of college readiness as a non-cognitive
skill.
Jorge’s understanding aligned to another component of ownership learning, self-efficacy
and self-confidence when he stated, “…if you’re always thinking negative and thinking that you
can’t do it, then you’re going become depressed. You’re going to start believing that you can’t
do it, but if you have a positive mindset, you know you can do it. If you try, at least you tried”
(INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). Developing self-confidence is directly correlated with self-efficacy
when confronted with completing complex or challenging academic tasks (Conley & French,
2014). Mindset is important in the context of college academic readiness; however, it is vital that
First-generation community college minoritized students develop necessary skills like reading
per Jorge’s discussion to be prepared for college.
Jorge followed up by talking about the struggles he faced with reading, a key component
according to him needed for preparation for college. He stated, “To me one of the biggest
weakness I have is reading…I have difficulty in reading big words and understanding major
points of a story a skill that I need to improve for college” (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). Jorge
expressed his understanding of college readiness by having reading skills, which he claimed he
lacked. This is also an example of Jorge demonstrating that he had not fully developed an
understanding of educational cultural capital because he lacked key content knowledge, an
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 85
example of cognitive skill he needed to be ready. It also further emphasized a relationship
between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness.
Participants’ responses revealed a variety of key points important when discussing
college academic readiness of First-generation community college minoritized students enrolled
in developmental English courses. The participants demonstrated their perceptions that cognitive
and non-cognitive components of college academic readiness were essential in their
understanding. Furthermore, all participants commented that ownership learning was a
component of college academic readiness, as discussed per Conley & French (2014). All
“owned” their learning differently, which is also important in the academic support systems that
are available for them. In other words, a “one size fits all” support system is not effective since
they were at different levels. Finally, some of the participants also expressed learning moments
in developing an understanding of educational cultural capital in the context of college academic
readiness. For example, Sarah realized that if students do not show up to class in college, then
students could be dropped from their courses. This is an example of educational cultural capital
of knowing the expectations of “being a student” that I will discuss in one of the following
sections.
Institutional Readiness
One of the major findings was the participants’ lack of educational cultural capital in the
context of their understanding of the purpose of the institution’s required English placement test
and an understanding of English remediation. When placing incoming RCC participants in their
math and English classes, all had to take both a math and English test. One of the assessment
tools RCC utilized when placing students in their math and English courses was the outcome of
these exams. All participants were enrolled in both developmental reading and writing courses.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 86
All participants were unfamiliar as to why they had to take the placement test. Furthermore, the
participants also commented that minimal information was provided by both their high school
and community college staff and faculty about the purpose and effects of the placement test This
section reports on the lack of educational cultural capital of the participants through the lens of
not having an understanding of the English placement test (educational cultural capital) and its
effects in not passing (English remediation).
Ronald recounted his experience with high school staff when taking the English
placement and explained that the test “judges” a student’s abilities. In addition, he also
commented on his lack of understanding of the English placement test because no one explained
to him why he had to take the test. He stated,
They’re pre-judging you. Basically, on your scores, they’re judging you… They didn’t
really mention it. All they said was, you’re going to take a test, I just told them that I was
going to take the two years of my associate degree and they just placed me in that class.
They really didn’t specify what it was for. They just placed me in all the classes. They
didn’t really explain that much (INT/RONALD/10/26/2017).
Ronald’s experience of not understanding why he was taking the test put him at a disadvantage
because he lacked educational cultural capital, leading to his enrollment in developmental
English courses upon arriving at RCC. In addition, there was lack of communication between the
staff and participants at both the community college and the high school about the purpose of the
test. This disconnect between the institution and the participants revealed an opportunity gap
because the institution failed to help develop the participants’ an understanding of the English
placement test and its affects. This example also addressed the research question, in that there is
a relationship between educational cultural capital and the participants’ understanding of what it
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 87
meant to be prepared for college in the context of English remediation. For example, Ronald did
not know what the purpose of the placement test was. This is an example of his lack of
educational cultural capital. Enrolling in developmental English demonstrated his lack of
academic readiness to enroll in a credit-bearing or transfer-level English course. This is a key
component in the scholarly debate on definitions of college academic readiness (Porter &
Polikoff, 2012). Furthermore, this example also highlighted Ronald’s lack of cognitive academic
preparation because he was not able to successfully pass the content components (reading and
writing) of the English placement test. Finally, not having knowledge about the purpose of the
placement test also represented his lack of understanding of the affects leading to English
remediation.
Jorge felt that upon taking the test, he was pre-judged, knowing that once he enrolled in
college he would need to take classes that would help prepare him to enroll in college-level math
and English classes regardless of the outcome of the placement test. He also expressed a lack of
understanding as to why he had to take the placement test. Jorge stated,
I didn’t really understand. When I was about to take the placement test, someone told me
that there’s really no wrong or right answer. You take the test to show you where you are
and where you stand right now. It’s fine if you fail, but when you go to college, you’re
going to take a class that’s going to help you get better from where you are right now.
That’s what they told me (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
Similarly, to Ronald, Jorge lacked educational cultural capital in his lack of understanding of the
purpose of the English placement test when he stated, “I didn’t really understand”. However,
both experienced an understanding that they would be enrolled in developmental courses because
they were “pre-judged” and it was okay to fail. According to the literature, the lack of the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 88
cultural capital needed to understand “hidden codes” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997) contribute to the
disproportionate gap of these students placed in English remediation. Jorge was not prepared to
understand the “hidden code” of knowing what the purpose of the assessment was and what the
effects of the test would be if he did not do well on it. He stated that he did not know anything
prior to taking the test. In this example, Ronald and Jorge failed to understand the important
components of the English assessment, thus their lack of educational cultural capital. If not
passed down from the family, then many First-generation community college minoritized
participants like Ronald and Jorge lack educational cultural capital, a critical component of
college academic readiness (Collier & Morgan, 2008). This example helps answer the research
question because it proved that having an understanding or having developed educational
cultural capital was important in understanding placement testing and remediation.
Other participants also commented on their lack of understanding of the English
placement test by expressing their lack of knowledge and concerns about the insignificance of
taking the placement test. Alexandra stated, “I just think, well I don’t really understand that test.
I mean I don’t know how they base those questions to what level you are…There’s no reason for
that test. I just find no meaning to it” (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/3/2017). Alexandra’s experience
further highlighted the problem that many First-generation community college minoritized
participants encountered, a lack of understanding of the placement test. Not only did Alexandra
not understand why she took the test, she also expressed concern about the ineffectiveness of the
assessment when she stated “…I mean I don’t know how they base those questions to what level
you are…There’s no reason for that test. I just find no meaning to it”
(INT/ALEXANDRA/10/3/2017). This is another example of her lack of educational cultural
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 89
capital because she could not make meaning of the significance of taking a placement test, and
what that would show her community college regarding her preparation in English.
Steven explained his understanding of college academic readiness and English
remediation by commenting that he did not know the affects and the purpose of taking the test.
Furthermore, he commented on his preparation for college through his English performance. He
stated,
I had no idea why I had to take that test. No one explained anything. I felt lost when I was
told to take the test, because I really didn’t know. The test told me how I wasn’t ready for
college. That I wasn’t ready for learning English. I thought I was okay, but then the test
told me I was far below. I need to work on it. I was also told how far below basic I was at
the time and needed to take special English classes (INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017).
Steven’s experience similarly to the other participants further demonstrated his lack of
educational cultural capital because according to him, he felt “lost” when he was told that he had
to take the test. He showed no understanding of what the process entailed regarding the English
placement test. In addition, he received no information as to why he was taking the assessment
when he commented, “No one explained anything”. He realized that his preparation in English
was not at par with the expectations of the assessment. As a result of his lack of educational
cultural capital, according to him, it also impacted his cognitive skills. For instance, he talked
about key content skills in English that he was not prepared for entering community college.
Seven’s experience connects to the scholarly debates on educational cultural which is needed to
understand theses “hidden codes” similar to Jorge who also did not understand (Stanton-Salazar,
1997). Furthermore, Steven did not know why he had to take the placement test and what the
effects of the exam would be on the courses he would take upon enrolling in college.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 90
Karol had no understanding as to the purpose of the placement test and about English
remediation. She explained, “I don’t know. That’s a good question, now that you said that. I
don’t really know” (INT/KAROL/10/2017). This finding connects back to her lack of
understanding of the English assessment and her lack of understanding as to why she was
enrolled in developmental English. She did not experience feeling bad about her position, rather
she demonstrated a lack of knowledge as to why she had to take the test and what the outcome of
the test might entail. All of these were examples that address the research question. There was a
relationship between educational cultural capital and the participants understanding of English
remediation. The participants showed a lack of understanding of the English placement test
(educational cultural capital) and they also lacked an understanding of the affects or outcome of
not passing the assessment leading to English remediation.
Bethany recounted her experience regarding her lack of not knowing why she had to take
the placement test. She explained that she was not prepared to take the test and did not realize the
affects it would have as she entered community college. She stated,
I didn’t know why I had to take a test to go into college. I was not prepared to take the
test because it happened a month before school started. They called me and said you have
to take this test in math and English to start school. My two worst subjects in high school
was math and English so I felt unprepared. I wish I knew that I had to take the test, now I
am below transfer-level math and English (INT/BETHANY/10/5/2017).
This data demonstrated two things: one, Bethany lacked educational cultural capital because she
did not know that she had to take a placement test before starting college. Two, she felt
unprepared for her classes, impacting her academic success long term. As a result, she was
enrolled in basic-skills English courses. According to the literature, if information and the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 91
nuances of college preparation are not passed down from the family, then many students like
First-generation community college minoritized participants will lack educational cultural
capital, a critical component of college academic readiness (Collier & Morgan, 2008). Bethany’s
comment of “I wish I knew I had to take a test” connects to her lack of educational cultural
capital and her lack of cognitive academic skills need for preparation in English. In addition, it
also demonstrated the institutions’ failure to effectively communicate to its participants the
purpose and effects of the assessment. Furthermore, the missed opportunity of having gained
educational cultural capital led to her missed opportunity in doing well on the assessment and
enrolling in a transfer-level English class. There was lack of familiarity about the nuances of
college from the family to have helped Bethany develop educational cultural capital.
The findings in this section revealed the participants’ lack of educational cultural capital
in the context of their lack of knowledge with the purpose and effects of the English placement
test. Furthermore, the data also presented a disconnect regarding the inability of institutions to
effectively convey the message of the purpose and effects of the assessment. Furthermore, it also
revealed cases where participants lacked cognitive skills in English, as an example, reading and
writing skills. Finally, this data sheds light on issues of equity and opportunity gaps for many
First-generation community college minoritized students who are disproportionately enrolled in
developmental education.
Academic Rigor and Expectations
When addressing opportunity gaps in urban education in the light of college academic
readiness of First-generation minoritized students, a major scholarly debate is the disconnect
between high schools and community colleges, impacting students’ preparation for college. A
major finding was the lack of rigor in the participants’ high schools, leading to having trouble in
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 92
meeting the academic expectations of their college professors. This finding addressed the
research question about college academic readiness in the context of participants’ understanding
and experience with college academic preparation in their high schools as they transitioned into
community college. Participants understanding for those subjects changed upon their arrival to
RCC due to their lack of readiness.
The participants were affected by the increased academic rigor of college upon their
arrival. All twelve participants commented on adjustments they had to make upon their arrival to
community college. They also commented on their high school academic experience, remarking
on the inability of their high school English classes preparing them for the challenges of their
college English class. This section reports on the academic rigor and expectations while in high
school were not met for the participants. The effects of not meeting their expectations impacted
their readiness academically and non-academically for college. Furthermore, it also hindered
their ability to develop cognitive and non-cognitive skills prior to enrolling in college.
For example, Alexandra commented on the inability of her high school English teachers
in preparing her for specific formatting styles like MLA. Moreover, she expressed concern that
high school was supposed to prepare her for college; rather she explained how she struggled to
learn at RCC. She stated,
In high school they really didn’t care if you did it in a certain format like MLA. I wasn’t
taught that in high school. I was at some point, but it was just when it was actually
needed. Just when we were going to do an essay, but they really didn’t care about it. It
was nothing important for them because they said that’s for college, but if high school
has to help you get into the college level, they didn’t take the time to show us how to do
that. I think people who went to the same school I went to are having difficulty to see that
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 93
because they were so used to not being assigned things like that and now they do in
college (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/2017).
This data presented a disconnect between the high school and the community college because
Alexandra felt that a lot of what she was learning in college was not taught in high school. For
example, she talked about her unfamiliarity with MLA formatting. This is also an example of her
lack of preparation with cognitive skills. For instance, due to the disconnect and her lack of
preparation, she experienced a lack of key transition knowledge and skills (Conley & French,
2014) needed to be prepared. According to her, “… but they really didn’t care about it. It was
nothing important for them because they said that’s for college…”
(INT/ALEXANDRA/10/2017). It also is an example of her lack of understanding and
development of educational cultural capital. Her perception was that high school was supposed
to help prepare her for college but realized upon her arrival that she missed the opportunity to
further develop her cognitive skills while in high school needed for college. For example, when
she stated, “…but if high school has to help you get into the college level, they didn’t take the
time to show us how to do that” (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/2017). This data also demonstrated
opportunity gaps and inequity resulting from educational deficiencies within the educational
system, impacting Alexandra’s preparation for college specifically when she commented “…but
they really didn’t care about it” (Carter & Welner, 2013). In her experience, teachers did not care
to fully enhance educational opportunities that would further develop important cognitive skills
and educational cultural capital, which would have led to an understanding or development of
educational cultural capital, a key component of college academic readiness.
Sarah discussed her academic experience in her high school English class was ineffective
due to the lack of practice with writing papers and the minimal reading she encountered.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 94
According to her, she had to adjust as a college student because she did not experience the
amount of high level of work she encountered in college as a high school student. She stated,
I feel like my high school English class now looking back at it they would just show
videos of what we read. We would read a book, but we wouldn’t read it. They would put
the audio book, and they would read it to us, and we would just take notes. After we were
done, we watched the movie of “The Great Gatsby”. I didn’t feel like I actually read the
book because they were reading it for us. Everyone was just all bored sitting down, and
the machine was just going on. That’s mostly it. I know we would do a lot of quick writes
but not like we do here. I know here we bring out a quote and we talk about the quote. In
high school we never did that. We watched a lot of videos. I think it was more videos
than the reading. It was ridiculous (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
Sarah found that her high school English class lacked academic rigor because according to her,
she was not asked to read, and she was not challenged. This affected her ability to develop her
academic preparation. For example, cognitive skills that would have helped her understand key
content knowledge and skills needed for reading comprehension. According to her, “We watched
a lot of videos. I think it was more videos than the reading. It was ridiculous”
(INT/SARAH/9/28/2017). She also found that they had little experience with the ample
assignments they had in college as opposed to when she was in high school.
Similarly, to Sarah, Andy expressed his concern for the lack of academic rigor he
encountered in high school. For instance, he talked about the limited opportunities he had to read
because it was not stressed as often. He also talked about the high expectations his college
professors had. He claimed,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 95
Something that could have been done differently is definitely the reading. Back in high
school, they just say, “Okay, read this chapter,” and then next class, they’ll skip right to
the next chapter. Opposed to here, if you don’t read a chapter, you’ll fall behind. In high
school, it’s really easy to catch up, so I feel like high school should enforce the whole
assignments, “Okay. Read these chapters, and you need to have them done by tomorrow
so you won’t be behind,” because opposed to college, it’s quite different
(INT/ANDY/10/10/2017).
This data is important because it showed Andy’s lack of preparation for college was impacted by
the minimal work he had in high school. He explained that because he did not have to do a lot of
reading, he struggled keeping up with his readings in college. This is an example of a non-
cognitive skill that Andy lacked in terms of goal orientation and self-direction. Due to his lack of
experience with reading, he had a difficult time in self-directing and setting goals with the
frequent reading he encountered. This data also indicated that he lacked educational cultural
capital because he did not know the effects of not reading a lot in high school would be when he
entered college. Keeping up in high school was never a problem because according to him, he
felt that high school teachers did not enforce or keep students accountable for their assignments.
Keeping students accountable was one thing he wished his high school teachers could have done
differently. This presented a disconnect in terms of the academic rigor and expectations between
high schools and community colleges. Furthermore, this data also sheds light on the growing
scholarly debate of opportunity gaps of First-generation minoritized community college students.
According to Milner (2012) the importance of framing inequity in educational outcomes as gaps
in opportunities, not achievement. He suggests color blindness, cultural conflicts, meritocracy,
deficit mindsets, low expectations, and neutral mindset and practices as contributing to the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 96
opportunity gaps, all of which impact First-generation minoritized students. In the above
examples, color blindness can be attributed to the disconnect, which neglects to recognize a
student’s racial identity, background, and experiences in shaping curriculum and instructional
practices (Milner, 2012). Effective and inclusive instructional practices for high school teachers
are critical in helping to close opportunity gaps especially for First-generation minoritized
students when preparing for college. Both Andy and Sarah’s high school teachers failed to
effectively develop an alignment of their curriculum and teaching methodologies that would help
academically prepare their students.
Bethany found that her most difficult class at RCC was English. Even though it was a
developmental course, she encountered challenges in managing her time with the amount of
work she was assigned. Similarly, to Andy, she also lacked non-cognitive skills specifically goal
orientation and self-direction (Conley & French, 2014). Bethany discussed that in college the
expectation to write more in shorter periods of time occurred often then what was used to while
in high school. She explained,
I think maybe if we had a shorter time to write something in high school, it would have
helped me now because in college, we only have like a certain time limit to write a
certain essay, but in high school I had like the whole month to write an essay. So, I think
time would have been better. I think it’s hard because I have to manage my time a little
bit more, and I have to remember when my assignments are due, because after they’re
due, I can’t turn them in. So, I have trouble with that this semester
(INT/BETHANY/10/5/2017).
Bethany realized that while in high school she had more time to complete assignments and turn
papers in. While in college, she struggled with managing her time because the expectation to turn
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 97
in papers occurred earlier and quite frequently. As a result of time management issues, Bethany
experienced a major difficulty in keeping up with deadlines she had to meet for her classes. Time
management is another example of a non-cognitive skill that Bethany had not developed in the
context of college academic readiness. This data also demonstrated Bethany’s lack of
understanding and development of educational cultural capital because she had no prior
experience to develop that as a high school student.
These examples addressed the participants’ understanding and experience with college
academic preparation specifically their perception of the academic rigor and expectations in
comparison to high school and the community college. According to the literature, part of the
problem of this disconnect of academic rigor and expectations is that the high school and
community college systems operate with different fiduciary responsibilities, instructional
strategies, capacity and data which contribute to the disconnect in the context of the academic
rigor and expectations of their students (Vargas & Venezia, 2015).
Karol discussed that high school did not prepare her for college. She felt that the failure
in preparation resulted from her assignments while in high school. She claimed that most of the
work did not connect to the subject matter she was taught. It was rather busy work. Furthermore,
she explained that as a junior and senior, she was not writing papers rather she was assigned fill
in the blank packets that were due one week after they were assigned. Karol expressed frustration
in her high schools’ inability to prepare her for college. She stated,
No. If I’m being completely honest, high school doesn’t prepare you for college. The way
I see it, I don’t think it does…Well, my senior year, many times she gave us packets, and
we had to do it, “Okay, annotate this,” and, “annotate that,” and then… She would post
assignments on Google and we would just have to go and answer them there. She would
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 98
give us a week to do it. She would give us a packet a week. She would give it to us
Monday. She would be like, “It’s due Friday at midnight,” or something. She would just
give us questions, and we would just answer. My junior year, we really didn’t do essays
and my senior year we didn’t do essays. Personally, I don’t think they taught us anything,
and I know that’s what a lot of students thought as well, because everyone was like, “Oh,
let me copy your packet, let me copy your packet.” I don’t think there was really much to
learn. I remember one packet, it was literally talking about food choices, in an English
class, which I thought ... There was no point of it, the way I saw it. It was packets about
food choices… (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
Due to the disconnect between the high school and the community college in the context of the
academic rigor, Karol expressed what she hoped her high school English teachers could have
done better in preparing her as she transitioned to the community college. Like Andy’s example
earlier, ineffective instructional practice in the context of color blindness on behalf of faculty and
staff at local high school districts lead to inequity and opportunity gaps especially for First-
generation minoritized students. For example, when she stated, “Personally, I don’t think they
taught us anything, and I know that’s what a lot of students thought as
well…”(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017) emphasized the high school’s inability to help participants
like Karol to develop cognitive skills (writing essays in high school) and non-skills skills
(managing her time) as she transitioned into the community college. As result of not writing
enough in high school, Karol is struggling to write papers in her English class. She explained,
I think way more practice on essays. I think that could have been a big one, because
we’re going be doing an essay in one of my English classes, and I already don’t even
know what to do. It’s already so confusing. I think essays could have been a really, really
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 99
big one… We now have to go look for our sources. In high school, that was never the
case. They would give us our sources and be like, “Okay, choose which one you want to
use.” But we have to go out of our way to look for sources and articles, and I think that is
harder. In high school, everything is just given to you” (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
Karol’s comment about the difficulty she experienced with navigating and finding resources is
attributed to the lack of educational cultural capital and the lack of preparation from high school.
According to her, she never developed an understanding researching as a high school student
because she was provided all the resources without having to learn the process of how to do it on
her own. This is an example of her lack of educational cultural capital as well lacking key
cognitive skills such as key transition knowledge and skills as a college student (Conley &
French, 2014). She also missed key content knowledge and an understanding of the contents
presented (Conley & French, 2014) when she stated, “…we’re going be doing an essay in one of
my English classes, and I already don’t even know what to do. It’s already so confusing”
(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017). This data emphasized that educational cultural capital is critical to
the discussion on college academic readiness. These finding sheds light on the correlation
between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness.
Another major disconnect in the findings regarding academic rigor and expectations is
the lack of feedback the participants received on their assignments in their high school English
classes. All participants attributed that with little to no feedback on their papers and assignments,
it impacted their preparation for college because the participants could not improve their
academic skill sets that they were lacking for college academic readiness. Furthermore, some of
the participants commented that they received no feedback on their assignments. All participants
found that none of their high school English teachers provided comprehensive feedback that
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 100
would help them improve their reading and writing skills needed for college. This lack of
feedback is important for this study because it also presents a discussion on the growing debate
of opportunity gaps that exists in urban education.
Steven recounted that he received unhelpful feedback in his high school English classes.
He discussed that his teachers did not explain what he could have done better to improve his
work. This led him to struggle in his developmental English class because the expectation of his
professor was much higher, and he claimed he was not up to speed with important aspects of
writing argumentative papers, as one example. He stated,
Some of the English teachers, not often. They didn’t write down any mistakes I made.
They just put a grade and then that was all I got. And then when I asked her what I did
wrong, she just said, “You did this part wrong, and you did that part wrong.” And then I
asked, “Can you be more specific?” And she said, “Okay. You did not write the sentence
down properly.” Or, “The English was a little wrong.” Or “You put a hyphen where
you’re not supposed to. Your parentheses were a little mixed up.” So it was okay with the
teacher, but some of them didn’t really give me that much of instructions. I also never got
content feedback it seemed like the teachers were only worried about my grammar and
nothing else. That is why I am struggling now to write papers but over here in college
they teach you the instructions on how to write papers. We do a lot of argumentative
papers which I never have done before…I honestly felt my high school English teachers
didn’t care about students like me improving…I say that because there was no time when
the teacher focused on helping me improve my writing skills (INT/ STEVEN/10/5/2017).
Even though Steven received feedback from his high school English teachers, they were focused
on grammar rather than content and he could not write effective and well written papers in
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 101
college. This is an example of his lack of educational cultural capital. According to Steven,
“…but some of them didn’t really give me that much of instructions. I also never got content
feedback…” (INT/ STEVEN/10/5/2017) this led him to struggle in his developmental English
class especially when writing argumentative papers. He claimed he had never written one as a
high school student. This is an example of Steven lacking important cognitive skills to write
papers and it is also an example of the lack of educational cultural capital. For example, he
specifically did not have key content knowledge and key learning skills and techniques needed to
be able to write argumentative papers. Furthermore, Steven’s comment “I honestly felt my high
school English teachers didn’t care about students like me improving…I say that because there
was no time when the teacher focused on helping me improve my writing skills” presents an
example of opportunity gaps that exists among First-generation minoritized community college
students as previously discussed. It pays attention to the deficiencies of foundational components
of societies, schools, and communities that produce significant differences in educational
outcomes. Educational disparities highly correlate with skin color, ethnicity, linguistic, and
social class status (Carter & Welner, 2013). Carter and Welner (2013) argue, “Calling the
persistent achievement disparities between Black and Latino students and White students an
“achievement gap” suggests that something inherent in Black and Latino students, their families,
communities, cultures, schools, and teachers are responsible for the disparities” (p. 13). In
addition, opportunity gaps shift responsibility to structural, institutional, and other factors beyond
the control of the stakeholders most impacted by disparities in educational opportunities.
Scholars like Carter & Welner, also discuss that because of the opportunity gaps that exists
among minoritized students, an educational debt has developed in many of those communities.
Educational debt suggests the inequity that exists in achievement and remedial placement of
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 102
students, who usually come from low-SES backgrounds and or are First-generation compared to
the general non-First-generation, high-SES White and most Asian populations (Carter & Welner,
2013; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2013). In this example, Steven encountered educational
debt because he was placed in a developmental English class because of the lack of preparation
and the little attention he received from his high school English teachers.
Similarly, to the other participants, Andy experienced receiving no feedback. He also
talked about the negative feedback he would receive about all the things he was not doing
correctly. This led to his discouragement to ask for feedback from his teachers. He stated,
You’d turn in the essay, and then like you’ll like find your grade on PowerSchool later
on, and that’s it…Yeah. It was unhelpful because if you were going to get an 80, you
really didn’t know why you got that 80. “What took away that other percentage away?
Why did she take away this percentage away? Was it because my commas are off? Was it
because of my punctuation? Was it because of my grammar? What was it that made that
other 20% go away?” They never told us why. Anytime I would go to get feedback it was
not a good experience I felt discouraged because teachers would tell me all things I was
doing wrong and like it seemed to me there was no way I could do better. It was always
“fix this” you didn’t do it right” “I explained this already” and so I stopped asking after
my junior year (INT/ANDY/10/10/2017).
Andy’s experience is another example of opportunity gaps that exists in urban education. His
comment, “Anytime I would go to get feedback it was not a good experience I felt discouraged
because teachers would tell me all things I was doing wrong and like it seemed to me there was
no way I could do better” presents an example of an institutions’ inability to provide an
opportunity for growth and improvement by providing feedback on how Andy could have
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 103
improved on his work (Carter & Welner, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2013). This
example of feeling “discouraged” affected Andy’s non-cognitive skills that he needed to be
prepared for college. They are motivation and engagement and self-efficacy and self-confidence
(Conley & French, 2014). It also presented a case that Andy was not able to understand or
develop educational cultural capital in the context of knowing how to navigate the educational
system while in high school to get effective feedback on his assignments. Furthermore, another
example of his lack of educational cultural capital was when Andy experienced circumstances of
not knowing how his teachers would grade his assignments. For example, he talked about
receiving grades on assignments and not knowing why he received the grades he did.
Alexandra explained that her high school English teacher’s feedback was unhelpful and
that teachers in high school would rather do her assignments for her rather than provide effective
feedback. She stated,
It was really unhelpful because instead of helping you they would try to do the
assignment for you, so you wouldn’t be asking so much questions, I think. They would
just maybe try to do the assignment for you instead of helping you, and they just
wouldn’t explain the process or the steps, they would just do them. Most of the time on
my essays the teacher would just put a grade at the top of the paper circled and with no
comments in the paper” (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/3/2017).
This data is important because it provides another example regarding Alexandra’s expectations
for feedback on her assignments and the inability of her high school English teachers to have
provided it for her. According to Alexandra, “They would just maybe try to do the assignment
for you instead of helping you, and they just wouldn’t explain the process or the steps, they
would just do them” (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/3/2017). This is a problem because according to
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 104
the literature Latino and African-American students are disproportionately represented in
developmental courses compared to the general White and Asian student population (Chen,
2016). Failing to receive feedback from high school English teachers to help them improve their
skills in reading and writing as one example, could lead to more minoritized students enrolled in
developmental education leading their inability to develop important cognitive and non-cognitive
skills needed to be prepared for college. In addition, it will lead to more opportunity gaps in their
education attainment.
Similarly, to Alexandra, Jorge talked about the lack of feedback he received in his high
school English classes. He realized as a community college student because he did not receive
effective feedback in high school, he felt behind academically compared to others. He stated,
I honestly feel like it was rare for us to get feedback, and if we did, it would honestly just
be a smiley face or a checkmark saying you did something wrong. I guess it was
different, and what we mostly did was, I guess in a sense, simple for them, but not for
some people…It was honestly rare, so when we get a feedback, most students just didn’t
really care. Even me. I didn’t really care if it got feedback or not. Honestly, in my
opinion, it wasn’t really helpful what they would put. Now I am realizing that I’m not at
the level with other students who know certain things about writing papers and I never
knew about because I was never told or got feedback in high school
(INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
The lack of feedback that Jorge received presents an opportunity gap. He felt he was not ready in
certain skill sets in comparison with other students when he stated, “Now I am realizing that I’m
not at the level with other students who know certain things about writing papers and I never
knew about because I was never told or got feedback in high school” (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 105
Similarly, to the other participants, he lacked key content skills and key learning skills and
techniques needed when writing papers in college. Furthermore, as a result his lack of
preparation Jorge also experienced a lack of understanding and development of educational
cultural capital when he talked about needing “to know certain thing about writing papers” that
he did not know or understand.
According to the literature some states have put into place measures that help detect early signs
of low-performance. For example, in a recent study in Florida of two high school districts, Koon
and Petscher (2016), “sought to develop an early warning system to identify students at risk of
low-performance on college readiness in grades 11 or 12 in order to support them with remedial
coursework prior to high school graduation” (p. 1). This would be beneficial for many First-
generation minoritized students.
Sarah talked about how she wished she could have more feedback in high school because
in college she received frequent and often effective feedback that helped in her preparation for
her college classes. She explained,
Getting the feedback, I get right now in college, I wish I would have got that over there in
high school. It’s a big difference. I’m surprised on the feedback I’ve gotten here than
over there. Over there, I was like, “Oh, okay. That sounds good. That sounds right.” Over
here, I gave it to them, and they’re like, “No. That’s not how you do it.” On my MLA
format, they showed me how to do my MLA format, and I got here and I did it, and
they’re like, “No, no, no. That’s not how you’re supposed to do it at all.” I was like, “Oh,
well, that's the way they showed me through all four years of high school on how to do
MLA format…The only time we got feedback was when we did take the tests, and since
it was a multiple choice ... I remember my sophomore year, I did get feedback on those
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 106
quick writes. He would just write, “More information.” When I go up to him, he was like,
“Oh, well, you could do it again and re-write it,” and we're like, “Oh, okay. Just more
information,” but he wouldn’t say, “Okay, you should talk about this, and then go into
following what this.” He never told us how to do it, he just put, “Oh, more information.
Just give more details.” I was like, “Oh, okay” (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
This data is important because it presents a disconnect in the lack of and ineffective feedback she
received as a high school student in her English class. Furthermore, there is a disconnect in
faculty expectations in her college English class, specifically regarding the formatting of her
papers. She alluded in her response that what she was told in high school was different in what
her college English professor expected when formatting papers. She explained, “The only time
we got feedback was when we did take the tests, and since it was a multiple choice ... I
remember my sophomore year, I did get feedback on those quick writes. He would just write,
“More information.” When I go up to him, he was like, “Oh, well, you could do it again and re-
write it….” (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017). Instead of receiving help on how she could improve her
paper, she was asked just to do it again. According to the literature, high schools and community
colleges throughout the country miss the opportunity to collaborate effectively due to the policies
and accountability measures for each system. The high school and community college system
operate with different fiduciary responsibilities, instructional strategies, capacity and data which
contribute to the disconnect (Vargas & Venezia, 2015). This data is significant because it
presented an opportunity gap for First-generation participants. It hindered Sarah’s opportunity to
understand and improve the technical skills with regards to her to writing papers.
This section presented a discussion on the ongoing problem of college academic
readiness of First-generation minoritized community college students in the context of the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 107
academic rigor and expectations not met for the participants upon their arrival to the community
college. All participants commented on the inability of their high schools preparing them for
college specially with regards to the differences in academic rigor and expectations in high
school and community college. They recounted the lack or no feedback on their assignments and
the lack of curriculum alignment specifically in their high English classes. All participants also
lacked key cognitive and non-cognitive skills needed for college academic readiness. In addition,
the lack of educational cultural capital and the lack of preparedness for college is attributed to
opportunity gaps and inequity that exists in urban education.
Developing into a College Academic Student
A student’s understanding of the “college student role” is an important component
regarding a student’s preparedness and success at a college or university (Collier & Morgan,
2008). A major aspect of educational cultural capital is the concept of understanding the “college
student role” and “roles as resources”, which is a student’s mastery or readiness of the college
role. According to Collier & Morgan (2008), roles as resources, “serve as resources that
individuals use to pursue their goals through interaction with others” (p. 427). Students who gain
educational cultural capital and come into college with the understanding of the role of a college
student, then he or she will recognize the realities of being a college student. This discussion also
correlates with key cognitive and non-cognitive definitions of college academic readiness. For
example, key transition knowledge and skills (cognitive) or meta-cognition and self-monitoring
(non-cognitive) are vital skills needed to also develop an understanding for educational cultural
capital. This is important because it further emphasizes that there is a relationship between
educational cultural capital and definitions of college academic readiness. For example, many of
the participants commented on the notion of being focused or the need to manage their time
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 108
better. All participants commented on adjustments they had to make while in college. For
example, some talked about the importance of having more academic engagement with their
professors (an aspect of a non-cognitive skill, motivation and engagement), as an example going
to office hours and asking questions when they did not understand something. All the
participants discussed the process of developing into a college academic student. By developing
into a college academic student, the findings in this section also enabled many of the participants
as further develop and understanding of educational cultural capital. This section discusses the
process of developing into a college student. According to the participants, it was a challenging
process. For instance, as a result of not having developed an understanding of educational
cultural capital, the participants had a difficult time adjusting to college. For example, Ronald
discussed the challenges she faced transitioning from a high school to college student. He
recounted issues with time management, organization, becoming more engaged academically
with his peers and professors. He stated,
And in college, the transition is much harder. You have to be more focused and actually
do your work and turn in the assignments, because if you don’t do it, you don’t get a
second chance. It’s done. So with that, you have to be more involved with your classes
and be talking more with your classmates and with the professor, to be able to achieve the
knowledge that you need and the help that you need to get… Yeah, well an adjustment I
had to make, I have to make a schedule. That’s one of them. Organizing my time and
writing down what I have to do every specific day and keeping to that tracking my time
and everything. Another adjustment is I had to be more focused and be more open-
minded, asking for the ideas of others, their opinions, and asking for the idea of the
profession, what she thinks about (INT/RONALD/9/26/2017).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 109
Ronald shared important data on what it took for him to develop into a college academic student
and necessary adjustments he made in doing so. As a First-generation community college
participant, he found the transition into a college academic student was a difficult process
adjusting to. He demonstrated an understanding that developing into a college academic student
consisted of managing his time and preparing a daily schedule. These are examples of non-
cognitive skills (goal orientation and self-direction and meta-cognition and self- monitoring)
(Conley & French, 2014). This is something he had to get used to while in college. Furthermore,
he talked about the importance of seeking out help when necessary, vital to an understanding and
development of educational cultural capital. According to Ronald, “…you have to be more
involved with your classes and be talking more with your classmates and with the professor, to
be able to achieve the knowledge that you need and the help that you need to get…”
(INT/RONALD/9/26/2017). With these comments, Ronald demonstrated that to be a successful
college academic student, it was important for him to actively be involved in the academic
process through his engagement. This showed his understanding of a non-cognitive skill
(motivation and engagement) (Conley & French, 2014). In doing so, he also took ownership of
his learning, a key component of a non-cognitive skill needed for college academic readiness. In
addition, Ronald’s comment, “You have to be more focused and actually do your work and turn
in the assignments, because if you don’t do it, you don’t get a second chance. It’s done”
(INT/RONALD/9/26/2017) presents his understanding that students who fail to stay on task with
their assignments and workload can lead to negative consequences like failing a course and
possibly leading to college retention. This data presented Ronald’s understanding and
development of educational cultural capital because he realized the nuances of becoming a
college academic student through his non-cognitive skills. This finding also presented a
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 110
relationship between Ronald’s understanding of educational cultural capital (how to become a
college student) and his understanding of college academic readiness (non-cognitive
aforementioned). Even though this study does not address college retention or persistence, this
data point is important to this study because it also sheds light on the growing scholarly debates
of college academic readiness with specific focus on considering cognitive and non-cognitive
and ownership learning definitions of college academic readiness as previously discussed
(Conley & French, 2014). Conley & French (2014) also include persistence as a fifth component
of ownership learning.
Similarly, to Ronald, Jorge recounted his experience of developing into a college
academic student by discussing the importance of having a positive mindset, being open-minded,
and more engaged as he transitioned from a high school to college student, which he attributed to
his surroundings of mature students in college. He explained,
Pretty much my whole mindset has shifted. I used to have a fixed mindset, so if I failed
something, I would give up. That’s what I used to think, but you pretty much can’t give
up here in college. You have to try your hardest and like get good grades because you’re
not paying for nothing. I feel like my whole perspective has changed, and I’m more
engaged in things. All that I can think of right now is that people are mature here in
college and it has helped me become a college student I think because in high school
everyone is pretty much immature (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
Developing a positive mindset led Jorge to be more engaged in college, which is an important
non-cognitive skill needed for college academic readiness (motivation and engagement) (Conley
& French, 2014). He also presented an understanding of key transition knowledge (Conley &
French, 2014) when he stated, “I feel like my whole perspective has changed, and I’m more
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 111
engaged in things. All that I can think of right now is that people are mature here in college and
it has helped me become a college student I think because in high school everyone is pretty much
immature” (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). In doing so, he was able to understand the culture of
college and role of a college student (educational cultural capital) by identifying the difference
between high school and college. He noticed the difference in the environment he was in and the
people he was engaged with like his peers (Conley & French, 2014).
Jorge noticed that another important element needed in the development of a college
academic student is taking advantage of a professor’s office hours. In addition, he also talked
about the importance of managing college stress through time management. This was an
adjustment he had to make. He stated,
I always just put my work off to the last minute, but now in college, as soon as I get
home, I work on it or at least do half of it, so I don’t stress out in the future because in
college, you’re stressed a lot, and it’s really helpful if there’s not that much stress in your
life. I also try to go to my professor’s office hours when I need help and ask questions in
class. A lot of classmates told me that going to office hours and asking questions in class
would help me in my college experience (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
In this example, Jorge began to develop role mastery, an important aspect of becoming a college
academic student through his understanding of key transition knowledge and skills (also
educational cultural capital) (Conley & French, 2014). This presented another correlation
between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness. He developed role mastery
by recognizing and understanding the importance of taking advantage of his professor’s office
hours and also learning to adjust to time when completing his assignments. Furthermore,
according to the literature, it is a vital component of a students’ understanding and development
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 112
of educational cultural capital. Role mastery is the “the ability to perform increasingly
customized or context-specific versions of a particular role” (Collier & Morgan, 2008, p. 427).
Similarly, to the previous participants, Sarah discussed becoming a college academic
student through her many obligations she had as a college student compared to a high school
academic student. Sarah talked about the added responsibility because his workload increased in
comparison to her years as a high school academic student. She stated,
I feel like I gained a lot of responsibility from senior year to now in college. I feel I have
more obligations, a lot more homework ... In high school, it was like, “Okay. I’ll do my
work tomorrow,” then college, you really have to manage your time! It’s crazy. They
give you essays, they give you books to read on your own. It’s not high school where you
listen to the books on an everyday basis. It’s up to you if you pass it or not. At the end of
the day, you’re the one who’s paying for your classes…. I had to read 50 pages in one
night, and my mom was like, “Sarah, you’re different.” I was like, “How?” She was like,
“You never used to read books in high school!” I was like, “No, because in high school,
we just used to listen to them.” Over here I’m actually reading word by word by word
every single book. It changes you a lot, coming into college (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
Sarah demonstrated an understanding that college changed her way of thinking in the context of
her increased engagement with her studies. Academic engagement is an important aspect of
college academic (non-cognitive skill) readiness and according to the findings, it is also
necessary in developing into a college academic student. According to Conley & French (2014)
engagement is a part of “ownership learning”. Motivation and engagement is a student’s
motivation from within to determine a student’s engagement and commitment to their learning
(Conley & French, 2014). For example, Sarah demonstrated all aspects of engagement and
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 113
“ownership learning when she stated, “I feel like I gained a lot of responsibility from senior year
to now in college. I feel I have more obligations, a lot more homework...”
(INT/SARAH/9/28/2017). In addition, she expressed other people like her mother who noticed
her developing responsibility and academic engagement when she noted, “…. I had to read 50
pages in one night, and my mom was like, “Sarah, you’re different.” I was like, “How?” She was
like, “You never used to read books in high school!” I was like, “No, because in high school, we
just used to listen to them” (INT/SARAH/9/28/2017). Sarah blamed her high school in not
helping her develop into a college academic student because everything was done for her
especially when it came to reading books. Sarah and the other participants were developing
“ownership learning” as well as gaining insight on the nuances of a college academic student
(educational cultural capital) through their levels of engagement. This data also addresses the
research question that there is a correlation between educational cultural capital and college
academic readiness. First-generation community college minoritized students through their
academic engagement with other students and their professor overtime become a college
academic student.
Sarah further explained her belief in the importance of attending classes as form of
developing responsibility when transitioning into a college academic student. She claimed that it
was critical in college academic readiness. She explained,
I feel college is such a different vibe. You get to choose if you get to come to class or not.
In high school we don’t get to choose that. By force, you have to go if you want to
graduate. Here, it’s more responsibility. You get a lot more responsibility. You don’t
have people telling you, “Oh, go to class. Oh, do your homework.” Today they just
dropped some kid off my class, and they just straight up told him, “You’re dropped.” I
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 114
felt bad because he wasn’t doing his work, but it's stuff you should be doing if you want
to go to college. Put everything you have to do it. That's what I think
(INT/SARAH/9/28/2017).
Sarah demonstrated key transition knowledge. Not only is this important because it demonstrated
her understanding of college academic readiness through a non-cognitive skill, but key transition
knowledge is also an important component of understanding and developing educational cultural
capital (Conley & French, 2014). Her understanding that if a student developed habits of
regularly not attending class, then it is likely that the student will be dropped. Sarah showed an
understanding of how academics (completing assignments and attending classes) is connected to
personal responsibility, which she believed is an important component to developing into a
college academic readiness.
Diana presented challenges she faced in developing into a college academic student. She
encountered difficulty in navigating and adjusting to developing into a college academic student
because she felt that she did not have the adequate understanding of what she needed to do upon
her arrival. Diana demonstrated lack of educational cultural capital. She stated,
When you’re in college, you’re on your own. You’re pretty much have to look for the
classes yourself. In high school, you get help. You go to the office, you tell them, “I don't
know where my classes are at.” They’ll take you to it. Here, they won’t. You have to do it
yourself. It’s shocking to me. I am having a hard time adjusting to college right now
(INT/DIANA/10/3/2017).
Diana discussed her difficulty navigating through the community college. This presented her
lack of educational cultural capital. She explained that students needed to figure all of the
nuances of a college academic student. For instance, she talked about the struggles she faced
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 115
adjusting to college because she had difficulty finding her way around campus as one example (a
lack of educational cultural capital). Furthermore, she also talked about cultural shock that she
experienced with regards to having to figure things out on her own as college student. According
to her she had no one to help guide her to classes and find resources, something she was used to
as a high school student. In her comment she stated, “You have to do it yourself. It’s shocking to
me” (INT/DIANA/10/3/2017). This is data not only pointing out what is needed to develop into a
college academic student (educational cultural capital), but it also demonstrated Diana’s lack of
educational cultural capital. According to literature, educational cultural capital used by
dominant groups within society creates cultural separation with minoritized populations.
Moreover, they create a monopoly of resources and privileges, and exclude low-SES and
minoritized society and recruit individuals of high-SES status to join in on those opportunities
(Arum, Beattie, & Ford, 2015). Diana’s experience emphasized the problem of opportunity gaps
and the inequity that exists in urban education for First-generation minoritized community
college students because of her inability to gain access to information and knowledge of
navigating through college (Arum, Beattie, & Ford, 2015).
Steven had similar experiences developing into a college academic student. He also
experienced challenges of having to learn everything about becoming a college student because
he claimed that he never learned as a high school student transitioning into the community
college. He explained,
College, it’s like you have to learn how to do everything yourself. I am having to figure it
all on my own and sometimes it is frustrating because I was never taught this in high
school and I feel like I am at a disadvantage. You have to understand that if you don’t ask
questions, if you don’t turn in your assignments or do your work, that you will get a
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 116
failing grade. And if you don’t give any effort, then we’re not going help you. But if you
show effort or work, that you’re kind of starting to get it, they will help you. But in a high
school role, it’s like if I don’t understand it or if I’m not even bothered to do it, they just
give me the work anyways and they’re like, “Oh, you're okay. It’s fine. I’ll help you out
if you come after school. I will show you this and this.” But then we don’t really go and
then they still keep telling us to do it. It’s like we’re babied. We’re nurtured, not nurtured,
but like cradled. So we don’t really feel like we should do anything, like everything’s
done for us (INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017).
Steven’s experience portrayed a similar connection to Diana, who felt lost in finding her way
around college. This experience of being “lost” is an important data point because it sheds light
on Seven’s lack of educational cultural capital when he stated, “I am having to figure it all on my
own and sometimes it is frustrating because I was never taught this in high school and I feel like
I am at a disadvantage” (INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017). For instance, he discussed examples of
completing assignments, asking questions, and putting effort in his work, all of which he had to
learn to develop and make into habits. He stated, “You have to understand that if you don’t ask
questions, if you don’t turn in your assignments or do your work, that you will get a failing
grade. And if you don’t give any effort, then we’re not going help you”
(INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017). All are examples of becoming a college academic student and in
doing so, developing educational cultural capital. Steven also commented that while in high
school, he received no preparation for developing into a college academic student. Although
Steven learned the process later in college, he discussed that while in high school “everything is
done for us”. Steven’s data further sheds light on the research question that there is a relationship
between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness. Many of the participants in
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 117
this study began to develop that understanding upon their arrival to college. For example, Steven
had to develop a habit of asking questions to navigate college. In addition, he felt that he was at a
“disadvantage” because his high school did not prepare him. His comment about feeling
disadvantaged is sign of inequity resulting from opportunity gaps that exist among First-
generation minoritized students (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Andy, similarly, to the other participants felt that student engagement (non-cognitive
skill) was an important element in becoming a college academic student. Andy also talked about
“mindset” that he no longer was a high school student, rather a college student. He stated,
For me, the high school student role isn’t really that big for a student. I feel like you just
show up at class. If you want to participate, go ahead. If you don’t, just sit there and no
one will care. In college, you decided to come here, so that’s a very big difference so
you’re being more engaged. The role is bigger on you… In high school, you just show up
and like you just sit there…The adjustments that I had to make was, first of all, I had to
get into the mindset that, “Okay. This is college. No one is going to be holding my hand.
I got to be to be here (INT/ANDY/10/10/2017).
Andy claimed that one of the important aspects of developing into a college academic student
was the understanding of the significance of becoming academically engaged in his classes. He
stated that his academic engagement developed with a “mindset” that he no longer was a high
school student and he needed to take on the responsibility to become active with his college
academic experience when he stated, “No one is going to be holding my hand…”
(INT/ANDY/10/10/2017). He discussed that developing that mindset was the biggest adjustment
he made when transitioning into community college. Developing a mindset demonstrated Andy’s
understanding of educational cultural capital because it allowed him to further develop non-
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 118
cognitive skills he needed in becoming a college academic student. For example, motivation and
engagement is a non-cognitive skill he alluded to that he needed to develop as a college
academic student. He stated, “you’re being more engaged” (INT/ANDY/10/10/2017). He
attributed the lack of preparation from his high school experience because there was no
accountability when he was in high school. He stated, “If you don’t, just sit there and no one will
care” (INT/ANDY/10/10/2017). This data is noteworthy for this study because it portrayed the
participant’s lack of educational cultural capital development in terms of his understanding of the
importance of academic engagement and developing a mindset. Even though Andy did not have
those traits upon his arrival, he did portray knowledge that it would be important for him to
develop the mindset and a high level of academic engagement that would lead to his preparation
and success at the community college. This example presents a relationship between educational
cultural capital and college academic readiness.
Karol explained that her high school experience was a waste of time. According to her,
she felt that the high school student role and her experience was a “joke”. She stated,
When you’re a high school student, and going to class, or whatever, I feel like it’s more
of a joke. I feel like it’s not as serious. There you go. I feel like college is more serious
than it is in high school. I think that’s just the way it is. I mean, that’s how I feel... My
high school years, in English, a lot of times kids wouldn’t pay attention to the teacher.
They would be on their phone, or they’d be listening to ear phones. The teachers talking
and they do not care. In college, I don’t see that as much. I see the students actually
listening, and actually want to get something out of it, when in high school, it was
careless (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 119
Karol’s discussion presents an area of college academic readiness that Conley & French (2014)
argue is key learning skills and techniques. She noticed that college students listened and were
more academically engaged with their classes. This was different from her experience where it
seemed to her students were not focused did not care about their studies. For example, she
explained, “I see the students actually listening, and actually want to get something out of it,
when in high school, it was careless” (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017). This is an example of her
developing an understanding of ownership learning by self-regulating her behaviors to become
and effective learner (non-cognitive skill) (Conley & French, 2014). This data is also important
because during the process of developing knowledge about the college academic environment,
she also began to show a development of educational cultural capital. Furthermore, Karol found
that time management and studying often was an adjustment she had to make in developing into
a college academic student. She explained,
I feel like something I have had to change has been my studying. In high school, I never
studied. It never was pushed for us to study or prepare. It seemed like we would do
everything at school. I would never study…I would never practice anything. I would just
go straight to the essay and do it. Writing essays is hard for me, I don’t know where to
start… Now, I have to take so much more time, and study on tests
(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
The adjustments made by Karol as a college student is discussed in the literature. Conley &
French (2014) discuss key transition knowledge and skills (cognitive skill). This is something
that she lacked coming into the community college. This data also revealed that Karol did not
understand educational cultural capital in the context her time management skills, study habits,
and knowing how to write a college paper. She had to develop an understanding that studying
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 120
and developing effective habits was an important element in college academic readiness and her
success. In high school, she found herself not studying because a lot of the work was done in
school and she was not encouraged to develop effective studying habits. This led to her lack of
preparation as well as her lack of educational cultural capital. In addition, Conley & French
(2014) also discuss goal orientation and self-direction. Karol prioritized her learning through
time management and by regularly studying. Another adjustment that she had to make was
learning the nuances of writing papers something that she was not exposed to as frequently as a
high school student. She stated, “Writing essays is hard for me, I don’t know where to start…
Now, I have to take so much more time, and study on tests” (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017). Her
comment is an example of her lack of educational cultural capital. In addition, this data supports
the research question in that; there is a relationship between educational cultural capital and
college academic readiness based on Conley and French’s (2014) cognitive and non-cognitive
definitions. Upon her arrival to the community college, she lacked those important skills because
she was never told or had the experience of developing those traits that were necessary for
becoming a college academic student. This data also presents problems of equity and opportunity
gaps because as a First-generation minoritized student, Karol was discouraged to develop
effective habits that would enable her to be prepared for college. According to her, “It never was
pushed for us to study or prepare” (INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
Samuel talked about motivation and responsibility as two traits students must have when
developing into a college academic student. Motivation and responsibility are non-cognitive
skills needed for college academic readiness. He stated,
Well, we have a lot more responsibility now as college students because our teachers in
high school, you had to go to school. You had to keep going in order to learn. Now, the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 121
teacher doesn’t really like say, “Oh, you have to come to class. If you don’t come to
class, it’s your problem. You’re going to get dropped.” …but you have to have
motivation. In high school, my motivation was playing sports. If I didn’t have good
grades, I wouldn’t be able to play sports. Now in college, if I don’t come to school, I
don’t get an education. I won’t get a better job in life. I won’t have money. I won’t be
able to do what I want in life. I am the first in my family to go to college
(INT/SAMUEL/10/10/2017).
For Samuel developing responsibility and having motivation were two aspects of becoming a
college academic student. Conley & French (2014) discuss students taking ownership of their
learning, essential to college academic readiness. It refers to “Students’ ability to motivate and
engage in learning” (p. 1030). For example, motivation and engagement comes from within and
it determines a student’s engagement and commitment to their learning. In high school, sports
was a motivation for Samuel because having good grades allowed him to participate. In college,
his motivation was his future in terms of securing a job and making money with his degree.
Samuel also recognized that part of his development included his responsibility to attend class.
He stated, “…the teacher doesn’t really like say, ‘Oh, you have to come to class. If you don’t
come to class, it’s your problem. You’re going to get dropped.’” Similarly, to the other students,
Samuel found that developing responsibility is a significant attribute in becoming a college
academic student and attaining success. The difference between the other participants and
Samuel is that he defined his motivation (his future and the ability to get a job and make money)
and in doing so taking ownership of his learning (Conley & French, 2014). Motivation and
responsibility led Samuel to develop educational cultural capital. It also addressed the research
question that motivation and responsibility are important elements of college academic readiness.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 122
Samuel noticed that he had to make changes to adjust to the college academic role. He
commented about faculty expectations and adapting to new teaching techniques. He stated,
I have to adjust to the different teaching techniques and expectations. Our teacher in high
school would teach way different than what the college professor is teaching… If you
want it to be broken down in wording, then, you have to go with them on your own time.
You have to be more responsible, instead of high school like everything was handed to
you. In college, you have to work for it. It’s the way of life. You can’t just be handed
something and like, okay, you’re something now. You have to work towards that”
(INT/SAMUEL/10/10/2017).
Samuel’s discussion presented Conley & French’s (2014) definition of meta-cognition and self-
monitoring, which gives a student control over his or her learning. It involves checking,
verifying, and correcting one’s performance during a learning task or while communicating. He
showed an understanding that in college, teaching methods are different from high school. He
developed an adjustment to those changes by taking ownership and responsibility, all important
non-cognitive skills such as meta-cognition and self-monitoring. He also showed an
understanding of educational cultural capital when he stated, “In college, you have to work for it.
It’s the way of life. You can’t just be handed something…you have work towards that”. As he
took ownership of his learning experience, he also demonstrated an understanding and
development of educational cultural capital.
Becoming a college academic student and how the participants perceived that
development was an important finding in understanding the relationship between educational
cultural capital and a First-generation community college minoritized students’ understanding of
college academic readiness. The findings demonstrated a key link between educational cultural
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 123
capital and college academic readiness through the lens of ownership learning (non-cognitive)
and cognitive skills the participants discussed (Conley & French, 2014). All participants lacked
initial preparation as a college academic student, which resulted from their lack of educational
cultural. Furthermore, according to most participants, their high schools did not adequality
prepare them to become ready for college. The findings also presented despite their lack of
preparation, the participants portrayed an understanding of becoming a college student through
their ability to take on ownership learning and making necessary adjustments during that process
like their studying habits, time management, responsibility to name a few. The participants were
able to achieve ownership in a variety of ways ranging from their level academic engagement in
the classroom, motivation, studying habits, managing of their time, attending their classes, and
developing an understanding of college faculty expectations to name a few.
Academic Resources and Courses
In the scholarly debate on college academic readiness, there is discussion on the
important aspects of academic resources like Summer Bridge Programs (SBP) and tutorial
centers to name a few, and the role that courses like Advance Placement (AP) play in helping
prepare students with their academic preparation from high school to community college. All
participants discussed the importance of academic resources both in high school and at the
community college, in either preparing them or hindering their preparation for college. In this
section, academic resources and courses played a role in participants’ college preparation.
Jorge discussed the limited academic support he had outside of the classroom except for
his counselor while in high school. Jorge explained that his high school counselor played an
important role helping him go to college. He stated,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 124
I believe my counselor was pretty much my main resource in high school. He pretty
much told me all the things that happen in college and that there are even more resources
in college, but I only just talked to him because I knew him and I was afraid to go look
for other resources. At times I felt lost even in high school if it was not for him I would
not be here in college now. It seemed like there were no other resources that could help
students like me who did not know. I noticed other students struggling too. I had no one
in my family that could help me because they never went to college… He basically
helped me fill out the papers I needed to be here now because there was no one else
(INT/JORGE/10/3/2017).
This example further sheds light on the problem of college academic readiness for First-
generation minoritized community college students in that, Jorge lacked educational cultural
capital when understanding the process of applying for college. According to him “there was no
one else” that would help him in that process. In addition, he stated, “I had no one in my family
that could help me because they never went to college…” (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). This finding
is an example of the lack of educational cultural capital that Jorge did not have because he was
the first in his family to attend college. He also used words like “lost”, which also emphasized
the lack of educational cultural capital when it came time for him to apply for college and to look
for resources that would help him prepare. Moreover, resources like the high school counselor
played an important role in helping him make the initial transition through the application
process. This data not only affirmed the importance of resources in preparing students for
college, but it also demonstrated the lack of educational cultural capital of the participant. Both
of which help address the research question, in that there is a relationship between educational
cultural capital and college academic readiness. Furthermore, this data also addressed issues of
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 125
equity and opportunity gaps in the context of educational debt. Educational debt is “forgone
schooling resources that could have (should have) been invested (primary) low-income kids,
which deficit leads to a variety of social problems (e.g., Crime, low productivity, low wages, low
labor force participation)...” (Ladson-Billings, 2006, p. 5). There are four characteristics of the
educational debt: 1) Historical Debt referring to race, class, and gender; 2) Economic debt
referring to funding disparities within schools and socioeconomic status; 3) Sociopolitical debt
referring to minoritized communities of excluded from civic process; and 4) Moral debt referring
to what is right versus what we do (Ladson-Billings, 2006). In this data, Jorge felt that the school
lacked the necessary resources to help him and other First-generation minoritized students like
him make that transition. According to Jorge, “It seemed like there were no other resources that
could help students like me who did not know. I noticed other students struggling too”
(INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). Educational debt ties back to opportunity gaps per Carter & Welner
(2013) that opportunity gaps exist due to foundational educational deficiencies within the
educational system, which affects students’ preparation for college.
Carl also discussed the lack of educational resources on his campus. He claimed that
tutoring was forced upon students who were not doing well in their classes. Even if students
were failing, he explained that the tutoring was a place where students would work on their
assignments rather than receive help from the tutors. He stated,
There wasn’t really many resources. Like in high school we just did the same stuff. They
never really had resources like that and I didn’t know schools had that… Well, the
tutoring and the study hall were available, but, yeah. Then we were kind of forced to go
there. If we got bad grades they would force you to go to tutoring and study hall. All we
would do is our assignments and nothing else. It was not helpful at all for me and I don’t
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 126
think it helped me for the college classes I take now. I was told that the tutoring would
help me with my classes, but I found that it really didn’t (INT/CARL/9/28/2017).
Carl experienced a lack of knowledge that high schools provided academic resources that could
have helped him prepare for his classes. This is an example of his lack of understanding or
development of educational cultural capital. In addition, he stated that the help he received from
the tutors was not effective in his preparation for the college courses he would take. This data
emphasized the disconnect in the limited understanding of the academic resources available in
preparing him for high school and college courses. In addition, this data also questions the
effectiveness of academic resources in preparing participants like Carl for college classes. For
example, according to Carl, he was forced to attend tutorial sessions and that while at tutoring
never received help to better understand subjects he was struggling in. He stated, “It was not
helpful at all for me and I don’t think it helped me for the college classes I take now”
(INT/CARL/9/28/2017). Finally, this data addresses the research question through the lens of the
participants lack understanding for educational cultural capital and college academic readiness.
In the context of academic resources and courses students take while in high school, Reid
& Moore (2008) explain college academic readiness and the transition from high school to
college through the lens of social capital theory, “(a) preparation which helped with college
success [and] (b) skills lacking college success” (Reid & Moore, 2008, p. 245). The findings
presented both effective and ineffective experiences regarding the role of academic resources in
preparing Jorge and Carl for college.
Karol discussed that taking AP English helped prepare her for college because she was
exposed to a college-level class. She explained,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 127
I took AP English my junior year, so I thought that was really easy for me. We had to do
three essays that year, and I passed those essays. I was good, on top of my work. It’s not
that she wouldn’t teach us anything, but we were more on our own. Doing stuff on our
own is probably the only thing that helped me because at times here in college I have to
figure things out on my own so that helped. My junior year in English, it was a good
experience. I did learn techniques at that point, like five paragraph essays, but I don't
think it taught me for anything here, because we have to do 3-4-page essays, so that's
completely different and overall AP English was helpful because I learned the techniques
of how to write papers in college. I am confident, but it is still hard”
(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017).
Karol’s experience presented a case that courses like AP helped her as she transitioned from high
school to the community college. For instance, she talked about having to figure things out on
her own in AP English, which helped her with her college preparation. In addition, she talked
about how AP English helped her prepare and write papers. According to her, “…Overall AP
English was helpful because I learned the techniques of how to write papers in college…”
(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017). This comment demonstrated that by taking an AP course while in
high school, Karol was able to develop an understanding of educational cultural capital because
she had learned the techniques of how to write a college paper as an example. Even though
Karol did not feel that AP English fully impacted her preparation for college, she felt
comfortable because she had gone through the process of what she would expect in writing
papers in college. According to Karol she was confident in her college English class but still
finds it challenging. This is an example of building self-efficacy and self-confidence, a non-
cognitive skill needed for college academic readiness. Her self-confidence was directly
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 128
correlated with her self-efficacy when she was confronted with complex or challenging academic
tasks like in her college English class (Conley & French, 2014). Even though Karol took AP
English while in high school, she did not pass the AP English and did not do well on the English
placement test. She was enrolled in developmental English. This data addresses the research
question by addressing the participants understanding of college academic readiness through the
lens of courses she took that helped prepare her and skills she lacked as a college student (Reid
& Moore, 2008). Moreover, this data also revealed the relationship between Karol’s
understanding of how to write college paper (educational cultural capital) and her self-
confidence and self-efficacy she developed by taking AP English. The latter component alluded
to the non-cognitive college academic skills she developed.
Andy talked about the positive experience he had with academic resources like tutoring
while in high school. He frequently attended the tutorial center and he claimed was helpful not
only in preparing him for his courses but also for college. He stated,
The resources we had back in high school, there were many of them. We had a tutoring
center. Teachers would open up their classrooms to students after class if they want to
come in and get help. If they didn’t understand something, they would get it better
explained. Stuff like that… What was helpful was that it was more of a one-on-one type
of thing, so the teachers were more focused on you and what you didn’t understand, and
you felt more comfortable asking questions as opposed in a bigger classroom setting
where everybody can see you or hear you. Back in high school, I was a very shy guy, so
that was a big thing for me like, “Okay, like no one is going to hear me ask this
question,” so it’s just me and the teacher. This has helped me now in college to ask my
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 129
professor questions I have and to go see them during office hours when I need help”
(INT/ANDY/10/10/2017).
Similarly, to Karol, Andy while in high school, he developed self-efficacy and self-confidence, a
non-cognitive component of college academic readiness by actively participating with one-one-
tutoring with his teachers. By engaging in tutorial sessions, Andy also showed an understanding
and development of educational cultural capital. In this example, tutoring played an important
role in preparing Andy for college.
Bethany explained the significant impact the reading and writing center as well as
attending her professor’s office hours have had in effectively preparing for her college classes.
She stated,
Both of my English classes, they really help us with our essays that we’re doing. They
even tell us to go to the Reading and Writing Center, which helps a lot. The tutors there
are really nice and they all know what I have to do with my papers. It is a requirement
that I go it is part of the class. They help me step by step on starting my papers and
finding the resources I need to finish the papers. It is helpful. My English teacher, she lets
us know that we can go to her office any time we need help with any of her
assignments…Not only is there a reading and writing center but there is also one for math
and sometimes I go there too (INT/BETHANY/10/5/2017).
This data showed that academic resources like the reading and writing center, math center, and
faculty office hours helped Bethany prepare for many of her college classes. Learning about and
taking advantage of these resources also helped Bethany develop an understanding of
educational cultural, in that she navigated and gained access to vital academic resources that she
claimed were helpful.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 130
Other participants commented on the importance of college academic resources like
tutorial centers, faculty office hours, and SBP, play a role in helping students transition into the
community college and preparing students through cognitive and non-cognitive ways. Sablan
and Tierney (2016) define SBP as:
an intervention program that occurs at a postsecondary institution and is designed
to transition incoming college students into the college environment through any
or all of the following activities: academic course work (e.g. writing or math
classes); academic skills training (e.g. time management); and orientation to
college environments and resources through various seminars, workshops, or
activities (e.g. financial seminars) (p. 3).
Out of the twelve participants, Gregory discussed the importance of going through SBP
and new student orientation, which helped him with the transition from high school to
community college. He explained that SBP helped him prepare for math and English he took
when school convened. He stated,
One resource available to me was a summer activity program I participated in. They had
us do so much in this program like practice reading and writing assignments, math
questions we had to complete in groups. I also remember people from the college talking
about things we would expect when we would go to college like homework, resources
they have for student and things like that… I found that it was helpful for me now that I
am in here at college, so this helped me learn things about college
(INT/GREGORY/10/3/2017).
This data is important in the discussion of college academic readiness because it sheds light on
the importance of SBP in helping students’ transition from high school to college. For Gregory,
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 131
it helped him develop educational cultural capital in understanding what he would expect from
college because he was the first in his family to attend college. Furthermore, the SBP also
assisted in gaining key transition knowledge and skills (Conley & French, 2014). This
information also helps to answer the research question because it presents a relationship between
a student’s understanding of educational cultural capital and college academic readiness by
focusing on resources available for students as they transition from high school to community
college.
The findings in this chapter helped to answer the research question and it also presented a
better understanding that opportunity gaps in urban education is a problem especially for First-
generation minoritized community college students as they transition from high school to
community college. The data addressed the participants’ understanding of college academic
readiness through cognitive and non-cognitive definitions and the importance of taking
ownership of their learning to be prepared for college (Conley & French, 2014). Furthermore, the
findings indicated the participants lacked educational cultural capital in the context of their lack
of understanding of the English assessment and remediation. This resulted from ineffective
institutional and academic preparation policies and their inability to effectively to relay that
information to the participants. All participants commented that they did not know why they took
the test. This reaffirms issues of inequity and opportunity gaps because of K-12 educational
deficiencies (Carter & Welner, 2013) impacting their preparation for college. The finding also
revealed that there is a relationship between the participants understanding of educational
cultural capital and their understanding of college academic readiness.
The findings in this study also addressed educational cultural capital and college
academic readiness through the lens of community college and high school disconnect, in the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 132
context of the academic rigor and expectations that were not met for the participants upon their
arrival to the community college. All participants commented the lack of rigor and their inability
to get helpful feedback in their high school English classes affected their preparation for college.
Some participants alluded that it seemed that their high school English teachers did not want to
give feedback. This is another example of inequity and opportunity gaps for these for these
participants because according to Milner (2012) the importance of framing inequity in
educational outcomes as gaps in opportunities, not achievement. He suggests color blindness
practices as contributing to the opportunity gaps, all of which impact First-generation
minoritized students. Color blindness can be attributed to the disconnect, which neglects to
recognize a student’s racial identity, background, and experiences in shaping curriculum and
instructional practices (Milner, 2012). Effective and inclusive instructional practices like
providing helpful feedback back for high school teachers are critical in helping to close
opportunity gaps for First-generation minoritized students when preparing for college. All
participants also commented that their most difficult class at RCC was English.
Finally, the findings also indicated that academic resources and courses play in preparing
students for college. The participants presented cases where there were many supportive
resources that helped them prepared for college like tutorial centers and participating in SBP.
However, some participants also discussed the lack of available resources that affected their
preparation for college. The lack of resources presents opportunity gaps and inequity especially
this participant population because it presents educational debt which Ladson-Billings (2006)
argue is “forgone schooling resources that could have (should have) been invested (primary)
low-income kids…” (p. 5).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 133
The following chapter provides a discussion and recommendations for college academic
readiness for First-generation community college minoritized students and how it can be applied
for other First-generation students entering community college. In doing so, to close the
opportunity gaps in terms of college preparation and English remediation for First-generation
minoritized community college students.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 134
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH
This study examined the problem of college academic readiness of minoritized First-
generation community college students who were enrolled in developmental English courses.
The goal of this study was to hear the perspectives and experiences of their academic preparation
as they transitioned from high school to community college, to reveal a relationship between
educational cultural capital and college academic readiness. In addition, to make
recommendations to educational leaders and policy makers to better serve the transitions of First-
generation students from high school to the community college. Many scholars like Conley &
French (2014) define college academic readiness by discussing important cognitive and non-
cognitive skills and developments needed for college preparation. For example, they highlight:
key cognitive strategies, key content knowledge, key learning skills and techniques, as well key
transitional knowledge and skills. Furthermore, Conley & French (2014) also present a case for
“ownership learning”, which they characterize as important traits students must have to be ready
for college. They are: motivation and engagement, goal orientation and self-direction, self-
efficacy and self-confidence, meta-cognition and self-monitoring, and persistence. Other scholars
like Porter & Polikoff (2012) also discuss college academic readiness through the lens of a
student’s preparation and ability to enroll and pass without remediation in a credit-based course.
This study utilized Conley & French’s (2014) definitions of college academic readiness as it
pertained to First-generation community college minoritized students.
Key cognitive strategies are thinking skills that pertain to a student’s ability to
communicate critical knowledge effectively. Key content knowledge is a student’s ability to
adequately understand the content presented. Key learning skills and techniques is a student’s
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 135
ability to take ownership of their learning and self-regulate behaviors to become an effective
learner. Finally, key transition knowledge and skills is a student’s ability to understand the
culture of college and the role of a college student that differs from a high school (Conley &
French, 2014). Non-cognitive readiness involves non-academic components of college academic
readiness. It also involves ownership learning, which is a students’ ability to motivate and
engage in the learning environment. They are: motivation and engagement that is a student’s
motivation from within determines their engagement and commitment to their learning. The
second is goal orientation and self-direction, which is a student’s commitment to prioritize their
learning by setting academic goals for achievement and success. The third is self-efficacy and
self-confidence, which is a student’s experience in developing self-confidence, directly
correlated with their self-efficacy when confronted and when completing complex or challenging
academic tasks. The fourth is meta-cognition and self-monitoring, giving a student control over
learning, it involves checking, verifying, and correcting their performance during a learning task
or while communicating. Finally, persistence, which is a students’ commitment to continuing
their education. In addition, it portrays a correlation to the participants’ reported knowledge of
college academic readiness and educational cultural capital.
This problem of practice of college academic readiness of First-generation minoritized
students was relevant to the growing scholarly debate of opportunity gaps that exists in urban
education. Scholars like Carter & Welner (2013) argue that opportunity gaps result in
foundational educational deficiencies within the educational system, impacting students’
preparation for college. Moreover, this study also used educational cultural capital theory as a
conceptual lens through which to understand and analyze college readiness.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 136
The relevance of this study was for educational practitioners in the secondary and
postsecondary education, administrators, and education policy-makers at the national, state, and
local levels of government. This study provided perspectives and experiences of First-generation
community college minoritized students enrolled in developmental English classes to shape
policy and practice. In addition, this student population’ perceived understanding of college
academic readiness and English remediation of how experiences and realities of outside of the
class impacted First-generation students, specifically with their lack of educational cultural
capital. Milner (2012) points out that research can provide crucial insights about the intersection
of home and school. Moreover, Milner (2012) points out that he has observed teachers struggle
with deciding if they should attempt to understand students’ experiences outside of school. Many
teachers believe that they should only be concerned with what happens at school, in their
classrooms. Milner makes the argument that if students’ experiences out of the classroom are
taken into consideration, then teachers may be better positioned to respond to the intersection of
home and school and meet the needs of students living in poverty. These are important scholarly
debates that tie back to why there are opportunity gaps in urban education. Many of the
participants in this study highlighted their high school experience with the academic rigor and
expectations not met while in school. Furthermore, they experienced ineffective to no feedback
on assignments, which hindered their opportunity to learn important cognitive skill. Finally, most
participants claimed that their high school English curriculum did not effectively prepare them
from high school to community college.
A qualitative approach was used in this study to portray the lived experiences and
perspectives of First-generation community college minoritized students enrolled in
developmental English courses. The essence of qualitative research in this study looked beyond
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 137
numbers and figures, rather the stories that were told about the participants and their academic
preparation at their high schools and community college. In doing so, this allowed to understand
and conceptualize their personal experiences (Creswell, 2014). The qualitative data was
significant in this study because research lacked the voices from First-generation community
college minoritized students. By highlighting participant voices and their perspectives of college
academic readiness, it allowed the researcher to contribute on growing scholarly debates of
college academic readiness.
Twelve participants were individually interviewed to better understand their lived
experience and perceptions of college academic readiness and English remediation. The
participants were from Rockefeller Community College in John D. Community College District
in the state of California. All participants self-identified as a First-generation minoritized student.
There were six males and six females. Eleven participants self-identified as Hispanic and one
participant self-identified as African American.
This dissertation answered the following research question:
What is the relationship between educational cultural capital of First-generation
community college minoritized students and their perceived understanding of college
academic readiness and English remediation?
The data collected in this study helped to answer this research question leading to the findings
that are discussed below.
Discussion of Findings
Through the data analysis process, I was able to develop themes from the findings. The
data from chapter four was organized around the following themes: 1) participants’
understanding and perception of college academic readiness; 2) institutional readiness in the
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 138
context of educational cultural capital and the participants’ understanding of the English
assessment and of English remediation; 3) high school and community college disconnect
through the lens of academic rigor and expectations that were not met for the incoming First-
generation minoritized participants; 4) developing into a college academic student; and 5) the
role that academic resources and courses play in preparing students for college. All of these were
important findings for this study because not only did it help answer the research question, but it
also captured the lived experiences and perceptions of the participants necessary for this problem
of practice that was missing in the literature. It was also significant because it shed new light on
the problem practice, in that educational cultural capital is an important understanding that is
necessary to have in preparing for college. The findings also contribute to the large body of
scholarly work on college academic readiness and minoritized students who are enrolled in
developmental English classes. Finally, this study was also significant because it connected the
problem of college academic readiness of First-generation minoritized student to opportunity
gaps and educational cultural capital.
Hearing the voices of First-generation community college minoritized students helped to
put into perspective the reality that exists regarding the problem of college academic readiness.
Going beyond simply numbers and statistics, this study revealed first-hand challenges that theses
participants encountered as high school students and as first semester community college
students enrolled in developmental English courses. These voices were not frequently
highlighted in the literature and this study provided a contribution to the growing scholarly
debates on college academic readiness. Hearing their voices will help educational leaders and
policy makers to make effective recommendations and changes regarding student success and
college academic readiness, that would otherwise not be with just simple quantitative data
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 139
figures. In addition, the problem of college academic readiness heard from the participants’
perspectives, helped to also understand the persistence of opportunity gaps in urban education.
Finally, this study also revealed that opportunity gaps exist because there are also gaps with these
participants’ understanding and development of educational cultural capital. For example, all of
the participants showed a lack of understanding of the English placement test and the effects of it
if they did not pass. Furthermore, many of the participants also explained that they lacked
important content knowledge, reading, and writing skill to name a few as examples of their lack
of educational cultural capital.
Recommendations and Implications for Practice
The findings in this study demonstrated that all the participants were good students in
high school, encountered challenges of varying sorts as they transitioned into the community
college. The problem of college academic readiness of First-generation minoritized students and
the growing scholarly debates on opportunity gaps, families and schools must support the
education of these students. One of the ways in which schools can support these students is by
addressing the high school and community college disconnect. With collaborative efforts on
behalf of the K-12 school system and the local districts and community colleges can lead to
ensure that there is an alignment of curriculum as one example (Reid & Moore, 2008).
Curriculum alignment would help with the preparation as many First-generation minoritized
students transition into community college. It would allow the student population to understand
also the expectations of what college academics would be like. Based on the findings of this
study, there are suggestions for the various stakeholders who prepare First-generation
minoritized students for community college, including teachers at both the high school and
community college levels, administrators at both the high school and community colleges.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 140
High Schools and Districts
The academic relationship that high school students have with their teachers is important.
The community college participants discussed wasted opportunities in developing crucial skills
like time management and study skills as major adjustments they had to make in college. High
school teachers could provide opportunities to develop these skills early on; inserting them as
ongoing aspects when students do their assignments. For example, the participants talked about
how they wished in high school they could have produced essays more quickly. As college
students, managing their time to complete papers with quick turnaround times was a significant
challenge. This was an issue discussed by Bethany. She stated, “So, I think time would have
been better. I think it’s hard because I have to manage my time a little bit more, and I have to
remember when my assignments are due, because after they’re due, I can’t turn them in”
(INT/BETHANY/10/5/2017). Some of the participants expressed the need for their high school
teachers to have higher expectations. Teachers providing adequate and effective feedback would
students to improve their skills in certain areas that will help as they move forward into college.
By high school teachers understanding their diverse student populations and by providing
effective resources that would allow students to further develop their cognitive and non-cognitive
skills (Conley & French, 2014). By developing important cognitive and non-cognitive skills,
students will also better understand and develop educational cultural capital in which this study
was grounded. Having educational cultural capital is a significant aspect of college academic
readiness.
High school administrators also have a responsibility to address the problem of college
academic readiness and opportunity gaps of First-generation minoritized students. One of the
major findings the participants recounted was their perception that the academic rigor in high
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 141
school did not prepare them as they entered community college. In addition, some of the
participants did not understand the process of enrolling and applying for college. For example,
Jorge stated, “He basically helped me fill out the papers I needed to be here now because there
was no one else…” (INT/JORGE/10/3/2017). Here Jorge was referring to his high school
counselor who played an important role in helping him apply for college. Karol talked about her
high school English class and how it was wasted time because she felt she was learning nothing
during her junior and senior. She explained, “I don’t think there was really much to learn. I
remember one packet, it was literally talking about food choices, in an English class, which I
thought ... There was no point of it, the way I saw it. It was packets about food choices…”
(INT/KAROL/10/10/2017). If cognitive skills were developed, it would of helped the
participants excel on academic skills like writing as one example. Administrators, have a
responsibility to ensure that all students are encouraged to engage in rigorous academic courses
to develop high-level academic skill-sets. For example, schools can provide access to a variety of
AP classes for all student populations and not just to a few. Schools could also provide
opportunities for students to engage in more extra-curricular activities, helping them to take on
leadership roles, developing non-cognitive skills time management, for example. Furthermore,
high school administrators might provide opportunities to engage with parents of First-
generation students about the importance of rigorous courses. Schools might better understand
the communities of students they serve, in doing so providing a bridge for strengthening
mechanisms that will help prepare these students as they transition into college (Reid & Moore,
2008). High school administrators play an important role in helping students develop educational
cultural capital. By addressing the recommendations, high schools would further develop
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 142
cognitive and non-cognitive skills, which are important in developing educational cultural capital
as well as college academic readiness.
All perceptive high school graduate students interested in attending RCC must have gone
through the following admission process: 1) File a completed application and a residency
statement with the Admissions office; 2) Request the high school to forward one complete
transcript to the Admissions Office; 3) complete an online orientation and to set up an RCC
email account; 4) take a math and English placement test; and 5) arrange a meeting with a
college counselor or advisor. Despite this process, there is still inconsistency with the
participants’ preparation and understanding of the placement test and it affects. This was
revealed in the findings of this study with their responses.
One participant identified their high school counselor as an important link in providing
information about the college application process and how to apply for resources like financial
aid and scholarships. The participant explained that if it were not for his high school counselor,
he probably would not have enrolled in college. This finding shows the importance of the role of
high school counselors in explaining to students and families early on the information to help
them make important decisions about what classes to take throughout their high school years
preparing them for college (Reid & Moore, 2008). By meeting with students as early as their
freshman year in high school, counselors’ role to inform students that their college preparation
and acceptance begins in their ninth grade of high school is important preparation. In other
words, students should develop an understanding (educational cultural capital) that grades matter
beginning their freshman year of high school. Counselors could also work collective with
teachers to help students further develop non-cognitive skills needed to be successful in high
school but also needed as a college student (Conley & French, 2014; Reid & Moore, 2008).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 143
High school administrators and teachers might also consider developing an early warning
system for students before graduating from high school helping them to improve their academic
preparation for college. For example, in a recent study in Florida of two high school districts,
Koon and Petscher (2016), “sought to develop an early warning system to identify students at
risk of low-performance on college readiness in grades 11 or 12 in order to support them with
remedial coursework prior to high school graduation” (p. 1). The researchers investigated two
high school districts and wanted to find out how scores on the Florida Assessments for
Instruction in Reading-Florida Standards (FAIR-FS) in grade 9 predict performance on the
Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT)/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test
(NMSQT) in grade 10 and how do scores on the FAIR-FS in grade 9 predict performance on the
ACT Plan in grade 10. Findings within the two districts show that 81% and 96% of the students
were not meeting the college academic readiness benchmarks (Koon & Petscher, 2016). Koon
and Petscher (2016) found preliminary evidence that addressing developmental gaps in high
school can significantly decrease the number of high school students needing developmental
English and math courses as they transition to college.
The research-based example recommends the need to identify and implement
developmental education interventions prior to high school graduation especially when it comes
to First-generation minoritized students who are disproportionately enrolled in developmental
education. Participants talked about not needing to work hard in high school because everyone
got by in all of their classes. For example, Steven talked about how his high school experience
was that everything was done for the students by the teachers. According to him, “We’re
nurtured, not nurtured, but like cradled. So, we don’t really feel like we should do anything, like
everything’s done for us” (INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017). This is another example of a missed
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 144
opportunity on behalf of the high school to have helped the participants develop educational
cultural. According to Steven, he never had a chance because everything was done for students.
Community Colleges
Community Colleges play an important role in the preparation and transition of First-
generation minoritized students into the community college. For example, community colleges
recruit students from local feeder high schools to their campuses. In addition, during this process
the community college will also place their students in certain math and English classes
depending on how they assess their students. Community college outreach to the high schools
needs better open lines of communication with their potential student recruits regarding the
community college application and assessment process. This is not solely the job of high school
staff and faculty, but also of the Community College, which is discussed below. For example,
none of the participants showed an understanding of the English placement test (lack of
educational cultural capital) and its purpose (one measuring tool used to place students in their
English classes). Furthermore, some participants were not informed from the community college
regarding the need to take the test until one month before school started.
There was a lack of alignment within John D. Community College District with of all the
high schools it served when it came time to assess and place enrolled students in their college
math and English classes. For example, the state of California proposed Community Colleges
and districts to use Multiple Measures Assessment Approach (MMAP) when placing students in
their math and English classes. Three different measuring tools attributed to college readiness
consist of: high school course work required for college admission, high school transcripts, and
high school Grade Point Average (GPA) while in high school. Furthermore, they also had to take
the English placement to placement. For example, one of the schools in the district did not
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 145
require students to take the English placement test. Students who had a GPA below a 2.5
entering must take an English placement test. This is a problem because all the schools within
the district operated differently when placing students in math and English courses. All
participants showed no understanding as to why they had to take the placement test and its
affects if they did not pass. For example, Steven stated, “I had no idea why I had to take that test.
No one explained anything. I felt lost when I was told to take the test, because I really didn’t
know” (INT/STEVEN/10/5/2017). Community colleges within district must align common
assessment measures as highlighted in recent California Assembly Bill, which I will explain in
the following section (October 2017) with the proposed bill AB 705 when placing students in
their courses.
Part of the consensus and problem is that community colleges are inaccurately using
assessment scores from placement tests to place students in basic skills, remedial courses
(Belfield & Crosta, 2012). When using only community college placement scores, 3 out of 10
(27% to 33%) students are severely misplaced to students’ detriment due to testing error
(Belfield & Crosta, 2012) and the lack of using multiple measures of cognitive and non-cognitive
skills. This is an example of part of the problem in the context of opportunity gaps. An important
implication to college academic readiness and student placement in developmental courses is that
based on the findings and the literature, I propose that placement testing is one contributing
factor of the ongoing educational deficiencies or opportunity gaps that exists among First-
generation minoritized students. As a result, they are disproportionately represented in
developmental education. These participants did not understand what the test was about and
more importantly, in some instances they were told that it was okay to fail. Moreover, the
participants did not receive any preparation for taking the test. Furthermore, the findings also
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 146
indicated that placement testing impacted the participants’ understanding and development of
educational cultural capital, which is needed in the context of college academic readiness. For
example, Bethany expressed her frustration and lack of understanding of the placement test. She
stated, “I just think, well I don’t really understand that test. I mean I don’t know how they base
those questions to what level you are…There’s no reason for that test. I just find no meaning to
it” (INT/ALEXANDRA/10/3/2017). Other participants felt that even despite not doing well on
the placement test, they were misplaced in their English courses. Others believed there was no
value to taking the test. There are important data points that is essential to the growing debates of
how placement testing is an important talking point surrounding opportunity gaps in correlation
to college academic readiness and developmental English and math courses. There have been
conversations about getting rid of placement exams, as they did in the California State University
school system, it is something to consider. By placing (with the use of multiple measures)
students directly into college-level math and English courses, colleges should also continue to
enhance academic support like math and reading and writing centers that will help students get
the help they need. All participants spoke about the positive effects that reading and writing
center played in helping them further develop those skills. Academic support programs and SBP
appear to be valued efforts that community colleges must further enhance for their student
populations.
Future Research
Future research on college academic readiness can focus on new and innovative
approaches similar to the California Acceleration Projects that many community colleges in
California have implemented. According to Jaggars, Hodara, Cho, and Xu (2015) “many
community colleges are experimenting with accelerated developmental models, which allow
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 147
students to complete remediation and enroll in college-level math and English within a shorter
time frame” (p. 3). With a growing number of students entering community college
underprepared, community colleges are addressing this problem by implementing accelerated
developmental education programs. Scholars blame placement error, de-motivating curricula or
pedagogy, and the power of external pulls is poor student outcomes (Jaggars et al., 2015). As a
result, community colleges are investigating the effects of improving efficiency and student
outcomes by incorporating accelerated developmental education. Accelerated developmental
education is referred to combining developmental courses to allow students to complete
developmental courses within one year or one semester. For example, if a student is placed in
two-levels below English class, which means it would take the student two semesters to
transition into a transfer-level, would take one semester with an accelerated developmental
course (Jaggars et al., 2015). Jaggars et al. (2015) argue,
Acceleration might benefit under placed students by minimizing the negative
consequences of their misplacement, in particular, the loss of their time and money in a
developmental course.... Second, some acceleration programs intentionally work to
improve the rigor and relevance of the developmental learning experience by pairing
challenging college-level assignments with tailored supports that help developmental
students learn how to succeed with such rigorous task. (p. 6)
Scholars are analyzing the effects of accelerated developmental education programs by asking:
What is the effect of utilizing accelerated developmental education on student outcomes (such as
their ability to complete and transition into college-level courses) in community colleges
(Jaggars et al., 2015)?
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 148
There is little qualitative data of students’ enrolled accelerated developmental courses
since it is also a part of AB 705. AB 705 was an extension of the Seymour-Campbell Student
Success Act of 2012 discussed in chapter two that California community college’s address
student access and success by providing effective core matriculation services of orientation,
assessment and placement, counseling, and other education planning services, and academic
interventions (California Office of Legislative Counsel, 2017). AB 705 would require California
community colleges or districts to increase the probability of all students entering to complete
transfer-level coursework, specifically in English and math within a one-year period. In doing so,
schools and districts when placing students into English and math classes achieve this goal using
multiple measures by utilizing one or more of the following: high school coursework, high
school grades, and high school grade point average. In addition, the bill would allow the
California community college board of governors to create regulations governing the use of
measures, instruments, and placement models ensuring that students will enter and complete
transfer-level coursework in English and math within one year. The bill would also take similar
approaches ensuring completion of college level coursework in English and math within one-
year timeframe for students who are seeking non-transfer rather seeking certificate degree
programs (California Office of Legislative Counsel, 2017).
AB 705 bill also would prohibit community college district or school from requiring
students to enroll in developmental English and math that would lengthen their time to complete
a degree or transfer unless there is placement research that would indicate otherwise. For
example, high school grade point average or coursework revealing that the student would be
highly unlikely to pass and succeed in transfer-level course English and math.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 149
By focusing on acceleration, educational practitioner can better assess questions like,
how have accelerated developmental courses addressed issues like opportunity gaps in urban
education. A comparative analysis of general developmental courses and accelerated
developmental courses would also be of value when addressing college academic readiness.
Finally, it would also serve as a tool to address many of the goals of AB 705 to get students
enrolled in transfer-level English and math courses California Office of Legislative Counsel,
2017).
Conclusion
The findings of this study are significant because it answered the research question by
showing that there is a relationship between the participants’ perceived understanding of college
academic readiness through the lens of English remediation and educational cultural capital. The
participants’ perception of their readiness had a direct impact on their engagement and academic
success. The findings also pointed out that having educational cultural capital is a critical
component in the larger scholarly debate on college academic readiness especially for First-
generation minoritized community college students. In this study, some of the participants had
more of an understanding of educational cultural capital were more prepared, while other
participants who did not have an understanding or development of educational cultural struggled.
Any student transitioning from high school to the community college goes through the process of
developing and understanding of the nuances of college and how to navigate through the
institution. A major discovery in this study also showed even though most participants did not
have educational cultural capital because they were First-generation, they showed an
understanding of this framework through their conversations about what they perceived was
college academic readiness. For example, Ronald noted that motivation and engagement were
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 150
important aspects when it came to his understanding of college academic readiness. Ronald
portrayed motivation and engagement when he noted his active weekly planning to create a
“specific schedule”, which supports the idea that when a student is internally motivated, their
engagement and commitment to their learning is heightened (Conley & French, 2014). Finally,
he also expressed self-efficacy and self-confidence shown in his comment “So you have to have
that mindset, being focused and on-task every day, and get in all your work” (INT/RONALD/
9/26/2017), which is a student’s ability to develop self-confidence from previous or current
experience that is directly correlated with their self-efficacy when confronted when completing
complex or challenging academic tasks (Conley & French, 2014).They made this discovery as
transitioned into the community college.
The findings of this study also revealed the reality of opportunity gaps that exists in urban
education. It affected this student population’s academic preparation for college and affected
their development of educational cultural capital, something the findings indicated happened
much later in college. For example, Ronald expressed the challenges he faced when he
transitioned from high school to community college. He stated, “…And in college, the transition
is much harder. You have to be more focused and actually do your work and turn in the
assignments, because if you don’t do it, you don’t get a second chance. It’s done. So with that,
you have to be more involved with your classes and be talking more with your classmates and
with the professor, to be able to achieve the knowledge that you need and the help that you need
to get…” (INT/RONALD/9/26/2017). This lack of preparation and lack of understanding for
educational cultural capital, many of the participants like Ronald were in developmental English
classes.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 151
Opportunity gaps in urban education have impacted First-generation minoritized
community college students. Their lack of academic preparation (cognitive and non-cognitive
skills) has resulted in their enrollment in developmental English courses. In addition, the
participants lacked educational cultural capital, a vital component to college academic readiness.
This study revealed through the participants’ perspectives and experiences that there is a
relationship between educational cultural capital and college academic readiness. Both
educational cultural capital and definitions of college academic readiness skills are crucial to
understanding the scholarly debates on opportunity gaps and college academic readiness.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 152
REFERENCES
Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: a reflective process. International
journal of qualitative studies in education, 22(4), 431–447.
American Association of Community Colleges. (2016). 2016 community college fast facts.
Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
Armstrong, S. L., Stahl, N. A., & Kantner, M. J. (2016). Building better bridges: Understanding
academic text readiness at one community college. Community College Journal of
Research and Practice, 40(11), 885–908.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2015.1132644
Arum, R., Beattie, I. R., & Ford, K. (2015). The structure of schooling: Readings in the
sociology of education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Aschaffenburg, K., & Maas, I. (1997). Cultural and educational careers: The dynamics of social
reproduction. American Sociological Review, 62(4), 573–587.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2657427
Attewell, P., Lavin, D., Domina, T., & Levey, T. (2006). New evidence on college remediation.
The Journal of Higher Education, 77(5), 886–924.
Bailey, T. R., Jaggars, S. S., & Jenkins, D. (2015). Redesigning America’s community colleges.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674425934
Barnes, W., Slate, J. R., & Rojas-LeBouef, A. (2010). College-readiness and academic
preparedness: The same concepts? Current Issues in Education, 13(4). Retrieved from
https://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/view/678
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 153
Belfield, C. R., & Crosta, P. M. (2012). Predicting success in college: The importance of
placement tests and high school transcripts. CCRC Working Paper No. 42. New York,
NY: Community College Research Center, Columbia University.
Bell, D. A., Jr. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma.
Harvard Law Review, 518–533.
Bettinger, E. P., & Long, B. T. (2009). Addressing the needs of underprepared students in higher
education does college remediation work? The Journal of Human Resources, 44(3), 736–
771. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.44.3.736
Blume, G. H., & Zumeta, W. M. (2014). The state of state college readiness policies. The
American Behavioral Scientist, 58(8), 1071–1092.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213515235
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Bragg, D. D., & Taylor, J. L. (2014). Toward college and career readiness: How different models
produce similar short-term outcomes. The American Behavioral Scientist, 58(8), 994–
1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213515231
Bui, K. V. T. (2002). First-generation college students at a four-year university: Background
characteristics, reasons for pursuing higher education, and first-year experiences. College
Student Journal, 36(1), 3–12.
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office. (n.d.). Basic skills progress tracker.
Retrieved from http://datamart.cccco.edu/Outcomes/BasicSkills_Cohort_Tracker.aspx
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 154
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office. (2012). Advancing student success in the
California community colleges: Recommendations of the California community colleges
student success task force. Sacramento, CA: Author.
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office. (2015). Student equity. Retrieved
from http://extranet.cccco.edu/Divisions/StudentServices/StudentEquity.aspx
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office. (2016). California promise. Retrieved from
http://extranet.cccco.edu/Divisions/StudentServices/CaliforniaPromise.aspx
California Office of Legislative Counsel. (2017). AB-705 Seymour-Campbell Student Success
Act of 2012: matriculation: assessment. Retrieved from
https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB705
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office. (2018). California Community College
Student Success Card. Retrieved from http://scorecard.cccco.edu/scorecard.aspx
Carter, P. L., & Welner, K. G. (Eds.). (2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must
do to give every child an even chance. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199982981.001.0001
Castro, E. L. (2013). Racialized readiness for college and career: Toward an equity-grounded
social science of intervention programming. Community College Review, 41(4), 292–310.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552113504291
Chase, M. M., Dowd, A. C., Pazich, L. B., & Bensimon, E. M. (2014). Transfer equity for
“minoritized” students: A critical policy analysis of seven states. Educational Policy,
28(5), 669–717. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904812468227
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 155
Chen, X. (2016). Remedial Coursetaking at US Public 2-and 4-Year Institutions: Scope,
Experiences, and Outcomes. Statistical Analysis Report. NCES 2016-405. Washington,
DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Clark, B. R. (1960). The “cooling-out” function in higher education. American Journal of
Sociology, 65(6), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1086/222787
Cohen, A. M., & Brawer, F. B. (2003). The American community college. Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
The College Board. (n.d.a). About Us - - Regional Offices. Retrieved from
https://www.collegeboard.org/about
The College Board. (n.d.b). Multiple weighted measures – ACCUPLACER. Retrieved from
https://accuplacer.collegeboard.org/educator/multiple-weighted-measures
The College Board. (2013). Improving the effectiveness of placement tests. Retrieved from
https://accuplacer. collegeboard.org/sites/ default/files/improving-the- effectiveness-of-
placement- tests.pdf
Collier, P. J., & Morgan, D. L. (2008). “Is that paper really due today?”: Differences in first-
generation and traditional college students’ understandings of faculty expectations.
Higher Education, 55(4), 425–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-007-9065-5
Common Assessment Initiative. (2016). Common Assessment Intro & Overview [video].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube. com/watch? v=gcDShO4A s0o
Conley, D. T. (2010). College and career ready: Helping all students succeed beyond high
school. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118269411
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 156
Conley, D. T., & French, E. M. (2014). Student ownership of learning as a key component of
college readiness. The American Behavioral Scientist, 58(8), 1018–1034.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213515232
Creswell, W. J. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approach (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the
optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19,
121-129. Toronto, ON: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Race, inequality and educational accountability: The irony of “No
Child Left Behind.”. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 10(3), 245–260.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320701503207
DeShano da Silva, C., Huguley, J., Kakli, Z., & Rao, R. (2007). The opportunity gap:
Achievement and inequality in education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review
Duffy, M., Schott, A., Beaver, J., & Park, E. (2014). Tracing the development of multiple
measures for college placement across states and systems. Philadelphia, PA: Research
for Action. Retrieved from http://www.researchforaction.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/01/RFA-Gates-Multiple-Measures-Phase-1-March-2014.pdf
Duncheon, J. C., & Tierney, W. G. (2014). Examining college writing readiness. The
Educational Forum, 78(3), 210–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2014.912712
Fanetti, S., Bushrow, K. M., & DeWeese, D. L. (2010). Closing the gap between high school
writing instruction and college writing expectations. English Journal, 99(4), 77–83.
Fay, M., Barnett, E., Trimble, M. J., & Pheatt, L. E. (2014). Early assessments and transition
curricula: What states can do. New York, NY: Community College Research Center.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 157
Gaertner, M. N., & McClarty, K. L. (2015). Performance, perseverance, and the full picture of
college readiness. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 34(2), 20–33.
https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12066
Galvan, J. (2013). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral
sciences. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak.
Goodchild, L. F., & Wechsler, H. S. (1997). The history of higher education. ASHE Reader
Series. Old Tappan, NJ: Pearson.
Guthrie, J. W., & Springer, M. G. (2004). A Nation at Risk revisited: Did “wrong” reasoning
result in “right” results? At what cost? Peabody Journal of Education, 79(1), 7–35.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327930pje7901_2
Hassel, H., & Giordano, J. B. (2015). The blurry borders of college writing: Remediation and the
assessment of student readiness. College English, 78(1), 56–80.
Hispanic Association for Colleges and Universities. (2017). Hispanic-Serving Institution
definitions. Retrieved from https://www.hacu.net/hacu/HSI_Definition1.asp
Howard, T. C. (2015). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in
America’s classrooms. New York, Ny: Teachers College Press.
Hughes, K. L., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2011). Assessing developmental assessment in community
colleges. Community College Review, 39(4), 327–351.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552111426898
Hughes, M., Karp, C., & Stacey, G. (2012). What we know about dual enrollment. Retrieved
from http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/media/k2/attachments/dual-enrollment-research-
overview.pdf
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 158
Jaggars, S. S., Hodara, M., Cho, S., & Xu, D. (2015). Three accelerated developmental education
programs: Features, student outcomes, and implications. Community College
Review,43(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552114551752
Joliet Junior College. (2017). History of Joliet Junior College. Retrieved from
http://www.jjc.edu/college-info/Pages/history.aspx
Kasper, H. T. (2003). The changing role of community college. Occupational Outlook Quarterly,
46(4), 14–21.
Kingan, M. E., & Alfred, R. L. (1993). Entry assessment in community colleges: Tracking or
facilitating? Community College Review, 21(3), 3–16.
https://doi.org/10.1177/009155219302100302
Komarraju, M., Ramsey, A., & Rinella, V. (2013). Cognitive and non-cognitive predictors of
college readiness and performance: Role of academic discipline. Learning and Individual
Differences, 24, 103–109.
Koon, S., & Petscher, Y. (2016). Can scores on an interim high school reading assessment
accurately predict low performance on college readiness exams? REL 2016-124.
Tallahassee: Regional Educational Laboratory at Florida State University.
Kuh, G. D. (2007). What student engagement data tell us about college readiness. Peer Review:
Emerging Trends and Key Debates in Undergraduate Education, 9(1), 4–5.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: understanding
achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X035007003
Leonard, J. (2013). Maximizing college readiness for all through parental support. School
Community Journal, 23(1), .183–202.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 159
Lieu, M. (2010). Putting prerequisites into context: How we got to where we are. Retrieved from
http://www.asccc.org/content/putting-prerequisites-context-how-we-got-where-we-are
Martin, R., & McClure, P. (1969). Title I of ESEA: Is it helping poor children. Washington, DC:
Washington Research Project.
Mathis, W. J., & Trujillo, T. M. (2016). Lessons from NCLB for the Every Student Succeeds Act.
Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: an interactive approach (4th ed.). Thousand
Oaks, Calif: SAGE.
Mejia, M. C., Rodriguez, O., & Johnson, H. (2016). Preparing students for success in
California’s community colleges. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California
Merriam, B. S. & Tisdell J. E. (2016). Qualitative research: a guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Milner, H. R. (2012). Beyond a test score: Explaining opportunity gaps in educational practice.
Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), p.693–718.
Milner, H. R., IV. (2013). Analyzing poverty, learning, and teaching through a critical race
theory lens. Review of Research in Education, 37(1), 1–53.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X12459720
Milner, H. R. (2015). Rac(e)ing to Class: Confronting Poverty and Race in Schools and
Classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Murillo, L. A., & Schall, J. M. (2016). “They didn’t teach us well”: Mexican‐origin students
speak out about their readiness for college literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 60(3), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.581
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115, Stat. 1425 (2002).
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 160
Noguera, P., Pierce, J. C., & Ahram, R. (Eds.). (2016). Race, equity, and education: Sixty years
from Brown. New York, NY: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23772-5
Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation (No. 4). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE.
Patton. M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.Pedersen, R. P. (2000). The origins and development of the early public
junior college: 1900-1940 (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
Publishing. (9956389)
Porter, A. C., & Polikoff, M. S. (2012). Measuring academic readiness for college. Educational
Policy, 26(3), 394–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904811400410
Regional Educational Laboratory. (2016). The college promise in California: A collection of
program profiles. Retrieved from https://www.wested.org/resources/college-promise-
california/#
Reid, M. J., & Moore, J. L. (2008). College readiness and academic preparation for
postsecondary education oral histories of first-generation urban college students. Urban
Education, 43(2), 240–261.
Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009). College readiness for all: The challenge for urban
high schools. The Future of Children, 19(1), 185–210. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0024
Rodríguez, O., Bowden, B., Belfield, C., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2014). Remedial placement testing
in community colleges: What resources are required, and what does it cost? New York,
NY: Community College Research Center.
The RP Group. (n.d.). California Community Colleges Common Assessment Initiative
Evaluation. Retrievedfrom https://rpgroup.org/All-
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 161
Projects/ctl/ArticleView/mid/1686/articleId/109/California-Community-Colleges-
Common-Assessment-Initiative-Evaluation
Rueda, R. (2005). Student learning and assessment: Setting an agenda. In P. Pedraza & M.
Rivera (Eds.), Latino education: An agenda for community action research (pp. 185–
200). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sablan, J. R. (2014). The challenge of summer bridge programs. The American Behavioral
Scientist, 58(8), 1035–1050. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213515234
Sablan, J. R., & Tierney, W. G. (2016). Evaluating college-ready writing and college knowledge
in a summer bridge program. The Educational Forum, 80(1). 3–20.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2015.1105341
Scott-Clayton, J. (2012). Do high-stakes placement exams predict college success? CCRC
Working Paper No. 41. New York, NY: Community College Research Center.
Stanton-Salazar, R. (1997). A social capital framework for understanding the socialization of
racial minority children and youths. Harvard Educational Review, 67(1), 1–41.
https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.67.1.140676g74018u73k
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and
performance. The American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-
066X.52.6.613
Tate, W. F., IV. (2008). “Geography of opportunity”: Poverty, place, and educational outcomes.
Educational Researcher, 37(7), 397–411. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08326409
Thomas, J. Y., & Brady, K. P. (2005). Chapter 3: The Elementary and Secondary Education Act
at 40: Equity, accountability, and the evolving federal role in public education. Review of
Research in Education, 29(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X029001051
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 162
Thomas, N., Marken, S., Gray, L., & Lewis, L. (2013). Dual Credit and Exam-Based Courses in
US Public High Schools: 2010-11. First Look. NCES 2013-001. Washington, DC:
National Center for Education Statistics.
United States Department of Labor. (2013). Child Labor Provisions for Nonagricultural
Occupations Under the Fair Labor Standards Act. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved
from https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/childlabor101.pdf
United States. National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The
imperative for educational reform: A report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education,
United States Department of Education. Washington, DC: Department of Education.
Vargas, J., & Venezia, A. (2015). Co-design, co-delivery, and co-validation: Creating high
school and college partnerships to increase postsecondary success. Retrieved from
http://www.Jff.Org/initiatives/early-College-Designs/ready-or-Not-Its-Time-Rethink-
12th-Grade
Welton, A., & Williams, M. (2015). Accountability strain, college readiness drain: Sociopolitical
tensions involved in maintaining a college-going culture in a high“ minority”, high
poverty, Texas High School. High School Journal, 98(2), 181–204.
https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2015.0001

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 163
APPENDIX A
Background Questions
Hello, thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am looking into First-generation college
students and their thoughts on being in college. I want to find out how you describe your
academic readiness and your trajectory into higher education.
Background Questions:

1. How would you identify your race and or ethnicity?

2. Please circle: Male Female or X

3. What language do you speak at home?

a. If other than English: When did you learn English?
4. What is the highest level of education for both of your parents?
5. Why did you decide to attend a community college as opposed to a four-year
institution?

6. Are you receiving a Board of Governors (BOG) fee waiver?
7. What high school did you graduate from?
8. Did you take the English placement test?
a. If yes, when did you take the test and how did you hear about?
b. If no, what English course are you in?

9. What other courses are you taking or planning to take this semester?
10. What is your most challenging class right now and why?
11. How do you feel about the amount of work required for the courses you are enrolled
in right now?
12. How do you manage the workload? Do you have a support system to help you
manage course workload?
13. How did you develop your support system?

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 164
APPENDIX B
College Academic Readiness: Introduction and Interview Protocol
My research focusses on addressing and improving college academic readiness for First-
generation community college students of color, with interest in understanding how student’s
experiences and perceptive while in high school and later as a first semester community college
student enrolled in a basic-skills English class has impacted their overall academic development
or readiness. You have been selected to speak with me today because you have self-identified as
a First-generation minoritized students who is enrolled in a basic-skills English course at
Rockefeller Community College. My study intends to better understand your experience.

1. Research and Interview Questions Table
Research
Question
Interview Question Type of Question (e.g.,
Devil’s advocate,
opinion, etc.)
What is the
relationship
between
educational
cultural capital of
First-generation
community college
students of color
and their perceived
understanding of
college academic
readiness and
English
remediation?
IQ: In your perspective what
does it mean to be college
ready?
Probe: In your words, what is
needed to be college ready?
IQ- In your perspective or
opinion, what is the purpose of
taking the English placement.
In other words, what does it
serve?
Probe: Can you please further
explain?
IQ: What information and
support were provided to you
about the English placement
prior to taking the test?

Opinion Question

Opinion question

Knowledge Question

Knowledge Question

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 165
IQ: What is your understanding
as to why you are currently
enrolled in this English and or
reading course?
Probe: What explanation was
given to you as to why you are
enrolled in this English and or
reading class?

IQ-What kind educational
resources where available to
you while in high school to
prepare you for the challenges
of college courses?
Probe: How were these
resources made available to
you and did you engage in the
resources?
Probe: Describe how you
found this preparation helpful
or unhelpful?
IQ-Tell me about your
experience in your high school
English classes? What was it
like?
IQ: What was effective and
ineffective in how and what
you learned in your English
class?
IQ: How often did you get
feedback from your teacher on
assignments? How was their
feedback either successful or
unsuccessful?

Knowledge Question

Experience and behavioral
Question

Opinion Question

Opinion Question
IQ-What was the environment
like in your high school
English classes? More
specifically your behaviors,
your level of academic
engagement with the professor
and with other students in the
class?

Sensory and Experience
Question

Experience and behavior
question

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 166
IQ: How is your level of
engagement similar or different
in your college courses now?

Probe: Please give me an
example of what your
experience (eg. Engagement,
class structure etc.) is like in
your current English and or
reading class or other classes
you are enrolled in?
IQ: Can you comment on the
difference between the high
school student role and college
student role?

IQ- What adjustments have
you noticed or foresee in
transitioning from a high
school student to now a college
student?
Probe: Please elaborate and
give me an example?
IQ- Tell me about the support
you receive from your
professors and peers with
regards to your academics and
course work?
Probe: Please provide a few
examples?
IQ- Tell me about your study
habits and where you study for
your classes, especially as it
relates to your English class.
Probe: How do you assess the
effectiveness of those habits?
IQ: How does your study
habits connect to being
prepared for your class?
IQ- Outside of your English
and or reading class, how many
hours do you prepare or study
for each class?
Probe: Describe the
educational support you use to
prepare or study.
Experience Question

Opinion Question

Experience and behavior
Question

Experience and behavior
Question

Opinion or belief Question

Behavioral Question

Opinion Question

Behavioral Question
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 167

IQ- How would you assess
your high school in meeting
your needs in preparing you for
college?
IQ- Is the college meeting your
needs and expectations for the
kinds of academic support they
have available?
Probe- If yes, can you
elaborate? and if no, tell me
what could be done better or
differently to help you with
your preparation?
Probe: Can you elaborate and
provide some more examples?

IQ: In what ways do you
anticipate the academics of
college being different from
high school?
IQ: In your opinion what
literacy and writing skills do
students need to attain success
at the community college?
Probe: Which of the following
skills mentioned for both
reading and writing are your
strengths and weakness?
It is often argued that literacy
and writing are important
competency tools to have. Why
do you suppose people say
that?

Feeling Question

Feeling Question

Opinion Question

Opinion Question

Opinion Question

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 168
APPENDIX C
Informed Consent

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

College Academic Readiness and English Placement

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Hagop Ohanessian, Doctoral
Candidate and Dr. Paula M. Carbone, Dissertation Chair at the University of Southern
California, because you have self-identified as a First-generation minoritized student, enrolled in
a basic-skills English class, first semester at Rockefeller Community College, at least 18 years
old, and graduated in the Spring 2017 semester from a feeder high school, and have not
completed any units at Rokefeller Community College. Your participation is voluntary. I will
review the information below with you, so you understand the study, so that you might
participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide
to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be
asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

I am interested in understanding your lived experiences and thoughts regarding your preparation
and your transition from high school to community college and your experience revolved around
placing into your English course. Your participation in this study will help to better support First-
generation students.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, I will schedule an appointment with you so that I can
interview you for a duration of no more than one hour. I will meet with you in a private and quiet
office or classroom on campus to conduct the interview. During the interview process, I will use
an audio-recording device to maintain the accuracy and quality of your responses. However, you
may still participate in the study if you choose not to be recorded.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There anticipated benefits or for the student or society however, its benefits are contingent on the
results from this study.
COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 169
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
By participating in this interview, you will receive a $10 cash gift card.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The audio data will be encrypted on a secure PC and all field notes, transcripts, and coding will
be stored and locked in a home cabinet. Online professional transcribers by the name of Rev will
have access to the audio recordings. All audio files, transcriptions, field notes, and coding will be
erased and shredded after the minimum required length of three years.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

I NV E S T I GAT OR’ S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Hagop
Ohanessian, hohaness@usc.edu, University of Southern California Los Angeles, 90007

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

COLLEGE ACADEMIC READINESS AND ENGLISH PLACEMENT 170

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO
□ I agree to be audio-recorded.

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

College academic readiness and English placement

PDF

College readiness: terms and conditions may apply

PDF

""Having the right info"": College readiness as college knowledge among minoritized students in an urban education setting

PDF

The opportunity gap: culturally relevant pedagogy in high school English classes

PDF

A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers' perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom

PDF

The role of teachers in academic discussion

PDF

Ready or not? Unprepared for community college mathematics: an exploration into the impact remedial mathematics has on preparation, persistence and educational goal attainment for first-time Cali...

PDF

High-achieving yet underprepared: first generation youth and the challenge of college readiness

PDF

First-generation, low-income Latina students and cultural capital: a case study for academic advisors

PDF

No student is an island: college readiness on Guam = Tåya' estodiånte komu tåno': priparasion kulehu gi iya Guåhan

PDF

Improving first-generation students' sense of belonging at university

PDF

The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes

PDF

The relationship between academic capitalism and student culture at two four-year higher education institutions

PDF

The impact of college success program on first generation college students in their preparation for college

PDF

A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual immersion classrooms

PDF

And still we rise: examining the strengths of first-generation college students

PDF

Reflective journeys: African American community college STEM students' perceptions on equity and access

PDF

The role of family and ethnic identity in the college choice process for first-generation Latinas

PDF

Examining the relationship between Latinx community college STEM students’ self-efficacy, social capital, academic engagement and their academic success

PDF

Student academic self‐efficacy, help seeking and goal orientation beliefs and behaviors in distance education and on-campus community college sociology courses

Asset Metadata

Creator Ohanessian, Hagop (author)

Core Title College academic readiness and English placement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/12/2018

Defense Date 02/15/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college academic readiness,community college,educational cultural capital,first-generation,minoritized students,OAI-PMH Harvest,opportunity gaps

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Carbone, Paula M. (committee chair), Crawford, Jenifer (committee member), Herrin, Bridget (committee member)

Creator Email hohaness@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-9769

Unique identifier UC11670819

Identifier etd-Ohanessian-6245.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-9769 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Ohanessian-6245.pdf

Dmrecord 9769

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ohanessian, Hagop

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA