Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual immersion classrooms
(USC Thesis Other)
A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual immersion classrooms
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
Running head: DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 1
A Community Cultural Capital Approach: Bilingual Teachers’ Perceptions and Impact in Their
Dual Immersion Classrooms
by
Eriberto Martinez
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Doctoral Committee:
Dr. Jenifer Crawford, Chair
Dr. Paula M. Carbone
Dr. Reynaldo Baca
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Eriberto Martinez
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 2
DEDICATION
To my parents who showed me and my brothers the value of a hard work ethic. To my
father, Antonio, who left the familiarity of his Mexican hometown of Tehuixtla, Guerrero and
my mother, Elauteria, who left Ahuehuetla, Guerrero so that my brothers and I could have a
brighter future in the United States. My father always worked two jobs, rain or shine, sick or
healthy, to put a roof over our heads and food on the table. My mother always made sure we
were clothed, fed, and finished la tarea (our homework) and taught us the value of respecting
each other with her caring humility.
To my brothers (Raudel, Bertin, and Victor) thank you for supporting my academic
career. From our humble beginnings on 41
st
Place Street, we have improved our lives thanks to
our parent’s hard work, our own work ethic, and our college and university careers. When I
could not spend time with my son because of my schooling, you all were there for him and I am
eternally grateful. This dissertation would not have been possible without all of your support.
To my son, Eri Isiah (my little cub), you are truly the purpose of my life. From the
moment I saw you, I vowed to become a better person and when life’s challenges seemed too
great, you gave me the resolve to push through. Thank you so much for your patience and
understanding when I had to sacrifice “Sunday Funday” for three years while I labored to finish
my dissertation. My fondest desire is that you follow our family’s tradition of hard work and
dedication so that you too can reach your own goals.
The inspirational leader Dolores Huerta said many times to struggling workers
everywhere: ¡Sí, se puede!
This kid from South Central Los Angeles is proof that “Sí, se pudo.”
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you Dr. Crawford for your patience, feedback, and taking me under your wing by
guiding me through the arduous dissertation process. Your work and optimism toward bilingual
education will undoubtedly benefit English language learners and narrow the unfortunate
opportunity gaps that exist throughout education in America.
Thank you to my classmates for their unconditional support. When it seemed like school,
work, and life was just too much, your moral support carried me through. Thank you to my co-
author and esteemed colleague, Ofelia, for your hard work and dedication to our project. Thank
you Luz for being my library companion, Leavey library would have been so dull without you.
Thank you Esperanza for your positive attitude, you always lifted my spirits when I needed
it. Thank you to the “back row crew” of Adrean, Rachel, and Madeline for sharing your
knowledge and insights.
Thank you Dr. Baca, for always having your office doors open to me. From the day I
walked into your office as an unsure freshman to the completion of my dissertation, you always
believed in me. I am honored that you served as third chair on my dissertation committee and
forever grateful for your tutelage.
I want to acknowledge my classmates from the Class of 1999 at Thomas Jefferson High
School, who overcame the many adversities born from social injustice to obtain higher
education.
Last, I want to acknowledge Mr. Montaño, the first Latino teacher I met when I was a
student at Trinity Street Elementary School. Mr. Montaño genuinely cared about us and told us
that we could become anything we wanted in life as long as we worked hard for it. It wasn’t
until Mr. Montaño, whose upbringing was similar to mine, that I thought it was realistic to join
the noble profession of teaching. Years later as a high school student I sat in Ms. Jimenez’
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 4
Spanish class when she approached me and told me, “My husband knows you;” her husband was
Mr. Montaño.
Years after, as I was set to begin my first teaching job, I saw in the teacher’s lounge a
familiar face: Mr. Montaño. I was now a colleague of his at the same school. It seems like some
people are just meant to stay in your life to guide you through life’s endeavors, so thank you Mr.
Montaño for being that person.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 5
Table of Contents
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 3
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER ONE: BILINGUAL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND IMPACT IN THEIR
DUAL LANGUAGE IMMERSION CLASSROOMS ................................... 12
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................. 12
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................... 13
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 16
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................... 18
Limitations and Delimitations ....................................................................................... 19
Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 19
Organization of the Study .............................................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 22
The Rise, Fall, and Re-birth of Bilingual Education ..................................................................... 23
Bilingual Education Programs ....................................................................................................... 27
English as a Second Language Program Models ........................................................... 28
English-immersion programs .................................................................................... 28
Transitional bilingual programs ................................................................................. 28
Dual language bilingual education programs ............................................................ 29
Dual Immersion: Promise and Peril .............................................................................................. 29
Early Dual Immersion Models ...................................................................................... 30
Current Dual Immersion Programs ................................................................................ 31
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................. 35
The Macro Environment of Dual Language Immersion: Framework Lenses .............................. 37
Community Cultural Capital Framework ...................................................................... 38
Achievement Gap versus Opportunity Gap Framework ............................................... 39
Social Capital Framework ............................................................................................. 42
Effective Dual Language Immersion Instruction .......................................................................... 43
Sociocultural Framework on Learning to Teach ........................................................... 45
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy ............................................................. 47
Perspectives of Bilingual Teachers ................................................................................................ 48
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 6
Epistemic Privilege ........................................................................................................ 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 51
Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 52
Artifacts ..................................................................................................................... 54
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 58
Site and Participants ...................................................................................................................... 60
School District ............................................................................................................... 60
School Site ..................................................................................................................... 62
Teachers Profiles ............................................................................................................ 64
Ms. Del Angel ............................................................................................................ 64
Ms. Villanueva ........................................................................................................... 65
Ms. Cristal. ................................................................................................................ 66
Ms. Barbosa ............................................................................................................... 66
Ms. Sanchez ............................................................................................................... 67
Mr. Nuñez .................................................................................................................. 68
Ms. Henriquez ........................................................................................................... 68
Ms. Escobar ............................................................................................................... 69
Research Question One ................................................................................................................. 70
Teacher-Student Connection .......................................................................................................... 70
Using Community Cultural Capital to Make a Difference ............................................ 70
Meaningful Instruction .................................................................................................. 71
The Use of Teaching Strategies ..................................................................................................... 72
Think-Pair-Share Strategy ............................................................................................. 73
Model Language Strategy .............................................................................................. 76
Cognate teaching strategy .......................................................................................... 77
Effective Teaching Practices to Teach Language .......................................................................... 78
Explicit Instruction ........................................................................................................ 79
Explicit vocabulary instruction .................................................................................. 80
Key Elements on How to Ensure Student Language Acquisition ................................................. 81
Sentences Frames .......................................................................................................... 81
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 7
Intervention Programs to Ensure Linguistic Equity ...................................................................... 83
Intervention Programs ................................................................................................... 84
After school tutoring .................................................................................................. 84
Intervention during school hours ............................................................................... 85
Small group instruction during school hours ............................................................. 85
Research Question Two ................................................................................................................. 90
Professional Development ............................................................................................................. 90
GLAD Professional Development ................................................................................. 91
Instructional Pedagogy .................................................................................................................. 93
GLAD Teaching Strategies ............................................................................................ 94
Graphic organizers ..................................................................................................... 94
Hands-on .................................................................................................................... 95
Presentations .............................................................................................................. 95
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy ....................................................................................................... 96
Culturally Relevant Literature and School Activities .................................................... 97
Día de los muertos ..................................................................................................... 97
Las posadas ................................................................................................................ 98
Geography and Culture .................................................................................................. 99
Research Question Three ............................................................................................................. 102
Community Cultural Capital ....................................................................................................... 102
Aspirational Capital ..................................................................................................... 102
Navigational Capital .................................................................................................... 106
Social Capital ............................................................................................................... 109
Dual immersion teachers as social networks ........................................................... 109
Social networks as spaces of discourse ................................................................... 110
Linguistic Capital ........................................................................................................ 110
Familial Capital ........................................................................................................... 113
Resistant Capital .......................................................................................................... 115
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 121
Implication for Practice ............................................................................................................... 122
Professional Development ........................................................................................... 123
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 8
Scarcity of materials ................................................................................................ 124
Future Research ........................................................................................................................... 125
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 126
Research Findings........................................................................................................ 126
EPILOGUE .................................................................................................................................. 128
References ................................................................................................................................... 130
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 140
APPENDIX A: Dual Immersion Introduction and Interview Protocol ....................................... 140
APPENDIX B: Email Transcripts to Administration and Teachers ............................................ 148
APPENDIX C: Dual Immersion IRB Application ...................................................................... 149
APPENDIX D: Informed Consent .............................................................................................. 151
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 9
List of Tables
Table 2. 1 Dual Language Enrichment and Remediation ............................................................. 34
Table 4. 1. English Language Learner Strategies ......................................................................... 72
Table 4. 2. Teaching Strategies, Practices, and Key Elements Towards Language Acquisition. 87
Table 4. 3. Teaching Pedagogies that Impact Learning and Language Acquisition .................. 100
Table 4. 4. Community Cultural Capital that Influences Teaching Practices ............................ 117
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 10
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Student Outcomes in Dual Immersion Programs ........................................................ 37
Figure 4. 1. Student Demographics Breakdown at Athens Unified School District ..................... 61
Figure 4. 2. Student Population Demographics from Greenlawn Elementary School. ................. 62
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 11
ABSTRACT
This study applies the community cultural capital and sociocultural theory frameworks to
find out dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most effective practices in educating
culturally and linguistically diverse students. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the
research where data is lacking, by exploring bilingual teachers’ perceptions. The three research
questions investigated were: What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and
language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms? What do
bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning and language acquisition
on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their Spanish-English dual language
immersion classrooms? What non-economic resources do these bilingual teachers identify in
their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual immersion
classroom? The site and the participants were purposefully selected for this study. The
researcher selected one public elementary school and interviewed eight teachers. The researcher
used a qualitative methodology with interview protocol. Interviews were recorded and later
transcribed. Themes that emerged were teacher-student connection, teaching strategies to teach
language learning, effective teaching practices to teach language and ensure student language
acquisition, intervention to secure that students are gaining access to the curriculum in both
languages, professional development, instructional pedagogies, cultural and linguistic
pedagogies, and the six capitals of community cultural. Three main implications are the
adequate and relevant professional development for bilingual teachers, the understanding of dual
immersion programs by school administrators, and the scarcity of materials for dual language
teachers.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 12
CHAPTER ONE:
BILINGUAL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND IMPACT IN THEIR DUAL LANGUAGE
IMMERSION CLASSROOMS
1
This research focuses on examining the perception of teachers in dual immersion
programs as to the most useful practices and resources to develop their knowledge and skills in
educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. This study also investigates how dual
immersion teachers perceive the utility and relevance of professional development opportunities
in supporting their culturally and linguistically responsive instruction in their dual immersion
classroom. This chapter explains the background of the problem and introduces concepts of
opportunity gaps (Milner, 2010; Milner 2012), in the context of dual immersion education. Then
the statement of the problem is presented in which evidence and data will be contextualized to
analyze opportunity gaps in relation to teachers’ perceptions in dual immersion education. The
purpose and significance of the study, as well as its’ limitations and its delimitations are
presented.
Statement of the Problem
This dissertation addresses the problem of the persistent low academic achievement of
English Language learners in the American public-school system. The persistent low academic
achievement of English Language learners (ELL) demonstrates that this is a problem because the
1
Chapters One, Two, and Three were co-authored by Ofelia Cervera (degree candidate for the EdD in
Educational Leadership at the University of Southern California; ocervera@usc.ed), however some
revisions were made for the final dissertation solely by the author of this dissertation.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 13
evidence highlights that 50% of English Language learners fail their graduation tests, compared
to 24% of all English proficient students and English language learners are not equally
graduating as their English proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008).
According to the Office of English Language Acquisition, in 2014 English language learners’
graduation rate was 62.6 percent which was a one percentage improvement from the previous
year. However, ELLs continue to trail other student subgroups including students with
disabilities (63.1%) and economically disadvantaged students (74.6%) (OELA, 2014). This
problem is important to address because Lau v. Nichols (1975) ensures that language minority
students in public schools should receive linguistically appropriate accommodations.
Background of the Problem
Dual language schools started to resurface beginning in 1963 with the Coral Way School
in Dade County, Florida, however it was not until recently that research was conducted in the
field of bilingual and multilingual education (Baker & Lewis, 2016). Lambert and Tucker (1972)
wrote the first research on bilingual education. This research is significant because it provides
the hard data needed by politicians, policymakers, pedagogues, and parents to realize that
bilingual education is successful and able to replicate (Baker & Lewis, 2016). The study’s
results helped to reduce doubts about bilingual education and is frequently cited as evidence for
the introduction and expansion of bilingual education (Baker & Lewis, chapter 7). Lindholm-
Leary (2001) contributed to the research on U.S. dual language (two-way immersion)
schools. The Lindholm-Leary research concluded that dual language programs were successful
at promoting high levels of language proficiency, academic achievement, and positive attitudes
to learning in students. The mentioned bilingual and multilingual education research
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 14
demonstrates the academic benefits to all learners as well as, learning opportunities for culturally
and linguistically diverse students.
Based on research findings dual language education not only promotes academic
achievement but also positive attitudes to learning, therefore addressing the opportunity gap for
culturally and linguistically diverse students. The opportunity gap framework is asset based
whereas, the achievement gap tends to be deficit based. Achievement gap is the disparity of
educational measures between the performance of low-end groups of students (such as African
Americans, Latinos, Native Americans), and high-end performance students (such as White and
certain Asian groups) based on standardized test scores, grade point average, dropout rates, and
college enrollment and completion rates (Howard, 2015). According to Milner (2010),
educational researchers and educators should shift their mindset to closing the opportunity gap
instead of closing the achievement gap. The opportunity gap framework consists of five
interconnected areas that are crucial in assisting educators to address opportunity gaps: color
blindness, cultural conflicts, myth of meritocracy, low expectations and deficit mindsets, and
context-neutral mindsets and practices (Milner, 2010). They are defined as follows:
1. Color blindness: Educators must reject the notion of color blindness to recognize
and understand that race intersects with educational practices.
2. Cultural Conflict: Educators must understand the central role culture plays in
curriculum.
3. Myth of meritocracy: Educators must acknowledge that other factors besides merit
shape students’ academic and social success.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 15
4. Low expectations and deficit mind-sets: Educators need to understand that students
bring assets into the classroom and not only value but also capitalize on those
learning opportunities.
5. Context-neutral mind-sets: Educators must recognize the ways in which social
context can influence outcomes in education and how they can empower their
students to learn and think (Milner, 2010).
According to Carter and Welner (2013), the opportunity gap frame pays attention to the
deficiencies of foundational components of societies, schools, and communities that produce
significant differences in education. “Calling the persistent achievement disparities between
Black and Latino students and White students a “gap” suggests that something inherent in Black
and Latino students, their families, communities, cultures, schools, and teachers are responsible
for the disparities” (Carter & Welner, 2013, p. 13). Educational disparities highly correlate with
skin color, ethnicity, linguistic, and social class status. Minority students are not successfully
graduating from high school. African American and Hispanic students are graduating 66.1 and
71.4 percent compared to their white counterpart 93.5 percent (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Ladson-Billings (2006) argued that achievement disparities are the result of historical,
economic, political, and moral decisions that society has made over time. Ladson-Billings
(2006) refers to these achievement disparities as an educational debt. Education debt consists of
historical debt, economic debt, political debt, and moral debt. Historical debt refers to the
historical exclusion of minority students to an equitable education. The United States promoted
for all its citizens to be educated, except for African Americans. Throughout time, African
Americans have been restricted to an equal education. Today Latino, Black, and Nativ
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 16
Americans continue to attend schools that are still segregated (Ladson-Billings,
2006). Economic debt refers to the historic refusal to provide equitable funding to school
districts that serve minority students. Since most Black, Latino, Native Americans live in poor
communities, they attend inequitably funded schools as property taxes fund schools (Ladson-
Billings, 2013). Political debt refers to the disfranchisement of political participation for
minorities. According to Ladson-Billings (2006), lack of political power has been an ongoing
pattern for Black, Latino, and poor communities. Moral debt refers to the normalization of
marginalizing minorities in the United States. It is not okay not to allow entire groups of people
to participate equitably in an educational system that promotes opportunity for social and
economic advancement (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Purpose of the Study
The reason for qualitative methods is because the researcher is interested in how people
interpret their experiences (Merriam, 2016). Qualitative methods allow the researcher to explore
and examine how people construct their worldviews and make meaning of their
experiences. Another important aspect of qualitative inquiry is that it is highly elaborative and
descriptive (Merriam, 2016). Interviews and observations provide rich descriptions about what
the researcher wants to investigate about a phenomenon.
According to Maxwell (2013), interviewing and observing provide immediate description
but not necessarily direct understanding of the participant’s perspective. Therefore, the
researcher must infer from description of that person’s behavior that’s obtain from observations
and interviews, or other written documents or sources (Maxwell, 2013). This study used semi
structured approach. Semi structured interviews consist of flexible worded questions,
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 17
information is requested from all the respondents, the interview is guided by a list of questions to
be investigated, and questions are not predetermined (Merriam, 2016). By utilizing semi
structured interviews, this study was able to gather information that was pertinent to the research
study. The following are the research questions and hypotheses:
1. What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and language
acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
2. What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning
and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in
their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
3. What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic,
navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in their
approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual
immersion classroom?
The following approaches and theories will be employed to examine and obtain data on
the perceptions of dual immersion teachers in relation to practices and resources to develop their
knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students and utility and
relevance of professional development opportunities in supporting their linguistically and
culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion classroom:
1. Cognitive Learning Theories
2. Constructivist Approach
3. Language Acquisition Theory
4. Sociocultural Theory
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 18
Significance of the Study
This study will provide useful qualitative data to address the opportunity gaps of English
language learners in dual immersion programs in Southern California. English language learner
students make up 25% of the total school enrollment of California, which are about 1.5 million
students (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Seventy-five percent of English language learners
are poor, and ninety-one percent live in urban areas (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Eighty
percent of English Language learners live in households in which no one over of the age of
fourteen is a speaker of English and half live with parents who have not completed eight years of
schooling (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). English language learners are deprived from early
childhood programs as there are few that can serve their educational needs (García, Kleifgen, &
Falchi, 2008).
With the continuous growth of ELLs, it is ever more important to research new
pedagogies for this population of learners. Overall, this study provides schools and school
districts with data on what are the high-leverage pedagogical practices to educate culturally and
linguistically diverse students. This study provides the information of what do dual immersion
teachers perceive as the most useful practices and resources to develop their knowledge and
skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. The study will also provide
information on how dual immersion teachers perceive the utility and relevance of professional
development opportunities in supporting their linguistically and culturally responsive instruction
in their dual immersion classrooms.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 19
Limitations and Delimitations
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that ensuring validity and reliability in qualitative
research consists of conducting the study in an ethical manner, which in turn will establish
trustworthiness in the research. In this study, the limitations that might be encountered are the
following: (a) dual immersion programs have multiple variations making it challenging to make
fair comparisons among the various models/programs, (b) the length of study is determined to
terminate by April 2018. (c) the geography of dual immersion schools, (d) Sample size may be
undersized, (e) issues of external validity may arise throughout the study. Another concern is
that finding will be based primarily on the perceptions of teachers regarding the practices and
resources to develop teacher’s knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically
diverse students and utility and relevance of professional development opportunities in
supporting their linguistically and culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion
classroom.
Definition of Terms
Achievement gap: Achievement gaps (low end of the performance) between different groups
such as African Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, and white and certain Asian groups
(high end of the performance) (Howard, 2015).
Culturally and Linguistically diverse students: Students that come from different cultural
backgrounds and possess various levels of language acquisition (Daniel, 2016).
DI-Dual Immersion: Two-way bilingual education (also called two-way dual language,
two-way immersion or dual immersion) pushes the developmental model even further by
supporting fluency in both English and the native language within classrooms that enroll both
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 20
native English-speaking students and ELLs. In these language-integrated settings, students learn
both languages together, and all students emerge bilingual from these school settings (García,
Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008).
DL-Dual Language: Two languages.
DLL: Dual language learners: Learners with two languages.
Educational Debt: Education debt is “forgone schooling resources that could have (should have)
been invested (primary) low income kids, which deficit leads to a variety of social problems (eg.
Crime, low productivity, low wages, low labor force participation) ...” (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
ELL: English language learners are students who are not yet proficient in English.
Multilingual Education: Education consisting of two or more languages.
Opportunity gap: The opportunity gap frame pays attention to the deficiencies of foundational
components of societies, schools, and communities that produce significant differences in
education (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Organization of the Study
Chapter One, will summarize the importance of studying dual language education and
how it addresses the opportunity gap for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Chapter
Two, discusses the literature regarding dual immersion and multilingual education. How to
bridge learning opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students is the focus. The
opportunity gap framework, teachers’ perceptions in relation to practices and resources to
develop their knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students, and
utility and relevance of professional development opportunities in supporting their linguistically
and culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion classrooms all form the basis for
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 21
this study. Chapter Three, explains the design of the study, the qualitative methodology used,
the data collection and analysis of the data. Chapter Four, presents the data for each research
question, an analysis of the findings, and discussion of key findings. Chapter Five, includes a
summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the study, and future implications for
practitioners.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The focus of this research is to examine and gather the perceptions of dual language
immersion teachers on classroom elements such as effective practices and resources that
contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in educating culturally and
linguistically diverse students. This dissertation addresses the problem of the persistence of low
academic achievement among English Language learners in the American public school system.
The persistent low academic achievement of English Language learners is a problem with the
evidence highlighting that 50% of English Language learners fail their graduation exit exams
compared to 24% of all English proficient students and English language learners graduation rate
is not equal to their English language proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008).
This problem is important to address because Lau v. Nichols (1975) ensured linguistically
appropriate accommodations for language minority students in public schools. The study will
investigate three research questions: (1) What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to
learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
(2) What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning and language
acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their Spanish-English dual
language immersion classroom? (3) What non-economic resources (capital including: familial,
social, linguistic, navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in the
students in his or her Spanish-English dual immersion classroom?
The review is organized by first discussing the history of bilingual education in the
United States, followed by the types of dual immersion program models that are currently in
place in US school systems. The review then discusses the three theoretical strands that will be
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 23
used to analyze dual language immersion—opportunity gap, sociocultural capital, and
community cultural capital. These three theoretical strands will be used to look how attitudes of
language educators impact dual immersion student outcomes.
The Rise, Fall, and Re-birth of Bilingual Education
Historically the United States has been a land of many languages. Before waves of
European immigration, there were more than 300 separate native indigenous languages spoken in
the United States (Baker, 2011). During colonial times, European immigrants who spoke many
languages was not uncommon. In 1664, when Britain gained control of New York, at least 18
European languages were spoken on the Island of Manhattan (Crawford, 2004). By the late 17
th
century, bilingualism was common among the working classes as well as the educated,
especially in what would become New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware
(Crawford, 2004). Succeeding waves of European immigrants to the American colonies
prioritized retaining their native languages alive. German-speaking Americans started schools in
their tongue as early as 1694 in Philadelphia. In 1787, Franklin & Marshall college became the
first institution to teach German at the university level and continues to the present.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was common for parents to place their children in
schools that provided bilingual education. After the War of 1812, a wave of new immigrants
entered the United States, and it was considered normal for children to be instructed in their
native language (Crawford, 2004). As a matter fact, an Ohio law of 1839 authorized instruction
of English, German, or both in areas where parents requested and in Louisiana a similar law was
passed, but it substituted French for German, and in New Mexico, it was authorized to teach
Spanish-English bilingual education (Crawford, 2004). Schools in the United States had more
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 24
tolerance for bilingual education in the 18th and 19th centuries. One reason that schools were
open to bilingual education was partly motivated by competition of students between public and
private schools (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). At the time private, parochial schools were
synonymous with providing bilingual education. Public schools at the time were losing students
to them, thus bilingual education was offered in response to the popularity of bilingual education
in parochial schools (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). By the start of the 20
th
century however,
public sentiment toward bilingual education had changed.
In contrast to the 18
th
and 19
th
centuries, bilingual education was heavily scrutinized well
at the beginning of the 20th century. A new wave of European immigrants--Italians, Jews, and
Slavs--came to the United States and began to outnumber Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians in
the immigration pipeline (Crawford, 2004). Classrooms in public schools were filled with many
immigrants and it caused anxiety around the United States (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). Many
established Americans were wary of the new arrivals. In response, Congress passed The National
Act of 1906 which required incoming immigrants to pass an English literacy exam prior to entry
into the United States (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). After the United States entered World War
I, bilingual education was eradicated across the nation. There were a lot of anti-German feelings
across the country, and several state laws banned German speech in public places and required
public schools to only teach English monolingual education (Crawford, 2004; Wiley, 1998). The
German language at the time was seen as a threat to the American people (Baker, 2011). In
1919, the Americanization Department of the United States Bureau of Education recommended
all states require schools (public and private) to offer English-only instruction (Garcia, 1992).
By 1923, 34 states were teaching exclusively in English (Baker, 2011). While the outlook for
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 25
bilingual education was dismal in the early part of the 20th century, it experienced a boom, due
to new legislation and a new wave of immigration in the middle of the 1900s.
Bilingual education started to make a comeback into American classrooms around the
middle of the 20th century. As new immigrants entered the United States, some professionals
questioned if English-only instruction was beneficial to immigrant students. George I. Lopez, a
professor of Psychology from the University of Texas, advocated for bilingual approaches
because he argued that schools should build upon children’s language and culture (Crawford,
2004). Lopez’ views were influenced by observing the many obstacles immigrant children faced
because they could not speak a word of English and had a hard time adjusting to their school
environment (Crawford, 2004).
In 1958, the National Defense and Education Act was signed and it encouraged foreign
languages in elementary schools, high schools, and universities. The following year, yet another
wave of immigrants, this time from Latin America, provided a boost to bilingual education. After
the Cuban Revolution of 1959, many Cuban exiles fled to Miami. Partially as a result of Cold
War policy, the United States welcomed them through the Cuban Refugee Program. According
to Crawford (2004), Cuban immigrants were more accepted in the United States than other
immigrant groups because they were of European stock: light skinned, and many were educated
professionals. Nervertheless, these Cuban exiles managed to set up a Spanish-English bilingual
school in Dade County in South Florida with the intention of maintaining their mother tongue of
Spanish as they thought their exile was temporary (Baker, 2011; Crawford 2004).
The success of the bilingual school in Dade County spread throughout the nation and
educators of English learners visited the campus to learn about bilingual pedagogy (Crawford,
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 26
2004). Soon, the bilingual program in Dade County was being emulated across the country
(Crawford, 2004). Moreover, the Bilingual Act was established in 1968 under Title VII of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Baker, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary,
2008; Kim et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2001). The Bilingual Act provided funds for the
establishment of bilingual programs for speakers of other languages across the United States
(Baker, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Kim et al., 2015). Bilingual education notched
another victory in 1975 when a group of Chinese-language students sued the San Francisco
School District for not providing equal educational opportunities to non-English speaking
students (Baker, 2011).
Lau v. Nichols (1975) outlawed English mainstreaming programs because they lacked
supplemental language instruction for language minority students, which violated the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 (Baker, 2011). After the landmark case, the Office of Civil Rights released
guidelines for school districts to follow, known as “Lau remedies”. The Lau remedies
encompassed classes in English as a Second Language, English tutoring, and bilingual education.
Yet, bilingual education’s fortunes would recede toward the end of the 20
th
century.
Bilingual education retreated toward the end of the 20
th
century. According to the New
York Times (1981), President Reagan felt it was wrong to have bilingual education in American
schools because it never got students to learn adequate English so that they would be able to
enter the job market and compete. More importantly, the Reagan Administration eased efforts to
implement the Lau v. Nichols remedies (Baker, 2011). One of the biggest setbacks for bilingual
education came in the 1990s. Proposition 227 was passed in California, which was an initiative
to have all children, including English language learners, instructed in English as rapidly and
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 27
efficiently as possible. Bilingual education in the state was eviscerated and sheltered English
immersion programs were phased in (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). With passage of
Proposition 227, other states followed with similar initiatives. In both Arizona and
Massachusetts, Proposition 203 and Question 2 respectively, voters outlawed bilingual education
(Baker 2011; Crawford 2004). By the end of the 20
th
century, the outlook for bilingual education
was bleak, but its reemergence in the 21
st
century caught many by surprise.
Almost two decades after California voters passed Prop 227, in 2016 California voters
passed Proposition 58 which implemented the California Multicultural Education Act. It gave
California public schools sovereignty over dual language acquisition programs (CA Voter Guide,
2016). Furthermore, Proposition 58 revoked the English-only requirement of Proposition 227
and consequently students were once again allowed to learn English through various programs
besides English immersion classes (CA Voter Guide, 2016).
Bilingual Education Programs
Bilingual education’s place in America’s classrooms has changed throughout history. Its
changes were often prompted by societal changes such as immigration, or political ones, such as
xenophobic or nationalist sentiment. Similarly, the adoption of bilingual education programs has
varied through time. There are several iterations of bilingual education programs across the U.S.
Four commonly adopted bilingual education programs models are English as a Second Language
(ESL), English immersion, transitional bilingual, and dual language bilingual education (or also
known as two-way immersion bilingual education or dual immersion bilingual education). The
adoption of any number of ESL programs often requires practical as well as theoretical
considerations. Those considerations are varied and will be discussed in depth in subsequent
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 28
chapters, but what follows are the basic function of ESL programs and a brief overview of its
strengths and/or weaknesses.
English as a Second Language Program Models
English as a Second Language Program model comes in two varieties: a “pull-out” and a
mainstream model. The ESL “pull out” variation has students pulled from their regular
classroom in order to receive instruction in grammar, vocabulary, reading, speaking, and writing
in English in separate classes during the school day (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodríguez, &
Gómez, 2004). One draw back of the ESL “pull out” model is that students end up losing out on
some of the mainstream curriculum because they are in another classroom receiving ESL
instruction. The mainstream ESL model (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004) does not require students to
move classrooms but does require a certified ESL teacher. While the mainstream model’s main
advantage is that students remain in their class and do not necessarily miss out on the mainstream
curriculum, it requires certified personnel that may not be feasible (or available) in certain school
districts.
English-immersion programs. English-immersion programs, also known as structured
English immersion (SEI), usually include all subjects taught in English with few clarifications
from the minority language (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004). Often this model has been adopted in
response to societal concerns of assimilation. While some students are able to adapt to this fast-
paced, fully immersive version of ESL, evidence suggests many students struggle to learn
English under this model (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004).
Transitional bilingual programs. Transitional bilingual programs provide instruction in
the student’s minority language for all curriculum content along with a small percentage of ESL
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 29
instruction. The emphasis in this model of ESL is transition. The goal of transitional bilingual
programs is for students to gradually transition to all-English classes and exit out of bilingual
programs (Brisk, 1999). While this model is not as fast-paced as SEI, there are divergent
opinions on how fast to transition ELLs and what ongoing support must or should be provided to
students who struggle learning academic English.
Dual language bilingual education programs. Dual language bilingual education
programs, also known as two-way immersion bilingual education, or dual immersion bilingual
education, are described as maintenance programs in which students acquire a new language
while maintaining their native tongue (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000). One of the goals of
dual language bilingual programs is to develop bilingualism and biliteracy skills in all students,
both in their native tongue and in the language that they are learning (Christian & Whitcher,
1995; Valdés, 1997). Dual language bilingual education programs are considered to be an
inclusive model because it does not segregate English language learners from mainstream
English speakers; all students mingle together within the classroom (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004).
Dual Immersion: Promise and Peril
Dual Immersion emerged in the United States and Canada around the same time during
the 1960s, and as previously mentioned, it is one of a number of iterations of bilingual education
that emerged during that time period (Block, 2011; Christian, 1996; Genesee & Gándara, 1999;
Jong & Howard, 2009; Kim, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2015; Lara-Alecio et al., 2004; Lindholm-
Leary, 2001; Potowski, 2004). Immersion programs were initiated as a remedy to social and
linguistic inequities. In Canada, immersion programs in English and French were created in the
mid 1960s to ease the social and linguistic divide between the French and English-speaking
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 30
population in Quebec (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008). Parental pressure caused many
schools to add immersion programs to existing schools and in other cases, new immersion
schools opened up; parents wanted their children to develop deep proficiency in both French and
English (Thomas & Collier, 1997).
In the United States, the influx of Cuban immigration in the 1960s brought dual
immersion to education’s forefront. The Cuban revolution sent waves of Cuban refugees to the
USA (Crawford, 2004; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008). Some Cubans arriving in Miami,
Florida were anxious about their children losing their native language; while others were
concerned about developing employable levels of English proficiency. Subsequently in 1963,
these Cuban immigrants initiated the first dual immersion program at Coral Way School in Dade
County (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004; Genesee & Gándara, 1999; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary,
2008; Lindholm-Leary, 2001).
Early Dual Immersion Models
There are various dual immersion models, but the most popular immersion programs
emerged in Canada and are known as the 90/10 model (Block, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-
Leary, 2008; Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodríguez, & Gómez, 2004; May, 2008; Montague,
1997). In this model, students are instructed 90 percent in the minority language (which is the
home or dominant language) and 10 percent of the school day in the majority language, which is
usually English in the United States and Canada (Block, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary,
2008; Montague, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 1997). The goal of the program is to gradually
decrease the minority language and increase the majority language as students pass through
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 31
elementary grade levels. The expectation of early dual immersion programs was to reach an even
split of instruction in both languages in the upper grades.
Instruction in the 90/10 model starts in kindergarten, then the program graduates to an
80/20 in first grade, then a 70/30 model in second grade, until children learn the curriculum
equally (50/50) in both languages by grade 4 and grade 5 (Montague, 1997; Thomas & Collier,
1997). Throughout the years the 90/10 model has been the most successful for students in
Canada. Documented by Thomas and Collier (1997), immersion bilingual schooling achieved
high standardized test scores with majority and minority students, students of low socioeconomic
status, and students with learning disabilities.
Current Dual Immersion Programs
Dual immersion (also known as two-way immersion) programs come in two varieties:
full or partial. According to Howard and Sugarman (2001), full immersion is when students
study in the minority language for 90% of the time. Partial immersion, or the 50/50 model, is
when students study half in English and the other half in the minority language from
kindergarten onward (Howard & Sugarman, 2001).
According to Genesee and Lindholm-Leary (2008), Jong and Howard, (2009), and
Palmer (2007), two-way immersion programs primary goals are for every student to become
bilingual and biliterate, to have cross-cultural competence, and to have high academic
achievement. One of the strengths of two-way immersion is its linguistic inclusivity. English
speakers and native speakers of another language are educated together for most, if not all day,
and receive content and literacy instruction in both English and the minority language (Genesee
& Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Kim, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2015). Dual language education differs
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 32
from some other models of ESL because it does not separate ELLs from mainstream English
speakers within the same classroom (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Jong & Howard, 2009),
thereby lowering the chances of English language learners of being segregated and put in a
remediation programs.
Mounting evidence shows that dual immersion programs have demonstrable results for
ELLs. Dual immersion enrichment programs are the only programs that have shown students
scoring in the 50th percentile in standardized language arts tests in both the minority language
and majority language in all subjects (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008). Possibly more
significant is the long-term effects of dual immersion, where it has shown favorable results in the
critical area of dropout rates (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Jong & Howard, 2009). In their
study, Lindholm-Leary (2001) collected dual language program data from 20 schools, including
about 4,900 students and over the course of four years in some cases to eight years in other cases.
Her data collection included student outcomes such as oral language proficiency, literacy, and
academic achievement and it found:
The results show that DLE [Dual Language Education] model is successful in
promoting high levels of first language, second language, and at least medium levels
of bilingual proficiency among both language-minority and language-majority
students. Further, students can achieve at least as well as their peers who are not in
DLE classrooms (pg. 309).
Dual immersion programs show relative gains in student outcomes. Not only did DLE
show favorable student outcomes, the study showed that teachers who teach in a DLE model
have positive attitudes toward the bilingual model because they appear to understand the model
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 33
and enjoy teaching the program (Lindholm-Leary, 2001). The team of Virginia P. Collier and
Wayne P. Thomas (2004) conducted longitudinal research on the effectiveness of dual language
education. Their research, which spanned almost two decades, and included 23 large and small
school districts from 15 different states, indicated that dual immersion programs have the power
to enhance student outcomes and fully close the achievement gap in the second language (L2).
Collier and Thomas (2004) also reported that not all dual language programs are equal. They
made the distinction between dual language enrichment programs vs. dual language remediation
programs.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 34
Table 2. 1
Dual Language Enrichment and Remediation
Dual Language Enrichment Programs Dual Language Remediation Programs
• Curricular mainstream taught
through two languages.
• Cognitive challenge through
thematic units of the core
curriculum.
• Focused on real world problem
solving that stimulates students to
make progress in both languages.
• No translation and no repeated
translation in the other language.
• Separation of the two languages
is a key component of the model.
• Peer teaching and teachers use
cooperative learning strategies
that serve as stimulus for the
cognitive challenge.
• Intensive English classes (English
only classes).
• Pull out English as a Second
Language (ESL).
• ESL Content/sheltered instruction.
• Structured English immersion.
• Transitional bilingual education.
• “Water down” instruction.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 35
Dual language remediation programs are weaker forms of bilingual education for ELLs
(Baker, 2011). Dual language remediation programs are an example of submersion education.
According to Baker (2011), submersion education suggests instructing English language learners
in the majority language with a naive expectation that students will learn the new language as
quickly as possible without any help or scaffolding. Other forms of dual language remediation
programs are transitional, mainstream, and separatist, refer to Table 2.1. Broadly understood,
dual language remediation programs have lower expectations of ELLS. As will be explained
later in the chapter, lower expectations for English language learners are both normatively and
empirically a negative for students in bilingual education.
The most impactful programs are dual language enrichment programs. According to
Collier and Thomas (2004), enrichment dual language schooling closes the achievement gap in
both primary and secondary languages. For example, in the Houston Independent School
District, students who were taught first in Spanish, with formal English language arts introduced
in second grade scored higher than average on the difficult national norm referenced tests, the
Stanford 9 and Aprenda 2. In Maine, “after four years of dual language program, former English
learners who were achieving at the 40
th
percentile Normal Curve Equivalents (NCE) before the
program started had reached the 62
nd
percentile NCE in English reading on the Terra Nova, well
above grade level” (Collier & Thomas, 2004, p. 9).
Conceptual Framework
Two theoretical strands are the main frameworks of this qualitative study: community
cultural capital theory and sociocultural theory. Opportunity gap and social capital frameworks
inform this study. Community cultural capital theory is useful in examining the cultural
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 36
background of dual immersion teachers and how it plays a critical role in delivering an effective
curriculum that values the cultural and linguistic diversity of students. Community cultural
capital enables individuals to view communities of color as ones that manifest cultural wealth
through six principles: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital
(Yosso 2005). Sociocultural theory is applied to scaffolding practices utilized by teachers to
assist students in the learning process. Sociocultural theory claims that information processing is
facilitated by helping learners in the process (Vygotsky, 1978).
Milner (2010) introduced the opportunity gap framework to examine the thinking and
practices of teachers to effectively address opportunity gaps that exist in the K - 12 educational
system. Stanton-Salazar (2011) argued for a social capital framework. At the core of this
framework is the notion of the institutional agent which is defined as an individual who engages
in one or more hierarchical positions of relatively high-status and authority (Stanton-Salazar,
2011). Therefore, this framework applies to bilingual teachers as institutional agents that can
provide highly valued resources to their dual language students.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 37
Figure 2.1. Student Outcomes in Dual Immersion Programs.
The Macro Environment of Dual Language Immersion: Framework Lenses
The researchers’ analysis of the perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual language
immersion classrooms are analyzed through two theoretical strands: community cultural capital
and sociocultural theory on learning to teach. The opportunity gap and social capital frameworks
also inform this study. The researcher looks at how these lenses impact teachers’ attitudes
toward student outcomes in dual language immersion education.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 38
Community Cultural Capital Framework
There are limited studies on the community cultural capital theory. However, community
cultural capital is an important concept to explore in addressing the opportunity gap and how it
relates to bilingual teachers and their dual immersion classrooms. Culture can be defined as sets
of values, beliefs, ideas, languages, customs, and acquired knowledge that are transmitted
through teaching and learning (Milner, 2015; Goldenberg, 2014). Building community cultural
capital becomes central in addressing learning opportunities for students in dual immersion
programs. Milner (2010) and Goldenberg (2014), argued that educators need to understand the
complexity and importance of connecting students’ culture to close the opportunity gap that can
potentially prevent the underachievement of students to continue. Educators must strive to forge
community cultural capital rather than choosing not to build or draw upon the knowledge and
resources of the local community.
Community cultural capital enables individuals to view communities of color as
communities who exhibit cultural wealth through six forms of capital: aspirational, navigational,
social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital (Yosso, 2005). The following are brief
descriptions of these six forms of capital:
1. Aspirational capital is the ability to preserve hopes and dreams for the future, despite
real challenges.
2. Linguistic capital is the intellectual and social skills acquired through communication
experiences in different languages or styles.
3. Familial capital is cultural knowledge nurtured among family that instill a sense of
community history, memory, and cultural intuition.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 39
4. Social capital are networks of people and community resources.
5. Navigational capital are skills of moving through social institutions.
6. Resistant capital is knowledge and skills created through opposing behavior that
challenges inequality. (Yosso, 2005)
In their study Tolbert and Eichelberger (2016) focus on community cultural capital and
teachers of color. This work is useful in explaining how teachers of color respond to challenges
and oppressive conditions that are often part of their experiences in predominantly white
institutions (PWI) (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). Their research followed Serina and
documented her experiences as a pre-service teacher. Serina’s experiences were recorded
through pre-post program interviews, student teaching observations, post-observation debrief
interviews, field notes, and participant observations (Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016). Serina’s
story contained the following themes: teacher as an agent of change, following the norm as
professionalism, and invoking community cultural capital (Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016).
Serina’s story contributes important insights into how teachers of color in PWIs endure and
respond to challenges and oppressive conditions (Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016).
Achievement Gap versus Opportunity Gap Framework
Achievement gap is a term that refers to the disparities in standardized test scores
between students of color and white students (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Howard, 2015). The
misperception that students of color are deficient has roots in the deculturalization process of the
schooling system, where many Latino and Native American students were forced to renounce
their cultural, political, and spiritual practices (Howard, 2015).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 40
ELLs are vulnerable to being reclassified such that they receive English-only instruction.
The aim of reclassification is to have ELLs become English proficient via English-only
instruction. Mahoney and MacSwan’s (2005), collected data from a national survey of state
requirements and recommendations regarding the identification and reclassification of English
Language Learners to analyze reclassification practices toward them. The data examined the
how states identified and reclassified ELLs. The study also scrutinized three common practices:
(a) How are academic achievement assessments used for identification; (b) How are routine tests
of children’s oral native language ability used to determine identification and reclassification;
and (c) How are cutoff scores used to determine the identification or reclassification placing of
English language learners.
The study found that all three common practices have negative consequences for ELLs.
These findings are not surprising because it has been documented that academic achievement
assessments can be biased. Tests on a child’s oral native language ability can also be hindered
by the child’s developmental stage, parent’s level of education, and social economic status.
Finally, cutoff scores to determine identification or reclassification vary from state to state and
even district to district within a state. In conclusion, these practices work against ELLs and have
negative consequences for their academic achievement and progress.
According to Gandara and Rumberger (2008), non-proficient linguistic minority students
lag far behind students from English only backgrounds. Saunders and Marcelletti (2013),
highlighted that 60% of students from English-only backgrounds scored proficient or advanced
on CST ELA California Standards Test in English Language Arts (CST ELA), whereas, only
38% of ELLs scored proficient or advanced.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 41
Ladson-Billing argued that instead of an achievement gap, there exists an education debt
(2006). The education debt is the withholding of schooling resources that we should be investing
in disadvantaged student populations (Ladson-Billings, 2006). In addressing the education debt,
we are also looking at opportunity gaps and how we can deliver learning opportunities to groups
of students that have been historically marginalized. Descriptions such as “underachieving” and
“underperforming” are frequently present in deficit tone discourse surrounding the achievement
gap. In order to change the deficit tones when referring to the achievement gap, practices at high
performing schools with culturally and linguistically diverse students need to be examined
(Howard, 2015). It is crucial to change the deficit mindset to asset based in which opportunity
gaps are addressed by providing learning opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse
students instead of focusing on achievement gaps. Learning opportunities, whether we refer to
them as educational debts or opportunity gaps, need to be provided to improve students’
outcomes and address equity issues (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2010; Rueda, 2005).
Milner (2010) introduced the opportunity gap framework to analyze the thinking and
practices of teachers who effectively address opportunity gaps that exist in our K - 12
educational system. Milner (2010) identified five interconnected areas that can make educators
realize how they are contributing and addressing opportunity gaps: color blindness, cultural
conflicts, meritocracy, low expectations and deficit mind-sets, and context-neutral mind-sets and
practices. Milner (2010) stated that color blindness takes place when educators avoid topics of
race and dismiss their own and their students’ racial experiences. Curriculum and instructional
decisions have frequently been based on the exclusion of students of color (Milner, 2010). For
instance, contributions from Native Americans, Latinos, and other ethnic groups have in the past
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 42
been left out of history or social studies lessons. This omission implied that their history was
inferior or not a priority. Milner (2010) refers to cultural conflicts as inconsistencies that emerge
in the teaching and learning context based on race, gender, age, geography, and socioeconomic
disconnections between educators and students. An area in which to observe this occurrence is
the disproportionate number of students of color being suspended in contrast to white students
(Milner, 2010). Milner (2010) discussed how the myth of meritocracy impedes educators from
seeing systemic and institutional barriers and believe in the idea that people are rewarded based
on their ability, performance, effort, and talents. Therefore, this leads to educators not providing
students multiple chances for success since they believe students are not working to their full
potential (Milner, 2010). Having low expectations sets the tone for academic performance and
classroom environment.
Milner (2010) also explains deficit mindsets and low expectations in which educators
focus on achievement gaps versus learning opportunities, resulting in educators that do not
provide a challenging and rigorous curriculum because they do not believe that their culturally
diverse students are capable (Milner, 2010). Rueda (2005) defined the opportunity to learn as a
range of variables likely to influence student academic performance, encompassing access to
resources, access to high quality instructional content and processes, and direct preparation for
assessments being administered. EO (English-only) instruction and reclassification threatens
access to high-quality instructional content for linguistically diverse students.
Social Capital Framework
Social capital is defined as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are
linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 43
acquaintance and recognition,” (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu’s definition is grounded in a
framework that explains the complexities involved in the social reproduction of class inequality
(Bourdieu, 1986). Nan Lin (2001) redefined social capital as resources embedded in a social
structure that are accessed by mobilizing in purposeful actions. Stanton-Salazar (2011)
presented a social capital framework that merges the previous social capital concepts, as
resources that are directly embedded in a social medium, in a relationship or network. The social
medium is characterized by two basic sets of structural properties:
1. Its configurational properties such as strength of tie or relationship; density of
network.
2. Its integrative properties such as mutual investment in relationship, trust, and norm of
reciprocity. (Stanton-Salazar, 2011)
The institutional agent is at the core of this framework and is defined as an individual who
engages in one or more hierarchical positions of relatively high-status and authority (Stanton-
Salazar, 2011). This individual becomes a recognizable institutional agent when they act on the
behalf of the adolescent to directly transmit or negotiate the transferal of highly valued resources
(Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Highly valued resources can be letters of recommendation for college,
recommended for AP classes, or any endorsement to benefit the student. Stanton-Salazar (2011)
defined institutional agent as an individual who occupies one or more hierarchical positions of
relatively high-status, either within a society or in an institution or an organization.
Effective Dual Language Immersion Instruction
Teacher in-service training should provide learning in content and strategies guided by
theory and research that is applied in the classroom after critical reflection and discussion takes
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 44
place in their professional learning communities (Honigsfeld & Cohan, 2012). Educators need to
build their community cultural capital by understanding how their students use language to
express themselves. Palmer and Martinez (2013) conjectured that educators must develop an
understanding of bilingualism that is based on actual bilingual conversation. Therefore, teachers
need to understand language as practice and hybridity as a normal expression of bilingualism in
dual language classrooms (Palmer & Martinez, 2013).
Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede (2011) proposed that the appropriate context for the
implementation of effective instruction that promotes language and literacy in dual language
learners, learning standards and program policies should include requirements that promote and
enhance dual language learning. The following are examples of such requirements:
1. Institute teacher credentialing regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria
requiring coursework in second language acquisition and in specific teaching
strategies to support dual language learners and their families, combined with at a
minimum, cursory proficiency in a second language.
2. Offer teachers ongoing support to implement early learning standards, including
systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children’s
learning of the language used in the classroom and use the children’s primary
language to support instruction.
3. Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated
within the context of the population with which they will be implemented; and
include content and learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 45
4. .Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based
materials, incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting
conversations, as well as books in children’s first languages.
5. Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in supporting dual language
learners first language development and maintenance that is linked to classroom
instruction (Castro, et al. 2011).
Sociocultural Framework on Learning to Teach
Rueda (2005) raises the following question: What is the social organization of learning
settings? What are the important features in the social contexts of students’ lives, including
materials, activities, and people? This question leads to examining the sociocultural context of
learning, access, and quality of instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Sociocultural theory has received increasing attention with the growing consensus of the crucial
role that social and cultural factors play in learning and development (Mahn, 1999; Lim and
Renshaw, 2001).
According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, information processing can be facilitated
by helping individuals in the learning process through scaffolding (Yazdanpanah and
Khanmohammad, 2014). Scaffolding is the extra support provided until the individual has
achieved mastery or success with a task. Educators’ role as facilitators in the learning process is
emphasized in the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) which is central to
scaffolding (Yazdanpanah and Khanmohammad, 2014). The zone of proximal development is
defined as the distance between the actual development level, as determined by independent
problem solving, and the level of potential development determined through problem solving
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 46
under adult guidance or in collaboration with qualified peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Lim and
Renshaw (2001) pointed out that individuals with greater cultural capital and membership in a
specific community can scaffold the participation of new participants in social and cultural
activities. Therefore, scaffolding instruction and activities is pivotal for the success of learners.
A study conducted by Ghafar Samar and Dehqan (2013) examined the possible effects of
sociocultural based teaching techniques on reading comprehension among Iranian EFL (English
as a Foreign Language) university learners. Their study results showed that the socio-cultural
teaching techniques favorably influenced reading comprehension and reading strategy use for
EFL learners (Ghafar Samar and Dehqan, 2013). Another study done by Attarzadeh (2011)
utilized a quantitative experimental design and explored the effects of scaffolding language on
the learning and reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners of different levels of language
proficiency. 180 EFL learners were randomly selected and placed into three groups: low, mid,
and high proficiency as determined by the TOEFL language proficiency test (Attarzadeh, 2011).
The results of this study showed that scaffolding reading comprehension, levels of learners, and
the interaction of both were positively significant (Attarzadeh, 2011). These studies showed the
effectiveness of sociocultural teaching techniques such as scaffolding and the role of educators
as facilitators. The findings of these studies provided information regarding the impact of
sociocultural teaching techniques in the social organization of learning settings, and features of
important social context of students’ lives, materials, activities, and people. According to these
studies, scaffolding has a high significance on learning, therefore, bilingual teachers need to
apply sociocultural teaching techniques in their dual immersion classrooms.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 47
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy
Culturally relevant teaching as a pedagogy empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by utilizing cultural meaning to communicate knowledge, skills, and
attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally responsive teaching is using the cultural
characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as a channel to
teaching them more effectively (Herrera, 2010). Handsfield and Valente (2016) noted that for
bilingual children, rejection and misinterpretations of their experiences revolve around
experiences of immigration, community language practices, and racial discrimination. The
deficit discourse pertaining to bilingual and immigrant students and families encouraged Patricia,
a fourth-grade teacher, to empower her students by having her students write their meaningful
stories and understandings about their cultural worldview (Handsfield and Valente, 2016).
Shannon (2016) drew on Villegas and Lucas (2002) key findings on culturally responsive
pedagogy (CPR) to guide culturally responsive teacher education. The following are the six
strands used to guide culturally responsive teacher education:
1. Gain sociocultural consciousness, or understand that life stories vary between
individuals, and these stories are shaped by larger sociopolitical influences.
2. Develop affirming attitudes, validating, and respecting diverse children and
students’ varied ways of interacting in and out of the classroom.
3. Develop skills and commitment to act as agents of change by not only observing
inequitable practice, but also interrupting and refining it.
4. Embrace constructivist views of knowledge and learning, in which teaching and
learning is viewed as co-constructed among students and teachers.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 48
5. Seek out ways to develop deep relationships with students and learn about the
multiple facets of children’s lives.
6. Cultivate the practice of culturally responsive teaching (Shannon, 2016).
Perspectives of Bilingual Teachers
There are limited studies on perspectives of bilingual teachers and educators of color.
Most studies are based on the perception of white educators and frameworks are applied to their
experience. Tolbert and Eichelberger (2016) mentioned that research focused primarily on the
beliefs and knowledge on diversity and social justice in teacher education of white teachers to
help them develop a social justice orientation.
Varghese (2008) conducted research on the beliefs and actions of teachers on bilingual
education and teaching in dual immersion classrooms. The four participants in Varghese’s
(2008) study were Latino bilingual teachers and had a range of experiences that were alike and
different. Their narratives were based on their personal experiences. Varghese (2008) found that
all four teachers expressed their belief in the use, maintenance, and promotion of dual language.
Two of the participants demonstrated some reservation with their students transitioning into
English (Varghese, 2008). Maria shared her personal experience about experiencing education
as an English language learner herself:
When I was in college I had a real negative view of bilingual education because I was
never exposed to it. When I first came to the United States I was not in a bilingual
program, I was just swim or sink but thank God I swam. . . I thought it was just you learn
English and then I go back and I think about my experience and I think that had to do a
lot with I think me learning the language second so quickly; I mean I was real fluent in
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 49
Spanish. And I think I transferred a lot of the things, (Varghese, 2008).
Maria’s story relates the experience that most English language learners experience in
English only classrooms in terms of swim or sink. Fortunately, for Maria she was able to
transfer her knowledge from one language to another. However, that is not the reality for all
English language learners. Another teacher, Elizabeth expressed she wanted to be a bilingual
teacher because she believed that a child’s school experience should be different from hers
(Varghese, 2008).
The findings of this study showed that all four teachers experienced difficult
circumstances in learning English as a second language and where under pressure to assimilate
(Varghese, 2008). Three out of the four teachers recalled painful school and classroom
experiences in America which was attributed to their ethnicity and lack of proficiency in English
(Varghese, 2008). This is perhaps the reality of most English language learners in our American
schooling system. This study reaffirms what other studies have observed, that minority teachers
have similar life experiences as those of their students and families and are able to better
empathize and relate, than teachers from a more privileged group (Varghese, 2008; Tolbert and
Eichelberger, 2016). This study on personal experiences and perspectives on bilingual education
and teaching provides valuable cultural worldviews that impact instruction and student outcomes
in dual immersion classrooms.
Epistemic Privilege
Teachers of color tend to view their role as agents of change, pursue teaching in
communities of color, and are more effective teachers of students of color (Tolbert &
Eichelberger, 2016; Milner & Howard, 2013). Their effectiveness is attributed to their
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 50
community cultural capital that allowed them to interact as members of the community. This can
also be applied to bilingual teachers that become effective teachers by not only possessing
community cultural capital, but also epistemic privilege. Epistemic privilege is the concept that
refers to knowledge acquired through oppression as a privilege (Southard, 2014). Handsfield
and Valente (2016) stated that educators agree that biliteracy development is best supported
through meaningful instruction, trusting and caring relationships, and valuing children’s
culturally grounded experiences and knowledge. Handsfield and Valente (2016) studied
Patricia’s fourth grade bilingual classroom. Patricia delivered instruction in Spanish in the
mornings and instructed in English in the afternoon while students spoke both languages with
each other and with her (Handsfield and Valente, 2016). Patricia often related to her students
that bilingualism was a valuable resource both in school and in the world (Handsfield & Valente,
2016). Patricia used her familial and linguistic capital, as well as epistemic privilege to empower
her bilingual students.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This dissertation addresses the problem of the persistent low academic achievement of
English language learners in the K-12 public American school system. The persistent low
academic achievement of English language learners is a problem. The evidence has highlighted
that 50% of English language learners fail their graduation tests, compared to 24% of all English
proficient students; English language learners are not graduating at the same rate as their English
proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). This problem is important to address
because Lau v. Nichols (1975) ensured linguistically appropriate accommodations for language
minority students in public schools. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the research
where data is lacking, by exploring the of bilingual teachers’ perception of the impact of their
approach on learning and language acquisition in their dual language immersion classrooms.
This study also explores the non-economic resources bilingual teachers identify in students in
their dual immersion classrooms.
Methods
This research study integrates the perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion
classrooms, hence using a qualitative methods approach is the most reliable and valid method to
answer the research questions. There are a limited number of qualitative studies on bilingual
teachers and their perceptions and experiences in dual immersion classrooms. This study will
contribute data on the perceptions of bilingual teachers and their approach to learning and
language acquisition in dual immersion classrooms.
The site and the participants were purposefully selected for this study. Maxwell (2013)
explains that in qualitative sampling it is common to use purposeful selection. Purposeful
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 52
sampling is a strategy where settings, persons, or activities are deliberately selected to provide
information that is particularly relevant to researcher’s questions or goals (Maxwell, 2013).
The researcher selected one public elementary school. The criteria for the school site
selection was that: (a) School site must have a diverse student population, including at least 50%
or more ELLs, 50% or more of students who qualify for free or reduced lunch, and 50% or more
students who identify as non-white; (b) the school site must have a diverse teacher population
including 50% or more of teachers who identify as bilingual, and 50% or more of the teachers
identify as non-white; (c) the dual language immersion program must be identified as high
performing as indexed by standardized state test scores and successful formation of biliterate and
bilingual students as measured by school or district assessments; and (d) the school site should
have an established dual language program that has been operating for 5 years or more. The
researcher selected eight teachers from the selected school for in-depth interviews and district
management involved in the implementation of dual language education. The criteria for teacher
selection was: (a) for the teacher to teach in a dual language immersion classroom; (b) the
bilingual teacher must identify themselves as Latino; (c) the teachers selected must be bilingual;
(d) bilingual teachers must have at least one year of experience in teaching in a dual immersion
classroom; and (e) teachers selected for the study must have positive site administration teacher
evaluations. The researcher conducted individual interviews with dual immersion teachers in
primary and upper grades.
Data Collection
Interview. Most qualitative research data is collected through interviews. The most
common type of interview is what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) called a person-to-person
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 53
encounter in which one person obtains information from another. Qualitative researchers use
interviews when they cannot observe behavior, feelings, or how people interpret the world
around them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There are many types of interviews that qualitative
researchers utilize to gather data. Interviews can range in structure, where questions are
predetermined to unstructured where question are not determined, they can also take in forms of
group interviews and online interviews. For this study, used what is called a semi-structured
interview, where questions are in the middle, between structured and unstructured (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were guided by the research question.
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is essential to ask good questions to yield
meaningful data; asking good questions take practice. It is suggested that the researcher conduct
pilot interviews to try out the questions. Pilot interviews provide good training but can also help
the interviewer determine confusing questions, questions that need to be reworded, meaningless
questions, and which questions should be asked first (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Six types of
questions that Patton (2015) suggested that the researcher ask to stimulate responses from
participants are: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values questions, feelings
questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background questions.
Each participant was interviewed once by scheduling an appointment and with a
possibility of a second follow-up interview, only if needed. Data collection took place in the fall
of 2017 from September to December, commencing in September. All information pertinent to
the research study was gathered upon the completion of each interview. Every meeting followed
a specific protocol to ensure that participants felt safe and the interview was productive.
Meetings were scheduled by appointment with sufficient time for rescheduling if necessary. All
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 54
participants signed a consent form in order to be part of the research study. Each interview
lasted no longer than one hour.
A professional transcriber transcribed all interviews. An interview log was in order to
listen to each interview in five-minute increments and summarize each with a time stamp. The
researcher reviewed all summaries and salient notes were taken to provide information on the
research questions, and to give the researcher the opportunity to review and transcribe those
sections for further coding.
Artifacts. The following artifacts were collected from teachers in the study: lesson plans,
professional development notes, staff and grade level meetings and training agendas and memos,
work samples, and pictures of room environments. The artifacts collected provided evidence and
support to this study’s research questions. Teachers were asked to share any pertinent notes,
memos, lesson plans, and work samples.
Data Analysis
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016) qualitative data analysis is about identifying
themes, categories, patterns, or answers to your research paper. With that in mind, we created a
code book and analytic memos with categories that drew connections and identified resurfacing
patterns. Once all classroom interviews were complete, the researcher organized the field notes
with codes. A code is a word or short phrase that summarizes an attribute of a language-based or
visual data; the codes can be single words, letters, numbers, phrases, colors, or combinations of
these (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Using a code book helped us organize our data and keep an inventory of the entire data
set (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Inventorying data allows the researchers to know the number of
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 55
interviews, documents, artifacts, and analytical memos. According to Merriam and Tisdell
(2016), data sets need to be organized in a scheme that makes sense to the researchers and
enables them to access any piece of the data at any time; this facilitates the researcher’s ability to
recall the data more easily because data is collected over a time period spanning any number of
months. Coded data using analytic memos made our data analysis more manageable.
We used narrative analysis research methodology (Creswell, 2014) to understand the
experiences and perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion classrooms. Data collected
included information from interviews that addressed learning opportunities in dual immersion
classrooms. Additionally, we collected artifacts, such as lesson plans, to examine what culturally
responsive pedagogy is applied in the classroom. We took field notes during both interviews and
all interviews were recorded with the participants knowledge and permission. The data analysis
helped to answer our research questions of how teachers’ perspectives, attitudes, practices, and
perceptions affected student outcomes in dual immersion programs.
Qualitative data was reduced and trimmed down in order to organize the information in a
meaningful manner in order to present it in a manageable amount and sort it according to the
research questions. Data analysis included the analysis of classroom teacher interviews. The
researchers maintained a journal through each interview to detect biases that might shape the
analysis and interpretation of data. The researchers conducted checks with teachers to get
feedback and to validate the precision of their interview accounts.
According to Maxwell (2013), interviewing and observing provides immediate
description but does not necessarily direct understanding of the participant’s perspective.
Therefore, the researcher must infer meaning and understanding from the description of that
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 56
person’s behavior obtained through interviews, or other written documents or sources (Maxwell,
2013). This study used a semi-structured approach. Semi-structured interviews consist of
flexibly worded questions which are guided by a list but not predetermined; information is
requested from all the respondents (Merriam, 2016). By utilizing semi-structured interviews,
this study gathered information that was pertinent to the research study
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that ensuring validity and reliability in qualitative
research consists of conducting the study in an ethical manner, which in turn will establish
trustworthiness in the research. In our research study, we used interviews and documents to
create triangulation. Utilizing interviews and documents allowed us to view the research study
as multidimensional and provide triangulation to better compare and cross-check data. We also
utilized respondent validation where feedback was solicited from the interviewees. This limited
possible misunderstandings and clarified any information related during the interview process.
To ensure reliability, the researchers maintained detailed field notes during classroom
teacher interviews. Also, another doctoral student coded a part of the interviews to enhance the
reliability of the research. It was expected that themes and patterns identified were consistent
between both researchers throughout the study.
The following were steps taken to ensure that the research study was ethical:
1. An explanation of the purpose of the research study and methods was
provided to all participants.
2. Confidentiality was guaranteed to all participants and part of the protocol.
3. Informed consent was provided.
4. There were data collection boundaries.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 57
5. Ethical and methodological choices were made.
It is necessary that the researcher be trustworthy in carrying out the study in the most
ethical way possible (Merriam and Tisdell. 2016). All participants were well informed about the
intention of this research study. Participants were encouraged to ask any questions they might
have regarding the research study. The protocols in this study were intended to make the
participants feel at ease in partaking in this study. Participants were assured that all and any
information provided in the interview will remain anonymous.
With the data collected from classroom teacher interviews throughout the study, the
researchers used triangulation to ensure the credibility of the data and research. This also allow
the researchers to examine patterns and themes that might surface in interviews with dual
immersion teachers and district management. Findings were checked among classroom teachers
to increase the levels of reliability.
I have been a teacher for eleven years, a coordinator for three years, and I have an
administrative credential with teacher observation training. I may interpret the data from an
administrator's point of view; this can impact my interview sessions as I may look for the best
pedagogical practices and omit other pertinent information. To monitor these biases, and to
maintain neutrality to all the information gathered in this study, I created a checklist to ensure
that my interviews are not just directed toward teacher pedagogical practices but rather
encompass a holistic approach.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 58
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the data collected from dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the
most effective practices and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and
skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. The persistent low academic
performance of English Language Learners is a problem because data indicates 50% of English
Language learners fail their graduation tests, compared to 24% of all English proficient students.
The English language learner graduation rate is not equal to their English language proficient
counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). This problem is necessary to address because
Lau v. Nichols (1975) ensured linguistically appropriate accommodations for language minority
students in public schools. The purpose of this study is to contribute research where data is
lacking. By examining the attitudes of bilingual teachers toward learning and language
acquisition in their dual language immersion classrooms, some scholarship will be contributed to
a little noticed cottage industry. This study also examined non-economic resources bilingual
teachers identify in their students. Dual immersion programs have the necessary components to
address and impact opportunity gaps because they bring students from different backgrounds
together (Carter & Welner, 2013).
The site and the participants were purposefully selected for this study. The researcher
selected one public elementary school and interviewed eight teachers: four teachers in the
primary grades (K-2) and four teachers in the upper grades (3-6). The researcher used a
qualitative methodology as it was the most relevant and valid method to answer the research
questions.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 59
The instrumentations used for teachers’ interviews were developed based on sociocultural
and community cultural capital theory frameworks discussed in the literature
review. Sociocultural theory claims that information processing is facilitated by an instructor
that helps learners in the process by providing adequate levels of guidance (Vygotsky,
1978). Community cultural capital enables non-minority individuals to view communities of
color nurture cultural wealth through the following six principles: aspirational, navigational,
social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital (Yosso, 2005). The interview protocol was taken
from the teachers’ perspectives on assisting students in the learning process and their cultural
backgrounds to deliver an effective curriculum in their dual immersion classrooms.
The study investigated three research questions: (a) What do bilingual teachers report as
their approach to learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language
immersion classrooms? (b) What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach
to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students? (c)
What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic, navigational,
resistant, aspirational) do bilingual teachers identify in their approach to learning and language
acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual immersion classroom?
After interviewing the eight participants of my study, several themes emerged such as
teacher-student connection, the use of teaching strategies to teach language learning, effective
teaching practices to teach language, key elements on how to ensure student language
acquisition, intervention programs to ensure linguistic equity, professional development,
instructional pedagogies, cultural and linguistic pedagogies, aspirational capital, linguistic
capital, familial capital, social capital, navigational capital, and resistant capital.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 60
Site and Participants
To keep participants’ confidentiality, pseudonyms are used for teachers and the school
site. In this section the researcher details (a) the demographic information of the school district,
(b) the demographic information of the school site, and (c) the teachers’ profiles.
School District
Athens Unified School District is located 10 miles north of downtown Los Angeles, and
consists of 34 schools serving more than 26,000 students from transitional kindergarten through
twelfth grade. Athens Unified School District’s mission is to provide a high-quality education
tailored to the unique potential of each student in a safe, engaging environment. Athens Unified
School District is one of the more culturally diverse school districts in California. Student
demographics are shown in Figure 4.1.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 61
Figure 4. 1. Student Demographics Breakdown at Athens Unified School District
AUSD students are linguistically diverse as well; out of all students in the school district,
there are more than 52 different home languages represented. AUSD students are comprised of
24.0% English language learners, while 54.8 % of the student population receive or qualify for
free or reduced lunch, and 10.6 % of students are classified as special needs.
AUSD has dual immersion language programs in seven target languages: Armenian,
French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, and Spanish. AUSD utilizes both 90/10 and 50/50
dual immersion programs beginning in kindergarten. In both program variations, the target
language is taught through content and not as a separate course of study. Dual Immersion
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 62
classes are taught by fully credentialed bilingual teachers who have additional training to teach in
both English and their target language.
School Site
Greenlawn Elementary School’s mission is to provide a nurturing and safe learning
environment and prepare students for the demands of the ever-changing future. The school’s
mission is that its students will achieve academic excellence through collaboration, critical
thinking, communication, and creativity to become real-world problem solvers (School
Accountability Report Card, 2017).
Greenlawn Elementary is located 10 miles north of downtown Los Angeles and serves a
diverse student population of over 910 students as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4. 2. Student Population Demographics from Greenlawn Elementary School.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 63
According to its 2017 School Accountability Report Card (SARC), Greenlawn
Elementary’s instructional focus is critical thinking, as teachers use rigorous curriculum to
stimulate student thinking. Greenlawn Elementary is committed to promoting academic
achievement, administrators and teachers regularly analyze data, collaborate and plan instruction
to meet the needs of all students. At Greenlawn, there is a Response to Intervention (RTI)
program to support students who are falling below grade level.
In August 2011, Greenlawn began offering students the option of a 90/10 Spanish dual
immersion language program. However, it was not a pioneering move; for years, neighboring
schools had offered foreign language dual immersion programs. Two teachers from Greenlawn
petitioned to start a Spanish dual immersion program and their petition was eventually approved.
The primary goal for participating students is to become bilingual and bi-literate by the end of
elementary school. The first cohort of students are now in fifth grade and are developing high
levels of language in Spanish and English, as well as expanding their appreciation of Spanish-
speaking cultures because teachers use culturally relevant pedagogical practices.
The 90/10 module is utilized in Greenlawn's dual immersion program where students
receive Spanish instruction starting in kindergarten and first grade for 90% of the instructional
day and 10% in English, which is about 30 minutes per day. English instruction increases in
succeeding grade levels until students reach fifth and sixth grade where the ratio of Spanish to
English is evenly split. The rigorous multicultural curriculum prepares students with a strong
foundation according to the above average scores reflected in the school’s Smarter Balanced
Assessment Consortium report. Due to the popularity of the program, interested applicants must
submit an online application and are chosen at random to obtain a seat in the Spanish dual
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 64
immersion program. The lottery system only applies to the Spanish dual immersion program;
students can directly enroll into the school’s regular English curriculum.
Aside from its commitment to provide exemplary education and provide a well-
developed dual immersion program to its community, Greenlawn Elementary has a verdant
campus. In front of the school, there is a green lawn where families and students can sit and wait
for their transportation. Once inside the school, you enter directly into the main office where you
are greeted by friendly bilingual office personnel. The main office is spotless, organized, and
has seats where people can sit and wait until they are helped. The hallways are bright, walls are
clean, floors are waxed, gleaming, and free of trash. The classrooms are also very clean and
well-maintained. Each classroom that the researcher visited had an inviting room
environment. The 2017 SARC graded Greenlawn Elementary facility conditions as exemplary.
Teachers Profiles
I had the privilege of interviewing eight dual immersion teachers from Greenlawn
Elementary. As previously mentioned, four lower (K-second) and four upper (third-sixth) grade
teachers were interviewed, two first grade teachers, two second grade teachers, one third grade
teacher, one fourth grade teacher, one fifth grade teacher, and one sixth grade teacher. The eight
teachers were all inviting, friendly, and willing to be interviewed
Ms. Del Angel. Ms. Del Angel has been teaching for 14 years and she identified herself
as Mexican. Ms. Del Angel grew up in Riverside, California, and learned English at the age of
four. She attended a predominantly Caucasian school and felt she could not culturally identify
with other students or teachers and at times felt isolated. When she started learning English
through an English immersion program, she would sit quietly in class and take in all of the
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 65
English instruction, but understood very little. She decided to become a bilingual teacher
because growing up she never had a connection with her peers or teachers. As soon as I stepped
into her classroom my attention was directed to the room’s bulletin boards where student-made
colorful maps of the State of California were displayed. Her room was welcoming. Ms. Del
Angel wanted to reach kids who have a similar background as her. She wanted to assure her
students that Latinos who speak Spanish can become professionals. Ms. Del Angel wanted to
create a cultural connection with her students that she did not have when she went to school.
Ms. Villanueva. Ms. Villanueva’s room was very colorful, as expected in a first-grade
classroom. Student art work was displayed on all of her walls, classroom rules were displayed,
and her room was well-organized. Ms. Villanueva considers herself a Latina as both of her
parents were born in Mexico. She grew up in San Ysidro, CA which borders Tijuana, BCN,
Mexico. She received a bilingual education up to fourth grade learning English throughout and
excelling in it. Ms. Villanueva felt that her overall education experience was a positive one as
her teachers were mostly Latina and Spanish speakers. She reported that she felt welcomed
because her Latina teachers were receptive and nurturing. She reported not feeling discriminated
against because much of the campus shared her background, including the school’s
administration. Ms. Villanueva was influenced to become a bilingual teacher by her elementary
teachers because she identified with them and admired them. She had an inspirational teacher in
the second grade and wanted to be like her when she grew up. Ms. Villanueva felt that her role
as a bilingual teacher is to be a model of language—to show students how to properly articulate
Spanish. It fills her with pride to teach in Spanish because she can share her language with her
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 66
students. She also feels honored that other students from other cultures want to acquire Spanish,
which made her feel validated as a bilingual Spanish speaker.
Ms. Cristal. Ms. Cristal identified herself as Hispanic-Latina and is originally from El
Salvador. She came to the United States at the age of six. She explained that she came from a
little town in the middle of a tropical forest where classrooms were made of brick and mortar.
The walls were barren with the exception of an old blackboard and the shelves had no library
books. Ms. Cristal explained she rarely missed a day of school and enjoyed learning; she always
admired and respected her teachers and considered school to be her haven. Her classroom was
organized and very colorful, but my attention was caught by the graphic organizer that she had
hanging on the whiteboard in the center of her classroom. The graphic organizer helped her
students conjugate Spanish verbs to present, future, and past tenses using: yo, tu, el, nosotros,
and ellos. When she arrived in the United States, she started in the second grade and noticed the
stark contrast of her new classroom, which was filled with colors and posters. Her mom had to
work long hours and there was no time for fun. Ms. Cristal explained that her role as a bilingual
teacher is to be a language model. She explained that whatever she says wrong, her students will
say wrong, so she is cautious with how she uses words. Ms. Cristal emphasized that she not only
teaches her students a second language, but she demonstrates who she is as a person and shares
her culture as well.
Ms. Barbosa. Ms. Barbosa identified herself as a Chicana-Latina and grew up in Los
Angeles, California. When Ms. Barbosa was growing up, she learned English first and learned
Spanish at a later time. Ms. Barbosa was influenced by one of her principals to become a
bilingual teacher. At the time Ms. Barbosa was a teacher assistant, and her principal kept
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 67
suggesting that she should get a Bilingual Cross-cultural Language in Academic Development
(BCLAD) credential so she could teach in a bilingual classroom. Ms. Barbosa’s class had new
desks, new rugs, and modern technology, including a 70-inch television in front of the classroom
that was used for projection. Her classroom was in a relatively new building and everything was
state of the art. Ms. Barbosa felt that her role as a bilingual teacher was to encourage her
students to become biliterate individuals.
Ms. Sanchez. Ms. Sanchez identified herself ethnically as Latina and her race as White.
Her parents are Italian, and she was born and raised in Venezuela. She is a native Spanish
speaker and learned how to speak English at the age of twelve. While growing up, Ms. Sanchez
felt that as a young person, none of her peers or teachers took the time to get to know her or the
struggles that she faced as an immigrant. No one ever bothered to ask her where she was from or
if she missed her family. When she moved to the United States most of her teachers were older
Caucasian and English-only. Ms. Sanchez was introduced to bilingual education when she
moved to Detroit, Michigan as an adult. She explained that Detroit had many bilingual schools
and that the school district sent her to Wayne State University so that she could learn about
bilingual education. After that, she became passionate about bilingual education because she did
not have such opportunities as a child. The interior of her classroom displayed colorful art
projects created by her students. She viewed her role as a bilingual teacher was to make sure that
her students become fully bilingual, but also to understand the culture behind the Spanish
language. According to Ms. Sanchez, there is not just one Spanish culture, there are 21 Spanish-
speaking countries, and she sees her role as not only as that of a language teacher, but also as a
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 68
teacher of culture. She felt that she needed to expose her students to culture so that they continue
down the path of learning another language.
Mr. Nuñez. Mr. Nuñez identified himself as Mexican-Latino and is originally from
Mexico City. His family migrated to Calexico, CA, which is a border town in Southern
California. He entered the American school system at the age of 10 and was placed in a “pull
out” bilingual program, where for two hours he practiced his English conversational skills using
repetitive linguistic patterns. Mr. Nuñez explained that because he had strong Spanish language
and literacy skills, he managed to quickly transfer those skills to English. By the time he was in
eighth grade, he was identified as gifted and was at a tenth-grade reading level. He attributed his
success to a strong foundation in his primary language. Mr. Nuñez felt that Calexico had a
school district that was supportive and receptive toward immigrant students. He felt that the
Calexico school district had strong bilingual programs. I was impressed by his classroom’s
focus on cultural awareness because the cultural displays varied from Native Americans to Dia
de Los Muertos. His classroom was inviting, organized, and full of vivid student works. Mr.
Nuñez was influenced to become a bilingual teacher while he was working in San Diego at an
elementary school in Barrio Logan. At the time, he was a teacher’s assistant and he felt that
students were not being educated properly. As a bilingual teacher, Mr. Nuñez thinks it is
essential to respect and value both languages. He feels it is important to create experiences and
an environment where both languages are alive and are respected equally.
Ms. Henriquez. Ms. Henriquez’s classroom was spotless and had a graphic-rich
environment that allowed students to use the walls as a reference. Her room had state-of-the-art
technology, impressive student desks, and also a huge television that was used for projection.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 69
Ms. Henriquez identified herself as Latina and is a native Spanish speaker. Ms. Henriquez
started kindergarten in Southern California at the age of five years old. Ms. Henriquez explained
that overall, she had a great experience in her childhood education. She felt her teachers were
nurturing and very loving. Thanks to her teachers who were nurturing and made an effort to
forge a connection with her, Ms. Henriquez decided to become a teacher. For years Ms.
Henriquez was an English-only teacher but was later convinced by a former principal to teach in
a bilingual classroom, believing that bilingualism could help close the achievement gap of
students of color. Ms. Henriquez thinks that her primary role as a bilingual teacher is to
motivate. She ensures that her students feel safe, thus providing a nurturing and loving
environment, where students can learn English and Spanish.
Ms. Escobar. Ms. Escobar, a Spanish speaker, identified herself as a Latina. Her family
moved to the United States when she was seven. When she started in the American school
system, she was placed in a bilingual classroom and acquired conversational English around
third grade. Her overall educational experience was challenging as she struggled with reading
comprehension throughout her educational career.
Her classroom was relatively new, from student desks to the latest technology. Ms.
Escobar feels proud of being a Latina; she loves her language and her culture, both of which
influenced her to become a bilingual teacher so that she could share her passion with her
students. As a bilingual teacher, Ms. Escobar felt that her role was to teach everything her
students needed to know academically but on top of that, to teach them a second language.
As previously mentioned, all eight teachers were enthusiastic in participating in my
study. They gave thorough and thoughtful answers to all of the interview questions and were
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 70
engaged during the process. There were similarities that surfaced during the interviews and all
teachers explained that collaborating with their dual language peer teachers made challenges less
daunting, as they created their own support group.
Research Question One
Research question one: What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning
and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms? After
interviewing the eight study participants, five themes surfaced:
• Teacher-student connection.
• The use of teaching strategies to teach language learning.
• Effective teaching practices to teach language.
• Key elements on how to ensure student language acquisition.
• Intervention programs to ensure linguistic equity.
Teacher-Student Connection
As I interviewed eight teachers the first theme that emerged was a teacher-student
connection. Many teachers expressed that they chose the teaching profession because they were
influenced by a former teacher that created some positive connection with them. Many
expressed the importance of creating meaningful connections with their students because they
felt that was essential to student learning.
Using Community Cultural Capital to Make a Difference
Previously in Chapter Two, there was discussion about teachers of color who frequently
take on the role of agents of change, pursue teaching in communities of color, and are more
effective with students of color (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016; Milner & Howard, 2013). This
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 71
may be due to their community capital because it allows them to interact as members of the
community and make meaningful connections with their students. When asked what influenced
Ms. Villanueva to become a bilingual teacher, she responded:
I think my teachers. Like I said, I identified with them and I looked up to them, and I
wanted to be like them. It was, "I want to be a teacher like Mrs. Godes", that was my
teacher. I never strayed from that. It was always something that I wanted to do
(Interview #2, 2017).
Another teacher, Ms. Del Angel, expressed that she wanted to reach kids who share a similar
background as her. Growing up she never had a connection with teachers or peers as she
attended predominantly white schools and felt isolated. Ms. Del Angel explained, "I want[ed] to
work with . . . English Learners, I need that connection." Ms. Del Angel wanted to impress upon
her students that Latino students can become professionals.
Meaningful Instruction
As stated in Chapter Two, educators agree that biliteracy development is best supported
through meaningful instruction, trusting and caring relationships, and valuing children’s
culturally-grounded experiences and knowledge (Handsfield & Valente, 2016). Having a
teacher-student connection may facilitate language learning and acquisition. Ms. Barbosa, a
second-grade teacher stated, “Not only do I consider myself an educator, but also I want to
inspire my students to pursue bilingualism. Not only bilingualism, but biliteracy” (Interview #4,
2017).
The validation of students’ culture plays a big part in the teacher-student connection.
Ladson-Billings (1995) explained that culturally relevant teaching as pedagogy empowers
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 72
students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by utilizing cultural meaning to
communicate knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Culturally responsive teaching is using the
cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as a channel
to teach them more effectively (Herrera, 2010).
The Use of Teaching Strategies
The next theme that emerged was the use of effective teaching strategies. All eight
participants stressed the importance of using effective teaching strategies to teach content,
language, and ensure the effectiveness of student language acquisition in their dual language
classrooms. Some of these teaching strategies have been previously identified by Laurie Hansen
(2006) in the article “Strategies for ELL Success” and are appropriate for English language
learners. Hansen incorporated these teaching strategies into science lessons. The identified
teaching strategies are the following:
Table 4. 1.
English Language Learner Strategies
English Language
Learner Teaching Strategy
Description
Engage To get children interested in a lesson.
SDAIE Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English strategies to
help English language learners grasp content while learning
English with the use of gestures, facial expressions, realia, and
speaking clearly at and slower pace (Krashen, 1994).
Language Buddies Teaming up an English language learner with a student that is
fluent in English with the hope that he or she will help to clarify
any confusion that the ELL may have.
Pre-assessment Assessing the student language proficiency level in their native
tongue.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 73
Cooperative Groupings Create heterogeneous language groups so that English language
learners can mingle with English proficient peers, practice their
communication, and acquire new vocabulary.
Multiple Avenues of
Communication
To give students many options to communicate via drawings,
words, or short phrases.
Previewing Key Concepts
and Vocabulary
In a small group setting teachers pre-teach key concepts and
vocabulary to English language learners and point out any
cognates and make connections to the students' native tongues.
GLAD Guided Language Acquisition Design strategies assist students in
improving their language skills while learning new content
(Brechtel, 2001); a) the Farmer in the Dell Chart is a GLAD
strategy where a sentence pattern is constructed using adjectives,
nouns, verbs, and prepositional phrases, the words are
predetermined and students read the sentence by singing to
“Farmer in the Dell;” b) 10/2 Lecture is a GLAD strategy that
suggests content should be compartmentalized into 10 minute
segments with two minutes of student processing time for every
10 minutes of lecture; c) Process Grids is another GLAD strategy
that is used to organize and compare information, it usually starts
as a skeleton and is completed as a whole group with the help of
the teacher.
Technology Teachers can use videos, PowerPoint presentations, and other
visuals to help scaffold information (Hansen, 2006).
Think-Pair-Share Strategy
Seven teachers mentioned the use of think-pair-share teaching strategy in their dual
immersion classroom. Think-pair-share is a cooperative learning strategy that first emerged at
the University of Maryland in 1981 by Professor Lyman and his colleagues (Kaddoura, 2013).
Many cooperative learning writers and researchers, such as Spencer Kagan and Miguel Kagan
(2009), have adopted the strategy into their work. In the teaching field, think-pair-share is
known as one of Kagan's cooperative learning teaching strategies (Kagan, S. & Kagan, M.,
2009). The strategy consists of three parts:
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 74
1. Think: The teacher asks a question and the students take a few minutes to think about
the question.
2. Pair: Students pair up with a partner and discuss their answer to the question with
each other.
3. Share: After several minutes of discussion, the teacher calls on pairs to share their
thinking with the whole class (Robertson, 2006).
Ms. Villanueva explained that she uses think-pair-share when she introduces a new book to her
class. She iterated that they use a lot of pair sharing in her dual immersion classroom, “We're
going to be learning about pumpkins. Tell your partner something you know about pumpkins,”
(Interview #2, 2017). Ms. Cristal, a first-grade teacher, shared that she also uses the think-pair-
share strategy in her classroom, “[Students are] on the carpet, when we're sitting, they have A, B
partners, so whenever they need to Think-Pair-Share… that's how I get them to talk to each other
and collaborate,” (Interview #3, 2017). Ms. Barbosa, a fourth-grade teacher, shared that her
students utilize think-pair-share often and she strategically pairs her students by language ability.
She explained:
They do a lot of peer share. They have teams where I make sure to have somebody who
is a strong model, who has a strong Spanish foundation, so they can help and guide each
other. I do a lot of partner work. I think their writing is best when they know it's for a
purpose and they are going to be sharing with somebody. So, they make sure to try their
very best, because they know they're going to be sharing (Interview #4, 2017).
Ms. Barbosa employed the language buddy pairing strategy when she paired students with a
strong Spanish proficiency with students who are not as proficient. Mr. Nuñez, a fifth-grade
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 75
teacher, also mentioned that he uses think-pair-share in his instruction and explained his pairing
preference, “I have students divided into pods. There's four to five students in each pod, and
again they're heterogeneous groupings. There's a lot of think-pair-share during the guided
instruction,” (Interview #6, 2017).
Ms. Del Angel, Ms. Herniquez, and Ms. Escobar all reported using the Kagan strategies,
especially think-pair-share in their instruction. According to the Guiding Principles for Dual
Language Education (2018), teachers need to take into consideration the varying needs of
students with different language learner profiles. With the strategic use of think-pair-share,
teachers give their students sufficient processing time and the opportunity to pair up and share
their ideas with their peers, which affords them the chance to add to their background knowledge
before sharing with the whole class.
Chapter Two discussed the opportunity gap framework which analyzed the thinking and
practices of teachers to adequately address opportunity gaps that exist in our educational system
(Milner, 2010). According to Ladson-Billlings (2006), Milner (2010), and Rueda (2005),
learning opportunities, whether they are referred to as educational debts or opportunity gaps,
need to be provided to improve student outcomes and address equity issues. This was not always
common practice however. Milner (2010) described in his work the prevailing notion that
opportunities for success are limited, and some students would succeed while others would fail.
Think-pair-share and strategies alike challenge that status quo mentality. Teachers who use these
strategies, in essence, are challenging the entrenched opportunity gaps in bilingual education and
education as a whole.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 76
Model Language Strategy
All eight teachers felt the responsibility of being language models in their classrooms.
Aside from being a language model, Ms. Cristal also emphasized that she also teaches culture to
her students because she feels that language and culture intertwined. Ms. Cristal explained what
it means to be a language model:
I am a language model. Whatever I say wrong, the kids will say wrong, so I have to be
really careful with my words. I also think that not only am I teaching them a second
language, I'm also teaching them about who I am as a person because when it comes to
translating certain words or saying certain things, I revert to, "Well, in my country you
say it like this, but in another ... " You also have to, by default, show culture as well, that
there's not just one way, but many different ways, and different people in different
countries. It's amazing because then that opens the world to the kids. It's not just about
this one thing, but rather about how the world communicates (Interview #3, 2017).
Ms. Sanchez also explained how she considers herself a language model:
My role as a bilingual teacher is to make sure that my students are fully bilingual in both
languages; in Spanish and in English but not only that, that they understand the culture
behind the Spanish language. There is not just one culture, there's 21 Spanish-speaking
countries and so my role isn't just the language teacher, it's also a culture teacher... I
consider myself a teacher that has many roles. I feel like I need to expose my students to
the culture so that they fully want to continue the path of learning another language
(Interview #5, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 77
Ms. Sanchez wants her students to be bilingual and fully understand the culture behind the
Spanish language. Ms. Villanueva mentioned that she also sees herself as a language model to
her students:
I am a model of language. To me it gives me so much pride to be teaching in Spanish
because I can share my language. To be bilingual, I think it's priceless, a priceless gift,
and it gives me pride to share that language with my students. At the same time, it also
gives me pride that students from other cultures want to acquire Spanish. It validates me
as a bilingual and as a Spanish speaker (Interview #2, 2017).
Ms. Villanueva feels proud to teach her language and culture to her students. The rest of the
respondents—Ms. Del Angel, Ms. Barbosa, Mr. Nuñez, Ms. Herinquez, and Ms. Escobar—all
stressed the importance of serving as language models to students, but they also felt the
responsibility to inspire students to achieve biliteracy.
Cognate teaching strategy. Aside from referring to themselves as language models,
teachers also used cognates as a teaching strategy. Ms. Villanueva shared that she has a cognate
bulletin board where students can see words that are related in Spanish and English. She
explained “I always encourage [them] to make connections between what they already know,
whether it's language or experience” (Interview #2, 2017). According to Richards and Schmidt
(2002), a cognate is a word in one language that is similar in form and meaning to another word
in a different language. Ms. Del Angel mentioned that she uses cognates in her classroom, “It is
like making that connection that they understand [from another language]” (Interview #1, 2017).
She highlighted the Spanish word “nutrientes” which is similar in form and meaning as
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 78
“nutrients” in English. Whether it is using cognates or portraying yourself as a language model,
teachers use language and culture to make information more comprehendible to their students.
Chapter Two discussed how community cultural capital framework can address
opportunity gaps in dual immersion classrooms and English language learners. Milner (2010)
and Goldenberg (2014) argued that educators should understand the importance of connecting to
students’ culture and language to close the opportunity gap. All eight teachers reported that
language and culture play an important role in students becoming bilingual and biliterate, which
in essence may narrow the opportunity gap as studies have found.
Effective Teaching Practices to Teach Language
The next two themes that surfaced were effective teaching practices to teach language,
and the effective teaching practices to ensure student language acquisition. Before discussing the
findings of language learning and language acquisition, it is important to distinguish the two.
According to Haynes (2005), language learning has to do with the result of direct instruction on
the rules of language, for example, grammar, and it is not communicative. Language acquisition
on the other hand has to do with oral communication. For language acquisition to happen, a
learner needs a source of natural communication (Haynes, 2005). A language learner needs
multiple opportunities to practice their oral communication to develop their conversational skills
(Haynes, 2005).
All eight interviewed teachers stated that they used directed instruction, or explicit
instruction, when they taught language to their students. In the article “Effective Instruction for
English Learners,” Calderon, Slavin, and Sanchez (2011) asserted that one of the more effective
teaching practices for language and literacy instruction is explicit instruction. Calderon, Slavin,
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 79
and Sanchez (2011) also honed-in on the importance of teaching vocabulary instruction to
English language learners:
Frequent exposure to a word in multiple forms; ensuring understanding of meaning(s);
providing examples of its use in phrases, idioms, and usual contexts; ensuring proper
pronunciation, spelling, and word parts; and, when possible, teaching its cognates, or a
false cognate, in the child’s primary language (Calderon, Slavin, & Sacnhez, 2011, p.
110).
According to Calderon, Slavin, and Sanchez (2011), English language learners benefit
when teachers use explicit vocabulary instruction as they get rich and varied language
experiences.
Explicit Instruction
Explicit instruction is the teaching of specific skills via teacher modeling, teacher
lectures, and breaking those skills into smaller steps if they are too complex (Stein, Carnine, &
Dixon, 1998). Mr. Nuñez explained how he used direct instruction in his classroom:
My lessons are about ten, fifteen minutes long where I am giving direct instruction,
guided instruction. Then there's about twenty minutes where they are working on their
own, independently. Then we always come back, and they share what they've found. I
use cooperative learning groups. That's also very helpful. I have heterogeneous
groupings in pods, so if I have four students, I'm looking at their language development
(Interview #6, 2017).
Ms. Henriquez explained that when she introduces a new language skill, for example how
to conjugate a verb in past tense, she sits her students on a rug and uses explicit instruction to
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 80
teach the new skill. After she teaches the new skill(s), she gives her students time to process and
share what they have learned in their cooperative groups. Ms. Escobar also indicated that she
used explicit instruction when she introduces Spanish grammar rules. Ms. Escobar reasoned that
Spanish grammar can be quite complicated, hence she breaks her lesson into smaller parts so
students can more readily grasp the rules. Aside from using explicit instruction for grammar and
language skills, several teachers shared that they use direct instruction to teach vocabulary.
Explicit vocabulary instruction. As mentioned earlier, vocabulary instruction can
consist of understanding the meaning of a word to correct pronunciation. Ms. Henriquez
explained that when she teaches new vocabulary, she uses a visual which displays the word in a
sentence and also contains the definition. Mr. Nuñez shared that explicit vocabulary instruction
is really important in his dual language immersion classroom for both languages. He stated,
“Really, the big thing I think is the vocabulary, vocabulary development, and then grammar,
especially when they start learning how to read and write in Spanish” (Interview #6, 2017). Ms.
Cristal reported she uses direct instruction and graphic organizers to teach new vocabulary
words—especially when she teaches students how to conjugate verbs from present to past tense.
Ms. Cristal shared how she would direct a lesson teach on verb conjugation:
I will say "Okay, our verb is cantar. What do we do with A-R? We get rid of it, and we
put a ... when I say canto, we put an O, right?” They're looking at the table [graphic
organizer] going back and forth to conjugate. We do one each day for about two weeks,
and after that, the kids who, at the beginning [didn’t] feel confident, eventually they start
getting that El/Ella/Usted, they all have the same conjugation. (Interview #3, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 81
Ms. Villanueva, Ms. Barbosa, and Ms. Escobar shared in their interviews that they also used
explicit vocabulary instruction to teach how to conjugate Spanish verbs.
Explicit vocabulary instruction and explicit language learning are teaching practices that
scaffold language learning. As previously mentioned in Chapter Two, scaffolding is the extra
support given until students reach mastery or success with a given task (Vygotsky, 1978). Also
discussed in Chapter Two, it is recommended to promote language and literacy instruction in an
effective dual language classroom (Castro, Paez, Dickinson, & Frede, 2011). Castro et al.
(2011) recommended that effective dual language programs should offer teachers support to
ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children's language learning.
Key Elements on How to Ensure Student Language Acquisition
As previously mentioned, student language acquisition has to do with oral
communication. Students develop two forms of oral communication: basic conversational
English skills and academic language skills. According to Cummins (2001), an English
language learner can acquire basic conversational English skills in one to three years. Due to the
complexity of the English language, academic language skills usually takes a longer time for an
English language learner to develop, usually around five to seven years (Cummins, 2001). All
eight teachers interviewed stated that they used some kind of sentence frames to scaffold
academic language skills in their dual immersion classrooms.
Sentences Frames
According to Nattinger and DeCarricco (1992), sentences frames, or sentence starters are
prefabricated sentences that are grammatically correct where students can insert appropriate
vocabulary words and practice their academic language skills. For example, if a teacher wants to
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 82
practice how to describe a car, he or she, can use the sentence frame, “The car is_____”, where
students can insert an adjective to describe the car. Ms. Villanueva explained that she provides
sentence starters in both languages so that her students can practice in each academic language.
She relates her experience:
…I provide a lot of sentence starters. There is a lot of repetition. When we do reading
it's usually choral reading because I want them to also be producing the language. We
talk about ... usually if we read a story, we re-tell it to each other first. With a sentence
starter language ... that's the essence of the dual immersion program, to be able to be
proficient in both languages. And for that they need to be using the language and
practicing. So they do. They speak a lot (Interview #2, 2017).
Ms. Sanchez described that her approach to language acquisition was through the use of
scaffolding with sentence frames. She shared:
My approach to language acquisition of course is immersion. I have very strict language
rules in my class. I have a sign when we switch over; when it's time for Spanish or when
it's time for English, and during that time they're not allowed to speak the other language.
Of course, I have to embed grammar into that sentence frame so they can follow. . . I
review a lot of the grammar rules for Spanish but my approach I would say would be that
sentence frames (Interview #5, 2017).
Ms. Escobar explained that she uses "a lot of sentence frames so that students are able to
use the proper grammar, terminology, and the language that we're practicing" (Interview #8,
2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 83
Again, all of the respondents used, knowingly or not, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
because they make sure that the oral language being taught is facilitated by the process of
scaffolding through sentence frames (Vygotsky, 1978; Yazdanpanah & Khanmohammad, 2014).
Intervention Programs to Ensure Linguistic Equity
The next theme that surfaced was the use of academic interventions in dual immersion
classrooms. All eight teachers indicated that they used some form of academic intervention to
ensure student learning. Academic intervention programs are preventive models that are
intended to limit academic failures in general and special education (Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act, 2004). Intervention models usually follow the response to
intervention model, which is a three-tier systematic response of incremental intervention efforts:
1. Core instructional intervention: all students are taught using methods that are
research-based, and preventive approaches are used where all students are screened to
identify any potential at risk failing students.
2. Targeted group intervention: if a student is not making adequate progress in tier one
intervention, then he or she will receive small group instruction (of three to five
students in a group) for 20 to 40 minutes daily, as well as the regular class instruction.
3. Intensive, individual intervention: if a student is not making adequate progress in tier
two then he or she will receive a more intensive and individualized intervention that
would include even smaller groups, increased intervention time to 45 to 60 minutes
daily, and a more specialized teacher (Flecther & Vaughn, 2009; IDEA, 2004).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 84
It is essential for a teacher to use progress monitoring tools that can determine if a student
is making adequate progress or if further evidenced-based interventions need to be deployed to
address the needs of a student (Flecther & Vaughn, 2009; IDEA, 2004).
Intervention Programs
Academic interventions are essential to ensure that students are gaining access to
academic curriculum in both languages. Even the best planned curriculum in an ideal classroom
environment will result in some students struggling to keep up with their peers. The scope of the
intervention is often dictated by the availability of resources and the degree of intervention
necessary. The intensity of intervention is outlined in the Response to Intervention model (RTI).
However, RTI implementation varies from classroom to classroom and is limited by practical
considerations such as availability of trained personnel.
After school tutoring. Four dual immersion teachers stated that they stayed for after-
school tutoring to provide academic intervention to their struggling students. Ms. Escobar
shared:
…After school I teach intervention. Some days are for English, some days are for
Spanish, and then there's math. And another third-grade teacher and I, we share our
students. So, she teaches Spanish, I teach math. Small groups is something that I really
believe in. So, really tackling more of the foundational things that they're missing, that
they're lacking in order to help them during regular class instruction to be able to catch up
with the rest of the class (Interview #8, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 85
During the after-school intervention, Ms. Escobar, Ms. Villanueva, Ms. Barbosa, and Ms.
Henriquez reported that they target specific skills that especially challenge their struggling
students, with the intent being that they will catch up academically to their peers.
Intervention during school hours. All eight teachers mentioned that they were happy
that a specialized intervention teacher was servicing their struggling students during the school
day. Ms. Sanchez shared:
We do have a teacher that goes to every dual language immersion classroom for like 30
minutes a few times a week and that's their intervention or RTI. We do have RTI. Our
students can go to RTI in English as well, not too many interventions besides that.
(Interview #5, 2017)
Ms. Barbosa shared, “So luckily this year we have an RTI teacher. She follows the RTI model.
She assembles groups of struggling students three times a week during class” (Interview #4,
2017). Mr. Nuñez explained that his struggling students were pulled out of his classroom for half
an hour every day and received intervention for academic vocabulary. All eight participants
mentioned that the 2017-2018 school year was the first time that dual immersion students were
included to receive academic interventions.
Small group instruction during school hours. All eight teachers mentioned that they
provided targeted group intervention, or tier two intervention, to their struggling students in their
dual immersion classrooms. Mr. Nuñez explained:
I do have a few students who struggle with reading or their behavior, so they come to the
rear and I do small group instruction with them. It's very much the same thing; "The
graphic organizers are here. Let's read this together, let's work on this together." Once I
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 86
see that they're getting the flow of it after they are able to do it on their own, they go back
to their seats and I summon a different batch of students (Interview #6, 2017).
Ms. Cristal shared how she grouped her students in her dual immersion classroom. She
described:
I have my level of groups from highest to lowest. They're grouped to where the ones that
are a little bit lower, I make them small groups so that I can work with them individually,
more monitor I want to say (Interview #3, 2017).
Ms. Villanueva mentioned that she grouped her “students according to their academic needs”
(Interview #2, 2017), while Ms. Sanchez mentioned that she grouped her students by reading
levels in both languages and that she arranges small groups based on student reading levels. All
teachers felt that academic interventions are essential to ensuring language acquisition in both
languages.
All eight dual immersion teachers used academic interventions, such as after-school
tutoring, the use of an intervention teacher, and small group instruction to scaffold instruction.
Educators’ role as facilitators in the learning process is highlighted in the concept of zone of
proximal development (ZPD) which is central to scaffolding (Yazdanpanah& Khanmohammad,
2014). The zone of proximal development is defined as the distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with
qualified peers (Vygotsky, 1978). These teachers used struggling students’ ZPD to plan their
intervention programs so that they can eventually reach mastery of skills.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 87
Table 4. 2.
Teaching Strategies, Practices, and Key Elements Towards Language Acquisition.
Research-
Based Effective
Teaching
Practices and
Strategies:
Description Participant Data Research
Connection
Connection to
Community
Cultural
Capital
Framework
Teacher-Student
Connection
Teachers of color
usually take the
role as agents of
change, pursue
teaching in
communities of
color, and are more
effective teachers
of students of
color.
“I think [I was
influenced] my
teachers. Like I said, I
identified with them
and I looked up to
them, and I wanted to
be like them. I literally
have, from second
grade, what I want to be
when I grow up. It was,
"I want to be a teacher
like Mrs. Godes", that
was my teacher. I never
swayed from that. It
was always something
that I wanted to do”.
2/8 Participants
Milner &
Howard,
2013; Tolbert
&
Eichelberger,
2016
• Aspirational
• Resistant
Meaningful
Instruction
Biliteracy
development is
best supported
through
meaningful
instruction,
trusting and caring
relationships, and
valuing children’s
culturally
grounded
experiences and
knowledge.
“My role as a bilingual
teacher is to make sure
that my students are
fully bilingual in both
languages; in Spanish
and in English but not
only that, that they
understand the culture
behind the Spanish
language”.
2/8 participants
Handsfield &
Valente,
2016
• Familial
• Linguistic
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 88
Think-Pair-
Share
The strategy
consists of three
parts: (a) Think.
The teacher asks a
question, and the
students take a few
minutes to think
about the question
(b) Pair. Students
pair up with a
partner, and each
discusses their
answer to the
question. (3)
Share. After
several minutes of
pair talk, the
teacher calls on
pairs to share their
thinking with the
whole class.
Ms. Cristal, first grade
teacher, shared that she
also uses the Think-
Pair-Share strategy in
her classroom and
states that, “At the
carpet, when we're
sitting, they have A, B
partners, so whenever
they need to Think-
Pair-Share…so that's
how I get them to talk
to each other and
collaborate”.
7/8 Participants
Kaddoura,
2013; Kagan,
S. & Kagan,
M., 2009;
Robertson,
2006
• Linguistic
Cognate
Teaching
Strategy
Cognate is a word
in one language
that is similar in
form and meaning
to another word in
a different
language.
Ms. Villanueva shared
that she has a cognate
bulletin board where
students can see words
that are related in
Spanish and English.
8/8 Participants
Richards
&Schmidt,
2002
• Linguistic
• Navigational
Explicit
Instruction
Direct instruction
is the explicit
teaching of
specific skills by
teacher modeling,
teacher lectures,
and breaking those
skills into smaller
steps if they are
too complex.
Ms. Henriquez
explained that when she
introduces a new
language skill, she sits
her students on the rug
and uses direct
instruction to teach the
new skill. After she
teaches the new skills,
she gives her students
time to process and
Calderon,
Slavin, &
Sanchez
2011; Stein,
Carnine, &
Dixon, 1998
• Linguistic
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 89
share what they have
learned in their
cooperative groups.
8/8 participants
Explicit
Vocabulary
Instruction
Vocabulary
instruction consists
of frequent
exposure to a word
in multiple forms;
ensuring
understanding of
meaning(s);
providing
examples of its use
in phrases, idioms,
and usual contexts;
ensuring proper
pronunciation,
spelling, and word
parts; and, when
possible, teaching
its cognates, or a
false cognate, in
the child’s primary
language.
“Really, the big thing I
think is the vocabulary,
the vocabulary
development, and then
the grammar, especially
when they start learning
how to read and write
in Spanish”.
6/8 participants
Calderon,
Slavin, &
Sanchez
2011
• Linguistic
• Navigational
Sentence
Frames
Sentences frames
(or sentence
starters) are
prefabricated
sentences that are
grammatically
correct where
students can insert
appropriate
vocabulary words
and practice their
academic language
skills.
Ms. Escobar uses "a lot
of sentence frames so
that students are able to
use the proper
grammar, terminology,
and the language that
we're practicing".
8/8 participants
Nattinger &
DeCarricco
1992
• Linguistic
• Navigational
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 90
Academic
Interventions
Academic
intervention
programs are
preventive models
that are intended to
limit academic
failures in general
and special
education
After school I teach
intervention. Some
days are for English,
some days are for
Spanish, and then
there's math. And
another third-grade
teacher and I, we share
our students. So, she
teaches Spanish, I teach
math. So, like I said,
small groups is
something that I really
believe in.
8/8 participants
Flecther &
Vaughn,
2009; IDEA,
2004;
Vygotsky,
1978;
Yazdanpanah
&
Khanmoham
mad, 2014
• Aspirational
• Resistant
Research Question Two
Research question two asks: What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their
approach to learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion
classrooms? After interviewing the eight participants of my study, three themes surfaced as
being impactful on teaching their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their dual
language immersion classrooms such as:
• Professional development.
• Instructional pedagogies.
• Cultural and linguistic pedagogies.
Professional Development
All eight teachers stressed that they felt they did not get sufficient professional
development for being part of the dual immersion program. In her article “Teacher Professional
Development in Teaching and Teacher Education Over Ten Years,” Beatrice Avalos (2011)
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 91
defined professional development as “teachers learning, learning how to learn, and transforming
their knowledge into practice for the benefit of their students’ growth (p. 10).” When I asked one
of the respondents what type of professional development they received relating to dual language
immersion, she responded:
None, unless I self-educate. I ask colleagues who may have done this longer or have
actually gone through another program that I haven't. I ask questions. I try to create a
community of teachers that know more than I do, or have done it longer, so that's how I
get my professional development (Personal Interview, 2017).
Another participant also expressed concern that her district did not provide enough
professional development for dual language immersion teachers, saying:
I think there isn't enough [professional development]. CABE (California Association for
Bilingual Education) and the two-way immersion conference are great, but we can't make
it. I think sadly, my district doesn't provide enough opportunities for us (Personal
Interview, 2017).
In the literature review section, Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede (2011) proposed that schools
who have dual language programs should offer teachers ongoing support to implement teaching
strategies and pedagogies that foster pupil learning in both languages. Unfortunately, Athens
Unified School District is apparently falling short in that aspect.
GLAD Professional Development
Even though professional development opportunities appear to be limited, a majority of
respondents indicated that GLAD professional development has been beneficial to their dual
immersion classrooms. They also explained that they received the GLAD training in schools and
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 92
school districts where they previously worked. Project GLAD (Guided Language Acquisition
Design) trains teachers to use 35 teaching strategies to develop student English conversational
skills, academic English, and increase student access to the educational curriculum especially in
science and social studies (OCDE, 2018).
Ms. Del Angel shared that she was trained in project GLAD at another district that
previously employed her. She explained that the best professional development she received was
GLAD. She shared:
I was trained in [GLAD] like over ten years ago at another district… basically there's like
maybe like eight to ten strategies that are used in content areas, like for example, Pictorial
(Interview #1, 2017)!
Pictorial input makes vocabulary and concepts more comprehensible. The teacher draws an
illustration that represents vocabulary words in front of their students, to give a visual
representation to a student’s brain. The teacher organizes the lesson in a way so that students can
use it as a reference a later time (OCDE, 2018).
Mr. Nuñez explained that the GLAD training made him a better teacher. He also
mentioned that he received the training at a previous school site. He shared his views:
Some years ago, at the school I was at, they had this big thing about GLAD strategies. I
love GLAD strategies. I actually go online still, and I actually have a pdf document with
all the GLAD strategies. Again, it's just lots of charts, lots of visuals. I think that that
really made me a stronger teacher and the GLAD strategies you can use for either English
or Spanish, so GLAD strategies for sure (Interview #6, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 93
Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede (2011) argued that dual language programs should ensure
that curriculum models and teaching strategies include content and learning strategies that reflect
the current state of knowledge. Project GLAD has the ability to do that with its teaching
strategies because it helps students improve their language skills, and at the same time their
learning content. (Brechtel, 2001).
Beyond professional development, project GLAD can also be used as instructional
pedagogy. The next theme that surfaced was instructional pedagogies.
Instructional Pedagogy
In Chapter Two, the strategy of scaffolding is the practice of giving extra support until an
individual reaches mastery or success of a specific task. Scaffolding is based on the work of
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978; Yazdanpanah & Khanmohammad, 2014). Past
studies examined the effects of sociocultural-based teaching techniques on reading, such as
scaffolding; these studies showed the effectiveness of these techniques to positively influence
reading comprehension and reading strategy use for English language learners (Attarzadeh,
2011; Ghafar, Samar & Dehqan, 2013).
According to Loughran (2006), instructional pedagogy is the art and science of educating
students, focusing on the relationship between learning and teaching. Understanding the
relationship between learning and teaching can lead to growth in knowledge and understanding
through meaningful practice. Instructional pedagogies can range from direct instruction,
cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and individualized instruction, to the use of problem solving
units (Haberman, 1991). According to respondents, the most common instructional pedagogy
practice was GLAD teaching strategies.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 94
GLAD Teaching Strategies
Five participants reported utilizing GLAD strategies in both English and Spanish to
facilitate student learning. Ms. Escobar, a third-grade teacher, explained how she used GLAD
strategies in her classroom:
I do a lot of visuals. I include a lot of songs, and singing, and hand movement, and
aesthetic things. Also, with small groups, I think that's a huge aspect of my teaching is
being able to work closely with all levels of students.(Interview #8, 2017).
Ms. Sanchez, a sixth-grade teacher, explained that the use of GLAD strategies makes academic
content more comprehendible to her students. Ms. Sanchez stated, “I use a lot of strategies to
make my instruction comprehendible, so we have audio-visuals, videos, slower speech. I use
drawings, illustrations, graphic organizers; many strategies... for my students to understand what
they're learning,” (Interview #5, 2017).
Ms. Henriquez, a second-grade teacher, explained that she uses GLAD strategies to make
sure her students understand what she is trying to teach them. She shared that she uses GLAD
strategies by using proximity, hand gestures, and is animated when she teaches, so that her
students are engaged during her lessons. Ms. Del Angel, a fourth-grade teacher, explained that
she was GLAD-trained at her previous school district and uses its strategies to teach complex
vocabulary that is commonly used in science or social studies. Mr. Nuñez, a fifth-grade teacher,
reported that he uses GLAD strategies to teach vocabulary development and grammar in his
classroom.
Graphic organizers. Part of the GLAD strategies is using graphic organizers. Three
participants stated that they used graphic organizers to ensure that their students understand the
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 95
content that is being taught. Mr. Nuñez shared, “I use a lot of graphic organizers. I use lots of
charts. I think the graphic organizers are a huge help to all students, especially the struggling
students,” (Interview #6, 2017). Ms. Cristal and Ms. Sanchez stated that they use many graphic
organizers, so that their students understand what they are learning.
Hands-on. The hands-on strategy can be part of the GLAD strategies and part of the
SDAIE strategies, as well. SDAIE strategies help English language learners grasp content with
the use of many strategies such as realia objects. Students learn using hands-on activities. Ms.
Del Angel opined:
I try to do hands-on things, for example I had them do a map, like an actual, physical map
of different regions, kind of like a salt map, and then they got to paint it. For other
content areas, I also do more hands-on things (Interview #1, 2017).
Two other teachers, Ms. Villanueva and Ms. Sanchez, stated that they also used hands-on
activities to ensure that their students can more readily grasp content.
Presentations. As previously mentioned, Hansen (2006) recommended technology, such
as videos, visuals, and PowerPoint presentations, to help scaffold information for English
language learners. Ms. Sanchez said she utilized technology resources to execute her teaching
strategy. She mentioned:
I do a lot of presentations. We’ll read a book and then I’ll assign them a part of the book
in groups, and they have to draw out what they read. They have to present, they make
little cards, index cards, and they present what they're learning. That's really fun for
them. They love group presentations. We also create Google slide presentations where
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 96
each child has a different slide and they make the slide and then they go up and present it
in front of their classmates (Interview #5, 2017).
Ms. Henriquez mentioned that she used presentations to introduce or pre-teach new vocabulary:
For vocabulary or new vocabulary...I always have a presentation. So, I have no more
than eight words, and then I have a presentation for them at the beginning of the week. I
always have a visual, and then I have a sentence, and the definition. And then we first go
through it, through the presentation, and then they actually have to do an activity with
that word. They work in groups. They're finding the example in the book, then they
have to teach it to someone. This is throughout the week (Interview #7, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez also shared that he uses PowerPoint presentations so that students can practice their
oral language skills. He mentioned that his students:
…Create beautiful presentations and charts. I've had them create PowerPoint
presentations. Then they present that to the class, so it's really like a review, but it's also
really helping them develop their oral language skills because they are gathering
information but then they are also presenting that information (Interview #6, 2017).
All these strategies are used by the teachers as instruments to scaffold academic content to their
students.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
The next theme that surfaced was the use of culturally relevant pedagogy in dual
immersion classrooms. Cultural relevant pedagogy asserts that teachers need to be non-
judgmental and include students’ cultural backgrounds to achieve effective classroom instruction
(Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 1995). All eight respondents shared how they
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 97
incorporated student culture in their dual immersion classrooms. As discussed in Chapter Two,
culturally-relevant teaching and pedagogy empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by utilizing cultural meaning to communicate knowledge, skills, and
attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1995). When teachers use culturally relevant teaching and pedagogy:
(a) they develop affirming attitudes, validate and respect diverse children and students’ varied
ways of interacting in and out of the classroom; (b) they seek out ways to develop deep
relationships with their students to learn about their multiple facets of their lives (Villegas &
Lucas, 2002). Students bring to school culturally-based ways of doing, seeing, and understanding
their world and it is essential for teachers to find ways to incorporate those cultural experiences
into the classroom (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). All eight respondents interviewed stated that
they incorporated culturally relevant pedagogy via literature and school activities.
Culturally Relevant Literature and School Activities
All respondents stated that they acknowledge their students’ culture by including
important holidays, customs, and traditions in their instruction. The two major holidays and
traditions that surfaced were “Dia de los muertos” and “Las posadas.” Participants mentioned
that they used literature to teach “Día de los muertos” and “Las posadas.” The school also
hosted activities that observed both traditions.
Día de los muertos. Día de los muertos, or Day of the Dead, is a Mexican holiday that
honors those who have passed away. Families and friends honor their dead by making altars to
their memory that contain sugar skulls, flowers, bread, and other objects that represent their
loved ones. It is believed that on the day of the dead, deceased loved ones wake from their
eternal sleep and join in the celebration with their family and friends (Sherman, 2014). Ms.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 98
Villanueva shared that she first introduced “Día de los muertos” by reading several books and
then charting important facts about the tradition so that students can refer to it at a later time.
She explained that she makes “Día de los muertos” into a unit of study:
One day we read a book about it. And then maybe another day we watch a video. A
different day we'll do an activity of coloring a mask. Definitely, we're not celebrating it
because a lot of people think "Oh, we're celebrating it" We're learning about it. It is a
unit of study and a whole process it's not just that day, we start preparing ... because some
kids get scared if they see all these skeletons. So, I start weeks before introducing it,
(Interview #2, 2017).
The school also celebrates “Día de los muertos” by allowing each class to create their own altar.
Students bring pictures of their love ones that have passed away and pin them onto the classroom
altar.
Las posadas. “Posadas are community or family events, performed during the nine
nights from December 16 through Christmas Eve, which reenact Mary and Joseph's search for
shelter on the night of Jesus's birth” (Willis, 2006, p. 41). During “las posadas” the breaking of
a “piñata” occurs. The piñata is often a papier-mâché figurine that is decorated, filled with
small toys or candy and then broken as part of a celebration. The integration of the piñata in las
posadas is common in Latin American countries, for example, like in Mexico. Mexican people
have combined “posadas” and “piñatas” to the point that they have become symbolic of Mexico
itself (Brandes, 1983). Ms. Escobar explained that she introduced the concept of “Las posadas”
through literature and videos:
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 99
Today, we learned about posadas and I showed them a video…I just try to introduce
them to different traditions. I try to not stick to just Mexican traditions…but if there's
anything else, I try to incorporate it and let them know that. I'm very big on telling them
in Mexico, this is how it is celebrated, but in…Venezuela it is celebrated differently. I
really try to make them aware that Latin America is so much more than Mexico. I have a
map of Latin America in my classroom and we point to it often (Interview #8, 2017).
Greenlawn elementary hosts posadas celebrations, but they omit the religious aspects. Each
class hosts a posada and passes out goodies to students.
Geography and Culture
Aside from customs and traditions, four participants shared that they used geography for
culturally relevant teaching. Ms. Sanchez explained that she uses Spanish-speaking countries to
incorporate culture in her dual immersion classroom:
Every week I bring in a new song from Latin America or a Spanish speaking country and
we learn it, we sing it…We do so much art-based on Spanish-speaking countries. We
learn the geography of those countries, like the capitals. We learn quotes from Latin
America. Food, we bring in food from Spanish-speaking countries. We do dances, we ...
do so many things. That's the base of my class (Interview #5, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez explained that he uses U.S. geography to teach culture in his classroom. He explained
that:
When it comes to culture, I think that ... Teaching U.S. history, it's just the perspective
that you take. Again, I really want them to be thinking about the United States not just
being the 13 colonies but being about the Spanish colonies and the French colonies and
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 100
the American colonies. We started off actually talking about how things looked so
different and how people were trading even before the Europeans came and how there
was communication between people in Peru and people in Mexico. People in Mexico
knew about people living in the north or North America (Interview #6, 2017).
Ms. Barbosa shared that she used geography to incorporate culture in her classroom. Ms.
Barbosa stated that she has conversations with her class on how things are said differently in
different countries. For example, a straw in Mexico is called “popote,” but in Colombia, it is
called a “paja.” Ms. Henriquez explained that she uses culturally relevant literature combined
with geography to incorporate students’ culture. She gave an example that she has a student
from Korea, so she read Me llamo Yoon which is a story about a little boy and his family that
moved to the United States from Korea.
Table 4. 3.
Teaching Pedagogies that Impact Learning and Language Acquisition
Research-
Based Effective
Teaching
Pedagogies
Description Participant Data Research
Connection
Connection to
Community Cultural
Capital Framework
GLAD
Professional
Development
Project GLAD
(guided language
acquisition design)
trains teachers to use
35 teaching strategies
to develop student
English
conversational skills,
student academic
Honestly, the
professional
development that
was useful in my
classroom was
GLAD. … I was
trained in like
over ten years ago
at another
(OCDE, 2018)
• Linguistic
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 101
English, and increase
student access to the
educational
curriculum especially
in science and social
studies.
district…
basically there's
like maybe like
eight to ten
strategies that are
used in content
areas, like for
example, …
Pictorial!
5/8 Participants
GLAD as an
Instructional
Pedagogy
Uses 35 teaching
strategies to develop
student English
conversational skills,
student academic
English, and increase
student access to the
educational
curriculum especially
in science and social
studies.
Mr. Nuñez shared
“I use a lot of
graphic
organizers. I use
lots of charts. I
think the graphic
organizers are a
huge help to all
students,
especially for the
struggling
students”.
5/8 participants
(OCDE, 2018)
• Linguistic
Cultural
Relevant
Pedagogy
Cultural relevant
pedagogy maintains
that teachers need to
be non-judgmental
and include students’
cultural backgrounds
to be effective
instructors in the
classroom.
Well, today, we
learned about
posadas and I
showed them a
video…I just try
to introduce them
to different
tradition.
8/8 participants
Brown-Jeffy &
Cooper, 2011;
Ladson-
Billings, 1995
• Familial
• Linguistic
• Navigational
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 102
Research Question Three
Research question three asks: What non-economic resources do bilingual teachers
identify in their classrooms that aid in learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-
English dual immersion classroom? After interviewing the eight participants of my study, six
themes emerged that seemed to influence teaching practices, such as:
• aspirational capital.
• linguistic capital,
• familial capital,
• social capital,
• navigational capita, and
• resistant capital.
Community Cultural Capital
The six themes that surfaced are part of the community cultural capital, or also known as
community cultural wealth framework. Community cultural capital is defined as "an array of
knowledge, skills, abilities and contacts possessed and utilized by Communities of Color to
survive and resist macro and micro-forms of oppression," (Yosso, 2005, p. 77). Community
cultural capital encourages individuals to see communities of color as nurturing cultural wealth
through at least six forms of capital: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and
resistant capital (Yosso, 2005).
Aspirational Capital
Aspirational capital is the ability to preserve hopes and dreams for the future, despite real
challenges (Yosso, 2005). This resiliency is shown in individuals who allow themselves and
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 103
their children to dream of opportunities beyond their present conditions, even if they do not have
the means to attain those ambitions (Yosso, 2005). All eight teachers talked about their
resiliency to overcome personal barriers to reach their current stature.
Ms. Del Angel shared that she was bused to a high school that was predominately white
and when she was a senior her counselor discouraged her from applying to college. She did not
listen to her counselor and applied, got accepted, and went to college. She wanted to be a
positive role model for other kids in her community to follow.
Ms. Villanueva responded that it took her ten years to finish her degree, as she was off
and on from college. She shared:
I kept going back and eventually I finished and I got my bachelor's 10 years after I
graduated high school. But I decided I couldn’t waste any more time so I went into the
credential program right away and I finished it. Right away I got a job and started
working (Interview #2, 2017).
Ms. Villanueva showed resiliency by persevering in her education toward her degree, credential,
and later becoming a teacher.
Ms. Cristal shared that when she graduated from college she was not sure what to do with
her degree. She was having a hard time figuring out what her next steps would be until she
figured out that she wanted to become a teacher. She looked for a teaching program that suited
her needs. She confessed, “It took me a while to find my footing, and finding the right program,
but once I found the right program, and where I wanted to be, I think everything else was just so
easy” (Interview #3, 2017). Ms. Cristal showed resiliency by not giving up and finding her
career aspirations.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 104
Ms. Barbosa mentioned that she thought that she could not finish her master’s degree,
admitting that:
I really didn't think I was going to make it through my master's program just because I
felt like I couldn't make it ... It was all perceived, that I wouldn't be able to be successful.
That fear, overcoming that fear of failure I tell my students there will be times where they
will struggle, but you have to teach yourself to get back up, shake it off, and keep trying.
If you fall again, try again. So just persistence and resilience is really tough to teach
them, but I use my own experience (Interview #4, 2017).
Ms. Barbosa was tenacious and finished her master’s program but was also gracious enough to
share her experience with her students, teaching them not to give up and be persistent toward
achieving their goals.
Ms. Sanchez shared that being an immigrant to the United States was very difficult for
her. She shared that she overcame that challenge by “having a support system and friends and
family who loved her and helped her” (Interview #5, 2017). After she overcame the barrier of
being an immigrant, Ms. Sanchez went to college and became a teacher.
Mr. Nuñez shared that he grew up in a community that was not nice to Latinos. He
shared:
I graduated high school in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and I can see now, like I didn't
even realize that I was maybe the only Latino in my classroom many times. I really
wasn't paying attention to that. Fast forward to the present, I'm kind of going, "Oh my
gosh. I can see why" ... because I still remember I went to visit a couple of girls…and I
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 105
was outside in my car talking to them. The dad of the girls called the cops, and the cops
stopped like, "Hey, what are you doing here?" Not very welcoming (Interview #6, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez shared that he overcame these challenges by understanding that that is how society is.
He continued:
I feel empowered as a teacher to be able to give students the tools and the understanding
that they can change the world or at least understand it to the point where they don't take
it personal. This is not about you; it's really about what has been created over hundreds
of years, and how are we going to cope with it now? How are we going to feel
empowered? How are we going to feel good about it and stay positive and create positive
changes in the future? (Interview #6, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez is taught his students that microaggressions and racism can be overcome and that
their tenacity can lead them to success. Mr. Nuñez’s aspirational capital got him through high
school and college. Ms. Henriquez mentioned that she always did well in class when she had a
connection with the professor. She stated:
I always remember classes that I didn't do well in, and I think to myself, well why didn't I
do well in those classes, when I did well in other classes. It's basically the connection
that you have with the professor or teacher. Bottom line, and it doesn't matter what
program you're in. It's like if you have that connection, or they bring out that best quality
in you, then that's when you're successful (Interview #7, 2017).
Ms. Henriquez felt that she overcame failures by making a connection with her instructors. She
felt that if there is a strong connection with the instructors she did well in her academics.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 106
Ms. Escobar shared that she and her family had to move from Mexico to the United Sates
because her father passed away when she was a child. She explained:
We left all our life in Mexico when we moved here and started out fresh. Luckily, we had
a lot of family support. That helped, and it gave my mom an opportunity to go to English
school and then go to community college. She became a teacher herself. But, that in
itself, was a challenge for the family because she had to work two jobs and go to school
full time. She wasn't present a lot and being a single mother. I would say that's a big
challenge (Interview #8, 2017).
The tenacity of Ms. Escobar’s mother helped her better herself and go to college. Her tenacity
also helped Ms. Escobar get a good education which in essence helped her to become a teacher
as well.
Navigational Capital
Navigational capital are skills to maneuver through social institutions. These skills were
set in place so that communities of color could maneuver through institutions that were not
created or intended for them, for example, university campuses (Yosso, 2005). Many students of
color honed skills to navigate through racially hostile university campuses and managed to
succeed despite stressful events and conditions that could have made them drop out of school
(Alva, 1991). One of the skills used in navigational capitals is cross-cultural code switching.
Cross-cultural code switching is how individuals purposefully change their own behavior to
accommodate different cultural norms of appropriate behavior (Molinsky, 2007). Five of the
eight participants stated that they have used cross-cultural code-switching in their school setting
while interacting with their students’ parents, coworkers, and administrators.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 107
Ms. Del Angel shared how she has to cross-cultural code-switch between non-Latino
parents and Latino parents. She explained that when she has parent conferences usually non-
Latino parents are “demanding parents, you have to have data while Latino parents are like
‘como se porta mi niño’ (how is my child behaving)” (Interview #2, 2017). In other words,
Latino parents are mostly concerned about their children’s behavior in the classroom.
Ms. Cristal shared that at her work place she is very professional and speaks formally, but
when she hangs out with her friends, she changes quickly. She explained:
You know, I'm very formal most of the time except when I hang out with Salvadorians.
Everything goes out the window, and then the Salvadorian in me comes out, and then it's
like, "Oh my gosh! I got to get out of here because this is contagious," but it's very
distinct places because I can see myself in one place being very formal all the time, and
then the whole environment has to change for me to become that person (Interview #3,
2017).
Ms. Cristal cross-cultural code switches between the workplace and her social
interactions outside of work. Ms. Barbosa explained that she cross-cultural code switches when
she speaks to her students, parents, colleagues, and administrators:
Yes. Of course, you're not going to speak to the students the same way you speak to their
parents. I'm not going to speak to you the same way I'm going to speak to my boss or to
my principal... I don't speak to my friends the same way I speak to my colleagues. It's
always about that cultural awareness, to know where you are, and what setting you are in
(Interview #4, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 108
Ms. Barbosa is aware that she has to speak and act differently according to the group of people
and setting.
Ms. Henriquez shared that she uses different methods to communicate with her parents.
She explained:
My parent communication with my English-only parents I have five to ten emails a day,
which is a lot for an elementary school teacher from parents. Shutterfly. Constant,
constant communication. But then I have Spanish-speaking parents. I have to verbally
say, "Hola, Señora." Totally different. They have email, but they don't read it.
Shutterfly, maybe they see it, maybe they don't. And so basically, I have to always
communicate with them in person (Interview #7, 2017).
Ms. Henriquez has to cross-cultural code switch when she communicates with her parents. For a
parent that speaks English, she mostly relies on emails to communicate but a parent that speaks
mostly Spanish, she has to talk to them in-person. Ms. Escobar admitted that she commonly
code switches through language:
I think language is the way that I have used code switching. And just depending who
you're with. If you're with your friends, I find myself just being here and not caring what
type of language I'm using. If I'm with my principal, or in a professional environment,
then I code switch to professional and proper, more educated words (Interview #4, 2017).
Ms. Escobar changes her behavior and the way she speaks depending on the setting and
situation. She acts and talks differently at work then she does when she is with her friends.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 109
Social Capital
Social capital includes the networks of people and community resources. These peer and
other social contacts can give both instrumental and emotional support to maneuver through
society’s institutions. People of color have historically used their social capital to attain
education, legal justice, employment, and healthcare. In turn, these communities of color echo
the information that they obtained through these institutions back to their social networks
(Yosso, 2005). Five participants stated that they rely heavily on a social network of dual
immersion teachers. Five other participants also responded that they were part of a social
network that dealt with current educational issues, problems, and current teaching trends.
Dual immersion teachers as social networks. Five dual immersion teachers shared that
they rely significantly on their colleagues as social networks, explaining that Spanish teaching
materials and resources are scarce. They usually obtain them from their peers by bartering.
Beyond materials and resources, dual immersion teachers also shared teaching practices and
strategies that they use in their dual immersion classrooms.
Ms. Villanueva explained that she not only collaborates with teachers from her school,
but she also shares and borrows materials and ideas from other teachers from other schools. She
said, “My social network is definitely my colleagues here at my school site. There are two
other schools that have Spanish dual immersion, and I do collaborate with them and share with
them” (Interview #2, 2017).
Ms. Del Angel, Ms. Cristal, Ms. Sanchez, and Ms. Henriquez all shared that they
considered their colleagues their social network. Ms. Cristal shared, “I want to say my social
network is with my colleagues here, definitely we have a strong bond” (Interview #3, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 110
Social networks as spaces of discourse. Five teachers said that they are affiliated with
institutions and groups that deal with educational issues and trends. Of those five teachers, four
stated they belong to their university’s alumni social network and one teacher stated that he was
part of The Center for Civil Rights network. Ms. Villanueva, Ms. Cristal, Ms. Barbosa, and Ms.
Sanchez all shared that they are part of their university’s alumni network. These four teachers
rely on their alumni network so that they can keep current on educational trends that are
occurring in dual immersion classrooms. Ms. Barbosa mentioned:
I belong to the alumni association for Cal State L.A, where I did my undergraduate
studies, and Loyola Marymount, where I did my master's and teacher credential program.
My social network is very important to me because I can follow the big names in dual
immersion, as well as some teachers I met at other professional development trainings,
like the Dual Language Association meetings. So I try to keep up-to-date, and taking
what I can use for my students and for my school site (Interview #4, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez shared that he is involved with the The Center of Civil Rights. He mentioned,
“Yeah, I am working on how to talk about controversial issues in the classroom. There’s
actually guidelines that you can use to make sure that you have respectful dialogue when talking
about classroom controversial issues” (Interview #6, 2017). Mr. Nuñez uses his social network
to help facilitate dialogues on controversial educational issues that are sometimes difficult to
address.
Linguistic Capital
Linguistic capital is the intellectual and social skills attained through communication of
experiences in different languages or styles. Linguistic capital is premised on the idea that
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 111
students of color come to school with various language and communication skills (Yosso, 2005).
All of the eight participants shared that they have attained intellectual and social skills through
communication experiences. Some teachers shared that these communication experiences came
via student interaction, colleague interaction, family interaction, and interactions while traveling
to other countries.
Ms. Cristal shared a communication experience that she had with one of her students
on how to say kite in various forms in Spanish:
I was talking to one of my students, and I know that one side of his family is from
Colombia, and the other side of his family is from El Salvador. There was a word in our
reading, papalote. I said, "Oh, you know, in my country, we call it piscucha…your
grandpa most likely calls it that,” and the student looked at me puzzled. There are times
students tell me things that their parents have taught them and I don't know, so I have to
look it up, and see where it’s from, and what they are talking about, and how we can
address it, and not be like, "Oh, I don't know what that means," because I'm the teacher,
and I should know everything, right (Interview #3, 2017)?
Ms. Cristal also admitted she learned new words from her students who bring with them their
linguistic capital and she has acknowledged those words in class.
Ms. Barbosa shared a communication experience that she had with her colleagues when
she first started teaching. She mentioned, “When I became a teacher...[my colleagues], and yes
they were Mexican, spoke a Spanish style that was either very formal or very different. It took
me awhile to really understand them,” (Interview #4, 2017). Ms. Barbosa explained that through
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 112
these communication experiences with her colleagues she managed to expand her Spanish
vocabulary.
Mr. Nuñez shared a communication experience he had when he moved from Mexico’s
southern region to its northern region. He explained that his family’s Spanish was different from
Mexico’s northern region:
I was born in Mexico City, and then I ended up in Mexicali, Mexico when I was eight.
That was a huge culture shock. You had different words, you had a different accent, you
had a different culture, so that was really interesting. Then when I was ten, we moved to
Calexico, and again it was like learning a new language and it was again a new culture
because you have the Mexicans in Mexico, you have the Mexicans in the border town on
the Mexican side, and then you have the Mexicans on the American side. All different
with all different histories, all different ... I didn't know who Cesar Chavez was until I
was like twelve years old (Interview #6, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez learned new Spanish words that were common in Mexico’s border towns, but he also
learned its culture was different from the southern region of Mexico. He learned intellectual
skills and social skills through these communication experiences. Ms. Sanchez shared a
communication experience while traveling through Latin American countries. She recounted:
I try to travel to Latin America. I spent my whole life going to Venezuela, I've been to
Peru, Mexico, Puerto Rico. I definitely travel a lot and I get to know the cultures of
Spanish-speaking countries. I've been to Spain and everything I do is really around the
Latino community (Interview #5, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 113
Ms. Sanchez was exposed to new cultures and learned through communication experiences as
she interacted with people from the many regions of Latin America. All participants responded
that communication experiences expanded their intellectual and social skills; in many instances
they learned new Spanish words and gained new insights into the various cultures of Latin
America.
Familial Capital
Familial capital refers to cultural knowledge nurtured among family that instill a sense of
community, history, memory, and cultural intuition. Through familial capital we learn the
importance of maintaining a healthy connection to our community and its resources (Yosso,
2005). Six participants stated that their sense of history was reinforced by cultural practices,
customs, and traditions passed down from their families or communities. Ms. Del Angel, Ms.
Cristal, Ms. Barbosa, Ms. Sanchez, and Ms. Henriquez all stated that their families instilled
cultural practices and traditions in them. Ms. Barbosa shared:
My parents came to the states when they were young themselves. My dad was 18, my
mother, 19. They tried to instill as many Mexican traditions as they could, but also they
were very Americanized because they observed and celebrated all of the American
traditions that you could think of. When I got to school, I had friends that didn't celebrate
Halloween. They'd say, "Well, we're Mexican, we don't celebrate that." I responded, "I'm
Mexican too, and I celebrate Halloween, and Día de los Muertos.” You can say that I'm
multicultural. I tell the kids, we're in L.A, this is multicultural. It goes back to valuing
your own culture as well as everybody else's (Interview #4, 2017).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 114
Ms. Cristal shared that her mother passed down to her Salvadorian cuisine. She explained that
her mom was always working, and she rarely had time to pass down traditions or customs, and
the only cultural practice that was passed down to her was her mother’s recipes, even though her
mother hated cooking. Ms. Cristal shared:
My mom was not a very traditional person… because she came to this country, her focus
on one thing: work and get money. She forgot all her traditions and customs and didn't
really pass them on to me…the food is still there, definitely love Pupusas, Tamales,
'Orchata (not the rice kind), and I try to do that with my own friends who are from the
same place as I am. We get together and cook Tamales, and cook Pupusas, and…
different dishes that I wouldn't normally enjoy in my house because my mom hated
cooking (Interview #3, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez felt that he acquired his cultural practices, traditions, and customs through
the communities he lived in. He explained that he moved several times to different parts of
Mexico and the United States. He recounted:
Again, my cultural practices, traditions, and customs ended up changing because in
Mexico City we celebrated a certain way. Then we moved to Mexicali, and people
celebrated a different way. . . I definitely have something that I love about every single
place. Mexicali, I still love the tacos there, especially the carne asada. Ninety degrees
outside but everybody's with a beer in their hand and with their tacos, enjoying the
afternoon. Love San Diego, have friends there. Tijuana. I can relate to people at the
border. I can relate to people in Mexico. It's like you're always switching codes a bit and
switching ... It's an understanding. I can go to St. Louis. I can go to Colorado. I can go
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 115
to Florida, and it's the same thing, always kind of finding where you fit and how you
relate. I think being bilingual and bicultural is a real asset in how to relate to the world
(Interview #6, 2017).
Mr. Nuñez got his sense of community history through the communities he lived in. He feels that
he can go into any community and adjust fairly well because he can cross-culturally code switch.
All six participants got their sense of familial origin through family and community cultural
practices, traditions, and customs.
Resistant Capital
Resistant capital is knowledge and skills fostered through opposing behavior that
challenges inequality (Yosso, 2005). Historically, this form of cultural wealth has been
illustrated by communities of color as resistance to subordination (Deloria, 1969, Yosso, 2005).
Of the eight participants, five stated that they have advocated for their students on equity issues.
Three teachers stated that they advocated for their dual immersion students to receive academic
intervention services. Two teachers stated that they advocated for their students to receive more
Spanish materials and additional professional development for dual immersion teachers.
For many years Greenlawn only offered academic intervention and tutoring services to
students that were enrolled in English-only classes, dual immersion students were left out. Ms.
Villanueva, Ms. Cristal, and Ms. Henriquez all lobbied to get a specialized academic intervention
teacher that could assist their students in Spanish. Ms. Villanueva shared:
When I first started at Greenlawn Elementary four years ago, there was no response to
intervention services… for our dual language program. Obviously, our students needed it
too. Our students, the students in the Spanish program needed support just like the
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 116
students in English do. We needed it in the target language, Spanish. There was a lot of
debate of whether or not they could provide it and whether or not they could get someone
to provide the services, and how it would be done, etc. Finally, last year was the first
year that we had someone. So, it's small steps. It's still not an even playing field between
what the English students are receiving and what the Spanish program students are
receiving. But it's progress. For us as teachers, we need different professional
development compared to our English colleagues. That's something that we are still
fighting for. We need different types of collaboration with each other across grade levels
and that's something that we're all [fighting] for (Interview #2, 2017).
Ms. Villanueva and all of the dual language teachers fought so that their students got response to
intervention services. Mr. Nuñez and Ms. Escobar stated that they also have lobbied for student
materials and more professional development for dual immersion teachers. Ms. Escobar
mentioned:
I would advocate we need more cross grade level trainings. We need more Spanish
materials. Most of the time, the dual immersion students’ needs weren't being met, but I
do what I must in order for them to get their needs met. (Interview #8, 2017)
All five dual immersion teachers have used resistant capital as they challenged their institution to
better serve their dual immersion students by providing adequate academic support, school
materials, and more professional development.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 117
Table 4. 4.
Community Cultural Capital that Influences Teaching Practices
Community Cultural
Capital Framework
Description Participant Data Research Connection
Aspirational Capital Aspirational capital is the
ability to preserve hopes
and dreams for the future,
despite real challenges.
“Ms. Villanueva
mentioned that it took
her ten years to finish her
degree, as she was off
and on from college”.
8/8 Participants
Yosso, 2005
Navigational Capital Navigational capital are
skills of maneuvering
through social
institutions. These skills
were set in place so that
communities of color can
maneuver through
intuitions that were not
created or intended for
them, for example,
university campuses. One
of these skills is code-
switching, how
individuals purposefully
change their own
behavior in an interaction
to accommodate different
cultural norms for
appropriate behavior.
“Of course, you're not
going to speak to the
students the same way
you speak to their
parents. I'm not going to
speak to you the same
way I'm going to speak
to my boss, to my
principal... I don't speak
to my friends the same
way I speak to my
colleagues. It's always
about that cultural
awareness, to know
where you are, and what
setting you are, to control
that”.
5/8 participants
Alva, 1991; Molinsky,
2007; Yosso, 2005
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 118
Social Capital Social capital is networks
of people and community
resources. These peer and
other social contacts can
give both instrumental
and emotional support to
maneuver through
society’s institutions.
People of color have
historically used their
social capital to attain
education, legal justice,
employment, and
healthcare.
“My social network is
definitely my colleagues
here at my school site. In
other Spanish-speaking
schools. There are two
other schools that have
Spanish dual immersion,
and I do collaborate with
them and share with
them”.
5/8 participants
Stanton-Salazar, 2011;
Yosso, 2005
Linguistic Capital Linguistic capital is the
intellectual and social
skills attained through
communication
experiences in different
languages or styles.
Linguistic capital
maintains the idea that
students of color come to
school with various
language and
communication skills.
“I was born in Mexico
City, and then I ended up
in Mexicali, Mexico
when I was eight. That
was a huge culture
shock. You had different
words, you had a
different accent, you had
a different culture, so
that was really
interesting”.
8/8 participants
Yosso, 2005
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 119
Familial Capital Familial capital refers to
the cultural knowledge
nurtured among family
that instills a sense of
community history,
memory, and cultural
intuition. Through
familial capital we learn
the importance of
maintaining a healthy
connection to our
community and its
resources.
“My parents came to the
states when they were
young themselves. My
dad was 18, my mother
19. They tried to instill as
many Mexican traditions
as they could, but also
they were very
Americanized, because
they did observe and do
all of the American
traditions that you could
think of. When I got to
school, I had friends that,
they didn't celebrate
Halloween, they'd say,
"Well, we're Mexican,
we don't celebrate that."
I'd be like, "I'm Mexican
too, and I celebrate
Halloween, and the Día
de los Muertos. So, I
guess you can say that
I'm multicultural”.
6/8 particpants
Yosso, 2005
Resistant Capital Resistant capital is
knowledge and skills
fostered through
opposing behaviors that
challenges inequality.
Historically, this form of
cultural wealth has been
illustrated by
communities of color as
resistance to
subordination.
“I would advocate we
need more cross grade
level trainings. We need
more Spanish materials.
Most of the time, the
dual immersion students’
needs weren't being met,
but I do what I must in
order for them to get
their needs met ”.
5/8 participants
Deloria, 1969, Yosso, 2005
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 120
Conclusion
The first research question asked what do bilingual teachers report is their approach to
learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms.
The findings suggested a teacher-student connection, strategies to teach language learning,
effective teaching practices to teach language and ensure student language acquisition, and
intervention to secure that students are gaining access to the curriculum in both languages. The
second research question asked what bilingual teachers perceived as the impact of their approach
to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms. The three impactful approaches are
professional development, instructional pedagogies, and cultural and linguistic pedagogies.
Research question three asked what non-economic resources bilingual teachers utilize in
their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual immersion
classroom. The six approaches are aspirational capital, linguistic capital, familial capital, social
capital, navigational capital, and resistant capital.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 121
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This study collected data of dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most effective
practices and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills to
educate culturally and linguistically diverse students. According to data, 50% of English
Language learners fail their graduation exit exams, compared to 24% of English-proficient
students. Consequently, the graduation rate of English language learners graduation lags their
English proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). The problem took on added
urgency after the Lau v. Nichols (1975) decision. The ruling ensured linguistically appropriate
accommodations for language minority students in public schools.
The purpose of this study is to contribute research to a little noticed, but growing
cottage industry. The available literature has largely ignored attitudes of bilingual teachers
toward learning and language acquisition. Additionally, this study examined the non-economic
resources bilingual teachers utilize in their dual immersion classroom. Dual immersion
programs have the necessary components to address and impact opportunity gaps because it
brings students from different backgrounds together (Carter & Welner, 2013).
The site and the participants were purposefully selected for this study. The researcher
selected one public elementary school and interviewed eight teachers: four teachers in the
primary grades (K-2) and four teachers in the upper grades (3-6). The researcher used a
qualitative methodology because it was the most appropriate and valid method to answer the
research questions.
The instrumentations used for teacher interviews were developed based on theoretical
frameworks of sociocultural and community cultural capital. Sociocultural theory claims that
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 122
information processing is facilitated by helping learners in the process (Vygotsky,
1978). Community cultural capital theory challenges commonly held misperceptions about
communities of color. Community cultural capital instead views communities of color as
communities that manifest cultural wealth through six principles: aspirational, navigational,
social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital (Yosso, 2005). In this study, capital is defined as
funds of knowledge used to address learning opportunities and student outcomes in dual
language classrooms. These capitals (aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and
resistant) are transferred through bilingual teachers’ background and experiences to impact their
dual language students. The interview protocol was taken from the teachers’ perspective on
assisting students in the learning process and their cultural background to deliver an effective
curriculum in their dual immersion classroom.
The study investigated three research questions: (1) What do bilingual teachers report as
their approach to learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language
immersion classroom? (2) What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach on
learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom? (3) What non-economic resources, such as
capital including: familial, social, linguistic, navigational, resistant, aspirational, do bilingual
teachers identify in their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-
English dual immersion classroom?
Implication for Practice
As was pointed out in the literature review, bilingual education has had its ebbs and flows
in America’s classrooms. Like many other educational programs, it does not function in a
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 123
vacuum, but within the context of a school site, and within the larger context of a community and
a society at large. Dual immersion is currently poorly supported at Greenlawn elementary due to
a lack of investment in professional development for dual immersion teachers, a scarcity of
educational materials for dual immersion teachers that assist in adopting state standards in
languages other than English. Not surprisingly, dual immersion teachers reported a general sense
of being unsupported at best, or overlooked at worst. There are reasons to be skeptical about dual
immersion’s longevity at Greenlawn elementary as currently constituted, but there are also
reasons to be optimistic that bilingual education in a larger sense will continue in one form or
another in some of America’s classrooms.
Professional Development
Project GLAD (Guided Language Acquisition Design) trains teachers to use 35 teaching
strategies to develop English conversational skills and academic English, with a particular focus
on increasing access to science and social studies curriculum (OCDE, 2018). According to the
Guiding Principles of Dual Language Education, professional development is essential because
academic standards have become more rigorous and require higher-level vocabulary, thus raising
the bar for language arts instruction. Consequently, teachers need additional professional
development on instructional strategies to ensure academic access (Hernandez, 2011 & Howard,
E.R. et al., 2018). Furthermore, the Guiding Principles of Dual Language Education recommend
that top administration and teachers need professional development that articulates the mission
and structure of their dual language program. There is no standard dual language immersion
program, there is a spectrum of dual language immersion that allows each site to adjust it to their
specific needs. Therefore, top administration and teachers should be aware of the rationale and
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 124
structure of their particular dual language immersion program (Howard, E.R. et al., 2018).
Adequate and relevant professional development is important to the growth of dual immersion
teachers because it provides instructional strategies that aid in language learning and the
acquisition of a second language.
Despite the prevailing consensus all eight teachers indicated they did not receive
sufficient professional development as part of the dual immersion program. Five participants
reported that the GLAD professional development training was beneficial to their instruction.
Yet, a majority of the participants indicated they received GLAD training at sites other than the
current school site.
Scarcity of materials. Every dual immersion program is encouraged to align their
curriculum with state content standards. Substantial research has indicated that dual language
schools that aligned their curriculum with state standards are more successful (Howard, E.R. et
al., 2018). Unfortunately, many dual language teachers have to come up with their materials to
meet those state standards as state adopted textbooks usually fall short. Social capital is
considered networks of people and community resources. These peer and other social contacts
can give both instrumental and emotional support (Yosso, 2005).
A majority of respondents lamented that they rely on their colleagues as social networks
rather than a more formal and centralized repository of resources. Spanish teaching materials and
resources are scarce, and what little there are, participants reported they obtained them from their
peers with bartering rather than from their own school site.
The remedy to the scarcity of dual language materials may be social networks. There can
be a social media platform that shares materials with dual language teachers. Increasingly, new
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 125
materials are distributed online and many dual language teachers already make use of
organizations such as The Center of Applied Linguistics, Dual Language Education of New
Mexico, Santilla USA, and National Language Forum to network and collaborate with those who
work in bilingual education (Howard, E.R. et al., 2018). In the age of social media, new
strategies or pedagogies can be disseminated quickly, but it also poses threats of poorly
researched, flawed pedagogies being transmitted as well; social networks and new avenues of
distribution can be beneficial, but it is no panacea.
Future Research
The findings in this study can be expanded through future research that includes a larger
pool of bilingual teachers in schools with a diverse student population and across neighboring
school districts to see if the patterns that surfaced in this study are similar. A future study can be
conducted to collect comprehensive data on community cultural capital to see what other
patterns surfaced and what themes are validated. The new data could be compared to existing
data to determine how it impacts community cultural capital. The data would be collected in a
qualitative methodology and the instrumentations that would be used would be based on the
sociocultural and community cultural capital theory frameworks. Sociocultural theory claims that
information processing is facilitated by helping learners in the process (Vygotsky,
1978). Community cultural capital enables individuals to view communities of color nurture
cultural wealth through the following six principles: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic,
familial, and resistant capital (Yosso, 2005).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 126
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to contribute research where current data is lacking. My
study explored the perceptions of bilingual teachers as it relates to learning and language
acquisition. This study also explored the non-economic resources bilingual teachers identify in
students in their dual immersion classroom. As previously mentioned, evidence has pointed out
that 50% of English Language learners fail their graduation tests, compared to 24% of all English
proficient students; English language learners do not graduate at an equal rate compared with
their English proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Therefore, research
indicates that dual immersion programs may have the necessary components to narrow the
opportunity gap because it brings students from different backgrounds together (Carter &
Welner, 2013). The personal experiences and perspectives of bilingual teachers have an impact
on instruction and in student outcomes in dual language classrooms because they provide
valuable cultural world views. Studies revealed that teachers of color tend to be more effective
teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students (Milner & Howard, 2013; Tolbert &
Eichelberger, 2016).
Research Findings
Research question one asked what do bilingual teachers report as their approach to
learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom.
The approaches are teacher-student connection, teaching strategies to teach language
learning, effective teaching practices to teach language and ensure student language acquisition,
and intervention to secure that students are gaining access to the curriculum in both languages.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 127
Research question two asked what do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their
approach to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse
students in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom. The three impactful
approaches are professional development, instructional pedagogies, and cultural and linguistic
pedagogies.
Research question three asked what non-economic resources do these bilingual teachers
identify in their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual
immersion classroom. The six approaches are aspirational capital, linguistic capital, familial
capital, social capital, navigational capital, and resistant capital.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 128
EPILOGUE
An issue that is important to comment on was the unfamiliarity of the dual language
program in Greenlawn Elementary by the site administrator.
It is important for teachers and administrators to know the dual language program that
their school has implemented. Five teachers shared that they felt unsupported by its school
administration because they did not have enough knowledge of the school’s dual immersion
program. The Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education suggested that administrators
have three roles critical to the success of dual immersion education:
1. They have to be the program advocate with the local school board, parents, and
the community.
2. They have to be in charge of planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating
the adopted dual immersion model; which requires for them to have a clear
understanding of the theory underlying the model in order to make informed
decisions about instruction.
3. They have to make sure that teachers and staff are uniformly promoting
achievement for all students, even if dual immersion programs are one strand
within the school; they have to make sure teachers are part of school-wide
planning and coordination; and they have to make sure that teachers are aware of
the dual language program on-site (Howard, E.R. et al., 2018).
In order for an administrator to guide their dual immersion teachers they have to have an
extensive knowledge of the dual language that is implemented (Alanis & Rodriguez, 2008).
Also, an overseeing administrator should have extensive knowledge of second language
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 129
development, bilingual, immersion education theory and research, instructional methodologies,
and effective classroom practices (Howard, E.R. et al., 2018).
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 130
References
Alva, S. (1991) Academic invulnerability among Mexican American students: The importance of
protective resources and appraisals. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13(1),
18–34.
Avalos, B. (2011). Teacher professional development in Teaching and Teacher Education over
ten years. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(1), 10–20. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.08.007
Attarzadeh, M. (2011). The effect of scaffolding on reading comprehension of various text modes
on Iranian EFL learners with different proficiency levels. Social Sciences and Humanities,
2(4), 1-28.
Block, N. (2011). The Impact of Two-Way Dual-Immersion Programs on Initially English-
Dominant Latino Students’ Attitudes. Bilingual Research Journal, 34(2), 125–141.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2011.598059
Brandes, S. (1983). The Posadas in Tzintzuntzan Structure and Sentiment in a Mexican
Christmas Festival. The Journal of American Folklore, 96(381), 259-280.
doi:10.2307/540945
Brechtel, M. (2001). Bringing it all together: Language and literacy in the multilingual classroom
(Rev. ed.). Carlsbad, CA: Dominie Press.
Brisk, M. E. (1999). Quality bilingual education: Defining success (LAB Working Paper No. 1).
Providence, RI: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory, Brown
University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 445549)
Brown-Jeffy, S., & Cooper, J. (2011). Toward a Conceptual Framework of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy: An Overview of the Conceptual and Theoretical Literature. Teacher
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 131
Education Quarterly, 38(1), 65-84. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/stable/23479642
CA Voter Guide. (2016). http://voterguide.sos.ca.gov/en/propositions/58/. Accessed 23 Jun.
2017.
Calderón, M. & Slavin, R. & Sánchez, M. (2011). Effective Instruction for English Learners. The
Future of Children, 21(1), 103-127. Princeton University. Retrieved March 4, 2018, from
Project MUSE database.
Carter, P. L, & Welner, K. G. (Eds.). (2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must
do to give every child an even chance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Castro, D., Paez, M., Dickinson, D., & Frede, E. (2011). Promoting language and literacy in
young dual language learners: Research, practice, and policy. Child Development
Perspectives, 5(1), 15-21.
Christian, D. (1996). Two-Way Immersion Education: Students Learning through Two
Languages. The Modern Language Journal, 80(1), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/329058
Christian, D., & Whitcher, A. (1995). Two-way bilingual programs in the United States, 1994-
1995 revised directory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics
Cloud, N. Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E. (2000). Dual language instruction: A handbook for
enriched education. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Collier, V.P., & Thomas, W.P. (2004). The astounding effectiveness of dual language education
for all. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1), 1-20.
Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. Los
Angeles, CA: Bilingual Educational Services.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 132
Daniel, S. M. (2016). Grappling with Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A study of elementary-
level teacher candidates’ learning across practicum and diversity coursework experiences.
The Urban Review, 48(4), 579-600.
Deloria, V. (1969) Custer died for your sins: an Indian manifesto. New York, Avon.
Fletcher, J. M. and Vaughn, S. (2009). Response to Intervention: Preventing and Remediating
Academic Difficulties. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 30-37. doi:10.1111/j.1750-
8606.2008.00072.x
Gandara, P. & Rumberger. R. (2008). Defining an adequate education for English learners.
Education Finance and Policy, 3(1), 130-148.
García, O. (1992, June). For it is in giving that we receive: A history of language policy in the
United States. In conference “American Pluralism: Toward a History of Discussion” held
at SUNY, Stony Brook on (Vol. 7).
García, O., Kleifgen, J. A., & Falchi, L. (2008). From English Language Learners to Emergent
Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1. Campaign for Educational Equity,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
Genesee, F., & Gándara, P. (1999). Bilingual Education Programs: A Cross-National
Perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 55(4), 665–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-
4537.00141
Genesee, F., & Lindholm-Leary, K. (2008). Dual Language Education in Canada and the USA.
In N. H. Hornberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 1696–1706).
Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_129
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 133
Ghafar Samar, R., & Dehqan, M. (2013). Sociocultural theory and reading comprehension: The
scaffolding of readers in an EFL context. International Journal of Research Studies in
Language Learning, 2(3), 67-80.
Goldenberg, B. (2014). White teachers in urban classrooms: Embracing non-white students’
cultural capital for better teaching and learning. Urban Education, 49(1), 111-144. doi:
10.1177/0042085912472510
García, O., Kleifgen, J. A., & Falchi, L. (2008). From English Language Learners to Emergent
Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1. Campaign for Educational Equity,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
Haberman, M. 1991. The pedagogy of poverty versus good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 73,
290–294.
Handsfield, L. & Valente, P. (2016). Momentos de cambio: Cultivating bilingual students’
epistemic privilege through memoir and testimonio. International Journal of
Multicultural Education, 18(3), 138-158.
Hansen, L. (2006). Strategies for ELL success. Science and Children, 43(4), 22-25. Retrieved
from http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-
com.libproxy1.usc.edu/docview/236944314?accountid=14749
Haynes, J. (2005). Langauage Acquition vs. Langauge Learning. Retrieved from
http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_acquisiti_vs_language_02033.php
Herrera, S. (2010). Biography-driven culturally responsive teaching. New York, NY: Teachers
College Press.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 134
Honigsfeld, A. & Cohan, A. (2012). Breaking the mold of education for culturally and
linguistically diverse students: Innovative and successful practices for the twenty-first
century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Howard, E. R., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., Rogers, D., Olague, N., Medina, J., Kennedy, D.,
Sugarman, J., & Christian, D. (2018). Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Howard, T. C. (2015). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in
America’s classrooms. New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press. Ch. 1, 7.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq.
(2004; reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990).
Jong, E. de, & Howard, E. (2009). Integration in two-way immersion education: Equalising
linguistic benefits for all students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 12(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050802149531
Kim, Y. K., Hutchison, L. A., & Winsler, A. (2015). Bilingual education in the United States: an
historical overview and examination of two-way immersion. Educational Review, 67(2),
236–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.865593
Ladson-Billings, G. J. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American
Education Research Journal, 35, 465–491.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding
achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3-12.
Lambert, W., & Tucker, G. (1972). The bilingual education of children: The St. Lambert
Experiment. Rowley, MA: Newbury House
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 135
Lara-Alecio, R., Galloway, M., Irby, B. J., Rodríguez, L., & Gómez, L. (2004). Two-Way
Immersion Bilingual Programs in Texas. Bilingual Research Journal, 28(1), 35–54.
Lim, L. & Renshaw, P. (2001). The relevance of sociocultural theory to culturally diverse
partnerships and communities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10(1), 9-21.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J. (2001). Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 28 : Dual Language
Education. Clevedon, GB: Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/alltitles/docDetail.action?docID=10016705
Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education: Understanding teaching and
learning about teaching. London: Routledge.
Mahn, H. (1999). Vygotsky’s methodological contribution to sociocultural theory: Remedial and
special education, ProQuest, 20(6), 341.
Mahoney, K. S. & MacSwan, J. (2005). Reexamining identification and reclassification of English
language learners: A critical discussion of select state practices. Bilingual Research
Journal, 29(1), 31.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3
rd
ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
May, S. (2008). Bilingual/Immersion Education: What the Research Tells Us. In N. H.
Hornberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 1483–1498). Springer
US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_113
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4
th
ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 136
Milner, H. R. (2010). Start where you are, but don’t stay there: Understanding diversity,
opportunity gaps, and teaching in today’s classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Education Press.
Milner, H. R. (2012). Beyond a test score: Explaining opportunity gaps in educational practice.
Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), 693-718.
Milner, H. R. (2015). Rac(e)ing to class: Confronting poverty and race in schools and
classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Milner, H. R., & Howard, T.C. (2013). Counter-narrative as method: Race, policy and research
for teacher education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(4): 536–561.
Molinsky, A., 2007. Cross-cultural code-switching: the psychological challenges of adapting
behavior in foreign cultural interactions. Academy of Management Review 32(2), 622–
640.
Montague, N. S. (1997). Critical Components for Dual Language Programs. Bilingual Research
Journal, 21(4), 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.1997.10162713
Palmer, D. (2007). A Dual Immersion Strand Programme in California: Carrying Out the
Promise of Dual Language Education in an English-dominant Context. International
Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10(6), 752–768.
https://doi.org/10.2167/beb397.0
Palmer, D. (2013). Teacher agency in bilingual spaces: A fresh look at preparing teachers to
educate Latina/o bilingual children. Review of Research in Education, 37, 269-297. doi:
10.3102/0091732X12463556
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 137
Potowski, K. (2004). Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom:
Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The
Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 75–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-
7902.2004.00219.x
Rueda, R. (2005). Student learning and assessment: Setting an agenda. In P. Pedraza & M.
Rivera (Eds)., Latino Education: An Agenda for Community Action Research (185-204).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Saunders, W. M. & Marcelletti, D. J. (2013). The gap that can’t go away: The catch-22 of
reclassification in monitoring the progress of English learners. Educational Evaluation
and Policy Analysis, 35(2), 139-156. doi: 10.3102/0162373712461849
Sherman, E. (2014). "Día de los Muertos”. 2014 Symposium. 29.
http://dc.ewu.edu/srcw_2014/29
Stanton-Salazar, R.D. (2011). A social capital framework for the study of institutional agents
and their role in the empowerment of low-status students and youth. Youth & Society,
43(3), 1066-1109. doi: 10.117/0044118X10382877
Southard, B. (2014). A rhetoric of epistemic privilege. Advances in the History of Rhetoric,
17(2), 157-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15362426.2014.890962
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (1997). Educational leadership: Reaching for equity: two
languages are better than one. Retrieved April 12, 2017, from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec97/vol55/num04/Two-
Languages-Are-Better-Than-One.aspx
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 138
Tolbert, S. & Eichelberger, S. (2016). Surviving teacher education: A community cultural
capital framework of persistence. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 19(5), 1025-1042.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.969222
Valdes, G. (1997). Dual-Language Immersion Programs: A Cautionary Note Concerning the
Education of Language-Minority Students. Harvard Educational Review, 67(3), 391–
430. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.67.3.n5q175qp86120948
Varghese, M. (2008). Using cultural models to unravel how bilingual teachers enact language
policies. Language and Education, 22(5), 289-306
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500780802152671
Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2002). Educating culturally responsive teachers: A coherent
approach. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wiley, T. G. (1998). The imposition of World War l Era English-Only Policies and the fate of
German in North. Language and politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and
realities, 211.
Willis, B. D. (2006). Tradition and innovation in Mexican pastorelas and posadas. Gestos,
21(41), 41-58. Retrieved from http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-
com.libproxy2.usc.edu/docview/748682600?accountid=14749
Yazdanpanah, M. & Khanmohammad, H. (2014). Sociocultural theory and listening
comprehension: Does the Scaffolding of EFL learners improve their listening
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 139
comprehension? Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(11), 2389-2395. doi:
10.4304/tpls.4.11.2389-2395
Yosso, T., J. (2005) Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth, Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69-91.
DOI:10.1080/1361332052000341006
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 140
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Dual Immersion Introduction and Interview Protocol
Hello, thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am examining the experiences and
perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion classrooms. I want to find out how you
implement cultural and linguistic relevant pedagogies in lessons to create learning opportunities
for culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Background Questions:
1. How would you identify your race and or ethnicity?
2. Are you a native Spanish speaker?
a. If so, at what age did you learn English?
3. What age were you when you entered the American school system?
4. Were you in a bilingual classroom?
a. If so what was the model?
5. What was your overall experience in education ?
6. When do you recall you acquired English as a second language?
7. In what region of the United States did you grow up?
8. What influenced you to become a bilingual teacher?
Research Question Interview Question Type of Question (e.g.,
Devil’s advocate,
opinion, etc.)
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 141
RQ 1: What do bilingual
teachers report as their
approach to learning and
language acquisition in
their Spanish-English dual
language immersion
classroom?
IQ: How would you describe your role as
a bilingual teacher?
How do you deliver content knowledge
in both languages? Are your teaching
materials teacher made or are they from a
publishing company?
IQ: Can you identify any challenges you
face as a bilingual teacher, if any?
How do EO only teachers view the dual
immersion program?
IQ: How would you describe your
approach to language learning? Can you
tell me how you deliver language
instruction (rules of language)? For
instance, do you use direct instruction,
whole group or small group instruction to
deliver language instruction. Can you
share a lesson in which language learning
is the learning objective?
How would you describe your approach
to content learning? How do you
stimulate background/prior knowledge to
deliver content learning (curriculum)?
Can you talk me through a content
learning lesson?
IQ: How would you describe your
approach to language acquisition in your
dual language immersion
classroom? How are students
encouraged to collaborate with each other
and practice oral communication? Can
you provide me with a language
acquisition lesson?
IQ: Can you tell me how you
differentiate instruction in your
classroom? Can you tell me more about
what that looks like for Spanish-only
students? Can you tell me more about
Experience question
Experience question
Opinion question
Knowledge question
Knowledge Question
Knowledge Question
Knowledge Question
Background Question
Devils Advocate
Question
Devils Advocate
Question
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 142
what that looks like for English-only
students? Can you tell me if there are any
other sub-groups that you scaffold for?
IQ: Can you tell me about the
assessments/benchmarks used in your
dual immersion program?
Can you tell me what language
proficiency assessment is used in your
dual immersion program? Can you tell
me what written proficiency assessment
is used in your dual immersion program?
Who develops and decides what
assessments/benchmarks are used to
assess student learning?
Can you tell me how students are
determined to be proficient in both
languages?
IQ: Can you describe interventions used
for struggling students, if any? Who
develops and implements such
interventions (describe the process of
delivering intervention to struggling
students)?
Who wrote the DL plan at your school
site? Collaborative groups? What made
your site/district start a DL program?
Can you tell me about the textbooks your
site/district is currently using in your DL
program? Can you tell me what type of
English/Spanish books you have in your
classroom? (Are they rich Spanish
literature or are they literature translate
from English to Spanish?)
Can you tell me what type of authentic,
culturally relevant literature you use in
Background
Knowledge
Background
Knowledge
Background
Knowledge
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 143
each language? (Who are your favorite
authors, if any?)
Can you tell me about your language
background, for instance do you consider
yourself (bilingual, biliterate,
multilingual)?
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 144
RQ 2: What do bilingual
teachers perceive as the
impact of their approach
to learning and language
acquisition on their
culturally and
linguistically diverse
students in their Spanish-
English dual language
immersion classroom?
IQ: What type of professional
development do you receive as part of
teaching in a dual language immersion
program?
Can you name professional development
that you felt was useful in the classroom?
IQ: What pedagogies (instructional
methods) do you use in your dual
immersion classroom? Which pedagogies
do you perceive to be the most effective
in your D.I. classroom?
IQ: Can you show me your lesson plans
and walk me through your lesson design?
IQ: Can you take me through a day in
your dual immersion classroom? Can you
show me your daily schedule and walk
me through it? If a schedule is not
available, have the teacher describe how
a typical day transpires.
IQ: Can you describe what cultural and
linguistic pedagogies you incorporate
into your instruction? (ex: Describe what
cultural aspects and practices you include
in your curriculum?; Describe how
language acquisition is developed and
delivered?)[These are good follow-up
questions.]
IQ: Describe how your dual immersion
program is structured. What model is
your site following? Is your DL model a
90/10 or 50/50 model? How do you
schedule teaching English and Spanish in
your curriculum?
IQ: Can you describe how teachers are
involved in the development of your
site’s dual immersion program?
Knowledge question
Knowledge question
Experience Question
Sensory/Experience
Question
Knowledge Question
Knowledge Question
Experience/Behavior
Questions
Background Question
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 145
Can you describe how teacher
collaboration takes place at your site?
How does your site provide collaboration
time between bilingual teachers and EO
teachers in the same grade level?
Are lessons shared in your grade level
and if so, are lessons collaboratively
developed?
Experience Question
Background Question
Experience Question
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 146
RQ 3: What non-
economic resources
(capital including:
familial, social, linguistic,
navigational, resistant,
aspirational) do bilingual
teachers identify in their
approach to learning and
language acquisition in his
or her Spanish-English
dual immersion
classroom?
IQ: Can you share with me your story? I
am interested in your journey to
becoming a bilingual educator. What
types of barriers have you faced in your
personal life? How have you overcome
those challenges? What goals did you set
for yourself? Can you share with me life
lessons you learned from perceived
failures?
IQ: What types of communication
experiences in more than one language or
style can you share with me? By styles, I
am referring to various forms of Spanish
spoken in different regions
/countries/people within the culture. Can
you describe the intellectual skills
developed through these
experiences? Can you describe the social
skills you attained through your
communication experiences?
IQ: What cultural practices do you recall
growing up? What customs and
traditions did your family pass down as
you were growing up? For example
family gatherings, foods, and cultural
attire and music. In what ways did you
develop your sense of community
history? (Familial place of origin) What
types of cultural practices, customs, or
traditions do you share with your students
and their familias?
IQ: In what types of networks are you
involved in? What other kinds of
networks do you have access to? In what
ways are you active in these
networks? How do you recruit members
into your networks? What kinds of
community resources are available to
Aspirational Capital
Linguistic Capital
Familial Capital
Social Capital
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 147
you? Can you describe how you share
awareness of community resources?
IQ: I would like to talk about cross-
cultural code-switching. Cross-cultural
code-switching is how individuals change
their own behavior in an interaction to
accommodate different cultural norms for
appropriate behavior. What social
adaptations have you experienced to
develop success in these social
interactions? What did you do to fit in
these social institutions?
Can you describe ways in which you
advocate for your students? How do you
address equity in your D.I. classroom?
How do you address issues of equity and
equality in our educational system? Can
you describe the type of environment you
teach in? (For instance: do you feel safe
bringing up issues of equity/equality to
your site admin.? What is the school
culture in regards to equity and equality?)
Navigational Capital
Resistant Capital
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 148
APPENDIX B: Email Transcripts to Administration and Teachers
Dear (name of Administrator or Teacher),
I hope this email finds you well.
Allow me to introduce myself. My name is Eriberto Martinez and I am an employee
within ABC district and I am currently working on my doctorate degree in Educational
Leadership at the University of Southern California. I am reaching out to you for help in
recruiting bilingual teachers for my qualitative dissertation study. My dissertation topic is to
examine dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most useful practices and resources that
contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in educating culturally and
linguistically diverse students.
I am interested in understanding the perceptions of bilingual teachers in creating learning
opportunities in dual immersion classrooms. I am looking into gathering information on teacher
practices and attitudes in order to see how it affects student outcomes in dual immersion
programs.
The required criteria for participating in the study are: (a) To be teaching in a dual
language immersion classroom; (b) Dual immersion schools will be located in Southern
California; (c) Teachers must be bilingual; (d) Bilingual teachers must have at least one year
experience in teaching in a dual immersion classroom; (e) Teachers selected for study must have
positive site administration teacher evaluations; (f) School site must have a diverse student and
teacher population.
I hope that you can help me recruit bilingual teachers and provide me their names and
email addresses so that I may get in touch with them to set up an interview individually. The
interviews will be no longer than one hour. This research will shed light on the growing
scholarly debate on bilingual teacher perceptions and its impact on student outcomes in dual
immersion classrooms.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Best Regards,
Eriberto Martinez
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 149
APPENDIX C: Dual Immersion IRB Application
Background of study: Dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most useful practices and
resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in educating culturally
and linguistically diverse students.
Research Questions:
RQ1: What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and language acquisition in
their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
RQ 2: What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning and
language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their Spanish-
English dual language immersion classroom?
RQ 3: What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic, navigational,
resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in the students in his or her Spanish-
English dual immersion classroom?
Methods: This is a qualitative study consisting of bilingual teacher interviews.
Data Collection Sample and Site Selection:
· XYZ School District and ABC School District in the state of California (pseudonyms will
be used for all districts, sites, and participants).
· I will provide the Office of Institutional Research (as it is referred to in my district) a
copy of my protocol for district approval in person.
· When I receive permission to conduct my study from the Office of Institutional Research,
I will contact via email school administrators to receive bilingual teacher referrals for this study.
· I will acquire via email a list of all bilingual teachers via the school administrator and
then email each bilingual teacher directly to recruit them for the study.
The criteria used for bilingual teacher selection are the following: 1) To be teaching in a
dual language immersion classroom; 2) Dual immersion schools will be located in Southern
California; 3) Teachers must be bilingual; 4) Bilingual teachers must have at least one year
experience in teaching in a dual immersion classroom; 5) Teachers selected for study must have
positive site administration teacher evaluations; 6) School site must have a diverse student and
teacher population. (See attached email transcripts).
· I will contact each teacher referral by email and let them know of the administrator or
teacher who referred him or her, introduce myself, briefly reiterate the purpose of my study, then
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 150
schedule a face-to-face interview meeting on campus and specify a time and location (See
attached email transcripts).
· When I meet with the bilingual teachers, I will get an informed consent signature
agreeing to participate in the research study (See attached consent form).
Interviews
● 8-10 bilingual teachers
● Will use audio-recordings (See attached consent form on audio-recording)
● Will take Field notes
● Interview will take no more than one hour
● Upon completing the interview, teachers will receive a $10 Starbucks giftcard for
participating in the study.
Artifacts
The following artifacts will be collected from teachers in the study:
● Lesson plans
● Professional development notes
● Staff and grade level meeting memos and agendas
● Training agendas and memos,
● Work samples
● Pictures of room environment
Data Analysis
● Audio recording will be transcribed via Rev (www.rev.com)
● Constant Comparative Method for coding
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 151
APPENDIX D: Informed Consent
Rossier School of Education
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Teacher Practices and Perspectives in Dual Immersion
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Eriberto Martinez,
Doctoral Candidate and Dr. Jenifer Crawford Dissertation Chair at the University of
Southern California, because you have self-identified as a bilingual educator teaching in
a dual immersion classroom. Your participation is voluntary. I will review the information
below with you, so you understand the study, so that you might participate. Please take
as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss
participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to
sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
I am interested in understanding your experiences and perceptions of the most
useful practices and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and
skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. Your participation in this
study will provide valuable insight into bilingual education and outcomes for culturally and
linguistically diverse students.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you choose to volunteer in this study, I will schedule an appointment with you
so that I can interview you for a duration of no more than one hour. I will meet with you
in a private and quiet office or classroom on campus to conduct the interview. During
the interview process, I will use an audio-recording device to maintain the accuracy and
quality of your responses. However, you may still participate in the study if you choose
not to be recorded.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 152
The anticipated benefits or for the student or society however, its benefits are
contingent on the results from this study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
By participating in this interview, you will receive a $10 giftcard to Starbucks.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law.
However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about
you. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The audio data will be encrypted on a secure PC and all field notes, transcripts,
and coding will be stored and locked in a home cabinet. Online professional transcribers
by the name of Rev will have access to the audio recordings. All audio files, transcriptions,
field notes, and coding will be erased and shredded after the minimum required length of
three years.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at
any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal
claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact, Eriberto Martinez, 323-770-1277, eribertm@usc.edu, University of Southern
California Los Angeles, 90007
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant or the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if
you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
DUAL IMMERSION PROGRAMS 153
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask
questions. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to
participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form.
AUDIO
□ I agree to be audio-recorded.
□ I do not want to be audio-recorded.
_
Name of Participant
_
Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her
questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this document
and freely consents to participate.
_
Name of Person Obtaining Consent
_
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
Abstract (if available)
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers' perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom
PDF
Critical ambitious language pedagogy for cognitive academic language proficiency development in two-way immersion schools: teachers' ideologies and practices
PDF
Blended learning: a look into teachers’ perceptions on their role in a 21st century classroom
PDF
A case study on the planning and implementation of a dual language immersion program in a K-12 school district
PDF
Multimodal composing and teacher preparation
PDF
The role of teachers in academic discussion
PDF
Reflective practice and pre-service language teacher preparation
PDF
Teacher beliefs on bilingual education for English learners post proposition 227
PDF
Support for English learners: an examination of the impact of teacher education and professional development on teacher efficacy and English language instruction
PDF
A case study of the roles of principals in dual language immersion programs
PDF
Defying odds: how teachers perceive academic language growth despite high poverty
PDF
Examining dual language immersion program instructional practices with regard to cognitive load theory
PDF
A comparative study of motivational orientation of elementary school English learners in a dual language immersion program and a transitional bilingual education program
PDF
Disruptive innovation and cultural capital in virtual school counseling
PDF
The intersections of culturally responsive pedagogy and authentic teacher care in creating meaningful academic learning opportunities for students of color
PDF
Student perceptions of teacher pedagogical practices in the elementary classroom
PDF
The beliefs and related practices of effective teacher leaders who support culturally and linguistically diverse learners
PDF
The opportunity gap: culturally relevant pedagogy in high school English classes
PDF
Puncturing discourse: Russian heritage learner language and identity in higher education
PDF
Dual language programs at Qatar Foundation schools: examining teachers' perspective
Asset Metadata
Creator
Martinez, Eriberto
(author)
Core Title
A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual immersion classrooms
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
08/02/2018
Defense Date
06/01/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
bilingual education,bilingual teachers’ perceptions,community cultural capital,dual language,dual language education,dual language immersion,dual language schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,sociocultural theory,Spanish-English dual language immersion,two-way immersion
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Crawford, Jenifer (
committee chair
), Baca, Reynaldo (
committee member
), Carbone, Paula M. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
eribertm@usc.edu,erimartinez80@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-48717
Unique identifier
UC11670826
Identifier
etd-MartinezEr-6612.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-48717 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-MartinezEr-6612.pdf
Dmrecord
48717
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Martinez, Eriberto
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
bilingual education
bilingual teachers’ perceptions
community cultural capital
dual language
dual language education
dual language immersion
dual language schools
sociocultural theory
Spanish-English dual language immersion
two-way immersion