University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers' perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom

(USC Thesis Other)

A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers' perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: Community Cultural Capital 1

A Community Cultural Capital Approach: Bilingual Teachers’ Perceptions and Impact in their
Dual Language Immersion Classroom
by
Ofelia Cervera

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Doctoral Committee:
Dr. Jenifer Crawford, Chair
Dr. Paula M. Carbone
Dr. Reynaldo Baca

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Ofelia Cervera
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 2
Dedication
Dedico esta disertación a mi mami y papi. I am all that I am because of both. I am
independent and strong because of my mother. As a single parent, my mother taught me to rely
on myself. I inherited her warrior spirit that showed me to be fearless and relentless. The
untimely passing of my father at a young age taught me that life is both precious and fragile.
That tomorrow is not promised and to live life to its fullest by loving fully and forgiving not only
others but myself. Solo se vive una vez.
To my sons, Gabriel, Andres, y David Zamora. My dear sons you have been the driving
force behind my every accomplishment. I strive to make you proud of the mother and woman
that I am. I am far from perfect but know that you three are my all. My wish for you three is to
reach your full potential and realization.
To my siblings, Ligia and Manuel, and my nieces and nephews, Gabriela, Jovanni,
Aileen, and Gael. My sister, you are my hero. I am blessed to have you all as my familia. You
have loved me unconditionally through all and have encouraged and supported me through this
journey. I love you all so much.
To my Nina, Nora, and Lulu. Si se pudo! Thank you for all your love and
encouragement. Growing up together in South Central has made us familia. We know we came
from having very little and not without struggle, but we persevered through it all. I am proud to
call you my sisters and have your mami as my Nina.
To my childhood friend, Iliana Cervantes-Caro. Thank you for your friendship and love.
You have been there for me through my toughest times. You have always encouraged me and
given me advice. I love you hermana.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 3
To my comadre Tania and compadre Julio Cesar Fregoso. I am blessed with your
friendship. You have been with me through my most challenging moments and you have
provided encouragement and most of all your unconditional love. Thank you for your friendship
and making me part of your family.
To my love, Anthony Robinson for inspiring and motivating me with his story. For
reminding me that it is not where we came from but where we want to go. Thank you for your
patience and love.
To all the children labeled as academically deficient and immigrant children that come to
this great nation to have access to the American dream. . . an education. May this research
contribute to the field of bilingual and dual language education, and work on learning
opportunities and outcomes of culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Ganas mi gente!

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 4
Acknowledgements
"A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives." -Jackie Robinson
First and foremost, I want to acknowledge my Creator, the Great Spirit for blessing me
with determination and resilience to persevere in this journey that was at times exhausting and
overwhelming. I was also blessed to meet exceptional individuals in this journey. I would like
to acknowledge Dr. Eriberto Martinez for his dedication and collaboration in the first three
chapters of this dissertation. I am forever grateful that you chose to collaborate with me to
produce this study that I proudly call my dissertation.
I would also like to acknowledge my doctoral committee, Dr. Jenifer Crawford, Dr. Paula
Carbone, and Dr. Reynaldo Baca. Thank you for your guidance and valuable feedback in
producing this dissertation. I appreciate your expertise and passion for addressing learning
opportunities for all students.
A special acknowledgement to two individuals that changed the course of my life and
that of my children and future generations. Mr. Rutschman who believed in me and exposed me
to going to college. Dr. Francine Martinez who went to bat for me and got me reinstated at
UCSD after becoming a young mother. I am forever grateful to you both. You had an immense
impact on my life and I pay it forward every chance I get.
I want to acknowledge my comadre, Mrs. Marianna Vinson not only for being my friend
but for inspiring me to be a better educator when she was my principal and later giving me the
opportunity to shadow her as the Deputy Director of Language Acquisition for the Department of
Education in my first leadership class. Thank you for your friendship and support.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 5
I would like to acknowledge my comadres, Dr. Lori Steward and Mrs. Laura Cruz for
always lending a hand with my David and encouraging me along this journey. As a single
parent, I truly appreciated your help and support. Thank you for your friendship and love.
Lastly, this dissertation was made possible by the participation of dual language
immersion maestras. Mil gracias por toda su ayuda y apoyo. Your stories inspired me to finish
this study. Keep inspiring and giving your all to your passion. Si se pudo!

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 6
Table of Contents

Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 4
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Bilingual Teachers’ Perceptions and Impact in their Dual Language
Immersion Classroom 12
Statement of the Problem 12
Background of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 16
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
Historical Context 22
Bilingual Education Programs 26
English as a Second Language Program Models 26
English-Immersion Programs 27
Transitional Bilingual Programs 27
Dual Language Bilingual Education Programs 27
Dual Immersion 28
Early Dual Immersion Models 29
Current Dual Immersion Programs 29
Perceptions of Bilingual Teachers in Dual Language Immersion Classrooms:
Framework Lenses 33
Community Cultural Capital Framework 33
Sociocultural Framework on Learning to Teach 35
Achievement Gap Versus Opportunity Gap Framework 37
Social Capital Framework 40
Effective Dual Language Immersion Instruction 41
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy 43
Bilingual Teachers’ Perspectives 44
Epistemic Privilege 45
Conceptual Framework 46
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Methods 49
Data Collection 50
Interview 50
Artifacts 52
Data Analysis 52
Ofelia Cervera 55
Chapter Four: Findings 56
Participants and Site 57
School District Demographics 57
School Demographics 58
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 7
Teachers’ Profiles: Las Maestras 59
Maestra Rojas 59
Maestra Marisol 61
Maestra Santana 61
Maestra Alba 62
Maestra Rosas 63
Maestra Luna 63
Maestra Cordova 65
Maestra Lara 66
Data for Research Question One: Approach to Learning and Language Acquisition 67
Role of a Bilingual Teacher 68
Challenges in Dual Language Immersion 69
Limited Materials and Resources 70
Culturally Relevant Materials 72
Misalignment of Assessments and Benchmarks 73
Dual Language Plan 74
Approach to Learning 76
Approach to Content Learning 80
Approach to Language Acquisition 82
Approach to Language Learning 84
Discussion Research Question One 87
Findings for Research Question Two: Perceived Impact on Approach to Learning and
Language Acquisition 90
Student-Teacher Interaction 91
Cultural and Linguistic Pedagogies 95
Professional Development 99
Discussion Research Question Two 103
Results for Research Question Three: Community Cultural Capital 107
Aspirational Capital 108
Linguistic Capital 114
Familial Capital 117
Social Capital 121
Navigational Capital 124
Resistant Capital 126
Discussion Research Question Three 130
Conclusion 135
Chapter Five: Discussion 137
Summary of Findings 138
Implications for Practice 141
Community Cultural Language Pedagogy 141
Establishing a Committed Dual Language Pedagogical Plan 141
Building Sociocultural Competence 142
Tailored Professional Development 143
Future Research 145
Conclusion 145
Epilogue 147
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 8
References 149
Appendices 158
Appendix A: Dual Immersion: Introduction and Interview Protocol 160
Appendix B: Email Transcripts to Administration and Teachers 169
Appendix C: Dual Immersion: IRB Application 170
Appendix D: Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research 172

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 9

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Dual Language Enrichment and Remediation 32
Table 4.1 Data on Teachers’ Experience 67
Table 4.2 Teaching Practices and Strategies 87
Table 4.3 Impact of Teaching Pedagogies on Culturally and Linguistically
Diverse Students 104
Table 4.4 Community Cultural Capital 131

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 10

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Student Outcomes in Dual Immersion Programs 48

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 11
Abstract
This study applies the community cultural capital framework and sociocultural framework on
learning to teach to describe bilingual teachers’ perceptions of the most effective practices in
educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. The purpose of this study is to inform
practice and contribute to the research where data is lacking, by exploring bilingual teachers’
perception of the impact of their approach on learning and language acquisition in their dual
language immersion classrooms. This qualitative study selected one public elementary school
and interviewed eight bilingual teachers: six teachers in the primary grades (K-2) and two
teachers in the upper grades (3-6). Findings resulted in themes aligned with six forms of
community cultural capital: aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant.
The results provided data on effective teaching and learning pedagogies used in dual language
immersion classrooms by bilingual teachers and connected las maestras cultural and linguistic
background to the application of teaching and learning pedagogies to impact student learning and
outcomes. Three main implications of practice drawn from this study were establishing a
committed dual language pedagogical plan for curriculum and instruction, building sociocultural
competence in dual language students, and last providing professional development that is
focused on the needs of bilingual teachers.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 12
CHAPTER ONE:
BILINGUAL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND IMPACT IN THEIR DUAL LANGUAGE
IMMERSION CLASSROOMS
1

This research focuses on examining the perception of teachers in dual immersion
programs as to the most useful practices and resources to develop their knowledge and skills in
educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. This study also investigates how dual
immersion teachers perceive the utility and relevance of professional development opportunities
in supporting their culturally and linguistically responsive instruction in their dual immersion
classroom. This chapter explains the background of the problem and introduces concepts of
opportunity gaps (Milner, 2010; Milner 2012), in the context of dual immersion education. Then
the statement of the problem is presented in which evidence and data will be contextualized to
analyze opportunity gaps in relation to teachers’ perceptions in dual immersion education. The
purpose and significance of the study, as well as its’ limitations and its delimitations are
presented.
Statement of the Problem
This dissertation addresses the problem of the persistent low academic achievement of
English Language learners in the American public-school system. The persistent low academic
achievement of English Language learners (ELL) demonstrates that this is a problem because the
evidence highlights that 50% of English Language learners fail their graduation tests, compared
to 24% of all English proficient students and English language learners are not equally
graduating as their English proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008).

1
Chapters One, Two, and Three were co-authored by Eriberto Martinez (degree candidate for the EdD in
Educational Leadership at the University of Southern California; eribertm@usc.edu), however some
revisions were made for the final dissertation solely by the author of this dissertation.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 13
According to the Office of English Language Acquisition, in 2014 English language learners’
graduation rate was 62.6 percent which was a one percentage improvement from the previous
year. However, ELLs continue to trail other student subgroups including students with
disabilities (63.1%) and economically disadvantaged students (74.6%) (OELA, 2014). This
problem is important to address because Lau v. Nichol (1975) ensures that language minority
students in public schools should receive linguistically appropriate accommodations.
Background of the Problem
Dual language schools started to surface beginning in 1963 with X school or initiative in
the American education system, however it was not until recently that research was conducted in
the field of bilingual and multilingual education (Baker & Lewis, 2016). Lambert and Tucker
(1972) wrote the first research on bilingual education. This research is significant because it
provides the hard data needed by politicians, policymakers, pedagogues, and parents to realize
that bilingual education is successful and able to replicate (Baker & Lewis, 2016). The study’s
results helped to reduce doubts about bilingual education and is frequently cited as evidence for
the introduction and expansion of bilingual education (Baker & Lewis, chapter 7). Lindholm-
Leary (2001) contributed to the research on U.S. dual language (two-way immersion)
schools. The Lindholm-Leary research concluded that dual language programs were successful
at promoting high levels of language proficiency, academic achievement, and positive attitudes
to learning in students. The mentioned bilingual and multilingual education research
demonstrates the academic benefits to all learners as well as, learning opportunities for culturally
and linguistically diverse students.
Based on research findings dual language education not only promotes academic
achievement but also positive attitudes to learning, therefore addressing the opportunity gap for
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 14
culturally and linguistically diverse students. The opportunity gap framework is asset based
whereas, the achievement gap tends to be deficit based. Achievement gap is the disparity of
educational measures between the performance of low-end groups of students (such as African
Americans, Latinos, Native Americans), and high-end performance students (such as White and
certain Asian groups) based on standardized test scores, grade point average, dropout rates, and
college enrollment and completion rates (Howard, 2015). According to Milner (2010),
educational researchers and educators should shift their mindset to closing the opportunity gap
instead of closing the achievement gap. The opportunity gap framework consists of five
interconnected areas that are crucial in assisting educators to address opportunity gaps: color
blindness, cultural conflicts, myth of meritocracy, low expectations and deficit mindsets, and
context-neutral mindsets and practices (Milner, 2010). They are defined as follows:
1. Color blindness: Educators must reject the notion of color blindness to recognize
and understand that race intersects with educational practices.
2. Cultural Conflict: Educators must understand the central role culture plays in
curriculum.
3. Myth of meritocracy: Educators must acknowledge that other factors besides merit
shape students’ academic and social success.
4. Low expectations and deficit mind-sets: Educators need to understand that students
bring assets into the classroom and not only value but also capitalize on those
learning opportunities.
5. Context-neutral mind-sets: Educators must recognize the ways in which social
context can influence outcomes in education and how they can empower their
students to learn and think (Milner, 2010).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 15
According to Carter and Welner (2013), the opportunity gap frame pays attention to the
deficiencies of foundational components of societies, schools, and communities that produce
significant differences in education. “Calling the persistent achievement disparities between
Black and Latino students and White students a “gap” suggests that something inherent in Black
and Latino students, their families, communities, cultures, schools, and teachers are responsible
for the disparities” (Carter & Welner, 2013, p. 13). Educational disparities highly correlate with
skin color, ethnicity, linguistic, and social class status. Minority students are not successfully
graduating from high school. African American and Hispanic students are graduating 66.1 and
71.4 percent compared to their white counterpart 93.5 percent (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Ladson-Billings (2006) argued that achievement disparities are the result of historical,
economic, political, and moral decisions that society has made over time. Ladson-Billings
(2006) refers to these achievement disparities as an educational debt. Education debt consists of
historical debt, economic debt, political debt, and moral debt. Historical debt refers to the
historical exclusion of minority students to an equitable education. The United States promoted
for all its citizens to be educated, except for African Americans. Throughout time, African
Americans have been restricted to an equal education. Today Latino, Black, and Native
Americans continue to attend schools that are still segregated (Ladson-Billings,
2006). Economic debt refers to the historic refusal to provide equitable funding to school
districts that serve minority students. Since most Black, Latino, Native Americans live in poor
communities, they attend inequitably funded schools as property taxes fund schools (Ladson-
Billings, 2013). Political debt refers to the disfranchisement of political participation for
minorities. According to Ladson-Billings (2006), lack of political power has been an ongoing
pattern for Black, Latino, and poor communities. Moral debt refers to the normalization of
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 16
marginalizing minorities in the United States. It is not okay not to allow entire groups of people
to participate equitably in an educational system that promotes opportunity for social and
economic advancement (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Purpose of the Study
The reason for qualitative methods is because the researcher is interested in how people
interpret their experiences (Merriam, 2016). Qualitative methods allow the researcher to explore
and examine how people construct their worldviews and make meaning of their
experiences. Another important aspect of qualitative inquiry is that it is highly elaborative and
descriptive (Merriam, 2016). Interviews and observations provide rich descriptions about what
the researcher wants to investigate about a phenomenon.
According to Maxwell (2013), interviewing and observing provide immediate description
but not necessarily direct understanding of the participant’s perspective. Therefore, the
researcher must infer from description of that person’s behavior that’s obtain from observations
and interviews, or other written documents or sources (Maxwell, 2013). This study used semi
structured approach. Semi structured interviews consist of flexible worded questions,
information is requested from all the respondents, the interview is guided by a list of questions to
be investigated, and questions are not predetermined (Merriam, 2016). By utilizing semi
structured interviews, this study was able to gather information that was pertinent to the research
study. The following are the research questions and hypotheses
1. What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and language
acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 17
2. What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning and
language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?
3. What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic,
navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in their
approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual
immersion classroom?
The following approaches and theories will be employed to examine and obtain data on
the perceptions of dual immersion teachers in relation to practices and resources to develop their
knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students and utility and
relevance of professional development opportunities in supporting their linguistically and
culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion classroom:
1. Cognitive Learning Theories
2. Constructivist Approach
3. Language Acquisition Theory
4. Sociocultural Theory
Significance of the Study
This study will provide useful qualitative data to address the opportunity gaps of English
language learners in dual immersion programs in Southern California. English language learner
students make up 25% of the total school enrollment of California, which are about 1.5 million
students (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Seventy-five percent of English language learners
are poor, and ninety-one percent live in urban areas (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). Eighty
percent of English Language learners live in households in which no one over of the age of
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 18
fourteen is a speaker of English and half live with parents who have not completed eight years of
schooling (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). English language learners are deprived from early
childhood programs as they are few that can serve their educational needs (García, Kleifgen, &
Falchi, 2008).
With the continuous growth of ELLs, it is ever more important to research new
pedagogies for this population of learners. Overall, this study provides schools and school
districts with data on what are the high-leverage pedagogical practices to educate culturally and
linguistically diverse students. This study provides the information of what do dual immersion
teachers perceive as the most useful practices and resources to develop their knowledge and
skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. The study will also provide
information on how dual immersion teachers perceive the utility and relevance of professional
development opportunities in supporting their linguistically and culturally responsive instruction
in their dual immersion classrooms.
Limitations and Delimitations
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that ensuring validity and reliability in qualitative
research consists of conducting the study in an ethical manner, which in turn will establish
trustworthiness in the research. In this study, the limitations that might be encountered are the
following: (a) dual immersion programs have multiple variations making it challenging to make
fair comparisons among the various models/programs, (b) the length of study is determined to
terminate by April 2018. (c) the geography of dual immersion schools, (d) Sample size may be
undersized, (e) issues of external validity may arise throughout the study. Another concern is
that finding will be based primarily on the perceptions of teachers regarding the practices and
resources to develop teacher’s knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 19
diverse students and utility and relevance of professional development opportunities in
supporting their linguistically and culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion
classroom.
Definition of Terms
Achievement gap: Achievement gaps (low end of the performance) between different groups
such as African Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, and white and certain Asian groups (high
end of the performance) (Howard, 2015).
Culturally and Linguistically diverse students: Students that come from different cultural
backgrounds and possess various levels of language acquisition (Daniel, 2016).
DI-Dual Immersion: Two-way bilingual education (also called two-way dual language,
two-way immersion or dual immersion) pushes the developmental model even further by
supporting fluency in both English and the native language within classrooms that enroll both
native English-speaking students and ELLs. In these language-integrated settings, students learn
both languages together, and all students emerge bilingual from these school settings (García,
Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008).
DL-Dual Language: Two languages.
DLL- Dual language learners: Learners with two languages.
Educational Debt: Education debt is “forgone schooling resources that could have (should
have) been invested (primary) low income kids, which deficit leads to a variety of social
problems (eg. Crime, low productivity, low wages, low labor force participation) ...” (Ladson-
Billings, 2006).
ELL: English language learners are students who are not yet proficient in English.
Multilingual Education: Education consisting of two or more languages.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 20
Opportunity gap: The opportunity gap frame pays attention to the deficiencies of foundational
components of societies, schools, and communities that produce significant differences in
education (Carter & Welner, 2013).
Organization of the Study
Chapter One, will summarize the importance of studying dual language education and
how it addresses the opportunity gap for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Chapter
Two, discusses the literature regarding dual immersion and multilingual education, how to bridge
learning opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students with the community
cultural capital framework, and teachers’ perceptions in relation to practices and resources to
develop their knowledge and skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students and
utility and relevance of professional development opportunities in supporting their linguistically
and culturally responsive instruction in their dual immersion classroom. Chapter Three, will
explain the design of the study, qualitative methodology used, the data collection and analysis of
the data. Chapter Four, will present the data for each research question, an analysis of the
findings and discussion of key findings. Chapter Five, will include a summary of the study,
conclusions drawn from the study and future implications for practitioners.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The focus of this research is to examine dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most
useful practices and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in
educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. This dissertation addresses the problem
of the persistence of low academic achievement among English language learners in the
American public-school system. The persistent low academic achievement of English language
learners is a problem with the evidence highlighting that 50% of English language learners fail
their graduation tests, compared with 24% of all English proficient students. The English
language learners graduation rate is not equal to their English language proficient counterparts
(García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). This problem is important to address because Lau v. Nichol
(1975) ensured linguistically appropriate accommodations for language minority students in
public schools. This study investigates three research questions: (a) What do bilingual teachers
report as their approach to learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual
language immersion classrooms? (b) What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their
approach to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse
students in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms? (c) What non-economic
resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic, navigational, resistant, aspirational) do
these bilingual teachers identify in their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or
her Spanish-English dual immersion classrooms?
The review is organized by first discussing the history of bilingual education in the
United States, followed by the types of dual immersion program models that are currently in
place in US school systems. The review then discusses the three theoretical strands used to
analyze dual language immersion—opportunity gap, sociocultural capital, and community
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 22
cultural capital. These three theoretical strands are used to look at how teacher’s attitudes impact
students’ outcomes in dual immersion classrooms.
Historical Context
Historically the United States has been a land of many languages. Before the wave of
European immigration, there were already more than 300 separate native indigenous languages
in the United States (Baker, 2011). When European immigrants started arriving in America,
individuals were more tolerant of individuals speaking other languages. In 1664, when Britain
gained control of New York, at least 18 European languages were spoken on the Island of
Manhattan (Crawford, 2004). By the late 17
th
Century, bilingualism was common among the
working classes, as well as the educated, especially in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and
Delaware (Crawford, 2004). As new European immigrants came to the United States, one of
their priorities was to keep their languages alive. For example, German-speaking Americans
started schools in their own tongue as early as 1694 in Philadelphia (Crawford, 2004). Also, in
1787 the first university to teach German in higher education was founded and still exists today
as Franklin and Marshall College (Crawford, 2004). In those times bilingualism was accepted,
and many favored bilingual education schools as a method to educate their children.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was common for parents to place their children in
schools that provided bilingual education. After the War of 1812, a wave of new immigrants
entered the United States, and it was considered only normal for children to be instructed in their
native language (Crawford, 2004). As a matter fact, an Ohio law of 1839 authorized instruction
of English, German, or both in areas where parents requested and in Louisiana a similar law was
passed, but it substituted French for German, and in New Mexico, it was authorized to teach
Spanish-English bilingual education (Crawford, 2004). Schools in the United States had more
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 23
tolerance for bilingual education in the 18th and 19th centuries than they do today. One reason
that schools were open to bilingual education was partly motivated by the competition of
students between public and private schools (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). At the time private,
parochial schools were synonymous with providing bilingual education, and many public schools
were losing a lot their students to them, so they started offering bilingual education programs as
well (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). Unfortunately, as time passed, the opinion of educating
children in their native tongue changed and the views of bilingual education changed in the
United States.
In contrast to the 18
th
and 19
th
centuries, bilingual education was not received well at the
beginning of the 20th century. A new wave of immigrants, Italians, Jews, and Slavs, came into
the United States and began to outnumber the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians in the
immigration stream (Crawford, 2004). Classrooms in public schools were filled with many
immigrants, and it caused xenophobia around the United States (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004).
Many Americans began to be afraid of these new foreigners. In responding to such sentiments,
Congress passed The National Act of 1906, which required new incoming immigrants to pass an
English literacy exam prior to entry into the United States (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004). After
the United States had entered World War I, bilingual education was eradicated across the nation.
There were a lot of anti-German feelings across the country, and several state laws banned
German speech in public places and required public schools to only teach English monolingual
education (Crawford, 2004; Wiley, 1998). The German language was seen as a threat to the
American people (Baker, 2011). In 1919, the Americanization Department of the United States
Bureau of Education recommended that all states require schools, public and private, to instruct
in the English language (Garcia, 1992). By 1923, 34 states were teaching exclusively in an
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 24
English monolingual education (Baker, 2011). Even though bilingual education was not received
well in the early 1900s, it was revived, due to new legislation and a new wave of immigration in
the middle of the 1900s.
Bilingual education started to trickle back into the United States around the middle of the
20th Century. As immigrants continued coming into the United States, many professionals
started questioning if an English monolingual instructional approach was beneficial to immigrant
students. A psychologist Professor, George I. Lopez, from the University of Texas began to
question English-only instruction and advocated for bilingual approaches as he felt that schools
should build upon the minority children’s language and culture (Crawford, 2004). Professor
Lopez observed the injustices that immigrant children faced as they could not speak a word of
English and subsequently, had a hard time adjusting to school environments (Crawford, 2004).
Bilingual education took a rebirth in the late 1950s. In 1958, the National Defense and
Education Act was passed; it campaigned for students to learn foreign languages in elementary
schools, high schools, and in universities (Crawford, 2004). Also, a new wave of immigrants
started coming into the United States. After the 1959 revolution in Cuba, many Cuban exiles
fled to Miami and the United States gladly accepted them through the Cuban Refugee Program
(Crawford, 2004). According to Crawford (2004), Cuban immigrants were more accepted in the
United States than the majority of immigrants because they were of European stock, light
skinned, and were educated professionals. Nerveless, these Cuban exiles managed to set up a
Spanish-English bilingual school in Dade County in South Florida with the intention of
maintaining their mother tongue of Spanish as they thought their exile was for a short period
(Baker, 2011; Crawford 2004). The news of the great success that the bilingual school had in
Dade County spread throughout the nation and many educators of English learners came to visit
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 25
it to learn about bilingual pedagogy (Crawford, 2004). Many teachers went back home and
implemented the Dade County bilingual school model into their schools (Crawford, 2004). To
solidify the restoration of bilingual education, the Bilingual Act was established in 1968 under
Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Baker, 2011; Genesee &
Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Kim et al., 2015; Lindholm-Leary, 2001). The Bilingual Act provided
funds for the establishment of bilingual programs for speakers of other languages across the
United States (Baker, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Kim et al., 2015). Bilingual
education was solidified even more when a group of Chinese students took the San Francisco
School District to court for not providing equal educational opportunities to non-English
speaking students as they were instructed in a language that they could not understand (Baker,
2011). The case was known as Lau versus Nichols. It outlawed English mainstreaming
programs as they lacked supplemental language instruction for language minority students, thus
violating the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by failing to provide equal educational opportunities
(Baker, 2011). After the Lau versus Nichols case, the Office of Civil Rights released some
guidelines for the school district to follow known as the Lau remedies (Baker, 2011). The Lau
remedies encompassed classes in English as a Second Language, English tutoring, and bilingual
education (Baker, 2011). Though bilingual education was revived back in the middle of the 20th
century, it is clear that it had a setback in the last decades of the century.
Bilingual education had several obstacles in the late 20
th
century. Unfortunately,
bilingual education regressed when President Ronald Reagan came into office. According to the
New York Times (1981), President Reagan felt it was wrong to have bilingual education in
American schools as it did not allow students the opportunity to learn adequate English and
curbed their ability to go out into the job market and compete. The Lau remedies also took a toll
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 26
under the Reagan administration. The Lau remedies began fading under the Reagan government
and were weakened, and were longer enforced by the law (Baker, 2011). One of the biggest
setbacks for bilingual education came in the late 1990s when Proposition 227 was passed in
California. Proposition 227 was an initiative requiring that all children, including English
language learners, be taught in English as rapidly and efficiently as possible. Bilingual education
was eradicated and sheltered English immersion programs were put in their place (Baker, 2011;
Crawford, 2004). With the passing of Proposition 227, other states followed with similar
initiatives. In Arizona Proposition 203 passed and in Massachusetts Question 2 passed making
bilingual education illegal (Baker 2011; Crawford 2004). Even though bilingual education was
eliminated in the late 20th century in several states, it was brought to life in the 2010s.
In 2016, California passed Proposition 58 which implemented the California
Multicultural Education Act and giving California public schools sovereignty over dual language
acquisition programs (CA V oter Guide, 2016). Also, Proposition 58 revoked the English-only
requirement of Proposition 227, and under the new law, students can learn English through
multiple programs other than English immersion classes (CA V oter Guide, 2016). Proposition 58
provides an optimistic outlook for the future of bilingual education in California.
Bilingual Education Programs
There are many iterations of bilingual education programs. Four bilingual education
programs models that are taught across the United States are English as a Second Language,
English immersion, transitional bilingual, and dual language bilingual education (or also known
as two-way immersion bilingual education or dual immersion bilingual education).
English as a second language program models. English as a Second Language
Program model entails a pull-out model and a mainstream model. In the English as a Second
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 27
Language (ESL) pull out design, students are pulled out from their regular classrooms in order to
receive instruction in grammar, vocabulary, reading, speaking, and writing in English in separate
classes during the day (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodríguez, & Gómez, 2004). The set back
of the ESL pull out model is that students end up losing out on the mainstream curriculum since
they get pulled out for part of the day. In the mainstream ESL model, students receive
instruction in their regular classroom by a teacher that is certified to teach ESL (Lara-Alecio et
al., 2004).
English-immersion programs. English-immersion programs, also known as structured
English immersion (SEI), usually include all subjects taught in English with few clarifications
from the minority language (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004). This model yields fewer achievement
gains as students struggle to learn English and are also to expected to learn academic content in
English at the same time (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004)
Transitional bilingual programs. Transitional bilingual programs provide instruction in
the student’s minority language for all curriculum content along with a small percentage of ESL
instruction. The goal of transitional bilingual programs is for students to gradually transition to
all-English classes and exit out of bilingual programs (Brisk, 1999).
Dual language bilingual education programs. Dual language bilingual education
programs, also known as two-way immersion bilingual education, or dual immersion bilingual
education, are described as maintenance programs in which students acquire a new language
while maintaining their native tongue (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000). One of the goals of
dual language bilingual programs is to develop bilingualism and biliteracy skills in all students,
both in their native tongue and in the language that they are learning (Christian & Whitcher,
1995; Valdés, 1997). Dual language bilingual education programs are considered to be an
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 28
inclusive model as it does not segregate English language learners from the mainstream English
speakers; all students mingle together within the classroom (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004). Now that
the different types of bilingual education have been addressed, we are going to concentrate
strictly on dual bilingual programs.
Dual Immersion
For the purpose of this study, our attention is focused on dual immersion programs, also
known as dual-language, and two-way immersion. We are going to talk about how dual
immersion programs came about, the types of dual immersion, early dual immersion, current
dual immersion programs, the benefits of dual immersion, and the outcomes of dual immersion
programs.
Dual Immersion emerged in the United States and Canada around the same time during
the 1960s , and as previously mentioned, it is one of many of iterations of bilingual education
that emerged during that time period (Block, 2011; Christian, 1996; Genesee & Gándara, 1999;
Jong & Howard, 2009; Kim, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2015; Lara-Alecio et al., 2004; Lindholm-
Leary, 2001; Potowski, 2004). Immersion programs were initiated as a remedy to social and
linguistic inequities. Immersion programs in English and French were created in the mid 1960s
to ease the social and linguistic divide between the French and English-speaking population in
Quebec (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008). Parental pressure causes many school districts to
add immersion programs to existing schools. In Canada parents wanted their children to develop
deep proficiency in both French and English (Thomas & Collier, 1997). In the United States, the
influx of Cuban immigration rose in the 1960s. As previously mentioned, the Cuban revolution
sent waves of Cuban refugees to the USA (Crawford, 2004; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008).
Cubans arriving in Miami, Florida initiated the first U.S. dual immersion education in 1963 at
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 29
Coral Way School in Dade County (Baker, 2011; Crawford, 2004; Genesee & Gándara, 1999;
Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Lindholm-Leary, 2001).
Early Dual Immersion Models
There are various dual immersion models, but the most popular immersion programs
emerged in Canada and are known as the 90/10 model (Block, 2011; Genesee & Lindholm-
Leary, 2008; Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodríguez, & Gómez, 2004; May 2008; Montague,
1997). In this model, students are instructed 90 percent in the minority language (which is the
home or dominant language) chosen for the program and 10 percent of the school day in the
majority language, which is usually is English in the United States and Canada (Block, 2011;
Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Montague, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 1997). The goal of the
program is to gradually decrease the minority language and increase the majority language as
students progress through elementary grade levels, with the expectation of reaching 50%
instruction in both languages in the upper grades. Instruction in the 90/10 model starts in
kindergarten, then the program graduates to an 80/20 in first grade, then a 70/30 model in second
grade, until children learn the curriculum equally (50/50) through both languages by grade 4 and
grade 5 (Montague, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 1997). Throughout the years the 90/10 model has
been the most successful for students in Canada. According to Thomas and Collier (1997),
immersion bilingual schooling achieved high rates of success with majority and minority
students, students of low socioeconomic status, and with students with learning disabilities.
Current Dual Immersion Programs
For the most part in the United States there are dual immersion, also known as two-way
immersion programs, that are considered full immersion or partial immersion programs. A two-
way immersion program that is considered full immersion takes the 90/10 Canadian model, and a
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 30
dual immersion program, that is considered partial immersion, takes the 50/50 model. According
to Howard and Sugarman (2001), full immersion is when students study in the minority language
for the 90% of the time. Partial immersion, or the 50/50 model, is when students study half in
English and the other half in the minority language from kindergarten forward (Howard &
Sugarman, 2001).
Dual immersion brings benefits to a community and school setting. Two-way immersion
is an inclusive model in bilingual education where English speakers and native speakers of
another language are educated together for most or all day, and receive content and literacy
instruction in both English and the minority language (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Kim,
Hutchison, & Winsler, 2015). Since dual language education is inclusive, it reduces English
language learners (ELLs) from being segregated and being put in remediation programs. Two-
way immersion programs do not separate ELLs from a general education setting and include
mainstream English speakers within the same classroom as ELLs (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary,
2008; Jong & Howard, 2009). Dual Immersion programs strive for every student to become
biliterate and bilingual. According to Genesee and Lindholm-Leary (2008), Jong and Howard,
(2009), and Palmer (2007), two-way immersion programs primary goals are for every student to
become bilingual and biliterate, to have cross-cultural competence, and to have high academic
achievement. Since dual language education brings students from different socioeconomic
backgrounds, different culture backgrounds, and different languages into one space, it is
considered to be bilingual education enriched programs. Dual immersion enrichment programs
are the only programs that assist students in reaching the 50th percentile in both the minority
language and majority language in all subjects in standardized state exams, and it has the fewest
dropout rates as well (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2008; Jong & Howard, 2009).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 31
Lindholm-Leary (2001) conducted a study where she collected dual language education
programs data from 20 schools, including about 4,900 students and over the course of four years
in some cases to eight years in other cases. Her data collection included student outcomes such
as oral language proficiency, literacy, and academic achievement. Lingholm-Leary (2001)
findings are as follows:
The results show that DLE [Dual Language Education] model is successful in
promoting high levels of first language, second language, and at least medium levels
of bilingual proficiency among both language-minority and language-majority
students. Further, students can achieve at least as well as their peers who are not in
DLE classrooms (pg. 309).
Dual immersion programs show high gains in student outcomes. Not only did DLE show
positive student outcomes, the study showed that teachers who teach in a DLE model have
positive attitudes toward the bilingual model. Teachers appear to understand the model and
enjoy teaching the program (Lindholm-Leary, 2001).
Virginia P. Collier and Wayne P. Thomas (2004) have conducted longitudinal research on
the effectiveness of dual language education. Their research, which spans from 1982 to 2000
and includes 23 large and small school districts from 15 different states and represents all regions
of the US, has demonstrated that dual immersion programs have the power to enhance student
outcomes and fully close the achievement gap in the second language (L2).
Collier and Thomas (2004) also reported that not all dual language programs are equal.
They made the distinction between dual language enrichment programs vs. dual language
remediation programs.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 32
Table 1.1
Dual Language Enrichment and Remediation
Dual Language Enrichment Programs Dual Language Remediation Programs
• Curricular mainstream taught
through two languages.
• Cognitive challenge through
thematic units of the core
curriculum.
• Focused on real world problem
solving that stimulates students to
make progress in both languages.
• No translation and no repeated
translation in the other language.
• Separation of the two languages
is a key component of the model.
• Peer teaching and teachers use
cooperative learning strategies
that serve as stimulus for the
cognitive challenge.
• Intensive English classes (English
only classes).
• Pull out English as a Second
Language (ESL).
• ESL Content/sheltered instruction.
• Structured English immersion.
• Transitional bilingual education.
• “Water down” instruction.

The most impactful programs to close the achievement gap are dual language enrichment
programs. According to Collier and Thomas (2004), enrichment dual language schooling closes
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 33
the achievement gap in both primary and secondary languages—this is the only program where
English learners entirely close the gap; in contrast remedial models only partially close the gap.
For example, in Houston Independent School District, Texas, students who were enrolled in dual
language programs and were taught first in Spanish, with formal English language arts
introduced in second grade scored significantly high on the difficult national norm referenced
tests, the Stanford 9 and Aprenda 2, than students who were enrolled in remedial models. In
Maine, “after four years of dual language program, former English learners who were achieving
at the 40
th
Normal Curve Equivalents (NCS) before the program started had reached the 62
nd

NCE in English reading on the Terra Nova, well above grade level” (Collier & Thomas, 2004, p.
9).
Perceptions of Bilingual Teachers in Dual Language Immersion Classrooms:
Framework Lenses
The researchers analysis of the perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual language
immersion classrooms are analyzed through two theoretical strands: community cultural capital
and sociocultural theory on learning to teach. The opportunity gap and social capital frameworks
also inform this study. The researcher looks at how these lenses impact teachers’ attitudes
toward student outcomes in dual language immersion education.
Community Cultural Capital Framework
There are limited studies on the community cultural capital theory. However, community
cultural capital is an important concept to explore in addressing the opportunity gap and how it
relates to bilingual teachers and their dual immersion classrooms. Milner (2010) and
Goldenberg (2014), argued that educators need to understand the complexity and importance of
connecting students’ culture to close the opportunity gap that can potentially prevent the
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 34
underachievement of students to continue. Culture can be defined as sets of values, beliefs,
ideas, languages, customs, and acquired knowledge that are transmitted through teaching and
learning (Milner, 2015; Goldenberg, 2014). Building community cultural capital becomes
central in addressing learning opportunities for students in dual immersion programs. Educators
must strive to forge community cultural capital rather than choosing not to build or draw upon
the knowledge and resources of the local community (Milner, 2010).
Community cultural capital allows individuals to view that communities of color nurture
cultural wealth through six forms of capital: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial,
and resistant capital (Yosso, 2005). The following are brief descriptions of these six forms of
capital:
1. Aspirational capital is the ability to preserve hopes and dreams for the future, despite
real challenges.
2. Linguistic capital is the intellectual and social skills acquired through communication
experiences in different languages or styles.
3. Familial capital is cultural knowledge nurtured among family that instill a sense of
community history, memory, and cultural intuition.
4. Social capital are networks of people and community resources.
5. Navigational capital are skills of moving through social institutions.
6. Resistant capital is knowledge and skills created through opposing behavior that
challenges inequality. (Yosso, 2005)
In their study Tolbert and Eichelberger (2016) focus on community cultural capital and
teachers of color. This framework is useful in explaining how teachers of color successfully
respond to challenges and oppressive conditions that are often part of their experiences in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 35
predominantly white institutions (PWI) (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). Their research followed
Serina and documented her experiences as a pre-service teacher. Serina’s experiences were
recorded through pre-post program interviews, student teaching observations, post-observation
debrief interviews, field notes, and participant observations (Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016).
Serina’s story contained the following themes: teacher as agent of change, following the norm as
professionalism, and invoking community cultural capital (Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016).
Serina’s story contributes important insights into how teachers of color in PWIs endure and
respond to challenges and oppressive conditions as part of their experiences (Tolbert and
Eichelberger, 2016).
Sociocultural Framework on Learning to Teach
Rueda (2005) raises the following question: What is the social organization of learning
settings and features of importance to social contexts in students’ lives, including materials,
activities, and people? This question leads to examining the sociocultural context of learning,
access, and quality of instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Sociocultural
theory has received increasing attention with the growing acknowledgement of the crucial role
that social and cultural factors play in learning and development (Mahn, 1999; Lim and
Renshaw, 2001). According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, information processing can be
facilitated by helping individuals in the learning process through scaffolding (Yazdanpanah and
Khanmohammad, 2014). Scaffolding is the extra support provided until the individual has
achieved mastery or success with the task. Educators’ role as facilitators in the learning process
is emphasized in the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) which is at the core of
scaffolding (Yazdanpanah and Khanmohammad, 2014). The zone of proximal development is
defined as the distance between the actual development level, as determined by independent
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 36
problem solving, and the level of potential development determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with qualified peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Lim and
Renshaw (2001) pointed out that the key sociocultural concept regarding appropriation is ZPD
which highlights the way individuals with greater cultural capital and membership in a specific
community can scaffold the participation of new participants in social and cultural activities.
Therefore, scaffolding instruction and activities is pivotal for the success of all learners.
The study conducted by Ghafar Samar and Dehqan (2013) examined the possible effects
of sociocultural based teaching techniques on reading comprehension among Iranian EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) university learners. Their study results showed that the socio-
cultural teaching techniques positively influence reading comprehension and reading strategy use
for EFL learners (Ghafar Samar and Dehqan, 2013). Another study done by Attarzadeh (2011)
utilized a quantitative experimental design and explored the effects of scaffolding language on
the learning and reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners of different levels of language
proficiency. In this study, 180 EFL learners were randomly selected and placed into three groups
of low, mid, and high proficiency as determined by the TOEFL language proficiency test
(Attarzadeh, 2011). The results of this study showed that scaffolding reading comprehension,
levels of learners, and the interaction of both were positively significant (Attarzadeh, 2011).
These studies showed the effectiveness of sociocultural teaching techniques such as scaffolding
and the role of educators as facilitators. The findings of these studies provided information
regarding the impact of sociocultural teaching techniques in the social organization of learning
settings, and features of important social context in students’ lives, materials, activities, and
people. According to these studies, scaffolding has a high significance on learning; therefore,
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 37
bilingual teachers need to apply sociocultural teaching techniques in their dual immersion
classrooms.
Achievement Gap Versus Opportunity Gap Framework
Achievement gap is a term that refers to the disparities in standardized test scores
between students of color and white students (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Howard, 2015). Therefore,
the achievement gap denotes students of color as being deficient. This notion that students of
color are deficient has roots in the deculturalization process in our schooling system, where
many Latino and Native American students were forced to renounce their cultural, political, and
spiritual practices (Howard, 2015). Currently, there is the process of reclassification in which
English language learners receive English-only instruction to acquire English. The aim of
reclassification is to have ELLs become English proficient and receive English-only instruction.
Mahoney and MacSwan’s (2005), collected data from a national survey of state requirements and
recommendations regarding the identification and reclassification of English Language Learners
to analyze how certain practices may have negative consequences for ELLs. The data gathered
examined the practices of how states identified and reclassified ELLs. The study by Mahoney
and MacSwan (2005), also asked questions regarding the appropriateness of the three common
practices as follows: (a) How are academic achievement assessments used for identification; (b)
How are routine tests of children’s oral native language ability used to determine identification
and reclassification; and (c) How are cutoff scores used to determine the identification or
reclassification placing of English language learners. Mahoney and MacSwan (2005), found that
all three practices have negative consequences for ELLs rather than effective outcomes. The
findings are not surprising because it has been well documented that academic achievement
assessments can be biased. Tests on a child’s oral native language ability can also be hindered by
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 38
the child’s developmental stage, parent’s level of education, and social economic status. Finally,
cutoff scores to determine identification or reclassification vary from state to state and even
district to district within a state. In conclusion, these practices work against ELLs and have
negative consequences for their academic achievement and progress.
According to Gandara and Rumberger (2008), non-proficient linguistic minority students
lag far behind students from English only backgrounds. The evidence from Saunders and
Marcelletti (2013), highlighted that 60% of students from English only backgrounds are scoring
proficient or advanced on CST ELA California Standards Test in English Language Arts (CST
ELA), whereas, IELs are scoring 38% proficient or advanced. Presently, words such as
underachieving and underperforming are constantly present in the deficit tone discourse when
referring to achievement gap. In order to change the deficit tones when referring to the
achievement gap, practices at high performing schools with culturally and linguistically diverse
students need to be examined (Howard, 2015). It is crucial to change the deficit mindset to asset
based in which opportunity gaps are being addressed by providing learning opportunities for
culturally and linguistically diverse students instead of focusing on achievement gaps.
Learning opportunities, whether we refer to them as educational debts or opportunity
gaps, need to be provided to improve students’ outcomes and address equity issues (Ladson-
Billings, 2006; Milner, 2010; Rueda, 2005). Ladson-Billing stated that we do not have an
achievement gap but rather an education debt (2006). The education debt is the withholding of
schooling resources that we should be investing in disadvantaged student populations (Ladson-
Billings, 2006). In addressing the education debt, we are also looking at opportunity gaps and
how we can deliver learning opportunities to groups of students that have been historically
marginalized.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 39
Rueda (2005) defined the opportunity to learn as a range of variables likely to influence
student academic performance, encompassing access to resources, access to high quality
instructional content and processes, and direct preparation for assessments being administered.
With EO (English-only) instruction and reclassification as a means of deculturalization of
culturally and linguistically diverse students, access to high-quality instructional content and
processes and preparation for assessments has created issues of equity disparities in our
educational system. Rueda (2005) poised further research questions regarding the opportunity to
learn by examining access and quality of instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse
students. These questions centered around the opportunity to learn, sociocultural context, and
sociopolitical considerations.
Milner (2010) introduced the opportunity gap framework to analyze the thinking and
practices of teachers to effectively address opportunity gaps that exist in our kindergarten
through 12
th
grade educational system. Milner (2010) identified five interconnected areas that
can make educators realize how they are contributing and addressing opportunity gaps: color
blindness, cultural conflicts, meritocracy, low expectations and deficit mind-sets, and context-
neutral mind-sets and practices. Milner (2010) stated that color blindness takes place when
educators avoid topics of race and dismiss their own and their students’ racialized experiences in
their decision process to include the contributions and narratives of people of color. Curriculum
and instructional decisions are founded on the white norm that students of color have to accept
(Milner, 2010). White norm in the educational setting refers to the literary canon in which body
of books, narratives, and other texts are written by the dominant culture and excludes those of
people of color. For instance, contributions from Native Americans, Latinos, and other ethnic
groups are left out of history or social studies lessons. This omission is sending a message that
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 40
their history, their story is inferior. Milner (2010) refers to cultural conflicts as inconsistencies
that emerge in the teaching and learning context based on race, gender, age, geography, and
socioeconomic disconnections between educators and students. An area in which to observe this
occurrence is the disproportionate number of students of color being suspended in contrast to
white students (Milner, 2010). Milner (2010) discusses how the myth of meritocracy impedes
educators from seeing systemic and institutional structures and barriers and believe in the idea
that people are rewarded based on their ability, performance, effort, and talents. Therefore, this
leads to educators not providing students multiple chances for success since they believe students
are not working to their full potential (Milner, 2010). Milner (2010) also explores the deficit
mindsets and low expectations in which educators focus on achievement gaps versus learning
opportunities. Educators do not provide challenging and rigorous curriculum because they do
not believe that their culturally diverse students are capable (Milner, 2010). Not having high
expectations sets the tone for academic performance and classroom environment. Milner (2010)
looked at context-neutral mindsets in which educators do not build on the prior knowledge of
students, nor the established resources of the local community. Learning in the classroom is
centered on content subject matter such as math, language arts, social studies, and science; thus,
overlooking the background of students and their community. This framework explains how the
thinking and practices of bilingual teachers address opportunity gaps in dual language
immersion.
Social Capital Framework
Social capital is defined as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are
linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual
acquaintance and recognition,” (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu’s definition is grounded in a
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 41
framework that explains the complexities involved in the social reproduction of class inequality
(Bourdieu, 1986). Nan Lin (2001) redefined social capital as resources embedded in a social
structure that are accessed by mobilizing in purposeful actions. Stanton-Salazar (2011) presented
a social capital framework that merges the previous social capital concepts, as resources that are
directly embedded in a social medium, in a relationship or network. The social medium is
characterized by two basic sets of structural properties:
1. Its configurational properties such as strength of tie or relationship; density of
network.
2. Its integrative properties such as mutual investment in relationship, trust, and norm of
reciprocity. (Stanton-Salazar, 2011)
The notion of the institutional agent is at the core of this framework and is defined as an
individual who engages in one or more hierarchical positions of relatively high-status and
authority (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). This individual becomes a recognizable institutional agent
when they act on the behalf of the adolescent to directly transmit or negotiate the transferal of
highly valued resources (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Highly valued resources can be letters of
recommendation for college, recommended for AP classes, or any endorsement to benefit the
student. Stanton-Salazar (2011) defined institutional agent as an individual who occupies one or
more hierarchical positions of relatively high-status, either within a society or in an institution or
an organization.
Effective Dual Language Immersion Instruction
Teacher in-service training should provide learning in content and strategies guided by
theory and research that is applied in the classroom after critical reflection and discussion takes
place in their professional learning communities (Honigsfeld & Cohan, 2012). Palmer and
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 42
Martinez (2013) conjectured that educators must develop an understanding of bilingualism that is
based on actual bilingual talk. Therefore, teachers need to understand language as practice and
hybridity as a normal expression of bilingualism in dual language classrooms (Palmer &
Martinez, 2013). Educators need to build their community cultural capital by improving their
understanding of how their students talk and use language to express themselves.
Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede (2011) proposed that to give appropriate context for
the implementation of effective instruction that promotes language and literacy in dual language
learners, learning standards and program policies should include requirements that promote and
enhance dual language learning which include teacher preparation, family support, and
availability of resources. The following are examples of such requirements:
1. Institute teacher credentialing regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria
requiring coursework in second language acquisition and in specific teaching
strategies to support dual language learners and their families, combined with at a
least minimal proficiency in a second language.
2. Offer teachers ongoing support to implement early learning standards, including
systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children’s
learning of the language used in the classroom and use the children’s primary
language to support instruction.
3. Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated
within the context of the population with which they will be implemented; and
include content and learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge of
dual language learners.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 43
4. Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based
materials, incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting
conversations, as well as books in children’s first languages.
5. Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in supporting dual language
learners first language development and maintenance that is linked to classroom
instruction (Castro, et al. 2011).
Culturally Relevant and Responsive Pedagogy
Cultural relevant teaching as a pedagogy empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by utilizing cultural meaning to communicate knowledge, skills, and
attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally responsive teaching is using the cultural
characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as a channel for
teaching them more effectively (Herrera, 2010). Handsfield and Valente (2016) noted that for
bilingual children, rejection and misinterpretations of their experiences revolve around
experiences of immigration, community language practices, and racial discrimination. The
deficit discourse pertaining bilingual and immigrant students and families encouraged Patricia, a
fourth-grade teacher, to empower her students by having her students write their meaningful
stories and understandings about their cultural worldview (Handsfield and Valente, 2016).
Shannon (2016) drew from Villegas and Lucas (2002) key findings on the definition of culturally
responsive pedagogy (CPR) to guide culturally responsive teacher education. The following are
the six strands used to guide culturally responsive teacher education:
1. Gain sociocultural consciousness, or understand that life stories vary between
individuals, and these stories are shaped by larger sociopolitical influences.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 44
2. Develop affirming attitudes, validating, and respecting diverse children and
students’ varied ways of interacting in and out of the classroom.
3. Develop skills and commitment to act as agents of change by not only observing
inequitable practice, but also interrupting and refining it.
4. Embrace constructivist views of knowledge and learning, in which teaching and
learning is viewed as co-constructed among students and teachers.
5. Seek out ways to develop deep relationships with students and learn about the
multiple facets of children’s lives.
6. Cultivate the practice of culturally responsive teaching (Shannon, 2016).
Bilingual Teachers’ Perspectives
There are limited studies on perspectives of bilingual teachers and educators of color.
Most studies are based on the perception of white educators and frameworks are applied to their
experience. Tolbert and Eichelberger (2016) mentioned that research has focused primarily on
the beliefs and knowledge regarding diversity and social justice in teacher education of white
teachers to help them develop a social justice orientation.
Varghese (2008) conducted research on teachers’ beliefs and actions around bilingual
education and teaching in dual immersion classrooms. The four participants in Varghese’s
(2008) study were Latino bilingual teachers and have a range of experiences that are alike and
different. Their narratives are based on their personal experiences which contributed to the
formulation of their beliefs on bilingual education and teaching. Varghese (2008) found that all
four teachers expressed their belief in the use, maintenance, and promotion of dual language.
Two of the participants demonstrated some reservation on their students transitioning into
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 45
English (Varghese, 2008). Maria shared her personal experience about experiencing education as
an English language learner herself:
When I was in college I had a real negative view of bilingual education because I was
never exposed to it. When I first came to the United States I was not in a bilingual
program, I was just swim or sink but thank God I swam. . . I thought it was just you learn
English and then I go back, and I think about my experience and I think that had to do a
lot with I think me learning the language second so quickly; I mean I was real fluent in
Spanish. And I think I transferred a lot of the things, (Varghese, 2008).
Maria’s story relates the experience that most English language learners experience in
English only classrooms in terms of swim or sink. Fortunately, for Maria she was able to
transfer her knowledge from one language to another. However, that is not the reality for all
English language learners. Another teacher, Elizabeth expressed how she wanted to be a
bilingual teacher because she believes that a child’s school experience should be different from
hers (Varghese, 2008).
The findings of this study showed that all four teachers experienced difficult
circumstances in learning English as a second language and where under pressure to assimilate
(Varghese, 2008). Three out of the four teachers also recalled painful school and classroom
experiences in America which the attributed to their ethnicity and lack of proficiency in English
(Varghese, 2008). This is perhaps the reality of most English language learners in our American
schooling system. This study also reaffirms what other studies have observed, that minority
teachers have similar life experiences as those of their students and families and are able to better
empathize and relate, then teachers from the dominant and privileged group (Varghese, 2008;
Tolbert and Eichelberger, 2016). This study on personal experiences and perspectives on
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 46
bilingual education and teaching provides valuable cultural worldviews that impact instruction
and student outcomes in dual immersion classrooms.
Epistemic Privilege
Teachers of color tend to view their role as agents of change, pursue teaching in
communities of color, and are more effective teachers of students of color (Tolbert &
Eichelberger, 2016; Milner & Howard, 2013). Their effectiveness is attributed to their
community cultural capital that allowed them to interact as members of the community. This can
also be applied to bilingual teachers that become effective teachers by not only possessing
community cultural capital, but also epistemic privilege. Epistemic privilege is the concept that
refers to knowledge acquired through oppression as a privilege (Southard, 2014). Handsfield
and Valente (2016) stated that educators agree that biliteracy development is best supported
through meaningful instruction, trusting and caring relationships, and valuing children’s
culturally grounded experiences and knowledge. Handsfield and Valente (2016) studied
Patricia’s fourth grade bilingual classroom. Patricia delivered instruction in Spanish in the
mornings and instructed in English in the afternoon while students spoke both languages with
each other and with her (Handsfield and Valente, 2016). Patricia often related to her students
that bilingualism was a valuable resource both in school and in the world (Handsfield & Valente,
2016). Patricia used her familial and linguistic capital, as well as epistemic privilege to empower
her bilingual students.
Conceptual Framework
Two theoretical strands are the main frameworks of this qualitative study: community
cultural capital theory and sociocultural theory. Opportunity gap and social capital frameworks
inform this study. Community cultural capital theory is useful in examining the cultural
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 47
background of dual immersion teachers and plays a critical role in delivering an effective
curriculum that values the cultural and linguistic diversity of students. Community cultural
capital enables individuals to view that communities of color nurture cultural wealth through the
following six principles: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant
capital (Yosso 2005). Sociocultural theory is applied to scaffolding practices utilized by teachers
to assist students in the learning process, therefore providing learning opportunities for culturally
and linguistically diverse students. Sociocultural theory claims that information processing is
facilitated by helping learners in the process (Vygotsky, 1978). Milner (2010) introduced the
opportunity gap framework to examine the thinking and practices of teachers to effectively
address opportunity gaps that prevail in our kindergarten through 12
th
grade educational system.
Stanton-Salazar (2011) presented a social capital framework that combined the previous social
capital concept. At the core of this framework is the notion of the institutional agent which is
defined as an individual who engages in one or more hierarchical positions of relatively high-
status and authority (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Therefore, this framework applies to bilingual
teachers as institutional agents that can provide highly valued resources to their dual language
students.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 48

Figure 2.1. Student outcomes in dual immersion programs.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This dissertation addresses the problem of the persistent low academic achievement of
English language learners in the K-12 public American school system. The persistent low
academic achievement of English language learners is a problem. The evidence has highlighted
that 50% of English language learners fail their graduation tests, compared to 24% of all English
proficient students; English language learners are not graduating at the same rate as their English
proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). This problem is important to address
because Lau v. Nichol (1975) ensured linguistically appropriate accommodations for language
minority students in public schools. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the research
where data is lacking, by exploring the of bilingual teachers’ perception of the impact of their
approach on learning and language acquisition in their dual language immersion classrooms.
This study also explores the non-economic resources bilingual teachers identify in students in
their dual immersion classrooms.
Methods
This research study integrates the perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion
classrooms, hence using a qualitative methods approach is the most reliable and valid method to
answer the research questions. There are a limited number of qualitative studies on bilingual
teachers and their perceptions and experiences in dual immersion classrooms. This study will
contribute data on the perceptions of bilingual teachers and their approach to learning and
language acquisition in dual immersion classrooms.
The site and the participants were purposefully selected for this study. Maxwell (2013)
explains that in qualitative sampling it is common to use purposeful selection. Purposeful
sampling is a strategy where settings, persons, or activities are deliberately selected to provide
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 50
information that is particularly relevant to researcher’s questions or goals (Maxwell, 2013).
The researcher selected one public elementary school. The criteria for the school site
selection was that: (a) School site must have a diverse student population, including at least 50%
or more ELLs, 50% or more of students who qualify for free or reduced lunch, and 50% or more
students who identify as non-white; (b) the school site must have a diverse teacher population
including 50% or more of teachers who identify as bilingual, and 50% or more of the teachers
identify as non-white; (c) the dual language immersion program must be identified as high
performing as indexed by standardized state test scores and successful formation of biliterate and
bilingual students as measured by school or district assessments; and (d) the school site should
have an established dual language program that has been operating for 5 years or more. The
researcher selected eight teachers from the selected school for in-depth interviews and district
management involved in the implementation of dual language education. The criteria for teacher
selection was: (a) for the teacher to teach in a dual language immersion classroom; (b) the
bilingual teacher must identify themselves as Latino; (c) the teachers selected must be bilingual;
(d) bilingual teachers must have at least one year experience in teaching in a dual immersion
classroom; and (e) teachers selected for the study must have positive site administration teacher
evaluations. The researcher conducted individual interviews with dual immersion teachers in
primary and upper grades.
Data Collection
Interview. Most qualitative research data is collected through interviews. The most
common type of interview is what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) called a person-to-person
encounter in which one person obtains information from another. Qualitative researchers use
interviews when they cannot observe behavior, feelings, or how people interpret the world
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 51
around them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There are many types of interviews that qualitative
researchers utilize to gather data. Interviews can range in structure, where questions are
predetermined to unstructured where question are not determined, they can also take in forms of
group interviews and online interviews. For this study, used what is called a semi-structured
interview, where questions are in the middle, between structured and unstructured (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were guided by the research question.
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is essential to ask good questions to yield
meaningful data; asking good questions take practice. It is suggested that the researcher conduct
pilot interviews to try out the questions. Pilot interviews provide good training but can also help
the interviewer determine confusing questions, questions that need to be reworded, meaningless
questions, and which questions should be asked first (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Six types of
questions that Patton (2015) suggested that the researcher ask to stimulate responses from
participants are: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values questions, feelings
questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background questions.
Each participant was interviewed once by scheduling an appointment and with a
possibility of a second follow-up interview, only if needed. Data collection took place in the fall
of 2017 from September to December, commencing in September. All information pertinent to
the research study was gathered upon the completion of each interview. Every meeting followed
a specific protocol to ensure that participants felt safe and the interview was productive.
Meetings were scheduled by appointment with sufficient time for rescheduling if necessary. All
participants signed a consent form in order to be part of the research study. Each interview lasted
no longer than one hour.
A professional transcriber transcribed all interviews. An interview log was in order to
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 52
listen to each interview in five-minute increments and summarize each with a time stamp. The
researcher reviewed all summaries and salient notes were taken to provide information on the
research questions, and to give the researcher the opportunity to review and transcribe those
sections for further coding.
Artifacts. The following artifacts were collected from teachers in the study: lesson plans,
professional development notes, staff and grade level meetings and training agendas and memos,
work samples, and pictures of room environments. The artifacts collected provided evidence and
support to this study’s research questions.
Data Analysis
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016) qualitative data analysis is about identifying
themes, categories, patterns, or answers to your research paper. With that in mind, we created a
code book and analytic memos with categories that drew connections and identified resurfacing
patterns. Once all classroom interviews were complete, the researcher organized the field notes
with codes. A code is a word or short phrase that summarizes an attribute of a language-based or
visual data; the codes can be single words, letters, numbers, phrases, colors, or combinations of
these (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Using a code book helped us organize our data and keep an inventory of the entire data
set (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Inventorying data allows the researchers to know the number of
interviews, documents, artifacts, and analytical memos. According to Merriam and Tisdell
(2016), data sets need to be organized in a scheme that makes sense to the researchers and
enables them to access any piece of the data at any time; this facilitates the researcher’s ability to
recall the data more easily because data is collected over a time period spanning any number of
months. Coded data using analytic memos made our data analysis more manageable.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 53
We used narrative analysis research methodology (Creswell, 2014) to understand the
experiences and perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion classrooms. Data collected
included information from interviews that addressed learning opportunities in dual immersion
classrooms. Additionally, we collected artifacts, such as lesson plans, to examine what culturally
responsive pedagogy is applied in the classroom. We took field notes during both interviews and
all interviews were recorded with the participants knowledge and permission. The data analysis
helped to answer our research questions of how teachers’ perspectives, attitudes, practices, and
perceptions affected student outcomes in dual immersion programs.
Qualitative data was reduced and trimmed down in order to organize the information in a
meaningful manner in order to present it in a manageable amount and sort it according to the
research questions. Data analysis included the analysis of classroom teacher interviews. The
researchers maintained a journal through each interview to detect biases that might shape the
analysis and interpretation of data. The researchers conducted checks with teachers to get
feedback and to validate the precision of their interview accounts.
According to Maxwell (2013), interviewing and observing provides immediate
description but does not necessarily direct understanding of the participant’s perspective.
Therefore, the researcher must infer meaning and understanding from the description of that
person’s behavior obtained through interviews, or other written documents or sources (Maxwell,
2013). This study used a semi-structured approach. Semi-structured interviews consist of
flexibly worded questions which are guided by a list but not predetermined; information is
requested from all the respondents (Merriam, 2016). By utilizing semi-structured interviews,
this study gathered information that was pertinent to the research study
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that ensuring validity and reliability in qualitative
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 54
research consists of conducting the study in an ethical manner, which in turn will establish
trustworthiness in the research. In our research study, we used interviews and documents to
create triangulation. Utilizing interviews and documents allowed us to view the research study
as multidimensional and provide triangulation to better compare and cross-check data. We also
utilized respondent validation where feedback was solicited from the interviewees. This limited
possible misunderstandings and clarified any information related during the interview process.
To ensure reliability, the researchers maintained detailed field notes during classroom
teacher interviews. Also, another doctoral student coded a part of the interviews to enhance the
reliability of the research. It was expected that themes and patterns identified were consistent
between both researchers throughout the study.
The following were steps taken to ensure that the research study was ethical:
1. An explanation of the purpose of the research study and methods was
provided to all participants.
2. Confidentiality was guaranteed to all participants and part of the protocol.
3. Informed consent was provided.
4. There were data collection boundaries.
5. Ethical and methodological choices were made.
It is necessary that the researcher be trustworthy in carrying out the study in the most
ethical way possible (Merriam and Tisdell. 2016). All participants were well informed about the
intention of this research study. Participants were encouraged to ask any questions they might
have regarding the research study. The protocols in this study were intended to make the
participants feel at ease in partaking in this study. Participants were assured that all and any
information provided in the interview will remain anonymous.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 55
With the data collected from classroom teacher interviews throughout the study, the
researchers used triangulation to ensure the credibility of the data and research. This also allow
the researchers to examine patterns and themes that might surface in interviews with dual
immersion teachers and district management. Findings were checked for validity among
classroom teachers to increase the levels of reliability.
Ofelia Cervera
As an educator of eighteen years within the district in which I conducted this study, I
have a deep sense of the normative practices of the district. I have considered the importance
and advantages of applying qualitative research to this study and have listened to the experiences
and perspectives of the bilingual teachers who provided valuable information in answer of the
research questions. I attempted to eliminate any biases and preconceived notions in order to be
able to present authentic facts about the experiences and realities of bilingual teachers in dual
immersion classrooms. To eliminate biases and preconceived notions I made every attempt to be
subjective and neutral with regard to all information gathered in this study by implementing a
reflective approach in hearing and viewing experiences and data.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 56
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the data collected through the interviews of bilingual
teachers in Diamond Valley Elementary to examine opportunity gaps in relation to teachers’
perceptions in dual immersion education. The persistent low academic achievement of English
language learners is a problem. The evidence has highlighted that 50% of English language
learners fail their graduation tests, compared to 24% of all English proficient students; English
language learners are not graduating at the same rate as their English proficient counterparts
(García, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008). The purpose of this study is to inform practice and
contribute to the research where data is lacking, by exploring bilingual teachers’ perception of
the impact of their approach on learning and language acquisition in their dual language
immersion classrooms. This study explored the non-economic resources bilingual teachers
attribute to students in their dual immersion classroom.
The study investigated three research questions: (a) What do bilingual teachers report as
their approach to learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language
immersion classroom? (b) What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to
learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom? (c) What non-economic resources or
capital including: familial, social, linguistic, navigational, resistant, and aspirational, do these
bilingual teachers identify in their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her
Spanish-English dual immersion classroom?
This research study integrated the perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion
classrooms, thus using a qualitative methods approach was the most reliable and valid method to
answer the research questions. Interviews conducted in dual language immersion classrooms
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 57
provided rich descriptions which contributed to the research which investigated bilingual
teachers’ practices and perceptions impact student outcomes. There are limited qualitative
studies on bilingual teachers and their perceptions and experiences in dual immersion
classrooms. This study contributed to the limited research by providing data on the perceptions
of bilingual teachers and their approach to learning and language acquisition in dual immersion
classrooms.
The major findings and themes in this study are the following: dual language teachers
perceived role and challenges as a bilingual teacher in a dual language education, approach to
learning and language acquisition, and the six forms of community cultural capital which are
aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant.
Participants and Site
To protect the confidentiality of all participants, the researcher used pseudonyms for
district personnel, the school, and bilingual teachers. The researchers interviewed eight bilingual
teachers. The investigators relate the following information in the subsequent chapters: (a) the
demographic data of the school district, (b) demographic information on the school where the
study took place, and (c) teachers’ profiles.
School District Demographics
The school district is in rural Diamond Valley County. The mission of this school district
is to educate and empower all students to achieve academic excellence, personal growth and
social responsibility. The vision of this district is to provide a nurturing, innovative, and
inspiring environment to ensure that every student graduate from high school equipped with a
passion for learning, the motivation to act responsibly, and the capacity to become a critical
thinker as he or she successfully navigates his or her own unique future.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 58
This district consists of seven elementary schools, two middle schools, one high school,
and one continuation school. The total enrollment in this school district was about 11,220
students at the time the research was conducted. The breakdown of the student population by
ethnicity was the following: 69.4% Latino, 14.7% White, 8.3% African American, 2.7% two or
more races, 2.3% Native American/Alaska Native, 1.1% Asian, 0.9% Filipino, and 0.6% Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. Out of the general student population, 77.1% of the students receive
reduced-priced meals and 8,105 were English language learners and foster youth. The following
numbers represent high school graduation rates by ethnicity: 100% for Asian, Filipino, and
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 92.9% for two or more races, 90.6% for White, 87.2% for
Latino, 81% for African American, and 75% for Native American. These were the suspension
totals by ethnicity: 587 were Latino, 219 were African American, 170 were White, 31 were two
or more races, 29 were Native American/Alaskan Native, 5 were Filipino, and 3 were Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. Teachers by ethnicity were the following: 68.8% were White, 20.8%
Latino, 2.9% African American, 2.2% two or more races, 1.3% Asian, and 1.1% Native
American, 0.4% Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
School Demographics
During the study, the dual immersion program was in its’ third year of implementation at
the newer elementary school which happens to be the most rural school in the district. The
piloting class was entering third grade during the 2017-2018 academic school year. The school
was comprised of three kindergarten classes, three first grade classes, three second grade classes,
two third grade classes, and two teachers in training for fourth grade. The following year
teachers are to be interviewed for the fifth grade teaching positions. The criteria for enrollment in
this dual language immersion program is that students begin when they are in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 59
kindergarten. Exceptions are only made for students entering first grade and they must be
classified as English language learners. Students must also maintain good attendance to
participate in this dual language immersion program (DI). This past summer, summer school
was offered to DI students to work on their fluency and reading.
School enrollment for the 2017-2018 academic school year was 906 students. The
breakdown of the student population by ethnicity was the following: 66.2% Latino, 12.8%
White, 10.4% African American, 4.1% Native American/Alaska Native, 2.6% two or more races,
1.9% Asian, 1.9% Filipino, and 0.1% Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. Out of the student body,
27.9% were English language learners, 67.7% of the student population was on free or reduced-
priced meals, and 674 were English language learners and foster youth. Teachers by ethnicity
were the following: 73.5% were White, 20.6% Latino, and 2.9% African American.
Teachers’ Profiles: Las Maestras
All dual language immersion teachers were interviewed at Diamond Elementary in rural
Diamond Valley County, their school of employment after school hours. The following is the
breakdown of their grade levels: Maestra Rojas (RKDLT) is one of three kindergarten teachers;
Maestra Marisol (M1DLT) and Maestra Santana (S1DLT), the first-grade dual language
immersion teachers; Maestra Alba (A2DLT), Maestra Luna (L2DLT), and Maestra Rosas
(R2DLT), the second-grade dual language immersion teachers; Maestra Cordova (C3DLT) and
Maestra Lara (L3DLT), the third-grade dual language immersion teachers. As previously
mentioned, the piloting class was in its’ third year of dual language immersion instruction.
Maestra Rojas. During the interviews Maestra Rojas’ (RKDLT) name was mentioned in
most of them. She was mentioned often because she was one of the teachers that started with the
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 60
pilot class. Maestra Rojas was recruited from a neighboring school district that had a dual
language immersion program and brought her expertise to Diamond Valley County district.
Maestra Rojas identifies as Latina. Her mother is Bolivian, and her father is from
Northern Spain. Maestra Rojas is a native Spanish speaker. She entered the American school
system when she was five years old and started kindergarten. She was not in a bilingual class
but was pulled out to learn English. Maestra Rojas shared her memory of her first day of
kindergarten. She remembered telling her mother she did not want to go back to school, “But I
remember the first day coming home and telling my mom I didn't want to go back because there
must have been space aliens because I did not understand any single thing that they were talking
about.” She was not able to recall when exactly she acquired English as a second language, but
she said within the primary elementary years. Maestra Rojas grew up in Riverside located in
Southern California. Maestra Rojas had an overall good experience in education. By middle
school she was enrolled in honors and AP classes. She graduated at the top of her class. Maestra
Rojas was inspired to become a bilingual teacher when she subbed at Banning where there was a
dual language immersion program. Originally Maestra Rojas wanted to work in diplomacy for
the United Nations and went to college to work in Spanish international relations. However, that
did not happen because at the time embassies were being bombed and she was instead offered
different job opportunities in Africa or the Middle East. Maestra Rojas decided she would get
her masters because she was not able to work in Spain. After completing her masters, she was
encouraged to sub as a Spanish teacher at the high school level. Maestra Rojas subbed
throughout the districts and found her calling when she subbed at Banning and fell in love with
dual language immersion.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 61
Maestra Marisol. Conducting Maestra Marisol’s (M1DLT) interview was an
inspirational experience. She was so lively and passionate. She spoke with her eyes closed and
moved her hands to describe how she teaches in her dual language immersion class. She wore a
red with a Santa and red lipstick. Her accent gave our dialogue a rhythm that had a beat and
captured my attention throughout the interview. Her class jumped with the color of the Navidad
(Christmas). A Christmas tree was placed on one of the shelves. Maestra Marisol shared a story
with me about a student who had just come from Mexico. When he showed up to class and saw
the classroom tree he said, “Maestra you have a tree! Mi mama me dijo, que no podemos tener uno
porque tenemos que pagar la renta que eso es mas importante (My mom said, we cannot have one
because we have to pay the rent and that is more important).”
Maestra Marisol identified herself as Mexican or Mexican American. She was born in
Mexico and is a native Spanish speaker. Her family migrated to the United States when she was
ten years old and she grew-up in Chicago. Maestra Marisol entered the American schooling
system soon after where she experienced the pull-out program as an intervention to learn
English. She recalls being in that program for just a year and acquiring English as a second
language by the fifth grade. Maestra Marisol has been teaching for thirteen years and has
experience teaching both adults as well as children in the primary grades. Maestra Marisol stated
that she was influenced to become a teacher by one of her high school teachers. Living in this
state and realizing the great need for bilingual teachers influenced her to become a bilingual
teacher, “I realize that there's a big need for bilingualism and I love dual immersion.” Maestra
Marisol was very candid and asking if it was ok, shared many of her experiences in Spanish.
Maestra Santana. I also interviewed Maestra Santana (S1DLT). Maestra Santana did
not feel well and was beginning to lose her voice during the interview. The classroom was full
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 62
of crafts and glitter as her students were working on holiday projects. There was so much glitter
it would have been hard to walk out of her classroom glitter free.
Maestra Santana identified as Mexican American. She was born in Mexico and migrated
to the United States when she was eight years old. She grew up in Southern California. Maestra
Santana is a native Spanish speaker that acquired English as a second language when she was in
second grade. She entered the American schooling system when she was seven or eight years
old. She recalled not being in a bilingual classroom and picking up English within a year of
entering school. Maestra Santana related that she was influenced to become a bilingual teacher
when her children were of school age. She felt the connection to Spanish as her home language
wanted her children to be a part of the program. Both her son and daughter are in the dual
language immersion program at Diamond Elementary.
Maestra Alba. The second-grade team is made up of three teachers, Maestra Alba
(A2DLT), Maestra Luna (L2DLT), and Maestra Rosas (R2DLT). I first met Maestra Alba when
she was a librarian at one of the schools in the district. During our interview, she shared the
authentic literature books written in Spanish in her collection. Maestra Alba attributed her rich
Spanish language collection to having family in Mexico, who are also educators. Her family in
Mexico provided her with resources that she can use in her dual language immersion classroom.
Maestra Alba (A2DLT) identifies as Mexican American. She grew up in Inglewood,
California. She is a native Spanish speaker and began to learn English as a second language in
sixth grade when she entered the American school system. According to Maestra Alba, it took
her two to three years because she was very shy and self-conscious of her accent and people
looking at her differently because she spoke with an accent. She was not in a bilingual
classroom and she recalled her overall experience in education as difficult, “It was difficult
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 63
because all we had to endure the culture shock and language acquirement that I had to do in
middle school. So, that was difficult for me because on top of learning the language, I also had to
assimilate to the culture.” Maestra Alba became teary eyed as she opened about how challenging
things had been for her. Maestra Alba was influenced to become a bilingual teacher because she
wanted to make a difference for students, especially English language learners. She wanted to
contribute to English language learners as a way to pay-back and honor the teachers that helped
her through school. Maestra Alba’s classroom was decorated with Día de los Muertos (Day of
the Dead) projects and student work was displayed throughout the room.
Maestra Rosas. Maestra Rosas (R2DLT) was chosen as Diamond Elementary’s Teacher
of the Year this school year. As I entered Maestra Rosas’ classroom, I saw the elaborate student
displays of Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead). It was evident by now that these dioramas
were part of an assigned project in second grade which taught the students about the Latin
American holiday. Maestra Rosas greeted me with a welcoming smile and we started the
interview.
Maestra Rosas identified herself as Mexican, Hispanic. She grew up in East Los
Angeles, California. Maestra Rosas is a native Spanish speaker. She learned English growing
up and entered the American school system when she was five years old going into kindergarten.
Maestra Rosas was not in a bilingual class. Her overall experience in education was good but
she faced some challenges as her parents spoke only Spanish, “It was hard because my parents
were just Spanish speaking parents going through school just learning English was hard and you
are on your own.” Mrs. Rosas was influenced to become a bilingual teacher because she
believes in the benefit of knowing two languages, “I think just the benefit of knowing two
languages and all the opportunities that students have just made me want to give those students
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 64
the opportunity to succeed in life.” As we wrapped up our interview, I scanned the room to once
again look at the elaborate projects her class had done on el Día de los Muertos.
Maestra Luna. Maestra Luna (S2DLT) was the very first participant to be interviewed in
the study. Her classroom also had dioramas on El Día de los Muertos displayed throughout the
classroom. When I referenced the dioramas, she mentioned that her students had not only
created a diorama which was to represent an altar with all the ofrendas (offerings) that the
diseased enjoyed or represented them in one way or another, but the students were also required
to do a presentation for the class.
Maestra Luna identifies as being Hispanic. She is a native Spanish speaker and grew up
in San Jacinto, California. Maestra Luna did not recall the exact age in which she age she
learned English, but she did remember being in preschool at the age of three and being able to
understand the English language. Maestra Luna recalled having a neighborhood friend when she
was around the age of three and remembered speaking to him and having conversations in
English. Maestra Luna entered the American school system when she was three and started
preschool. She was not in a bilingual classroom but remembered that there was a bilingual aid to
assist with English language learners. Maestra Luna said that she would go to them if she had
any questions but not very frequently because she could comprehend the language. Maestra
Luna liked school growing up and had very positive experiences at school and even after high
school into college. Maestra Luna believes that what influenced her to become a bilingual
teacher was having the bilingual aid in her preschool classroom, “I think it was the experience I
had in school, having that person in my classroom, that was able to communicate with both the
English-speaking students and Spanish speaking students.” Maestra Luna wanted to be someone
that could teach all students and help students that are were not native English speakers to
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 65
acquire and comprehend the English language. She spoke about how she valued making
connections with parents. Maestra Luna expressed how sometimes you have parents that feel
more comfortable and open up more as soon as they know that she is bilingual. She feels that her
bilingual abilities create an authentic connection.
The third-grade team consisted of two teachers, Maestra Cordova (C3DLT) and Maestra
Lara (3DLI). I found their stories and backgrounds fascinating. Maestra Cordova grew up in
Arizona and learned Spanish out of necessity. Maestra Lara is Mexican-Japanese and was raised
in Mexico as a Jehovah’s Witness.
Maestra Cordova. As I went into Maestra Cordova’s (C3DLT) classroom, student work
was displayed throughout the room and music played. Maestra Cordova had agreed to do an
interview later in the day because she chooses a day out of the week to stay late at work.
Maestra Cordova identifies as Mexican American. Her mom was born in Mexico, but she was
born in Arizona. Her family moved to San Digo when she was three and lived there until she got
married and moved to the Inland Empire with her husband. Mrs. Cordova shared that Spanish
was not her first language and that she learned it out of necessity, “Spanish was not my first
language. I learned English first, then because of necessity I had to learn how to speak Spanish,
so I spoke Spanish with my mom.” The necessity to speak Spanish came about after her parents
divorced when she was at the age of five. Maestra Cordova started the American school system
when she was five and entered kindergarten. Her mom attempted to enroll her in a bilingual
program in second grade, but she did not know her colors in Spanish and therefore was not
accepted into the program. Maestra Cordova’s overall experience in education was positive,
“For me it was very positive. But then again I was not one of the trouble makers and I was a self-
motivated student.” Maestra Cordova related that her brother, in contrast, had a different
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 66
experience and that is when the education system failed her. Her brother was not academically
driven, he struggled in school and teachers would punish him for not completing his homework
assignments often keeping him during recess. She recalled having to interpret for her mother
during parent-teacher conferences where teachers seemed not to care. What influenced Maestra
Cordova to become a bilingual teacher was seeing that students could learn another language
while being spoken to in Spanish. Maestra Cordova set out to get her teaching credential in
special education but also took classes for a BCLAD certification, as many teachers were being
laid off at that time, she wanted to make sure that she had a more opportunities in the job market.
Maestra Cordova taught in both settings but liked teaching in the dual language immersion
program and would later opt to teach in a D.I. classroom.
Maestra Lara. When I walked into Maestra Lara’s (L3DLT) classroom she was busy
wiping down the classroom leaving it smelling so clean and fresh. The interview was conducted
on the last day of class before the district’s winter break. Maestra Lara’s room was stunning,
decorated with students’ solar system projects and reports. One wall was also decorated with a
sun shining which created a warm and welcoming environment.
Maestra Lara identifies as Mexican-Japanese. She was born in Mexico, but her
grandparents were Japanese. Maestra Lara is a native Spanish speaker. She learned English
around the age of five or six years old, when her family came to America. Maestra Lara grew up
in San Diego, California. She entered the American school system when she was five years old.
She spent her early childhood learning English until she moved to a school in Southern
California and was in a bilingual classroom where she gained good experiences, “I was in an
English only classroom in kindergarten. I moved to Chula Vista elementary and then from there
I was in bilingual education. That's when I met Mrs. Gonzales; that was a very good experience.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 67
That's when I felt like I belonged in school.” By the third grade she had transitioned to an
English only classroom as she had become fluent in English. Maestra Lara recalled having an
overall good experience in education with some challenges in high school, but other than that her
positive experiences extended on into college. Maestra Lara was influenced by her own positive
experiences in bilingual education where her bilingual teachers believed in her. She wanted to
impact children the same way.
Table 4.1
Data on Teachers’ Experience

Kinder Dual 1
st
grade Dual 1
st
grade Dual 2
nd
grade Dual 2
nd
grade Dual 2
nd
grade Dual 3
rd
grade Dual 3
rd
grade Dual
Language Language Language Language Language Language Language Language
Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher

Experience 13 yrs 11 yrs 3 yrs 2 yrs 1 yrs 2 yr 6 yrs 6 yrs
in Dual
Language

Experience 4 yrs 2 yrs 11 yrs 20 yrs 13 yrs 13 yrs 3 yrs 2 yrs
Within the
District

Overall 17 yrs 16 yrs 11 yrs 23 yrs 13 yrs 18 yrs 9 yrs 20 yrs
Experience
in Education

Data for Research Question One: Approach to Learning and Language Acquisition
Research question one asked, “What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to
learning and language acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?”
This question was intended to draw data on bilingual teachers’ approach to language learning,
content learning, and language acquisition, as well as the assessments or benchmarks, culturally
Diamond Elementary
Maestra Rojas Maestra Marisol Maestra Santana Maestra Alba Maestra Luna Maestra Rosas Maestra Cordova Maestra Lara
(RKDLT) (M1DLT) (S1DLT) (A2DLT) (L2DLT) (R2DLT) (C3DLT) (L3DLT)
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 68
relevant literature, and curriculum and textbooks used in their dual language programs. Crucial
to this study were the perceptions of bilingual teachers on their roles as bilingual teachers, and
the challenges they face as such. The researchers interviewed eight teachers who taught in a
range of grade levels from kindergarten to third grade . The pilot class entered third grade at the
time of this study.
Role of a Bilingual Teacher
In this section, the researcher will relate las maestras’ perceptions on the role of being a
bilingual teacher and its’ challenges. The common theme was that as bilingual teachers, they are
role models and facilitate their students’ growth in both English and Spanish. Equally important
is their job of building sociocultural competence in students to address issues of equity and
improved student outcomes.
Maestra Alba (A2DLT) discussed the three pillars of dual language and how it influenced
her role as a bilingual teacher. Maestra Alba said the following:
My role is, I was reading, The Three Pillars of dual language and it says, that you have to
teach bilingualism and bi-literacy. They have to be able to speak, write, read, read, listen
to each other. And then the second pillar was to ensure high academic achievement in all
subjects, not just in reading and writing, but also in physical education and music. To
expose them to the language because in our culture, you have so much in music. It would
be helpful if we had that in our program. And then the third one was a social cultural
concept of social justice and equity. They all give support to each other. Without the
social justice and cultural part of it, I feel like we're not doing our job because they have
to also understand to embrace that culture (Interview, 12/04/2017).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 69
It is observable from the data collected that as Medina (2017) claimed, the third pillar is
frequently overlooked. The other maestras mostly mentioned that their role was to build
proficiency in both languages and communication with both their students and families. Maestra
Marisol expressed how she is highly involved with her students and community and felt she
needed to try to have very good communication with her students’ parents as part of her role as a
bilingual teacher. Maestra Santana said, “I think as a bilingual teacher we're really working with
introducing and having the kids grow into a second language” (Interview, 12/01/2017). Only
Maestra Alba discussed the third pillar and the lack of building sociocultural competency in their
dual language immersion program. According to Medina (2017) the three pillars of dual
language need to be the goals of an effective dual language program. The following are the three
pillars of dual language:
• Pillar one: Entails making bilingualism and biliteracy the first goal in dual language
since students are learning content in two languages. Students must be able to speak,
write, read, listen, and use both languages as a support for the other.
• Pillar two: High academic expectations for each student in both languages needs to be
the second goal of dual language programs.
• Pillar three: Sociocultural competency must be included in dual language programs
because it is about equity and social justice. However, sociocultural competency is often
forgotten even though the other two pillars depend on this third pillar (Medina, 2017).
Challenges in Dual Language Immersion
The data from the research interviews identified the perceived challenges in dual
language immersion. Las maestras expressed challenges such as limited materials and resources,
the availability of culturally relevant materials, and the misalignment of assessments and
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 70
benchmarks. These perceived challenges impact the effectiveness of the D.I. program by not
optimizing the benefits of dual language learning. Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede
(2011) identified requirements that promote and enhance dual language learning. The following
are examples of such requirements:
1. Institute teacher credentialing regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria
which requires teachers to complete coursework in second language acquisition,
specific teaching strategies to support dual language learners and their families, in
combination with at least a minimal proficiency in a second language.
2. Offer teachers ongoing support in the implementation of early learning standards
including systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster student
learning of each language used in the classroom and use the children’s primary language
to support instruction.
3. Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated
with the population with which they will be implemented, and include content and
learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge.
4. Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based materials,
incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting conversations, as well
as books in children’s first languages.
5. Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in supporting dual
language learners first language development and maintenance that is linked to
classroom instruction (Castro, et al. 2011).
Limited materials and resources. When asked, during their interview, if they could
identify any challenges they face as a bilingual teacher, many of las maestras identified the lack
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 71
of resources and limited culturally relevant materials as a big challenge in their dual language
immersion program. Based on the interviews, the requirements listed above, four and five, are a
challenge for las maestras at Diamond Elementary School.
Maestra Marisol stated that, “The challenges are many but especially when I am trying to
get materials that are engaging for my students.” Maestra Marisol is not alone in expressing
concern about the scarcity of materials and resources available or readily accessible. Maestra
Rosas also shared that she thought the biggest challenge in her job was acquiring the materials
and needed resources. The program at Diamond Elementary was new and had yet to acquire all
the materials needed. Maestra Salas said the following:
I think the challenges are finding those additional resources in Spanish.
I've had to go like teacher pay teachers, so you can't really go to a Lakeshore store or a
teacher store and find what you need. You find it in English but then in Spanish it's very
limited. So, you have to purchase it or create it or what my friends say beg, steal, or
borrow. So, that's when we network with other teachers and share what we have because
it's limited.
Maestra Lara expressed that she finds it challenging to provide adequate resources for her
families in their own language, “Yet they don't know how to help them at home so that's one
challenge for the students and a challenge for me because I can't really explain how to help other
than try to give them resources in their own language.” Just as important, is to provide resources
to assist families in supporting dual language learners (Castro, et al. 2011). Home to school
connections are imperative for student achievement and success in any educational setting. It is
of great significance to have adequate materials and resources in order to provide families with
support to help their children as second language learners. Despite the scarcity of materials and
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 72
resources, las maestras demonstrate their resilience by accessing their social networks so that
they may obtain the necessary materials and resources for the success of their dual language
students.
Culturally relevant materials. The following findings demonstrate how las maestras
reconcile the challenge of having limited culturally relevant materials in their dual language
immersion program. Maestra Alba shared that she reaches out to her “familia” in Guadalajara,
Mexico to obtain materials for her class. Maestra Alba uses EL Chavo books which, she adds,
that her students love. Maestra Alba’s favorite author is Alma Flor Ada, a Cuban American
author of children’s books. She also has folk tales in her classroom, like La Llorona and
biographies like Frida Kahlo. Maestra Lara relayed that she also has a classroom library where
students can read about Cesar Chavez, as well as books from one of her favorite authors Gary
Soto. Gary Soto is an author that writes about his experiences and heritage as a Mexican
American. According to Maestra Lara, “Gary Soto relates to your culture as being Hispanic and
it talks about their stories, like La Barbie. But you know the girl who picked up the barbie. She
wanted to be a white little girl. But she's Mexican and Carmelita.” Las maestras agreed that by
all accounts Maravillas, the district adopted curriculum, comes with literature, narratives and
stories drawing from Mexican or Latin American culture. As previously mentioned, these
challenges are connected to Castro’s (2011) five requirements which center on having resources
and materials, especially culturally relevant materials, that inspire interesting conversations
among students. These materials should also promote and enhance dual language learning which
includes teacher preparation, family support, and availability of resources. It is important to
have culturally relevant materials to build equity and sociocultural competency in culturally and
linguistically diverse students. Not only do las maestras access their social networks, but they
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 73
also utilize resistant capital to challenge inequality by obtaining culturally relevant materials to
build sociocultural competency in their dual language immersion classrooms.
Misalignment of assessments and benchmarks. Las maestras claimed that there is an
issue with their assessments and benchmarks because they need to reflect what their dual
language students are learning versus trying to match them to English-only students.
Assessments and benchmarks are crucial because they provide accountability and relate student
learning and show whether a program is effective. Research on effective bilingual and dual
language programs demonstrate the important role of assessments and accountability; studies
also show the significance of using student achievement data to shape and monitor instruction
(Corallo & McDonald, 2002; Lindholm-Leary, Hargett, & Lambert, 2007).
The district has not provided authentic assessments aligned with the adopted dual
language curriculum and content instruction. Misaligning materials skew the validity of the data
since the data is not properly aligned with the content language that students are learning in, and
in which instruction takes place. These assessments do not reflect the content language
curriculum nor linguistic resources of las maestras and therefore, limit their ability to build
sociocultural competency in their dual language classrooms.
Maestra Rojas discussed how there was a big fiasco because assessments were just
google translated by the accessors at the district level and because of that, students did not
understand the benchmark, “. . . when you google translate it does not take into account a lot of
the semantics, a lot of the verb, the sentence structures. So that was, you know, a big problem for
the kids because they didn't understand.” Maestra Rojas gave an example showing the problem,
“If we simply translate that for the Spanish, Yo veo un perro. Perro is not the same complexity
level as the word dog is a simple CVC (Consonant-V owel-Consonant) word.” Maestra Rojas
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 74
went on to explain how students in the dual language immersion program were being matched to
their counterpart English-only students, and assessed, yet the assessment did not accurately
represent the student learning because the assessments did not address the difference in how
language is both taught and acquired.
During the interviews, most of the maestras discussed how the assessments and
benchmarks are being google translated to Spanish by assessors and do not take into account
accurate translations or what students learn in dual language programs. Maestra Lara
commented that, “So for dual language immersion is the same as EO [this is referring to
assessments]. All they did is translated using the same essential outcomes. So, we are noticing
that there needs to be change. But we're trying to see who's going to.” [this referring to whether
the district will acknowledge that there is a need to address the issue with assessments]. Maestra
Rosas stated that the English assessments were google translated in Spanish which affected their
English language arts scores negatively but not math, because the teachers took the time to
translate the assessments and knew students would be able to comprehend the benchmarks, “So
our scores were really good. They were over 80 percent on the math because it was teacher
created.” Maestra Marisol shared the same sentiments about the assessments and benchmarks
being google translated, “The district provides us with benchmarks and that's another challenge
because they're not always translated correctly. In fact, earlier this year when we were given the
first benchmark we notice that there were so many mistakes and apparently, they were just
google translated.” The evidence from the interviews showed that the assessments and
benchmarks presented a challenge in creating accountability and providing authentic student
achievement data for informing instruction. It is crucial to ensure that assessments in the partner
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 75
language are not simply translations of assessments in English (Lindholm-Leary, Rogers,
Olague, Medina, Kennedy, Sugarman, & Christian, 2018).
Dual language plan. Las maestras explained that they follow the 90/10 model. In this
model kindergarten and first grade are 90/10. Meaning that 90% of instruction is in Spanish and
10% is in English. Second grade is 80/20, third grade is 70/30, fourth is 60/40, and fifth is 50/50.
Las maestras were aware of the model they follow, however when asked about their dual
language plan they all responded that they were working on it and that their program had been in
transition many times as the program was passed from one person to another at the district level.
Maestra Rojas said that they do not have a set dual language plan and that the new coordinator is
currently working on it. Prior to the current coordinator, there has been about five other people
that have been given the position to oversee the program. Maestra Marisol stated that they were
recently interviewed to develop a mission and vision statement, “. . .not long ago she interviewed
some of the people. Actually, all of us. I think all dual immersion teachers. We were interviewed
because she wants to develop like a mission/vision statement for the program.” Maestra Alba
expressed that there was no plan and that they were currently working on one after four years of
the dual language program being implemented, “We're currently, after four years, working on our
vision and mission and it's supposed to be our administrators, teachers, and district
administration that are supposed to work together to create it.” Maestra Lara said she is still
waiting for a dual language plan but she was not alone in relating that there is no dual language
education plan with a mission or vision plan.
Having no dual language education plan, coupled with a constant change of leadership,
can have a significant impact on student achievement and outcomes. Maestra Santana pointed
out that the only consistency in their program was within the teachers, “. . .our district support
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 76
keeps changing. So, the consistency in our program is really within the teachers that are here.”
Studies that focus on effective schools have shown consistently and conclusively that high-
quality programs have a cohesive, school-wide, shared vision; a set of goals that establish their
expectations for achievement; an instructional focus and commitment to achievement; and high
expectations that are shared by students, parents, teachers, and administrators (Berman,
Minicucci, McLaughlin, Nelson, & Woodworth, 1995; Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011;
Corallo & McDonald, 2002; Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2006; Lindholm-
Leary & Genesee, 2010; Marzano, 2003; Parrish et al., 2006; Slavin & Calderón, 2001). As
previously mentioned, the dual language program at Diamond Valley Elementary is on its’ fourth
year of implementation with no blueprint or road map, solely relying on the expertise of las
maestras. Studies on dual language education have demonstrated the need for a clear
commitment to a vision, and goals focused on bilingualism, biliteracy, and sociocultural
competence that is advocated both by dual language education teachers and administrators
(Berman et al., 1995; de Jong, 2011; Genesee et al., 2006; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Lindholm-
Leary & Genesee, 2010; Montecel & Cortez, 2002). Another research finding is that the higher
the quality of implementation of the dual language education model, the stronger the results of
dual language over English-only instruction for English learners (Genesee et al., 2006; National
Academies, 2017). Therefore, the implementation of a dual language education model founded
on a specific vision and with the goals of bilingualism, biliteracy, and sociocultural competency
will have a greater impact on the academic achievement of second language learners. It is of
high priority that dual language programs have a vision or mission statement with clear stated
goals in order to create a comprehensible blue print that guides the approach to learning. The
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 77
background of las maestras enhances content learning, language acquisition, and language
learning by their interactions with their students and families.
Approach to Learning
Another theme that surfaced were the practices and strategies perceived to be effective by
las maestras in delivering content learning, language acquisition, and language learning in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom. The following discussion presents the data
collected in the interviews for the purpose of discussing the teaching practices and strategies
used to deliver instruction in the D.I. classroom. Quality instruction and teaching combines
various practices and strategies in order to deliver a higher level of developing and learning a
second language. The evidence from the interviews demonstrated the different teaching practices
and strategies implemented by bilingual teachers in their dual language immersion classrooms
and influenced by their community cultural capital.
When asked what their approach to learning was, in their Spanish-English dual language
immersion classrooms, las maestras answered small groups, whole group interactions, the use of
visuals like realia, lessons on vocabulary, explicit teaching on the differences between English
and Spanish, making connections to cognates, and collaborative learning. Maestra Rojas shared
that her approach to learning included the following:
We do small group. Everything pretty much starts, our whole group presentations and
then depending on what the kids are getting and what they're not getting that afterwards, I
may have to revisit in a small group setting. But pretty much, like I already said, it's a
lot of repetition. A lot of visuals bring in a lot of realia, bringing in that whole TPR
(Total Physical Response) getting the kids up and moving and interacting with
the vocabulary (Interview, Jan. 10, 2018).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 78
The learning cycle starts with real-world or realistic experiences; therefore, realia
provides background knowledge for students to engage in the learning process (Hansen, 2006).
Maestra Rojas shared that she incorporates realia and visuals for students to engage in TPR and
interact with the vocabulary. Maestra Rojas engages her D.I. students by exciting them about the
concepts and motivating them to learn (Hansen, 2006).
Hansen (2006) pointed out that multiple avenues of communication, such as drawing
pictures and discussing content allow students to express themselves in multiple ways. Maestra
Santana said she uses many visuals and pictures when her students are learning vocabulary
(Interview, Dec. 1, 2017). Maestra Santana provides opportunities for students to communicate
their learning and make connections to content and vocabulary.
Maestra Marisol explained that when she reads a story she wants her students to make
connections by activating their prior knowledge. She also likes to use hand gestures and make
sure to pronounce words correctly and slowly (Interview, Dec.11, 2017). Using hand gestures
and speaking clearly and at slower pace are strategies employed in specially designed academic
instruction in English (SDAIE). SDAIE strategies help second language learners access content
while they are learning a second language (Hansen, 2006). SDAIE strategies include speaking
clearly and at a slower pace, using gestures and facial expressions, using concrete materials and
visuals, and using student-centered activities (Krashen, 1994).
Another effective teaching practice and strategy is cooperative and collaborative learning.
Cooperative and collaborative learning allows English and Spanish language learners to work
alongside each other (Hansen, 2006). Cooperative groups work collaboratively to use their own
words to describe concepts they are learning and to tap into students’ expertise and strengths
such as drawing, writing, leadership, organization, etc. (Hansen, 2006). Collaborative learning
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 79
provides a way of dealing with, respecting, and highlighting individual group members’ abilities
and contributions (Panitz, 1999). Maestra Alba recounted her approach to learning as follows:
I mean we do whole group. We do small group. I do pair share. My teaching style is
more of a collaboration. So, we do a lot of collaborative conversations because they are
learning a second language. I can give you an example for a vocabulary lesson, when I'm
going to present a story, I go home, and I create my PowerPoints. I give them a sentence
and an example from the book and I put a picture. Then I post the question and I put the
sentence frame (Interview, Dec. 4, 2017).
It is evident that las maestras are using highly effective teaching practices and strategies
that were mentioned in the study by Lindholm-Leary (2018). Studies suggest that several
instructional strategies are necessary for students to become fully proficient in a second language
(Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). The following are practices and strategies were identified as
highly effective in the development and learning of a second language (Lindholm-Leary, et al.
2018):
• Slower, more expanded, simplified, and repetitive speech oriented to the here and
now.
• Highly contextualized language and gestures.
• Comprehension and confirmation checks.
• Communication that provides scaffolding for the negotiation of meaning by
constraining possible interpretations of sequence, role, and intent.
• Using visual aids such as pictures, charts, graphs, and semantic mapping.
• Modeling instruction, allowing students to negotiate meaning and make
connections between course content and prior knowledge.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 80
• Allowing students to act as mediators and facilitators.
• Using alternative assessments, such as portfolios, to check comprehension.
• Providing comprehensible speech, scaffolding, and supplemental materials.
• Using a wide range of presentation strategies.
Hansen (2006) prefaced her study by stating that what is good for English learning
students is good for all students; but stated that English language learners have special needs that
need to be met with identified strategies targeting language to make content learning
understandable. In the case of dual language immersion, teaching practices and strategies need
to address the special needs of all learners since they are all second language learners. Las
maestras made connections between the needs of their second language learners and the practices
and strategies that helped them acquire a new language. Las maestras accessed their linguistic
capital to understand how all second language learners overcome challenges in acquiring a
second language.
Approach to content learning. Based on the interviews conducted, the bilingual
teachers at Diamond Elementary School understand the importance of language in content
learning and implementing highly effective teaching practices and strategies in their DI
classrooms. Content learning is an approach in language education designed to provide second
language learners with instruction in content and language (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989).
There is a movement within language education to increase the integration of language and
content instruction because the importance of language in content instruction is evident (Coyle &
Baetens-Beardsmore, 2007; Dalton-Pu er, 2011; Fortune, Tedick, & Walker, 2008; Heritage et
al., 2015; Lyster, 2007; Valdés et al., 2015).
The following are teaching practices and strategies used in content learning lessons by
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 81
the bilingual teachers at Diamond Elementary School. Maestra Rojas, said that to deliver content
learning you need to bring in prior knowledge and build upon it with realia, videos, visuals, use
of sentence frames, and front load and pre-teach vocabulary,
. . . you need to bring in that prior knowledge. Build upon it you know. Bringing the
realia, bring in the little videos, bring in the little visuals or whatever you've created. We
have to so that they understand the vocabulary they're going to use, the language they're
going to be using, the sentence frames and then learn the actual content standards.”
(Interview, 01/10/2018)
Maestra Marisol also stated that in delivering content learning she activates her students’
prior knowledge. For instance, when she is reading a story she has her students make
connections to cognates so that they become aware of the content in the story to bring out some
of their prior knowledge (Interview, 12/11/2018). It is evident from this data that activating prior
knowledge in delivering content learning is highly effective for second language learners.
The following are teaching content learning lessons provided by the bilingual teachers at
Diamond Elementary School. Maestra Luna shared an animal lesson where she employed the
strategy of making connections to real-life experiences to deliver content learning:
So, when we do a lesson, I always like to have students think about or have them make a
connection to a real experience they have had. We did something on animals. So, have
you had a pet? Who has a pet? Have you ever had a pet? Do you know someone who
has had a pet? How do you take care of it? You know what's important? So, kind of
walking them through baby steps of the whole process of what's an animal. How do you
care for it? Why is it important? How are they important to the earth? I mean what
benefits do they give us (Interview, 11/27/2017)?
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 82
In this lesson activating prior knowledge via real-life experiences engaged students in content
learning. Maestra Rosas described her approach to content learning in the following lesson:
Maybe like an ELD (English Language Development) lesson where I usually for example
see we're doing the water cycle. I use the audio, like I use thunder sounds and they're like
oh wow I heard that before! So, kind of building their prior knowledge of what I'm going
to be teaching. Then I'm going into the actual process of the water cycle using pictures
and vocabulary. Just getting their information of what they know about the rain and then
go through the process. I also like to show videos on the water cycle and do songs and
chants, so they can learn the water cycle (Interview, 11/29/2017).
This lesson incorporated students making connections to prior knowledge to build on their
knowledge. Both lessons provided second language learners SDAIE strategies to access content
learning in multiple ways (Hansen, 2006). From the lessons provided by las maestras, it can be
determined that they value activating the prior knowledge of their students to engage in a higher
level of learning; thus, creating a connection between their learning and being part of a
community of second language learners. Las maestras guide their culturally and linguistically
diverse students in accessing their navigational capital by building their background knowledge
and also social skills that allow them to move through the schooling process.
Approach to language acquisition. The research data generated from the interviews
illustrated the bilingual teachers’ approach to language acquisition in their dual language
immersion classrooms. Language acquisition is how children acquire language through a
subconscious process; they are unaware of grammatical rules (Haynes, 2005). Las maestras
provided lessons to the researcher that displayed how students were given opportunities to
practice communicating with each other to acquire a second language.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 83
The following lessons are focused on language acquisition as a means to communicate
with others and not on the form of language. Maestra Rojas explained a lesson on prepositions.
She introduced the lesson with a PowerPoint presentation which and showed the students the
object of the lesson. Maestra Rojas said that there was verbal repetition as well as kinesthetic
movement involved:
They'll have a little stuffed animal. We pretend by moving the little stuff animal down.
Ok now we're going to put that little stuff animal, “Arriba de su cabeza” so they would
put it on top of their head. Ok “adelante de su cabeza, ahora esta a su lado”, and so
they have to physically move the little stuff animal. It is very kinesthetic as well as
auditory and visual. They say that the more of the senses we use, we know that the more
they're going to internalize.
To conclude the lesson students described to their partners what they learned using the
vocabulary in the lesson. The conclusion of the lesson is powerful because students get to
communicate their learning. Maestra Cordova shared a third-grade math lesson that allows
students to communicate their knowledge and acquire language. Maestra explained her math
lesson:
So, I model using manipulatives for math. They do the manipulatives and whiteboards.
They do notes and during that whole time I'm just choosing students to answer. And then
after we finish our notes, I tell them to get in their math groups. When they get in their
math groups, they work collaboratively together to figure out the solution to each
problem.
In this math lesson students were given the opportunity to work collaboratively in groups and
communicate their learning.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 84
Maestra Rosas also shared that she uses collaborative conversations and repetition in her
D.I. classroom, “Like I told you, we do a lot of collaborative conversations, so a lot of repeating
to modeling. I have to model for them and train them what my expectations are so that they can
go ahead and speak to each other the way I want them to be answering the questions.” The
interviews provided insight into the lessons which focused on language acquisition and how
students engaged with each other to communicate their learning by naturally speaking to each
other without worrying about grammatical rules. Haynes (2005) stated, “Young students who
are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of “on the job” practice.” But this can also be
said about acquiring any other language as presented in the research interviews. Through the use
of collaborative conversations las maestras are accessing social capital where students are
learning to create networks with peers and use their community resources to communicate their
learning.
Approach to language learning. The research interviews demonstrated how bilingual
teachers delivered language learning in their dual language immersion classrooms. Unlike
language acquisition, language learning is not communicative and is the result of direct
instruction in the rules of language (Haynes, 2005). However, some research has argued that
knowing grammar rules does not always translate to speaking well or to elevated writing skills
and may only aid a student when they are taking a standardized test (Haynes, 2005). Las
maestras provided lessons to the researcher during the interviews that showed how direct
instruction and language learning is delivered to D.I. students.
The following lessons emphasize language learning and how it is delivered to D.I.
students. In this study, Maestra Rojas had the most awareness of the importance of teaching and
developing language through explicit instruction. Maestra Rojas received a master’s degree in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 85
Spanish and studied the language extensively. Maestra Rojas expressed that the differences in
both languages need to be explicitly taught:
I think it's very important also, since language is the key that we keep in mind as
bilingual teachers that we have to explicitly teach, also the differences between the
languages. So, for example, the grammar is very important. You know for example,
when you're teaching plural words, plural rules are different in English and Spanish. For
example, given the capitalization of the days of the week, months of the year in English
they're mandatory in Spanish they are lowercase and accents. You know accents have to
be explicitly taught; that is something that does not exist in English, but we have it in
Spanish. Contractions in Spanish we don't have, but there are contractions in English.
So, a lot of the grammar components and semantics have to be explicitly taught for the
kids (Interview, 01/10/2018).
According to Lindholm-Leary et al. (2018) instruction needs to explicitly teach forms of
linguistic complexity, such as vocabulary, syntax, morphology, functions, and conventions.
However, there has been a debate about the importance of explicit second language instruction in
the process of second language learning (Larsen-Freeman & Tedick, 2016; Lyster, 2007). This
debate is due in part because immersion programs were grounded in the natural approach, which
leads to incorrect assumptions that students will learn the language through its use in subject
matter instruction, and that students will achieve more native-like proficiency (Lindholm-Leary
et al., 2018).
In recent years, research and pedagogy in second language development have
significantly changed in how issues of the importance and complexity of language learning and
teaching during content instruction are viewed (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). In the research
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 86
interview data, las maestras shared the various teaching practices and strategies they have
implemented in their D.I. classrooms to address the needs and levels of each student. Las
maestras mentioned SDAIE strategies, cooperative grouping, collaborative learning, and pair
share; however, in language learning as Maestra Rojas pointed out it must be explicitly taught for
second language learners to understand the concepts of language. Maestra Luna indicated that
language learning happens as a whole group;
Everything is whole group. When I meet with my guided reading groups, then I go back,
and I reteach anything that I see that they need. For example, accents or subject predicate
verbs; anything like that, nouns to parts of speech. But it's initially taught whole group.
(Interview, 11/27/2010)
Maestra Luna used various teaching practices and strategies, such as whole group, small
group, and guided reading, to deliver language learning. However, new research demonstrated
that students do not develop high levels of academic proficiency from only applying different
approaches (Ballinger, 2013; Lyster, 2007; Swain & Lapkin, 2013). Research shows that it takes
five to seven years, or even longer to become academically proficient in a second language
Hakuta, 2011; Hill, Weston, & Hayes, 2014; Hopkins, Thompson, Linquanti, August, & Hakuta,
2015; National Academies, 2017; Thompson, 2015). This data suggested that several
instructional strategies are necessary for students to become fully proficient in a second language
(Lindholm-Leary, et al. 2018). Las maestras employed several instructional strategies to provide
their second language learners with learning opportunities. As second language learners, las
maestras understood the importance of using a multitude of instructional practices and strategies
to provide learning opportunities to their dual language students. Las maestras’ bilingual cultural
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 87
background plays a role in how they perceive instructional practices and strategies to be effective
in their dual language classroom.
Discussion Research Question One
The bilingual teachers in this research study shared similar perceived challenges and
notions of their role as bilingual teachers in dual language immersion classrooms. They related
that their role was to facilitate their students’ growth in both English and Spanish, and to be role
models. They also mentioned the three pillars of dual language (Medina, 2017) for an effective
dual language program. When discussing different approaches to learning such as content
learning, language acquisition, and language learning, las maestras spoke of incorporating
various teaching practices and strategies for their students to have access to learning and
opportunities as second language learners. The teaching practices and strategies used were
SDAIE strategies, cooperative grouping, collaborative learning, whole and small group
instruction, and guided reading for explicit instruction (Hanson, 2006; Lindholm-Leary et al.,
2018).
The table below highlighted the various teaching practices and strategies utilized by las
maestras in their dual language immersion classrooms to deliver their approach to learning,
content learning, language acquisition, and language learning. These teaching practices and
strategies were shared in the research interviews.
Table 4.2
Teaching Practices and Strategies
Research-
Based Effective
Teaching
Practices and
Strategies
Description Participant
Data
Connection to
Community
Cultural
Capital
Framework
Research
Connection
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 88
Collaborative
Learning/
Collaborative
Conversations
Collaborative learning
is a personal
philosophy, not just a
classroom technique. In
all situations where
people come together in
groups, it suggests a
way of dealing with,
respecting, and
highlighting individual
group members’
abilities and
contributions.

Maestra Rosas
implements
collaborative
conversations
which allows
her students to
practice using
the language
and to use each
other as a
support in
learning a
second
language.
Linguistic
Capital:
Intellectual and
social skills
acquired
through
communication
experiences in
different
languages.
Johnson &
Johnson,
2009; Panitz,
1999.
Cooperative
Learning/
Cooperative
Grouping
Cooperative learning
strategies have been
developed that appear
to optimize student
interactions and shared
work experiences.
Children work together
in heterogeneous
groups to explore the
content
introduced. Students
use their own words to
describe the concepts
they are learning.
Maestra
Cordova had
her students
work in groups
during math to
figure out
solutions to
problems.
Students
communicate
their learning
with the other
members of the
group as they
partake in a
community of
learners.
Social Capital:
Access to
networks and
community
resources.
Students
become a
fountain of
resources to
other students.
Cohen, 1998;
Johnson &
Johnson,
2009;
Hanson,
2006; Kagan,
1994.
Explicit
Instruction
Instruction needs to
explicitly teach forms
of linguistic complexity
(e.g., vocabulary,
syntax, morphology,
functions, conventions).
Maestra Rojas
believes that the
differences in
both languages
need to be
explicitly
taught. For
instance, the
capitalization of
the days of the
week and
Navigational
Capital:
Learning cross-
cultural code-
switching to be
able to
distinguish
differences and
make adequate
adaptations.
Larsen-
Freeman &
Tedick,
2016;
Lindholm-
Leary,
Rogers,
Olague,
Medina,
Kennedy,
Sugarman, &
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 89
months of the
year, in English
are mandatory
in Spanish, they
are lowercase
and accents.
Christian,
2018; Lyster,
2007.
Multiple
Avenues of
Communication
Students draw pictures
and write words or
short phrases to
illustrate their learning;
allow students to use
multiple ways to
express themselves.
Maestra
Santana uses
pictures when
her students are
learning
vocabulary.
Resistant
Capital:
Knowledge and
skills that
challenge
inequality.
Students are
equipped to
express their
own learning in
multiple ways
that challenge
the status quo.
Hanson,
2006.
SDAIE
Strategies
These strategies
incorporate speaking
clearly and at a slower
rate, using gestures and
facial expressions,
using concrete
materials and visuals,
avoiding idiomatic
expressions, and using
student-centered
activities.
Maestra
Marisol uses
hand gestures,
pronounces
words correctly
and slowly, and
has her students
make
connections by
activating their
prior
knowledge.
Familial
Capital: Value
the cultural
knowledge and
intuition of
students in the
dual language
classroom.
Hanson,
2006;
Krashen,
1994.

Table 4.2 displays the various teaching practices and strategies implemented by las
maestras in their dual language immersion classrooms. All las maestras reported using the
teaching practices and strategies in the table to develop second language proficiency. Their
lessons displayed the various employment of teaching practices and strategies to optimize
student learning in their dual language immersion classrooms. These research-based practices
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 90
and strategies were enhanced by las maestras’ cultural backgrounds. For instance, collaborative
learning and the use of collaborative conversations allow students to acquire intellectual and
social skills through their communication experiences in different languages. Las maestras,
being second language learners themselves, recognize the importance of having their students
practice using the language with each other. Las maestras implemented cooperative grouping
which has students describe their learning in their own words and use each other as community
resources. Las maestras value the significance of students creating a community of learners that
use each other as resources, as they forge social networks to expand their own social capital. Las
maestras’ community cultural capital informs the practices and strategies they implement to
impact learning opportunities and student outcomes in their dual language classrooms.
Findings for Research Question Two: Perceived Impact on Approach to Learning and
Language Acquisition
The second research question involves las maestras’ perceived impact of their approach
to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their
Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms. As indicated in Chapter Two, community
cultural capital explains how the cultural background of bilingual teachers plays a critical role in
delivering an effective curriculum that values the cultural and linguistic diversity of their
students (Yosso, 2005). Therefore, it is important to examine how dual language immersion
instruction is impacted by the bilingual teachers’ community cultural capital. As a result, the
following part of this chapter will focus on the maestra’s perceived impact of their approach to
learning and language acquisition by examining the instructional pedagogies, and cultural and
linguistic pedagogies, being implemented into the curriculum. Professional development was
another theme that surfaced in the second research questions. Las maestras all mentioned the
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 91
professional development they received as part of teaching in a dual language immersion
program, and which part of the professional development that they found useful in the classroom.
The first research question focused on the various teaching practices and strategies that
las maestras utilized with their second language learners to provide learning access and
opportunities. This research question encapsulated las maestras’ perceived impact of their
approach to learning, and language acquisition by gathering data from interviews. The data
depicted below encompasses how instruction is impacted by las maestras’ community cultural
capital.
Student-Teacher Interaction
The first theme is instructional pedagogies. Instructional pedagogies refer to how
teachers and students interact in the learning environment including the instructional approaches
implemented in the classroom (Murphy, 2008). Since instructional pedagogies deal with the
interaction of teachers and students, it is critical that the learning environment is perceived as a
safe place where learning takes place. Studies on good instruction show that positive teacher-
student interaction in learner-centered environments are highly important (Cornelius-White,
2007; O’Day, 2009; Reznitskaya, 2012). Maestra Alba shared how she creates a safe
environment for her students:
And so, I always tell them that it's OK to make mistakes. And so just making it a safe
environment. I think a safe environment is huge because if they don't feel safe then
they're not going to participate. I also have the counselor come in and teach some of
those lessons for being a good listener or being kind to each other, anti-bullying. I
think the mental health is very important because if they don't have that, everything else
doesn't come along (Interview, 12/04/17).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 92
As Maestra Alba specified, if students do not feel safe, learning will not follow. In
positive teacher-student environments, teachers facilitate learning rather than control student
learning, which leads to the development of higher level cognitive skills (Cornelius-White, 2007;
Klingelhofer & Schleppegrell, 2016; O’Day, 2009; Reznitskaya, 2012). It is evident from the
interview that Maestra Alba strives to create a nurturing, positive, and safe environment for her
DI students to engage and interact, not only with her, but also with other staff members like the
counselor who reinforces a positive and safe learning environment. When teachers create
equitable, positive, social, and instructional interactions for all students, everyone performs
better academically (Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, & Tharp, 2003). These positive interactions
between teachers and students encourage a student-centered model to provide equitable
academic access to all second language learners.
Immersion and bilingual approaches were developed based on the idea that students
would learn language through exposure to the language during meaningful interactions and
content instruction (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). Rueda (2005) raised the following question:
What is the social organization of learning settings and features of significance to the social
context in students’ lives, including materials, activities, and people? This question can be
applied to las maestras’ perceived impact of their approach to learning in the sociocultural
context of learning and access, and the quality of instruction for their culturally and linguistically
diverse students. Maestra Alba related that as a second language learner herself, she understood
her students. Maestra Alba thinks about how she needs to present her materials and activities to
her students, “I think…when I was learning English, I didn't understand this, so I have to present
it this way. So, having to use a lot of visuals in the translations, the cognates, the hands on, the
gestures, the collaborative conversations to practice the language and making them feel
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 93
comfortable.” Maestra Alba purposely organized her activities, her learning environment, and
interactions to provide access and quality instruction to her culturally and linguistically diverse
students.
During the research interviews las maestras disclosed how they scaffold to meet the
individual needs of their students. The ability to scaffold tasks implies that teachers are
conscious of individual students’ different needs (Murphy, 2008). The first common theme that
surfaced when answering research question two, was the use of specially designed academic
instruction in English (SDAIE) strategies in their dual language immersion classroom. SDAIE
strategies include speaking clearly and at a slower rate, using gestures and facial expressions,
using concrete materials and visuals, avoiding idiomatic expressions, and using student-centered
activities Krashen, 1994; Haynes, 2005). Las maestras were asked which pedagogies they
perceived to be the most effective in their D.I. classroom? Below are the accounts of how las
maestras answered when asked research question two.
Maestra Marisol stated that she used realia for students to make a connection to activate
their knowledge, “I use a lot of realia. I know that has to do with SDAIE. So, whatever it is that
needs to be done for kids to make that connection. I'm trying to activate their knowledge.”
Maestra Santana also mentioned using SDAIE strategies for her second language learners,
“So, when I think of my classroom, I really see it as just a whole class of language learners. So,
the biggest would be SDAIE strategies. All of those when we're looking at visuals, when we're
looking at using the visual representations for the language and having the kids talk and having
the kids share.” Similarly, Maestra Luna expressed how she also used SDAIE strategies to have
her students make connections to learning, “I use a lot of different strategies like SDAIE. Lots of
acting, lots of TPR (total physical response), lots of repeating, lots of chants and songs, a lot of
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 94
talking, and talk to partners. Having kids make a connection to why we are learning this.”
Maestra Rosas, likewise related how she implemented SDAIE strategies in her DI classroom,
“I am a fan of second language you know. So ELD (English language development) has been
my passion for ever. So, I do use a lot of SDAIE strategies. I use a lot of TPR. I think a lot of
visuals. I'm a visual person so I like to see things and I think you know teaching the kids the
way I learn.” It is evident that las maestras understand their students because they themselves
were second language learners. Their cultural and linguistic background or community cultural
capital allow las maestras to make personal connections with their students’ individual needs to
produce long term success in the learning process. Lim and Renshaw (2001) claimed that the
key sociocultural concept regarding appropriation is ZPD, which highlights the way individuals
with greater cultural capital and membership in a specific community, can scaffold the
participation of new participants in social and cultural activities. Hence, scaffolding instruction
and activities, and implementing effective instructional pedagogies in dual language immersion
classrooms are central to the success of all second language learners.
Instructional pedagogies implemented in dual language immersion classrooms need not
only be purposeful, but also provide scaffolding for students to thrive in the learning process and
make academic gains. In Chapter Two, I discussed Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory: information
processing can be facilitated by supporting individuals in the learning process by scaffolding
(Yazdanpanah and Khanmohammad, 2014). Scaffolding is a strategy put in place to provide
extra support until the individual has obtained mastery of or success in the specific task. The
teachers’ role as facilitators in the learning process is emphasized in the concept of the zone of
proximal development (ZPD), which is at the core of scaffolding (Yazdanpanah and
Khanmohammad, 2014). The zone of proximal development is defined as the distance between
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 95
the actual development level that is determined by independent problem solving, and the level of
potential development influenced by problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with qualified peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Las maestras’ cultural and linguistic background or
community cultural capital allow them to build personal connections with their students. These
meaningful interactions between students and teachers are at the core of an effective dual
language program. Las maestras can have a direct impact not only on content instruction and
curriculum but also on learning opportunities and student outcomes.
Cultural and Linguistic Pedagogies

The second theme that was prevalent in research question two was the role of cultural and
linguistic pedagogies in empowering culturally and linguistically diverse students in dual
language immersion education. As presented in Chapter Two, cultural relevant practices
empower students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by utilizing cultural
meaning to communicate knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally
responsive teaching is defined as utilizing the cultural characteristics, experiences, and
perspectives of ethnically diverse students as an instrument for teaching students more
effectively (Herrera, 2010). This theme explored how las maestras developed cultural and
linguistic knowledge in their second language learners through cultural and linguistic
pedagogies.
Next are the findings to the following questions: Can you describe what cultural and
linguistic pedagogies you incorporate into your instruction? Describe what cultural aspects and
practices you include in your curriculum? Las maestras recounted how they incorporated
cultural and linguistic pedagogies in their dual language immersion program. Maestra Marisol
shared that even though they are learning about Christmas around the world, she has a Jewish
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 96
student and he is learning about Hanukkah as well, “. . . I don't just concentrate on Christmas
because I do have a student that's Jewish.” Providing students with the opportunity to compare
and contrast holidays builds sociocultural competence. As presented in the three pillars of dual
language, it is the goal of sociocultural competence for students to be able to see the similarities
and differences in one another (Feinauer & Howard, 2014; Medina, 2017). Learning about other
cultures, languages, and religious practicescreate well-rounded students who gain a positive
insight about others and themselves. Curriculum should provide multiple opportunities for
students to develop positive attitudes about themselves and others, and to develop cultural
knowledge and a sense of theirs and other’s identities, ethnic, linguistic, and culture free of
stereotypes (Lindholm-Leary, et al. 2018).
Las maestras shared the cultural and linguistic pedagogies that they implemented in their
dual language immersion classrooms to develop cultural and linguistic knowledge in their
students. During the interview process, it was observable that students had learned about El Día
de los Muertos (Day of the Dead). Many of the classrooms displayed student work illustrating
the holiday. El Día de los Muertos is a holiday that honors both life and death which happens to
coincide with the Catholic holidays of All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day. El Día de los Muertos
takes place on November 1 and 2. The following is a cultural and historical account of the
celebration of El Día de los Muertos:
In pre-Columbian culture, the Mexica people believed that their deceased loved ones
would return once a year to gather with the living. The children would return first, on
Nov. 1, and the adults would come the following day. Centuries later, throngs of
villagers throughout Mexico, Ecuador, Guatemala, and the United States still observe this
other-worldly union by creating elaborate altars in their homes, decorating their loved
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 97
ones' graves and spending the evening among both the living and the dead in cemeteries
(Allen, 2004).
However, El Día de los Muertos can also be viewed as controversial due to its origin. As stated,
it is a pre-Columbian tradition that is pagan in nature and is intertwined with Catholicism.
Currently, our educational institutions are required and encouraged to stay away from anything
that seems to impose religious views on students. Therefore, las maestras need to carefully
expose their culturally and linguistically diverse students to El Día de los Muertos.
The decision to expose students to El Día de los Muertos is also influenced by las
maestras’ cultural and personal background. Maestra Lara, shared that she was raised Jehovah
Witness and therefore, did not grow up celebrating any of the holidays associated with
Catholicism. Her personal background allows Maestra Lara to make a connection with her
Jehovah Witness students, “. . . I have a lot of students who you know, they are Jehovah Witness.
When it comes to things like that I don't go into that. But we do other areas like for example,
Christmas. But learning about how different cultures celebrate Christmas. Maestra Lara was the
only maestra that did not engage in exposing her students to El Día de los Muertos. Maestra
Cordova related that she usually sets up an altar but this year she opted to only decorate the
classroom because she had students that lost parents, “Usually I have an altar but this year I had
two students who lost one of their parents. So, if I do an altar it might trigger something. I just
put decorations up.” As for the other maestras, they did expose their students to El Día de los
Muertos but also provided an optional project if they wished not to partake in learning about the
holiday. Maestra Luna said she gave an optional assignment to students that did not want to
make an altar con ofrendas (altar with offerings) as part of learning about El Día de los Muertos:
We try to incorporate as much as possible the different cultures and holidays celebrated
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 98
you know worldwide. Recently, students had El Día de los Muertos assignment. They
had to create an ofrenda for a loved one. And so, they got to know that person a lot more
than they previously had. Like for example, a grandparent that had passed and some
chose a pet. Some students that didn't want to do it there was an alternative
assignment. They did a family tree instead. But still they all learned more about their
family and their family history (Interview, 11/27/2017).
From the evidence provided it is clear that las maestras’ cultural and personal background can
influence how they apply cultural and linguistic pedagogies in their dual language immersion
classrooms.
As discussed previously, the third pillar of dual language is to build sociocultural
competence. The objective of dual language immersion programs should not only build
sociocultural competency but also make students feel valued and help them come to the belief
that they have things to contribute. The vision and goals of dual language programs include
sociocultural competence and equity, and the curriculum needs to show and esteem students’
languages and cultures (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018; Sleeter, 2016). From the data collected in
the interviews las Maestras promoted multiculturalism, linguistic diversity, and equity. Maestra
Aja related how in kindergarten they encourage multiculturalism, linguistic diversity, and equity:
We try to bring in as much cultural stuff as possible because we want them to be very
multicultural. And want to validate the importance of the holidays that are celebrated in
the Spanish speaking countries. So, we do a lot of dancing and singing in kindergarten,
La Raspa and stuff for the Cinco de Mayo dances. The kids start practicing so a lot of
singing and dancing (Interview, 01/10/2018).
Besides exposing students to holidays celebrated throughout Spanish speaking countries, they
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 99
also learn about historical figures and individuals that have made social contributions such as,
Cesar Chavez and Frida Kahlo. Maestra Santana connects writing with the cultural component
to maximize student learning:
We write about Frida Kahlo. We write about Cesar Chavez. So, when it becomes to his
birthday time we start learning about Cesar Chavez and same thing we will do a writing.
We'll learn all about him and culminate with an art activity. I also try to incorporate not
just Mexican artists.
Maestra Alba also implemented cultural and linguistic pedagogies to promote
multiculturalism, linguistic diversity, and equity:
I teach like Cesar Chavez, Martin king, Veterans Day. Whenever there's a holiday, I use
that and translate whatever I have in English to Spanish so that they know the history of
not just Latin America but also the United States.
Through the interview findings it was apparent that las maestras were committed to
implementing cultural and linguistic pedagogies in their dual language immersion classrooms. It
was evident that las maestras’ cultural and personal backgrounds can influence how they apply
cultural and linguistic pedagogies in their dual language immersion classroom. Las maestras
personal experiences and stories contribute to the development of cultural knowledge and the
sense of identity in their culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Professional Development
The last theme is professional development. As discussed in Chapter Two, professional
development is a requirement for effective dual language immersion instruction. In order to
implement effective instruction that promotes language and literacy in dual language students,
teachers need to be given ongoing support in order to implement standards, assure that teachers
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 100
utilize strategies that encourage a child’s learning of the language in the classroom and use
students’ primary language to support instruction (Castro, Paez, Dickinson, and Frede, 2011).
This theme examined the professional development that bilingual teachers received as part of
teaching in a dual language immersion program and what professional development they found
to be useful in the classroom.
Las maestras were asked what type of professional development they had received for
teaching in a dual language immersion program, and they were asked to name the type of
professional development that they felt was useful in the classroom. Las maestras felt that some
of the professional development was very useful in their dual language immersion program and
that their district needs to support their request for specific professional development that focuses
on dual language education. Maestra Aja explained that they have been asking for explicit
professional development for dual language education, “So we have like explicitly asked and
sought out dual immersion PD because it's so important and relevant.” For programs to be
effective they need to align with the professional development needs of educators and the goals
and strategies of the instructional program (Ballantyne et al., 2008; Corallo & McDonald, 2002).
Professional development is essential for teacher support and to equip them with effective
teaching strategies.
Las maestras mentioned ATLE and CABE as their professional development geared
towards dual language education. ATLE stands for Academy for Teaching and Learning
Excellence. ATLE provides interconnected workshops that focus on teaching techniques and
strategies, reflection, renewal, and exposure to other ideas on teaching and learning. ATLE also
allows teachers to discuss and exchange teaching stories and best practices. The California
Association for Bilingual Education (CABE) is a non-profit organization that was established in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 101
1976. The purpose of CABE is to promote bilingual education, equity, quality educational
experiences for all students in California, and student achievement for students with diverse
cultural, racial, and linguistic backgrounds. Las maestras attended these two conferences during
their first year in dual language education and consequently go every year. Las maestras shared
that they also get district professional development, but it is not specific to their dual language
immersion program. However, las maestras hope that soon their district will be providing
professional development that targets their needs as bilingual teachers in dual language
education. Maestra Santana pointed out that they are trying to get professional development that
differs from English Only (EO), “But they're trying to bring more focused district trainings to us
DI not having us sit through trainings for the EO teachers but having them more directed towards
our curriculum in what we're actually using in our classroom.” Having focused PD on the goals
of the dual language program and the needs of bilingual teachers impacts student achievement
and outcomes.
Las maestras spoke about the professional development that they perceived to be useful
in their classrooms. Maestra Marisol found the professional development on close reading useful
and something she can use with her second language learners, “Well, right now the professional
development is close reading. That's something that I could use in the classroom.” Maestra
Santana also found the professional development she got at CABE was useful in the classroom:
Different presentations depending on what you want to focus on. Writing and reading on
different things. I've been able to go every year and I just I feel like it does bring a lot I
do bring a lot of that back to my classroom.
Maestra Cordova thought the professional development on thinking maps (organizational tools
for writing) was useful in her classroom, “I use that stuff that I learned there because I was never
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 102
taught thinking maps.” Professional development is most effective when it is supported and
embedded in the daily routines and practices of teachers (Coleman & Goldenberg, 2011; Dana,
2010). From the information provided by las maestras, it is evident that their professional
development is relevant to dual language education, but their district level PD needs to focus
more on the needs of their bilingual teachers. Another component of professional development
is equity. Bilingual teachers need to be trained in educational equity in order to become
knowledgeable of biases and not perpetuate them in the dual language classrooms. Maestra
Marisol related how a presenter said something that resonated with her at the ATLE professional
development conference:
This past summer we had an opportunity to go to ATLE in Palm Springs. Dr. Medina oh
my god, I loved his presentation. Jose Medina, he's the director of linguistics for the
Inland Empire and just amazing. The kind of things that he said like you know if you
have a dual immersion program he says everybody should speak both languages. He
said, why is it that when you speak more than one language you're considered like
inferior? But if you speak one language then you're American and that's ok because you
are being patriotic.
The experience that Maestra Marisol shared is powerful because it demonstrated how this
particular professional development made her conscious about how English language learners
are viewed, and how multilingual education is not valued. Equity is at the center of social justice
in dual language education and the classroom; how dual language teachers determine the
sociolinguistic and sociocultural goals for students is based on it (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018).
Professional development obviously needs to be on more than just literacy, reading, and writing.
Equity and sociocultural competency need to be at the core of dual language education.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 103
Professional development needs to focus on the goals of the dual language program and the
needs of bilingual teachers to produce a greater impact on student achievement and positive
student outcomes. Professional development should interconnect effective teaching and learning
pedagogies to community cultural capital to create a positive learning environment for culturally
and linguistically diverse students.
Discussion Research Question Two
The main themes that surfaced in research question two were instructional pedagogies,
cultural and linguistic pedagogies, and profession development. Instructional pedagogies
involve the interaction of students and teachers; therefore, the pedagogies require that the
learning environment is perceived to be a safe place where learning takes place. Las maestras
reported that they knew the importance of creating a safe and positive learning environment in
order for their second language learners to succeed academically. Immersion and bilingual
models were developed based on the concept that students would learn language by being
exposed to another language during meaningful interactions and content instruction (Lindholm-
Leary et al., 2018). As for cultural and linguistic pedagogies, sociocultural competence, and
equity as well as, valuing students’ languages and cultures should be the goals and vision of dual
language education (Sleeter, 2016). Las maestras demonstrated their encouragement of
multiculturalism, linguistic diversity, and equity through their lessons and application of cultural
and linguistic pedagogies. From the interview data, it can be determined that las maestras are
getting professional development in core areas but more targeted PD to meet their needs is still in
the process of happening. Equity is another core component in dual language education that
needs to be developed through professional development. Equity professional development
ensures that teachers do not perpetuate the biases that exist outside the dual language classroom.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 104
The table below illustrates the different types of teaching pedagogies that las maestras
employed to impact learning opportunities and student outcomes of culturally and linguistically
diverse students. These teaching pedagogies were shared in the research interviews.
Table 4.3
Impact of Teaching Pedagogies on Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Teaching
Pedagogies:
Description Participant
Data
Connection to
Community
Cultural
Capital
Framework
Research
Connection
Positive
Teacher-
Student
Environment
Teachers facilitate
learning rather than
control student
learning which leads
to the development
of higher level
cognitive skills.
Maestra Alba
believes in
creating a safe
environment
where students
feel they can
participate, “I
also have the
counselor come
in and teach
some of those
lessons for
being a good
listener or being
kind to each
other, anti-
bullying. I
think the mental
health is very
important
because if they
don't have that,
everything else
doesn't come
along.”
Social Capital:
Build resources
and a sense of
community in a
nurturing
learning
environment
where students
feel comfortable
and safe.
Cornelius-White,
2007;
Klingelhofer &
Schleppegrell,
2016; O’Day,
2009;
Reznitskaya, 2012
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 105
Scaffolding Are strategies put in
place to provide
extra support until
the individual has
mastery or success
with the task. The
teachers’ role as
facilitators in the
learning process is
emphasized in the
concept of Zone of
Proximal
Development
(ZPD).
Maestra Rosas
said, “I think a
lot of visuals.
I'm a visual
person so I like
to see things
and I teach the
kids the way I
learn.”
Navigational
Capital:
Students receive
extra support
and guidance
from their
teacher, but they
must learn to
navigate
through the
schooling
process as they
reach mastery
with the task.
Vygotsky, 1978;
Yazdanpanah and
Khanmohammad,
2014.
Cultural and
Linguistic
Pedagogies
Cultural relevant
practices empower
students
intellectually,
socially,
emotionally, and
politically by
utilizing cultural
meaning to
communicate
knowledge, skills,
and attitudes.
Culturally
responsive teaching
is defined as
utilizing the cultural
characteristics,
experiences, and
perspectives of
ethnically diverse
students as an
instrument for
teaching students
more effectively.
Maestra Luna
shared that her
students had an
El Día de los
Muertos
assignment.
They had to
create an
‘ofrenda’ for a
loved one. For
students who
did not want to
do the project,
there was an
alternative
assignment.
They did a
family tree
instead. They
all learned more
about their
family and their
family history.
Aspirational
Capital: Using
cultural
experiences and
perspectives
where students
see others like
Cesar Chavez
and Frida Kahlo
that share either
their culture or
language.

Familial
Capital: Using
cultural
meaning to
instill a sense of
community
history.

Herrera, 2010;
Ladson-Billings,
1995;
Sociocultural
Competence
It is the goal of
sociocultural
competence for
students to be able
to see the
Maestra
Marisol shared
that her
students learned
about
Resistant
Capital:
knowledge and
skills that
challenge
Feinauer &
Howard, 2014;
Medina, 2017
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 106
similarities and
differences in one
another. It promotes
multiculturalism and
equity.
Christmas
around the
world, she also
has a Jewish
student who
learned about
Hanukkah, “. . .
I don't just
concentrate on
Christmas
because I do
have a student
that's Jewish.”
inequality.
Students build
sociocultural
competency by
seeing the
similarities and
differences in
various cultures
and individuals.

Table 4.3 displays the different types of teaching pedagogies that las maestras employed
to impact learning opportunities and student outcomes of culturally and linguistically diverse
students. All las maestras reported using the teaching pedagogies in the table to develop learning
opportunities and student outcomes of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Their
lessons displayed the various use of teaching pedagogies to promote higher levels of learning in
their dual language classroom. These teaching pedagogies are strengthened by las maestras
community cultural capital. By including El Día de los Muertos as part of the dual language
curriculum students’ cultural knowledge is being valued. Therefore, students will have a
positive learning experience and feel that their cultural knowledge is respected in the classroom.
Understanding the diversity among their students, teachers provided an alternative assignment,
creating a family tree, thus building sociocultural competency among students. It is a priority for
dual language programs to build sociocultural competency in students because it promotes equity
and multiculturalism.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 107
Results for Research Question Three: Community Cultural Capital
The study’s third research question is: What non-economic resources (capital including:
familial, social, linguistic, navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers
identify in their approach to learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual
language immersion classroom? This research question was answered by the six themes that
formulate community cultural capital. These six themes were aspirational, linguistic, familial,
social, navigational, and resistant which are components of community cultural capital as
discussed in Chapter Two. These six forms of capital allow individuals to view that
communities of color nurture cultural wealth (Yosso, 2005). The following is a brief description
of these six forms of capital that were studied through the data collected from the research
interviews:
1. Aspirational capital is the ability to conserve hopes and dreams for the future,
regardless of real challenges.
2. Linguistic capital is the intellectual and social skills obtained through
communication experiences in different languages or styles.
3. Familial capital is cultural knowledge, nurtured among family, that fosters a sense
of community history, memory, and cultural intuition.
4. Social capital consists of networks of people and community resources.
5. Navigational capital are the skills of navigating through social institutions.
6. Resistant capital is knowledge and skills generated through opposing behavior
that challenges inequality, (Yosso, 2005).
Community cultural capital was useful in explaining how las maestras successfully
responded to challenges and oppressive conditions that were often part of their experiences in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 108
predominantly white institutions (PWI) (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). Studies have shown that
teachers of color tend to view their role as agents of change, pursue teaching in communities of
color, and are more effective teachers of students of color (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016; Milner
& Howard, 2013). This can be attributed to community cultural capital which allows them to
interact as members of the community in which they teach. This can also be applied to bilingual
teachers that become effective teachers by not possessing only community cultural capital but
also epistemic privilege. Epistemic privilege is the theory that pertains to knowledge acquired
through oppression as a privilege (Southard, 2014). This section analyzes how community
cultural capital influences las maestras’ approach to learning and language acquisition in their
dual language immersion classrooms.
Aspirational Capital
As previously mentioned, aspirational capital is the ability to conserve hopes and dreams
for the future, regardless of real challenges (Yosso, 2005). Las maestras were asked the
following questions: Can you share with me your story? What types of barriers have you faced
in your personal life? How have you overcome those challenges? What goals did you set for
yourself? Las maestras shared similar challenges in their personal journeys as they relayed their
different narratives. This section of the study discusses the barriers they faced, family support,
their educational experiences, how they first encountered dual language education, personal
goals, and how they overcame challenges.
Some of the challenges las maestras faced stemmed from language barriers. Language
barriers included las maestras being second language learners or their parents not speaking
English and consequently not being able to help them with their academics. Maestra Alba got
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 109
emotional as she told her story because for her, being a second language learner hindered her
education:
For me, it was really hard. It was difficult because like I said, I didn't speak the
language. I had a lot of barriers, language was one. Also, my parents, they only went up
to third grade. They grew up in the ranch and he goes, so, you know, it didn't have like if
I got stuck on homework I didn't have support, so it was more on myself or my friends
or my teachers. And so, that was difficult (Interview, 12/04/18).
Maestra Alba realized that acquiring a second language was challenging but the difficulty was
intensified due to her parents not being able to support her studies. Her parents were not
unwilling, they simply were not able to do so but because they also, did not speak or understand
the language.
Maestra Rosas experience was similar to Maestra Alba’s. Maestra Rosas recalled that it
was also hard for her because she did not have support from her family because they did not
know English
I didn't really have like family support. I think I kind of did it on my own and it was
pretty tough. Like I said, my parents they did not know English, so they had like you
know jobs that were like low paying jobs. So, I think that motivated me to continue my
education and do better for myself. So, I kind of put myself through school (Interview,
12/04/17).
Maestras Alba and Rojas had to overcome a language barrier that limited their family support
when it came to their education and language acquisition. Maestra Lara also had a similar
experience. She grew up with her mother, who did not speak English, and had to advocate for
herself in the schooling process,
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 110
I knew what the dean was because my mother did not speak the language, so I had to
learn to defend myself in a lot of times. I was accused of things that you know the teacher
never ever gave me a chance. A lot of the times the teacher didn't believe me. Thought
that I did not understand. I understood, I just didn't care to. So, I put up struggles at a
very young age. Kind of took care of myself in high school. I knew my rights and I
knew that I wanted to make a difference because I knew that there were bad teachers out
there (Interview, 12/15/17).
Even though, language was a barrier and for some maestras it was a challenge that they
overcame.
Maestra Rojas and Maestra Luna said that their parents were supportive in their pursuit of
an education. Maestra Rojas recalled her mom being involved in her school regardless of her
heavy accent, “My parents were very heavily involved. My mom has a strong accent, but my
mom was part of the PTA, part of you know of everything.” Maestra Rojas also shared that what
helped her in school was the support of her parents, “I think that what really helped was the fact
that my parents are very supportive of our education. So, all six of us are all high school
graduates and five of the six have our master's.” Maestra Luna fondly remembered how her
parents would stay up late with her just to keep her company because they did not speak English:
I remember my parents were very supportive. They couldn't speak the language, but they
would stay up with me at night. Sometimes when I was doing my bachelor's degree and
they would stay up with me at night and just keeping me company while I did all my
homework and got it all turned in (Interview, 11/27/17).
The data gathered in these interviews demonstrated how las maestras faced barriers and
overcame them.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 111
Despite the barriers and challenges, las maestras conserved their hopes and dreams for
the future. They told their personal stories of their educational journey and personal goals as
well as, how they experienced dual language immersion education. Each maestra has a unique
story, however their stories share similar themes of resilience and ganas (drive) in overcoming
challenges.
Las Maestras reported positive experiences in the schooling process. Maestra Rojas said
that she was lucky to have supportive teachers, “I remember my school as something very
positive. I had very good teachers. I think, I was lucky because I had teachers who supported
and believed in me.” Maestra Santana also shared that she had an amazing teacher that to this
day she keeps in contact with, “I had an amazing fourth grade teacher. I still keep in touch with
her. I mean, she was just amazing.” Las maestras mentioned how they knew at an early age that
they wanted to become teachers. Maestra Santana said that she knew when she was in fourth
grade that she wanted to be a teacher, “Ever since fourth grade I knew it was going to be a
teacher. So, you know college time came and I was set to go.” Maestra Luna also stated
something similar, “So, becoming a teacher has been really something that I've always wanted to
do since I was a little girl like in elementary school.” Even though, las maestras described
positive experiences in their educational journey, Maestra Alba detailed her path to education as
something that happened by chance:
I ended in college it was, I feel como dicen en Espanol de pansaso (like they say in
Spanish, by chance). I don't know how, but it was God's plan. Actually, I was involved
in church and going to a youth group and this guy just came up to me. I had just
graduated from high school. He's like, “Hey, do you want to come to this program, it's
called Puente.” And I was like, what the heck is Puente? Just come it’s going to be really
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 112
fun. You're going to enjoy it. It's at a community college. It was a community college in
Los Angeles (Interview, 12/04/17).
Although, Maestra Alba considered her journey to college by chance, her story shares the
elements of resilience and ‘ganas’ (drive) as does the stories of the rest of las maestras.
Becoming a bilingual teacher was a process for all of las maestras. They described how
they felt when they experienced dual language education. Their stories were similar in that when
they encountered dual language education, they realized that that was their purpose and that they
wanted to become bilingual teachers. Maestra Marisol was invited to join a dual language
program and she knew immediately that it was her calling, “Right away I found out that that's
where I wanted to be. And I don't see myself anywhere else. And then I went, and I got my
masters, and I did my masters in dual immersion.” Maestra Lara had a similar experience where
she taught in a dual language classroom and realized that she wanted to pursue dual language
education:
My first job was first second combo English and Spanish. So, I was teaching English and
Spanish first grade and second. So, that's four curriculums with a waiver. But I was in
love. I knew I was meant to do that. I had a lot of students who were coming across the
border to get their education. They were learning English and they were getting the
Spanish. So, that was my first year. It was the greatest experience (Interview, 12/15/17).
The evidence provided from the research interviews shows that las maestras went into dual
language education because they could relate to their students and it fueled their passion to
become bilingual teachers.
Las maestras personal goals centered on becoming bilingual teachers. Maestra Luna
conveyed that her goal was to teach dual language immersion because she had experienced
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 113
someone speaking Spanish to her when she was a student and she wanted to give back:
. . . that has always been my goal and my dream to actually teach even to teach dual
immersion. I'm like, I want to be able to use my Spanish. You know, I want to be able to
give back because I knew that when I had someone that spoke Spanish in my classroom
when I was a kid that was helpful to me. So, I want the kids to look up to me and want to
do what I do (Interview, 11/27/17).
Maestra Luna not only wants to give back, but also to inspire her students to have their own
aspirations. Maestra Marisol wanted to become a bilingual teacher because she felt that that was
the way she could give her best to her students:
I decided that I totally wanted to be bilingual teacher because my first language was
Spanish, and you know I have an accent. I said you know, why am I going to teach a
language where I have an accent. And that's not my best. I want to give my kids the best
I know that I can. And so, when I found dual immersion I fell in love with the program
(Interview, 12/11/17).
From the research interviews it was evident that las maestras kept their hopes and dreams alive
despite challenges, they were resilient and had ganas (drive) to further their education and to
inspire their own students. Their passion for dual language education was fueled by their
personal experiences of being second language learners themselves. Las maestras use their
personal narratives as well as culturally relevant materials and strategies to inspire their dual
language students by exposing them to Cesar Chavez, Frida Kahlo, and authentic cultural
relevant literature that represents their narratives.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 114
Linguistic Capital
As stated, linguistic capital involves acquiring intellectual and social skills through
communication experiences in various languages or styles (Yosso, 2005). The questions used to
gather information were: What types of communication experiences in more than one language
or style can you share with me? Can you describe the intellectual skills developed through these
experiences? Can you describe the social skills you attained through your communication
experiences? What did you learn from those experiences? The themes that surfaced for
linguistic capital were their communication experiences that took place as they were growing up,
the intellectual and social skills they acquired through their communication experiences, and
what they learned from those communication experiences.
Maestras Rojas and Santana had similar vivid memories of communication experiences
as they were growing up. These experiences happened during dinner time at the table. Maestra
Rojas recalled how her parents would go back and forth on calling things differently:
My mom like I said she is from Bolivia, my dad is from Spain. So, our dinners were
always very interesting because my dad would be esto es un patata (potato), my mom
would be like no es una papa (potato). Esta es una palta (avocado), no ese es un aguacate
(avocado), este es un melocotón (peach), no es un durazno. And so, it was like a ping
pong ping pong you know for us (Interview, 01/10/18).
Maestra Santana remembered a comparable scenario where her parents also went back
and forth calling things differently. However, the difference was that both her parents were from
Mexico, but from different regions which influenced how they say things:
So, I think the first thing that comes to mind is even just sitting at the dinner table with
my parents. And having a conversation and my mom would say, “Oh this is called this”
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 115
And my dad would say, “No it's called this.” So, just within you know, they are both
from Mexico but they are from different parts of Mexico. So, I've always known that
Spanish isn't the same everywhere and there is you know there's true language to
regional language and there's also just what people call things (Interview, 12/01/17).
These two communication experiences show that Spanish is a diverse language and that being
exposed to different experiences build intellectual and social skills.
Las maestras provided insight into their acquired intellectual and social skills through
their told communication experiences. A main theme that was shared across all las maestras was
their belief in exposing their second language learners to various forms of Spanish. Maestra
Marisol pointed out that because she has had other experiences she can provide students with
different ways of saying things:
Like we will use a word for something but since you have you know other experiences
you're able to provide your students with tambien se dice (another way to call it) Yes, I
do a lot of that plus another thing that I've acquired from that is being more open minded.
You know, it really has led me to see that there's not just one way of doing or saying
things. There's many different ways and not one is better than the other. You know, so I
think that that has really helped me in having my kids understand that we're accepting of
others. You know, they have to be just like I am. They also have to be open minded
because we value differences (Interview, 12/11/17).
Maestra Alba also believes in exposing students to different ways of saying things in Spanish:
So, we have to expose them to the different ways of saying things from different
regions. Like for example, I had to ensenar (teach) calar (brush) and I'm like, oh, I don't
know what that means, so let me go look. So, I have to go, and I have the Española
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 116
website that'll tell you what it is, where it comes from, what it means and gives you
synonyms. I'm like, Oh, I see calar means cepillar [brush]. I'm like, “Cuando te cepillas
tu pelo, cuando te pienas asi calar quiere decir lo mismo” [Maestra Alba is letting her
students know that calar and cepillar are different ways of saying brush]
(Interview, 12/04/17).
Maestra Alba had her second language learners make connections to words that they
already knew, that meant the same as brush. Maestra Santana shared that she is learning to have
an open mindset of celebrating how students might say things differently:
I am kind of learning with my students. Sometimes even with my daughter. She'll come
home and tell me three different ways to say straw and I'm like oh ok. First, she was
singing some weird song and then I realized that in kindergarten they teach them you
know this is called this and, in this part, but it's also this and it's also called popote, pajilla
(straw) and she said something else. But just opening to that so that when I teach my
students I keep that in mind as well. That if they have something that they bring from
home because their parents say it a certain way and acknowledging that and presenting it
into the classroom and saying yeah that is you know that's another way we say it
(Interview, 12/01/17).
Maestra Santana made a valid point to not only expose her students to different forms of spoken
Spanish, but also to acknowledge what students bring to the classroom. Acknowledging
students’ cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives facilitates more effective
teaching practices (Herrera, 2010). Linguistic capital allows las maestras to have a better
understanding of how diverse Spanish is and the different cultures that speak it. By
implementing cultural and linguistic pedagogies, it increases the sociocultural competence of
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 117
second language learners because they are exposed to various forms of spoken Spanish and the
cultures that are thus connected. Exposing students to various forms of spoken Spanish also
increases the vocabulary of dual language learners and impacts their performance on language
arts assessments and academic success.
Familial Capital
Familial capital encompasses cultural knowledge nurtured among family that instills a
sense of community history, memory, and cultural intuition (Yosso, 2005). The questions posed
to the participants were: What cultural practices do you recall growing up? What customs and
traditions did your family pass down to you as you were growing up? In what ways did you
develop your sense of community history? What types of cultural practices, customs, or
traditions do you share with your students and their familias? The themes that surfaced for
familial capital were cultural practices such as customs and traditions that were passed down in
their families, as well as shared with their students and how they developed a sense of where
they came from.
Las maestras shared similar cultural traditions and practices. Most of las maestras were
Catholic and discussed the same cultural practices and traditions. Maestra Alba described her
cultural practices and traditions as follows:
. . . My mom was one that would not let the culture die. My family is Roman Catholic.
Going to church is very important especially Sunday gatherings. Even holidays, it's like
a group of 100 people because it's eight children plus their kids and grandkids. . .the food
is very important, tamales, mole, y (and) pozole and all the typical Mexican foods that we
eat. I was part of folklorico of course. I danced for like six years. Even in college I
was in a folklorico group. . . I mean it’s like la Navidad (Christmas) and Día de los
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 118
Muertos (Day of the dead), it was taught to me and I pass it on to my kids. Just
continuing the traditions (Interview, 12/04/17).
Maestra Alba spoke about being Catholic and how that influenced what her family practiced and
passed down. Maestra Luna recalled:
As a kid, I remember you know getting together for Thanksgiving. Our family would
come over and my mom would cook for what seemed like 60 people. Christmas, we
always do. I always stay up until midnight and then we still do the 24
th
. Christmas Eve
is when we have our party. We have dinner, we sing, we dance las cumbias all that stuff.
And then we stay up till midnight and at midnight we open gifts and then everyone goes
home because Santa is coming you know. So, on the 25th on Christmas Day kids are up
early because they're looking for their Christmas gifts. So, on the 25th we go back
to mama's house (Interview, 11/27/17).
Just like Maestra Alba, Maestra Luna recalled that her family gatherings included all her familia
for the celebration of important holidays, like Christmas. An element of familial capital is to
build a sense of community (Yosso, 2005) and sharing these cultural traditions and practices
reinforces that sense of belonging and identifying oneself to a specific culture. Maestra Rosas
detailed how it was to grow up in East Los Angeles which is also known as the second Mexico:
Well I grew up in East L.A. I grew up in East LA till I was eighteen. I graduated from
East L.A. So, East LA is like the most Mexican place you can think of. So, we used to
go to like the cultural La Placita [referring to La Placita Olvera], El Mercadito, we still
listen to mariachi. So, I think growing up there and then being part of a Mexican, true
Mexican family both my parents were Mexican. There's a lot of party celebrations you
know like quinceañeras and bautizos and weddings and things like that (Interview,
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 119
11/29/17).
It is evident from the responses that las maestras engaged in cultural practices and traditions that
were passed down by their familias and thus reinforced their sense of community.
Maestra Lara had a different cultural experience from the rest of las maestras because
even though she was born in Mexico, her family was not Catholic but instead Jehovah’s
Witnesses, and that impacted the cultural practices and traditions that she participated in.
I was born in Mexico. People think right away that I am Catholic because I am Mexican.
Well I am not Catholic. I was raised as a Jehovah's Witness. So, being raised as a Jehovah
Witness you don't celebrate things. You don't have celebrations. You do have family
gatherings but not for culture, they’re not for Christmas or they're not for birthdays and
not anything like that. Through my grandma and she was very Catholic, she would tell us
like you know Santa this and do this and that aside from my mom and my dad knowing.
It wasn't until I was probably thirteen or fourteen when my parents split up that my
mother allowed us to kind of socialize more because I was brought up in a very strict
culture and not really allowed to speak to anyone. When we went to my grandma though
the trips that we took to Mexico we would see celebrations you know it's a huge thing
(Interview, 12/15/17).
Although Maestra Lara was raised Jehovah’s Witness she was exposed to the Mexican Catholic
cultural practices and traditions. She remembered how on her trips to Mexico she would see the
bulls run throughout the streets and the worshipping of La Virgen de Guadalupe (Virgin Mary).
Maestra Santana brought up the influence of American culture and how her children and
students are becoming Americanized; however, through dual language education they are
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 120
regaining their culture. Maestra Santana was exposed to this notion at one of the CABE
conferences she attended:
. . . and kind of become Americanized I guess because everything around us is that. And
I think the biggest thing that I love about being part of DI right now and having my kids
in it is that I'm bringing that back [referring to bringing back the culture aspect]. I went
to one of the CABE conferences and my biggest aha moment was when they were talking
about the types of learners that we have in our classroom. And so, we have those kids
that are Spanish speakers who are learning a second language. We know who is learning
Spanish and acquiring English and we have those English speakers that are acquiring a
second language. But then there's a third group of kids. . .They're basically regaining
their culture. And I just thought wow that applies so strongly to me and my kids because
they are Mexican you know, and they don't know Spanish. They don't know about Día de
los Muertos or Los Reyes Magos. So, for me what I would label them as is not the other
two. They're not learning just English or learning Spanish, they are regaining their
culture. That was such a big moment for me like that's what this classroom is for. To
teach them about a different culture for all of these other kids to get it back because we
are losing it. I feel like now it's everywhere, it's around us more so it's a lot easier to get
that back (Interview, 12/01/17).
When Maestra Santana stated that the dual language classroom is for students to regain
their culture such as her own children, it demonstrated the importance of empowering students
through culturally relevant teaching which uses cultural meaning to communicate knowledge,
skills, and attitudes (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Therefore, familial capital is passed down in the
dual language classroom as well, where students are exposed to various cultural practices and
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 121
traditions. The cultural and linguistic empowerment of students is built upon a positive teacher-
student environment, where both students and teachers feel respected and valued for their
cultural and linguistic backgrounds that influences student outcomes.
Social Capital
Social capital entails networks of people and community resources (Yosso, 2005). The
research questions used to collect data on social capital were: In what types of networks are you
involved? What other kinds of networks do you have access to? In what ways are you active in
these networks? How do you recruit members into your networks? What kinds of community
resources are available to you? Can you describe how you share your awareness of community
resources? The themes that emerged for social capital were that las maestras were in dual
language networking groups, but not in other networks, and that they were aware of community
resources and willing to share with their students’ familias.
Maestra Marisol and Rojas discussed how they applied to and were accepted into the
Instructional Learning Core, which is a Stanford project in collaboration with the California
Teachers Association (CTA). Maestra Rojas said, “. . .we applied for, and were accepted to the
Instructional Learning Core which is through CTA and the Stanford project through Stanford.”
Maestra Marisol explained what the program was about, “So, we're going to be a group of us
teachers like mentors. We're going to mentor other dual immersion [teachers].” Maestras
Marisol and Rojas, along with other dual language teachers, were selected to be mentors to other
dual language teachers within their school district and in neighboring districts.
Las maestras at Diamond Valley Elementary are all part of a D.I. networking group. This
D.I. networking group connects all dual language teachers throughout the United States. Maestra
Cordova described the D.I. network as providing information and support to all dual language
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 122
education concerns and questions, “There is this bilingual, like a dual immersion network, that
we get e-mails all of the time. . . They ask questions about like, how is our DI program modeled
or there's job openings. It's like open to like all those people that went to that San Diego
conference I mentioned (CABE).” Maestra Lara related how she is part of D.I. networks that
provide resources to bilingual teachers:
I am in different DI groups on Facebook. There's the dual immersion groups that are
pretty neat because every time we need a resource that's the place to turn. . . So, I network
with other DI programs. I haven't found one nearby, but I found a lot of them like in
Texas. I have a lot of friends from Southern Califiornia coming from San Diego County I
still network with my co-workers from out there in South Bay (Interview, 12/15/17).
Even though there are D.I. networks, they are not close-by to the bilingual teachers in Diamond
Valley, which explains the reason they do not feel like most of the announcements pertain to
them. Most of las maestras spoke about networking with other D.I. teachers from different
districts that they once worked for.
As for availability and awareness of community resources only a few maestras were able
to identify local community resources. Las maestras that identified community resources were
long-time or native residents of Diamond Valley. Maestra Alba, a long-time resident of Diamond
Valley, was very involved with the community until she had health problems and she needed to
slow down:
So, I feel like I have to give back to these parents and say, “Hey, you have rights. This is
what you could do for your child.” . . . I overwork myself. I think that's why I get sick. I
try to be very involved in school, you know, work and school, and school site council. As
part of school site council I was part of a DLAC (District English Learners’ Advisory
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 123
Committee), I was part of ELAC (English Learners’ Advisory Committee), I was part of
A VID (Advancement Via Individual Determination). I was the D.I. designee last year
with Swanson. So, I got to learn a lot through that too as far as like how I can get myself
involved even more. But I have to learn to let go. . . I think that's where my passion
comes from because I live for this community. You know, I live in the community so I
I'm going to try to make it better (Interview, 12/04/17).
Maestra Alba has a real connection to her students’ community because she is also a part
of it. She wanted to inform parents about their rights to better service English language
learners.
Maestra Luna grew up in Diamond Valley and therefore is familiar with the
community resources available for her students and familias, “As far as the community, I am
aware because I lived in Diamond Valley for my entire life. So, I am aware of what the
community has to offer. For example, the food bank. I can offer resources to my students.”
Maestra Luna continues to reside in Diamond Valley and feels connected to her community.
Based on the data gathered on social capital it is evident that las maestras need closer D.I.
networks to better support them. The available D.I. network provides resources; however, due to
where most of those teachers are located, it seems far for las maestras. Las maestras do network
with each other and other D.I. teachers that they have previously worked with. Las maestras
who were residents of Diamond Valley seemed well informed of the local community resources.
In turn, las maestras informed their students’ families of available resources because they wanted
to give back. Las maestras wanted to make sure that their students have access to the resources
that address their individual needs as part of disrupting inequity and affecting their academic
growth. Stanton-Salazar (2011) argued in his social capital framework that institutional agents
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 124
provide highly valued resources. Las maestras act as institutional agents that provide highly
valued resources to their dual language familias and students.
Navigational Capital
Navigational capital refers to the skills associated with moving through social institutions
(Yosso, 2005). These skills may include cross-cultural code switching. Cross-cultural code-
switching denotes how individuals change their own behavior in an interaction to accommodate
different cultural norms for the production of appropriate behavior (Molinsky, 2007). Las
maestras were asked: What social adaptations have you experienced to develop success in these
social interactions? What did you do to fit into these social institutions? The themes that came
to light evolved around cross-cultural code-switching experiences. Some of these experiences
were attributed to the current political climate where certain individuals feel that they can say
insensitive things. The data collected for navigational capital pertain to social adaptations and
interactions.
Las maestras disclosed experiences where they experienced a sense of cross-cultural
code-switching. Maestra Alba discussed assimilation and adapting to “their” expectations:
. . . you have to learn it [assimilation] because I feel it's almost like if you don't, you can
be looked down upon. It's a different culture living here and living in another country is a
different culture, so you have to learn to adapt to their [dominant culture] expectations. I
don't know what you want to call it because I guess that's just social skills. You need to
have social skills. They need to know when they can speak Spanish or when they can
speak Spanglish or when to code switch. As far as code switching for me is more
language and I feel it's necessary in the classroom. But you also need to learn when you
can do that in a certain group because somebody might be offended by you speaking your
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 125
native language. Although that doesn't stop me (Interview, 12/0417).
Maestra Alba provided insight into what a second language learner goes through to feel accepted
into the dominant culture. You must assimilate and acquire the social skills to not offend
individuals from the dominant culture. Maestra Alba also expressed that she felt that code-
switching in terms of language was necessary in the classroom.
For Maestra Marisol, celebrating certain Mexican holidays comes with some caution.
She heard a story about when a young man was taken into immigration custody even though he
was an American Citizen. Maestra Marisol said she now carries her passport in her purse:
I like to dress up when it's like a certain holiday. Like a Spanish holiday, like a Mexican
holiday you know I want to dress Mexican. But at the same time, if you look in my purse
I carry my passport because the thing is like you never know honestly you never know. I
went to a meeting and they said some young guy was kept by immigration. They kept
him for a good half hour. . . because you know it's like they wouldn't listen to him. I
think he was an American citizen.
Maestra Marisol reported feeling a sense of fear of dressing up in traditional Mexican attire and
being harassed by immigration. Las maestras also experienced fear in response to reactions from
English only teachers at their school site. For instance, Maestra Rojas claimed that there were
rumors about their celebration of Día de los Muertos and how they needed to be stopped from
setting up altars in the classroom:
But then every time we think that we're like finally winning them over, we hear
something like this year we did for El Día de los Muertos. . .We heard the rumor was
when are those teachers going to be stopped. They should not be allowed to be doing
such stuff. They should not be allowed to be teaching religious stuff and having altars
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 126
for Día de los Muertos in their classrooms and painting their faces (Interview, 01/10/17).
Teachers of the dominant culture could perceive such cultural practices, as the instructors not
being willing to assimilate or conform to “American” values.
According to Maestra Rojas they are constantly culturally code switching. She recalled
how the dual language teachers were treated when they first started at Diamond Valley
Elementary, “We couldn't enter the lounge because as we entered the lounge there it would be
silent. And as soon as we left the lounge, we could totally hear laughing.” Maestra Marisol
elaborated on how you need to present yourself to be treated as an equal:
I need to not look too Mexican because they don't want to sit too close to me you know.
That's how I feel. . . I feel that some of the teachers that I work with they might see you a
little inferior. But I'm like no I'm not. I have to present myself better than that. I think
that sometimes they see a person and they're going to treat us like they see you. If they
see that you are belittling yourself in front of them, they're not going to treat you like an
equal.
From the information collected it can be shown that las maestras understand that cross-cultural
code-switching needs to take place in order to be accepted by the dominant culture and English-
only teachers at their school site. Las maestras realize that there are social expectations from the
dominant culture and if they are perceived as failing to assimilate, then they are made to feel
inferior or not equal. Dual language students are not exclusively exposed to Latino culture and
history. Las maestras believe in diversity where their dual language students also learn about the
dominant culture and its history.
Resistant Capital
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 127
Resistant capital refers to the knowledge and skills created through opposing behavior
that challenges inequality (Yosso, 2005). The following were the questions asked during the
interview process, can you describe ways in which you advocate for your students? How do you
address equity in your D.I. classroom? How do you address issues of equity and equality in our
educational system? Can you describe the type of environment you teach in? What is the school
culture, in regard to equity and equality? These questions provided insight into issues of equity
and equality as perceived by las maestras in their dual language immersion classrooms.
Effective dual language programs create a positive learning environment where everyone
from the district office, from administration to teachers and staff, are committed to equity.
Schools that are committed to equity have teachers and staff that display an awareness of the
diverse needs of students, get professional development in sociocultural understanding, use
multiethnic curricular materials, integrate students’ cultural values into the classroom, celebrate
and promote the use of all home language varieties, invite students to think critically and engage
in learning activities that encourage social justice, and most significantly, believe that all
children can learn (Alanís & Rodríguez, 2008; Banks & Banks, 2010; de Jong, 2011; García,
Johnson, & Seltzer, 2016; Gay, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2004; Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2006;
Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). All las maestras affirmed that they advocate for their students and
incorporate multicultural themes into their dual language immersion instruction. Maestra Lara
specified how she creates a positive learning environment where students are engaged in learning
activities that promote social justice:
In my classroom, we do papers on discrimination. We talk about Malcolm X. We talk
about Martin Luther King. We do write ups. . . We do Cesar Chavez. So, we always
have a theme. We learned about the struggles with Cesar Chavez. . . So here in third
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 128
grade we love to learn, and equity is a huge thing in my class (Interview, 12/15/17).
Besides providing a positive learning environment, teachers need to be committed to equity by
being aware of the needs of their culturally and linguistically diverse students. Maestra Alba
explained how she advocates for her students and acknowledged she is in the business of
children, as her superintendent related:
So, I do advocate for my kids. . . Because you realize the needs of your student. I know
this thing that the Superintendent said, que se me quedo en la cabeza (stuck in my head),
one day she said, “We are in the business of children,” and so when I think about that, I'm
here in a business of children, I do work for the district and I do have to be careful, but
there's times where I feel like this is where social justice comes in. This is where I teach
my kids, like we learned about Cesar Chavez and we chant “Si se puede!” (Yes, it can be
done). We watched Martin Luther King’s speech and we read about him and equality. . .
I do teach them about the importance of embracing other cultures and the reason they
know and can speak two languages (Interview, 12/04/2017).
Being in the business of children signifies that the children’s needs are at the center, and that all
that is necessary is done to meet their needs.
A school that demands a positive learning environment expects equity from all
participants and everyone is treated fairly and with justice. When equitable treatment is required,
there is a comprehensible grasp of the needs of culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically
diverse students which leads to the integration of multicultural themes in instruction (Alanís &
Rodríguez, 2008; de Jong, 2011; Genesee et al., 2006; Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). Maestra
Luna also believes in advocating for her students to get them what they need, not giving them
everything:
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 129
I am an advocate for giving students what they need, equity. I mean giving everyone the
same thing is one thing, but I give them what they need. Getting what they need is better
or more beneficial than giving everyone something. That's not fair we all get this, but
you get what you need. Even my kids in my dual immersion class, they have different
needs (Interview, 11/27/17).
Maestra Luna believes in giving students what they need, but not giving for the sake of
receiving additional things. When others do not support or understand your need to advocate for
your students, it can lead to conflict. All, except for one teacher, expressed that they felt some
sort of conflict or misunderstanding when they advocated for their second language learners.
Maestra Alba indicated that she sometimes felt that others became offended by her advocating
for her students:
I advocate for my students and my parents and I get in trouble for that because my
passion leads me, and I feel like sometimes they get offended by it. I will say things like
the thing with special education. When we had the team and ready for testing and they
look at the parent and they say, “Well, it looks like you have two options. You can either
wait or we can pull them out of the program” and when a parent hears that they're not
going wait a little bit longer. You're going to say, “let's pull them out of the program
because my son needs help.” So, I look at the parent and I say [I'm the only Spanish
speaking there] so I'm like, “I am actually going to agree with the whole team but let me
tell you why. Your son actually needs special education services in Spanish, but we don't
have those services yet. So, because of that, I think your son would benefit to start
learning how to read and write in English right away because we don't have the services
that you need. I'm so sorry.” So yes. It's just seeing their faces (Interview, 12/04/17).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 130
Advocating for students can sometimes cause conflict and tension with other teachers. Maestra
Alba attributed it to her students being her passion. Maestra Santana also implied that
advocating for her second language learners can cause some tension with colleagues. Much of
the conflict is coming from colleagues not understanding the unique needs of second language
learners and the extra support they need to be academically successful in both languages:
Why wouldn't you want somebody to do after school tutoring or after school homework
help because those parents can't help them. So, while yes, all kids need [need tutoring or
help of some sort] whereas we know our kids need it more. . . So, having people really
understand that it's not about wanting more stuff but rather we have a special group of
kids and this is what they need. So, it's been a lot of just really fighting for things a lot of
just conflict. I would say conflict throughout (Interview, 12/01/17).
Las maestras challenged what they perceived to be inequities for their second language
learners. However, in advocating for their students, they felt that conflict and tension brewed
between them and the English-only teachers because their advocacy was perceived as competing
for resources with the belief that the dual language program wanted all the resources. By
disrupting the inequity, las maestras are advocating for their dual language students and
providing their students with learning opportunities in order to optimize their academic success.
Implementing a dual language program based on equity and sociocultural competence has a
significant impact on all second language learners as presented in the data and academic
literature.
Discussion Research Question Three
The findings in research question three centered around the six forms of community
cultural capital. For aspirational capital, las maestras kept their hopes and dreams alive despite
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 131
challenges by overcoming barriers and having ganas to further their education and inspire their
own students. Their passion for dual language education was fueled by their personal
experiences of being second language learners themselves. The interview data demonstrated that
linguistic capital allowed las maestras to gain a better understanding of the diversity of the
cultures that speak Spanish; therefore, teaching their second language learners more effectively.
The information collected for familial capital showed how this form of capital is passed down in
dual language classrooms and how students are exposed to various cultural practices and
traditions. From the data gathered on social capital, it is evident that las maestras need closer
D.I. networks to better support them. Las maestras seemed well informed of local community
resources, if they lived in Diamond Valley. As for navigational capital, las maestras realized that
there are social expectations from the dominant culture, and if they are perceived as not
assimilating, then they are seen as inferior or not equal by some of the other teachers. Lastly, the
results for resistant capital showed that las maestras challenged what they perceived to be
inequities for their second language learners. Even though at times they felt that advocating for
their students caused conflict and tension because their advocacy was perceived as competing for
resources with the dual language program wanting all of them. The table below described las
maestras’ six community cultural capitals reflected in their dual language classrooms. These six
forms of community cultural capital were shared in the research interviews.
Table 4.4
Community Cultural Capital
Form of
Capital:
Description Teaching
Strategy/
Mindset
Participant
Data
Research
Connection
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 132
Aspirational
Capital
The ability to
conserve hopes and
dreams for the
future, regardless
of real challenges.

Cultural
Relevant
Pedagogies
Maestra
Marisol:
I decided that I
totally wanted
to be bilingual
teacher
because my
first language
was Spanish,
and you know,
I have an
accent. I said
you know why
am I going to
teach a
language
where I have
an accent.
And that's not
my best. I
want to give
my kids the
best I know
that I can.
Yosso, 2005.
Linguistic
Capital
The intellectual and
social skills
obtained through
communication
experiences in
different languages
or styles.
Cultural &
Linguistic
Pedagogies;
Sociocultural
Competence
Maestra
Alba: We have
to expose
them to the
different ways
of saying
things from
different
regions. Like
for example, I
had to ensenar
(teach) calar
(brush).
Yosso, 2005.
Familial
Capital
Cultural knowledge
nurtured among
family that fosters a
sense of community
history, memory,
Cultural
Relevant
Pedagogies;
Positive
Teacher-
Student
Environment
Maestra
Santana:
They're not
learning just
English or
learning
Spanish, they
Yosso, 2005.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 133
and cultural
intuition.
are regaining
their culture.
Social
Capital
Consists of
networks of people
and community
resources.
Equity;
Community
Networking
Maestra
Alba: I feel
like I have to
give back to
these parents
and say, “Hey,
you have
rights. This is
what you
could do for
your child.”
Stanton-Salazar,
2011; Yosso,
2005.
Navigational
Capital
Skills of navigating
through social
institutions.
Cross-Cultural
Code-
Switching
Maestra
Marisol:
I like to dress
up when it's
like a certain
holiday. Like
a Spanish
holiday, like a
Mexican
holiday you
know I want to
dress
Mexican. But
at the same
time, if you
look in my
purse I carry
my passport.
Molinsky, 2007;
Yosso, 2005.
Resistant
Capital
Knowledge and
skills generated
through opposing
behavior that
challenges
inequality.
Equity;
Sociocultural
Competence
Maestra Lara:
In my
classroom, we
do papers on
discrimination.
We talk about
Malcolm X.
We talk about
Martin Luther
King.
Yosso, 2005.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 134
Table 4.4 showcases the six capitals that encompass community cultural capital. These
six capitals are manifested through the strategies that las maestras use in their dual language
classrooms. For instance, aspirational capital is accessed using cultural relevant pedagogies
where students are exposed to history and world leaders of the non-dominant culture. Las
maestras themselves inspire their second language learners by their personal narratives of
overcoming cultural barriers and their persistence in their own educational journeys. Linguistic
capital is accessed through the implementation of cultural and linguistic pedagogies and building
sociocultural competence. Las maestras feel strongly about exposing their dual language
students to different forms of spoken Spanish. The differences are highlighted in a positive
learning setting where at times ,las maestras are also learning and acquiring linguistic capital.
Familial capital is accessed via culturally relevant pedagogies and establishing a positive teacher-
student environment where students acquire cultural knowledge and foster a sense of community
history and membership, as they learn about their culture and history in a learning environment
that respects and values their background. Social capital is accessed by establishing equity and
community networking. Community resources become accessible to dual language families and
students to address the individual needs of second language learners. Navigational capital is
accessed through the cross-cultural code-switching situations experienced by las maestras and
incorporating curriculum that embraces diversity. Resistant capital is accessed by
acknowledging equity and building sociocultural competence. Las maestras advocated for their
dual language learners to have access to all the same resources that EO students have access to,
because disrupting inequitable practices is the pathway to the creation of equitable learning
opportunities and the academic success of all students.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 135
Conclusion
The major findings and themes in this study focused on the DI teachers perceived roles,
the challenges a bilingual teacher faces in a dual language immersion program, and the approach
to learning and language acquisition; all within the context of the six forms of community
cultural capital. The six forms are aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and
resistant. The data for research question one demonstrated how las maestras used various
teaching practices and strategies for their students to have access to learning opportunities as
second language learners. The reported teaching practices and strategies were SDAIE strategies,
cooperative grouping, collaborative learning, whole and small group instruction, and guided
reading for explicit instruction (Hanson, 2006; Lindholm-Leary, et al. 2018). The data for
research question two showed how las maestras encouraged multiculturalism, linguistic diversity,
and equity through their lessons and the application of cultural and linguistic pedagogies.
Valuing students’ languages and cultures should be the goal and vision of dual language
programs (Sleeter, 2016). The data for research question three illustrated how the six forms of
capital that comprise community cultural capital (Yosso, 2005) are manifested in the dual
language classrooms through teaching pedagogies such as, cultural and linguistic pedagogies,
cross-cultural code-switching, equity, positive teacher-student environment, and sociocultural
competence.
In conclusion, the data described was collected during research interviews from bilingual
teachers in dual language classrooms. The findings in this study highlight how community
cultural capital impacts student learning and outcomes using certain teaching and learning
pedagogies by bilingual teachers in dual language classrooms. The cultural and linguistic
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 136
background of las maestras determined their community cultural capital and how it manifests in
the dual language classrooms.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 137
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This study addressed the problem of the persistent low academic achievement of English
language learners in the K-12 public American school system. The persistent low academic
achievement of English language learners demonstrates that this is a problem because the
evidence has highlighted that 50% of English language learners fail their graduation tests,
compared to 24% of all English proficient students, and English language learners are not
graduating at an equal rate in line with their English proficient counterparts (García, Kleifgen, &
Falchi, 2008). The purpose of this study is to contribute to the research where data is lacking, by
exploring bilingual teachers’ perceptions of the impact of their approach on learning and
language acquisition in their dual language immersion classrooms. This study explored the non-
economic resources bilingual teachers identify in students in their dual immersion classroom.
The research study’s findings and results were framed by a community cultural capital
framework (Yosso, 2005) that builds upon the sociocultural framework of learning to teach
(Vygotsky, 1978), and social capital framework (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). In this study, capital is
defined as the funds of knowledge used to address learning opportunities and student outcomes
in dual language classrooms. These different capitals, aspirational, linguistic, familial, social,
navigational, and resistant, are transferred through bilingual teacher’s background and
experiences to impact their students in their dual language classrooms. The study investigated
three research questions. All findings introduced, answered the following research questions for
this study: (a) What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and language
acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom? (b) What do bilingual
teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning and language acquisition on their
culturally and linguistically diverse students, in their Spanish-English dual language immersion
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 138
classrooms? (3) What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic,
navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in their approach to
learning and language acquisition in his or her Spanish-English dual immersion classroom?
This research study integrated perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion
classrooms, thus using a qualitative methods approach was the most reliable and valid method
to answer the research questions. Interviews conducted in dual language immersion classrooms
provided rich descriptions about what the researcher wanted to investigate about how bilingual
teachers’ practices and perceptions impact student outcomes. There are limited qualitative
studies on bilingual teachers and their perceptions and experiences in dual immersion
classrooms. This study contributed data on the perceptions of bilingual teachers and their
approach to learning and language acquisition in dual immersion classrooms.
Summary of Findings
Findings from this study demonstrated that the personal experiences and perspectives of
bilingual teachers have a profound impact on instruction and student outcomes in dual language
classrooms because they provide valuable cultural world views. Studies reveal that teachers of
color tend to be more effective teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students (Milner
& Howard, 2013; Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). The themes that surfaced in this study related
to the community cultural capital of the bilingual maestras in dual language immersion
classrooms. The findings were significant because they provided data on effective teaching and
learning pedagogies used in dual language immersion classrooms by bilingual teachers. The
findings also connected las maestras’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds to the applications of
teaching and learning pedagogies to impact student learning and outcomes.
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 139
The first research question aimed at drawing data on bilingual teachers’ approach to
language learning, content learning, and language acquisition. Pivotal to this study, were the
individual perceptions of bilingual teachers on their role as a bilingual teacher and the challenges
they face as such. The themes that emerged were perceived challenges and notions of their role
as bilingual teachers in dual language immersion classrooms. Las maestras also mentioned the
three pillars of dual language (Medina, 2017) for an effective dual language program. When
discussing an approach to learning ,such as content learning, language acquisition, and language
learning, las maestras incorporated various teaching practices and strategies for their students to
have access to learning and opportunities as second language learners. These teaching practices
and strategies included collaborative learning and the use of collaborative conversations to allow
students to acquire intellectual and social skills through their communication experiences in
different languages. Las maestras implemented cooperative groupings which had students
describe their learning in their own words and use each other as community resources.
These research-based practices and strategies are enhanced by las maestras community cultural
capital as shown in Table 4.2. The significance of these findings is that las maestras’ community
cultural capital informs the practices and strategies they implement to impact learning
opportunities and student outcomes in their dual language classrooms.
The second research question involved las maestras’ perceived impact of their approach
to learning and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students, in
their Spanish-English dual language immersion classrooms. The themes that surfaced in
research question two were instructional pedagogies related to teacher-student interactions,
cultural and linguistic pedagogies, and professional development. Las maestras demonstrated
their support for multiculturalism, linguistic diversity, and equity through their lessons and the
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 140
application of cultural and linguistic pedagogies. The importance of these findings is that they
demonstrate how building sociocultural competency should be a priority for dual language
programs because it promotes equity and multiculturalism. The multicultural lessons discussed
by las maestras promote higher levels of learning in their dual language classrooms, as
depicted on Table 4.3. These teaching pedagogies are strengthened by las maestras community
cultural capital by including learning about El Día de los Muertos. Including this cultural lesson
in their dual language curriculum allowed students’ cultural knowledge to be respected and
valued. Hence, dual language students experience a positive learning environment where
learning thrives.
The third research question focused on non-economic resources. The themes that came
to light encompassed aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant capital.
Community cultural capital was useful in explaining how las maestras successfully responded to
challenges and oppressive conditions that were often part of their experiences in predominantly
white institutions (PWI) (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). Table 4.4 illustrated how the six
capitals are manifested through the strategies las maestras use in their dual language classrooms.
Examples included (a) aspirational capital, accessed using cultural relevant pedagogies where
students are exposed to history and world leaders of the non-dominant culture; (b) linguistic
capital, accessed through the implementation of cultural and linguistic pedagogies and building
sociocultural competence by exposing their dual language students to different forms of spoken
Spanish; (c) familial capital, accessed via culturally relevant pedagogies and establishing a
positive teacher-student environment where students acquire cultural knowledge and foster a
sense of community history; (d) social capital, accessed by establishing equity and community
networking through the accessibility of community resources to address the individual needs of
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 141
second language learners; (d) navigational capital accessed through the cross-cultural code-
switching experiences of las maestras, and implementing curriculum that embraces diversity; (e)
resistant capital accessed by establishing equity and building sociocultural competence, while
also advocating for their dual language learners and disrupting inequitable practices to provide
equitable learning opportunities and the academic success of all students.
Implications for Practice
Community Cultural Language Pedagogy
Three main implications surfaced from this study and can be applicable to all dual
language education programs, but also schools serving diverse student populations that wish to
promote equitable learning opportunities for their students. The first implication is a clear vision
and goals to produce a greater impact on student academic achievement and outcomes. The
second implication involves bringing awareness to the third pillar of dual language, which is
building sociocultural competence. The last implication relates to professional development
being tailored to the needs of bilingual teachers to build efficacy in dual language classrooms.
The goal of the mentioned implications is to address the learning opportunities and outcomes of
second language learners in dual language education.
Establishing a Committed Dual Language Pedagogical Plan
Having a clear vision and road map is crucial to arriving at desired student outcomes.
For dual language programs to be effective, they must contain a pedagogical plan that provides
clear goals for both curriculum and instruction to optimize student learning and outcomes. This
study reported las maestras working at a site where there is no vision or mission plan, and the
dual language program was implemented four years ago. The findings from the study implied
that not having a clear vision or mission plan and having district support constantly changing,
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 142
has created an environment where teachers need to create their own dual language programs.
Having different notions of what a dual language program needs to be has the potential to cause
tension among las maestras due to competing visions. The importance of a vision and mission
plan is to create a shared vision of the goals of the program and have students, teachers, parents,
and administration personnel work together to impact student achievement and outcomes.
Studies have shown that dual language programs need a clear commitment to a vision and goals
focused on bilingualism, biliteracy, and sociocultural competence (Berman et al., 1995; de Jong,
2011; Genesee et al., 2006; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2010; Montecel
& Cortez, 2002). Having an established dual language plan involves everyone committed and
focused on one set of goals, instead of having competing visions of what the program should be
like.
Studies also show that the higher the quality of implementation of the dual language
education model, the stronger the results of dual language over English-only instruction for
English learners (Genesee et al., 2006; National Academies, 2017). Another point made by
researchers is that English learners who participate in a mix of different programs demonstrated
the lowest outcomes of all (Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2006; Menken, Kleyn, & Chae, 2012).
Therefore, it is imperative that dual language programs have a vision and mission plan to
optimize student outcomes and have consistency throughout the program.
Building Sociocultural Competence
An implication that emerged from this study is that sociocultural competence is
overlooked. The findings implied that las maestras focused on bilingualism and biliteracy but
overlooked sociocultural competence. Maestra Alba expressed that she felt that sociocultural
competence is not addressed in the dual language program. Medina (2017) pointed out that
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 143
sociocultural competence is frequently disregarded but that it is the goal that the other two pillars
rest on. Medina (2017) claimed that sociocultural competence is about equity and social justice.
As evidenced in this study, las maestras shared that they have limited culturally relevant
materials. Having limited culturally relevant materials negatively impacts the student’s exposure
to different cultures and limits the student’s ability to learn about how their differences are not
barriers, but rather ways of connecting with others (Medina, 2017).
Studies in this area show that programs that promote socio-emotional learning have a
significant impact on student success at all grade levels (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor,
& Schellinger, 2011). Dual language programs need to provide multiple opportunities for
students to develop positive attitudes about themselves and others, as well as develop cultural
knowledge and a sense of their and others’ identities—ethnic, linguistic, and cultural—in a non–
stereotyped fashion (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). It is of high significance that students in dual
language programs feel that their cultural and linguistic background is respected and valued.
Since the goal of dual language education includes sociocultural competence and equity, the
program needs to reflect and value students’ languages and cultures (Sleeter, 2016; Medina,
2017). Culturally relevant materials are a must in dual language immersion classrooms to build
sociocultural competency. Materials provide an opportunity for enhanced sociocultural
development because students have a chance to see themselves in literary characters and do the
necessary exploration of self in relation to the other (Phinney, 1993). Sociocultural competence
is a critical component that should not be overlooked because it bonds the many components of
dual language education together.
Tailored Professional Development
The last implication that this study revealed is the need for professional development that
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 144
is geared and tailored to the needs of bilingual teachers. Las maestras reported that they have
been asking their district for professional development that addresses their needs as bilingual
teachers in dual language education. Las maestras related that the district is listening to their
requests and will be providing professional development that focuses on their needs and that of
students. Research studies demonstrate the importance of training to promote successful
administrators, teachers, and staff, as well as impact higher student outcomes (Ballantyne et al.,
2008; Epstein et al., 2016; Master et al., 2016; Valdés, Menken, & Castro, 2015; Master et al.,
2016; Valdés et al., 2015).
Las maestras expressed how they sit through professional development that does not
pertain to their needs nor their students’ and therefore is not of value. Training is most
successful when it is supported and embedded in the daily routines and practices of teachers
(Coleman & Goldenberg, 2011; Dana, 2010). Another research finding is that effective
programs align the professional development needs of their faculty to the goals and strategies of
the instructional program (Ballantyne et al., 2008; Corallo & McDonald, 2002). Hence, a reason
for the need to establish a vision or dual language plan that will focus on the goals and needs of
the program. Professional development should reflect those goals and needs.
Another need, in regard to professional development, is training on sociocultural
competency. The study findings showed that las maestras focused on the first and second pillars
of dual language, but the third pillar was addressed only by Maestra Alba. The first pillar
focuses on bilingualism and biliteracy. The second pillar centers on the expectation of high
academic achievement. The third pillar addresses equity and social justice (Medina, 2017).
Educational equity is an important area to provide professional development (de Jong, 2011; de
Jong & Harper, 2005; Moll & Arnot-Hopffer, 2005). Having professional development in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 145
educational equity allows bilingual teachers to build not only their students’ sociocultural
competency, but also their own. Teachers need to be aware of issues of social justice and
confront any issues concerning personal biases. Research indicates that teachers need
professional development in educational pedagogy, equity pedagogy, standards-based teaching,
literacy instruction, sheltered instruction, high standards for all students, and parental and
community involvement (Lindholm-Leary et al., 2018). Targeted professional development
builds teacher efficacy that has significant impact on student outcomes and the effectiveness of
the dual language program.
Future Research
The findings in this study can be broadened through further research, that encompasses a
larger sample of bilingual teachers in neighboring districts. A follow up study could collect
additional data on the six capitals of community cultural capital to see what other patterns
surface and what themes are validated or highlighted. The new data can be compared to the
existing data to better understand the impact of the community cultural capital of bilingual
teachers in their dual language classrooms. In addition, their stories can be written as a narrative
collection in which their individual stories would contribute to the larger schemata.
Furthermore, additional research of bilingual teachers would add to building studies on teachers
of color, or teachers not of the dominant culture, and their impact on our educational system.
Conclusion
This research study examined how the background of the bilingual teachers impacted
their dual language classrooms. Their background was studied through the lens of community
cultural capital. The six capitals in community cultural capital manifest themselves in how
bilingual teachers perceive the impact of their approach to learning and language acquisition in
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 146
their dual language classrooms. Community cultural capital explains how bilingual teachers
successfully respond to challenges and oppressive conditions that are often part of their
experiences in predominantly white institutions (PWI) (Tolbert & Eichelberger, 2016). By
examining each capital of the framework, it was observable how las maestras impacted the
learning of their dual language students.
This study argues for bilingual community cultural pedagogy as the intersection of las
maestras cultural and linguistic knowledge, and the application of teaching and learning
pedagogies to impact student learning and outcomes in a dual language setting. Bilingual
community cultural pedagogy acknowledges the community cultural capital of both teachers and
students and establishes positive teacher-student interactions. Bilingual community cultural
pedagogy optimizes the assets and capitals that bilingual educators and students bring to the dual
language immersion setting. Therefore, this study contributes to the bilingual community
cultural pedagogy to guide dual language immersion programs and further studies on bilingual
and dual language education.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 147
Epilogue
Future research should examine how the current political climate imposes challenges and
oppressive conditions on bilingual teachers. Despite the passing of Proposition 58, which
repealed bilingual education restrictions set by Proposition 227, with the current political climate
it is of even greater importance for the maestras to use their navigational capital to not only
impact student learning opportunities and outcomes, but also to advocate for equitable conditions
for their culturally and linguistically diverse students. Las maestras teach in a district that has an
enrollment of 85.3% of students with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and
14.7% White students. In contrast, the teaching staff is composed of 68.7% White and 31.3%
non-white teachers. It is evident based on the demographic numbers that the teaching staff does
not represent the student population. Las maestras are the minority in this school district. As
Tolbert and Eichelberger (2016) pointed out in their study, teachers of color experience
challenges and oppressive conditions as part of being in predominantly White institutions. Las
maestras related experiences in which navigating their individual careers was challenging.
Maestra Marisol shared how she wanted to dress in traditional Mexican attire for certain
Mexican holidays, but at the same time she carried her passport with her at all times because she
feared what might happen without proof of her citizenship; she has heard of American citizens of
Mexican descent being harassed and handcuffed. This experience demonstrates the conflict that
Maestra Marisol and other bilingual teachers may feel in displaying pride for their culture and
heritage and yet fearing the repercussions that they may cause. Maestra Rojas shared that during
the past school year while they were teaching the students about Día de los Muertos, some of the
EO teachers voiced their displeasure in the maestras setting up alters in classrooms and painting
their faces. Las maestras heard that some EO teachers were saying that they should be stopped
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 148
and not allowed to be teaching religious things. Dual language programs are meant to expose
and teach students about other cultures, customs, languages, and traditions. The third pillar of
dual language calls for building sociocultural competence. The acceptance and
acknowledgement of others is at the core of sociocultural competency. Yet, las maestras need to
justify teaching cultural traditions such as Día de los Muertos to their second language learners
in a program that is supposed to build sociocultural competence and address inequities.
As we are navigating this new era of Proposition 58, in conjunction with an anti-
immigrant sentiment that promotes building a wall, as well as separating immigrant families and
keeping children in “tent cities” or cages, how will bilingual teachers reconcile their experiences
and the current political climate. If districts are truly committed to providing multilingual and
multicultural education, then they need to provide professional development focusing on equity
and sociocultural competence to address biases and build tolerance among all staff. As for the
maestras of this study, they will continue to provide a dual language program that exposes their
students to cultural and linguistic relevant materials and education regardless of our current
political climate. Ganas!

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 149
References

Allen, K. (2004, Oct 18). Stayin' alive; el día de los muertos: A primer. The Hispanic Outlook in
Higher Education, 15, 35. Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-
com.libproxy1.usc.edu/docview/219227804?accountid=14749
Attarzadeh, M. (2011). The effect of scaffolding on reading comprehension of various
text modes on Iranian EFL learners with different proficiency levels. Social
Sciences and Humanities, 2(4), 1-28.
Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Bristol, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Block, N. (2011). The Impact of Two-Way Dual-Immersion Programs on Initially English-
Dominant Latino Students’ Attitudes. Bilingual Research Journal, 34(2), 125–141.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2011.598059
Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B. (1989). Content-based second language
instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Brisk, M. E. (1999). Quality bilingual education: Defining success (LAB Working Paper No. 1).
Providence, RI: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory, Brown
University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 445549)
CA Voter Guide. (2016). http://voterguide.sos.ca.gov/en/propositions/58/. Accessed 23
Jun. 2017.
Carter, P. L, & Welner, K. G. (Eds.). (2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do
to give every child an even chance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 150
Castro, D., Paez, M., Dickinson, D., & Frede, E. (2011). Promoting language and literacy in
young dual language learners: Research, practice, and policy. Child Development
Perspectives, 5(1), 15-21.
Christian, D. (1996). Two-Way Immersion Education: Students Learning through Two
Languages. The Modern Language Journal, 80(1), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/329058
Christian, D., & Whitcher, A. (1995). Two-way bilingual programs in the United States, 1994-
1995 revised directory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics
Cloud, N. Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E. (2000). Dual language instruction: A handbook for
enriched education. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Corallo, C., & McDonald, D. H. (2002). What works with low-performing schools: A review of
research. Charleston, WV: Appalachian Educational Laboratory.
Coyle, D., & Baetens-Beardsmore, H. (Eds.). (2007). Research on content and language
integrated learning [Special issue]. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 10(5).
Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. Los
Angeles, CA: Bilingual Educational Services.
Dalton-Pu er, C. (2011). Content-and-language integrated learning: From practice to principles?
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 182–204.
Daniel, S. (2016). Grappling with culturally responsive, pedagogy: A study of elementary-level
teach candidates’ learning across practicum and diversity coursework
experiences. Urban Rev, 48, 579-600.
doi: 10.1007/s11256-016-0369-6
Fortune, T. W., Tedick, D. J., & Walker, C. L. (2008). Integrated language and content teaching:
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 151
Insights from the language immersion classroom. In T. Fortune & D. J. Tedick (Eds.),
Pathways to multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education (pp. 71–96).
Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Gandara, P. & Rumberger. R. (2008). Defining an adequate education for English
learners. Education Finance and Policy, 3(1), 130-148.
García, O. (1992, June). For it is in giving that we receive: A history of language policy in the
United States. In conference “American Pluralism: Toward a History of Discussion” held
at SUNY, Stony Brook on (Vol. 7).
García, O., Kleifgen, J. A., & Falchi, L. (2008). From English Language Learners to Emergent
Bilinguals. Equity Matters. Research Review No. 1. Campaign for Educational Equity,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
Genesee, F., & Gándara, P. (1999). Bilingual Education Programs: A Cross-National
Perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 55(4), 665–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-
4537.00141
Genesee, F., & Lindholm-Leary, K. (2008). Dual Language Education in Canada and the USA.
In N. H. Hornberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 1696–1706).
Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_129
Ghafar Samar, R., & Dehqan, M. (2013). Sociocultural theory and reading comprehension: The
scaffolding of readers in an EFL context. International Journal of Research Studies in
Language Learning, 2(3), 67-80.
Goldenberg, B. (2014). White teachers in urban classrooms: Embracing non-white students’
cultural capital for better teaching and learning. Urban Education, 49(1), 111-144.
doi: 10.1177/0042085912472510
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 152
Hall, K., Murphy, P., & Soler, J. (2008). Pedagogy and practice: Culture and identities. Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Handsfield, L. & Valente, P. (2016). Momentos de cambio: Cultivating bilingual students’
epistemic privilege through memoir and testimonio. International Journal of
Multicultural Education, 18(3), 138-158.
Hansen, L. (2006). Strategies for ell success. Science and Children, 43(4), 22-25
Hayes, J. (2005). Language Acquition vs. Language Learning. Retrieved from
http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_acquisiti_vs_language_02033.php
Heritage, M., Walqui, A., & Linquanti, R. (2015). English language learners and the new
standards. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Herrera, S. (2010). Biography-driven culturally responsive teaching. New York, NY: Teachers
College Press.
Honigsfeld, A. & Cohan, A. (2012). Breaking the mold of education for culturally and
linguistically diverse students: Innovative and successful practices for the twenty-first
century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Howard, E. R., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., Rogers, D., Olague, N., Medina, J., Kennedy, D.,
Sugarman, J., & Christian, D. (2018). Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Howard, T. C. (2015). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement
gap in America’s classrooms. New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press. Ch. 1:
Achievement Gap: Contextualizing the Problem.
Howard, T. C. (2015). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement
gap in America’s classrooms. New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press. Ch. 7
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 153
Examples of School Success for Culturally Diverse Students.
Jong, E. de, & Howard, E. (2009). Integration in two-way immersion education: equalizing
linguistic benefits for all students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 12(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050802149531
Kim, Y. K., Hutchison, L. A., & Winsler, A. (2015). Bilingual education in the United States: an
historical overview and examination of two-way immersion. Educational Review, 67(2),
236–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.865593
Krashen, S. (1994). Bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. In Schooling
and language minority students, ed. C.F. Leyba, 61-63.
Ladson-Billings, G. J. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American
Education Research Journal, 35, 465–491.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding
achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3-12.
Lara-Alecio, R., Galloway, M., Irby, B. J., Rodríguez, L., & Gómez, L. (2004). Two-Way
Immersion Bilingual Programs in Texas. Bilingual Research Journal, 28(1), 35–54.
Lim, L. & Renshaw, P. (2001). The relevance of sociocultural theory to culturally diverse
partnerships and communities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10(1), 9-21.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J., Hargett, G., & Lambert, J. (2007). How to evaluate your dual language
program: A beginner’s toolkit. Multilingual Educator, 26–27.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J. (2001). Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 28: Dual Language
Education. Clevedon, GB: Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/alltitles/docDetail.action?docID=10016705
Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 154
approach. Amsterdam, e Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Mahn, H. (1999). Vygotsky’s methodological contribution to sociocultural theory: Remedial and
special education, ProQuest, 20(6), 341.
Mahoney, K. S. & MacSwan, J. (2005). Reexamining identification and reclassification of English
language learners: A critical discussion of select state practices. Bilingual Research
Journal, 29(1), 31.
May, S. (2008). Bilingual/Immersion Education: What the Research Tells Us. In N. H.
Hornberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 1483–1498). Springer
US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_113
Medina, J. (2017). Que? You don’t know the 3 pillars of dual language? Retrieved from
http://www.cal.org/news-and-events/in-the-news/que-you-don-t
Milner, H. R. (2010). Start where you are, but don’t stay there: Understanding diversity,
opportunity gaps, and teaching in today’s classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Education Press.
Milner, H. R. (2015). Rac(e)ing to class: Confronting poverty and race in schools and
classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Milner, H. R., & Howard, T.C. (2013). Counter-narrative as method: Race, policy and research
for teacher education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16 (4): 536–561.
Montague, N. S. (1997). Critical Components for Dual Language Programs. Bilingual Research
Journal, 21(4), 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.1997.10162713
Palmer, D. (2007). A Dual Immersion Strand Programme in California: Carrying Out the
Promise of Dual Language Education in an English-dominant Context. International
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 155
Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10(6), 752–768.
https://doi.org/10.2167/beb397.0
Palmer, D. (2013). Teacher agency in bilingual spaces: A fresh look at preparing teachers to
educate Latina/o bilingual children. Review of Research in Education, 37, 269-297.
doi: 10.3102/0091732X12463556
Panitz, T. (1999). Collaborative versus cooperative learning- A comparison of the two concepts
which will help us understand the underlying nature of interactive learning. Eric, 3-13.
Potowski, K. (2004). Student Spanish Use and Investment in a Dual Immersion Classroom:
Implications for Second Language Acquisition and Heritage Language Maintenance. The
Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 75–101.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.00219.x
Rueda, R. (2005). Student learning and assessment: Setting an agenda. In P. Pedraza & M.
Rivera (Eds)., Latino Education: An Agenda for Community Action Research (185-204).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Saunders, W. M. & Marcelletti, D. J. (2013). The gap that can’t go away: The catch-22
of reclassification in monitoring the progress of English learners. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 35(2), 139-156.
doi: 10.3102/0162373712461849
Stanton-Salazar, R.D. (2011). A social capital framework for the study of institutional agents
and their role in the empowerment of low-status students and youth. Youth & Society,
43(3), 1066-1109.
doi: 10.117/0044118X10382877
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 156
Southard, B. (2014). A rhetoric of epistemic privilege. Advances in the History of Rhetoric,
17(2), 157-178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15362426.2014.890962
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (1997). Educational Leadership: Reaching for Equity: Two
Languages Are Better Than One. Retrieved April 12, 2017, from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec97/vol55/num04/Two-
Languages-Are-Better-Than-One.aspx
Tolbert, S. & Eichelberger, S. (2016). Surviving teacher education: A community cultural
capital framework of persistence. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 19(5), 1025-1042.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.969222
Valdes, G. (1997). Dual-Language Immersion Programs: A Cautionary Note Concerning
the Education of Language-Minority Students. Harvard Educational Review,
67(3), 391–430. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.67.3.n5q175qp86120948
Valdés, G., Menken, K., & Castro, M. (Eds.). (2015). Common Core bilingual and English
language learners: A resource for educators. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.
Varghese, M. (2008). Using cultural models to unravel how bilingual teachers enact
language policies. Language and Education, 22(5), 289-306
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500780802152671
Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2002). Educating culturally responsive teachers: A coherent
approach. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wiley, T. G. (1998). The imposition of World War l Era English-Only Policies and the
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 157
Fate of German in North. Language and politics in the United States and Canada:
Myths and realities, 211.
Yosso, T. 2005. Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community
Cultural Wealth. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 8(1): 69–91.
Yazdanpanah, M. & Khanmohammad, H. (2014). Sociocultural theory and listening
comprehension: Does the Scaffolding of EFL learners improve their listening
comprehension? Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(11), 2389-2395.
doi: 10.4304/tpls.4.11.2389-2395

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 158
Appendix A
Dual Immersion: Introduction and Interview Protocol

Hello. Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am examining the experiences and
perceptions of bilingual teachers in dual immersion classrooms. I want to find out how you
implement cultural and linguistic relevant pedagogies in lessons to create learning opportunities
for culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Background Questions:
1. How would you identify your race and or ethnicity?
2. Are you a native Spanish speaker?
a. If so, at what age did you learn English?
3. What age were you when you entered the American school system?
4. Were you in a bilingual classroom?
a. If so what was the model?
5. What was your overall experience in education?
6. When do you recall you acquired English as a second language?
7. In what region of the United States did you grow up?
8. What influenced you to become a bilingual teacher?

Research
Question
Interview Question Type of Question (e.g.,
Devil’s advocate, opinion, etc.)
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 159
RQ 1: What
do bilingual teachers
report as their
approach to learning
and language
acquisition in their
Spanish-English dual
language immersion
classroom?

IQ: How would you
describe your role as a bilingual
teacher?
How do you deliver
content knowledge in both
languages? Are your teaching
materials teacher made or are
they from a publishing company?

IQ: Can you identify any
challenges you face as a bilingual
teacher, if any?
How do EO only teachers
view the dual immersion
program?

IQ: How would you
describe your approach to
language learning? Can you tell
me how you deliver language
instruction (rules of language)?
For instance, do you use direct
instruction, whole group or small
Experience question

Experience question

Opinion question

Knowledge question

Knowledge Question

Knowledge Question

Knowledge Question

Background Question

Devil’s Advocate
Question

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 160
group instruction to deliver
language instruction. Can you
share a lesson in which language
learning is the learning
objective?

How would you describe
your approach to content
learning? How do you stimulate
background/prior knowledge to
deliver content learning
(curriculum)? Can you talk me
through a content learning
lesson?

IQ: How would you
describe your approach to
language acquisition in your dual
language immersion classroom?
How are students encouraged to
collaborate with each other and
practice oral communication?
Can you provide me with a

Devil’s Advocate
Question

Background
Knowledge

Background
Knowledge

Background
Knowledge
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 161
language acquisition lesson?

IQ: Can you tell me how
you differentiate instruction in
your classroom? Can you tell me
more about what that looks like
for Spanish-only students? Can
you tell me more about what that
looks like for English-only
students? Can you tell me if there
are any other sub-groups that you
scaffold for?

IQ: Can you tell me
about the
assessments/benchmarks used in
your dual immersion program?
Can you tell me what
language proficiency assessment
is used in your dual immersion
program? Can you tell me what
written proficiency assessment is
used in your dual immersion
program?
Who develops and
decides what
assessments/benchmarks are used
to assess student learning?
Can you tell me how
students are determined to be
proficient in both languages?

IQ: Can you describe
interventions used for struggling
students, if any? Who develops
and implements such
interventions (describe the
process of delivering intervention
to struggling students)?
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 162

Who wrote the DL plan at
your school site? Collaborative
groups? What made your
site/district start a DL program?

Can you tell me about the
textbooks your site/district is
currently using in your DL
program? Can you tell me what
type of English/Spanish books
you have in your classroom?
(Are they rich Spanish literature
or are they literature translate
from English to Spanish?)

Can you tell me what
type of authentic, culturally
relevant literature you use in
each language? (Who are your
favorite authors, if any?)

Can you tell me about
your language background, for
instance do you consider yourself
(bilingual, biliterate,
multilingual)?

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 163
RQ 2: What
do bilingual teachers
perceive as the
impact of their
approach to learning
and language
acquisition on their
culturally and
linguistically diverse
students in their
Spanish-English dual
language immersion
classroom?
IQ: What type of
professional development do you
receive as part of teaching in a
dual language immersion
program?
Can you name
professional development that
you felt was useful in the
classroom?

IQ: What pedagogies
(instructional methods) do you
use in your dual immersion
classroom? Which pedagogies do
you perceive to be the most
effective in your D.I. classroom?

IQ: Can you show me
your lesson plans and walk me
through your lesson design?

IQ: Can you take me
through a day in your dual
immersion classroom? Can you
show me your daily schedule and
walk me through it? If a
schedule is not available, have
the teacher describe how a
typical day transpires.

IQ: Can you describe
what cultural and linguistic
pedagogies you incorporate into
your instruction? (ex: Describe
what cultural aspects and
practices you include in your
curriculum? Describe how
language acquisition is
Knowledge question

Knowledge question

Experience Question

Sensory/Experience
Question

Knowledge Question

Knowledge Question

Experience/Behavior
Questions

Background Question

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 164
developed and delivered?)[These
are good follow-up questions.]

IQ: Describe how your
dual immersion program is
structured. What model is your
site following? Is your DL model
a 90/10 or 50/50 model? How do
you schedule teaching English
and Spanish in your curriculum?

IQ: Can you describe how
teachers are involved in the
development of your site’s dual
immersion program?
Can you describe how
teacher collaboration takes place
at your site? How does your site
provide collaboration time
between bilingual teachers and
EO teachers in the same grade
level?
Are lessons shared in
your grade level and if so, are
lessons collaboratively
developed?

Experience Question

Background Question

Experience Question
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 165
RQ 3: What
non-economic
resources (capital
including: familial,
social, linguistic,
navigational,
resistant,
aspirational) do these
bilingual teachers
identify in their
approach to learning
and language
acquisition in his or
her Spanish-English
dual immersion
classroom?
IQ: Can you share with
me your story? I am interested in
your journey to becoming a
bilingual educator. What types
of barriers have you faced in
your personal life? How have
you overcome those challenges?
What goals did you set for
yourself? Can you share with me
life lessons you learned from
perceived failures?

IQ: What types of
communication experiences in
more than one language or style
can you share with me? By
styles, I am referring to various
forms of Spanish spoken in
different regions
/countries/people within the
culture. Can you describe the
intellectual skills developed
Aspirational Capital

Linguistic Capital

Familial Capital

Social Capital

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 166
through these experiences? Can
you describe the social skills you
attained through your
communication experiences?
What did you learn from those
experiences?

IQ: What cultural
practices do you recall growing
up? What customs and traditions
did your family pass down as you
were growing up? For example,
family gatherings, foods, and
cultural attire and music. In what
ways did you develop your sense
of community history? (Familial
place of origin) What types of
cultural practices, customs, or
traditions do you share with your
students and their familias?

IQ: In what types of
networks are you involved in?

Navigational Capital

Resistant Capital
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 167
(Ex: professional groups,
educational/College networks,
Community or church groups?)
What other kinds of networks do
you have access to? In what ways
are you active in these networks?
How do you recruit members
into your networks? What kinds
of community resources are
available to you? Can you
describe how you share
awareness of community
resources?

IQ: I would like to talk
about cross-cultural code-
switching. Cross-cultural code-
switching is how individuals
change their own behavior in an
interaction to accommodate
different cultural norms for
appropriate behavior. What social
adaptations have you
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 168
experienced to develop success
in these social interactions? What
did you do to fit in these social
institutions?

Can you describe ways in
which you advocate for your
students? How do you address
equity in your D.I. classroom?
How do you address issues of
equity and equality in our
educational system? Can you
describe the type of environment
you teach in? (For instance: do
you feel safe bringing up issues
of equity/equality to your site
admin.? What is the school
culture in regard to equity and
equality?)

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 169

Appendix B
Email Transcripts to Administration and Teachers

Dear (name of Administrator or Teacher),

I hope this email finds you well. Allow me to introduce myself. My name is Ofelia Cervera and I
am an employee within ABC district and I am currently working on my doctorate degree in
Educational Leadership at the University of Southern California. I am reaching out to you for
help in recruiting bilingual teachers for my qualitative dissertation study. My dissertation topic is
to examine dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most useful practices and resources that
contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in educating culturally and
linguistically diverse students.

I am interested in understanding the perceptions of bilingual teachers in creating learning
opportunities in dual immersion classrooms. I am considering gathering information on teacher
practices and attitudes in order to see how it affects student outcomes in dual immersion
programs.

The required criteria for participating in the study are: 1) To be teaching in a dual
language immersion classroom; 2) Dual immersion schools will be located in Southern
California; 3) Teachers must be bilingual; 4) Bilingual teachers must have at least one year
experience in teaching in a dual immersion classroom; 5) Teachers selected for study must have
positive site administration teacher evaluations; 6) School site must have a diverse student and
teacher population; 7) School site must be identified as a high performing school.

I hope that you can help me recruit bilingual teachers and provide me their names and
email addresses so that I may get in touch with them to set up an interview individually. The
interviews will be no longer than one hour. This research will shed light on the growing scholarly
debate on bilingual teacher perceptions and its impact on student outcomes in dual immersion
classrooms.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Best Regards,

Ofelia Cervera

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 170
Appendix C

Dual Immersion: IRB Application

Background of study: Dual immersion teachers’ perceptions of the most useful practices
and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and skills in educating
culturally and linguistically diverse students.

Research Questions:
RQ1: What do bilingual teachers report as their approach to learning and language
acquisition in their Spanish-English dual language immersion classroom?

RQ 2: What do bilingual teachers perceive as the impact of their approach to learning
and language acquisition on their culturally and linguistically diverse students in their Spanish-
English dual language immersion classroom?

RQ 3: What non-economic resources (capital including: familial, social, linguistic,
navigational, resistant, aspirational) do these bilingual teachers identify in the students in his or
her Spanish-English dual immersion classroom?

Methods: This is a qualitative study consisting of bilingual teacher interviews.

Data Collection Sample and Site Selection:

· XYZ School District and ABC School District in the state of California
(pseudonyms will be used for all districts, sites, and participants).
· I will provide the Office of Institutional Research (as it is referred to in my
district) a copy of my protocol for district approval in person.
· When I receive permission to conduct my study from the Office of Institutional
Research, I will contact via email school administrators to receive bilingual teacher referrals for
this study.
· I will acquire via email a list of all bilingual teachers via the school administrator
and then email each bilingual teacher directly to recruit them for the study.

The criteria used for bilingual teacher selection are the following: To be teaching in a
dual language immersion classroom; 2) Dual immersion schools will be located in Southern
California; 3) Teachers must be bilingual; 4) Bilingual teachers must have at least one year
experience in teaching in a dual immersion classroom; 5) Teachers selected for study must have
positive site administration teacher evaluations; 6) School site must have a diverse student and
teacher population; 7) School site must be identified as a high performing school. (See attached
email transcripts).
COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 171
· I will contact each teacher referral by email and let them know of the
administrator or teacher who referred him or her, introduce myself, briefly reiterate the purpose
of my study, then schedule a face-to-face interview meeting on campus and specify a time and
location (See attached email transcripts).
· When I meet with the bilingual teachers, I will get an informed consent signature
agreeing to participate in the research study (See attached consent form).

Interviews
● 8-10 bilingual teachers
● Will use audio-recordings (See attached consent form on audio-recording)
● Will take Field notes
● Interview will take no more than one hour
● Upon completing the interview, teachers will receive a $5 gift for participating in the
study.

Artifacts
The following artifacts will be collected from teachers in the study:
● Lesson plans
● Professional development notes
● Staff and grade level meeting memos and agendas
● Training agendas and memos,
● Work samples
● Pictures of room environment

Data Analysis
● Audio recording will be transcribed via Rev (www.rev.com)
● Constant Comparative Method for coding

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 172
Appendix D

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Teacher Practices and Perspectives in Dual Immersion
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Ofelia Cervera,
Doctoral Candidate and Dr. Jenifer Crawford Dissertation Chair at the University of
Southern California, because you have self-identified as a bilingual educator teaching in
a dual immersion classroom. Your participation is voluntary. I will review the information
below with you, so you understand the study, so that you might participate. Please take
as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss
participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to
sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
I am interested in understanding your experiences and perceptions of the most
useful practices and resources that contribute to the development of their knowledge and
skills in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. Your participation in this
study will provide valuable insight into bilingual education and outcomes for culturally and
linguistically diverse students.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you choose to volunteer in this study, I will schedule an appointment with you
so that I can interview you for a duration of no more than one hour. I will meet with you
in a private and quiet office or classroom on campus to conduct the interview. During
the interview process, I will use an audio-recording device to maintain the accuracy and
quality of your responses. However, you may still participate in the study if you choose
not to be recorded.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The anticipated benefits or for the student or society however, its benefits are
contingent on the results from this study.

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 173
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
By participating in this interview, you will receive a $5 gift card to Starbucks.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law.
However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about
you. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The audio data will be encrypted on a secure PC and all field notes, transcripts,
and coding will be stored and locked in a home cabinet. Online professional transcribers
by the name of Rev will have access to the audio recordings. All audio files, transcriptions,
field notes, and coding will be erased and shredded after the minimum required length of
three years.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at
any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal
claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact, Ofelia Cervera, 951-208-8891, ocervera@usc.edu, University of Southern
California Los Angeles, 90007

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant or the research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if
you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CAPITAL 174
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask
questions. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to
participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO
□ I agree to be audio-recorded.

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded.
_
Name of Participant

_
_
Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her
questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this document
and freely consents to participate.

_
Name of Person Obtaining Consent

_
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies the community cultural capital framework and sociocultural framework on learning to teach to describe bilingual teachers’ perceptions of the most effective practices in educating culturally and linguistically diverse students. The purpose of this study is to inform practice and contribute to the research where data is lacking, by exploring bilingual teachers’ perception of the impact of their approach on learning and language acquisition in their dual language immersion classrooms. This qualitative study selected one public elementary school and interviewed eight bilingual teachers: six teachers in the primary grades (K-2) and two teachers in the upper grades (3-6). Findings resulted in themes aligned with six forms of community cultural capital: aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant. The results provided data on effective teaching and learning pedagogies used in dual language immersion classrooms by bilingual teachers and connected las maestras cultural and linguistic background to the application of teaching and learning pedagogies to impact student learning and outcomes. Three main implications of practice drawn from this study were establishing a committed dual language pedagogical plan for curriculum and instruction, building sociocultural competence in dual language students, and last providing professional development that is focused on the needs of bilingual teachers.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers’ perceptions and impact in their dual immersion classrooms

PDF

Critical ambitious language pedagogy for cognitive academic language proficiency development in two-way immersion schools: teachers' ideologies and practices

PDF

Blended learning: a look into teachers’ perceptions on their role in a 21st century classroom

PDF

A case study on the planning and implementation of a dual language immersion program in a K-12 school district

PDF

A comparative study of motivational orientation of elementary school English learners in a dual language immersion program and a transitional bilingual education program

PDF

Reflective practice and pre-service language teacher preparation

PDF

Defying odds: how teachers perceive academic language growth despite high poverty

PDF

A case study of the roles of principals in dual language immersion programs

PDF

Student perceptions of teacher pedagogical practices in the elementary classroom

PDF

Puncturing discourse: Russian heritage learner language and identity in higher education

PDF

The beliefs and related practices of effective teacher leaders who support culturally and linguistically diverse learners

PDF

Teacher beliefs on bilingual education for English learners post proposition 227

PDF

A case study on African American parents' perceptions of Mandarin Dual Language Immersion Programs and the role social capital plays in student enrollment

PDF

Multimodal composing and teacher preparation

PDF

Exploring culturally relevant pedagogy in a Chinese immersion program: a gap analysis

PDF

The intersections of culturally responsive pedagogy and authentic teacher care in creating meaningful academic learning opportunities for students of color

PDF

Support for English learners: an examination of the impact of teacher education and professional development on teacher efficacy and English language instruction

PDF

Examining dual language immersion program instructional practices with regard to cognitive load theory

PDF

Supporting world language teachers to develop a culturally sustaining curriculum and reflect on its enactment

PDF

The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes

Asset Metadata

Creator Cervera, Ofelia (author)

Core Title A community cultural capital approach: bilingual teachers' perceptions and impact in their dual language immersion classroom

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/06/2018

Defense Date 06/01/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bilingual teachers' perceptions,community cultural capital,culturally and linguistically diverse students,dual language immersion education,English language learners,multilingual education,OAI-PMH Harvest,opportunity gaps,second language learners,social capital,sociocultural theory

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crawford, Jenifer (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo (committee member), Carbone, Paula M. (committee member)

Creator Email ocervera@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-57477

Unique identifier UC11670810

Identifier etd-CerveraOfe-6671.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-57477 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CerveraOfe-6671.pdf

Dmrecord 57477

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Cervera, Ofelia

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA