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Improving Hispanic student performance in English language arts and math: a small California school case study
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Improving Hispanic student performance in English language arts and math: a small California school case study
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IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 1
Improving Hispanic Student Performance in English Language Arts and Math: A Small
California School Case Study
By
Juan Garcia
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Juan Garcia
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 2
DEDICATION
To my wife and son for their support and understanding. Also, to my parents for taking a huge
risk by bringing us to this country illegally back in the 1970’s in search of a better life.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to thank Dr. Stowe, my dissertation chair, for her patience, motivation, and
willingness to provide valuable feedback on this journey. I also want to thank Dr. Robles and
Dr. Picus for being part of the dissertation committee.
I want to thank the great people in cohort #2 who were always willing to help, always
willing to listen and for allowing me to be myself. The individuals in this program made this
program even better when they added their insight, experience, and flavor.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
LIST OF TABLES 6
LIST OF FIGURES 7
ABSTRACT 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 9
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Goal 13
Related Literature 15
Importance of the Evaluation 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups 17
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 20
Stakeholder Group for the Study 22
Purpose of the Project and Questions 22
Methodological Framework 23
Definitions 24
Organization of the Project 25
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 26
History of the Academic Achievement Gap 27
Internal Issues That Increased the Achievement Gap 30
Strategies Implemented to Reduce the Achievement Gap 32
Professional Learning Communities 32
Accountability 36
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 38
Knowledge and Skills 39
Motivation 42
Organization 45
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context 47
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 52
Participating Stakeholders 53
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale 53
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale 53
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale 54
Documents and Artifacts 55
Data Collection and Instrumentation 56
Online Survey 56
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 5
Interviews 57
Documents and Artifacts 58
Data Analysis 59
Ethics 61
Credibility and Trustworthiness 63
Validity and Reliability 64
Limitations and Delimitations 65
Delimitations 65
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS 67
Demographics 68
Findings 71
Research Question One 72
Research Question Two 75
Organizational Support 82
Research Question 2 Synthesis 87
Summary 88
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS AND CONCLUSION 89
Knowledge Recommendations 89
Procedural Knowledge 92
Metacognitive Knowledge 92
Motivation Recommendations 96
Self-Efficacy 97
Goal Orientation 99
Organization Recommendations 100
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 105
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 105
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 105
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 106
Level 3: Behavior 107
Level 2: Learning 111
Level 1: Reaction 112
Evaluation Tools 113
Data Analysis and Reporting 114
Summary 115
Conclusion 116
REFERENCES 119
APPENDICES 131
APPENDIX A: Site Permission Letter 131
APPENDIX B: Informed Consent 132
APPENDIX C: Survey 136
APPENDIX D: Interview Guide 139
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 21
Table 2. Knowledge Skills 42
Table 3. Motivation 45
Table 4. Organization 47
Table 5. Teacher Perceptions by teaching experience 70
Table 6. Interview Participants 71
Table 7. Teacher’s perception of their knowledge 76
Table 8. Motivational Influences 79
Table 9. Teachers negative perception of MUSD 82
Table 10. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 90
Table 11. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 97
Table 12. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 101
Table 13. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 107
Table 14. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 108
Table 15. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 110
Table 16. Components of Learning for the Program. 112
Table 17. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program. 113
Table 18. Metrics Spreadsheet 115
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework 49
Figure 2. Number of Teachers Responding to Survey by Grade Level 68
Figure 3. Teaching Experience 69
Figure 4. SBAC ELA Results 73
Figure 5. SBAC Math Results 73
Figure 6. Teachers Who Use Data to Drive Instruction 77
Figure 7. Collaborating with My Peers Has Made Me a More Effective Teacher 86
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 8
ABSTRACT
The performance gap continues to widen for English Language Learners. This study
used Clark and Estes model to evaluate MUSD’s effort to improve student performance by
increasing teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. A mixed method
approach was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data. Survey data and interviews were
analyzed to measure teacher’s perception of their knowledge and motivation. Kirkpatrick’s New
World model was also used to ensure that training was monitored for effectiveness.
Keywords: performance gap, achievement gap, smarter balance, Local Control and
Accountability Plan
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Over 14 million students in the state of California lack essential academic skills (US
Census, 2010). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2009), the
achievement gap in education refers to the disparity in academic performance between groups of
students. The National Educators Association (2008) also identified student performance on
assessments as a key indicator of the achievement gap. This gap in education is seen in
assessments, grades, course selection, dropout rates, and other academic measures. Peske and
Haycock (2006) argued that the academic achievement gap for Hispanic students is due in part,
to schools that have low expectations for students, ill-prepared teachers who lack a complete
grasp of the curriculum, teachers with poor class management skills, and school administrations
that have not developed a clear vision or strategy for improvement.
Similar to the national achievement data, over 80% of Hispanic students at Mountain
Union School District (MUSD) are not performing at grade level standards in English Language
Arts (ELA) and Mathematics on end of the year, summative assessments (Local Control and
Accountability Plan, 2017). Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) is a nation-
wide, summative assessment that measures academic growth and career readiness (SBAC, 2017).
The SBAC is also aligned with common core standards and common core curriculum, which
most states have adopted (SBAC, 2017). Students who do not meet grade-level standards are not
ready to take the necessary classes which prepare them for success in a post-secondary
environment (CAASPP Levels, 2017). SBAC results for MUSD indicated that 83% of Hispanic
students did not meet the ELA standards and 92% did not meet the mathematics standard. A
similar pattern can be observed statewide. SBAC results from the 2015-2016 school year
indicated that Hispanic students statewide, were not performing at grade level, per SBAC data:
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 10
73% of Hispanic students did not meet the standard in English/Language Arts (ELA) and 76% in
Mathematics statewide were not meeting standards (CAASPP, 2017).
Organizational Context and Mission
MUSD is a small, rural, independent school district located in the central valley of
California. MUSD currently has two sites, one site built in 2007, serves Pre-Kindergarten
through grade four. Another site serves
grades 5 through 8. District plans call for the
expansion of facilities at the Pre-K to grade four sites. This site will eventually expand to
include the entire district enrollment. Total district enrollment is 490 students. MUSD’s
current student demographics include: 88% of enrolled Hispanic student, 80% of English
Language Learners, and 96% of students who qualify for free/reduced lunch. These
demographics are in line with most rural districts in the area.
The 21 certificated staff members at MUSD come from ethnically diverse backgrounds
consisting of 42% Hispanic, 12.5% African American, 12.5% Asian, and 33% White.
Certificated teachers work in a self-contained, multiple-subject environment. In a multiple
subject environment, teachers are required to teach all the core subjects such as Reading, Math,
Science, Social Sciences, and Physical Education throughout the school day.
The current district superintendent has served for eight years and has also served in
other positions such as the district business manager and a fourth-grade teacher. The
superintendent has been the leader in spearheading the transformation of the district into a
more student-centered learning environment. The superintendent has also changed the role of
the teacher in the classroom from the traditional role of simply providing knowledge and
instruction to students to the current system, where the teachers have become facilitators who
provide input, guidance, and structure to student learning.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 11
The district employs the superintendent plus three full-time administrators whose duties
are divided into two roles: 50% vice principal and 50% academic coach. The reason behind
the division of roles is strictly related to funding. MUSD is a small school district and must
combine various funding sources to pay for full-time salaries and benefits. Two of the
administrators spend half of their time in the capacity of vice principal and the other half as an
academic coach. Their duties while engaged in the vice principal’s role require them to be
responsible for student discipline, student suspensions, school safety plans, migrant programs,
and day to day operations as assigned by the superintendent. The remaining administrator has
the primary responsibility to serve as the coordinator for the English Language Development
Program. The three administrators have been employed at MUSD for an average of 13 years.
All three served as teachers at MUSD before becoming administrators at MUSD.
The administrators’ positions as academic coaches allow them to play a key role in
increasing the teacher’s capacity because the coaches work directly with each teacher to help
develop the teacher’s content knowledge and help them engage in positive behavior
modification strategies. To establish and maintain positive working relationships with the
certificated teachers, academic coaches, do not take part in formal teacher evaluations. They
are also able to avoid possible conflicts within the evaluation process. Academic coaches
collaborate with grade levels experts and other content experts to develop and implement adult
learning strategies for the teachers and in turn, work with the teachers to improve classroom
management strategies. Academic coaches are responsible for ensuring that instructional aides
receive training in classroom management and grade level curriculum to better support the
teachers. Academic coaches also coordinate teacher induction programs such as Beginning
Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA) and Teacher Induction Program (TIPs) to clear
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 12
credentials for new teachers.
The mission of MUSD is to prepare all students to meet life’s challenges and to be
ethical and productive members of society. By learning to use critical thinking, divergent
thinking, and problem-solving skills, students are able to meet the demands of an ever-
changing global society and competitive job market. Student academic performance is
impacted positively when the teacher’s capacity for knowledge and motivation is increased.
Studies by Isenberg, Max, Gleason, Potamites, Santillano, Hock, and Hansen (2014) and Peske
and Haycock (2006) have shown that the most effective tool in schools is an effective
classroom teacher. A collaborative approach to teaching has been implemented by MUSD
creating ample opportunities for teachers to network, collaborate, and communicate during
planning times that have been incorporated into the daily school calendar. The network
approach practiced by teachers to solve problems in a collaborative approach was implemented
after the district superintendent received formal training at a week-long workshop at Harvard
University coordinated by Professor Elmore and Professor City. Teachers also voted to accept
an additional eight days of professional development during the school year (LCAP, 2017).
Professional development days are used to review and analyze data to drive future instruction
planning for adult learning experiences focused on the instructional core, cross-grade level, and
vertical collaboration (LCAP, 2016). Content experts work with certificated staff to increase
subject knowledge and improve teaching strategies (LCAP, 2017). Additional planning time
has also been implemented into the weekly schedule. A 30-minute teacher prep period that
provide time to copy and staple packets for use in the classroom has been replaced by two, 40-
minute periods of planning time per week, plus 90-minutes of professional development on
Thursday afternoons. The extra planning time allows teachers to use data from formative and
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 13
summative assessments to drive instruction and plan differentiated instruction for students.
The network approach is intended to combine the experience, possessed by veteran teachers
and the motivation and willingness to learn, that is found with the newer teachers.
Organizational Goal
The primary goal for MUSD is to develop students who will increase their self-efficacy
to become life-long learners. MUSD’s philosophy to ensure an increase in student self-efficacy
is to provide teachers with the tools, support and targeted training needed to increase their ability
to manage a student-centered, classroom learning environment effectively. MUSD believes that
addressing teacher knowledge and motivation will narrow the achievement gap in English
Language Arts and Mathematics for every student. Performance goals established for teachers in
co-teaching and participation in Instructional Rounds are mandatory. Student performance goals
are also set in the Smarter Balance Assessment Consortium (SBAC) interim assessments,
Reading Plus, STAR reading, and CELDT. These performance goals allow the district to
measure progress toward the number increase of Hispanic students who meet the SBAC
standards. The goal is that by August 2017, 50% of teachers in each grade level will choose to
enter a co-teaching environment. Murawski (2009) stated that co-teaching is like marriage and
administrators should be careful not to rush the process. Murawski (2009) pointed out that co-
teaching may undergo phases like that of marriage. She refers to the four phases of marriage as
dating, engagement, wedding, and marriage. According to Murawski (2009) rushing teachers
into co-teaching is not the best way to start a long-term co-teaching relationship. MUSD concurs
with Murawski’s (2009) belief in co-teaching; allowing teachers in each grade level to decide
whether to enter a co-teaching environment is currently the best strategy to ensure that co-
teaching will be sustained and effective. Co-teaching removes teachers from the isolation that is
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 14
common in schools across the United States (Villa, 2014). Teachers who are in co-teaching
environments equally share decision making, student discipline, daily prepping, and planning
(NJEA, 2012). Teachers in a co-teaching environment also have the option to visit other
classrooms within the school, or to go and observe teachers and classrooms in other schools and
school districts.
By August 2017, 100% of teachers at MUSD will participate in monthly Instructional
Rounds Workshops. Another important part of creating a culture of collaboration and
transparency is for teachers to observe their peers at work. Instructional Rounds allow the
teachers to improve their practice as teachers. Rounds provide teachers the opportunity to
observe their peers at work and to gather evidence of of learning that is taking place. MUSD has
implemented procedures and protocols to provide teachers with ample planning time and support
that will lead to the improvement of their practices.
The researcher established five performance goals for students under LCAP metrics
(LCAP, 2017). The first measurable goal is that by June of 2017, students will experience a 3%
increase in SBAC, ELA, and math performance levels. MUSD uses interim assessments
provided by SBAC to benchmark the number of students progressing during and throughout the
school year. Performance in interim assessments provides teachers with individual and class-
wide diagnostics to target areas of need (Smarter Balance, 2017). The second goal is that by
June of 2017, 33% of seventh and eighth-grade students will perform at grade level in Reading
Plus. Reading Plus is a computer adaptive program that increases reading comprehension and
reading stamina. The third goal is that, by June of 2017, 43% of students will perform at grade
level on the Accelerated Reader (STAR) Assessment in grades two through eight. The STAR
assessment is a nationwide, norm-referenced test that measures reading comprehension. The
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 15
fourth goal is that by September of 2017, the percentage of English Learners meeting annual
goals will be 51%, as measured by the California English Language Development Test
(CELDT). The CELDT is an annual assessment used to measure the student’s English language
proficiency in reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Related Literature
According to Darling-Hammond (2007), the academic achievement gap posesed a serious
risk to America’s role as the world’s economic superpower. The manufacturing and industrial
economy that once dotted America’s landscape in the 1950’s has been replaced by jobs requiring
knowledge in the technical field. Stebbins and Comen (2017) stated that these job sectors have
moved overseas due to cheaper production and labor costs. Darling-Hammond (2007) painted an
even more dismal picture for Hispanic Americans, stating that many under-educated individuals
are not employable and become a liability to our society by becoming welfare recipients and
prisoners in our overcrowded prison population. Rampey, Dion, and Donahue (2009) compared
student-scaled reading scores from 1973 and 2008 and found that the gap between White and
Hispanic students decreased from 41 to 26 points. While the data showed improvement, the
achievement gap is still present despite the improvement that the data from Dion and Donahue
(2009) indicated.
Students who are affected by the achievement gap are more likely to drop out of high
school. High school dropouts have higher incidents of drug use, suffer from high unemployment
rates, and are more likely to lead a life of violence (Palma, Sum, Khatiwanda, & McLaughlin,
2009). It is crucial for the economic and social fabric of California that the achievement gap
narrow because Hispanics and non-Whites now outnumber Whites in the state of California
(Panzar, 2015). Peske and Haycock (2006) suggested that the present gap is the result of internal
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 16
issues within the school system and the disparity of access due to socioeconomics. Students who
attend schools in poor neighborhoods suffer from low expectations, ill-prepared teachers who do
not have a full grasp of the curriculum, teachers with poor classroom management skills, and
school administrations that do not possess a clear vision or strategy for improvement all add to
the factors that increase the gap. Haycock (2001) also pointed out other external issues which
contribute the gap, such as a home life that does not instill the importance of obtaining a good
education and home environments that are not conducive to studying.
Slavin and Madden (2006) suggested that the achievement gap begins before students
enter Kindergarten. Slavin and Madden believed that students from low socioeconomics arrive
at school unprepared for the academic environment. Students from low socioeconomics begin
school already behind and continue to fall behind due to the ineffective schools in their
neighborhoods. Slavin and Madden proposed that the most effective way to help these students
is to implement programs for these students before the start of Kindergarten. Slavin and Madden
(2006) suggested investing money into pre-school programs and better health care.
This study combined external factors (Slavin & Madden, 2006), internal factors
(Haycock, 2001), out of school factors (Berliner, 2009), and data from the California Department
of Education and the US Census Bureau to better understand the root causes and consequences
of the achievement gap in English Language Arts and Mathematics among Hispanic students.
Importance of the Evaluation
Closing the achievement gap in English Language Arts and Mathematics is important to
California and the community served by MUSD because students who are caught up in the
achievement gap are more likely to drop out of high school. High school dropouts have higher
incidents of drug use, suffer from high unemployment rates, and are more likely to lead a life of
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 17
violence (Palma et al., 2009). French and Fisher (2009) stated that individuals with more
education are more likely to participate in the job market, maintain a job, work more hours, earn
higher wages, and are less likely to be unemployed. The work environment of today makes it
very difficult for individuals with limited education levels to adjust to the demands of a more
technical workforce. High school dropouts are more than eight times as likely to be in jail or
prison (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
MUSD’s main stakeholders are students, parents, teachers, the administration, and the
school board. Students form the largest stakeholder group within the MUSD. There are
currently 490 students enrolled in MUSD. Most of the students come from low socioeconomic
environments; 95% of the students qualified for the free lunch program. Most of the students fall
into the beginner, or intermediate levels with 80% of them classified as English Language
Learners (ELLs). Based on reading assessments performed by computer adaptive software, 70%
of the students are reading below grade level. Students at MUSD are expected to participate in a
computer adaptive software program designed to increase reading comprehension and receive
individualized instruction at least 20-minutes per day, a minimum of 15 units weekly.
Parents form a key stakeholder group at MUSD, actively participating in the development
of the LCAP (LCAP, 2017), membership in School Site Council, and Parent Teacher
Organization (PTO). A small percentage of parents have graduated from high school. Most
parents are first-generation immigrants and do not consider English their primary form of
communication. Data from parent surveys, parent workshops, and parent conferences indicated
that parents want to be involved in the education process (PIQE Survey, 2016).
MUSD employs 21, full-time certificated teachers. The teachers are an ethnically diverse
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 18
group including three African-Americans, three Asians, seven White, and eight Hispanic
teachers. The gender breakdown is 12 females and nine males. MUSD has not been successful
in recruiting teachers who meet the NCLB criteria for a ‘highly qualified’ status. Nine out of the
21 teachers are deemed not highly qualified because they have not met credential requirements
set forth by the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. Teacher participation in
Instructional Rounds is required as part of the district’s alternative governance strategy (LCAP,
2017). MUSD entered program improvement status when assessment results did not meet
growth expectations. The district’s alternative governance also recommended that MUSD
implement more opportunities for teachers to collaborate. Eight out of 21 teachers are interns
under university programs and have less than two years’ experience in the classroom.
The district recognizes that new teachers are under constant stress in, and out of the
classroom. Teachers’ stress, defined by Kyriacou (2001) is the experience of negative emotions
resulting from a teacher’s work. According to Greenglass and Burke (2003), stress increases
with demands from administrators, colleagues, students, and parents and is compounded by work
overload, student misbehavior, and a lack of recognition for accomplishments. MUSD provides
teachers several support mechanisms to decrease their stress level. MUSD provides instructional
aides in the classroom, small-class size, computer adaptive software to differentiate learning and
reimbursements for costs associated with obtaining proper teacher credentials. Instructional
aides are scheduled for 45-minutes to one hour to support teachers in the implementation of the
curriculum or by providing small group support in the classroom (LCAP, 2017). Instructional
aides have been trained to work in small groups, which helps to decrease the stress to teachers
caused by students who have trouble with behavior or understanding the curriculum. Class size
reduction funds have been used to keep classes under 25 students (LCAP, 2017) to further
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 19
decrease the stress that teachers may experience in larger classrooms. MUSD also recognizes
that differentiated instruction for each student is a very tough task to implement by teachers.
Computer adaptive software can target student weaknesses and provide more work at the
student’s learning level. The use of computer adaptive software is required in reading and math
to help teachers provide instruction that can challenge the student at their academic level.
MUSD realizes how stressful financial obligations can be for beginning teachers. Beginning
teachers are usually the lowest paid employees in the education field due to negotiated collective
bargain agreements. To provide some financial relief and decrease stress, MUSD also has
agreed to cover costs associated with the Teacher Induction Program and the Beginning Teacher
Support and Assessment (BTSA) program; both of which are required for teachers with a
preliminary credential or a cleared credential but with less than two years of teaching experience
(LCAP, 2017).
Another key stakeholder group at MUSD is the district administration. The district
superintendent plus the three full-time personnel serves as part-time vice principals and academic
coaches. To avoid possible conflict between academic coaches and collective bargaining
agreements with the union regarding formal evaluations, academic coaches do not formally
evaluate teachers. The task of formal evaluations fall solely on the district superintendent. The
academic coaches’ responsibility is to provide support to teachers in lesson planning,
professional development, classroom observations, and any other duty related to building the
capacity of the teacher. The superintendent and three academic coaches participate in the
instructional rounds process. This team is also responsible for developing and implementing
professional development topics like creating rigor in the classroom, reducing variability across
grade levels, and strategies to help English Language Learners. MUSD recognizes the need for
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 20
academic coaches to increase their knowledge via targeted professional development. MUSD
has agreed to cover costs associated with attending conferences, participating in training, and the
costs of books and materials (LCAP, 2017).
The community elected school board at MUSD is responsible for ensuring that the
district adopts policies and regulations. The school board is currently made up of five members
who reside within the district boundaries. The school board is not racially diverse as four out of
the five members are White. The board at MUSD has been together many years and rarely
involves itself with issues at school.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Several performance goals for the certificated teachers, students, and administrators at
MUSD are displayed in Table 1. It is important that each stakeholder group strive to meet or
exceed their performance goals. To achieve these goals, teachers must set aside at least 40
minutes per day to ensure that the adaptive computer software increases the student’s ability to
learn.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 21
Table 1
Organizational Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Global Goal
By November 2017, teachers will ensure that students enrolled in their classrooms complete 20-minutes per day on
the computer adaptive software for reading and math.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Teachers
Students Academic Coaches/Administrators
Teachers must set aside at least 40-
minutes during the day to ensure that
students can log into the computer
adaptive software
Students will log into their
accounts to access the computer
adaptive software daily and
complete a minimum of 3 units
daily.
Administrators will ensure that
teachers are setting aside at least 40
minutes daily by working with
teachers to set a common time for
students to be on the computer
adaptive software.
By December 2017, All teachers will
create classroom data profiles that
will be shared with the staff during
the Academic Summit. The data
profiles are to be used to target
classroom instruction based on the
data provided.
By December 2017, 90% of
students will complete a minimum
of 15 units per week in the
computer adaptive software in
Reading and math.
By November 2017, all academic
coaches will ensure that teachers have
the knowledge and ability to create
classroom data plans.
Organizational Global Goal
By September 2017, All certificated staff members at MUSD will participate in Kagan strategies training.
Teachers
Students Academic Coaches
During Thursday’s professional
development, teachers will be front-
loaded with the importance of
grouping students to collaborate on
assignments.
Students will be taught protocols
and procedures for cooperative
learning goals.
Academic coaches will ensure that
teachers are registered for Kagan
training.
By December 2017, All teachers will
implement at least one strategy from
Kagan training.
By January 2017, 90% of students
will participate in cooperative
learning groups.
By February 2017, academic coaches
will coordinate with teachers to
schedule an observation to ensure that
Kagan strategies will be
implemented.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 22
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Every stakeholder at MUSD plays a vital role in the education of its students. However,
due to time constraints, this evaluation study will focus on the certificated teachers. The
classroom teachers were selected as the focus of this study because they spend the most
concentrated amounts of classroom time with the students and are responsible for shaping an
effective learning environment for their students. The performance goals for the certificated
teachers who are employed at MUSD were established via a collaborative approach by the
district administration, the alternative governance team, and the teachers themselves. For
example, by August 2017, 50% of teachers will choose to work in a co-teaching environment.
Most teachers are currently working in an isolated, self-contained, multiple-subject environment.
A co-teaching environment encourages collaboration and fosters more communication among
teachers. By August 2017, 100% of teachers will have taken part in instructional rounds.
Participation in instructional rounds allows teachers to observe other classrooms at MUSD and
allows them to address and access whether the teachers are addressing the problem of practice at
MUSD or not.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the degree to which MUSD is achieving its goal
to improve student performance by focusing on the Instructional Core (teacher, student, and
content), which includes the full implementation of the ELA/ELD and California Math
Standards. While a complete evaluation project would focus on all MUSD stakeholders, for
practical purposes, MUSD’s teachers are the featured stakeholders in this analysis.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. To what extent is MUSD achieving its goal of narrowing the achievement gap by 3%
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 23
in English language Arts and Mathematics by June 2017?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
achieving this organizational goal?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is a systematic, analytical method which helps
to clarify organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. This analysis provides the conceptual framework for the researcher’s evaluation
model. The methodological framework for the study was a qualitative case study with
descriptive statistics. Assumed influences, knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
on MUSD staff, all impacted the ability of MUSD to the achieve its organizational goal. These
influences were generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These influences
were assessed using document analysis, interviews, a literature review, and content analysis.
Based on the research, practical solutions were evaluated and recommended comprehensively.
Evidence for sub-group performance was gathered monthly from adaptive computer software
reports. Data profiles created by grade levels were also gathered and used as evidence to
evaluate the progress to the annual goals. The Smarter Balance data was collected one time
annually when the reporting window opened for the Smarter Balance exams. Data for English
Language Learner re-designation was gathered during the first two months of the new school
year.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 24
Definitions
The terms listed below affected the learning environment of the students at MUSD.
Common definitions of these terms allowed staff to be on the same page when communicating,
collaborating, and cooperating.
Academic achievement gap. An achievement gap is when one group of students
outperforms another group of students. For this dissertation, the focus is on the academic
achievement gap between Hispanic students and their White counterparts.
Alternative Governance. School districts in Year 4 of Program Improvement must
identify a plan for major changes in the organization and its structure. The Alternative
Governance team, which is a sub-committee of the School Board, is brought in to ensure that the
district will implement the plan for changes to the organization.
English language learner. Students whose primary language is not English. Students
are identified as ELs via a home language survey that is given out upon a student’s first
enrollment in a U.S. school.
Hispanic American. Students whose ancestors were from Mexico, Caribbean, Central,
or South America.
Increasing the capacity of the teacher. The improvement of the teacher’s factual and
declarative knowledge in subject matter, classroom management, collaboration with peers, and
data use to drive instruction.
Instructional core. The instructional core is made up of the teacher, student, and
content. The core is affected when a change affects any of the three components.
Instructional rounds. Instructional rounds is a process that identifies systemic issues
within an organization. Fine and large grain evidence is found during classroom observations
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 25
which are focused on what the students are doing. The organization of evidence and the
debriefing that follows allows the participants to identify and recommend strategies to improve
the organization. Instructional rounds allow teachers to develop a common understanding of
effective practice in the classroom while at the same time developing a culture of support.
Instructional task. Instructional task is the work that the student is asked to do.
Problem of practice. The problem of practice is the focus for observations in the
classroom when teachers use instructional rounds. The problem of practice arises from evidence
presented and discussed before team observation of the classrooms.
Organization of the Project
This evaluation study encompassed five chapters. The first chapter described the key
concepts and terms regarding the academic achievement gap affecting Hispanic student
performance. Several bodies of research and the causes of the achievement gap, ranging from
internal school issues to the external issues of our society at was examined in the Chapter One.
The literature reviewed during the study, beginning with the evidence for historical issues and
events that started the achievement gap was the focus of Chapter Two. Also, in Chapter Two,
some of the instructional practices that may have allowed the achievement gap to continue for
many years was addressed. The methodology that was used to evaluate whether a small, rural
school district has succeeded in narrowing the achievement gap by increasing the capacity of the
teacher was covered in Chapter Three. Also in Chapter Three, the tools used to gather
qualitative and quantitative data were discussed. The tools utilized included surveys, interviews,
and the collection of artifacts. In Chapter Four, the data using descriptive statistics were
systematically analyzed. Finally, in Chapter Five, the findings of this evaluation study and
recommendations for furthering the study of the academic achievement gap were discussed.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 26
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The achievement gap, which affects many Hispanic students, is well-documented and
researched to a large degree. Poor student performance on assessments is a key indicator of the
achievement gap since results on these assessments are used nationwide to compare student
learning (National Educators Association, 2008). Provided in this chapter is a review of such
literature to gain more understanding and further the goals of this study. Peske and Haycock
(2006) suggested that the achievement gap is the result of internal issues within the school and a
disparity of student access to effective education due to socioeconomics. Students who attend
schools in poor neighborhoods suffer due to the low expectations placed on them, ill-prepared
teachers who do not have a full grasp of the curriculum, teachers with poor classroom
management skills, and school administrations that do not have a clear vision or strategy for
improvement. Each of these mentioned factors contributes to the achievement gap. Haycock
(2006) pointed out that external issues, such as a home life that does not instill the importance of
obtaining a good education and environments that are not conducive to studying, can contribute
to the achievement gap. Slavin and Madden (2006) asserted that the achievement gap begins
before students entering Kindergarten. Slavin and Madden stated that students from low
socioeconomics arrive at school unprepared for the academic environment. Students from low
socioeconomics are behind from the start and continue to fall behind due to the ineffective
schools in their respective neighborhoods. Slavin and Madden proposed that the most effective
way to help these students is to implement programs for these students before the start of
Kindergarten. Slavin and Madden proposed investing money into pre-school programs and
better health care. The United States Department of Education (2004) identified the disparity in
the end of year test results between Hispanic students and White students as the academic
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 27
achievement gap.
This study combined definitions of the academic achievement gap from Haycock (2006),
Slavin and Madden (2006), and the US Department of Education (2004) to gain a better
understanding of the academic achievement gap. The first section of this chapter introduced a
brief review of the literature that the researcher deemed as significant in creating the
achievement gap. The second section identified the internal educational issues that have allowed
the academic achievement gap to widen. The literature review concluded by addressing
strategies that schools have implemented to narrow the achievement gap.
History of the Academic Achievement Gap
The genesis of the achievement gap can be traced to the infant years of the United States.
Historical issues such as slavery, immigration, and legalized segregation have allowed the
achievement gap to grow. Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) contributed to the increase in the
achievement gap by allowing discrepancies in funding for facilities and staff between White
schools and minority schools (Verdun, 2005). Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) allowed many
Americans to justify discrimination based on race and socio-economics. The United States’
Supreme Court ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) solidified to the country that separate but
equal facilities including schools were an appropriate and acceptable way of life. Non-whites,
including students of Hispanic backgrounds, were subjected to an inferior education due to the
“separate but equal” doctrine. Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) also allowed states to extend the
practice of separate but equal to many out-of-school factors that affected the education students
could access. Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) was eventually overturned by the 1954 ruling on
Brown vs. Board of Education.
The Brown vs. Board of Education decision forced many states that engaged in racial
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 28
segregation to integrate their schools. The period soon after Brown vs. Board of Education saw
an increase in graduation rates and academic achievement. This positive trend was,
unfortunately, not sustained for a long period, because the struggle for minority groups to gain
access to good schools stalled. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of
1964. This groundbreaking law outlawed discrimination based on race, gender, color, or
religion. The Coleman Report of 1966 was another important piece of the Civil Rights Act. The
Coleman Report published in 1966 provided the American public an insight of the education
system across the nation. The landmark report, headed by James Coleman (Coleman et al.,
1966) indicated the crucial role that good, effective schools play in equalizing the learning
environment for students who come from low socioeconomic homes. The Coleman Report
(Coleman et al., 1966) suggested that the neighborhood schools that had been segregated by low
socio-economics were not conducive to higher academic achievement due to a school culture
that accepted low achievement. The Coleman Report recommended that these students need to
attend schools that would expose them to an environment that fostered higher academic
achievement. According to the Coleman Report (1966), it was important for students who had
been forced to attend inferior schools to attend better schools. The Coleman Report (1966) and
the research by Haycock (2001) pointed out the importance of having a highly effective teacher
in the classroom to overcome many of the obstacles Hispanic students face at home and school.
In the early 1980s, President Ronald Reagan summoned his Secretary of Education to
conduct a survey to find out the state of education in America. In 1983, the National
Commission on Excellence in Education (Goldberg & Harvey, 1983) painted a dismal view of
the American education system. The report stated that the education system was in a state of
mediocrity and almost in complete disarray. The National Commission on Excellence in
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 29
Education (1983) also suggested that the United States was falling behind Japan, South Korea,
and more industrialized countries because the education system was not producing capable
employees. The National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) found that over 23
million adults were considered illiterate by simple tests in reading, writing, and reading
comprehension. Over 10% of all 17-year-olds in the United States were considered illiterate, and
as many as 40% of minority students could be illiterate. The National Commission on
Excellence in Education (1983) also stated that many 17-year-olds did not possess the ability to
use “higher order” skills and many were unable to draw inferences from written material. The
inability of so many students to use higher order thinking skills started the movement toward
standard-based curriculum. President Clinton initiated Goals 2000 with the purpose of creating
accountability in the education system. Goals 2000 forced schools to implement strategies to
help struggling students. Goals 2000 was a prelude to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of
2002.
President Bush introduced NCLB (2002) as legislation intended to appease the masses of
Americans who believed that the United States education system was declining. NCLB
implemented the testing of students in third through eleventh grade in Reading and Math.
School districts were mandated to test all significant subgroups. The California Department of
Education (2011) stated that subgroups could be created when 25 or more students shared similar
demographics, the most common subgroups in California were English Language Learners and
students from low socioeconomics. The Federal Government set expected growth rates for all
these subgroups with the overall goal of the subgroups reaching proficient status by the 2013-
2014 school year (California Department of Education, 2011). Schools districts that did not meet
the expected progress were labeled as program improvement and eventually faced severe
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 30
sanctions. Under NCLB, schools and teachers were accountable for creating an effective
learning environment for all of their students. NCLB also required school districts to hire
“highly qualified” teachers. A highly qualified teacher, as defined by NCLB (2002) was as an
individual who had met all of the education requirements and subject matter competencies.
Critics of NCLB believed that using the results of a single, end of year assessment to measure
learning was inaccurate and misleading. Critics further argued that student performance on
assessment was beyond teacher control, thus measuring teacher effectiveness was not practical.
Results from previous assessments indicated that many student subgroups struggled on the
assessments. Furthermore, school districts, to meet performance standards implemented
teaching strategies to teach to the test. NCLB relied on Reading and Math results to gauge
district academic growth, other subjects such as Science and Social Science, became expendable
(Chatterji, 2006).
Internal Issues That Increased the Achievement Gap
According to Haycock (2016), the achievement gap tends to increase in school districts
located in poverty-stricken areas. Haycock (2016) stressed that school districts serving poor
students tend to employ less qualified teachers, were funded by affluent districts and had lower
expectations for students. In fact, Haycock (2016) described a few observations where high
school students were constantly given “busy work” assignments such as coloring and word
finding games.
Many external factors fuel the achievement gap. Berliner (2009) described seven “Out-
of-School Factors” (OSF’s) that combine to impede academic success. OSFs ranged from low
birth weight, no medical care, family stress, to environmental pollutants. Schools are unable to
control any of the OSFs. Berliner (2009) discussed how schools could control internal factors
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 31
such as rigor, fidelity, and self-efficacy; these internal factors when increased should narrow the
achievement gap. Schools must address these internal factors to implement sustainable changes
to reduce the achievement gap. Current pedagogical practices that focus on teaching to the test
and teachers who do not provide activities to access higher order thinking skills are allowing the
achievement gap to exist and persist. Haycock (2016) stated that Hispanic students could reach
higher levels of education provided that the teacher and the school system implement the belief
that the student is capable of producing high-quality work. However, the pedagogy implemented
by many teachers in the classroom is one that targets the lowest performing students at the lower
order thinking skills. Low order thinking skills are those skills that tend to rely on rote
memorization and for the most part, can be considered busy work. Word finds, crossword
puzzles, spellings list, and many more mundane classroom activities are examples of low-level
tasks that are often found in ineffective classrooms from the Kindergarten to the high school
level. Haycock (2016) stressed that students who are falling behind academically would
continue on that path due to the well-established norm of students attending schools with low
academic standards, low-level curriculum, and placed classes taught by under-qualified teachers.
Many schools that serve Hispanic students have all three negative characteristics in common.
Ability grouping, according to Burris, Willey, Welner, and Murphy (2008) was a
desperate attempt by schools to improve student performance on tests. However, such tracking
denied many students access to better teachers at school and thus better implementation of
teaching strategies. Ability tracking used limited forms of summative and formative assessments
to create additional barriers for students to overcome because students who did not improve were
often mislabeled as having behavior issues or identified as candidates for special education
programs.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 32
Teachers have often contributed to the achievement gap based on the lower expectations
they have for minority students (McKown & Weinstein, 2008). Lower teacher expectations are
not depicted in overt actions such as dividing the students by race or ethnicity but rather in the
quality of assignments required over the course of the school year. Wagner (2008) described
academically rigorous activities as those that address higher order thinking skills and creativity.
Often, the assignments in many of these classes rely on coloring maps, remembering terms, and
dates or appropriate behavior. Many of these classes are laid in traditional rows and do not
provide opportunities for students to collaborate and communicate. According to Wagner (2008)
rigor involves the ability for students to collaborate and communicate at a high level. Rigor is
not defined by the quantity of work, but rather the quality of work measured by the depth of
knowledge required by the student to complete the assignments.
Strategies Implemented to Reduce the Achievement Gap
Desimone (2009) stated that teacher learning has gone through a “reform” movement
over the past decade as the prevailing belief links high-quality professional development (PD) to
higher-quality teaching and high-quality teaching to student achievement. Stewart (2014)
indicated that professional development has transformed from passive and intermittent to more
active and consistent, resembling a teaching environment and supported by peers. All of the
characteristics of effective professional development can be found within professional learning
communities.
Professional Learning Communities
One form of teacher collaboration can be found in Professional Learning Communities
(PLCs). The first acknowledgment of collaborative communities in the education sector is
credited to Peter Senge. Senge (1994) stated that while all teachers can learn, it is necessary for
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 33
administrators to put into place structures that increase participation and involvement in the
larger collaborative group. Senge (1994) stated that personal mastery, mental models, shared
vision, and team building are essential to a highly effective collaborative group. DuFour (2004)
stressed that collaborative communities need to embody these five characteristics of shared
values and vision, a focus on learning, collective responsibility, reflective inquiry, and
collaboration. DuFour additionally stated that common planning time must be focused on the
teachers’ understanding of what they want students to learn, how to assess if students have
learned, and the proper procedure in response to struggling students. Hord (1997) stated that “As
an organizational arrangement, the professional learning community is a powerful staff
development approach and a potent strategy for school change and improvement.”
DuFour (2004) indicated that PLCs have three core ideas: ensure that students learn,
create a culture of collaboration, and focus on results. Ensuring that schools are set up to learn is
a difficult concept for many to grasp. Many schools are set up to teach but have not
implemented a plan to measure what the students have learned. DuFour (2004) indicated that a
pivotal shift in the culture of the school occurs once schools shift from ensuring that teaching
occurs to ensuring that students learn. DuFour goes on to mention that formative assessments
are needed in PLCs. Formative assessment results are used to measure the effectiveness or lack
of effectiveness of the collaborative planning sessions. Teachers involved in PLCs must ask
themselves three very important questions:
1. . What do we want to each student to learn?
2. How will we know when each student has gained that knowledge?
3. How will we respond when a student is having issues learning? (DuFour, 2004).
The collective response to the question of how they will respond when students have difficulty
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 34
learning is crucial to the purpose of a PLC. Finally, DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Karhanek
(2004) stated that a PLC is effective when it starts discussing individual student needs rather than
group needs.
DuFour’s (2004) main focus in writing was about how to remove teachers from self-
imposed isolation and prod them towards active participation in a group. Teachers who
participate in PLCs no longer want to work in isolation because they truly believe that working
in collaborative groups will improve their teaching practice (DuFour, 2004). Teachers who are
involved in PLCs commit themselves to exchanging ideas, providing input, and modeling for
their peers. Collaboration is such a vital stage in the implementation and development of PLCs,
which DuFour (2004) suggested that PLCs would cease to function without collaboration. Schon
(1987) alluded to “reflection on action” as being an important step that takes place during
collaboration time.
PLCs are focused on results (DuFour, 2004). Formative assessment results help to drive
instruction in the proper direction and serve as discussion topics during collaboration time.
During collaboration, every teacher should feel that their input is valid and wanted. Teachers
must be involved in the process of collaboration by bringing student assessment results to times
of collaboration and analyzing those results to achieve success.
Professional learning communities are comprised of six characteristics that make them
effective. According to DuFour and Eaker (1998), the characteristics are (a) shared value
mission, vision, and values; (b) collective inquiry; (c) collaborative teams; (d) action orientation
and experimentation; (e) continuous improvement; and (f) results orientation. Each staff
member has their own opinion on what the school needs to implement to improve. Huffman
(2003) suggested that the task of the educational leader is to share and combine the personal
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 35
visions of the faculty members into a single collective vision to be embraced by all.
Professional development or PLCs are difficult to start because every district is unique
with its own culture, teacher knowledge, and motivation. Leithwood (2010) researched 31
school districts that successfully reduced the achievement gap which had similar student
demographics. These demographics included low socioeconomics and disadvantaged youth
(Leithwood, 2010). These districts established procedures and protocols that could be
implemented in struggling districts. According to Leithwood (2010) a few strategies
implemented by these districts were: (a) District-wide focus on student achievement, (b) use of
evidence for planning, (c) organizational learning and accountability, (d) district-wide sense of
efficacy (individual and collective efficacy), (e) learning communities, (f) investing in
instructional leadership, (g) targeting interventions on low performing schools/students, (h)
district-wide, (i) job-embedded professional development for leaders and teachers, (j) and
infrastructure alignment. Leithwood (2010) recommended that every activity the district
undertakes is aligned with a vision statement that includes phrases such as “closing the
achievement gap” or “raising the bar.” The inclusion of either phrase serves as a reminder of the
“why” to all stakeholders. Leithwood (2010) further suggested that administrators improve
communications with stakeholders and discuss the importance of the vision statement to clear up
any misunderstandings. A strong sense of a district-wide purpose is vital to improving student
achievement (Rorrer, Skria, & Scheurich, 2009) with the instructional leaders being at the
forefront in the transformation of the district. School leaders need to establish the vision and
mission for the site, then move resources to align with the vision. Schools that have a shared
vision can steer financial resources toward ensuring that the vision becomes a reality.
Furthermore, a shared vision provides stakeholders with a common goal.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 36
The state of California has recognized that local school boards and stakeholder groups can
make better funding decisions. This understanding led to the passing of the Local Control
Funding Formula (LCFF) which shifts the responsibility of funding school programs to local
stakeholders like school boards, parent groups, and teachers (Fuller & Tobben, 2014). Local
stakeholders have the freedom to fund programs that are effective in meeting performance goals
that have been established in the Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP). According to
Fuller and Tobben (2014), the LCAP is a plan for the local stakeholders to allocate funds from
the LCFF. Under the LCAP, school districts must provide performance goals and a support
structure to measure improvement on an annual, ongoing basis (Affeldt, 2015). The LCAP
provides local stakeholders with an active role in the decision-making process. It is still unclear
how successful the new funding formula will be in reducing the achievement gap.
Accountability
The Coleman Report (1966) and the National Commission on Excellence in Education
(1983) were influential in the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 (NCLB).
President George Bush, along with several key members of Congress, wanted to ensure that
federal funds allocated to schools benefited every student. NCLB was the first to establish
specific accountability goals for school districts to meet otherwise the district could face
penalties. The goals known as Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) were established for sub-groups
within schools. The creation of sub-groups were vital in ensuring that school districts accounted
for groups of students which formed a significant portion of their enrollment. In California, most
schools were forced to account for English Language Learners and low socioeconomics. Some
of the sanctions’ districts could face the removal of the principal, establishment of alternative
governance, or the option to turn struggling schools into charter schools.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 37
Data-driven decisions and use of research to address systemic issues. MUSD
implemented Instructional Rounds to identify systemic issues that were preventing the school
from reaching their goal of creating life-long learners. Instructional rounds also served as a
catalyst for MUSD to network with other schools. There are currently six school districts
involved in the network approach to reducing the achievement gap. Issues like teachers not
allowing students time to communicate and collaborate, lack of feedback on assignments, and
variability across classrooms were identified and addressed (LCAP, 2017). Instructional Rounds
is an improvement model that relies on data based on evidence gathered from classroom
observations to identify system-wide issues. Instructional rounds start off with identifying a
problem of practice within the school site. The problem of practice is often formulated in a team
that consists of teachers and administrators. The problem of practice can focus on any aspect of
learning or instruction during the school day and is described clearly. Elmore (2009) believed
that a group diagnosis of the problem of practice plaguing a school district could be better
identified through the lenses of staff members. Staff members were directed to go into
classrooms in teams to observe and look for evidence to help drive change. Elmore (2009)
believed that education needs to be viewed as a profession, like that of the medical field.
Gathering evidence is an important aspect of instructional rounds. Per Elmore (2009), evidence
can be a large grain (less detailed) or fine grain (more detailed), but it must be objective. The
data is then categorized and discussed with other groups involved in the process to identify
system-wide issues, cause analysis through the five why’s protocol, and the development of a
plan of action. Another important part of instructional rounds is the establishment of a learning
network. The purpose of the learning network is to provide support and opportunities for staff
and administration to learn from each other.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 38
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
This study used the Clark and Estes (2002) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
(KMO) gap analysis. Clark and Estes (2002) wrote that organizational goals would only be
achieved when the gap between established performance goals and actual performance are
narrowed. Clark and Estes (2002) gap analysis framework consist of eight steps. The first step
is identifying the performance goals that have been established for the organization based on
their mission or vision statement. The second step in the gap analysis is establishing the current,
actual level of performance. The third step is addressing the gap between the established
performance goals and the actual performance. The fourth step is where the causes of the gap
are discussed. In this stage, the researcher can study the existing knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that may contribute to the gaps. The fifth step takes place after the KMOs
have been studied and a cause of the gaps has been established. The sixth step is where solutions
are created. The seventh step is implementing the solution from the previous step. Finally, the
implemented solutions are evaluated, measured, or studied then the cycle starts over. In
addressing causes of the gaps, increasing teacher factual and procedural knowledge is vital in
improving the capacity of the teacher at MUSD.
MUSD also implemented “targeted professional development” to increase the teachers’
content knowledge in computer adaptive software, and knowledge on how to create classroom
data profiles to drive instruction. Specific targeted professional development areas are
collectively selected during planning periods. The overall focus of targeted professional
development is on improving teacher knowledge and motivation influences to indirectly increase
student achievement.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 39
Knowledge and Skills
There are four types of knowledge described by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001): factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes facts as well as the
specific terminology used for communication understanding, and organization within a discipline
or system. Conceptual knowledge encompasses the schemas and theories used for classification
and demonstrating a relationship (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Procedural knowledge is
knowledge of specific skills and methods as well as the criteria for determining when to use
those skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001),
metacognitive knowledge is knowledge “about cognition in general as well as awareness of and
knowledge about one’s own cognition” (p. 55).
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) defined types of knowledge that schools can address.
This evaluation study focused on two knowledge types that MUSD has addressed with the staff.
The two knowledge types addressed can develop the capacity of the teacher to improve their
practices are procedural knowledge and metacognition which is the ability to reflect on their
actions. Procedural knowledge is knowledge of specific skills and methods, as well as the
criteria for determining when to use those skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Bloom’s
Taxonomy places the task of applying what is very similar to procedural knowledge in its third
tier. Teachers, using the proper Kagan structure to improve the effectiveness of a lesson, would
be an example of procedural knowledge.
Procedural knowledge. Many teachers have limited knowledge on how to implement
effective teaching strategies that promote collaboration and communication in the classroom.
The role of administrators is to identify the areas of growth within the organization and then
target those areas by providing resources to teachers via targeted professional development
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 40
opportunities. One of the performance goals for the teachers at MUSD is to receive the training
needed to implement Kagan structures in the classroom. Kagan structures have over 200 specific
strategies designed for developing student cooperation. Kagan (2009) described the traditional
classroom learning environment as teacher-centered and teacher-led. Students in the traditional
classroom suffer from little to no interaction unless their teacher calls on them to answer low-
level questions. Kagan also stressed that traditional classrooms tend to rely on students working
independently, without collaboration or group communication, which lack effective develop
language acquisition opportunities.
MUSD implemented the use of computer adaptive software to reach more students at
their learning ability. Computer adaptive software can pinpoint the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) then provide work that addresses the needs of the students. Discussions
with teachers pointed out that many of them were unsure of how to interpret the ample amount of
student data these programs were generating. Teachers were also not able to drive classroom
instruction from the data. Several planning sessions were devoted to increasing the teachers’
knowledge on how to obtain the data from our computer adaptive programs. Teachers were then
taught how to look for patterns in the data to drive instruction. For example, teachers could
analyze the data from their math software and see patterns that indicated that over half of the
students were not doing well on finding the area of rectangles. The teacher would then create a
lesson for the entire class on how to find the area of rectangles.
Metacognitive knowledge. The teaching profession is a very stressful and often
isolating profession. According to Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011), various stressors such as poor
student motivation, conflicts with colleagues, lack of respect for the profession, and student
misbehavior contribute to a high-stress environment. Reflection allows the teacher to mentally
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 41
rewind, analyze the items that worked, and items that need improvement. Dewey (1933) is
credited with being one of the primary philosophers who discussed the importance of reflection
in education. He regarded reflection as a special form of problem-solving that should be viewed
as an active and deliberate cognitive process. Schon (1987) broke down this cognitive process
known as reflection into two types: reflection on action and reflection in action. The staff at
MUSD are encouraged to take time to use both reflection on action (reviewing actions from
recent past) and reflection in action (reframing the situation usually in the classroom and based
on experience; Schon, 1987). MUSD has offered teachers a common planning time that can be
utilized to reflect on previous lessons and to anticipate areas where students might need extra
help in learning objectives. The other objective of the implementation of common planning time
is that this time allows for teachers to share their experiences and to bounce ideas around with
other teachers. This time to communicate is more powerful than packaged education principles
(Schon, 1987). This type of reflection has been encouraged at MUSD to improve the capacity of
the teacher both as a learner and as a classroom facilitator. The reflective stage and the
development of procedural knowledge can be more efficient and powerful if the fear of failure is
eliminated from the teacher’s minds. MUSD has encouraged teachers to try new strategies in
class without the fear of failure.
Several organizational goals established for teachers at MUSD is summarized in Table 2.
The goals focus on classroom strategies that teachers will implement to improve classroom
management, transition times between subjects, and to reflect on their practice. Additionally,
various types of knowledge that teachers are expected to develop at MUSD to be more effective
in the classroom are displayed in Table 2.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 42
Table 2
Knowledge Skills
Organizational Mission
Our vision is to prepare all students to meet life’s challenges and to be ethical and productive members of society.
By learning to use critical thinking, divergent thinking, and problem-solving skills, our students will be able to meet
the demands of an ever-changing global society, and competitive job market.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2017, Teachers at MUSD will utilize strategies that promote collaboration and cooperative groups.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2017, 100% of teachers at MUSD will participate at least twice in instructional rounds observations.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual, procedural, or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers can use Kagan strategies to
improve collaboration in groups.
Procedural Instructional Rounds Observations and
classroom visits
Teachers will reflect on the positives and
areas for growth in the upcoming
trimester.
Metacognitive Teacher surveys, classroom visits
Teachers can use data profiles to develop
targeted instruction.
Procedural Instructional Rounds Observations and
classroom visits
Teachers can reflect on the effectiveness
of lessons.
Metacognitive Teacher surveys, classroom visits
Motivation
Motivation is what causes individuals to move, to provide the effort necessary to achieve
their goal. Pintrich and Schunk (2002) defined motivation as involving three factors: (a) active
choice, (b) persistence, and (c) mental effort. Active choice means initiating a task. For
example, becoming a teacher is a form of active choice. Persistence is the second choice and is
defined as “time spent on task” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). A motivated teacher persists at tasks,
does not give up even when students are having a difficult time grasping a concept, and
persistence is often used to quantify motivation. The third factor, mental effort, is defined as the
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 43
exertion, whether physical or mental, displayed by a teacher to accomplish a task. Motivated
teachers use an abundance of mental effort during teaching situations. This section discussed
self-efficacy and goal orientation as the motivational theories that are important for the staff at
MUSD to reach their performance goals.
Self-efficacy. Most individuals who venture into the teaching profession do so with the
goal of making a difference in the lives and futures of their students. Bandura (1977) established
that it is vital for individuals to believe that their actions will lead them closer to achieving a
given goal. Bandura (1977) proposed that self-efficacy play a key role in the motivation of
teachers. Teachers with high self-efficacy can exert more effort in helping difficult students,
they can overcome obstacles, are resilient when they experience failure, and these teachers are
better prepared to handle the stress of being in the classroom (Bandura, 2006). Teachers with
strong self-efficacy strongly believe that they can make a positive impact on all the students
assigned to their classroom. On the other hand, Bandura (2006) stated that teachers with low-
self efficacy were susceptible to magnifying problems at work and tend to dwell on past issues.
Skaalvik (2007) described self-efficacy as a belief in one’sability to plan, organize, and carry out
activities that are required to attain given educational goals. Classroom teachers develop self-
efficacy through positive and negative experiences, support from colleagues and administration,
and mastering similar challenges (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016).
Goal orientation. The California Standards Test fostered a performance-oriented
climate in schools throughout the state. The Academic Performance Index (API), an indicator of
academic achievement based on the results of standardized tests; and the Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP), another performance-based academic achievement are indicators used by the
federal government to measure academic growth in school districts (California Department of
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 44
Education, 2011). What can a school do to change their performance goal orientation to a
mastery goal orientation? The first step in the process is to define performance and mastery goal
orientation. According to Butler (2007) mastery is striving to acquire competence and ability is
striving to demonstrate or prove ability. Teachers who focus on mastery goals will structure the
classroom into an environment that encourages student involvement, interaction between
students, and understands that learning is an active process (Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, &
Midgley, 2001). On the other hand, teachers who focus on ability goals tend to focus on
performance, formal assessments and student outcomes on performance assessments (Patrick et
al., 2001).
Two motivation indicators that teachers use to increase their motivation for implementing
teaching strategies are shown in Table 3. Goal orientation for teachers at MUSD is not tied to
student performance on state tests. Teachers focus on student’s mastery of the curriculum using
rubric grading. Self-efficacy is vital to creating a positive learning environment for students.
Teachers who believe that their actions will have a positive impact on student learning are more
motivated to teach (Bandura, 1977).
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 45
Table 3
Motivation
Organizational Mission
Our vision is to prepare all students to meet life’s challenges and to be ethical and productive members of society.
By learning to use critical thinking, divergent thinking, and problem-solving skills, our students will be able to meet
the demands of an ever-changing global society, and competitive job market.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2017, Teachers at MUSD will use strategies that promote deeper knowledge (Bloom’s Taxonomy and
metacognitive skills)
Stakeholder Goal
By 2017, 100% of teachers at MUSD will participate at least twice in instructional rounds observations.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy Conduct survey to measure self-efficacy.
Bandura self-efficacy survey.
Goal Orientation Conduct surveys to identify teacher goal orientation.
Conduct a PALS survey.
Discuss goal orientation theories with teachers.
Reassess surveys to identify teacher goal orientation.
Organization
Clark and Estes (2008) described the organizational component as the primary
determinant of motivation and knowledge. Performance gaps are most affected by issues with
the organizational component. Barriers to improving knowledge or motivation often originate
from the leadership. Organizational leaders who want to change their working environment must
be aware of the climate and culture that already exists. It is vital that leaders who want
sustainable change address organizational climate and then organizational culture. Two concepts
influence organizational culture: the cultural model and the cultural setting. Cultural models can
also be described as values, beliefs, and attitudes that are invisible and automated. Cultural
models, according to Cole (1985) are described as “tools for the mind” that represent shared
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 46
ways of perceiving, thinking and responding to challenges and changing conditions. Cole (1985)
continued to state that cultural models become a part of daily life often going unnoticed until
employees are exposed to different models. An example of a cultural model in a school is the
“silo” mentality where teachers isolate themselves in the classroom and rarely communicate with
other staff members. Cultural models take time to develop and usually develop from groups
sharing information or shared experiences (Shore, 1996). Cultural models often go hand in hand
with cultural settings (Cole, 1996). Cultural settings are visible, concrete manifestations of
cultural models that appear within activity settings (Rueda, 2011). An example of cultural
setting could be lack of a formal evaluation tool to formally evaluate staff members. Two
cultural models and two cultural settings that the organization must address are listed in Table 4.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 47
Table 4
Organization
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The conceptual framework for reducing the academic achievement gap among Hispanic
students relied on school districts providing opportunities for staff to increase their knowledge
Organizational Mission
Our vision is to prepare all students to meet life’s challenges and to be ethical and productive members of
society. By learning to use critical thinking, divergent thinking, and problem-solving skills, our students can
meet the demands of an ever changing global society, and competitive job market.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2017, Teachers at MUSD will use strategies that promote peer collaboration and cooperative groups.
Stakeholder Goal (If Applicable)
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Most teachers are resisting the implementation of the
behavior Response to Intervention protocols
Behavior Action Plans, Review of discipline referrals
on the student information system to ensure that
teachers are following the RTI Behavior protocols,
staff surveys
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is a lack of trust by some teachers that the
transition from a teacher-centered environment to a
student-centered classroom will improve the learning
that is taking place at MUSD
Review monthly data on computer adaptive software
results.
Teachers created student data profiles.
Teachers following that students work 20 minutes on
computer adaptive software.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
There is resistance by some teachers from entering
into a co-teaching environment.
Teachers survey to gauge the effectiveness of co-
teaching environment.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Emphasize a common planning time for all grade
levels to improve grade level communication and
across grade level articulation.
Observations during Instructional Rounds to look for
fine and large grain evidence that identifies systemic
issues.
Discuss needs of staff as far as professional
development by content matter experts.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 48
and motivation. It is important that researchers understand that the conceptual framework is a
visual representation of the problem of practice (Maxwell, 2012). The conceptual framework
becomes a graphic organizer that keeps researchers focused on the important issues that must be
developed throughout the writing process (Maxwell, 2012). The conceptual framework keeps
the research organized. Maxwell (2012) affirmed his belief that the conceptual framework is
very important to the development of a solid research study. Maxwell believed that personal
experiences and personal views help in the development of the framework. The conceptual
framework for this study is displayed in figure 1.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 49
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework in Figure 1 illustrates the important role collaboration and
reflection have in reducing the achievement gap. The organization creates the necessary
environment by allotting time for planning that is structured with a collaborative approach in
mind. The organization must also ensure funds geared for planning are used in a manner that is
consistent with the mission and vision statement. A more effective learning environment is
formed when knowledge and motivation issues are addressed. Teachers are better equipped with
strategies and subject matter knowledge to address learning issues that arise in the classroom.
The ability for staff to reflect on action is an important component because this reflection
Reflective
Practice/Collaboration
Students met grade
level standards
Students did not meet
grade level standards
Staff collaboration/Network Approach
Increase knowledge base Observe peers demonstrate
successful lessons/activities
Implement targeted
strategies discussed in
staff collaboration
Address teacher
knowledge and/or
motivation issues
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 50
determines what strategies teachers will discuss and implement during the collaboration time.
Reflection is also important when students can meet grade level standards. Teachers can share
with their peers the strategies that were effective.
The knowledge factor involves the organization that creates opportunities for teachers to
develop procedural and declarative knowledge. Borman and Dowling (2008) concluded that
minority students who attend low performing schools are routinely taught by the least
experienced and therefore, least effective teachers. Many districts equate “highly qualified” to
“highly effective,” thus professional development never addresses adult learning. Districts do
not spend enough time creating the procedural knowledge and instead rely on the declarative
knowledge which shows that the teachers ran an effective class. Teachers who understand the
subject matter are more likely to succeed when problems arise with the material. The 21
st
-
century skills foster communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking, which are all
valuable tools for students to learn. Many teachers have difficulties developing classroom
strategies to address the 4 c’s: creativity, collaboration, communication, and critical thinking.
Districts that do not spend time developing the skills and knowledge of the teacher will find it
very difficult to close the achievement gap.
Motivation relies on the ability of the teachers to find a purpose for teaching their
classroom at a higher level. Teachers who can create an effective classroom environment will
close the achievement gap. Many teachers do not practice the art of reflection in their
profession. Teachers are more likely to gain a better understanding of their teaching practices if
the organization provides time for the teachers to “reflect on” their lessons. This reflection time
becomes more powerful if the teacher can share their findings with a group. Creating a reflective
practice is the primary responsibility of the organization.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 51
Self-efficacy is also an important factor in closing the achievement gap. Teachers enter
the profession because they feel they can have a positive impact on students. Over time, self-
efficacy will decrease for teachers who work in organizations where they feel isolated and
unsupported. For teachers who work in schools with a high number of Hispanic students, their
self-efficacy tends to decrease when state test results are sent out to the schools. These teachers
who work in performance-oriented schools will lose confidence in their ability when all of their
hard work and effort is not reflected in the state assessment results.
Another important part of closing the achievement gap is a constant flow of
communication between educational entities. School districts working in isolation will find that
closing the achievement gap is a very difficult undertaking. School districts will reduce the
achievement gap when they increase the capacity of the teacher and school leaders (Cawelti,
2001). The convergence of the organization, teacher knowledge, and motivation is where the
most effective solutions for reducing the achievement gap reside. Based on the review of
literature, all three elements of the KMO work in unison to drive change. An organization
without teachers who buy into the change process will be more effective than an organization
where most of the teachers do not work to ensure policies are implemented. At the same time,
teachers who want to improve the learning environment beyond their classroom will have a
difficult time achieving this because their main responsibilities lie within their classroom.
Creating educational networks allow school districts to learn from others through a
constant exchange of information. These networks also provide support for individuals when
times become turbulent during the change process. Overall, it is vital that school administrations
create the “buy in” from stakeholders to implement sustainable strategies to reduce the
achievement gap.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 52
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this mixed method study was to evaluate the degree to which MUSD
achieved its goal of improving student performance by focusing on the Instructional Core
(teacher, student, and content). Creswell (2002) defined mixed methods as a research approach,
popular in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. Researchers collect, analyze, and integrate
both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or in a sustained long ‐term program of
inquiry to address their research questions.
A mixed method approach was used to evaluate MUSD’s goal of improving student
performance in English Language Arts and Mathematics. The first step in the explanatory
sequential design was to gather data using an online quantitative survey. The quantitative survey
was emailed to every staff member at MUSD who met the following criteria: teachers who have
worked at MUSD for two or more years. The quantitative survey focused on acquiring
quantitative data such as years of experience, types of credentials, teacher preparation programs,
and professional development participation. Qualitative data was also gathered through semi-
structured interviews. Qualitative interviews were conducted to allow for possible clarification
of questions or results from the survey. The semi-structured interviews consisted of open-ended
questions listed in an interview guide which allowed the researcher to gain a more in-depth
understanding of the teachers. Classroom observations, as well as the gathering of artifacts that
were relevant to answering the research questions were additional qualitative approaches used in
this study. Data triangulation was achieved using quantitative survey, qualitative interview, a
gathering of artifacts, and field observations.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 53
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were 21 certificated teachers currently employed on a
full-time basis at MUSD. All 21 teachers at MUSD worked in a self-contained, multiple subject
environment. In this teaching environment, the teacher was expected to teach Physical
Education, Reading, Math, Social Sciences, Science, and Language Arts in a grade-appropriate
manner. All 21 teachers were surveyed on their views regarding the school district’s effort to
increase the number of students meeting grade-level standards on the Smarter Balanced
assessments. Increasing the capacity of the teachers focused on knowledge and motivation
factors that MUSD relied on to increase the capacity of the teacher. The increase in knowledge
and motivation should transform the learning environment into a more effective tool that will
increase the number of students meeting grade level standards. MUSD’s small size makes it
very feasible for all teachers to be surveyed.
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Wording was predetermined.
Criterion 2. Order of questions was predetermined.
Criterion 3. Use of Likert scale with four items required an answer by the recipient.
Likert scale used strongly disagree, disagree, agree and strongly agree.
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale
There is not a set number of how many people need to be surveyed for a study. Lincoln
and Guba (1985) suggested that the number of candidates required should be enough to answer
the questions at the beginning of the study. Therefore, the goal was to survey all 21 teachers at
MUSD with an expected response rate of 70%. All 21 teachers at MUSD were emailed an
online survey however only 18 teachers completed the survey for a response rate of 86%.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 54
Qualtrics, an online survey site was used to deploy the survey. The teachers received the link to
the survey via their work email address. The sampling strategy was a non-probability strategy.
Honigman (1982) stated that non-probability sampling allows the researcher to address questions
that are not related to “how much” or how often” because the focus is more in-depth, centering
on implications, discoveries, and relationships. The conceptual framework indicated that the
number of students meeting grade-level standards would increase when the organization, teacher
knowledge, and motivation progress in the same direction. The quantitative survey was the first
data gathering tool distributed.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Interviews allowed for a deeper understanding of the respondents.
Criterion 2. Teachers were full-time employees of the district.
Criterion 3. Only one teacher per grade level was interviewed.
Qualitative interviews allowed the interviewer (researcher) a better understanding of the
participant’s perspective (Patton, 2015). The candidates selected for the interview came from a
pool of 21 teachers who were identified through purposeful sampling (non-probable sampling
technique). Purposeful sampling is a strategy in which particular settings, persons, or activities
are selected deliberately to provide information that cannot be gleaned as well from other choices
(Maxwell, 2012). Purposeful sampling allowed the researcher to interview a total of five
teachers. These five teachers provided enough descriptive information on MUSD to give
accurate insight into the organization. The semi-structured interviews conducted at MUSD were
a mixture of informal and formal interview questions depending on the participant selection.
The interviews were conducted in a place convenient for the participant. The goal of the
interviews was to make the participant feel comfortable so that they would provide better insight
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 55
into their world. An interview guide was used to keep the interviewer focused on topics that
addressed the research questions. Weiss (1994) stated that the purpose of an interview is for the
researcher and the participant to produce information useful to the research. According to Weiss
(1994), it is important for the interviewer to establish a good relationship with the interviewee to
dig deeper into their thoughts and feelings.
The types of questions asked during the interview process were crucial. The first few
questions were related to gathering background and demographic information. For example,
questions about their age, years of experience, and education allowed for a nice opening to the
interview process. The remaining part of the interview focused on questions relating to
knowledge and motivation issues. Knowledge-based questions were designed to understand
better the teacher’s perspective on targeted professional growth and their preparation for teaching
multiple subjects. Knowledge questions also addressed changes in classroom management and
planning that pertain to the academic achievement gap. Many of the questions asked were
preceded by prefatory statements for a smoother transition to the next question. Probing and
follow-up questions were used when additional insight was needed to better understand the
participant’s answer.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents and artifacts were gathered to further triangulate the data. The documents
were valuable for gaining a better understanding of the research questions. The monthly
performance data for the district was also gathered. The spreadsheet allowed stakeholders to
view student performance in all computer adaptive programs at MUSD. The spreadsheet was
used by MUSD to keep track of the number of students who were at grade-level or above in
Reading Comprehension, Math, attendance percentage, and reading fluency. The other
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 56
document that was collected was the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) results.
The district received preliminary reports in June of 2017. The preliminary reports were a great
starting point for analyzing data. The official SBAC data came available in late July of 2017.
Close attention was paid to the disaggregation reports for the district’s significant student
subgroups such as Hispanic, low socioeconomic, and migrant.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Data was gathered through a mixed method approach. A mixed method approach
contains quantitative and qualitative aspects. The online quantitative survey, staff data profiles,
document analysis, qualitative interviews, literature review, and content analysis allowed for
triangulation of data. Site permission was obtained from the Superintendent at MUSD to gain
access to all certified teachers and collect data (see Appendix A). An email containing a link to
the online survey was sent to all 21 teachers at MUSD. All participating teachers signed a
consent form before any participation in the study (see Appendix B). The consent form notified
them of their rights to withdraw from participation without any negative consequences. The
form also advised them of their right to review any part of the study that they wish. Notes
arising from the interviews did not contain any information that identified the participant. Smith
(2003) wrote that the researcher needs to sample enough respondents to ensure the data is
representative of the study. All participants were informed of the steps that were implemented to
ensure that the data gathered was maintained.
Online Survey
The quantitative survey, found in Appendix C, was conducted online using the teacher’s
email addresses. The quantitative survey contained 28 questions that sought to provide insight
into how teachers perceived their motivation and knowledge. A Likert scale was used in 28
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 57
questions with response items starting from “strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “agree,” or “strongly
agree.” The response items were assigned a point value starting from “1” for “strongly disagree”
to a “4” for “strongly agree.” The point value designation was needed to provide a statistical
analysis using Microsoft Excel functions and formulas. Several questions addressed how the
teachers perceived the organization. All 21 credentialed teachers at MUSD received the online
quantitative survey by email. The goal was to receive at least a 70% response rate. A response
rate of 70% provides a large enough sample to ensure that the data is valid. Aligning the survey
questions to one of the three research questions ensured the validity of the assessment. Validity
measures how well the questions address what the assessment is supposed to measure (Maxwell,
2012). Every effort was made to not use leading questions to guide the respondent in a certain
direction (see Appendix C for survey).
Interviews
The researcher interviewed a total of five teachers who were employed full-time and have
been with the district two or more years. The five qualitative interviews provided enough rich
data to analyze because each teacher selected had participated in collaborative groups, targeted
professional development, and the instructional rounds process. As previously stated, semi-
structured interviews were conducted. Semi-structured interviews allowed the interviewer to
control the types of questions asked with the use of an interview guide. There was no specific
order for asking questions, and the respondent could provide open-ended responses. The semi-
structured interviews conducted at MUSD were at the discretion of the participants. An
interview guide, found in Appendix D was used to keep the interviewer focused on topics that
addressed the research questions.
The interviews lasted a total of 30 to 45-minutes with additional follow up interviews to
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 58
help provide clarification and fill in any blanks. All interviews began with the researcher
thanking the participant for their time and effort. The participant was also reminded that they
were under no obligation to answer any questions that might make them uncomfortable. The
reason for the interview was explained, and participants were assured that data would not be
shared with administration. There were seven to ten questions asked in the interview process
depending on any additional of follow-up questions related to the initial questions. The
interviews were recorded and transcribed. The participants were given an opportunity to review
the interview transcripts for accuracy, corrections, or clarifications within their discretion.t
Documents and Artifacts
According to Prior (2004), documents and artifacts provide the researcher with additional
insight into the participant’s world. A valuable document gathered during this study was the
monthly performance data for the district. This spreadsheet allows stakeholders to view student
performance in all the computer adaptive programs being used at MUSD. The spreadsheet is
used by MUSD to keep track of the number of students who are at grade level or above in
Reading Comprehension, Math, attendance percentage, and reading fluency. Smarter Balanced
Assessment Consortium (SBAC) reports were generated and printed out for additional analysis.
The SBAC is a nationwide, norm-referenced assessment that compares the results of the
individual results versus results of other students who have taken the test.
The evidence for sub-group performance was gathered monthly from the computer
adaptive software reports. Data profiles created by grade levels were gathered and used as
evidence to evaluate the progress towards the annual goals. The Smarter Balanced data is
collected only one time annually when the reporting window opens for the Smarter Balanced
exams. The data for English Language Learner re-designation is gathered during the first two
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 59
months of the new school year.
Data Analysis
Data collection involved a quantitative survey and individual interviews with five
certificated staff at MUSD. All questions on the survey required a response so that the
respondent could not skip questions. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed using
Microsoft Excel functions and formulas. Johnson and Christensen (2015) stated that descriptive
statistics allow the researcher to describe, summarize, or make sense of a set of data. The final
step, after the analysis of the qualitative survey data, was to present the findings graphically.
The researcher provided graphs in the reporting of the analysis of the data.
The researcher interviewed five teachers who worked at MUSD for more than two years.
The interviews were recorded, audio only, and notes were taken on other aspects of the interview
such as body language. Interviews were transcribed using an online transcription service. Open
coding was used at first to identify possible patterns. Open coding consisted of in-vivo coding.
Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014) described in-vivo coding as the most well-known
qualitative coding method. They stated that in-vivo coding uses words or short phrases from the
participant’s language from the transcripts (Miles et al., 2014). Several additional steps were
helpful in the completion of qualitative data analysis.
According to Miles and Huberman (2002), the researcher should:
1. Give codes to first set of field notes drawn from observations, interviews, or
document reviews.
2. Note personal reflections or other comments in the margin.
3. Sort and sift through the materials to identify similar phrases, relationships between
variables, patterns, themes, distinct differences between subgroups, and common
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 60
sequences.
4. Identify these patterns and processes, commonalities, and differences; and take them
out to the field in the next wave of data collection.
5. Begin elaborating on a small set of generalizations that cover the consistencies
discerned in the database.
6. Examine those generalizations in light of a formalized body of knowledge in the form
of constructs or theories (Mertens et al., 2010, p. 9-10).
In vivo coding was the most appropriate for beginning qualitative researchers learning
how to code data and studies that prioritize the participant’s voice. Saldana (2009) stated that in-
vivo coding is a strategy that involves assigning each piece of data a label that grasps the main
concept of a participant’s statements for sorting purposes. In-vivo code refers to a short word or
short phrase from the actual language in the qualitative data record; the terms used by
participants themselves. This coding approach is appropriate for studies that prioritize and honor
the participant’s voice. In-vivo coding with actual words enhances and deepens an adult’s
understanding of their own culture and worldview (Saldana, 2009). In-vivo coding also allows
for an inductive process. The use of in-vivo codes allowed the researcher to keep a codebook
that helped to paint common themes. A priori coding was used when transcripts were analyzed
to find similarities or ties to the research questions from the conceptual framework. The a priori
and in-vivo coding helped the researcher to measure how much of the KMO was being addressed
in the organization.
Creswell (2009) also offered a six-step guide that researchers can follow to ensure that
data is coded and analyzed properly. Step one calls for organization and preparation of data for
analysis. This step entails transcription of interviews, scanning material, and sorting and
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 61
arranging data into different types. Step two requires the reading of all data to get a first
impression of the information and to reflect on its overall meaning. Step three is where coding
the data becomes important. Coding is the process of organizing data and writing words to
represent categories in the margins (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). Step four is where the researcher
uses coding to generate a deep description of the setting or people. This step allows for the
development of categories or themes. The researcher also conducted analysis based on the
specific theoretical approach and method (e.g., narrative, content, grounded theory, discourse,
archival, semiotics, and phonemic analysis techniques). Step five is to generate a description of
the setting or people, identify themes from the coding, and search for thematic connections that
represent the data within a research report. Finally, step six allows interpretation of the larger
meaning of the data.
Ethics
As a qualitative researcher, it was important to make ethical choices while conducting
this study because so much of the data collection entailed direct conversation and personal
knowledge (Merriam, 2009). Informed consent forms were given to all participants at the
commencement of the study. Glesne (2011) stated that informed consent is necessary to ensure
that the participants are aware that their participation is voluntary, all the discussions are kept
confidential, and they can withdraw at any point without penalty. To ensure the safety of the
participants, the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviewed
procedures of this study. All rules and guidelines provided by IRB regarding the rights,
protection and welfare of the participants in this study were adhered to and upheld. All of the
participants signed consent forms, and they were reminded that participation was voluntary.
Also, participants were reminded that their identity and all information gathered was
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 62
confidential. Confidentiality is extremely important, as well as respecting the participants’
wishes if they decided to withdraw from the study. Before the interviews, participants were
asked for permission to audio record the interview session. Participants were reminded that
incentives were not provided for participation in the study to ensure that no coercion had taken
place. After the study, all participants received a thank-you card. The lack of incentive was a
way to minimize the possibility that participants would feel coerced into participation.
Participants were also reminded that statements made during interviews would not affect their
employment status.
The researcher disclosed any biases, beliefs, and assumptions to the participants before
starting the data collection process. The researcher’s current role as an administrator at MUSD
did not impact the data because the duties and responsibilities as an administrator at MUSD did
not involve classroom observations, teacher evaluations, or curriculum design and development.
Currently, the researcher serves as the Principal of the district’s community day school and
coordinate technology, testing, and CALPADS. The community day school is an alternative
education program that is physically housed in a portable classroom far from regular education
students. During this study, the researher’s interaction with regular education teachers was
minimal due to conflicts in schedules. The minimal access to regular education teachers and
students minimized conflict of interest and biases. The researcher communicated to participants
that the role as a researcher was strictly to gather data for this dissertation and that the data
gathered would not be shared with the other administrators. The researcher spoke to the teachers
regarding the study, which is a requirement to earn a doctorate from USC. Most of the teachers
stated they were willing to participate in the qualitative interviews. All teachers were assured
that confidentiality was important and that no harm would come to them from participating in
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 63
this study. All collected data related to the study were stored in an encrypted account that is
password protected. Only the researcher has access to the password.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Maxwell (2012) stated that quantitative studies ensure validity by designing controls
ahead of time to deal with anticipated and unanticipated threats to validity. This design method
is not possible in qualitative studies. Qualitative research studies rely on the relationship that the
researcher establishes with the participants to increase trustworthiness. Creswell (2013) stated
that qualitative researchers need to show that their studies are credible by increasing the validity
of their study. Qualitative studies rely on triangulation of data, member checking, and expert
review to ensure internal validity. Internal validity increases dependability, which in turn
increases credibility. Fielding and Fielding (1986) described triangulation as a procedure that
can be derived by using various data sources from focus groups, observations, and interviews.
Triangulation increases the credibility of the study because different data gathering instruments
are used to ensure accuracy.
This study increased validity by using various sources to find commonalities in data such
as a qualitative survey, staff data profiles, document analysis, interviews, literature review, and
content analysis. Fielding and Fielding (1986) pointed out that the data sources might have
similar flaws in the design. Respondent validation, also known as member checking, involves
asking the participants to provide feedback on the data and conclusions drawn from interviews,
observations, and focus groups (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Member checking allows the
participants ample time to review notes, interject new ideas, and even delete some entries. The
inherent flaw that arises during member checking is that the participant may not remember the
interview or have a change of opinion, and then expects the research to modify accordingly.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 64
Expert review allows individuals who are more experienced and knowledgeable in the research
study process to provide constant feedback to ensure a well thought out study. The expert
reviewer is in the role of recommending changes to the study and requiring changes to the study
until validity has been met.
Validity and Reliability
The goal of every researcher is to increase the validity of their study. One of the most
important steps in increasing validity is reducing research bias. Research bias is defined as
providing data that fits into the researcher's existing theory or preconceptions (Miles &
Huberman, 2002). It can be difficult for the researcher to remain objective in the process since
human nature often involves emotional responses and reactions to situations. Decreasing
reactivity or the influence of the researcher on the research participants is also a proven process
that increases the validity of the findings. Hammersly and Atkinson (1995) stated that it is
almost impossible to eliminate reactivity in a qualitative study. Instead, they recommend that the
goal should not focus on eliminating the influence, but rather work with its strengths.
Maxwell (2012) identified eight steps to increase the validity of a qualitative study: (a)
triangulation, (b) member checking, (c) research reflexivity, (d) disconfirming evidence, (e)
prolonged engagement in the field, (f) collaboration, (g) audit trail, and (h) thick, rich
description. For this study, only a few steps outlined by Maxwell (2012) were reviewed; such as
ensuring rich data, respondent validation, and triangulation. Rich data detailed description of
events, individuals, and actions undertaken during the study. Rich data allowed the reader to
“experience” the study and increase the validity of the study. Respondent validation is the
process of asking the research participants to review the data that has been gathered to ensure
that accuracy of the note taking, observations, and recordings. Creswell (2013) described
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 65
triangulation as the process of collecting data from different sources to find common strands.
Triangulation also enables the researcher to corroborate evidence collected through multiple
methods, such as observations, interviews, and documents to locate major and minor themes.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations in a study are factors that may cause the study to be weak and areas of
unforeseen circumstances that the researcher cannot control (Simon, 2011). This evaluation
study addressed six limitations that could compromise the research. The first limitation in this
study was the low number of certificated teachers at MUSD. The second limitation was the
longevity of the school board that has been serving the district. The third limitation was the
consistency of the school board and uniqueness of their willingness to allow the Superintendent
freedom in running the school. The fourth limitation was the length of time the administration at
MUSD has served together. The district administration has served for an average of 14 years,
and this has created a unique situation in that every administrator is clear about their supporting
role in the change process. The fifth limitation was the lack of a strong teacher union. This
limitation also allowed MUSD to make instructional, financial, and personnel decisions with
little to no interference. The sixth limitation was that there were no organized parent groups that
existed in or near the community. This lack of “activism” has allowed changes in the classroom
environment to be implemented quicker.
Delimitations
Delimitations in a study are factors and decisions that are within the control of the
researcher. Two delimitations were created in this study. The first delimitation was that the
primary stakeholders for this study only consisted of the certificated teachers at MUSD. The
decision to have teachers as the key stakeholder group changed the scope and results of the
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 66
study. The second delimitation was the methodology selected to address the problem of practice
concerning the achievement gap in English Language Arts and Mathematics. Qualitative
methods such as a qualitative survey, staff data profiles, document analysis, interviews, literature
reviews, and content analysis were the methods used to gather data in addressing MUSD’s
achievement gap in English Language Arts and Mathematics.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 67
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this mixed method study was to evaluate the degree to which Mountain
Union School District (MUSD) achieved its goal of improving student performance by focusing
on the Instructional Core. According to Elmore (2009), the Instructional Core consists of the
relationship between teacher and student in the presence of content. Elmore (2009) lists several
principles of the Instructional Core, however, this study focused on the first principle that states
that an increase in student learning occurs only as a consequence of improvements in the level of
content, teachers’ knowledge and skill, and student engagement. The researcher used the KMO
framework (Clark & Estes, 2012) that measures the gap between performance goals and actual
performance. The gap analysis used knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to
identify causes and then develop possible solutions. The findings in this chapter were derived
using three key pieces of data collection:
1. A 28-item quantitative survey deployed to all 21 certificated teachers currently employed at
MUSD.
2. Semi-structured interviews with five certificated teachers
3. Collection and analysis of MUSD’s Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) metrics
related to student achievement and professional development agendas. The documents
reviewed for this study were the district’s LCAP metrics goal spreadsheet, Smarter
Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) results, and the LCAP plan submitted to the
county office of education.
Three research questions guided this evaluation study:
1. To what extent is MUSD achieving its goal of narrowing the performance gap by 3%
in English Language Arts and Mathematics by June 2017?
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 68
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
achieving this organizational goal?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Demographics
The key stakeholder group for this evaluation study was comprised of 21 full time,
certificated teachers who are currently employed by MUSD and have been teaching at MUSD
for at least 2 years. The response rate to the survey was 86% (18 out of 21 teachers completed
the survey). The grade level taught of the 18 teachers who responded to the survey is illustrated
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Number of Teachers Responding to Survey by Grade Level
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 69
In Figure 3 (below) teaching experience at MUSD is illustrated. This data is important
because according to survey data, the number of years taught affects how teachers perceive the
strategies that have been implemented by MUSD in the categories of knowledge and motivation
(Table 5, Pg 68). Research by Dornyei and Ushioda (2011) indicated that some teachers reach a
point in their career where negative factors outweigh their motivation. Dornyei and Ushioda
(2011) identified teachers who reach this point as demotivated.
Figure 3. Teaching Experience
Table 5 divided teachers into two groups to measure if teaching experience affects their
perception of MUSD’s strategies to address knowledge and motivation. Column A consists of
teachers who have more than 10 years of teaching experience (veteran teachers) and teachers
who have less than 10 years teaching experience (newer teachers) form the second group listed
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 70
in column B. The data in column C shows that “veteran” teachers tend to have a less favorable
perception of the district’s effort to implement strategies to improve knowledge (-.41),
motivation (-.61), organization (-.61). Column D pertains to the number of items the survey
contained related to the categories of motivation, knowledge, and organization. For example,
Row 1 shows the category “Motivation” and 8 survey items (column D) were related to
motivation. The overall score, shown in row 4, for veteran teachers is slightly ½ point lower
than newer teachers.
Table 5
Teacher Perceptions by teaching experience
Teaching Experience
A.)
10 or
more
years
B.)
Less than 10
years
C.)
Difference
D.)
# of items
1.) Motivation 3.01 3.61 -.60 8
2.) Knowledge 2.99 3.40 -.41 10
3.) Organization 2.89 3.50 -.61 10
4.) Overall 2.96 3.50 -.54 28
Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gain a deeper understanding MUSD’s
effort to narrow the achievement gap. Interview and survey data provided evidence that targeted
professional development was implemented to increase knowledge that revolves around
improving teacher’s factual and procedural knowledge. Shulman (1987) indicated that an
increase in factual and procedural knowledge allows teachers to feel more comfortable with the
subject they are teaching and thus be more effective in delivering instruction. Additional
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 71
demographic information on interview participants is provided in Table 6.
Table 6
Interview Participants
Participant
Name
Teaching
Experience
Ethnicity Gender Grade
Participant 1 3 Hispanic M Sixth
Participant 2 3 White M Fifth
Participant 3 5 Hispanic F Eighth
Participant 4 12 White F Fifth
Participant 5 4 Hispanic M Seventh
Findings
This section presents the findings of this evaluation study, organized by the three research
questions. The findings to the first research question, to what extent is MUSD achieving its goal
of narrowing the achievement gap by 3% in English Language Arts and Mathematics by June
2017 were established from document analysis. Correspondingly, the findings of the second
research question used Clark and Estes (2012) gap analysis model that incorporates knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences to measure how well the organizational goal is aligned.
The second research question was addressed using all three sources of data. Findings from the
different sources allowed for triangulation of data to further validate the credibility of the results.
Finally, the recommendations to the third research question used various pieces of information
from the surveys with teachers will be discussed in Chapter 5.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 72
Research Question One
Various data sources were analyzed to measure MUSD’s progress with this performance
goal. Smarter Balanced assessment results indicated that MUSD did not meet its goal of
narrowing the performance gap by 3% by June 2017. The first step was to review collected
documents such as SBAC results for the past three school years (2014, 2015, and 2016), LCAP
metrics spreadsheet that tracked student performance in various computer adaptive programs,
LCAP plan, and other professional development agendas. The document analysis was performed
along with interviews with the five participants.
Figure 4 is a visual representation of how MUSD’s 7
th
graders and 8th graders performed
in the English/Language Arts section of the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC).
Data from 2014 showed 13% of 7
th
grade and 8
th
grade students performed at grade level or
above. The 2015 results produced a 5-point decrease. However, the 2016 school year showed
that MUSD improved SBAC results by 7%. The performance goal of a 3% increase in students
who scored at or above grade level standards was met in English/Language Arts.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 73
Figure 4. SBAC ELA Results
How MUSD’s 7
th
graders and 8
th
graders performed on the math portion of the SBAC is
represented in Figure 5. It was identified that in the school year 2014, 6% of MUSD’s 7
th
graders and 8
th
graders scored at or above grade level. In the same fashion, SBAC Math results
in the school year 2015 and 2016 decreased to 5% and 4% correspondingly.
Figure 5. SBAC Math Results
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 74
Findings for question one revealed that teachers have a deep understanding of the
achievement gap. Survey data indicated that teachers at MUSD are cognizant of academic
discrepancies between Hispanic and White students; 15 out of 18 teachers agreed that the district
has implemented professional development to improve student performance. All five teachers
who participated in interviews provided their own definition of the achievement gap. Teachers
were also able to provide internal and external causes of the achievement gap. Teachers were
able to discuss internal causes such as low expectation for students, low teacher motivation, and
school districts that used “out of school factors” as excuses for lack of academic improvement
issues that can be addressed by the school district. Data from interviews supported document
analysis results. Participant 5 provided his view on the causes of the achievement gap, He
commented, “There is always going to be an academic gap between kids. It goes back to some
kids get things a little quicker than others.” Participant 3 shared a similar perspective, partially
placing fault on teachers who focus primarily on teaching only to grade level standards. She
commented that teachers who go through the motions of teaching using only grade-level
standards as the guide are not meeting the needs of every student. As a result, students who are
not working at grade level will fall farther behind. Participant 2 pointed out that there is an
achievement gap as evidenced by SBAC results. The participant added that traditional teaching
strategies must be modified and personalized teaching and learning should aid in addressing the
gaps. Participant 2 stated, “There is an achievement gap! You can see it on SBAC scores. You
can also see the academic achievement gap on learning activities done within the classroom. I
strongly believe that traditional teacher-centered classrooms does not help!” Finally, Participant
1 shared some responsibility in contributing to the achievement gap, “I feel that the achievement
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 75
gap is due to the low expectations (including myself at times) that the teachers have of these
students.” Most of these teachers understand that increasing their knowledge and motivation will
eventually narrow the achievement gap. With the wide achievement gap identified, the
researcher then targeted the identification of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to achieving the previously stated organizational goal.
Research Question Two
The second research question addressed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to achieving the organizational goal of narrowing the achievement gap. Two
principal themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews:
1. Teachers at MUSD have increased their factual and procedural knowledge of the
causes of the performance gap and as a result, have implemented effective teaching
strategies.
2. MUSD has aligned resources to increase teacher motivation.
Clark and Estes (2012) pointed out that organization must understand the causes of the
gap that exists between the established goal and actual performance levels. Clark and Estes
(2012) also expressed how vital it is for organizations to identify the causes of the performance
gaps in knowledge, motivation or organizational issues. Increasing knowledge or vise-versa
cannot solve a motivation issue.
Knowledge. This section focused on data that measured the type of knowledge teachers
currently possess to narrow the performance gap. Most teachers demonstrated factual
knowledge by being able to recall several effective learning strategies such as “timed pair share,”
“rally robin,” “stand up hand up pair up” or “find someone who.” Analysis of professional
development notes revealed that a few teachers did not implement these strategies in the
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 76
classroom. Findings from interviews paralleled survey data in that 4 out of 5 teachers agreed
that they had used at least one of the Kagan strategies to improve classroom management
designed to encourage students to be active participants in their learning. From the interviews,
every teacher could define data-driven instruction. Most could gather reports from the programs
however only a few could disaggregate data to group students according to learning levels.
Table 7 data from the survey corroborated findings from interviews. According to Table
7, every teacher at MUSD felt that they have the factual and procedural knowledge that allows
them to create a learning environment that challenges every student in their classroom. Teachers
also agreed that a “one assignment, fits every student in the class” approach was not an effective
strategy to narrow the performance gap.
Table 7
Teacher’s perception of their knowledge
Statement Number of Respondents Number of Respondents who
agree with statement
I use teaching strategies and
instructional material that
stimulate higher order thinking
skills
18 18
I create learning experiences that
engage all students
18 18
I can adjust the difficulty of
assignments to meet student’s
academic ability
18 18
Procedural knowledge is knowledge of specific skills and methods, as well as the criteria
for determining when to use those skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Procedural knowledge
is more difficult to achieve because teachers had to be taught how to use the data in reports to
improve classroom instruction. Document analysis indicated that several teachers also had to be
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 77
taught basic subject content matter such as solving one step equations or writing an expository
essay. Interview data provided a more detailed account of existing teacher knowledge.
Participant 2 discussed how he creates small groups so that students are working with peers of
the same (academic) level. Participant 2 feels that small groups increase student communication
and collaboration. Participant 3 shared a strategy used in Math class that provides activities at
the academic level of the student. This strategy allows her to clear up any misconceptions
students might have developed before introducing more math concepts.
The use of data to drive instruction to address academic gaps was brought up by
other participants. Illustrated in Figure 6 are the number of teachers who use data to
drive instruction. According to Figure 6, every teacher at MUSD uses data to drive
instruction.
Figure 6. Teachers Who Use Data to Drive Instruction
Participant 4 stated, “I know how to analyze and interpret data from adaptive
programs, I know how to place students in groups so that they can accomplish the task at
hand.” Participant 5 added, “I use data to start scaffolding to meet the students at their
ability and to give them a sense of success.” Teachers who use data to drive instruction
reported having an easier time to differentiate instruction. Differentiation of instruction
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 78
is an effective teaching strategy since teachers can provide students adjusted tasks based
on their academic ability. Participant 4 provided her take on how she differentiates
instruction. She stated, “I hand out a personalized article for each academic level and use
the same strategy to target developing readers.” Participant 1 provided the amount of
work required to differentiate instruction for the students in his class, “In my class, I do a
lot of small group interaction, and I also work one to one with struggling students. I'm
taking the time to really meet each learner independently.”
Triangulation of data indicated that teachers at MUSD have factual knowledge of
effective classroom strategies. Most teachers has also incorporated their conceptual
knowledge of effective classroom strategies to ensure that every student receives
personalized instruction. The next section discusses the motivation influences teacher
must continuously put their best effort daily.
Motivation. Motivation relies on teacher’s ability to find a purpose for creating a
rigorous classroom environment. According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation is what
makes teachers move, keeps them moving, and determines how much effort to exhaust on a
specific task. Teachers who are motivated can create an effective classroom environment will
close the achievement gap. Self-efficacy, collective efficacy and goal orientation are discussed
in the following sections since these three since reoccurred during triangulation (documents,
survey, and interview)
Self-Efficacy: Bandura (1977) described self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to
succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. Bandura (1977) and Clark and Estes (2008)
use self-efficacy and effectiveness interchangeably. This evaluation study also used these terms
interchangeably. Self-efficacy plays a major role in how teachers approach goals, tasks, and
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 79
challenges. Teachers enter the profession because they feel they can have a positive impact on
students. Overtime, self-efficacy will decrease for teachers who work in organizations where
they feel isolated and unsupported. Data indicating that most teachers at MUSD are happy at
their work and that they consider themselves effective teachers are displayed in Table 8. Survey
data indicated that most teachers (17 out of 18) believe that they are effective teachers.
Table 8
Motivational Influences
Statement Agree Strongly
Agree
Mean
I am an effective teacher 13 4 3.11
I am happy at my work 2 14 3.67
My career as a teacher provides plenty of
personal fulfillment
5 13 3.72
I enjoy working in my current district 3 14 3.72
Collective efficacy. Another important concept is collective efficacy; which is defined by
the belief that a groups’ ability to succeed in specific situations or to accomplish a task. Bandura
(1997) stated that each team member must believe that the entire team can cooperate and
collaborate enough to accomplish team goals. Participant 3 voiced why she looks forward to
collaborating with her peers. She stated, “We can work on improving our profession when we
meet as a team during professional development days. We must ask ourselves, what can we do
better?” Another participant concurred by stating, “You have to collaborate! You have to talk
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 80
and work together to improve student achievement.” Participant 3 followed up by saying, “I feel
that we are slowly coming together as a team. I feel more trust amongst a lot of the teachers and
being able to share failures and being able to share unsuccessful practices.”
Goal orientation. The first step in the process is to clearly define performance and
mastery goal orientation. According to Butler (2007) mastery is striving to acquire competence
and ability is striving to demonstrate or prove ability. Teachers who focus on mastery goals will
structure the classroom into an environment that encourages student involvement, interaction
between students, and understands that learning is an active process (Patrick et al., 2001). On the
other hand, teachers who focus on ability goals tend to focus on performance, formal
assessments and student outcomes on performance assessments (Patrick et al., 2001).
The survey revealed that most teachers (14 out of 18) had adopted the district’s
philosophy that performance-based assessments are not accurate indicators of the students’
academic ability. The focus on student performance on summative assessments has placed
teacher who works in schools with similar demographics in a “no win” situation. MUSD
demographics consists of a large English Language Learner (ELs) student population (85% of 7
th
graders and 8
th
graders at MUSD) and low socio-economics (96%). These two figures have
historically placed MUSD at a great disadvantage in norm-referenced assessments, performance-
based assessments or summative assessments. Participant 1 stated, “When you look at the data
from computer adaptive programs and see student growth, that is motivating!” Participant 3
provided another perspective on what motivates her, “I get motivated when the data shows
student growth, but I also get motivated when I can use the data to group student so that they are
learning and not falling farther behind.” Data from surveys and interviews indicate that most
teachers at MUSD have the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to prepare the students to become
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 81
lifelong learners. Participant 2 shared his view that he does not really believe it is up to the
district administration to improve motivation. He stated “Improving my motivation is up to me,
I am the professional, it is my responsibility. It is not the district’s!”
The five interview participants echoed a familiar sentiment, with comments such as “it is
not up to the district to improve my profession.” “the district can only do so much” and “we are
the professionals” strongly stated that it was individual teacher responsibility to become more
effective teachers.
Document analysis provided more insight into why the district’s performance goal of a
3% increase in student performance was not achieved. Negative comments from interview
participants regarding ineffective use of planning time and corroborated with data from Table 5
(Page. 71) indicated that several teachers are not in agreement with the district’s approach to
improving student performance. Analysis of professional development agendas indicated that
seven teachers refuse to enter a co-teaching environment and continue to run a traditional,
teacher-centered classroom. Perhaps more troubling, Instructional Rounds observations
evidence pointed to several teachers who limit student learning to low order thinking activities.
Planning time has become an issue because many teachers have complained to
administrators that several of their peers do not follow established norms during planning time.
Teachers have requested that an administrator be present throughout the entire planning time
because disruptions are so severe that it impedes their ability to plan effectively. Survey data,
illustrated in Table 9 indicated that some teachers do not view planning time, professional
development, and the organization as effective in improving student performance. For example,
6 out of 18 teachers disagreed with the first statement, “Professional development activities
increase my knowledge of subject matter content” and 5 out of 18 disagreed with the second
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 82
statement, “Teachers are provided professional development to improve classroom management”
are strong indicators that professional development has not been as effective. Another 3 out of
18 teachers who responded to the survey were unhappy to be employed by MUSD.
Table 9
Teachers negative perception of MUSD
Statement
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Professional development activities increase my knowledge of subject matter
content 2 4
Teachers are provided professional development to improve classroom management 2 3
I can express my views freely on important school issues 3 3
Teachers have high expectations for students regarding academic performance. 0 4
The district has implemented strategies to narrow the achievement gap 3 0
Professional Development has improved how I collaborate with other teachers. 2 1
The district's vision conflicts with end of year performance assessments 1 3
Professional Development has improved my teaching practice. 1 1
Teachers are provided training on how to use data to drive classroom instruction 0 4
This section provided triangulation indicating that most teachers at MUSD believe that
they have the motivation and knowledge to provide an effective classroom environment. The
next section covers the role that the organization plays in increasing knowledge and motivation
of teachers.
Organizational Support
Interviews and document analysis provided evidence that MUSD supports its teachers.
16 out of 18 teachers agreed that professional development had improved their effectiveness in
the classroom. Participant 3 stated, “some of the training focuses on “why” we became
teachers.” I recall, “that it had nothing to do with wages!” Another participant stated, “the
support from the district is noticeable in funding trip, materials and freedom to teach . . . this
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 83
motivates me to be a better teacher.” The district’s move away from a performance-based
system to a more holistic, master-based environment has also improved teacher motivation.
Participant 1 commented that he would lose his drive to teach in the first weeks of school. He
recalls how he felt when the assessment results were discussed with his peers, “I remember that
it felt like I had been punched in the stomach because 80% of my students performed poorly.”
He continued, “now the focus is on student growth, and I feel successful when my students
experience success.” The next section provides more detailed organizational influences that
continue to increase the motivation of teachers who work at MUSD.
Organizational influences. The third factor evaluated for this study is the organization.
Clark and Estes (2012) maintained that success depends on the policies and procedures that have
been implemented by the organization. This section looks at work processes and the alignment
of the organizational culture with organizational behavior. Work processes, according to Clark
and Estes (2012) are how the human element of an organization interacts with the procedural
elements of the organization.
Professional development stresses collaboration among teachers. Senge (1994) is often
credited as one of the first proponents of structured teacher collaboration. From the interviews
with the five teachers, collaboration among teachers was deemed as a primary strategy to
improve knowledge and motivation. Per interviews, teachers perceived collaboration as an
effective strategy. Participant 4 stated that collaboration had improved her teaching, She
continued, “we have to collaborate, we have to talk to each other, we have to work together to
enhance student achievement. This type of collaboration is very helpful to me.”
Participant 3 took collaboration further by stating, “Improvement goes back to establishing
trusting relationships with our peers, I feel like that helps teacher drive themselves even
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 84
more.” Senge (1994) pointed out that it is the responsibility of the administration to develop
structures that allow all teachers to learn from professional development. The statement by
Senge (1994) corroborated the recent plans and actions implemented by MUSD to improve the
instructional strategies of their teachers and achieve their organizational goals going forward.
Participant 4 who has been employed by MUSD for more than 10 years strongly believes
in the importance of collaboration. This teacher recalled her first years at MUSD involved
spending most days isolated in the classroom from her peers. She stated, “Collaboration among
staff did not exist, data to drive instruction rarely occurred and that administration visited her
class only during formal evaluation time.” According to the participant, she had no one to
support or encourage her. MUSD’s goal was to eliminate a similar experience of isolation for
teachers hence the implementation of a common planning time which was reported in the
document analysis. During its infancy, the primary goal of this common planning time was to
increase the interaction between teachers and administration. Years later, planning time is built
around teacher collaboration with structures in place, such as monitoring by academic coaches,
to ensure that planning time does not turn into prep time. A first-grade teacher stated that
professional development provides an opportunity to collaborate with peers and to identify
effective strategies to implement in the classroom. Professional development also allows
teachers to collaborate with other grade levels. A fifth-grade teacher stated, “professional
development gives us that opportunity to collaborate and identify things that are working and the
best practices in other grade levels and try to implement them into our classroom or our teaching
practice.”
Another participant shared that collaboration amongst her peers has proven to be
effective. She indicated that collaboration time is a perfect setting to discuss the effective
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 85
teaching methods that can be employed as well as the improvement of practices that have not
been very helpful, saying: “Collaboration time allows me to discuss with my peers about
strategies that have and have not worked.” Participant 1 also had the same perception as the
other teachers. For Participant 1, planning time or development time has been very helpful for
all staff members. Participant 1 stated that by collaborating with other teachers during the
planning time, they can learn from one another and improve their knowledge and skills over
time. He commented, “Planning time provides the opportunity to bounce ideas to and from each
other, that's is very effective and a time when we can improve, not only as individuals but as an
entire staff.” Participant 2 added that effective professional development indeed occurs when the
teaching staff is collaborating and communicating with one another. She shared that by
“reflecting together on the best practices,” they can determine the most effective strategies across
all grade levels. The participant explained, “We have multi-grade professional developments
have conversations on best practices. We reflect on norms in the classroom, on expectations that
should be or shouldn't be with our kids.” Finally, Participant 4 described how planning time and
collaboration are closely connected. Planning time allows everyone to reflect on the needs of
both the educators and the students. She also strongly believed that without the extra time of
interacting and collaborating with the other teachers, then educators cannot learn to develop their
teaching practices. She believes that the extra time allotted during the week is of greatest value
because collaboration provides her more strategies for the classroom.
Survey data also corroborated that collaboration can lead to improved teacher
effectiveness. The results in Figure 7 are imperative since 16 out of 18 teachers surveyed
believe that collaborating with their peers has made their teaching more effective. The previous
planning protocols allowed teachers to meet in their classrooms, but a few teachers were not able
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 86
to follow the agreed-upon norms. Collaboration does not just happen, administrators must work
to provide material and instructional to teachers for this period to be effective (Senge, 1994).
Figure 7. Collaborating with My Peers Has Made Me a More Effective Teacher
Willingness to provide resources. From the interviews, it was found that teachers were
aware of the district’s willingness to provide the resources they need to improve their practice.
Participant 5 shared how resources are readily provided to teachers who request them: “The
school will also help in providing funding for field trips so that they can see the world that is
within their reach. Our Instructional Aides have been trained to support us in a small group
environment.” Meanwhile, Participant 2 pointed out that the district has provided another
resource that cannot be funded, he stated, “the biggest resource is allowing us the flexibility,
being given the ability to, as a practitioner, be able to try things that we believe are best for our
kids and learn from our implementation of these strategies that we decide to do.” Participant 4
shared that the district is very much open to providing any training needed by their educators.
He also added that although training programs are readily provided, it is still the responsibility of
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 87
the teachers to improve and develop their teaching practices and strategies, “The district will
provide any training we request. I don't really believe it's up to the district to improve my
professional development. That's up to me.” Finally, Participant 5 echoed Participant 4’s
perception on training and the proper manner of applying them: “I mean they've offered
professional development, they've offered supplemental resources to help us in instruction, but at
the end of the day, it's how we use them.”
Findings indicated that MUSD has provided teachers the resources needed to improve
knowledge and motivation. Targeted professional development via content level experts in
reading and math have increased factual and conceptual knowledge in both subjects. Motivation
is more difficult to measure however survey data reveals that most teachers are happy working in
their current district (15 out of 18) and that their teaching career provides personal fulfillment
(17 out of 18).
Research Question 2 Synthesis
Various sources of data were used to answer the second research question addressing
teacher’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Data from the survey revealed
that teachers at MUSD perceive themselves having strong factual, procedural, and conceptual
knowledge of effective learning strategies. These strategies were all perceived to be effective in
refining not only the knowledge and skills of the educators, but more so, positively affecting the
quality of education received by the students. The 28-item survey consisted of 9 questions
designed to measure teachers’ knowledge. The average for the 9 questions was a 3.29 (out of
4.0). A similar pattern was identified in the evaluation of teacher motivation. The survey
consisted of 4 questions designed to measure motivation for an average of 3.41 out of 4.00. Per
survey data, most teachers at MUSD are motivated to improve learning opportunities for their
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 88
students. Interview data had a similar tone. Participant 3 stated, “I try to find motivation from
within rather than finding it from somebody else.” Participant 5 followed that sentiment by
stating, “It’s not up to the district to improve my motivation. If I am the professional, it is my
responsibility to improve. We should be self-motivated, not necessarily to teach, but more
specifically to make sure our kids are learning.”
Summary
Chapter 4 contained the results from the analyses of the three data sources employed in
the study. The purpose of this mixed method study was to evaluate the degree to which MUSD
is achieving its goal of improving student achievement by focusing on the Instructional Core
(teacher, student, and content). It was then determined that student performance at MUSD had
not improved. According to interviews, it was found that it will be difficult for MUSD or
districts with similar student demographics to perform at or above grade level on these
assessments since these assessments primarily measure factual and procedural knowledge of
academic English. The findings from data analysis indicated a positive trend for MUSD
regarding improving the knowledge and motivation of its teachers. Teachers who responded to
the survey or participated in interviews felt that the district was providing them the resources to
improve their profession. Findings also demonstrated that targeted professional development
was perceived, by most teachers, as a positive activity at MUSD. Most teachers believed that
targeted professional development had been used effectively by administration to foster a
collaborative environment. Most teachers also viewed planning time in a positive frame.
Planning time was implemented to help improve communication between teachers and improve
the morale among teachers.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 89
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of this mixed method study was to evaluate the degree to which Mountain
Union School District (MUSD) achieved its goal of improving student performance by focusing
on the Instructional Core. MUSD planned to achieve its goal by focusing on the Instructional
Core (teacher, student, and content). While a complete evaluation project would focus on all
MUSD stakeholders, for practical purposes, MUSD’s teachers were chosen as the primary
stakeholders for this analysis. The analysis focused on teachers’ assets in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources. Chapter 4 addressed the first two research questions;
the first research question validated progress toward improving student performance on the
SBAC and the second research question validated teacher knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors. The first research question was addressed using document analysis of
Smarter Balance Assessment results for the past three school years (2015, 2016, and 2017). The
second research question used survey data and interviews to dig deeper to measure the role that
teacher knowledge and motivation had in the learning environment. This chapter will focus on
the third research question that provides recommendations to the organization. The last section
incorporated into this chapter is a review of the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) that was used to evaluate the effectiveness of training recommendations.
Knowledge Recommendations
This evaluation study focused on MUSD’s effort to increase factual and procedural
knowledge among teachers. Document analysis concluded MUSD vision that targeted
professional development would increase factual and procedural knowledge thus developing
more effective teachers. The district also believed student performance would increase when
teachers improved their ability to “reflect in action” and “reflect on action.”
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 90
Procedural knowledge is knowledge of specific skills and methods as well as the criteria
for determining when to use those skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Procedural knowledge
requires applying learned knowledge to solve issues that arise in the classroom. MUSD provided
a weeklong Kagan strategies training so that teachers could acquire more classroom management
strategies. This training also covered classroom strategies that promote student collaboration and
cooperation. Two procedural knowledge strategies that MUSD could implement with their
teachers are listed in Table 10. The second activity that demonstrates factual knowledge
transferring to procedural knowledge is when teachers to use data derived from computer
adaptive programs to drive instruction.
Table 10
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers can implement
Kagan strategies to improve
student collaboration (P)
HP
Y
(P) Procedural knowledge is
knowledge of specific skills
and methods as well as the
criteria for determining
when to use those skills
(Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001), (Clark & Estes,
2008), (Rueda, 2011)
MUSD can provide
Kagan training
refresher for all current
teachers.
Academic coaches can
observe classrooms to
monitor
implementation of
Kagan strategies
Teachers can reflect on the
positives and areas of
growth for the upcoming
trimester(M)
HP Y (M) Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) wrote that
metacognitive knowledge is
knowledge “about cognition
in general as well as
awareness of and
knowledge about one’s own
cognition” (p. 55).
Dewey (1933) is credited
Additional time for
teachers to “reflect in
action” and “reflect on
action” with grade
level peers.
Hold an academic
summit every trimester
that allows teachers to
demonstrate lessons
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 91
with being one of the
primary philosophers who
discussed the importance of
reflection in education. He
regarded reflection as a
special form of problem-
solving that should be
viewed as an active and
deliberate cognitive process.
that worked and also
lessons that did not
work.
Allow time for
feedback on changes
they would implement
to those lessons to
improve upon them.
Teachers can use data
profiles to develop targeted
instruction(P)
HP Y (P) Procedural knowledge is
knowledge of specific skills
and methods as well as the
criteria for determining
when to use those skills
(Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001), (Clark & Estes,
2008), (Rueda, 2011)
Hold refresher training
on the importance of
data-driven instruction.
Have academic
coaches work with
teachers to improve the
use of reports from
computer adaptive
programs to target
instruction.
Teachers can reflect on
effectiveness of lessons (M)
HP Y (M) Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) wrote that
metacognitive knowledge is
knowledge “about cognition
in general as well as
awareness of and
knowledge about one’s own
cognition” (p. 55).
Dewey (1933) is credited
with being one of the
primary philosophers who
discussed the importance of
reflection in education. He
regarded reflection as a
special form of problem-
solving that should be
viewed as an active and
deliberate cognitive process.
Allow teachers to
schedule classroom
observations for the
purpose of providing
instant feedback.
*Indicate knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations:
(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 92
Procedural Knowledge
Several teachers at MUSD had limited knowledge to implement effective teaching
strategies to promote collaboration and communication in the classroom. According to Clark
and Estes (2012), the role of administrators is to identify the areas of growth within the
organization and then provide resources to teachers via targeted professional development. For
example, Instructional Rounds observations revealed that most students in traditional classroom
settings had little to no interaction with their peers. One of the performance goals for teachers at
MUSD is that they will receive the training needed to implement structures in the classroom that
increase student collaboration and cooperation. Targeted professional development in Kagan
strategies was implemented since Kagan structures have over 200 specific strategies designed for
developing student cooperation. Kagan (2009) described the traditional classroom learning
environment as teacher-centered and teacher-led. Kagan (2009) also stressed that traditional
classrooms tend to rely on students working independently, not collaborating or communicating
in groups, where there is no effective way to develop language acquisition. A recommendation
for MUSD to monitor the frequency teachers are implementing Kagan strategies in the
classroom. Monitoring could be performed informally during classroom walkthroughs to ensure
that teachers transform their declarative knowledge of a Kagan strategy into action. Academic
coaches would also provide feedback if requested by the teacher. Academic coaches would then
follow up with announced observations to ensure that this activity would be fully implemented.
Teachers would have to be constantly reminded that observation feedback and communication is
strictly viewed as learning opportunities.
Metacognitive Knowledge
The teaching profession is very stressful and is often an isolated profession. According
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 93
to Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011), various stressors such as poor student motivation, conflicts with
colleagues, lack of respect for the profession, and student misbehavior contribute to a high-stress
environment. Reflection allows the teacher to rewind mentally, to analyze the items that worked,
and items needing improvement. Dewey (1933) is credited with being one of the primary
philosophers who discussed the importance of reflection in education. He regarded reflection as
a special form of problem-solving that should be viewed as an active and deliberate cognitive
process. Schon (1987) broke down this cognitive process known as reflection into two types:
reflection on action and reflection in action. Teachers at MUSD are encouraged to take time to
use both reflective on action (reviewing actions from recent past) and reflective in action
(reframing the situation usually in the classroom and based on experience; Schon, 1987). MUSD
offers teachers a common planning time that can be utilized to reflect on previous lessons and to
anticipate areas where students might need extra help in learning objectives. The other objective
is the implementation of common planning time is that this time allows for teachers to share their
experiences and to bounce ideas with other teachers. This time to communicate is more
powerful than packaged education principles (Schon, 1987).
Several recommendations could be implemented by MUSD to ensure that planning time
is used effectively. The first recommendation is for academic coaches to plan topics of
discussion during planning time. Document analysis indicated that several teachers are not using
planning time effectively as they tend to revert to stapling packets together, carrying
conversations with peers that are not related to improving their practice or surfing the internet for
updates on sports. The availability of an agenda would ensure that teachers stay on task and
discussions with peers are related to improving their practice. The second recommendation is for
an academic coach to be present for the entire planning time to ensure that every teacher adheres
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 94
to the planning norms. A progressive disciplinary system must be implemented to aid the
academic coaches in enforcing the norms. The presence of academic coaches would also serve
to increase collaboration and cooperation with teachers. The third recommendation is for MUSD
to reassign several of the teachers who do not believe in MUSD’s vision of a student-centered
environment. MUSD has obtained enough evidence via Instructional Rounds observations,
walk-throughs, and formal evaluations to determine with certainty which teachers are committed
to improving student performance. Reassignment of teachers must be planned carefully to
ensure that teachers are not paired up with peers who share negative perceptions of the district’s
plan to improve academic performance.
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. One of the most
important tools in the learning process is an effective teacher (Coleman, 1966). The
characteristics of an effective teacher are often debatable however an effective teacher needs to
be able to implement various classroom management strategies to keep the classroom flowing.
Teachers at MUSD can use student data profiles to drive classroom instruction. Clark and Estes
(2008) indicated that procedural knowledge is knowledge of specific skills and methods as well
as the criteria for determining when to use those skills.
The recommendations for MUSD to scaffold the procedure teachers use to create and
analyze student data and to use a friendlier tone when introducing the concept. One method of
creating a more personal learning environment is by increasing germane cognitive load by
engaging the learner in meaningful learning and schema construction facilitates effective
learning (Kirshner et al., 2006). Mayer (2011) suggested that presenters use a conversational
tone rather than a formal tone. The second recommendation is for MUSD to change the outside
content level experts. MUSD has contracted with the same content level experts for the past six
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 95
years unfortunately poor performance on the SBAC indicate that change is warranted. The third
recommendation is for MUSD to implement a method to gauge the effectiveness of strategies
that are provided by content level experts. Currently, there is no way to identify if these
strategies are ever implemented in the classroom, and there is no protocol in place to evaluate
effectiveness. The last recommendation is to use morning planning time to increase subject
matter content. Survey data indicates that 6 out of 18 teachers feel that the district does not
provide enough training to develop their subject matter content.
Metacognitive solutions, or description of needs or assets. Anderson and Krathwohl
(2001) further wrote that metacognitive knowledge is knowledge “about cognition in general as
well as awareness of and knowledge about one’s own cognition.” The ability to “reflect in
action” and reflect on action” can improve the learning environment (Schon, 1987). Teachers at
MUSD are improving their ability to “reflect on action” by collaborating and communicating
with their peers on the results of various classroom activities. Establishing norms during
reflection allow teachers to engage in meaningful dialogue on how to collaborate to overcome
academic issues. MUSD also implemented an end of the trimester academic summit that allows
teachers to reflect with their peers on the effectiveness or lack of effectiveness of specific
assignments. Common planning time has also been incorporated into the weekly schedule.
The recommendation to increase teacher participation in “reflection on action.” Previous
professional development indicated that teachers are more likely to take part in activities when
they trust their peers. Establishing and enforcing norms during these activities will help increase
participation. Another action should increase participation is to make it clear that their
willingness to take part in the process will benefit the group and that their actions or words will
not be used against them. Anderman and Anderman (2009) indicated that learning and
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 96
motivation are enhanced when individuals attribute success or failures to effort rather than
ability. Pintrich (2003) also recommended that providing opportunities to exercise some choice
and control will create some buy-in from participants. Based on Anderman and Anderman
(2009), MUSD needs to continue fostering an environment where teachers are encouraged not to
be afraid to “try outside the box!”. Teachers at MUSD must feel safe if they try to reach students
via different instructional methods. Teachers must also feel safe and understand that their efforts
to reach students at times will not have the intended outcomes. MUSD must continue to
encourage teachers to continue to try strategies that are discussed during planning time and
professional development days.
Motivation Recommendations
Motivation is what causes individuals to move, to provide the effort necessary to achieve
their goal. Pintrich and Schunk (2002) defined motivation as involving three factors: (a) active
choice, (b) persistence, and (c) mental effort. Active choice means initiating a task. For
example, becoming a teacher is a form of active choice. Persistence is the second choice and is
defined as “time spent on task” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). A motivated teacher persists at tasks,
does not give up even when students are having a difficult time grasping a concept, and
persistence is often used to quantify motivation. The third factor, mental effort, is defined as the
exertion, whether physical or mental, displayed by a teacher to accomplish a task. Motivated
teachers use an abundance of mental effort during teaching situations. This section will discuss
self-efficacy, and goal orientation as the motivational theories that are important for the staff at
MUSD is to reach their performance goals. Summarized in Table 11 are the motivational
influences and recommendations to improve the learning environment at MUSD.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 97
Table 11
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
A few teachers do not
believe that student are
capable of accessing higher
order thinking skills (Self-
Efficacy)
HP Y Make it clear that
individuals are capable of
learning what is being
taught or can perform a task
(Pajares & Valiente, 2006).
Provide opportunities to
observe a credible, similar
model engaging in behavior
that has functional value
(Pajares & Valiente, 2006).
Academic coaches will
provide teachers
LCAP metric goal
spreadsheet focusing
on the number of
students who are
working at grade level
or above
Administration will
continue Instructional
Rounds Observations.
Teachers can see co
workers implementing
successful teaching
strategies.
Teachers focus changes to
academic growth rather than
conventional letter grades
and results on summative
assessments.
(Goal Orientation)
HP Y
Focusing on mastery,
individual improvement,
learning, and progress
promote positive motivation
(Meece & Anderman,
2006).
Goals motivate and direct
students (Pintrich, 2003)
Academic coaches will
continue addressing
the importance of
focusing on
competency and
mastery of standards as
essential goals.
Teachers will continue
to develop student
action plans with
students.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1977) proposed that self-efficacy play a key role in the motivation of teachers.
Teachers with high self-efficacy can exert more effort in helping difficult students, that they can
overcome obstacles, are resilient when they experience failure, and that these teachers will be
better prepared to handle the stress of being in the classroom (Bandura, 2006). Teachers with
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 98
strong self-efficacy strongly believe they can make a positive impact on all the students assigned
to their classroom. On the other hand, Bandura (2006) alluded that teachers with low-self
efficacy were susceptible to magnifying problems at work and tended to dwell on past issues.
Skaalvik (2007) described self-efficacy as a belief in one’s ability to plan, organize, and carry
out activities that are required to attain given educational goals. Classroom teachers develop
self-efficacy through positive and negative experiences, support from colleagues and
administration, and mastering similar challenges (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016). Pajares and
Valiente (2006) suggested that one method to increase self-efficacy in teachers is to make it clear
that individuals are capable of learning what is being taught or can perform a task. Pajares and
Valiente (2006) indicated that providing opportunities where teachers could observe their peers
who are effective in their practice of teaching.
The first recommendation to increase self-efficacy at MUSD is that academic coaches
need to improve communication with their staff. Survey data indicated that 33% of staff does
not feel comfortable voicing their concerns. The second recommendation is for academic
coaches to discuss strategies teachers implemented that affected the monthly LCAP metrics
spreadsheet. The LCAP spreadsheet provides a breakdown of students who are working at or
above grade level in Reading and Math. Teachers self-efficacy would increase since the LCAP
metrics have shown a positive learning trend. The third recommendation is that MUSD must
continue offering teachers opportunities to observe their peers in the classroom. According to
Dufour and Eaker (1998), increased teacher collaboration has a direct, positive effect on self-
efficacy. The fourth recommendation is for MUSD to adjust the strategies in place that are
designed to increase self-efficacy, i.e. collaborative group work, improvement in
teacher/administrator communication and modification of classroom management. Collaborative
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 99
group work has been established as a great strategy to keep teachers believing that they are part
of a team (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993). Chester and Beaudin (1996) researched the role that
organizational structure plays in teacher self-efficacy. Their results indicated that an
organization that is willing to provide resources create an environment that increases self-
efficacy. MUSD must continue to offer these resources to teachers.
Goal Orientation
The No Child Left Behind Act (2002) fostered a performance-oriented climate in schools
nationwide. Schools would also be ranked within similar schools thus promoting a competitive
climate that often forces schools to teach to the test. The Academic Performance Index (API), an
indicator of academic achievement based on results of standardized tests; and the Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP), another performance-based academic achievement are indicators used
by the federal government to measure academic growth in school districts (California
Department of Education, 2011). Schools with high enrollment of English Language Learners
historically have not performed well. As a result, MUSD has shifted its academic goals from a
performance-based system into a school that fosters mastery goal orientation. According to
Butler (2007) mastery is striving to acquire competence and ability is striving to demonstrate or
prove ability.
Teachers who focus on mastery goals will structure the classroom into an environment
that encourages student involvement, interaction between students, and understands that learning
is an active process (Patrick et al., 2001). On the other hand, teachers who focus on ability goals
tend to focus on performance, formal assessments and student outcomes on performance
assessments (Patrick et al., 2001). Individual improvement, learning, and progress promote
positive motivation whe teachers focus on mastery (Meece & Anderman, 2006). Pintrich (2003)
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 100
stressed that goals motivate and direct students.
The first recommendation for MUSD is to offer targeted professional development on
competency grading based on rubrics. Academic coaches need to collaborate closely with staff
to monitor/ensure staff is implementing rubrics in their grading. Rubric grading has transformed
grade reporting into a more meaningful activity with parents, however, a few teachers have not
committed to competency-based grading. The second recommendation is for teachers to
establish routines that help students improve their performance in monthly academic and
behavior goals. Students at MUSD have been encouraged to take charge of their learning by
creating academic and behavior plans, however, a few teachers have not followed through in
establishing protocols to ensure action plans are discussed with students. Document analysis
indicated that a few teachers have refused to develop action plans with their students. The third
recommendation is for MUSD to blend in performance goal orientation with mastery goal
orientation to help teachers prepare students. MUSD currently does not enforce deadlines for
assignments and students are provided multiple opportunities to improve outcomes on
summative and formative assessments. A blend of performance goal orientation would better
prepare students for the SBAC.
Organization Recommendations
Leaders wanting to transform an organization need to understand its culture.
Organization culture forms one of the three KMO causes of the performance gap analysis
(Rueda, 2011). Culture is defined as the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions and process
learned in an organization (Rueda, 2011). Organizational culture affects how employees
perceive the organization and how much effort they are willing to exert. Two cultural models
and two cultural settings that influence the culture at MUSD are listed in Table 12. The fifth
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 101
column in table 12 list context-specific recommendations that are discussed in this section.
Table 12
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization Influence:
Cause, Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probabilit
y, No
(V, HP, N)
Priorit
y
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Most teachers are resisting the
implementation of the behavior
Response to Intervention protocols.
HP Y Motivation, learning
and performance are
enhanced when the
participant perceives
that the anticipated
outcome will be
positive and fair
(Vroom, 1964)
Adult learners resist
learning when they feel
others are imposing
information, ideas or
actions on them
(Fidishun, 2000).
MUSD must offer
targeted training in
RTI protocols.
Involve teachers in
the design of RTI
behavior protocols.
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is a lack of trust by some
teachers that the transition from a
teacher centered environment to a
student-centered classroom will
improve the learning that is taking
place at MUSD
HP Y
Motivation, learning
and performance are
enhanced when the
participant perceives
that the anticipated
outcome will be
positive and fair
(Vroom, 1964)
Adult learners resist
learning when they feel
others are imposing
information, ideas or
actions on them
(Fidishun, 2000).
Provide teachers
opportunities to
observe student-
centered classrooms.
Training must be
implemented on
common core
strategies that require
collaboration and
cooperation.
Kagan strategies
training for all
teachers is required.
Kagan strategies
provide teachers
proven student
centered activities.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 102
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
There is resistance by some teachers
from entering a co-teaching
environment
HP
Y
Expectancy/value: the
more a person values a
task and the more they
think they are likely to
succeed at it, the greater
their motivation to do it
(Wigfield & Eccles
2000).
Organizational culture
is created through
shared experience,
shared learning and
stability of membership.
It is something that has
been learned. It cannot
be imposed (Schein,
2004)
MUSD needs to
mandate teachers to be
in a co-teaching
environment.
Provide teachers the
opportunity to observe
teachers who are in a
co-teaching classroom.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Emphasize a common planning time
for all grade levels to improve grade
level and cross grade level
collaboration.
HP
Y
Expectancy/value: the
more a person values a
task and the more they
think they are likely to
succeed at it, the greater
their motivation to do it
(Wigfield & Eccles
2000).
Organizational culture
is created through
shared experience,
shared learning and
stability of membership.
It is something that has
been learned. It cannot
be imposed (Schein,
2004)
MUSD needs to
implement more
structured activities
during planning
period.
The activities can
cover co-teaching,
classroom
management, and the
opportunity.
Increase time for
teachers and
administrators to work
collaboratively.
MUSD must monitor
planning time to
ensure that the time is
being used effectively.
Two concepts influence organizational culture: the cultural model and the cultural setting.
Cultural models can also be described as values, beliefs, attitudes that are invisible and
automated. Cultural models, according to Cole (1985) are described as “tools for the mind” that
represent shared ways of perceiving, thinking and responding to challenges and changing
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 103
conditions. Cole (1985) continues to state that cultural models become a part of daily life often
going unnoticed until employees are exposed to different models. An example of a cultural
model in a school is the “silo” mentality where teachers isolate themselves in the classroom and
rarely communicate with other staff members. Cultural models take time to develop and usually
develop from groups sharing information or shared experiences (Shore, 1996). Cultural models
often go hand in hand with cultural settings (Cole, 1996). Cultural settings are visible, concrete
manifestations of cultural models that appear within activity settings (Rueda, 2011). An example
of cultural setting could be lack of a formal evaluation tool to formally evaluate staff members.
The lack of a formal, annual evaluation tool that does not measure teacher collaboration and
cooperation reinforces the practice of isolation.
Cultural models. Lack of communication often creates mistrust within an organization.
A few teachers at MUSD are very reluctant to change their teacher-centered classroom into a
student-centered environment. These teachers have stated that they are not willing to make the
transition to a student-centered classroom because they do not want to give up control of their
classroom. During the 2016-2017 school year, nine out of 21 teachers volunteered to model a
co-teaching classroom. Allowing teachers to breathe is important, according to Fidishun (2000),
adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on
them. The goal is for teachers who are involved in co-teaching to reach out to the rest of the
staff by sharing the positives and negatives of a co-teaching environment. Vroom (1964) stated
that motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when the participant perceives that the
anticipated outcome will be positive and fair. MUSD must communicate with teachers that
adjusting to a co-teaching environment and developing clear communication lines with their
partners takes time and patience. Teachers who are involved in co-teaching are encouraged
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 104
during planning time to share experiences with their peers. The goal is for all grade levels at
MUSD to be in a co-teaching environment by the 2018-2019 school year.
The first recommendation for MUSD is to mandate teachers to enter a co-teaching
environment. MUSD has waited 2 years for teachers to decide to enter a co-teaching classroom.
The second recommendation is for academic coaches to review the pros of being in a co-teaching
classroom. Academic coaches will arrange visits to other schools that are implementing co-
teaching classrooms.
Cultural setting. Changes to policies and or procedures spearhead a change in cultural
settings. MUSD currently offers their teachers two, 40-minute planning periods during the week.
Teachers are encouraged to communicate with their grade-level peers and cross-level peers on
activities and strategies that they have implemented in the classroom. Teachers developed
professional development norms (expectations of behavior) however no peers have stepped up
when the norms are not followed. At least one administrator is assigned to the room where
planning takes place. The administrator ensures that norms are honored. However.
administrators tend to be called out frequently when discipline issues arise.
The first recommendation is for MUSD to implement a structured planning period for
teachers. Planning periods can be more effective when teachers value the task. Wigfield and
Eccles (2000) indicated that expectancy value suggests that teachers will be more motivated to
continue planning periods because they are perceived as a good use of their time. Schein (2004)
also stated that organizational culture is created through shared learning and stable membership.
He continues by stating that common experiences and stability in the organization cannot be
imposed, it must be learned. The second recommendation is for MUSD to provide feedback on
how teachers are implementing strategies that have been discussed during planning sessions into
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 105
their classrooms. There is a correlation with monitoring performance of all staff with higher
learning outcomes (Water, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003). The recommendation is for MUSD to
establish a time where teachers can showcase activities that were implemented in the classroom.
Teachers would also discuss the pros and cons of that lesson.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that evaluation of programs is often an
afterthought. Kirkpatrick's (2016) method of evaluation can be described as an upside-down
pyramid with performance goals established before the organization providing training or
professional development. The New Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other
actions: =first, the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors,
second, the identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and finally,
the emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
MUSD is a small, rural, public, Pre-Kindergarten to 8th grade, elementary school district.
MUSD is in the southeast portion of California’s central valley. Most of the adults are employed
in agriculture-related jobs. The issue at MUSD is that over 90% of Hispanic students are not
meeting grade-level standards on the end of year Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
(SBAC). The expectation that MUSD has established for teachers is that they will improve their
instructional skills and apply academic and behaviorial strategies to improve the learning
environment for their students.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 106
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
The internal outcome with the highest priority is monitoring that teachers have students
work on computer adaptive programs for at least 20 minutes daily. The computer adaptive
program developers stated that 20 minutes is the optimal time for students to improve their
learning. These computer adaptive programs provide valuable reports that teachers can use to
drive classroom instruction. An example, teachers can access weekly reports from Dreambox to
analyze data and look for class-wide patterns. Teachers can then drive classroom instruction to
address areas of need in their classroom.
The external and internal outcomes that MUSD must meet for the goal of increasing the
number of students who are meeting grade-level standards in the SBAC to reality are listed in
Table 13. The first external outcome listed is to improve the SBAC results. MUSD uses data
from the SBAC summative assessment as another piece of information that teachers use to drive
classroom instruction. The second external outcome is the LCAP metrics that were implemented
at the start of the 2015-2016 school year. LCAP metrics report on students who are achieving
grade-level or higher performance of computer adaptive programs in Math and Reading. Internal
outcomes can be identified as issues that occur in classrooms. The first internal outcome is that
teachers need to ensure that students are accessing computer adaptive programs for a minimum
of 20 minutes. Computer adaptive programs target the student instructional levels in Reading
and Math. The second internal outcome revolves around teachers using data from computer
adaptive programs to drive instruction. The third internal outcome is that teacher must use the
formative assessment (benchmark) tool provided through Interim Assessments provided free
from SBAC. These assessments are designed to expose students to the formative assessment
interface and test design.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 107
Table 13
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Improve Smarter Balanced
Consortium Assessment
(SBAC) results
number of students who meet or
exceed grade-level standards
Monitor SBAC results and review with
data with teachers.
2.Improve LCAP Metrics number of students who meet the grade
level goal
Analyze computer adaptive reports on
a monthly basis
Internal Outcomes: Formative assessments leading to summative goals
Teachers need to have students
on computer adaptive programs
100% of student will spend at least 20
minutes per day on computer adaptive
programs
monthly reports
Teachers drive instruction via
data from computer adaptive
programs
100% of teachers will discuss weekly
data reports with peers
Weekly
Teachers assess Smarter
Balanced Interim assessments
80% of students will be exposed
to end of year SBAC via interim
assessments
each trimester
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Critical behaviors must be specific, observable and measurable
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Ensuring that employees practice the critical behaviors on a
regular basis because they will have the largest impact on targeted outcomes. A breakdown of
four critical behaviors that teachers at MUSD need to practice at regular intervals is provided in
Table 14. MUSD implemented the use of computer adaptive programs to reach students at their
instructional level. These computer adaptive programs require a minimum of 20 minutes per day
to be effective. Teachers at MUSD have been informed of the importance of ensuring of
monitoring students to keep working on the programs. Data-driven instruction has evolved into
a recommended teaching strategy at MUSD. The combination of computer adaptive programs
and data-driven instructional strategies form a very effective teaching strategy. Participation in
targeted professional development provides teachers an opportunity to collaborate, communicate
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 108
and network with teachers who share similar experiences in improving their teaching. Teachers
at MUSD are required to participate in Instructional Rounds process actively. MUSD
implemented Instructional Rounds to identify systemic issues. Instructional Rounds provides
teachers an opportunity to work collaboratively to develop recommendations to improve on
identified systemic issues.
Table 14
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1.) teachers ensure that
students spend 20 minutes
computer adaptive
programs
100% of students spend 20
minutes per day on
Dreambox Lexia, Reading
Plus
reports from program to
monitor teachers are
scheduling time for students
to log into programs
Monthly
2) Teachers use reports
from programs to target
instruction
By September 2018,
teachers will share reports
with their peers
reports from programs Monthly
3) teachers attend targeted
professional development
100% of teachers attend
PD
attendance sheets Monthly
4) teachers participate in
Instructional Rounds
By June 2018, 100% of
teachers will participate in
Instructional Rounds
attendance sheets Monthly
Required drivers. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), required drivers are
process and systems that reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward performances of critical
behavior on the job. Required drivers fall into two categories: support and accountability
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that required
drivers are not necessarily mutually. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick detailed a study by Dr. Robert
O. Brinkerhoff that demonstrated how important change behaviors in ensuring that training is
applied at work. Dr. Brinkerhoff’s study indicated that when 90% of the effort is in the delivery
of training (L1: Reaction), and the knowledge people acquire from the training (L2: Learning),
then 70% of the people who do not receive any post-training support will try new skills and fail.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 109
However, if 50% of the effort is in the delivery (L1: Reaction), and 50% is in follow-up activities
(L3: Behavior), then 85% of the people will sustain new behaviors.
The four categories that describe the required drivers are listed in Table 15. The first
driver listed is reinforcing expected behaviors. Reinforcing is primarily informal and formal
activities that remind the stakeholder of the established goals. The second driver is encouraging
which is best described when the organization provides formal steps to ensure that training is
applied. Providing beginning teachers, a mentor teacher (who believes that the organizational
changes will make a difference) can be classified as encouragement. The third direct driver is
rewarding individuals who are working to apply the training (L2). Rewarding can be as simple
as sending a congratulatory note to employees who are giving effort. Rewarding could also be
financial incentives by way of gift cards, bonuses or promotions. The fourth direct drive is
monitoring. Monitoring means implementing accountability procedures to measure how much
of the training is being applied.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 110
Table 15
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Principal sends email to teachers
who do not meet required minutes
Monthly 1,2,3
Usage reports from computer
adaptive programs are provided to
staff
Biweekly 1,2,3
Review LCAP metrics spreadsheet Monthly 1,2,3
Encouraging
Reports from programs are provided
to staff
Biweekly 1,2,3
Review LCAP metrics spreadsheet Monthly 1,2,3
Rewarding
Teachers send students to game
room for 1 hour (free time for
teacher)
Monthly 1,2,3
Teachers who meet usage goals are
acknowledged during staff meeting
Monthly 1,2,3
Monitoring
reports of time spent on programs is
queried to ensure teachers have
placed students on computer
adaptive programs
Monthly 1,2,3
Professional development workshop
sign in sheets
Monthly 1,2,3
Organizational support. Organizational support for required drivers is vital to ensuring
that learning outcomes are successfully implemented. MUSD will encumber funding from
various resources including LCAP funds, general fund, and other funding sources to fund most
of the activities that make up the required drivers. The administration at MUSD must also
support changes to pedagogy, curriculum and personnel to improve the probability of the
learning goals being successful. The creation of a teacher leadership team that meets with the
administration on a biweekly basis is a great way to ensure that teachers have a voice.
Accountability needs to bi-directional between administration and teachers.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 111
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Implementation of training will allow teachers at MUSD to:
1. Understand the importance of data to drive instruction (D)
2. Understand how effective data-driven instruction is in improving student learning
3. Review the LCAP metrics to measure how much progress their students have made
4. Value the time students spend on computer adaptive programs
5. Monitor usage reports from computer adaptive programs and uses data to drive
instruction
6. Actively monitor students.
7. Implement Interim Assessments as benchmarks to measure student progress toward
SBAC
8. Create academic action plans in partnership with students
9. Create behavior plans in partnership with students
10. Model academic language to students
Program. The learning goals mentioned in the previous section can be achieved by
creating an environment that is collaborative, increases communication between the organization
and teachers, and instills an environment of cooperation to achieve goals. Collaborative groups
are designed to take advantage of the skills, talents, and experience that many of the teachers
possess. It is important that every teacher participates in these collaborative groups to actively
engage in activities and also receive peer feedback. Teachers at MUSD will be encouraged to set
a time to observe their peers execute activities that have been planned in the collaborative
groups. Participation in groups also decreases the sense of isolation that teachers often feel.
Peer collaboration should increase teacher motivation and knowledge. The district will also
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 112
provide the necessary job aids, training, education and opportunities to observe their peers.
Components of learning. The activities that are used to ensure that the external and
internal outcomes are achieved are listed in Table 16. It is important that teachers at MUSD
must address declarative and procedural knowledge. It is also important that teachers at MUSD
must also improve their motivation to address behaviors that might be impeding them from
achieving the goals. The organization must implement tools to measure the effectiveness of job
aids, workshops, training and education that is offered to teachers in order determine what needs
to continue.
Table 16
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Check for understanding via collaborative group
discussion
ongoing during professional development days
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstrate to peers during weekly collaborative
groups
ongoing observations
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Group-wide discussions ongoing conversations
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Feedback from teachers ongoing conversations
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions during peer collaboration weekly conversations
Level 1: Reaction
It is crucial that the organization measure the reaction to training. The feedback could
determine the type of training that needs to continue or discontinued based on participant
feedback. The types of reactions that the organization can expect from participants are listed in
Table 17.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 113
Table 17
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by peers and academic coaches one week after workshops
Peer evaluation one week after workshops
Relevance
Check for understanding during workshops
Observe classroom for implementation week after workshops
Customer Satisfaction
Feedback forms after workshops
Interview participants after workshops
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. An evaluation system to
measure the training (L1) and how many times teachers are applying what they learned during
training (L2) and the implementation. Reaction to the training (L1) will be evaluated via a short,
online survey. The few questions in the survey will focus on measuring how satisfied teachers
are with the implementation of the new program, the relevance of the training material in the
profession, and the engagement the training material has been in their profession. Learning
components (L2) will be frequently measured by formal and informal observations,
conversations during collaborative group time, and one on one discussions with teachers.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. It is important to establish
regular monitoring of training to ensure that teachers are implementing the program. The 15-
week evaluation is an important benchmark to measure the effectiveness of the training program.
The initial step is to measure the teacher’s reaction to Kagan training (L1). The next step in
evaluating the training is to check how much declarative knowledge, learning took place in the
training (L2). For example, to measure learning, a pulse check could be administered asking
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 114
teachers if they can list at least 3 Kagan strategies. The next step is evaluating whether the
training has led to change in behavior that would improve the probability of reaching the
performance goals (L4). In (L3), we can evaluate teachers with a survey that revolves around
how much the critical behaviors have been addressed (L3). The training will be measured by
how narrow the gap is between the goals and actual performance. MUSD has implemented an
academic summit held toward the end of each trimester. The academic summit is designed for
teachers to showcase to their peer’s strategies that they have implemented as a result of
professional development, training or meetings with content level experts. Peers are encouraged
to ask questions and to provide feedback to the presenters but more important is the presenters
provide their feedback as to the how effective training was to the implementation of activities. A
quick survey (Appendix B) can be assessed to measure how much of the training was transferred
into action.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Level 4 goals are listed in Table 18. These goals are measured by how committed
teachers are in ensuring that students are provided 20-minutes or more in the daily schedule to
access computer adaptive programs. All the learning goals should have a direct effect on
increasing the percent of students who are meeting grade-level standards in Math and English
Language Arts. Also, the assessments are summative because summative assessments provide
teachers data that they can use to drive instruction. The data from computer adaptive programs
will be reviewed on a weekly basis. The percentage of students meeting grade-level standards or
grade level work will be entered monthly.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 115
Table 18
Metrics Spreadsheet
Baseline
(August)
Goal
Sep
Oct
t
Nov
Dec
Jan
an
Feb
Mar
r
Apr
r
May
a
y
Year
e
a
r
By June 2018, improve 3
percent of 7
th
-grade and 8
th
-
grade students who score at or
above grade level on Smarter
Balanced Consortium Interim
Assessment (SBAC) results in
Math
10% 12%
By June 2018, improve 3
percent of 7
th
-grade and 8
th
-
grade students who score at or
above grade level on Smarter
Balanced Consortium Interim
Assessment (SBAC) results in
English/Language Arts
10%
12%
By June 2018, improve
percentage of 7
th
grad-and 8
th
-
grade students who score at
grade level or above in
Dreambox
55%
58%
By June 2018, improve
percentage of 7
th
-grade and 8
th
-
grade students who score at
grade level or above in
Reading
45%
48%
By June 2018, increase the
percent of teachers who have
students on computer adaptive
programs at least 20 minutes
daily
80%
100%
By June 2018, increase the
percent of teachers who use
data to drive instruction in the
classroom
60%
80%
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model was used to develop recommendations for MUSD to
address its goal of narrowing the student achievement gap. The New World Kirkpatrick 4 Level
Model was also used to evaluate the effectiveness of recommendations in relation to professional
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 116
development centered on increasing teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. The results were used to assist administrators to focus resources. Finally,
suggestions were made to aid MUSD in developing and evaluating effective professional
development training.
Conclusion
The New World Kirkpatrick Model provides organizations a method to evaluate
strategies that will be implemented to achieve expected results (Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New
World Kirkpatrick Model is best illustrated as a pyramid where expected results are developed
prior to any training (Kirkpatrick, 2016). The four levels of the pyramid are results (L4),
behaviors (L3), learning (L2) and reaction to training(L1). Results (L4) can be described as
expected outcomes because of the training that has taken place (Kirkpatrick, 2016). There are
leading indicators that point to critical behaviors as having a positive outcome on the expected
results (Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Kirkpatrick Model suggests that most of the time,
effort and funds should be spent in addressing behaviors (L3). In the training stage (L3), some
processes encourage, monitor, reinforce, and reward critical behaviors that are implemented from
the training into the job (Kirkpatrick, 2016). The learning stage (L2) measures the degree to
which participants acquire the knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment based on
their participation in the training (Kirkpatrick, 2016). The initial stage in the New Kirkpatrick
Model is the reaction to the training (Kirkpatrick, 2016). Customer satisfaction, relevance, and
engagement are used to measure how the participants felt about the training.
The expected results for teachers at MUSD revolved around increasing the number of
students who perform at or above grade-level standards. The three internal outcomes center
around teachers needing to increase their knowledge and motivation. MUSD must also provide
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 117
the resources to encourage, reinforce, and reward behaviors that are positive toward expected
results. Teachers have received “hands on” training on how to disaggregate data to create a more
effective small group environment. Targeted professional development has also focused on why
it is important to group students of similar academic levels. At MUSD, students are placed on
computer adaptive programs a minimum of 20-minutes daily to receive instruction targeting their
academic level. Teachers have received training on how to use data from programs to divide
class into smaller and more effective groups. Academic coaches will review weekly usage
reports to ensure that students are meeting or exceeding the recommended minutes. Academic
coaches will also visit classrooms to monitor if teachers are using data to drive small group
classroom instruction. Teachers who meet or exceed the required minutes will be rewarded with
one hour of free time while their students are supervised in the game room. The critical
behaviors teachers must address center around targeted professional development, participation
in Instructional Rounds, and ensuring that students are placed on computer adaptive programs.
The degree of commitment from teachers to implement training dictates the effectiveness of
professional development (L3). Ensuring (monitoring) that teachers are learning during training
is essential to an effective training program (L2). In this stage, the organization has to be willing
to allow teachers to use their discretion to implement what they have learned in the training.
MUSD believes that the achievement gap will eventually narrow when teachers address the five
components of learning: declarative and procedural knowledge, attitude, confidence, and
commitment.
Overall, the New World Kirkpatrick Model can be used to develop and implement more
effective training at MUSD. MUSD, like many organizations, has initiated training programs
that have failed due to lack of monitoring (L3) and because it has not established clear, feasible
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 118
performance goals (L4). Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model requires constant monitoring and
tweaking of behaviors to continue on the positive path to meet expected results. All the data
from training workshops and evidence gathered from observations will be shared with
stakeholders including the school board and district Superintendent.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 119
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IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 131
APPENDIX A
Site Permission Letter
April 15, 2017
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB)
3720 South Flower Street,
CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702
RE: Dr. Kathy Stowe
Juan Garcia
Narrowing the Hispanic Academic Achievement Gap by Increasing Teacher Capacity
To UPIRB:
This letter is to convey that I/we have reviewed the proposed research study being conducted by
Juan Garcia and Dr. Kathy Stowe intended to recruit subjects to conduct research on their views
of the academic achievement gap among Hispanic students. This study will require structured
online surveys and participation in a focus group at MUSD and find the evaluation study on
reducing the academic achievement gap by increasing teacher capacity acceptable. I give
permission for the above investigators to conduct research at this site. If you have any questions
regarding site permission, please contact: Superintendent.
Sincerely,
Mark Odsather,
Superintendent, MUSD
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 132
APPENDIX B
Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
(Note: PLEASE USE SECOND PERSON, SINGLE-SIDED, SINGLE-SPACED.
DELETE INSTRUCTIONS IN BOLD PRIOR TO SUBMITTING THIS DOCUMENT
FOR THE UPIRB’S REVIEW.)
• This model is flexible based on the type of research.
• Use language and simple sentences understandable to the average 8
th -
grader. If
subjects don’t understand the study or procedures, they may not agree to
participate.
• Instructions are provided below in bold, with example wording.
• Delete the instructions and, where applicable, the examples. Revise the document
to be consistent with your study/procedures.
Narrowing the Academic Achievement Gap Among Hispanic Students by Increasing Teacher
Capacity
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 133
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The goal of this research is to evaluate the impact of increasing teacher capacity will have on the
academic achievement gap among Hispanic students. Many Hispanic students at MUSD have had
assessments that indicate working math and reading levels below their grade level. This study will
measure the impact that increasing the teacher’s declarative and procedural knowledge, meta-
cognition and self-efficacy will have on the achievement gap.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
The participants of this study will be the 24 teachers at MUSD. The research design will start with
a structured, online survey to gather data on their perceptions of subject matter, pedagogy and self-
efficacy. The structures surveys should be completed in an estimated 20 minutes. The survey will
be designed to include an initial page that will remind them of their rights as willing participants
and that they are under no obligation to answer any questions. The structured surveys will then be
followed up by semi-structured focus groups (30 minutes) to triangulate and add depth to patterns
that were identified in the survey. The focus group activities will be audio recorded and
participants will have the opportunity to decline to participate if they wish to not be recorder.
Participants will be reminded that recording will be transcribed and any data that might identify
them will be scrubbed.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 134
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants will not be offered a payment, reward, or compensation for participating in this data
collection process.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
There are no plans to offer alternative means to participate in this data collection process.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The process to maintain confidentiality of the participants is of primary concern. The recordings
of the focus groups will be audio recorded, transcribed, and then names or any identifiable data
will be deleted during the transcribing process. The data will be maintained on the researcher’s
laptop. The laptop is password protected and school staff have no access to the laptop without the
researcher’s permission.
The analysis of the data will only be released to the dissertation committee only if requested.
Required language:
The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 135
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Juan Garcia via email at juanmg@usc.edu or can be reached via telephone
at 559-202-3606 or Faculty Advisor Dr. Kathy Stowe at kstowe@usc.edu or (213) 821-2122
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 136
APPENDIX C
Survey
This survey will only be used in gathering data for my dissertation. Statistical analysis will be
used to find frequency and other measures of tendency such as mean, median and mode.
Individual results will not be shared with the district or the university. Measures such as no one
having access to the survey response is one of many safeguards that have been set in place to
protect the survey participant (you) against possible negative effects from answering this survey.
1. How many years have you taught?
1-5 6-10 11-15 16 or more
2. The district encourages teachers to collaborate with other teachers to develop instructional
activities.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. Teachers have high expectations for students regarding academic performance.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. Teachers are provided resources to create effective learning lessons.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. Teachers are provided professional development to improve classroom management.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
6. Teachers are provided training on how to use data to drive classroom instruction.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
7. I create learning experiences that engage all students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
8. I employ teaching strategies and instructional materials that stimulate higher-order thinking
skills.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
9. I can adjust the difficulty of the assignment to meet the student’s academic level.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 137
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
10. I am provided opportunities for reflection to improve classroom instruction.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
11. I am provided opportunities for reflection on improving classroom management.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
12. I can express my views freely on important school issues.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
13. Professional development activities increase my knowledge of subject matter content
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
14. The district allows me to implement behavior strategies learned in professional development.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
15. Professional development activities allow collaboration with my peers.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
16. Professional development activities allow collaboration with administration.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
17. I am happy at my work.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
18. The district allows flexibility in teaching the curriculum.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
19. I use data to drive instruction.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
20. I am an effective teacher.
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 138
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
21. My career as a teacher provides plenty of personal fulfillment.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
22. I enjoy working in my current district.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
23. Professional Development has improved my teaching practice.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
24. Professional Development has improved how I collaborate with other teachers.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
25. Collaboration has allowed me to be more reflective of my teaching.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
26. Collaborating with my peers has made me a more effective teacher.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
27. The district has implemented strategies to narrow the achievement gap.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
28. The district’s vision conflicts with end of year performance assessments.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
IMPROVING HISPANIC STUDENT PERFORMANCE 139
APPENDIX D
Interview Guide
1. Why did you choose to become a teacher?
2. What do you hope to accomplish during your career as a teacher?
3. How would you define/describe the “achievement gap”?
4. Do you believe that there is an achievement gap at MUSD?
5. What strategies are you implementing to address the achievement gap?
6. How do you differentiate instruction for each student?
7. What type of strategies has the district implemented to address the achievement gap?
8. What type of resources does the district provide to ensure that teachers improve their
profession?
9. The teaching profession is filled with opportunities to reflect on the practice, how often
does the school district provide opportunities to reflect? Can you give me an example?
10. In what ways has the district implemented policies and procedures to increase knowledge
and motivation?
11. What kind of assistance is available to teachers?
12. Describe some of the ways in which professional development has influenced your
teaching practice.
13. What connections can you make between teacher collaboration and student achievement?
14. What benefits have you seen in engaging in faculty collaboration on student
achievement?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The performance gap continues to widen for English Language Learners. This study used Clark and Estes model to evaluate MUSD’s effort to improve student performance by increasing teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. A mixed method approach was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data. Survey data and interviews were analyzed to measure teacher’s perception of their knowledge and motivation. Kirkpatrick’s New World model was also used to ensure that training was monitored for effectiveness.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Garcia, Juan
(author)
Core Title
Improving Hispanic student performance in English language arts and math: a small California school case study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
08/05/2018
Defense Date
08/02/2018
Publisher
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committee chair
), Picus, Larry (
committee member
), Robles, Darlene (
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)
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