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Equitable schooling for African American students: an evaluation study

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Equitable schooling for African American students: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 1

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS:
AN EVALUATION STUDY

by

Tawio J. Barksdale

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Tawio J. Barksdale
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to God for giving me the opportunity to write this dissertation and pursue
this doctorate degree. I never imagined myself being here, but through His guidance and
revelation, I am taking my proper place and completing the educational journey of where He
wants me to be. He strengthened me through the trials and tribulations along the way, and He
has shown me purpose in choosing this topic and doing this research. I am faithful that my
learning experiences throughout my educational career and specifically in this program will
serve as a source of inspiration for children and adults that are passionate about pursuing their
callings and taking their rightful place in positively contributing to our society.
I am very appreciative to Dr. Datta, my dissertation chair, for all her efforts to get me
across the finish line. The motivating phone conferences, the emails to check my progress, the
meetings during immersion, and sending me back to revise numerous times (as my mother did)
helped me to keep my eye on the main thing and take value in the process to get through to
completion. Also, I am grateful to my other dissertation committee members, Dr. Smith-
Maddox and Dr. Maddox, who contributed meaningful feedback that helped give me more
precision and purpose in my research. The two of you always answered the call when I needed
your assistance, and I sincerely thank you for your sacrifices of time and intellect. I believe that
I had a ‘triple threat’ team in Dr. Datta, Dr. Smith-Maddox, and Dr. Maddox. I am also
extremely grateful to all OCL professors who contributed time to teaching me in your classes
and/or reviewing my work in preparation for the dissertation.
Words cannot express the deep appreciation that I have for my family’s patience, love,
and encouragement throughout this journey. I would like to thank my two mothers, Alvenes and
Deborah, for being mothers, sisters, and confidants when I needed you. Mother Alvenes, thanks
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 3
for making me start papers over in elementary school because you knew that I could do them
better. I really needed to understand that to get through this process. Mother Deborah, thanks
for giving me the outlet to vent and setting me straight when I needed to come back to earth. To
my father, James, thanks for all your encouragement and for showing me how to be a man of
perseverance. Also, thank you for showing me how to integrate practical thinking and wisdom
with academic thinking because I have utilized both to make it this far. Also, thanks to my
niece, Eyeishma, who always picked me up from the airport and secured my accommodations
when I came to Los Angeles for immersion. I am proud of you, and I am thankful for your
support! Thanks to my brothers, Shabaaz and Akeem, my sister, Barbara, and my other niece,
Shawnta, for always having a positive word for me throughout the doctoral program.
Last, but certainly not least, I would like to express my sincerest love, thanks, and
acknowledgement to Alon Barksdale, my son. Alon, you are my hero, and I am proud to be your
father! Through the divorce, temporary displacement, and our roller coaster ride back up, you
have been a great son! While I know that you have had your trials in life and school, overall,
you have been a good child, and it makes me proud to see you developing into an upstanding
young man. While I understand that you have had your share of challenges through our journey,
I have always seen you try hard to be obedient to your parents and make good choices about your
life. You, and other students like you, were my source of inspiration for choosing my
dissertation topic. I pray for nothing but great things for you, and I am hopeful that you find
God’s calling for your life and achieve all the goals that you need to so that you arrive at the
destination He has planned for you. I am hopeful that the late nights that you have observed me
studying and attending my master’s and soon to be doctoral graduation ceremonies serve as an
example to you that anything is possible for your life and that you can achieve anything if you
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 4
work hard and persevere. I love you, young man, and I look forward to many more years of
celebrating the fact that I am your proud father!
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice 11
Organizational Context and Mission 12
Importance of the Problem 13
The Benefits of Equitable Schooling for African American Students 14
Related Literature 15
Organizational Performance Goal 19
Description of Stakeholder Groups 20
Stakeholder Group for the Study 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions 21
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 22
Clark and Estes (2008) Conceptual Framework 22
Definition of Terms 23
Organization of the Study 24
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 25
Historical Discourse and Influences 25
Historical Context Influencing Equitable Schooling 26
Organizational Influences on Equitable Schooling 29
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy 30
Bridging the Home-School Cultural Gap 31
Settings of Empowerment or Imprisonment 34
African American Performance and Underachievement 37
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 38
Knowledge and Skills 38
Motivation 44
Organizational Influences 48
Cultural Influences on the Stakeholder Goal 48
Cultural Model Influence: School and Home 48
Cultural Model Influence: Teacher and Administrator Distrust 49
Cultural Setting Influence: Parent and Teacher Communication 49
Cultural Setting Influence: Teacher Feedback for Organizational Goals 50
Conclusion 51
Chapter Three: Methodology 53
Research Design Methodology 53
Conceptual Framework 54
Participating Stakeholders 59
Data Collection and Instrumentation 59
Interviews 60
Observations 60
Documents and Artifacts 60
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 61
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 6
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 61
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale 62
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale 62
Validity and Reliability 64
Ethics 65
Limitations and Delimitations 66
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 68
Participating Stakeholders 68
Findings 70
Research Question One 70
Teacher Use of Assessment Data 71
A Focus on Bureaucracy Over Building Community 79
Research Question One Summary of Findings 83
Research Question Two 85
A Limited Scope for Home-School Communications 86
A Paradigm Shift in Home-School Communication 91
Leadership Limbo 94
Research Question Two Summary of Findings 97
Summary 100
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations 103
Knowledge Recommendations 103
Declarative Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 106
Procedural Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 107
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 108
Motivation Recommendations 109
Self-Efficacy 111
Value 112
Mastery Goal Orientation 113
Organization Recommendations 114
Cultural Settings 116
Cultural Settings 117
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan 118
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 119
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 119
Level 3: Behavior 121
Level 2: Learning 124
Level 1: Reaction 128
Evaluation Tools 128
Data Analysis and Reporting 129
Summary 130
Limitations and Delimitations 131
Future Research 132
Conclusion 133
References 136
Appendix: A Interview Protocol 146
Appendix: B Initial Training Workshop Evaluation 147
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 7
Appendix: C Codebooks 149
Appendix: D Informed Consent Form 156
Appendix: E Observation Protocol 159
Appendix F: Program Evaluation 160

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 22
Table 2: Stakeholder Knowledge Influences 44
Table 3: Stakeholder Motivational Influences 47
Table 4: Stakeholder Motivational Influences 51
Table 5: Teacher Methods of Home Communication 92
Table 6: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 104
Table 7: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 110
Table 8: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 115
Table 9: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 120
Table 10: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Teachers 121
Table 11: Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors 123
Table 12: Components of Learning for the Program. 127
Table 13: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program. 128

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for equitable schooling for African American students. 58
Figure 2. Teacher participants by ethnicity. 69
Figure 3. Teacher participant years of experience. 69
Figure 4. Percentage of teacher participants in grade levels. 70
Figure 5. Percentage of African American students in participants’ classrooms 75
Figure 6. Data collection instruments. 130

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 10
ABSTRACT
This was a mixed-methods study that investigated the extent to which classroom teachers
provided equitable schooling for African American students. The study explored the practices of
classroom teachers relative to their instructional delivery and at strategies they used to build
classroom community and foster positive African American parent involvement. Teachers from
an elementary school in the Southeast participated in observations and interviews to show how
they utilized their interactions with African American students and their parents in gathering
relevant data to inform their instructional practices and build classroom community. Sample
formative assessments were analyzed to triangulate how teachers utilized their knowledge of
these students and their families to create individualized learning environments. The study
utilized Clark and Estes’ gap analysis framework to determine the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences on the teachers’ abilities to provide equitable learning environments.
The findings indicated that teachers interacted with African American families, but sometimes
encountered instances where more organizational support would benefit them in overcoming
communication challenges. Additionally, the responses indicated that more organizational
clarity is needed in establishing the role that each stakeholder plays in the context of home-
school communication and feedback. The frequent leadership transitions at the school and the
different backgrounds of some participants represented notable factors that impacted the teachers
achieving the stakeholder and organizational goals. The findings highlighted the need for
reinforced training with regard to African American student/parent communication as well as
consistent stakeholder collaboration relative to coupling the use of pertinent student facts along
with other relevant data to create personalized learning experiences.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF PRACTICE
This dissertation addressed the problem of equitable schooling for African American
students and its impact on these students’ academic outcomes. The United States Department of
Education (2015) indicated that African American students’ high school dropout rates are among
the highest. Over a designated 23-year period, these students’ dropout rate stood at 7% while
Caucasian students’ high school dropout rate was at 5% over the same interval of time.
Seemingly, African American students experience greater challenges relative to schooling, which
affects their willingness to persevere through K-12 academic experiences and attain their high
school diplomas. Moreover, Belcher (2012) posited that these students encounter educators who
have lower expectations of their capabilities, which subsequently decreases instructional
engagement and rigor as well as contributes to higher suspension and discipline rates.
Bensimon (2005) referenced the deficit cognitive frame within the educational system
and asserted this frame hinders certain individuals and/or organizations from recognizing or
acknowledging the full capabilities of certain ethnic groups because they view these groups
through an inferiority lens relative to the dominant group. Consequently, ideologies such as
these lend themselves to devaluing the capabilities of African American students and diminishes
their aspirations of completing high school and transitioning into college as well as their career
readiness. Thus, achieving equitable schooling for African American students means that
educators maintain high and realistic expectations in a context that is commensurate with the
targeted needs of these underrepresented minority learners. Additionally, providing equitable
schooling for African American students requires educators to demonstrate value for the
backgrounds and cultures of their African American stakeholders by considering these critical
dimensions when planning and/or implementing lessons and assessments as well as when
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 12
establishing their classroom and/or school communities. Essentially, this problem needs to be
solved so that unobstructed, equitable educational opportunities are provided for all students
regardless of ethnicity, gender, background, or circumstance. Failure to adequately address this
problem will potentially lead to a society that builds more jails for imprisonment of these
students rather than effective schools for empowering them.
Organizational Context and Mission
Located in the northwestern part of a state in the Southeast, FT Ford Elementary School
serves students in grades kindergarten through fifth and is a part of the public-school system.
The vision of the school is to be an organization of excellence and equity in educational practices
for students, and its mission is to create a community of learners who are accountable and
contributing citizens (Paraphrased from district website to protect identity). The school serves
approximately 609 students, and it is a Title I school with a poverty index of approximately 80%
(State Department of Education, 2015). Moreover, the student population consists of
approximately 52% African American students, 44% White students, 3% Hispanic students, 2%
Hawaiian/Asian Pacific Islander students, and under .33% American Indian/Alaskan students
(Homefacts, 2015). The staff consists of 34 highly qualified teachers, with 84% of them having
been at the school for multiple years (State Department of Education, 2015). Additionally, the
State Department of Education (2015) reported that, at the time of this study, the school
employed a veteran school principal and assistant principal.
The FT Ford campus holds 25 self-contained classrooms where teachers provide
instruction the entire day except for related arts and/or resource services. While all teachers
instruct students toward mastering state standards, the school offers two different types of
curriculum program settings. The first curriculum program classroom setting includes students
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 13
in one grade level. The alternative curriculum program classroom setting includes students in
multiple grade levels. There are eight alternative curriculum program classes at the school.
Parents must consent for their students to participate in the alternative curriculum program
classes. The school also consists of two special education classrooms. A considerable number
of African American students are enrolled in all classrooms.
A school representative (personal communication, November 1, 2017) indicated that FT
Ford has a 1.8% retention rate, with African American students representing the highest number
of students retained. Additionally, African American students are among the lowest performing
in the school on district- and state-level standardized tests (school representative, personal
communication, November 1, 2017). Relative to discipline, African American students have the
highest number of classroom referrals, which exceed those of Caucasian students by 309%
(school representative, personal communication, November 1, 2017). Additionally, African
American student school referrals exceed those of Caucasian students by 355% (school
representative, personal communication, November 1, 2017).
Importance of the Problem
The problem of equitable schooling for African American students is important to solve
for a variety of reasons. First, the United States Department of Education (2015) reported the
Hispanic and African American student dropout rate averaged 9.5% while that of Caucasian
students averaged 5% over 23 years. Additionally, the evidence shows the high school dropout
rate of African American male students to be among the highest of any other group or subgroup
over the same time span.
While a variety of factors potentially contribute to these data, organizational
infrastructures within education should be continuously investigated to ensure equal opportunity
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 14
and access for African American students is achieved so that these students’ likelihood of
success increases. Moreover, the high school dropout data challenge the philosophies and
perspectives of the broader education system relative to the scope and degree of expectations
placed on African American and other underrepresented minority students. Are the educational
expectations of African American and other underrepresented minority students sensibly aligned
and in consideration of their experiences as well as their accessibility to educational resources?
Holme (2002) stated that exposure and accessibility to the most quality educational
resources most often resides in more affluent communities. Holme further indicated that a low
percentage of African American or Hispanic children reside in these areas. Subsequently, the
low percentage of African American students residing in affluent communities speaks to why
African American students often have access to fewer resources than many Caucasian students,
who are more likely to live in affluent communities. Additionally, DiTomaso, Post, and Parks-
Yancy (2007) posited that the workforce most often uses the composition of the White worker to
represent the standard employee. Since the workforce is a direct beneficiary of a high volume of
students from public schools, this begs consideration of whether a similar standard potentially
exists within public schools. So, this suggests that honest and thorough investigations need to be
conducted to ensure there are no lingering effects of White privilege within the educational
system that adversely impact the achievement of African American students as well as other
learners who are not members of the dominant culture.
The Benefits of Equitable Schooling for African American Students
Equitable schooling for African American students proves to be a crucial factor in
improving schooling outcomes. The United States Department of Education (2015) identifies
African American students as having higher dropout rates than all other students. Further,
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 15
Bensimon’s (2005) research posited that African American students are more likely to encounter
teachers who subconsciously have lower expectations of them than they do of their Caucasian
counterparts. This suggests that teachers’ low expectations of African American students
contribute to increased anxiety and a decrease in perseverance as well as self-efficacy (Pajares,
2006). Thus, encountering these types of circumstances makes high school completion more
challenging for this group of learners. Additionally, Holcomb-Mcoy (2007) referenced the
significant role that positive teacher interaction with African American students can have on
increasing their performance and achievement. Thus, educational organizations that incorporate
effective communication and evidence-based strategies within their learning community increase
equity in schooling for African American students by personalizing the engagement for these
learners and their families. Personalizing the engagement among the school, African American
students, and their families allows teachers to have a more accurate knowledge of the best
instructional strategies to incorporate as well as the resources that are needed to meet the unique
needs of these learners.
Related Literature
A variety of historical research and studies contribute to the premise that equitable
schooling is significantly lacking for African American students, which subsequently impacts
their achievement. Bensimon (2005) suggested that a primary reason for academic and
behavioral achievement gaps is the cognitive frame through which educators, and society at
large, view African American students. For example, educators who view African American and
other underrepresented minority students from a deficit cognitive frame place total accountability
for deficient achievement on the students and believe their derogatory circumstances are self-
inflicted (Bensimon, 2005). They believe that African American students, as well as their
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 16
families, are solely responsible for creating their negative social, financial, and educational
circumstances, and they are the only ones who should assume responsibility for improving their
overall situation. Thus, educators, organizations, and institutions that represent the deficit
cognitive frame possess an embedded belief that they have limited and voluntary roles in
providing equitable learning solutions for improving African American student achievement,
which means they are already subconsciously disengaged from realizing any sense of urgency in
achieving this goal.
Bensimon (2005) asserted that having an equity cognitive frame allows stakeholders to
objectively investigate institutional policies that potentially impact equal opportunity and access
rather than exclusively blame students and their families for existing circumstances. Numerous
researchers from the University of Southern California experimented with an approach to
redirect institutional focus by working with stakeholders in leadership roles on identifying their
organizational cognitive frame so that leadership can take informed steps in transitioning toward
achieving an organizational equity cognitive frame. The researchers organized inquiry teams to
collect and analyze institutional data regarding race and ethnicity.
In one study, the inquiry team gathered data from a predominately Hispanic university.
The president appointed a dean as the leader of the school’s research group, and the dean had the
opinion that the school was totally immersed in the concept of diversity. The dean represented a
mindset of the diversity cognitive frame. He recognized the presence of diversity but did not
acknowledge the lack of access for certain groups within the institution (Bensimon, 2005).
Several of the group members employed by the institution as part of the research team shared the
dean’s opinion that diversity already existed within their school. However, the USC team of
researchers urged the group to collect more extensive data than just enrollment and financial aid
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 17
because these sources were the perfunctory types of data utilized in conducting such studies.
Instead, they asked the group to gather departmentalized data relative to student preparedness as
well as the specific types of financial awards. They placed the evidence on an equity scorecard
which consisted of four components: access, retention, institutional receptivity, and excellence.
Upon analyzing and disaggregating the data, the dean as well as other members of the
group realized that Hispanic and African American students at the institution lagged in
practically every educational measure. Also, analyzing the data made the research team realize
how much minority students were adversely affected on their campus. Further, the group
realized the ease with which this type of evidence could go unrecognized unless data are
intentionally and thoroughly analyzed to identify these types of deficiencies.
These findings indicate an urgency for educational institutions to be supported in
identifying institutional policies and practices that contribute to the achievement gap between
African American students and students of the dominant culture. Additionally, Bensimon’s
(2005) research speaks to the importance of holding educational institutions accountable for
being critically reflective about the lens through which they view minority students as well as
how those perceptions impact these students’ achievement (Burke, 2004; Rodgers, 2002a;
Rodgers 2002b). Bensimon (2005) posited that educators looking at students through a lens of
deficit or diversity cognitive frame typically overlook policies and practices within the
organizational structure that potentially contribute to the lack of opportunity and/or the lack of
access relative to producing an equitable learning environment.
Shifting the paradigm to equitable schooling for African American students requires
schools to adopt an equity cognitive frame mindset in which they objectively challenge
institutional policies by gathering appropriate data and engaging in authentic dialogue relevant to
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 18
issues that impede the progress of African American students (Rodgers, 2002a; Rodgers 2002b).
This potentially includes the need for organizations to do away with longstanding institutional
traditions and customs that limit, hinder, or obstruct achieving the goal of equitable schooling for
African American students. Moreover, adopting an equity cognitive frame mindset requires a
willingness by educational organizations and its internal stakeholders, especially those in
leadership, to step outside of the existing bureaucratic routines and/or cultural comfort zones so
they can objectively reflect upon policies, programs, as well as practices to ensure equitable
opportunities for all students and stakeholders (Bensimon, 2005).
Educators significantly influence African American performance and achievement
relative to equitable schooling. Holcomb-Mcoy (2007) posited that minority students experience
higher anxiety in school transitions than Caucasian students. Further, Gillock and Reye’s (as
cited in Holcomb-Mcoy, 2007) examination of 71 minority K-12 students revealed that students’
perceptions of their teachers had the greatest impact on performance and academic achievement.
Subsequently, Gillock and Reye also suggested that teachers play a significant role in building
self-efficacy in African American students. Moreover, this research speaks to the importance of
African American students being exposed to educators who have high and realistic expectations
of them. It further suggests that educators should place value on constructively and positively
engaging with these students to create cultures of meaningful relationship building. Fostering
meaningful relationships subsequently lessens students’ anxiety and influences their perceptions
in a positive way, which creates an environment that is conducive for success (Holcomb-Mcoy,
2007). Additionally, creating a culture of positive teacher-student relationships and positively
influencing student perceptions increases student self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and the level
of productive communication between teachers and students (Pajares, 2006).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 19
Morse (2006) referenced inequities within the educational context relative to school
funding. According to Morse, educational institutions hinder the progress for equitable
schooling by their refusal to provide logical structure for equitable funding of schools that
require the most programs. In many instances, African American students occupy these
institutions and are subsequently most negatively impacted by the lack of action by these
educational institutions. This scenario speaks to the importance of educators being
professionally accountable when making decisions that affect the educational welfare of African
American students, especially in consideration of the diverse spectrum of academic needs among
these students. Thus, professional accountability means valuing the importance of the problem
existing within African American students’ communities enough to make informed data-driven
decisions and diligently executing an action plan with intentional fidelity.
Organizational Performance Goal
FT Ford Elementary School requires all of its students to grow academically by the end
of each school year. School and district leadership established this as the goal for the school.
Primarily, the school and district utilize the beginning and end-of-year diagnostic and state
assessment data for the students to determine the level of progress. However, accomplishing this
goal will also require all of African American students to show academic growth. Thus, by
December 2020, all classroom teachers are expected to incorporate multiple evidence-based
instructional strategies for teaching African American students to ensure that these learners
receive equitable educational experiences so that they have the best chance for consistent
academic growth. Achieving this goal will involve addressing the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impact creating equitable learning environments. The organization
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 20
will measure this goal by analyzing district and state assessment data as well as obtaining
stakeholder feedback and evaluations to determine student growth.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The FT Ford Elementary School stakeholders consist of multiple groups. Specifically,
three stakeholder groups make up the basis of the study. The classroom teachers, the primary
stakeholder group for the study, are highly qualified staff members who provide instruction to
pre-kindergarten to fifth grade students. Classroom teachers play an essential role in the
organization’s performance goal because they are a primary conduit between the students and
parents. Classroom assistants make up the second stakeholder group pertinent to the study.
Classroom assistants provide academic and managerial assistance to teachers in daily
instructional routines and activities. Similar to classroom teachers, classroom assistants
represent an essential line of communication between the parents and the students. Additionally,
classroom assistants support the teachers with assisting each student academically, socially, and
personally. The school administrators are a third stakeholder group. School administrators are
the principal and the assistant principal. School administrators establish the goals and hold
stakeholders accountable for achieving the goals. Additionally, the school administrators
provide supplemental support to the classroom teachers and assistants relative to home-school
relations and communication.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Organizational growth and success relies upon the contributions from all stakeholders.
However, the classroom teachers represent the targeted stakeholder group for this study.
Classroom teachers serve as catalysts for initiating meaningful communication between school
and home, a relevant component for positive home-school relations. Gaining knowledge of the
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 21
comfort level and value of classroom teachers in communicating with parents of African
American students allows for better understanding of how to increase the intention and extent of
communication between the parent and teacher stakeholder groups; which subsequently benefits
the most important stakeholders, the students. It is important for teachers to increase
communication with parents to build meaningful teacher-parent partnerships for the benefit of
increasing collective efficacy (Pajares, 2006) and for creating a well-rounded learning
environment for these students. Failure to increase African American parent involvement serves
to further alienate these students, putting them at even more of a disadvantage for
underperformance.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The project investigated the extent to which FT Ford Elementary School provided
equitable schooling for African American student and their parents. The project used a mixed-
methods approach to gather qualitative and quantitative data as well as information and artifacts
from classroom teachers in the areas of instructional planning, assessments, school to parent
communication, and supplemental support. The data compiled and analyzed sought to answer
the following guiding research questions:
1. What support must classroom teachers receive to provide equitable schooling for African
American students?
2. How do motivational and/or organizational factor(s) influence teachers’ roles and
abilities in achieving equitable schooling for African American students?
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 22
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of FT Ford Elementary School is to create a community of learners who are
responsible and productive citizens.
Organizational Goal
By December 2020, 100% of teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based instructional
strategies for teaching African American students.
Classroom Teachers Classroom Assistants School Administrators
By December 2018 school
year, at least 100% of
classroom teachers will
demonstrate the use of at least
two evidence-based
instructional strategy when
teaching African American
students.
By one month into the 2018
school year, classroom
assistants will demonstrate
knowledge of 2 to 3 personal
facts about each African
American student in his/her
class.
By three months into the
school year, school
administrators will collaborate
with classroom teachers to
ensure 100% face-to-face
conferences with parents of
African American students has
been achieved.

Clark and Estes (2008) Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) conceptual framework model is used to analyze and specify the
performance goals of organizational stakeholders as well as distinguish the gap between actual
level of performance and performance goals. This model assisted with investigating how
stakeholder knowledge (K), stakeholder motivation (M), and/or the culture within the collective
organization (O) potentially influenced achievement of the goal. According to Clark and Estes,
reluctance and lack of awareness most often prevent stakeholders from identifying knowledge
gaps. Therefore, the knowledge component sought to ensure that stakeholders had adequate
factual, conceptual, procedural, and/or metacognitive knowledge to achieve the organizational
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 23
and stakeholder goals (Krathwohl, 2002). Clark and Estes’ model helped in exploring
stakeholder motivation influences through a variety of lenses (Rueda, 2011). Lastly, the model
assisted with investigating organizational influences through exploring cultural models and
settings within the organization and how they impacted performance (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001).
Definition of Terms
Equitable schooling. The provision of fair quality educational opportunities and
resources that meet students’ specific needs (McPherson, 2011)
Cognitive frame. The internal organizational or individual perceptions of students
which influences the way their social and learning needs are met (Bensimon, 2005)
Deficit cognitive frame. A mindset where minority students and families are blamed for
their own circumstances by individuals, organizations, and/or institutions. The oppressing entity
assumes little or no responsibility to investigate policies or practices to ensure organizational
and/or institutional equity is being achieved for minorities (Bensimon, 2005)
Diversity cognitive frame. A mindset where individuals, organizations, and/or
institutions believe they already provide programs to meet the diverse needs of their populations
without intentionally and thoroughly investigating the policies to ensure equity (Bensimon,
2005).
Equity cognitive frame. A mindset where individuals, organizations, and/or institutions
objectively investigate and challenge institutional and/or organizational practices to ensure
equitable practices are established in order to meet the needs of all students (Bensimon, 2005).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 24
Organization of the Study
The study consists of five chapters. Chapter one provides an overview of the relevant
data and critical factors to be considered when evaluating equitable schooling for African
American students. Additionally, it identifies the organizational mission, goals, the stakeholders,
and purpose of the study. Chapter Two provides a review of the relevant literature that supports
the topic of equitable schooling. Chapter Two also identifies organizational contexts and
discourses that have historically influenced this topic over time. Further, this chapter details the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that impact equitable schooling for
African American students in the research setting. Chapter Three presents the study
methodology, which consists of identifying the primary participants, the sources of data to be
used in the study, as well as how it will be utilized for data analysis. Chapter Four presents the
findings based on analysis of the collected data. Chapter Five uses the gathered data and
relevant literature to identify solutions for addressing the gaps. Additionally, Chapter Five
provides recommendations for implementing and evaluating the solutions.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 25
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review investigates the factors that influence equitable schooling for
African American male students. First, the review provides research which provides a
historical context that substantiates the purpose of equitable schooling for African American
students. Further, the literature review highlights the influences of institutional and
organizational culture on African American student achievement. This research also
establishes causality for behavioral and academic underperformance behaviors associated with
African American students. Also, this section provides research that establishes the need for
teachers to have the professional accountability to acquire deep knowledge of African
American students so that they can build meaningful relationships with them. Moreover, the
presented research suggests that, when teachers build more meaningful relationships with
African American learners, it positively influences their abilities to make data-driven decisions
that give these students more opportunity for success. Lastly, research is provided to support
the use of specific strategies and activities to increase equity in schools. After presenting the
general research literature, the second part of the review incorporates Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis framework to investigate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
which affect teachers’ abilities to provide equitable schooling.
Historical Discourse and Influences
Throughout history, protests, legislations, and special programs have contributed to the
ongoing discourse and pursuit of equitable schooling for African American students. However,
the current achievement gap and positioning of these students when compared to their
counterparts reveals that continued action is needed to arrive at a meaningful and sustainable
remedy. Tatum (2009) suggested there are institutional and community factors in the country’s
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 26
history that have implanted a distorted perception of underperformance and underachievement
relative to African Americans. Thus, fixing the problem of equitable schooling means
revisiting institutional and community factors that contribute to these challenges and being
intentional in changing the perceptions, narratives, and overall discourse that hinder optimal
performance and achievement of African American students.
Historical Context Influencing Equitable Schooling
Events throughout history reveal that the pursuit of equitable schooling for African
American students in the United States is ongoing. Brown v. Board of Education contributed to
the societal discourse and perception of schooling for African Americans. This case attempted to
erode segregation by deeming the educational resources of African American schools to be
unequal to those of White schools (Wishon, 2004). Additionally, Wishon (2004) suggested the
case inserted the phrase “separate but equal” into the societal discourse relative to equitable
schooling. While the conclusion is that this case was filed with good intentions, the decision in
Brown v. Board of Education indirectly provided those who disagreed with it a counternarrative
which suggested that African American students did not have the ability to perform or achieve at
the same level as White students. Thus, despite the inequitable resources in African American
schools, people who opposed separate but equal still established an adverse claim that African
American students could not achieve at the same level as Caucasian students (Ethridge, 1979).
Consequently, similar narratives, subliminal perceptions, and expectations of lower achievement
continue to exist within institutions and organizations relative to the capability of African
American students, teachers, and communities.
Ethridge (1979) recounted that, despite the case being won, attitudes about separate but
equal were slow to change, as personified in the Little Rock Nine’s attendance at Central High
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 27
School in 1957 (History.com, 2010). According to History.com (2010), the nine African
American students who signed up to attend Central High School were met with physical and
verbal hostility as well as alienation once they were permitted entry. The governor of Arkansas
at the time ordered the National Guardsmen to not permit the students to enter the school
(History.com, 2010). Once the students were allowed access, the school still prohibited them
from participation in extracurricular activities (History.com, 2010). Seemingly, the
counternarrative of lower achievement had been established because it perpetuated the notion
that African American students did not deserve to be in the same schools as Caucasian students
due to their inability to learn and achieve at the same level.
The perception of low achievement for African American students consequently affected
more than just the students within the educational setting. It also generated the same discourse
relative to the ability of African American teachers to provide quality instruction. The spread of
integration generated the closing of most African American schools, leaving many African
American principals, teachers, and staff members without jobs (Ethridge, 1979). Students began
attending schools coined as White schools (Ethridge, 1979). This situation spoke directly to the
counternarrative that Caucasian schools and students were better than African American schools
and students. The integrated schools, the White schools, turned away African American
educators from employment, citing they did not have room for more teachers. Ethridge (1979)
posited that integrated schools also perceived these teachers as incapable of doing an adequate
job of teaching students since they could not teach African American students with the resources
they had when they were segregated. Although integrated schools claimed to not have room to
hire African American principals and teachers, they continued to employ lesser credentialed
Caucasian educators to teach in these schools (Ethridge, 1979).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 28
Additionally, King (1993) revealed the percentage of African American teachers to have
ranged from 6.9% to 12% between 1970 and 1986. Further, King’s data showed that the
percentage of African American teachers was at its highest (12%) in 1970 and steadily declined
in the later years. More recently, Green’s (2015) The Atlantic article revealed the decreasing
presence of African American educators in major cities across the United States. Moreover,
Tatum (2009) reported one percent of the teaching population in the state of South Carolina were
African American males. Hudson and Holme’s (as cited in Green, 2004, p. 269) report showed
that, prior to 1954, approximately 82,000 African American educators were responsible for
educating 2 million African American students. The report also reveals that, from 1954,
immediately following the Brown v. Board of Education decision, to 1965, more than 38,000
teachers and principals lost their jobs in Southern states. Additionally, the report showed that the
number of African American college students majoring in education decreased by 66% from
1975 to 1985. This data and historical perspective provides a rationale as well as a sequential
context for the continuing disparity of African American teachers, the underperformance and
underachievement of African American students, and the high suspension and discipline rates in
the United States educational system. Moreover, due to the disparity in African American
educators, African American students experience fewer opportunities than their Caucasian
counterparts to develop meaningful relationships and build social capital with education
professionals who look like them, think like them, and come from the same descent as them.
However, closer scrutiny of these circumstances also suggests that educational disparities among
African American students surfaced from the implications of the Brown v. Board of Education’s
separate but equal counternarrative that African American students and educators are not capable
of teaching or learning at the same levels as Caucasian students and teachers. Arguably, one
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 29
could also infer that the separate but equal counternarrative began the deficit cognitive frame
within the organizational context because institutions felt the need to justify the
underperformance of specific student populations by exalting the systems of the dominant
culture.
From discipline to academics, individual, organizational, and institutional outlets provide
substantial data and statistics that suggest the deteriorating condition of African American
students within the social, political, and educational systems. However, solving the problem
requires pursuing the root of the existing disparities so that expectations, mindsets, and the
overall narrative can be modified to produce better outcomes. President Barack Obama (2014)
founded the organization called My Brother’s Keeper, an organization with a goal of addressing
inequitable disparities among boys of color. The organization focuses on acquiring equitable
resources for minority students in the areas of education, justice, and employment (Obama,
2014). While programs such as these assist in leveling the playing field for African American
students, organizational and institutional establishments within education must be investigated
and evaluated to ensure equitable policies, access to resources, and organizational practices.
Organizational Influences on Equitable Schooling
Organizational frameworks relative to the context and culture of schooling substantially
influence the productivity and outcomes for African American and other underrepresented
minority students. While President Obama’s My Brother’s Keeper initiative represents one of
the many well-intentioned programs that focus on leveling the playing field for African
American students, many of them often attend schools with deficit infrastructure which
subsequently limits or regresses their achievement. Deans for Impact (2015) stated that student
motivation, engagement, and participation are critical for making students feel like they are
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 30
welcome in the educational setting. This assertion suggests that schools bear the responsibility
of creating equitable, caring, and nurturing environments which serve as a catalyst for motivating
students, leading to student learning. Thus, educating African American students requires a
willingness from each educator to have an authentic value stake in meeting the intricate and
diverse needs of these students from a sociocultural perspective (Eccles, 2006; Scott & Palinscar,
2006; Shraw & Lehman, 2009; Wallis & Gregory, 2009).
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Richards, Brown, and Forde (as cited in Taylor, 2010) stated that teachers should be
culturally competent and reflective in their practices to provide a learning environment that
nurtures the strengths and talents that diverse learners bring to the classroom. Further, Taylor
(2010) asserted that culturally responsive pedagogy cannot exist without education professionals
utilizing the appropriate data to meet the specific needs of the students they serve. Moreover,
these findings suggest that teachers’ inability to be culturally responsive in their pedagogy
subsequently limits the achievement of culturally diverse learners due to the limits placed on
their opportunities to utilize their unique strengths and talents in a non-culturally responsive
setting. Seemingly, this speaks to the importance of education professionals having culturally
responsive pedagogy to diligently meet the needs of African American learners relative to
schooling.
Toward More Just Classroom Practices (2010) asserted that establishing and maintaining
culture in classrooms is essential in building meaningful relationships between teachers and
African American students. Toward More Just Classroom Practices (2010) also posited that
culturally relevant teaching should engage African American students in classrooms from a
reasonable context of academic and social expectations and assists teachers and schools in
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 31
developing relationships. Further, Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) stated that shifting the
paradigm of low performing African American students requires education professionals to
consider students’ cultures, values, and backgrounds. Thus, classroom cultures should be
responsive to students’ demographics. Seemingly, classroom cultures which do not compromise
or accommodate schematic differences between demographics oppresses students’ self-efficacy
and their motivation to achieve classroom goals because they fail to see relevance to themselves
within the that culture (Pajares, 2006; Young & Anderman, 2006). The high volume of
bureaucratic accountability and expectation within education seemingly creates imbalance and a
subsequent disconnect relative to educational organizations establishing more meaningful
relationships with African American students (Griffin, 2002; Waters et al., 2003). Therefore,
teachers and schools must be critical of their pedagogy and protocol if there is intention of
creating culturally responsive classrooms as well as welcoming climates for African American
students.
Bridging the Home-School Cultural Gap
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) connected the systemic underperformance of African
American students to discontinuities between school and home culture. Further, DiTomaso et al.
(2007) contributed the deficit explanations (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) provided for
African American student underachievement to the automaticity in which societal culture
defaults expectations of success to the privileged or dominant culture’s standard of achievement.
Subsequently, the perceived differences of cultural norms between African American homes and
schools generates a disconnect in meaningfully bridging the gap of understanding relative to the
varying schemas that govern these two entities. Consequently, schools lack an adequate
understanding of how to meet the unique needs of African American students while African
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 32
American homes lack the same understanding of how to excel in a systemic context that they
perceive as not being crafted with the intentions of meeting their children’s needs as learners.
Thus, deficit stereotypes, stakeholder frustrations, blame, and negligible justifications for
underperformance continue navigating this discourse with minimal evidence of a willingness to
modify cultural schemas so that these students have a better chance of academic success.
Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that individuals are more motivated to do their jobs and
achieve goals when they are empowered to choose their own strategies to accomplish a goal or
task. Additionally, engaging African American students and their families in the task of
organizational decision-making contributes to increasing students’ self-efficacy in terms of their
abilities to accomplish goals as well as collective efficacy in all other stakeholders’ abilities to
adequately perform their role in helping students to accomplish goals (Bandura, 2000; Pajares,
2006). Moreover, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) contribute an extent of the academic
underachievement of African Americans as well as other underrepresented minority students to
the neglect and/or absence of cultural models and settings in the context of schooling that
objectively foster choices in student settings as well as accomplishing goals. This research
suggests that educational environments can be made more inviting and enhanced by creating a
culture that reasonably allows for more individual choice in achieving academic and social goals
relative to the classroom and school settings. However, this requires more from educators than
haphazardly allowing African American students the undeserved autonomy to freely make
academic and social choices toward a goal.
Steele (as cited by Griffin, 2002) referenced the term “disidentification” relative to
African Americans in schooling. This concept suggests underrepresented minority students
subconsciously or consciously rebel against the organizational structure of education because it
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 33
is not inclusive of their ideas, values, or customs. Further, this also suggests that students will be
unmotivated in setting and achieving goals if there is the perception that the educational structure
is unconcerned about them or their cultural norms. This scenario presents educators with the
responsibility of allowing students to make choices while appreciating the unique differences
among learners by teaching them how to solve problems and accomplish goals in a context that
is permissible within the educational setting.
Consistently communicating value and appreciation for students’ cultural individuality
also means educators must sometimes provide limitations or exclude choices in a nurturing
cultural setting to show students the importance of responsible and active choice in achieving
goals (Gorski, 2008). African American students need to know that rules, protocol, and
consequences do exist in the school as well as the public setting. So, denying these students
choice using reasonable accountability, meaningful feedback, and reflective conversation with
them and their parents provides a different and more constructive lens (Baker, 2006; Deans for
Impact, 2015; Marsh & Farrell, 2015; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). However, when educators
deny and exclude choices through a lens of omission, condescension, and/or ridicule without
providing a relevant context, Steele (as cited in Griffin, 2002) suggested that this contributes to
“disidentification” because it generates a student perception that the educator is being derogatory
and punitive rather than attempting to help. Creating this type of environment means
establishing objective institutional and organizational cultures that provide opportunities for
choice while valuing students’ historical context to provide an equitable and nurturing frame for
goal setting which considers the unique perspectives of African American students and families
(Waters et al., 2003). So, providing this type of framework requires schools and the educational
system at large to objectively scrutinize their practices to ensure they are diligently meeting the
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 34
holistic needs of African American students so they have the greatest opportunity for schooling
success.
Settings of Empowerment or Imprisonment
Eccles (2006) posited that educators and educational organizations are responsible for
providing learning experiences that motivate students, help them in seeing the value of what is
being learned, and build self-efficacy in connecting and utilizing those experiences in advancing
their future goals. Eccles (2006) also suggested that, before these attributes can be instilled in
students, teachers must see the value in creating meaningful tasks and experiences for all
students regardless of the differences between them. Yet, many African American students with
potential fall through the cracks and experience oppression rather than empowerment within the
educational system because they are being sent to detention, and in-school suspension at higher
rates than other students. This problem often exists among African American students and exists
among those students the dominant culture labels as disruptors of class, unmotivated,
disrespectful, and/or have a bad home life. While these represent a few of the causalities, these
students experience minimal success, motivation, or self-efficacy in these environments. The
National Center for Education Statistics (2015) and Tatum (2009) indicate that these educational
perils most directly impact African American and other underrepresented minority who are often
of low socioeconomic status and labeled as ‘at risk’ students. African American and
underrepresented minority students who are perceived as ‘non-mainstream’ or ‘at risk’ learners
are being sent to detention, in-school suspension, or aout-of-school suspension at a higher
frequency than their Caucasian counterparts where they lose meaningful instructional time and
the ability to academically collaborate with their peers. Consequently, these students often
underperform academically and lag in developing educational social skills (Walker, 2014).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 35
Since these are critical foundational components of schooling, falling behind in these areas
denies African American students opportunities for individual empowerment relative to
education and seemingly prepares them for a less productive track.
DeFina and Hannon (2013) stated that incarceration rates have risen 300% over a 30-year
period. Further, Behnken (2014) stated that African American incarceration rates are six times
higher than those of Caucasians and twice that of Hispanics. Specifically, Walker (2014) stated
that African American students represent 21.3% of the school-aged population in a referenced
metropolitan southeastern city. Walker (2014) further explained that these students have school-
related out-of-class discipline issues at a rate that is two to three times their total represented
school-aged population. Moreover, in the county where this southeastern city is located, the
African American youth juvenile detention rate is 50% despite African American youth only
representing 22% of the population. Thus, research suggests there is a direct correlation between
school discipline and juvenile detention as well as subsequent prison rates in the country
(Behnken, 2014; Tatum, 2009; Walker, 2014).
Thus, while school should represent a place that empowers and builds self-efficacy
toward a sense of purpose, progressive growth, and meaningful achievement, Steele (as cited in
Griffin, 2002) suggested that frequent assignments to detention, in-school suspension, and out-
of-school suspension for African American students, seemingly paints a different picture of
reality as well as of how these students are perceived in school settings. Additionally, because of
the isolation and rigidity of these platforms, frequent in-school suspension and detention
perpetuate a vision of solitary confinement-like prison conditions for these students rather than
serving as a place that restores their academic focus of empowerment and prosperity.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 36
Consequently, students who are repeat offenders to in-school suspension and detention
receive the subliminal message which personifies prison-like attributes and/or attributes of
mental and/or social instability. The fact that certain students are ongoing repeat offenders
should indicate that in-school suspension and detention platforms are unsuccessful strategies for
promoting their overall academic growth. However, the unfortunate resolve is for these students
to be labeled as the bad apples rather than evaluating the effectiveness of the existing detention
and in-school suspension systems (Bensimon, 2005). Additionally, the high volumes of
exposure to these platforms contributes to students feeling alienated, ridiculed, disenfranchised,
and disconnected from school. This contradicts the goals and intentions of equitable schooling.
In many instances, the perceived cliché and roadblock for remedying educational
challenges is lack of funding and/or human resources. However, the solution for students
gaining access to equitable opportunities and resources for their individualized learning needs
can also be found in creative approaches and innovative strategies just as much as in allocated
dollar amounts. At-risk represents the common educational vernacular that identifies a high
percentage of these students. This term represents an oxymoron because risk for students should
be lessened if they receive quality educational services and resources. Thus, to underrepresented
minority students as at-risk suggests admission by the educational system of failing to provide
quality services and resources that meet these students’ unique needs. Further, utilizing such a
term plays a role in limiting teacher expectations of students, reducing student self-efficacy, and
diminishing collective efficacy (Bandura, 2000; Corts, 2007; Golden, 2006; Murphy, Neil, &
Beggs, 2007; Pajares, 2006). Thus, a continuous pursuit and focus on innovative approaches and
strategies is required to establish and maintain a culture of equitable schools that empower and
lessen risks for these students.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 37
African American Performance and Underachievement
Research suggests that African American students’ interactions with stakeholders
significantly influence their performance, achievement, and perceptions about school. Further,
Wilmore (2009) asserted that teacher efficacy impacts student achievement. Highly efficacious
teachers focus on building relationships with students, which subsequently fosters high
achievement (Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Ghaye, 2010; Krathwohl, 2002; Murphy et al., 2007;
Pajares, 2006; Rodgers, 2002a; Rodgers 2002b; Wilmore, 2009; Wilson, 2008). Moreover,
teachers with a high degree of self-efficacy possess an embedded quality that fosters student
achievement as well as directly models self-efficacy (Wilmore, 2009). This implies that
education professionals bear the responsibility of building student self-efficacy by modeling it
themselves. Further, the research suggests that, if educators underachieve in building student
self-efficacy and modeling it, students will underperform. Thus, research indicates that teachers
must be willing to take the lead and responsibility for more than just teaching the academic
curriculum and standards because an inability to model as well as foster efficacious behavior
contributes to student underperformance. Similar to the common practice of teachers modeling
the expected outcomes relative to the academic standard and/or skill they teach, it is equally
important to model productive efficacious behaviors for students to aspire to as well.
Since classroom teachers serve as an important catalyst for successful schooling, districts
and school administrators can promote student efficacy and achievement by creating educational
environments that are conducive for teacher agency and equity. Waters et al., (2003) suggested
that districts and states should relinquish more decision-making responsibilities to individual
schools as well as teachers, so they have more autonomy relative to the learning process.
Providing for decision-making at the school and classroom level decreases bureaucratic
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 38
constraints. Additionally, it allows for accessible and meaningful dialogue between internal
stakeholders as well as for more creativity and innovation within schools (Catmull, 2014). Black
and Wiliam (2010) posited that bureaucratic expectation and accountability placed exclusively
on academic standards and curriculum fails to adequately meet students’ needs. Thus, classroom
teachers may be reserved, fearful, or uncertain relative to the autonomy they have in thinking
outside-of-the-box and/or in customizing their pedagogical decision-making to accommodate the
students’ needs. Waters et al. (2003) asserted that assigning more leadership and decision-
making at the school and/or classroom levels better equips schools, teachers, and parents to
meaningfully engage African American students in taking ownership of their own learning and
achievement. Additionally, this approach shifts school accountability from bureaucratic to
professional, allowing more professionals within schools to have more direct and accountable
equity in student achievement (Dowd & Bensimon, 2014; Romzek & Dubnick, 1987).
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
This section reviews the relevant findings associated with the knowledge influences of
classroom teachers achieving the identified stakeholder goal. The organizational global goal
states that, by December 2020, all teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based instructional
strategies for teaching African American students. The stakeholder goal states that, by
December 2018, at least half of all teachers will demonstrate the use of at least one evidence-
based instructional strategy when teaching African American students.
Knowledge and Skills
Teaching requires knowledge of a variety of influences that subsequently impact learning
effectiveness. First, effective instruction requires teachers to be knowledgeable about their
students’ backgrounds (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009). This study used classroom
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 39
observations, formative assessment samples, and teacher interviews to assess this goal. Second,
meaningful instruction involves teachers having knowledge of how to implement evidence-based
instructional practices that most effectively engage students (Kirschner & Van Merrienboer,
2013). Observations serve as assessments for examining this stakeholder goal. Third, effective
instruction requires teachers to self-assess their classroom and instructional practices so that
instructional delivery and student achievement are maximized (Rodgers, 2002b). This study
used teacher interviews and classroom observations to assess this stakeholder goal. These
knowledge and skills increase teachers’ success in achieving the stakeholder goal.
Knowledge influences. This section provides literature that supports classroom
teachers’ abilities to achieve the stakeholder goal. Table 1 highlights the primary knowledge
influences pertaining to classroom teachers. The study categorizes the knowledge influences
into three knowledge types: declarative, procedural, and metacognitive. Declarative knowledge
engages the learner in obtaining the basic information needed so that he/she has familiarity with
an idea, skill, or concept (Krathwohl, 2002). Teachers possessing declarative knowledge about
their students allows them to make informed classroom and instructional decisions for each
child. Additionally, Krathwohl (2002) stated that conceptual knowledge involves possessing
basic knowledge of a skill and having the ability to intertwine it with larger ideological
constructs relative to the skill. Teacher knowledge of how to procedurally implement evidence-
based instructional practices to engage students represents the second knowledge influence and
proves to be essential in student achievement. Lastly, metacognitive knowledge involves one’s
awareness and assessment of his/her own thinking (Krathwohl, 2002). Teachers’ abilities to self-
assess their classroom and instructional practices represents the third motivational influence and
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 40
is at the deepest level of knowledge, self-knowledge, and self-awareness of cognition
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Krathwohl’s (2002) analysis and overview of Bloom’s taxonomy illustrates the
importance of building and expanding upon thinking within a task to foster self-awareness and
transfer. Essentially, progression through varying levels of cognition offers deeper opportunities
for learning and application toward a given skill or idea. Thus, Krathwohl’s (2002) literature
establishes the rationale for categorizing the knowledge influences into the varying knowledge
types. Similar to the expectation that teachers create lessons to extend the level of student
thinking, they must also engage in similar patterns and practices of thought when examining
their effectiveness relative to student achievement.
Knowledge of student and family backgrounds. Marsh and Farrell (2015) suggested
having knowledge of student and family backgrounds helps teachers develop conceptual
knowledge that is essential for teaching. Additionally, Wyrick and Rudasill (2009) suggested
that planning meaningful and productive lessons requires teachers possess basic knowledge and
facts about their students. Learning these facts through students, parent, and home interactions
allows the teacher understand students’ prior knowledge and experience in order to generate
meaningful instructional responses when teaching (Marsh & Farrell, 2015; Wyrick & Rudasill,
2009).
Wyrick and Rudasill (2009) conducted a study of 427 boys and 467 girls from mixed-
income Caucasian and African American households which focused on assessing the impact of
home and school interaction relative to building teacher and student relationships. The study
revealed that higher parent involvement played a direct role in teacher-student closeness and
lower parent involvement lessened teacher-student closeness. Thus, building quality home and
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 41
school relationships increased the potential for improved teacher-student relationships.
Additionally, Wyrick and Rudasill’s study revealed that lower income students usually
experienced more teacher-student conflict than higher income students. Specifically, lower
income students and families need consistent and constructive feedback to maintain healthy
student-teacher relationships. Further, Deans for Impact (2015) stated that students more
effectively engage in classroom efforts when they are motivated and feel welcome in the
classroom. Subsequently, being consistently involved in students’ home lives gives teachers
knowledge of how to make the classroom more welcoming and engaging for learners. This also
strengthens interpersonal relationships between students and teachers (American Psychological
Association, 2015). Increasing parent involvement and positive home-school interaction gives
teachers the ability to gain more knowledge about their students’ interests, family dynamics, and
upbringings, critical resources in providing meaningful instruction (Alexander et al., 2009;
Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Engaging instructional strategies. Teacher procedural knowledge of how to implement
engaging instructional strategies for the classroom serves as the second knowledge goal essential
in generating meaningful student engagement outcomes. Dembo and Eaton (2000) posited that
the outcome of any learning experience should be for the student to assume ownership in
acquiring the learning and make applicable transfer of the learning in relevant situations. Thus, a
teacher’s challenge consists of designing meaningful learning experiences that allow for student
equity and mastery of a task while also considering the impact of the learning on information
processing and cognitive load (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Paas, 2006; Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 42
Teaching students requires knowledge of how to use the most effective strategies that
provide meaningful instruction. Boulware-Gooden, Carreker, Thornhill, and Joshi (2007)
conducted a study of third grade students from different schools to determine the effectiveness of
metacognitive strategies intended to assist students with comprehending reading text. The
results indicated that students at a school using webbing strategies and where oral thinking aloud
was encouraged showed significant improvement in reading comprehension. The authors
suggested that teachers should design instruction that meets students’ cognitive needs and
facilitates the desired long-term outcome of student growth and development relative to
cognition. Further, Kirschner and Van Merrienboer (2013) referenced educators’ tendencies to
utilize and apply instructional strategies based on their popularity and frequency of use rather
than on research-based effectiveness relative to the specific students and learning environment.
Therefore, designing effective instruction requires a focus on strategies that meet specific
students’ needs rather than on those that are most colorful, eye catching, or most popular in the
general mainstream of education. Further, lessons that are effectively designed for student needs
promote student self-regulation and metacognition, essential components for learning transfer to
take place (Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
Teacher self-assessment. Rodgers (2002b) suggested that effective teaching and
learning cannot take place without teachers reflecting on their practice. Teachers self-assessing
their classroom and instructional practices engages them in deepening their metacognitive
knowledge. Metacognition, thinking about one’s own thinking, represents a critical knowledge
influence for teachers to enhance their instructional practice (Baker, 2006). Baker (2006)
asserted that metacognition provokes the engagement of learners in functionally integrating and
applying the basic cognitive processes, the relevant background knowledge, and cognitive
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 43
strategies associated with completing a learning task. Further, Baker (2006) suggested that
metacognition increases critical and creative thinking as well as makes the learner assume more
ownership for his/her thinking.
Meaningful instruction requires educators to be metacognitive and constantly self-assess
their teaching practices. Cates et al. (2003) conducted a study with five general education
teachers and their diverse groups of second grade students. The study investigated the level of
effectiveness relative to three specific instructional strategies for increasing students’
achievement levels in word recognition and writing. The findings indicated that the strategy
requiring the least amount of instructional time and of least sophistication, traditional drill and
practice, proved to be the most effective for student achievement in this area. This finding
proves especially relevant because of the tendencies of some educators to engage in sophisticated
instructional techniques without having certainty of their effectiveness. Further, they assume
that the strategy is effective because of it being new or because of who endorsed it. Failure to be
metacognitive and self-assessing in their practices potentially causes teachers to omit the most
effective teaching strategy. A teacher’s inability to self-assess instructional practices yields
counterproductive outcomes and increases the likelihood of germane load (Kirschner et al.,
2006). Fostering metacognition in the classroom and during instruction contributes to students
and teachers being successful learners by providing a model of the desired outcome relative to
cognition (Kirschner et al., 2006).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 44
Table 2
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of FT Ford Elementary School is to create a community of learners who are
responsible and productive citizens.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2020, 100% of teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based
instructional strategies for teaching African American students.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2018 school year, 100% of classroom teachers will demonstrate the use of
at least two evidence-based instructional strategies for teaching African American
students.
Knowledge Influence

1. Teachers need to know the
backgrounds of their students
and their families.

2. Teachers need to know how to
implement instructional
strategies for engaging students
into the classroom environment.
Knowledge Type

Declarative
(Factual)

Declarative
(Conceptual)
Knowledge Influence
Assessment

Observations and Interview

Observations, Interviews,
and Artifacts
3. Teachers need to self-assess
their classroom and
instructional practices.
Metacognitive Observations and
Interviews

Motivation
This section reviews the literature related to motivational influences pertinent to the
stakeholder of focus, classroom teachers, achieving the stakeholder goal. While the
organizational global goal and the stakeholder goal remain the same, Table 3 identifies teacher
self-efficacy and teacher goals as primary motivational constructs that impact teacher’s
motivating students. First, Table 3 identifies that effective teaching requires that teachers display
self-efficacy. Overly or under-efficacious teachers limit their ability to teach and the student’s
capacity to learn (Pajares, 2006). Teachers play a significant role in student motivation.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 45
Efficacious teachers more effectively motivate their students. Second, Table 2 identifies teacher
goals to be an important factor in teaching. The teacher’s ability to establish meaningfully
relevant goals serves as a model to students and motivates them to pattern their goal(s) of
achievement around the model emphasized by the teacher (Young & Anderman, 2006).
Self-efficacy. Pajares (2006) defined self-efficacy as self-judgements that individuals
have about themselves and in their abilities to accomplish tasks and/or goals. Further, Pajares
(2006) posited that self-efficacy serves as a foundational element of learner motivation.
Seemingly, the literature suggests that lacks efficaciousnes substantially hinders a learner from
achieving a goal and/or task. Therefore, being overly or under-efficacious potentially limits a
teacher’s ability to motivate students to higher levels of achievement.
Teacher self-efficacy. Murphy et al. (2007) conducted a study of 300 United Kingdom
teachers via telephone and email surveys with the goal of finding challenges as well as seeking
future opportunities for teaching primary science. Over 50% of the teachers, mostly veteran
educators, identified a lack of teacher confidence in teaching science to be their primary
challenge. Murphy and colleagues study showed the influence self-efficacy has on teaching. To
be most effective, teachers should be confident in their pedagogy as well as in the evolution of
their professional development. Pajares (2006) stated that if learners are not efficacious about
achieving the anticipated outcome of a specific task, they will lack motivation to execute the task
or to persevere when there is challenge. Pajares provided evidence-based justification as to why
teachers may either neglect to teach science and/or other content, and/or teach it at the lowest
levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002). Usually, veteran teachers possess more
knowledge and resources in teaching than rookie teachers. Yet, Murphy and colleagues
suggested that their lack of self-efficacy plays a role in their ability to effectively teach science.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 46
Thus, age is not the determining factor for self-efficacy. Therefore, younger teachers also
possess the potential to have high self-efficacy, which suggests that experience is not necessarily
the determining factor for having high self-efficacy relative to teaching. However, Murphy et
and colleagues suggested that efficacious teachers more confidently engage in teaching content
as well as in developing their pedagogy than teachers who do not have this quality.
Goal orientation theories. Young and Anderman (2006) asserted that classroom and
school-wide practices significantly impact students motivation and the extent to which they
adopt goals. Young and Anderman (2006) also referenced the impact that parents have on
student motivation of adopting performance or mastery-oriented goals. However, empirical
evidence suggests that school practices tend to impact what is emphasized academically at home.
For example, if the teachers and school emphasize and reward high grades, parents will also
emphasize the child earning a high score rather than mastering the content (Young & Anderman,
2006). Subsequently, the child adopts performance-oriented goals because the parents and the
school adopt those measures.
Teacher Goals. Rontou (2013) conducted a study involving two schools, two classroom
teachers, and two resource teachers with the intention of measuring teacher collaboration and
provision of services for four Greek middle and high school dyslexic students. The study
revealed that the classroom teachers desired to receive training on dyslexia, but never requested
it. Moreover, the resource teachers never offered dyslexia training. Students often suffer the
consequences of lacking achievement because of failed communication and/or follow through
between education professionals. Further, teachers fail to meet the needs of the students if they
do not collaborate on critical elements that inform them as to how best help the students they
teach. Too often, educational representatives go through the motions of having meetings and
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 47
assimilating interventions simply to mark them off a checklist rather than to help the student
master his/her instructional requirements. Rontou illustrated teachers modeling the achievement
of performance-oriented goals rather than mastery-oriented goals. Whether it be a meeting or a
lesson, when teachers go through the motions of the educational process simply to complete the
task for a checklist, they fail to model mastery goal orientation and subsequently hinder students’
opportunities to engage in self-regulation and metacognition, an essential component for student
growth (Young & Anderman, 2006).
Table 3
Stakeholder Motivational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of FT Ford Elementary School is to create a community of learners who are
responsible and productive citizens.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2020, 100% of teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based
instructional strategies for teaching African American students.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2018 school year, 100% of classroom teachers will demonstrate the use of
at least two evidence-based instructional strategies for teaching African American
students.
Motivational Indicator(s)
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy - Teachers need to be more/less
efficacious in their ability to teach African
American students.

Observations and Interviews
Goals – Teachers should establish
instructional goals focused on mastery rather
than performance.
Interviews and Artifacts

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 48
Organizational Influences
This section reviews the relevant findings of possible organizational influences that
impact classroom teachers achieving the stakeholder goal. The organizational global goal states
that, by December 2020, all teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based instructional
strategies for teaching African American students. The stakeholder goal states that by December
2018, all classroom teachers will demonstrate the use of at least one evidence-based instructional
strategy when teaching African American students.
Cultural Influences on the Stakeholder Goal
Cultural factors potentially impact achieving the organizational and stakeholder goals.
Relative to schooling, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) highlighted a disconnection between the
cultures within student homes and those within schools. Therefore, cultural models and cultural
settings serve as relevant indicators relative to the priority and/or urgency of organizations to
adopt meaningful change.
Cultural Model Influence: School and Home
Research suggests that providing equitable schooling for African American students
begins by reducing the disconnect between school and home. For example, Fullan (as cited in
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) asserted that reculturation is an important component of
organizational change. Fullan (as cited in Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) also stated that
reculturation involves changing the norms associated with how people behave and interact
toward each other. This research speaks to the importance of stakeholders being responsive and
objective to the needs of others within their organizations. Specifically, Fullan’s (as cited in
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) assertion implies that schools will continue to encounter
resistance from stakeholders if there is unwillingness to incorporate reculturation into the cultural
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 49
model of schooling. The concept of reculturation also suggests that schools should seek more
meaningful interaction with students and their families rather than consistently placing the blame
on the lacking home environments of students when they underperform relative to school
expectations.
Cultural Model Influence: Teacher and Administrator Distrust
Nayir (2012) referenced the impact of teachers feeling supported and trusted by
administrators on achieving organizational goals. Further, Nayir (2012) posited that teachers’
perceptions of support and trust influence their ability to reciprocate trust in administrators
relative to their instructional and procedural decisions with regards to schooling. Thus, teacher
and administrator distrust represent a cultural model influence that affects the teachers’ abilities
to achieve the stakeholder goal. Teacher perceptions of a lack of support and trust from their
administrators affects their efficacy with regards to providing meaningful instructional practices.
Additionally, Ebmeier (2003) asserted that teachers not feeling supported by administrators can
substantially impact their sense of commitment in accomplishing organizational goals.
Ebmeier’s findings also speak to the challenges schools face in asking students and parents to
trust and commit to organizational goals when they do not have clear indication that teachers and
administrators actively commit to them.
Cultural Setting Influence: Parent and Teacher Communication
Parent and teacher communications influence student performance as well as the
development of meaningful relationships between home and the classroom. Farrell and Collier
(2010) stated that quality communication with families contributes to student success. This
suggests that effective communication between school and home increases the potential for
positive student performance. Additionally, Graham-Clay (2005) stated that teachers are often
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 50
untrained in the ways of effective and proactive communication, which can potentially affect the
approach that is utilized in teacher and parent communication. Graham-Clay’s assertion
supports the idea of teachers engaging parents in positive dialogue. According to Graham-Clay,
beginning with negative communication or establishing it as the basis for routine home-school
communication implies a perception of minimal student and family value relative to schooling.
Additionally, beginning with negative communication places an immediate strain on home-
school relations (Graham-Clay, 2005).
Cultural Setting Influence: Teacher Feedback for Organizational Goals
Bogler and Somech (2004) asserted that teacher empowerment is directly correlated to
their organizational commitment. Thus, empowered teachers feel confident in their commitment
to their organizations. Bogler and Somech (2004) also state that a culture of trust and
empowerment yields an organization where there is open communication and honest feedback.
Moreover, this research implies that organizations with empowered stakeholders frequently
engage in meaningful, relevant, and collegial dialogue with respect to how to achieve goals.
Subsequently, the desire for teacher anonymity when providing feedback lends itself to a culture
of ambiguity rather than to a culture of openness.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 51
Table 4
Stakeholder Motivational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of FT Ford Elementary School is to create a community of learners who are
responsible and productive citizens.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2020, 100% of teachers will incorporate multiple evidence-based instructional
strategies for teaching African American students.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2018 school year, 100% of classroom teachers will demonstrate the use of at least
two evidence-based instructional strategies for teaching African American students.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
There is disconnect between school and African
American homes.
Interviews
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is a distrust between teachers and school
administrators.
Interviews
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
There needs to be an increase in positive parent and
teacher communication for African American
students.
Interviews
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Teachers need the opportunity to provide more
feedback relative to achieving organizational goals.
Interviews

Conclusion
This chapter conducted a literature review of factors that impact equitable schooling for
African American students and play a role in hindering their behavioral as well as academic
success. The research from this chapter provided evidence of how organizational influences
play a role in behavioral and academic progress and achievement. The disparity in academic
and behavioral outcomes between African American students and Caucasian students validates
the need for schools and education officials to create sustained organizational climates that are
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 52
conducive for these students’ success. Additionally, research from this chapter showed the
importance of teachers engaging in positive and consistent communication with parents o to
promote active parent involvement. The literature review indicated that many teachers
experience challenges in communicating with African American parents because of the strained
relationship between the teacher and student or because of the disproportionate amount of
negative communication initiated by school officials. Addressing this problem potentially
eliminates a degree of disconnect between teachers and African American parents and
subsequently creates more meaningful parent involvement. The literature review also
identified research-based instructional strategies that work effectively in teaching African
American students. To more effectively serve African American students, teachers should be
motivated to pursue evidence-based strategies and be culturally responsive to these students’
needs. Pursuit of equitable schooling requires a broad investigation of factors that impact
achieving this desired outcome and intentionally following through with purposeful action.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The project conducted research on FT Ford Elementary School and the extent to which
individual teachers and the school established a culture of equitable schooling for African
American students and their parents. The project utilized a mixed- methods approach by
gathering qualitative data through interviews and observations as well as quantitative data in the
form of teacher demographics and sample formative assessment data. The data compiled sought
to answer the following guiding questions:
1. What support must classroom teachers receive to provide equitable schooling for African
American students?
2. How do motivational and/or organizational factor(s) influence teachers’ roles and
abilities in achieving equitable schooling for African American students?
Research Design Methodology
The study utilized Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to identify
performance gaps relative to knowledge, motivation, and organization. In order to meaningfully
engage in the problem-solving process of Clark and Estes (2008) framework, the study applied a
mixed-methods approach to gather qualitative and quantitative data from a diverse sampling of
classroom teachers and classroom settings. First, the study used interviews to understand
classroom teachers’ levels of knowledge about their African American students and families, the
extent of communication between the teachers and these families, and the amount of
organizational support they receive for these initiatives in their classrooms. Next, the study
explored observation data to determine how teachers apply their knowledge of African American
students in instructional delivery, assessments, and in building classroom community.
Additionally, the study collected sample formative assessment artifacts to explore the extent to
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 54
which teachers used their knowledge and facts about students when considering their
assessments. The artifacts helped to provide additional support for identifying causalities for
potential performance gaps that may have existed between African American students and their
counterparts.
Conceptual Framework
Maxwell (2013) posited that a conceptual framework utilizes theories, expectations, and
beliefs to inform and guide research. Additionally, Maxwell (2013) suggested that a conceptual
framework should be inclusive of the researcher’s personal knowledge and experiences as they
are what shape individual beliefs. This conceptual framework consists of four essential
components of pedagogy that must be rooted in three governing principles within school culture.
Incorporation of the components and principles presented in the conceptual framework prove
critical in answering the research questions and are important factors to be considered if
educators are to provide equitable schooling for African American students.
First, equitable schooling for African American students requires educators to utilize their
knowledge of learners’ unique needs and backgrounds during academic as well as social
interactions. Cates et al. (2003) emphasized the importance of immersing students into the
learning environment in ways that accommodate a plethora of their individual needs. Further,
actively engaging students into the learning environment requires educators utilize sociocultural
and cognitive theories to gain a deeper interpersonal knowledge of students’ aesthetic as well as
cognitive needs so that nurturing learning environments are established and maintained (Cates et
al., 2003; Kirschner et al., 2006; Scott & Palinscar, 2006). Moreover, Wyrick and Rudasill
(2009) and Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) suggested that educators investing time in
acquiring a deeper knowledge of African American students and applying it within the context of
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 55
classroom cultures subsequently reduces the likelihood of in-school suspensions, out-of-school
suspensions, as well as unproductive discourse between teachers, students, and parents.
Educators must utilize appropriate and reasonable student evidence to make data-driven
decisions based upon students’ specific needs. Milanowski, Kimball, and Odden (2005) asserted
that educators should use a variety of data when making decisions relative to students.
Specifically, Milanowski and colleagues also suggested this to be an especially important
consideration for African American students given the complexity of their experiences that lend
themselves to the context of schooling. Thus, teachers should utilize evidence-based strategies
and relevant data-driven decision-making when planning and delivering instruction as well as
when considering extracurricular programs/activities for these students. Consequently,
inaccurate, inappropriate, or incomplete analysis and/or use of relevant data for African
American students potentially narrows the scope of their achievement by assessing them through
a distorted and/or incomplete lens (Milanowski et al., 2005). Subsequently, this often leads to
schools implementing irrelevant and unproductive instructional and extracurricular programs due
to having an incomplete understanding of students’ needs.
Facilitating meaningful learning environments for African American students requires
educators to be professionally accountable to ensure they maximize their time and efforts in
achieving equitable schooling for all students. Eccles (2006) suggested that educators who do
not give priority to meeting the sociocultural as well as academic needs of learners subsequently
deprive students of maximum success. Further, the expectancy value motivational theory posits
that participants must see the target goal as achievable and have the necessary drive and
motivation to achieve the target goal (Eccles, 2006). Moreover, Pajares (2006) asserted that self-
efficacy is a catalyst for educators’ motivations to successfully achieve the goal of equitable
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 56
schooling. This suggests that teachers need to value meeting the needs of their students to the
same extent that they value meeting the needs of their own biological children. Additionally,
this research suggests that teachers need to be efficacious in meeting learner needs with fidelity.
They must have the belief that their extensive efforts will make a meaningful difference in
learners in the short term and/or the long term.
Shraw and Lehman (2009) emphasized the importance of engaging the environments and
backgrounds of students if there is intention of making a significant impact on their learning.
Including the cultural dynamics of African American students within the context of schooling
requires teachers to get to know each African American learner, which includes the home,
parents, and other constructs that are pertinent for schooling. Since many African American
students are considered at-risk, and they are considered to focus academic decisions as well as
priorities on family circumstances, educators need to diligently investigate the backgrounds and
circumstances of these students to accurately craft relevant and productive goals for each student
(Bateman & Kennedy, 1997). Further, Wyrick and Rudasill (2009) suggested that failure to
establish positive relationships between school and home creates a power struggle.
Consequently, these power struggles place the student in the middle and force him/her to choose
between loyalty to school or home expectations. Therefore, equitable schooling requires
educators to build productive relationships and rapport with students as well as parents and assist
the school in fostering meaningful home-school communications so that a healthy environment
of collaboration is achieved to meet learners’ needs.
Three governing principles must be present and consistent in schools and classrooms for
the essential pedagogical components of the conceptual framework to effectively create equitable
learning experiences for African American students. First, meeting African American learner
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 57
needs in concordance with the framework requires that educators view these students as
individuals who are capable of learning at the same levels as learners of the dominant culture
(Bensimon, 2005). Bensimon (2005) further asserted that educators demonstrate an equity
cognitive frame for African American students by resisting the common urge to place sole blame
on them and families for their backgrounds, values, and/or circumstances. Therefore, educators
seeing African American students from an equitable lens is the most essential governing
principle relative to the cultural settings and models of classrooms because it emphasizes
objective teacher reflection about their practices to ensure they are equitably meeting the needs
of African American students with the same degree of inclusiveness as they are meeting the
needs of their dominant culture students.
Bogler and Somech (2004) suggested that open communication and feedback are driving
forces in fostering organizational cultures of trust and empowerment. Thus, meaningful
communication represents a second governing principle that must be present in the classroom
culture for equitable schooling to take place. Equitable schooling for African American students
requires objective and meaningful communication taking place between internal and external
stakeholders so there is parity in accommodating unique and equitable learning experiences for
these students. This often requires differentiation from the learning experiences provided for
students of the mainstream culture. Subsequently, open communication, dialogue, and feedback
also engages teachers in the third governing principle of the conceptual framework,
metacognition. Boulware-Gooden et al. (2007) asserted that teachers should be the primary
models for metacognition in the classroom. Thus, engaging students in thinking about their own
thinking requires that teachers explicitly and implicitly model and apply this process relative to
their practice. Moreover, professional reflection is necessary if teachers anticipate positively
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 58
changing the performance and social outcomes of African American students relative to
schooling. So, teachers equitably and objectively communicating about their students and
engaging in metacognition with regards to their practices gives more accessibility to the four
essential components of pedagogy that are important for providing equitable schooling.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for equitable schooling for African American students.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 59
Participating Stakeholders
The school community consisted of numerous stakeholders who were critical in
achieving organizational goals. However, classroom teachers represented the focal stakeholder
group for the study. The organizational global goal was that by December 2020, all teachers
would incorporate multiple research-based strategies for teaching African American students.
Specifically, by December 2018, the stakeholder goal was that teachers would demonstrate at
least two visible research-based strategies for teaching these students. Of all the stakeholder
groups, classroom teachers interacted the most frequently and in the closest proximity with these
students and their families. Additionally, these teachers’ direct impact on student learning and
achievement outcomes made them the ideal stakeholder group for engaging in the study’s
protocol for the intention of providing relevant and meaningful answers to the research
questions.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This section identifies and defines the data collection methods utilized for the
mixed-methods research project on equitable schooling for African American students. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) asserted that gaining knowledge about practice is the epicenter of data
collection methodology. Further, Merriam and Tisdell suggested that data collection methods
that correspond to relevant research questions add to the validity and reliability of a study. Thus,
the interviews, observations, and artifacts data collection methods discussed in this section
contributed to the answering the research questions stated above with the intention of gaining
knowledge about instructional and organizational practices which impacted the provision of
equitable schooling for African American students.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 60
Interviews
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posited that effective research interviews have a structured
purpose. Therefore, interview questions as well as the data obtained assist researchers in
answering research questions for a given study. Unstructured and informal interviews with
open-ended questions that were flexible for the inquiry process were utilized for the research
methodology (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One interview was conducted with each of the six
participants. The interviews (Appendix A) utilized the neo-positivist interview approach as the
intent was to objectively acquire as much data as possible about the teachers’ styles, attitudes,
and beliefs about teaching and learning (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Observations
One observation was conducted with all participating teachers where the researcher was
in the role of a complete observer (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observations sought to
provide a source of data to triangulate interview data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) asserted that observations help to make sense of a setting as well as assist with
decision-making relative to the setting. Therefore, observation data were utilized to investigate
how teachers’ practices corresponded with the data provided during the interviews.
Additionally, throughout the research process, observation data were utilized as a basis for
exploring teacher metacognition for modifying instruction.
Documents and Artifacts
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that documents and artifacts are a natural part of an
organizational setting. This serves to benefit a researcher because these items are usually readily
accessible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thus, samples of teachers’ formative assessments were
collected. The formative assessment data provided evidence of how teachers utilized their
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 61
knowledge of student needs in making data-driven decisions when teaching and crafting
assessments.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1: Interviews were conducted with classroom teachers who spent at least five
hours per day with students. Engaging in an interview for this study required teachers to have a
degree of knowledge about the students.
Criterion 2: Interviews were conducted with classroom teachers who were required to
consistently communicate with their students’ parents and/or legal guardians. This ensured that
teachers would have knowledge and experience with communicating with the home of each
student.
Criterion 3: Interviews were conducted with classroom teachers who have varied
experience in teaching. This brought a level of diversity to the sampling in gaining perspectives,
opinions, and attitudes from teachers with varying experience levels. This allowed the study to
investigate the similarities and contrasts between teachers having varying experience levels.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The study used purposeful and convenient sampling for selecting interviewees (Creswell,
2014). Therefore, interviews were conducted with six teachers from multiple grade levels
ranging from kindergarten to fifth grade as well as with teachers from different ethnic
backgrounds. Creswell (2014) referenced this sample size to be adequate when conducting a
qualitative study of this capacity. Additionally, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested that
maximum variation sampling provides diversity in the sample. This increases the applicability
of the data. Further, Merriam and Tisdell stated that interviews are conducted to gain specific
information for a specific purpose. Thus, the data from the interviews attempted to provide
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 62
insight relative to the initial level of knowledge the stakeholders had about their students and
their families as well as how effectively they utilized this data in their instructional delivery and
classroom practices.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1: Observations were conducted of all teachers who participated in interviews.
Maintaining consistency in the number of respondents increased the validity of the study because
gaining an equivalent amount of data from each participant kept the methods of triangulation
consistent (Maxwell, 2013).
Criterion 2: One observation was conducted of each classroom teacher who participated
in an interview. The observations were conducted to gauge teaching strategies, communication
styles, and relationship culture in the classroom.
Criterion 3: All observations were conducted in the teachers’ normal classroom
settings. This ensured that each teacher was in his/her usual setting where teaching, learning,
and teacher-student interactions occur.
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
Maxwell (2013) posited that observations help in describing settings, behaviors, and
events. Further, Maxwell asserted that observations help to gain a better understanding of
peoples’ behaviors in a specific setting or context. Therefore, this study conducted observations
on the six teachers who participated in an interview. The observations were conducted in each
teacher’s normal classroom setting. Maxwell stated that interviews help researchers to
understand the perspectives and goals of respondents while observations help to give context to
the settings, behaviors, and events in which those perspectives and goals are immersed. So,
while interviewing allowed insight into better understanding the respondents’ goals, observations
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 63
helped to determine if the established perceptual environment was synchronized with the desired
goals and intentions of the participant (Maxwell, 2013). Therefore, observations were conducted
to determine whether the extent of teaching strategies, communication styles, and relationship
culture discussed in interviews was commensurate with what was present in the actual classroom
setting.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
This section highlights the plan for maintaining credibility and trustworthiness during the
research project. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) referenced the importance of having trustworthy
and credible results relative to qualitative research. Conducting the study in an ethical manner
represented the single most important factor in maintaining and ensuring credibility of the
research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Because of the short span of time for this research project,
multiple investigations were conducted in the forms of interviews, observations, and gathering of
documents and artifacts to increase validity through extensive data triangulation (Maxwell,
2016). Additionally, the observations were conducted in the teachers’ classroom settings to
increase the probability of results accuracy (Maxwell, 2013). This approach also meant
considering the bias that the researcher brought to the study and how it may have potentially
influenced the interpretation of participant’s data (Maxwell, 2013). Thus, the researcher
acknowledged a need to recognize sensitivities toward non-African American teachers and/or
students. This potentially caused a rush to judgement and/or conclusions relative to their
instructional and/or classroom practices.
Further, at the inception of the study, the researcher’s title of school instructional coach
had to be considered during the research process to limit reactivity (Maxwell, 2013). The
instructional coach position could have influenced participant responses because of instructional
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 64
coach interaction with the school principal. The institutional review board was given a thorough
explanation of the researcher’s role at the research site as well as in research methods to ensure
feasibility. However, the researcher changed job titles during the study, and the title of
instructional coach no longer warranted consideration. Additionally, all participants were
informed that interview and observation data would be kept secure and confidential.
Additionally, to ensure that rich data were gathered (Maxwell, 2013), the researcher obtained
permission from each participant to record the interviews so that evidence was accurately
reviewed and documented. Further, willing participants engaged in member checking to ensure
data accuracy (Maxwell, 2013).
Validity and Reliability
The sample for this study consisted of eight classroom teachers from FT Ford Elementary
School. There was a 75% (6out of 8) participation rate for this research project. Because of the
high participation rate and the sample being a close representation of the teacher population’s
demographics, it is concluded that the feedback is likely compatible with the perceptions and
opinions of a high percentage of teachers at FT Ford. The interview protocol consisted of 17
questions, and each interview lasted an average of 37 minutes. Additionally, the observation
checklist consisted of two primary sections intended to look at the types of community building
as well as the types of interactions that occurred between students, teachers, and teacher
assistants (if applicable) during instructional delivery.
Teachers were asked to provide three samples of formative assessments from any subject
they taught. Salkind (2017) stated the importance of testing instruments assessing what they
intend to test. This served as a primary focus in gathering the formative assessment data.
However, because of only having access to teacher sample formative assessment data, there was
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 65
not an opportunity to conduct a thorough comparison of the rigor and content of state testing
items to the assessments items in the classroom.
All data were kept in a secure and confidential setting (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). While member checking was conducted throughout this process, the data
obtained from each individual teacher was kept anonymous from other study participants and
school stakeholders. An email invitation was sent to each participant, and no incentives were
provided to participate in the study. It was concluded that classroom teachers who did not
respond to the invitation did not wish to participate in the study.
Ethics
Because the study involved human subjects, the researcher was accountable for
protecting participants’ interests and ensuring that no harm was done to them throughout the
research process. Going through the institutional review process contributed to ensuring that the
study was ethical and protected the interests of participants. The data were stored in a
combination brief case to ensure they were not compromised and were kept confidential.
Although gathering state testing items and/or district diagnostic test items would have improved
the ability to triangulate classroom assessment performance data for content validity (Salkind,
2017), the study did not collect this data due to the intricacy of privacy laws relative to individual
student data.
The study was conducted at the school where the researcher served as an instructional
coach. Since beginning the study, the researcher changed positions within the school district.
So, while eager to learn about how teachers created equitable learning environments for African
American students at this school, the researcher’s position change helped to eliminate potential
confusion and/or conflicts of interest that might have occurred if he were still in the position of
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 66
instructional coach. Through verbal presentation and informed consent, the researcher made sure
that the participants understood that their participation was voluntary and that they could elect to
opt out at any time. To ensure anonymity throughout the study, participant names were not
utilized. Additionally, no names appeared on the formative assessment samples. Additionally,
any references to specific items relative to the organization and/or the stakeholders in the
dissertation were presented in the form of pseudonyms.
Before and during the collection of data, the researcher took time to recognize the
assumptions and biases that he brought to the study. First, the researcher acknowledged his
thinking that teachers have the tendency to provide accommodating instruction for mainstream
learners while not being as equally accommodating for non-mainstream learners. Additionally,
the researcher acknowledged his belief that there is an unnecessary disparity in the school
relative to African American discipline rates because of unrealistic teacher expectations as well
as impatience and/or anxiety with student behaviors. The researcher attempted to check and
balance his biases through member checking and analytic memos.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of the study consisted of an uncertainty of how the information might be used
by the researcher. Although the researcher was no longer in the position of instructional coach at
the school, teachers could have been critical of how the information would be used outside of the
study. The same limitation held true with respect to the breadth and scope as well as the
openness in which they responded to the interview questions. Despite the verbal and written
indications about the study being anonymous, participants may still have been skeptical as to the
full use of the data being gathered from the study. Subsequently, this may have served to limit
their actions and responses. Additionally, the interview length could have influenced
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 67
participants to limit their responses to the interview questions. Each participant was told that
their interview would last approximately 45 to 60 minutes, and the average interview length was
37 minutes. To lessen the total interview time, teachers could have shortened their responses for
some or all interview questions. Moreover, topics of race, diversity, and equity can be sensitive
topics to many people. Thus, there was a possibility that interviewees manufactured responses to
sound most appropriate rather than providing the responses that represented a true reflection of
their perceptions and opinions.
There were two major delimitations in the study. First, all participants were self-
contained classroom teachers that taught their students for at least five to six hours per day. This
delimitation existed to ensure that the participants had a substantial period of daily engagement
with their students and parents to provide substantiated feedback. Second, all observations were
conducted in the teachers’ classroom settings where they provided content area instruction. This
delimitation was put in place to ensure consistency of the learning context so that the researcher
could observe the most authentic interactions within the learning setting that the teacher and the
students were most accustomed.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 68
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the extent to which classroom teachers provided
equitable schooling for African American students in FT Ford Elementary School. The analysis
concentrated on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that support classroom
teachers with providing the highest quality learning experiences and reducing the discipline rates
of African American learners. While a thorough evaluation of the degree of equitable schooling
would require the participation and involvement of all stakeholders, this study focused on the
classroom teachers of FT Ford Elementary School. Three questions guided the study:
1. What support must classroom teachers receive to provide equitable schooling for
African American students?
2. How do motivational and/or organizational factor(s) influence teachers’ roles and
abilities in achieving equitable schooling for African American students?
The study utilized classroom observations, interviews, and sample formative assessment
instruments as data sources to answer the research questions. Research-based solutions are
recommended and assessed in chapter five.
Participating Stakeholders
Eight classroom teachers from FT Ford Elementary School were invited to participate in
this study. Consent, observations, and interviews were obtained from six participants while
formative assessment samples were obtained from five of the invited participants. The
classroom teacher participants came from a variety of backgrounds, ethnicities, and levels of
teaching experience. Participants E and F were African American while Participants A, B, C,
and D were Caucasian. Additionally, Participant E was in her first year of teaching. One
participant, Participant C, taught primary grades, pre-kindergarten through second grade o.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 69
Participants A, D, and E taught intermediate grades, third through fifth. The remaining two
teachers, Participants B and F, taught multiple grade levels that included both primary and
intermediate students. All six participants were female, and they taught all core academic
subjects. Figures 2, 3, and 4 below illustrate the breakdown of the classroom teachers by
ethnicity, teaching experience, and grade levels taught.
Figure 2. Teacher participants by ethnicity.
0 1 2
Number of Teachers
0-4 years
5-10 years
11-15 years
16+ years
Years of
Experience
Teaching Experience

Figure 3. Teacher participant years of experience.
Teacher Ethnicity
0
2
4
6
African American Caucasian
Ethnicity
Number of Teachers
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 70
Teacher Participant Grade Levels
50%
17%
33%
Primary (Pre-K-2nd)
Intermediate (3rd-5th)
Combined
(Primary/Intermediate
)

Figure 4. Percentage of teacher participants in grade levels.

Findings
This section presents the findings and highlights the critical themes that were identified in
the study. The project research questions and conceptual framework were guided by the Clark
and Estes (2008) model. The project utilized the research questions and the conceptual
framework as a basis for recognizing the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that likely impact the school and the classroom teachers’ abilities to achieve the goals. The
research questions guided the process of identifying relevant themes through the lens of
providing equitable schooling for African American learners and connecting those themes to
applicable components of the conceptual framework. Chapter Four concludes with a synthesized
review of the findings and explains the significance of the research. Chapter Five provides
recommendations for organizational practice based on the identified themes from the study.
Research Question One
The first study question asked the support classroom teachers must receive to provide
equitable schooling for African American students. This section uses two themes to investigate
the support needed for classroom teachers in achieving the goal:
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 71
• A significant number of classroom teachers placed heavy emphasis on bureaucratic
assessment data and often excluded personal student data in making instructional
decisions to govern their classrooms.
• Teachers implemented procedures and activities to build classroom community, but
sometimes lacked consistent protocol for gathering critical data and/or resources to
effectively build a positive classroom community for African American students.
Teacher Use of Assessment Data
Achieving the organizational goal of using multiple evidence-based strategies for
teaching African American students required the classroom teachers to utilize relevant
assessment data to monitor and adjust their instruction so that personalized learning and student
mastery could take place. During the interviews, teachers indicated they had declarative
knowledge about using assessment data for making instructional decisions. However, a
significant number of them mostly relied on standardized district and state assessment data to
make instructional decisions about their African American learners but did not utilize classroom
formative assessment data or empirical data with a similar degree of frequency. This section
validated the influence that some teachers need organizational support in identifying resources
and opportunities for obtaining and using more student and family facts to make individualized
instructional decisions for African American learners. This section investigates two subthemes:
teacher knowledge of using assessment data to drive instructional decisions and the types of
assessments that teachers used for accommodating the needs of African American learners.
Teachers possess declarative knowledge about using assessment data. The interview
data indicated that all participants utilized some assessment data to make instructional decisions
about the African American students in their classrooms. Interviewees referenced using
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 72
assessment data to inform their instructional decisions for such things as creating class groups,
managing behaviors, and reinforcing what was taught. Teacher Participant C stated,
I use my assessments to see where they are, and I look for ways to challenge them that
interests them or remediate if I need. We have district assessments that we use for text
levels and the district diagnostic testing that we use.
Participant C also provided examples of how she and/or her assistant utilized assessments to re-
teach and to adjust her instruction. Participant F gave an example of how she used empirical data
as an important formative assessment resource in her classroom:
Most of the time, my instruction is individual, but, a lot of times I find with African
American students they are very, how can I say this? They like to be involved. So, most
of the time when we’re doing anything that involves, especially with my African
American males, I always make it that whatever lesson we’re doing, they’ve got to move,
and I adjust that. If I’m looking at something and it’s anything that they can make
movement, I adjust it to make some type of movement.
Teachers provided a variety of examples of how they used assessments in their classrooms.
However, the weight they placed on types of assessments presented the most significant variation
among participants.
The American Psychological Association (2015) noted the importance of utilizing
assessments to guide instructional decision-making. However, the association (2015) stated that
teachers’ use of assessments should be contingent upon the decision(s) being considered relative
to the instructional context. Also, research suggests that relevant empirical student data, such as
student demographics and other pertinent dynamics, play a meaningful role in assessment when
making instructional decisions that positively impact student achievement. Thus, the types of
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 73
assessments teachers use to monitor and adjust their instructional decision-making as well as to
determine student progress should be relevant to the classroom context and sensitive to the needs
of each individual learner’s capacity to achieve mastery.
Teachers overuse bureaucratic assessment data when making instructional decisions
for African American learners. In this study, teachers utilized assessment data in varying
degrees of breadth and scope. However, the interview results indicated that a considerable
number of these teachers heavily relied on district and state assessment data more than
personalized formative and empirical assessment data when making critical instructional
decisions. The section validated the influence that teachers need support with increasing their
levels of efficacy relative to obtaining the appropriate data and resources for teaching African
American students. Three interviewees initially identified and gave direct reference to using
district and state assessment data as their primary source for making initial instructional
decisions as well as in evaluating their overall effectiveness for teaching African American
students. Teacher Participant B stated,
To be honest, I don’t have any who are struggling academically in my whole class, and I
usually don’t. And when I say, “not struggling,” I mean as in they’re on their reading
level, and they make good grades. At the end of the year, 100% of my students have
been meeting their minimal to target for the district.
In this instance, the teacher’s reference to the terms “good grades” and “reading level” was in
accordance with the district grading protocol and the established district reading program. For
the most part, the grading policy consisted of letter grades assigned by teachers based on their
evaluation of the quality of student work. While the grading policy went through some recent
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 74
modifications, the assigned grades were more an indication of student performance rather than
student mastery.
The reading program was used to determine whether a student was reading “on grade
level.” It was also utilized to make instructional decisions relative to placement and/or for
providing additional instructional interventions. Although this district reading program was
nationally recognized and had a degree of alignment with the state reading standards, it was not
fully aligned. Further, there was no available evidence that revealed the extent to which the
reading program was aligned to state standards or research indicating a historical performance
breakdown of how African American students and other underrepresented minority students
performed to mastery when the program was implemented.
In another interview, Participant D discussed how she initially used state and district
testing data to make some of her first instructional decisions, but, after further consideration, she
decided to utilize more personalized assessment data for initial instructional decisions:
I made these groups up based on their diagnostic test scores and reading levels, and I
quickly found out that was not going to work. So, I pretty much had to sweep the board
with levels. So, I had to, more so, had to pull them and group them behaviorally. And by
behavioral, I mean there were several people that could not work together.
The teacher went on to say how she was concerned about bureaucratic implications of this type
of grouping because the people who were labeled experts did not recommend doing it this way.
However, it appeared that, once this teacher reflected on her instructional practice, she concluded
that district and state testing protocol was not the most effective initial assessment to use for her
instructional decisions so that her students could be successful in reading. While she was
somewhat apprehensive about the bureaucratic implications of her methodology, she recognized
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 75
that utilizing more personal and relevant formative and empirical assessment data in her
classroom produced more beneficial results as well as helped her establish a stronger classroom
community.
These teachers initially used district and state assessment to make instructional decisions
and held it in high regard when determining their level of instructional effectiveness. In one
instance, Participant D attempted to utilize the district and state benchmarks and assessments for
instructional decisions but concluded that it was not generating student success. However, she
was apprehensive about using formative and empirical assessment data because of the potential
bureaucratic implications. Observation data showed that this teacher’s classroom consisted of
65% (15 out of 23) African American students whereas the first teacher’s classroom consisted of
26% (5 out of 19) African American students. Figure 5 shows the percentage of African
American students in each of the six teacher participants’ classrooms.
Percentage of African American Students in Teacher Classrooms
0 1 2 3
1 to 24
25 to 50
51 to 75
76 to 100
Percentage African
American Students
Participant Number of Classrooms with African American Students

Figure 5. Percentage of African American students in participants’ classrooms.
Teachers did not have a cohesive resource for obtaining personalized student
assessment data. The observation and interview data suggested that participants who taught
higher numbers African American students were more inclined to utilize a broader variety of
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 76
assessment data sources when making instructional decisions that impact student mastery. In
most cases, these teachers still gave credence to district and state assessment data. Teachers with
higher percentages of African American students seemed to more willing to rely on formative
and empirical assessment data, such as observations, student interactions, and direct knowledge
about the student, when considering initial instructional decisions than participants with lower
percentages of African American students. However, the seemed to have arbitrary methods for
gathering the data and how they used it in their instructional decision-making. This validated the
influence that teachers needed to spend more time reflecting on their pedagogy to ensure that
their practices were most effective in teaching African American learners.
Participant A, who had a class population consisting of 60% of African American
students, talked about using a variety of assessment data when making instructional decisions.
After a noticeable pause, the teacher stated,
Of course, I’m going to take the data, the observations that I have made, areas that they
are strong or they’re weak in, and I’m going to tailor those lessons to meet them where
they are so that I can continue to move them on: observations, test results. If I’ve done
text leveling or in my guided reading groups, any kind of note-taking when I’m
conferencing with them, all of that data just comes all together.
Seemingly, this teacher utilized a variety of assessments when making instructional decisions for
African American students. While she indicated that she used the district reading system, she
also referenced conducting observations and note-taking to gather assessment data. During the
observation, the teacher conducted individual conferences with students to discuss what they
were reading, and she held goal setting discussions for some students. The interview and
discussion practices she used were unique from other teacher participant classrooms that were
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 77
observed in the same grade level. In another interview, Participant E, with a classroom
population of 67 % African American students, emphasized using student interests and using
physiological data when making instructional decisions for African American students:
They can’t sit for a very long time. I’m an adult, and I can’t sit for a very long time. So,
that’s what we do. I personally don’t care if you’re standing as long as you’re doing your
work. And I personally don’t care if you’re sitting on your knees. Depending on what it
is, but I try to gear it towards what they’re interested in; if I can. I try to relate it back to
them because the more you relate it back to them, the more they retain it.
Participant E also discussed using more personalized assessment data to make her instructional
decisions. She referenced using student interests as an assessment tool to engage students and
assist with information retention. Additionally, Participant E discussed using brain breaks during
instruction, especially when lessons were rigorous or lengthy. This strategy was unique when
compared to other teacher participant classrooms where there were similar age and grade level
students. Participant F, with an 86% African American student population, also talked about
using personalized assessment data to maintain student engagement when making instructional
decisions relative to instructional delivery:
When you’re reading that story, if there are names in there that they have no
understanding or know what world these people are from, they don’t listen. But when I
read a story, I put their names in the place of the names of the characters in the story.
That gets their attention when they’re involved in most things. So, I guess what you can
say is I try to personalize as much as possible.
In this case, Participant F provided examples of how she used personalized knowledge of her
students when making instructional decisions and in monitoring and adjusting her instructional
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 78
delivery. She talked about the importance of her reading the story prior to beginning a lesson so
she could determine which of her students she could apply the story to in order to further
immerse them into the lesson. This strategy was unique from other teacher participants with
students in similar age ranges. Participant D mentioned she utilized interest inventories in
gaining knowledge about her students interests for making instructional decisions and building
classroom community:
I started my reading groups based off of their academics, and it really didn’t work out. I
remembered what I had read on the interest inventories, and in just getting to know the
students in general. And, I used that information to put them in their literacy circles and
choose books that they have to read together.
Participant D spoke about using the information from interest inventories as well as her personal
knowledge of her students in making instructional decisions and in building classroom
community. The interview data from this section suggested that, while there seemed to be
consistency and uniformity with the overall expectation of how district and state assessment data
were utilized by participants, no clear and expected protocol seemed to be established for
gathering and using personalized assessment data relative to teachers making instructional
decisions. Some teachers shared unique and creative activities they used to learn more about
their African American students.
Many of the participants talked about using personalized assessment data in their
instructional delivery, but all of the formative assessment samples that teachers submitted for the
study were generic assessments. In each sample analyzed, the teachers used the assessments that
accompanied the textbook or program they were using, which increased the likelihood that they
were not personalized to meet the specific needs of the students in each classroom. Dembo and
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 79
Eaton (2000) suggested that learning should be personalized for the most effective and
meaningful learning experiences to take place. This approach suggests that gathering and using
personalized student assessment data in instructional decision-making has just as much, if not
more, importance than only relying upon test scores and other bureaucratic assessments in
determining instructional approaches as well as instructional effectiveness.
A Focus on Bureaucracy Over Building Community
In this study, most of the teachers spoke directly to using their state standards, the district
reading program, and state testing data as major staples in their classrooms. However, little
connection exists between these data and the ability for teachers to gain personal student
knowledge for building stronger classroom communities. So, while the bureaucratic assessment
components played an active role within their pedagogy, personal assessment resources, such as
interest inventories, seemed to be utilized in a more passive and less consistent manner.
Additionally, the data indicated that teachers with higher percentages of African American
students seemed to struggle more with instructional decision-making and building classroom
community when they utilized bureaucratic assessments with a higher level of frequency than
when they used personalized assessment data. These teachers referenced using the district and
state assessments in their decision-making processes, but they also integrated more personalized
data and student facts into creating instructional environments that also focused on building
classroom community. Overall, however, all the teacher participants had arbitrary approaches to
how they gathered and used the personal assessment data to assist them with making
instructional decisions and building classroom community.
There was limited integration of personalized student assessment data for making
instructional decisions and building community. Essentially, the school possessed broadly
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 80
recognized expectations for using the district and state assessment data when making
instructional decisions. Many teachers also utilized these assessment instruments to gauge their
overall instructional effectiveness. This evidence validated that classroom teachers need to focus
more on setting mastery rather than performance-oriented goals to increase African American
student performance. The interview data, observation data, and formative assessment samples
indicated that no similar type of consistent protocol existed for using student facts, knowledge of
family, and other personalized assessment data when making instructional decisions for student
mastery as well as for purposes of improving classroom community. Therefore, this evidence
also validated that teachers need to spend more time reflecting on their practices to ensure that
their routines and pedagogy are effectively meeting the needs of African American students. It
also validated that teachers need to have more knowledge of facts regarding African American
students, their families, and backgrounds in order to provide more meaningful instruction.
All participants stated they used interest inventories, posters, and other resources to help
them learn more about their students at the beginning of the school year. However, two teachers
spoke about how they directly used interactions with student families in making instructional
decisions and in building community. Additionally, two teachers spoke directly about how they
progressively used these resources throughout the year as a means of having an ongoing
approach in obtaining personal facts about African American students to continuously inform
their instructional decisions and build classroom community. When asked about factors and
resources used to drive instruction for teaching African American students, Participant A stated,
“Well, I do try to make things relate to them, and make it where it’s a real-life situation. How
can I use this in real life and apply it?” Participant A said that her class got a pet, and she was
using different aspects about the pet to create meaningful instructional opportunities to promote
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 81
holistic student engagement. She also admitted that she was not strong in this area, but that she
was working on it. When asked about how she used personalized data in her classroom to build
the classroom community, Participant A said,
At the beginning of the year, we kind of do. It’s not really an inventory, but it’s where
they are making a little poster about themselves, like an all about me. And it tells about
their hobbies and their favorite things they like to read, and watch, and interests; different
things. And they spend about a week doing this, and, then, they all take turns sharing
about their different interests.
While Participant A did not use an interest inventory, she did use a student poster for gathering
personal facts about students. When Participant C spoke about factors that drive her instruction
of African American students, she stated, “I try to make sure that I am addressing the needs of all
my students.” Participant C also said that some of the ways that she addressed the needs of her
students were checking her seating arrangements to accommodate for larger or smaller students,
looking at potential behavior issues, and calling on a variety of students to participate in class.
Participant C admitted that she needed to scrutinize these elements of her pedagogy a little more
closely to ensure the most success for her students. When asked specifically how she used
interest inventories as personalized assessment data in her instruction and in community
building, Participant C said,
I do at the beginning of the year, and I send it home. And the parents fill it out with them
and send it back. And then we talk about those as a class. They can come up and share,
you know, what their favorite food is or their favorite book or TV show. And we hang
them up for a while at the beginning of the year.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 82
Participant C spoke about making learning experience as real-life as possible, and she explained
her process for using the student facts poster. The teacher seemed to indicate that the posters
were mostly used as an ice breaker at the beginning of the year. Participant F discussed how she
used personalized student data with her instructional decisions, which included facts about
students and families, as a motivational tool to enhance the learning environment:
I think the saying goes best that the students really don’t care what you know or how
much you know until they know how much you care. And, so, my main philosophy with
students is to get to know them, to get to know their families, and get to understand what
it is that they expect out of school, what their families expect out of me, and to just build
on that relationship. And once I build that relationship, I learn their learning styles
because, if you learn them, then you know how they learn best. And my basic
philosophy is that you have to know your students. You have to know where they’re
coming from.
When discussing how she goes about building a sense of community in the classroom,
Participant F stated, “Basically, you kind of have to know where their parents want them to be.
The first thing the parents got to know, the first thing you’ve got to do is win over the parents.”
So, this teacher spoke to being intentional with incorporating facts about students and their
families into instructional decision-making as well as in building classroom community. This
teacher participant had the highest percentage of African American students in her classroom of
all teacher participants (86%). Also, all of the teacher’s students had been in her classroom for
multiple school years. Participant D, with a 65% African American student population, spoke
about her intentionality with incorporating African American student and family facts within
instructional decision-making and classroom community building:
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 83
I feel like you can’t really expect students to trust you enough to teach them until they are
comfortable enough to hold conversations with you, and I don’t mean academic
conversation. One thing that I do to start the community, you know, just the
comfortableness.
Participant D spoke about embedding time within her instructional day to gather relevant facts
about her African American students in an ongoing way so that she could make instructional
decisions and promote classroom community. She also spoke about doing an activity called
“Glad, Proud, Sad” with her students. During this activity, Participant D said that the students
can choose something they are glad, proud, or sad about. Then, they share that with the class, or
they can exempt if they are not comfortable sharing in the open. She said the activity helps her
to get to know her students better as well as the people in their lives better since that is whom
they are referencing when they speak. Thus, the evidence suggested that the teachers with higher
populations of African American students felt the need to consistently integrate personal data
into the classroom to advance achievement as well as to build community.
Research Question One Summary of Findings
The teachers provided a variety of creative examples and resources for how they used
personalized assessment data to inform instructional decisions and build classroom community.
However, interview data indicated that there was not a consistent expectation and/or protocol for
using a resource to gather personalized student data, which limited some teachers’ willingness
and/or motivation to continuously gather and use student facts and personal data (Eccles, 2006).
While certain teachers spoke to how they specifically incorporate personalized student data into
their classroom environments, some teachers did not seem to have routines in place for involving
student and family facts within the context of instruction and/or building the classroom
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 84
community. Also, it was unclear whether some examples they provided met specific interests of
African American students or were general interests of the classroom majority. For example, in
the case where the teacher added a pet to the classroom, it would be important to use student
facts from the posters as personal assessment data to make considerations about instructional
delivery and ensuring the right resources for students who did not have an interest in pets or
animals. Thus, using personalized assessment data such as student and family facts would prove
to further individualize instructional content.
All teachers in this study referenced using an interest inventory or other resource to
obtain student and family facts about African American students. Some teachers referenced
initially utilizing personalized assessment and/or empirical data for accommodating African
American student behavior patterns (talking, movement, etc.). However, other than for behavior
purposes, most of the teachers did not establish a connection of how they could progressively use
personalized assessment tools to make ongoing individualized decisions for students relative to
the instructional context and for building classroom community. This suggested that more
instructional support was needed in this area to build upon teachers’ capacities to utilize student
and family facts for creating more meaningful learning experiences and to further ensure that
mastery-oriented learning takes place for African American students (Shraw & Lehman, 2009;
Anderman, Anderman, Yough, & Gimbert, 2010).
While all participants spoke about using a Getting to Know Me activity at the beginning
of the year, interview evidence indicated that the majority did not consistently utilize these
resources to make daily instructional decisions, influence instructional delivery, or build
classroom community. District and state testing data had a definitive and consistent role within
the instructional context of the teachers’ classrooms. However, it would prove challenging to
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 85
overcompensate for this type of data when attempting to make individualized instructional
decisions or to build a sense of classroom community, especially for many of these African
American learners. The school contained a student poverty index of over 70%. Karges-Bone
(2016) suggested that living in poverty creates anxiety and high levels of stress for students.
Thus, since a high percentage of the school’s students living in poverty were African Americans,
creating successful and meaningful learning experiences for these learners requires support for
teachers in using student data and evidence that contains more relevance than what is provided
on state-wide test or similar bureaucratic assessments. Therefore, teachers should be provided
support in using personalized assessment data just as much as bureaucratic data to make
meaningful instructional decisions for African American learners.
Research Question Two
Research question two explored the motivational and organizational factors that
influenced teachers’ roles and abilities in achieving the goal of equitable schooling for African
American students. The findings indicated that motivational and organizational factors played a
critical role in teachers and the school providing equitable learning opportunities for African
American students. Specifically, the findings for research question two indicated
• Teachers often initiated communications with African American parents having an
ulterior motive, such as behavior, grades, and/or to schedule required meetings, rather
than for listening and learning more about student/family backgrounds.
• Teachers that utilized a variety of communication approaches achieved the most success
with home-school communication and with African American family involvement in the
classroom context.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 86
• Teachers lacked full clarity of expectations and protocol due to multiple changes in
administrative leadership over the last few years.
A Limited Scope for Home-School Communications
School administrators expected teachers to maintain consistent contact with African
American homes. During the interviews, all participants revealed that administrators required
them to document their communication with parents for monthly submission to the
administrators. The teachers also stated that the administrative expectation was to engage in
more positive than negative communication on a monthly basis. While this method provided
assurance that communication was taking place between the classroom teachers and African
American parents, it did not provide insight into the quality of communication taking place.
Thus, evidence suggested that a considerable amount of the communication between the teachers
and African American parents was for accomplishing an organizational agenda rather than for
obtaining student/family facts, developing rapport, and/or building classroom community.
Certain communication initiated by teachers involved predetermined motives and
lacked cultural sensitivity. Interview results indicated that teachers attempted to establish
consistent communication with their African American parents. Yet, for several of the teachers,
much of the communication that took place was for superficial purposes, such as informing
parents about student effort, grades, and/or behavior in the classroom. Subsequently, some of the
teachers lacked cultural sensitivity within the context of their communications and drew
premature conclusions about African American parents’ support if their results were not
achieved. This evidence validated the influence that there was a lack of consistent and positive
communication between classroom teachers and African American students and parents. This
evidence also validated the influence that classroom teachers need to increase their attainment
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 87
value and be willing to obtain more personal knowledge about African American students and
their families so that they can teach them at a higher level. Evidence form the interviews showed
that a significant amount communication that took place between teachers and African American
parents was not initiated for the purposes of listening in order to learn more about African
American students/families and develop a deeper relationship to impact efficacy and building a
sense of community (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006). Participant B spoke about why she felt
successful in communicating with African American parents:
I try to stay open with them, and just tell them exactly what’s going on. Which I don’t
talk to parents unless I have facts. I don’t make assumptions. So, when I do talk to them,
they know it’s real. They know it’s something that’s really going on, and they receive it.
And they’re right behind me with what I need to do. And then, they tell me what they
will do to help at home, and they receive suggestions very well.
This teacher participant indicated that her level of communication and relationships with African
American parents was good because she had a legitimate reason when communicating with them
that was substantiated by facts relative to her agenda. When speaking about her communication
with African American parents, Participant D stated,
I have African American parents who are extremely supportive, but, on the other realm,
I’ve seen parents of African American students who are almost non-existent as far as
home support. And, it’s obvious that the students aren’t getting any home attention, or
help, or anything to that effect. And I notice a lot of times, too, with all parents, but
specifically, African American parents. A lot of times, when they will come in, they will
say and speak like they are very hands on, and they’re going to handle problems that are
discussed, and they’re going to motivate. But you never see a change.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 88
Participant D provided experiences relative to her communication with African American
families. Through her response, it seemed that the teacher entered these interactions with an
expectation of parental support relative to her intended goal of contacting the parent(s).
Participant C discussed thoughts about her communication experiences with African American
families:
I don’t know if they just feel like we only call when there is something negative, and
they’re tired of hearing that based off experiences they’ve had in school. So, I try to
make sure that I do the positive with the negative, so that they don’t always feel like
we’re just calling to complain.
When speaking about her perceptions of how teachers’ backgrounds potentially influenced their
abilities to meaningfully communicate with African American families, Participant C said,
I feel like there are some people around here that are probably the same as me and might
need a little more education. I just, you know, in conversation with other teachers
sometimes, some of the things they say. And I don’t think they mean it to be the way that
it comes across, but it’s just not racially, or socioeconomically, it’s not sensitive. I just
don’t think that they understand.
Through her response, Participant C identified a noticeable disconnect between home and school
communication, and she acknowledged a need for more staff-related training in this area. She
also suggested that the disconnect potentially stemmed from many teachers having experienced a
different upbringing than African American students they serve in the classroom and the fact that
they have not spent the necessary time reflecting on the differences that may potentially create
communication and/or performance gaps due to these barriers. When speaking about the depth
of African American home-school communication at the school, Teacher F contributed, “I think
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 89
that is something that we’ve been told to do, and a lot of teachers do it because it’s an
expectation.” Participant F went on to say that, while she thought teachers had intentions of
calling African American parents to have meaningful discussions, teachers were very busy, and
would often forget to make these types of communications unless there was something negative
that went on with the student. She also felt that, if teachers put in more time and effort to have
these types of communications with African American parents, it would make relationships and
achievement better in the long-term.
The interview data in this section provided evidence of certain types of communication at
the school. Shraw and Lehman (2009) asserted that engaging stakeholders in interest-centered
and relevant communication increases their willingness to be personally invested in the task or
goal. The data suggested that a communication gap potentially existed between home and school
due to teachers and administrators having predetermined motives for the communication.
Research suggests that this type of communication potentially placed numerous African
American families on the defensive because they felt that the school was calling to achieve an
agenda rather than for reciprocally communicating with them to learn more about their family
values, circumstances, and their most prized possession: their child (Griffin, 2002; Waters et al.,
2003).
In the examples above, the Participant B thought that her communication was successful
because she did not perceive any push back from her African American parents when she
communicated with them about her reason for calling. In this example, facts were used to
support her objective and/or claim for calling and to reinforce the reason that parents should
support her position. It did not seem like student and family facts were used for the purposes of
informing instructional decisions and building classroom community. In the next example,
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 90
Participant D seemed to have a mental checklist of determining African American parents’
willingness to be supportive which seemed to correspond with bureaucratic goals. In the latter
examples, Participants C and F seemingly noticed a communication disconnect within class and
school settings, and they felt a need for ongoing engagement of African American students with
the curriculum and involve them more in the classroom community. Evidence also indicated that
more discourse needed to take place to close the communication gaps.
The evidence from this section suggested that teachers and administrators were not
spending adequate time reflecting on their practices and how they potentially impacted
communication, achievement, and/or behaviors of African American learners as well as their
families. Additionally, the evidence indicated that a lack of teacher efficacy played a role in
routines and decision-making. Because the teachers were more comfortable with the protocol
and routines of using state and district assessment data, they used them even when they were not
the most relevant data to use. For example, in some instances, teachers attempted to utilize state
and district test data when student facts and personalized data would have gone further in
personalizing the instruction as well as in building class community. This seemed to be due to
the teachers’ levels of comfort with the state and district data while not being as comfortable
with the other.
The data also indicated that teachers lacked attainment value in being compelled to
initiate reciprocal communication with African American families. Frequently, teachers had
underlying motives for communicating with African American parents. Teachers rarely
indicated the importance of communicating with these parents to simply listen and learn more
about them in order to personalize student learning and build more close-knit classroom
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 91
communities. Research suggests that this approach would also increase the likelihood of African
American parent involvement in the school setting (Griffin, 2002; Waters et al., 2003).
A Paradigm Shift in Home-School Communication
Initially, teachers frequently gravitated to the traditional communication methods, phone
calls, newsletters, and invitations to school events, when attempting to establish contact with
families. Table 5 below shows the types of communication methods used by each teacher
participant. Phone, newsletter, and email represented the traditional communication styles that
were essentially a bureaucratic expectation for teachers to do. The remaining three, text,
communication apps, and home visits were perceived as unconventional communication styles
because these approaches were not the commonplace expectations for communication by the
organization. Also, these approaches most frequently involved teachers devoting time outside of
school hours and/or using their personal effects (i.e., cell phone, vehicle, or computer) to initiate
or engage in the communication process with families. For example, the application Remind 101
and Class Dojo required teachers to devote significant amounts of outside of school hour time to
set up, organize, and/or respond to messages.
All participants communicated by making phone calls, issuing newsletters, and sending
email correspondence. However, fewer teachers utilized the more liberal communication
methods. Five teacher participants that utilized texting, four utilized the communication apps,
and one spoke about frequently engaging in home visits. Additionally, the younger teachers
seemed to utilize applications for communicating more than the veteran teachers. The two
teachers with the most years of experience did not speak about using applications in their
communication. Further, the teacher participant with the most experienced was the only teacher
who spoke of frequently incorporating home visits into her communication methods.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 92
Table 5
Teacher Methods of Home Communication
Teacher Phone Newsletter Email Text Applications Home
Visits
Teacher A ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher B ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher C ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher D ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher E ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher F ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Teachers were most successful using an eclectic approach to home-school
communication with African American families. Some teachers relied heavily on certain
methods and experienced successful communication with African American families. More
often, however, teachers that had an eclectic approach with their communication methods
experienced the most effective outcomes. Also, in some instances, the inconsistent
communication with these families created tension and to teachers drawing premature
conclusions about family support. When discussing her communication strategies, Participant C
stated:
Well, I send newsletters home to try to keep them up to date on classroom events, and
news, and units of study. I make phone calls if necessary, positive and negative, parent-
teacher conferences. We try to get everybody in for, you know, after school events. I
also use the Remind 101 app. I find that they’ll respond to that before they’ll answer the
phone. I think they like that because I can send pictures of their child working. I can
send them a quick message that, you know, they’re doing great on this today.
In this example, the teacher mostly discussed using more traditional communication methods.
However, she found that using the Remind 101 application worked well for communicating with
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 93
a significant number of African American families. Participant E referenced her success with
using a newer communication application while also integrating a more traditional
communication style when necessary:
I do a lot of my communications with Class Dojo. A majority of my parents are on Class
Dojo. So, it’s just nice to do a big shout out to everybody. The ones I need to do
individually, I can do it through Class Dojo, or, some, I have to make personal phone
calls.
This teacher experienced success with a more nontraditional communication method: Class
Dojo. She was able to communicate in a variety of ways using this method as it allowed her to
send pictures and daily/weekly messages to parents. It also included a unique behavior
modification visual for students during class time. Participant F emphasized the importance of
home visits in her communication approach with African American families:
It’s usually during the school day, you know, but I usually get permission from the
principal. I don’t send the parent coordinator. I don’t send the resource officer because
they don’t know them. I go because I’m the one that needs to talk to them. People don’t
like strangers coming in their house and meddling in their business, and they would
prefer someone they’re familiar with. They might not want to talk to anybody, but
they’re more likely to talk to the teacher that they’ve talked to before than a stranger
coming up to their door saying the school is trying to get in contact with you. It’s more
of a negative connotation. I’m the one that has the relationship.
This teacher was the only participant that spoke of doing home visits with African American
families, and it seemed to be a successful communication strategy for her. While this teacher
participated in the home visits and appeared to experience success with this approach, other
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 94
teacher participants spoke about involving the parent liaison when there were struggles with
getting in touch with African American families.
Each of these teachers provided different approaches to communicating with African
American families relative to home-school communication. These teachers made phone calls,
sent home newsletters, as well as emails to communicate with parents because these were the
general expectations for home-school communication. However, they also experienced success
utilizing a non-traditional communication approach with their African American families.
Further, each of the approaches allowed them access to personally interact with African
American families rather than using a middle man for communication, such as a parent liaison or
school resource officer. While the parent liaison and school resource officer had an important
role in the school achieving its organizational goals relative to communication, as the last
participant example suggested, teachers need to seek communication methods that allow them to
maintain personal communication with African American families to increase the likelihood of
building the most strong and productive home-school relationships (Bandura, 2000; Shraw &
Lehman, 2009).
Leadership Limbo
Since the inception of the study, the district and the school experienced numerous
leadership transitions through promotion, turnover, and retirement. Specifically, FT Ford
Elementary School experienced four leadership transitions over a three-year period. This
situation included transitions that occurred at the principal as well as assistant principal positions.
Further, there was a recent superintendent transition within this school district. Thus, it was
understandable why a lack of clarity relative to leadership expectations was a resonating theme
throughout this study.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 95
Teachers felt somewhat disconnected from leadership’s expectations and support of
them in achieving organizational goals. Teachers understood the outcomes they were expected
to produce relative to student achievement relative to testing and standards. Also, they were
aware of the administrative expectations of consistently communicating with parents, keeping
them apprised of their child’s progress, and providing them with meaningful feedback. They
also seemed to be clear on expectations of duty assignments and school schedules. However,
teachers lacked full trust and clarity of administrators’ expectations and support of them
pertaining to certain organizational components. Additionally, teachers seemed to lack clarity of
how important their role was in achieving collective efficacy and ultimately in achieving the
organizational goals. The evidence in this section validated that classroom teachers do not feel
that leadership values their opinions and/or feedback relative to achieving organizational goals.
Further this section suggested that there was an element of distrust between teachers and
administrators due to the short tenure of leadership. When discussing her lack of clarity about
administrators’ discipline procedures in the school, Participant D stated,
This year would be my third administrator at FT Ford. It kind of goes back to the theory
of my philosophy of consistency. And, I feel like last year it was consistent. This year, I
can’t say the same thing. I don’t feel like we have consistency as far as discipline, which
I don’t think is a district thing. I’ve had some pretty what I’d consider more major
discipline problems, and I’m not sure what the protocol is in administration.
The teacher compared the previous year’s leadership to the current leadership to express her lack
of clarity relative to discipline protocol and procedures. She implied that the discipline
procedures for the current year were arbitrary and lacked consistency when compared to that of
the previous year. When speaking about her lack of organizational clarity relative to discipline
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 96
and communication, Participant C stated, “This year, it’s been a little different. I don’t think
there’s as much support from the administration to help with struggling. They just keep telling
us to call.” This participant supported the previous teacher’s claim of the lack of teacher-
administrator disconnect. Participant B also contributed, “Last year, I felt very supported, very
supported, by the school. This year, it’s a mess. It is a mess. I do not feel supported.” This
teacher also supported the other teachers’ claims that a disconnect in communication existed
between administrators and teachers relative to expectations and support of them in dealing with
discipline-related issues. She spoke about inconsistencies when she had to interact with
administrators relative to student referrals and parent communication. She also did not
understand administrative procedures for counseling students and issuing consequences. She felt
that more teacher and administrative collaboration and feedback was necessary in these
instances. Participant F spoke about the disconnect between teachers and administrative support
for meaningful after school academic programs for African American learners:
They are not making a big impact on African American students other than a babysitting
situation. How any African American teachers do we have working in this program?
How many times do we invite people from the community that are African American?
How many times do we give them a book that has African Americans in it? Housing
children for an extra hour a day. If you want to say that’s a positive impact, you can. It
is a positive more than a negative. But are we doing what we need to do with them while
they’re here? No, we’re not.
This teacher spoke about an apparent disconnect between teachers and leadership relative to
expectations and support in providing more enriching after school programs, which largely
consist of African American students. Participant F thought that these programs were
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 97
constructive in the fact that they kept African American students off the streets, but she felt that
the quality of content in the programs was limited.
A majority of teacher participants suggested that teachers and administrators need to be
on common ground and have a unified as well as clearly understood purpose. Further, interview
evidence also suggested that teachers either did not feel comfortable about addressing these
issues with leadership or they did not feel like they had a platform to do so. On the one hand,
several teachers seemed to lack clarity about leadership’s expectation and support relative to
discipline. Participant C also suggested that a clear leadership direction needed to be established
so that after school programs could be more purposeful for African American learners. All of
these situations suggest that teachers lacked the fullness of clarity because of what they were
accustomed to from previous leadership and/or, they needed to engage in more meaningful
dialogue with the new administrators to gain a better rationale for these organizational
components as well as to provide their feedback as stakeholders.
Research Question Two Summary of Findings
Research question two explored the motivational and organizational factors that teachers
felt influenced their roles and abilities in achieving the goal of equitable schooling for African
American students. Teachers seemed to respect their school administrators and spoke about the
school leadership environment in a professional and collegial manner. They provided specific
examples of protocol established by the administrators and spoke to how they went about
achieving those expectations. The data also indicated a need for more positive communication
opportunities between teachers/school and African American parents to assist with closing the
communication gap. The data showed that most teachers benefited when using multiple
communication approaches for African American families rather than just the traditional
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 98
approaches. Lastly, the evidence revealed a lack of clarity and subsequent trust, relative to
expectations and support, between administrators and teachers, which indicated that more
reciprocal collaborative exchanges between school leadership and the teachers needed to take
place.
Teachers at FT Ford were expected to frequently communicate and/or make
communication attempts with African American families. However, a considerable amount of
the communication was driven by administrative expectations and/or to complete a bureaucratic
checklist. Subsequently, this meant that a significant amount of the communication lacked
authenticity. Rather than teachers actively listening and reciprocal communication taking place,
teachers often communicated to achieve a pre-established agenda. Research suggests that this
may have put a strain on African American home-school communication in some cases due to
the adverse trust issues that already exist between many in the African American community and
the school system (Griffin, 2002; Waters et al., 2003). Therefore, the evidence showed a need
for more positive communication experiences between the teachers and African American
families.
While phone, newsletters, and email, were the three traditional communication norms at
FT Ford, the teachers who used other approaches usually had the most successful interactions
with African American families. Specifically, teachers who utilized texting, communication
applications, and home visits received meaningful responses and feedback from these parents
than teachers who only relied on the traditional approaches. While making numerous
communication attempts satisfies the bureaucratic standard frequently communicating, home-
school relationships cannot grow without meaningful communication and feedback taking place
between teachers and African American students’ families. Thus, the teachers who engaged in
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 99
rich dialogue and received meaningful feedback from African American parents grew positive
and constructive relationships with African American families, which helped them to engage
these students as well as more effectively build classroom community.
The teacher participants thought highly of their leadership relative to integrity and
professionalism. However, evidence also showed that teachers lacked understanding with
respect to certain areas of administrative expectations and support. These factors indicated that
the staff lacked full familiarity of the administrators’ leadership style as well as their full
expectations. Thus, it was concluded that certain trust disconnects existed because of frequent
leadership transitions over such a short span of time. So, evidence suggests that teachers needed
to build familiarity and trust with leadership in order to develop a greater sense of efficacy in
their administrators’ expectations, support, and leadership style.
While participants wanted more input and contributions from leadership about certain
aspects of the organizational context, the evidence also revealed another pertinent theme:
teachers lacked clarity of how important their role and feedback were in achieving the
organizational goals. While having knowledge and input from leadership is crucial, teachers set
the tone, the expectations, and the climate relative to the classroom context. So, whether it
involved discipline or curriculum, the classroom issues should have most frequently been
addressed and resolved between the teacher and the parents (Eccles, 2006; Milanowski et al.,
2005). For example, several teachers seemed to be concerned about the lack of clarity and/or
involvement by leadership concerning student discipline. While this spoke to an apparent
difference in perception between teachers and administrators about the expectations of how these
issues were handled, it did not necessarily indicate a lack of leadership support. Allowing
teachers autonomy and discretion to solve classroom issues served to increase professional
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 100
accountability and to build more meaningful relationships between parents and teachers
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). So, while some teachers viewed
administrative responses to certain discipline issues as ambiguous, it also could have been the
desire of administrators for teachers to assume the responsibility because they trusted in their
ability to do so.
Summary
Findings from interviews, observations, and artifacts highlighted the various perspectives
of participants` with reference to learning more about African American students and their
families for the sake of advancing student achievement as well as for increasing the home-school
relationship productivity within this subgroup of underrepresented minority students.
Additionally, the same data helped to gain a better understanding of the breadth and scope of
home-school communication between FT Ford and African American families. The evidence
also identified factors within the organization that impact the ability of the teachers and the
school to achieve equitable schooling for African American students.
The evidence showed that teachers were familiar with how to utilize assessment data to
modify and adjust instruction for African American students, but often did not use personalized
facts about these learners when considering formative assessments to increase engagement for
these learners. Also, the findings showed that the organizational protocol for continuously using
district and state testing data to make classroom decisions had been firmly established while
protocol for using personalized data was not as clear and consistent. This evidence revealed that
certain teachers had low self-efficacy in performing this task. Teachers attempted to gather facts
about students and their families, but their approaches were arbitrary and lacked continuity as
viable tools throughout the year. Additionally, the evidence showed the intentions behind much
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 101
of the home-school communication between teachers and African American families. Also,
teacher communication methods were analyzed to determine their level of effectiveness in
accordance with actual results as well as the recommendations provided by research. Evidence
showed that participants rarely communicated with African American families unless there was a
pre-determined agenda that corresponded with bureaucratic expectations. This suggested that
some participants had a low expectancy value of the meaningfulness behind establishing solid
and authentic communication foundations with African American families. Evidence showed
that participants who engaged in communication methods where there was reciprocal dialogue
received more meaningful feedback and spoke of more productive teacher-parent relationships
than those who did not.
Lastly, the data revealed a disconnect of communication and trust existed between
leadership and participants. Interviewees were unclear about leadership expectations as well as
support in certain organizational components such as discipline, teacher autonomy, and after
school programs. It was concluded that much of this disconnect existed due to the short tenure
of leadership because of the numerous leadership transitions that occurred over a short period of
time. However, participants also lacked clarity of realizing the importance of their role and
feedback in enhancing these as well as other organizational aspects of the school.
Assessments and home-school communications are frequently discussed topics in the
discourse of improving achievement for African American learners. However, consistency as
well as the breadth and scope of how formative assessments and personal student data are used in
the classroom to engage students are not discussed as frequently. Moreover, the value of home-
school communication between teachers and African American families is not reflected upon as
much as the frequency or volume of communication with those same families. Further, when
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 102
considering the factors that influence equitable schooling and achievement of African American
students, the lack of organizational clarity and distrust within schools rarely headlines this
agenda. However, a lack of organizational clarity and distrust between leadership and teachers
generates professional confusion, misperceptions, and unclear messaging that subsequently
permeates through to all stakeholders. Thus, Chapter Five explores ideas and solutions for
remedying these organizational challenges.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 103
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research project investigated the extent to which FT Ford Elementary School
provided equitable schooling for African American student and parent stakeholders. The project
used a mixed-methods approach to gather qualitative and quantitative data as well as artifacts
from stakeholders in the areas of curriculum, instruction, school to parent communication, and
supplemental support. The data compiled and analyzed sought to answer the following guiding
questions:
1. What support must classroom teachers receive to provide equitable schooling for African
American students?
2. How do motivational and/or organizational factor(s) influence teachers’ roles and
abilities in achieving equitable schooling for African American students?
Chapter Four provided quantitative and qualitative evidence for validating the assumed
organizational influences that impact equitable schooling for African American students at the
school. Chapter Five provides research-based solutions based on findings and outlines strategic
approaches and evaluations to ensure that the identified solutions contribute to closing
organizational gaps for the benefit of achieving the organizational goal.
Knowledge Recommendations
The data in Table 6 represents the assumed knowledge influences for the classroom
teacher goal of providing equitable schooling for African American students. In addition to the
assumed influences, Table 6 also identifies the influence as a high or low priority. Relevant
literature is provided to substantiate each knowledge influence. Lastly, Table 6 provides
research-based recommendations for each knowledge influence.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 104
Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Classroom teachers need
to know more details
about African American
students or their families
to provide authentic
learning experiences for
these students. (D)
HP Y Being explicit when
considering what
people should know,
whether student,
parent, teachers, or
administrators,
therefore is critical
in helping achieve
important learning
goals and improving
performance
(Rueda, 2011, p.32)
Provide training to
classroom teachers on
initiating positive and
ongoing
communication/dialog
ue with African
American students and
their parents.

Create more informal
educational
opportunities for
interaction between
teachers and African
American
families/students to
occur.
Classroom teachers need
to be fully knowledgeable
of the organizational
support structures in the
school setting that can
assist them with
communicating with
teaching African
American students and
communicating with their
families. (D)
HP Y Factual knowledge
includes things like
terminology, details
or elements one
must know or be
familiar with in
order to understand
and function
effectively or solve
a problem in a given
area (Rueda, 2011,
p. 28)
Provide a job aid that
lists the personnel
and/or departments
that assist with home-
school
communication and
teaching and learning
and provide a detailed
description about their
services.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 105
Table 6, continued
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Classroom teachers need
to be supported in
implementing
instructional
strategies/practices that
scaffold African
American students to
mastery of their learning
(P).
HP Y When given a
learning task,
successful learners
monitor and control
their behavior by
setting goals, using
their prior
knowledge,
considering
alternative
strategies,
developing a plan of
attack, and
considering
contingency plan
when they run into
trouble (Dembo &
Eaton, 2000).

Provide training and
educational sessions
for teachers that
models how to
incorporate research-
proven instructional
strategies/practices
that increase
achievement for
African American
learners into their
pedagogy.

Classroom teachers need
to increase their
knowledge of how to
motivate high-stress
and/or academically
challenging students. (P)
HP Y One of the major
differences between
successful and less
successful
individuals is that
successful
individuals know
how to motivate
themselves even
when they do not
feel like performing
a task, whereas less
successful
individuals have
difficulty
controlling their
motivation (Dembo
& Eaton, 2000).

Provide a job aid that
highlights strategies
for motivating high-
stress and/or
challenging learners.

Provide training for a
staff member to serve
as an on-campus
facilitator that coaches
teachers on how to de-
escalate and better
connect with high-
stress and/or
academically
challenged students.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 106
Table 6, continued
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Classroom teachers need
to more consistently
reflect upon their
practices to ensure they
are not repeating habitual
routines and strategies
that are not successful for
communicating with
African American
families and/or in
teaching African
American students. (M)
HP Y When students have
knowledge and
control of their own
cognitive processes,
learning is
enhanced; this
assertion holds
regardless of the
domain of learning,
whether reading,
writing, science,
mathematics, or any
other activity that
involves thinking
(Baker, 2006).

Higher order
strategies for
selecting and
monitoring mental
operations facilitate
creative and critical
thinking (Baker,
2006).
Conduct more
collaborative and
reflective training
sessions where
classroom teachers are
given the opportunity
to assess instructional
practices/strategies
using relevant
qualitative and
quantitative classroom
data.

Declarative Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets
Rueda (2011) defined factual knowledge as the basic knowledge that is required for a
specific discipline, context, or domain. Thus, learners develop factual knowledge when they
acquire knowledge about the basic terms and details that familiarizes them with an identified
context. The data indicated that participants had minimal knowledge about the family dynamics,
living conditions, and/or history of their African American students and their families.
Additionally, the data revealed participants possessed little or no knowledge about the support
systems at the school that are available to help them communicate with African American
parents and gain knowledge about them for the sake of forging meaningful home-school
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 107
relationships. Unless classroom teachers implement strategies to gain more knowledge of their
African American students and their families, the disconnect in home-school communication, the
higher discipline rates, as well as the disparity in student achievement among African American
students is likely to continue.
Teachers gaining knowledge of their African American students helps in building
healthier student-teacher relationships and strengthens the bond between home and school.
Rueda (2011) suggested that without factual knowledge, the learner does not have familiarity
with a problem to be able to solve it or to provide reasonable solutions. Additionally, Wyrick
and Rudasill (2009) found positive correlation between higher parent involvement and
productive teacher-student relationships. Therefore, providing training to classroom teachers on
initiating positive and ongoing communication/dialogue as well as how to create more informal
educational opportunities for interacting with African American students and their parents
provides education and support to teachers in learning more about their African American
students and their families. Additionally, a teacher job aid can be created that lists the student
support services available to assist with home-school communication. The job aid places a
useful organizational tool at teachers’ disposals which should help with increasing their
knowledge of who can help them with home-school communication when they need support.
Procedural Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets
Rueda (2011) defined a learner’s knowledge of how to do something using required
methods and approaches as procedural knowledge. Additionally, procedural knowledge includes
knowledge of algorithms as well as specific techniques that are essential in successfully
completing a given task or goal (Rueda, 2011). Data from the study revealed that a significant
number of participants needed to be supported in strategies of how to implement evidence-based
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 108
instructional strategies/practices that scaffold African American students to mastering the content
at the highest levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002). Data also indicated that
participants need support to increase their knowledge of strategies to motivate high-stress and/or
academically challenging students. Black and Wiliam (2010) asserted that merely focusing on
standards will not grow teachers in their efforts to raise achievement for all students. Thus,
addressing these knowledge gaps plays a meaningful role in strengthening achievement for
African American students.
Black and Wiliam (2010) suggested that teachers will lack knowledge about student
progress without the presence of interactive teaching and learning in the classroom setting.
Additionally, Black and William (2010) emphasize the importance of the interactive process so
that teachers can monitor and adjust their strategies to meet student needs. Therefore, training
should be implemented that provide additional support to classroom teachers in the area of
utilizing research-based instructional practices to improve African American student
achievement. Further, the school should consider training a staff member to serve as an on-
campus facilitator for coaching and training teachers on how to de-escalate high-stress behaviors
and better connect with academically challenged students. Additionally, the school should
consider providing a job aid in accompaniment with the on-campus facilitator that provides
strategies for motivating high-stress learners. These approaches would evidence proactive steps
in remedying student behaviors.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets
Rueda (2011) defined metacognitive knowledge as a learner’s awareness of his/her own
thinking. The data from the study showed that a significant number of participants used routine
instructional strategies and/or practices that were not conducive to meeting the needs of African
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 109
American students. These practices were evident in the teaching of African American students
as well as in how they handled the behaviors of these students. Therefore, the evidence indicated
that participants needed to increase their metacognitive knowledge relative to their classroom
practices and overall pedagogy.
Baker (2006) posited that learning increases in all content areas when learners have
knowledge and control of their own cognitive processes. Additionally, Baker (2006) suggested
that creative thinking and critical thinking are most effectively achieved when learners are
engaged in higher order cognition. Moreover, metacognition also increases the likelihood of
self-regulatory behaviors when it comes to learning (Baker, 2006). The school should consider
intentionally allocating time for collaborative and reflective training sessions to occur where
classroom teachers have the opportunity to discuss and assess instructional practices using
relevant qualitative and quantitative classroom data. Baker (2006) asserted that peer discussion
and collaboration assist learners in monitoring their own understandings and increases their
capacity to build new strategic capabilities. Thus, the school should consider taking a detailed
inventory of the mandates placed on teacher time and potentially reallocate the time being used
for teachers to actively engage in reflecting upon their practice and use relevant data to identify
effective or ineffective practices.
Motivation Recommendations
The data in Table 7 represents the assumed motivation influences for the classroom
teacher goal of providing equitable schooling for African American students. Table 7 also
identifies the influence as a high or low priority. Further, the table provides relevant research to
validate each motivation influence. Based on the literature, Table 2 also illustrates the
recommendations to achieve each motivation goal.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 110
Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teacher efficacy
influences their ability to
teach African American
students
HP Y Self-efficacy is related to
all three motivational
indicators, and is
especially important
when difficulty is
encountered while
engaging in a task or
activity (Rueda, 2011)

According to social
cognitive theory, self-
efficacy beliefs provide
the foundation for human
motivation, well-being,
and personal
accomplishment: Unless
people believe that their
actions can produce the
outcomes they desire,
they have little incentive
to act or to persevere in
the face of difficulties
(Pajares, 2006).
Provide training for
teachers on how to
build a sense of
community in the
classroom that
embraces equity for
all student learners.
Classroom teachers lack
the attainment value to
teach African American
students to learn and
achieve at a high level.
HP Y Sometimes people give
up on trying to achieve
their goals because they
are too vague, they don’t
know how to make
progress in achieving
them, or the goal is too
difficult to tackle all at
once (Rueda, 2011).

Rationales that include a
discussion of the
importance and utility
value of the work or
learning can help learners
develop positive values
(Eccles, 2006; Pintrich,
2003).
Provide training and
education on African
American culture
(beliefs, values,
family structure,
etc.) to build teacher
value relative to the
importance of
increasing African
American student
performance (“Do I
want to do the
task?”).
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 111
Table 7, continued
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Classroom teachers
should focus on setting
adequate amounts of
mastery-oriented goals to
increase African
American student
performance.
HP Y Mastery goal orientation
leads one to approach a
task in order to learn,
gain new competence,
and/or accomplish a
challenging activity
(Rueda, 2011).

Students hold mastery
goals (also referred to as
being mastery-oriented)
when their goal is to truly
understand or master the
task at hand; students
who are mastery-oriented
are interested in self-
improvement and tend to
compare their current
level of achievement to
their own prior
achievement (Anderman
et al., 2010).
Provide training for
development of
mastery-oriented
goal setting.

Provide a job aide
that defines and
distinguishes
between mastery-
oriented goals and
performance-
oriented goals.

Self-Efficacy
Pajares (2006) stated that learners’ perceptions of their performance inform their self-
beliefs, which subsequently informs their future performance. Thus, if classroom teachers do not
receive targeted feedback and there is minimal professional consequence for them relative to
below-par African American student achievement, they will not be efficacious in their belief that
they are providing equitable learning opportunities for African American students. As such, the
perceived finding is that classroom teachers lack confidence in their ability to provide equitable
schooling for African American students. Therefore, it is recommended to provide training for
teachers on how to create a sense of community in the classroom that embraces all student
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 112
learners. The teachers will receive targeted feedback on the implementation strategies that foster
greater inclusion for African American students.
Rueda (2011) correlates self-efficacy to all three motivational indicators and references
its importance when learners encounter difficulties when engaging in a specific task. Also,
Pajares (2006) stated that self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for motivation and personal
accomplishment. So, classroom teachers having high self-efficacy is very important in reaching
accomplishments. However, classroom teachers that possess too much self-efficacy can also
impact goal achievement due to their placing less value on the importance of achieving it
(Eccles, 2006).
Value
Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) posited that rationales which speak to the importance
and utility value of work or learning can assist in developing positive values. These assertions
suggest that classroom teachers should engage in meaningful discussions around the significance
of providing opportunities for higher achievement among African American students. The
assumed finding is that classroom teachers lack attainment value relative to teaching African
American students to learn and achieve at their highest levels. Therefore, it is recommended that
training and education be provided on African American culture (to cultivate meaningful
professional discussions that reference the societal benefits of fostering high achievement for
African American students. Further, Eccles (2006) suggested that this type of dialogue will
increase the likelihood of classroom teachers seeing greater significance in African American
students having high achievement.
Rueda (2011) suggested that goals are often abandoned because they are too vague, or the
stakeholder lacks the knowledge of how to make progress in achieving them. Subsequently,
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 113
these attributes can play a factor in making the goal appear to be overly burdensome to
collectively achieve (Rueda, 2011). To increase the likelihood of higher African American
student achievement, it is essential that classroom teachers place similar value on achieving this
goal as the value they place on increasing learning and achievement in their own children. There
are numerous circumstances and situations that are out of classroom teachers’ controls relative to
the discourse of African American student achievement. Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003)
asserted that rationales which include a discussion of the importance and utility value of the
work or learning helps learners develop positive values relative to what is being learned. Thus,
research suggests that if teachers engage in values-driven dialogue they are more apt to place
adequate value in the task of promoting high achievement and excellence for African American
learners.
Mastery Goal Orientation
Rueda (2011) stated that a learner is mastery goal oriented when he/she approaches a task
in order to learn, gain new competence, and/or accomplish a challenging activity rather than
being motivated to approach a task in consideration of reward, recognition, and/or attention from
others. The assumed finding is that classroom teachers do not set an adequate amount of
mastery-oriented goals for themselves to increase African American student performance.
Further, Rueda asserted that failure to set mastery-oriented goals contributes to task avoidance.
Thus, the recommendations are to provide training for teachers on how to develop mastery-
oriented goals for themselves as well as to provide a job aide that distinguishes between mastery-
oriented goals and performance-oriented goals.
Anderman et al. (2010) posited that learners display mastery goal orientation when they
seek to truly understand or master the given task at hand. Further, Yough and Anderman
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 114
suggested that students who are mastery-oriented are interested in self-improvement and tend to
compare their current level of achievement to their own prior achievement rather than to the
achievement of others. Seemingly, this age of bureaucratic accountability and emphasis on test
scores (performance goal orientation) dilutes the judgement of some classroom teachers when
setting individual, short-term, as well as long-term goals for themselves relative to growing
student achievement in African American learners. Classroom teachers adopting a mastery-
oriented goal approach within the context of their professional development serves to impact
their pedagogy and will subsequently have a more meaningful impact on higher achievement for
African American learners.
Organization Recommendations
The data in Table 8 represents the assumed organization influences for the classroom
teacher goal of providing equitable schooling for African American students. Additionally,
Table 8 identifies the influence as a high or low priority. Further, the table provides relevant
research literature to validate each organization influence. Based on the research literature,
Table 3 also illustrates the recommendations to achieve each organizational goal.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 115
Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Classroom teachers do
not feel that leadership
values their feedback
relative to achieving
organizational goals.
HP Y Organizational
performance
increases when
processes and
resources are aligned
with goals
established
collaboratively
(Clark & Estes,
2008)

A culture of trust and
empowerment yields
an organization
where there is open
communication and
honest feedback
(Bogler & Somech,
2004).

Teachers not feeling
supported or listened
to by administration
can substantially
impact their sense of
commitment in
accomplishing
organizational goals
(Ebmeier, 2003).
Provide an
opportunity at all
types of staff
meetings for
classroom teachers to
openly (or
anonymously) give
their feedback
relative to the
purpose and/or goal
of all meetings.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 116
Table 8, continued
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
There is a lack of
consistent and positive
communication between
classroom teachers and
African American
students and parents.
HP Y Quality
communication with
families contributes
to student success
(Farrell & Collier,
2010).

Aspects of
educational settings,
such as the quality
and frequency of
teacher-student
interaction can be a
factor in successful
student outcomes
(Rueda, 2011)

When processes are
inadequate or
misaligned with
organizational goals,
the risk of failure is
great (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Conduct more extra-
curricular student and
family-centered
events such as talent
shows, game nights,
etc. that involve
student participation
and positive
interaction between
African American
parents and the
teachers/school.

Cultural Settings
Classroom teachers do not feel that their input matters when they provide feedback
relative to the achievement of organizational goals. Bogler and Somech (2004) asserted that a
culture of trust and empowerment produces an organization where there is open communication
and honest feedback. This situation suggests that classroom teachers should be provided an
opportunity to openly give feedback at all staff meetings and/or professional development
sessions. Further, as a means of member checking (Maxwell, 2013), an administrator should
follow up with staff members who provide feedback to ensure clarity and understanding of the
feedback as it relates to achieving the goal of the organization.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 117
Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that organizational performance increases when
stakeholders work collaboratively to create the processes and identify the resources that align
with achieving organizational goals. In the field of education, it is essential that teacher and
administrative stakeholders collaborate and provide feedback to each other in order to achieve
organizational goals. Additionally, Ebmeier (2003) posited that not feeling supported by
administrators can substantially impact teachers’ sense of commitment in accomplishing
organizational goals. So, research suggests that giving teachers an opportunity to provide open
feedback at staff meetings and professional development sessions increases their agency in the
school as well as increases the likelihood of successfully achieving organizational goals.
Cultural Settings
A lack of consistent and positive communication exists between participants and African
American students and parents. Farrell and Collier (2010) posited that quality communication
with families contributes to student success. This assertion implies that the school should
conduct monthly school-wide events that involve student participation and target increasing the
positive interaction between African American parents and the teachers/school.
In public education, home and school communication is a critical process in achieving
success relative to student achievement. Rueda (2011) stated that aspects of educational settings,
such as the quality and frequency of teacher-student interaction can be a factor in successful
student outcomes. Additionally, Graham-Clay (2005) suggested that a disconnect in
communication can potentially occur between home and school because of the misperceived
undertones by parent and/or teachers because of the communication techniques that they utilize.
This research supports the recommendation that teachers and schools should increase their level
of positive interaction between African American homes and school by having monthly events
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 118
that involve student and family participation where more personalized forms of communication
engagement are fostered.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan
The plan implementation and evaluation process was substantially influenced by the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model references four
essential training level evaluation components. Level 1, reaction, represents a lower level
component, and it is assessed by gauging participant perceptions of the favorability and
engagement of the training relative to their jobs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 2,
learning, also represents a lower level component, and it intends to assess the extent of
stakeholder knowledge, skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment throughout the training
experience (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 3, behavior, represents a higher-level
component, and it is intended to assess the degree in which stakeholders apply their learning
once they transition back to the work setting (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 4, results,
represents the highest level component, and it assess the extent to which the anticipated
outcomes are achieved as a result of the training experience (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
When utilizing this model, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommended first considering
the goals of the organization and, afterwards, to begin with the highest level of evaluation, Level
4. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick suggested using a backwards planning model for this process to
increase the likelihood for alignment between the lower and higher evaluation levels.
Additionally, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick recommend that organizations begin their process with
the higher levels of evaluation to avoid making the common error of overly depending on lower
levels of evaluation to guide decision-making and next steps relative to training implementations.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 119
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The mission of FT Ford Elementary School is to create teams of learners who are
responsible and productive. The organizational goal is that all teachers will incorporate multiple
evidence-based instructional strategies for teaching African American students by December
2020. Equitable schooling for African American students represents a critical need for FT Ford.
To achieve its organizational mission, the school needs to ensure that all students are provided
with equitable resources and learning opportunities that meet their individual needs. In
consideration of the current student achievement and discipline rates for African American
students in the school, the stakeholder goal is that all classroom teachers will demonstrate the use
of at least two evidence-based instructional strategy when teaching African American students
by December 2018. The suggested recommendations should provide knowledge to the
stakeholders with respect to identifying the organizational support as well as the relevant data
sources that are available so that they might achieve the goal. Additionally, the
recommendations should equip the stakeholders with teacher-to-parent as well as teacher-to-
student interaction strategies that will increase their motivation to achieve the stakeholder goal
and the organizational mission.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 9 illustrates the Results and Leading Indicators for Level 4 as well as the outcomes,
metrics, and methods. If the expected internal outcomes are achieved through the training and
organizational support, the external outcomes should also be attained.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 120
Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase the amount of
positive contacts between
the school and African
American families.
The documented
monthly/quarterly calls, emails,
and other direct correspondence
identified as positive contacts
between teachers and African
American families.
Provide a data sheet where
the positive contacts can be
recorded that is due by a
certain date of each
month/quarter. Review the
communication findings in
Professional Learning
Community and/or regular
grade level meetings.
Increase the amount of
African American
community volunteers
and/or mentorship at the
school.
Database that details
demographic information of
school volunteers.

Surveys to find out areas of
interest for volunteers
Organize a committee/cadre
that is responsible for
quarterly reviewing,
reporting, and/or action on
the information found from
the database/surveys.
Internal Outcomes
Increase the
organizational feedback
provided by classroom
teachers relative to goals.
Copies of each subject-specific
evaluations distributed at
meetings.

An administrative team
member conducts post-
meeting member-checks with
each staff member that
provides feedback as a means
of follow-up, compiling the
feedback in a school database
(google docs, scan, etc.).

Decrease the number of
disciplinary referrals, In-
School-Suspension, and
Out-of-School Suspension
rates for African
American students.

The number of documented
disciplinary referrals/actions
taken.

Weekly PLC meetings that
include number of
referrals/actions taken,
identify the common
infractions committed (by
African American students)
that receive referrals, and
compare/suggest potential
strategies/implementations to
decrease referral rates.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 121
Level 3: Behavior
Classroom teachers represent the primary stakeholders in the study. The first critical
behavior is that classroom teachers must obtain knowledge of multiple new facts and/or build
upon their knowledge of existing facts about each African American classroom student and their
families. The second critical behavior is that classroom teachers should use these facts to create
meaningfully relevant lesson plans and assessments to help with building a broader sense of
community as well as personalized learning within their classroom settings. The third critical
behavior is that classroom teachers must explore alternative solutions to disciplinary referrals
and out-of-class disciplinary actions for non-severe student behavioral infractions. Table 10
identifies the specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these behavioral outcomes.
Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Teachers
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Obtain knowledge of
multiple new facts
and/or build upon their
knowledge of existing
facts about each African
American classroom
student and their
families.
Interest inventories,
permanent record files,
and new student
beginning of the year
classroom files.

African American student
data will be brought to
each Professional Learning
Community meeting
where teachers will share
their student data.
During the first
month of the new
school term and a
minimum of
quarterly follow-
up.
2. Use the facts they
have obtained from
African American
student/family data to
create meaningfully
relevant lesson plans
and assessments to help
with building a broader
sense of community as
well as personalized
learning within their
classroom settings.
2a. Instructional
procedures/assessments
in teacher lesson plans.

2a. Grade level chairs will
engage team in weekly
planning sessions where
African American
student/family facts are
considered when crafting
lesson plans and
assessments.
2a. Throughout
the school year.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 122
Table 10, continued
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
2b. Classroom
management and/or
behavior modification
plans.

2b. Administrative team
members will observe
each classroom teacher
and meet with each team
to answer the critical
question, “How have you
utilized your knowledge of
African American
students/families in
considering your lesson
plans/assessments and in
building your classroom
community?”.
2b. Monthly
administrative
team meetings with
grade levels
throughout the
school year.
3. Explore alternative
solutions to disciplinary
referrals and out-of-
class disciplinary
actions for non-severe
student behavioral
infractions.
3a. Disciplinary referral
data

3a. African American
disciplinary (out-of-class)
referral data will be shared
and discussed at each PLC
meeting.
3a. Weekly
throughout the
school year.
3b. Classroom
management/behavior
modification plan and
parent contact log
3b. Classroom
management/behavior
modification plans will be
presented and discussed in
administrative team
meetings.
3b. Monthly
throughout the
school year.

Required drivers. Maximizing stakeholder achievement of the critical behaviors
requires administrative team support from the school. Thus, a routine review should be
conducted to ensure the critical behaviors are being achieved at a desired level of proficiency to
produce the anticipated outcome. Additionally, administrators should incorporate positive
reinforcements for the classroom teachers that are successfully demonstrating the critical
behaviors. Table 11 identifies the recommended drivers that support the critical behaviors of
classroom teachers.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 123
Table 11
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job aid that includes a checklist
of potential resources for
obtaining facts about African
American students/families.
Ongoing 1, 2,3
Job Aid that identifies alternative
discipline and positive
reinforcement strategies.
Ongoing 1,2,3
Trainings and working sessions
with experienced educators that
have a good track record of high
African American student
achievement and low African
American discipline rates
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Collaboration/feedback from
grade level and administrative
team.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Peer Observations Monthly 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Individual and grade level
performance incentive when
there is evidence of low/lower
African American discipline
rates and sustained increase in
African American student
performance.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Public acknowledgement at
faculty/staff meetings as a means
of progress monitoring and
summative reflection.
Weekly, Monthly, Quarterly 1, 2, 3

Monitoring
Teacher self-reflection inventory Monthly 1, 2, 3
Peer, administrative team, and
grade chair observations.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3

Organizational support. Clark and Estes (2008) noted the importance of organizational
accountability relative to achieving organizational goals. For classroom teachers to demonstrate
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 124
the necessary behaviors for achieving the organizational goal, it is essential that the organization
provides meaningful support. First, the organization will provide opportunities for teacher
feedback at all meetings and professional development sessions as well as incorporate a positive
reinforcement system for achieving the critical behaviors. This approach will give teachers a
consistent platform to offer their feedback about the meeting topic as well as provide strategies
and/or solutions for potentially increasing the connection between the meeting content and
achieving the organizational goal. Additionally, this strategy will provide source of motivation
and organizational support for achieving the critical behaviors. Second, the organization will
offer more school-wide venues to increase the frequency of positive interaction opportunities
between teachers and African American parents. Subsequently, providing these opportunities
and resources increases the likelihood that the goal will be achieved.
Level 2: Learning
Upon completion of the training and collaborative sessions, the classroom teacher
stakeholders will be able to
1. Identify essential facts about African American students and families, (D)
3. Identify school and district support personnel and/or departments that assist with home-
school communication, (D)
4. Demonstrate how to use African American student and family facts to craft lesson plans,
assessments, and build classroom community, (P)
5. Demonstrate how to use knowledge of students to build rapport and manage high-stress
students in the classroom and school setting, (P)
6. Use formative African American student data to monitor and adjust practices as well as to
develop plans of action. (P) and
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 125
7. Demonstrate value in the process through participation, collaboration, and planning (M,
Value)
The learning goals will be achieved through identification of relevant data sources and
organizational support that will aid in discovering facts as well as establishing meaningful
interactions with African American students and their families. Subsequently, this information
will help classroom teachers with identifying and developing research-based strategies to teach
African American learners. Classroom teachers, the primary organizational stakeholders in the
study, will explore a variety of resources intended to assist them in meeting the learning goals
and subsequently the organizational goal. The program consists of an eight-hour interactive
training session, job aids, and implementation of a grade level and school-wide plan of action
intended to increase the level of positive engagement, support, and achievement for African
American learners.
During the synchronous training activities, classroom teachers will engage in data-driven
discussions relative to their current experiences of engaging African American students and their
families. Additionally, teachers will be presented with the organizational personnel and/or
departments that provide support for managing high-stress students. Moreover, they will be
presented with organizational personnel and/or departments that provide support for initiating
and maintaining parent contact. Scenario-based demonstrations as well as relevant feedback will
be presented by the trainer and confident educators that have a high frequency of positive results
in African American home-school communication and student achievement. Lastly, teachers
and administrators create a data-driven plan of action to increase meaningful home-school
communication with African American families and increase African American student
achievement.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 126
During the asynchronous segment, classroom teachers will utilize specific data sources to
obtain meaningful and relevant facts about African American students and their families for
building rapport, planning lessons/assessments, and building classroom community.
Additionally, they will use a job aid to locate personnel and department support for initiating and
maintaining positive African American home-school communication as the need arises. They
will continue using the relevant data to drive professional learning community and grade-level
discussions so that the action plan can be modified as the need arises.
Components of learning. Declarative knowledge represents a significant initial
indicator of the capacity of a learner to apply a skill or concept in a deeper context. Further, it is
equally important that frequent assessment occurs to ensure mastery and confidence is being
achieved relative to the concept(s) being taught. Thus, it is essential to assess the classroom
teachers’ learning for the declarative and procedural knowledge so that there is a greater
likelihood of achieving the desired outcomes. However, it is also important that learners possess
confidence and demonstrate a sense of value in the capacity of the new learning helping them to
achieve the learning and organizational goals. Table 12 lists the evaluation methods as well as a
general timeline for these components of learning.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 127
Table 12
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge check pre-assessment of teacher
awareness of organizational support.
At the beginning of training
Knowledge checks through Professional Learning
Communities, data discussions, “think-pair-share”
and other individual/group activities.
After training
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Electronic scenario-based multiple choice
formative assessment items on using data to create
lesson plans/assessments and re-directing high-
stress African American students.
During training
Individual scenario demonstrations of how to de-
escalate and re-direct high-stress African American
students in the learning environment.
During training
Group demonstrations of how to use relevant data
(facts, etc.) for African American students as well
as job aids to create lesson plans and assessments.
End of training
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Observation of participants’ statements, formative
work/activities, and actions demonstrating that they
see the benefit of what they are being asked to do
on the job.
During the training.
Values based discussions of what they are being
asked to do on the job.
During the training.
Attitude inventory using a Likert Scale Pre- and post-training
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Individual scenario demonstrations of how to use
relevant facts about African American students to
create lessons/assessments, de-escalate behaviors,
and build classroom community.
During the training
Discussions and feedback following the
demonstrations.

During the training.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
School and grade level team discussions.

During the training.
Create school, grade level, and individual action
plan to achieve the task.

During the training.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 128
Level 1: Reaction
Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Data planning and gathering using the
discussed resources
Ongoing
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the training
Attendance During the training
Training evaluation No more than one week after the training
Relevance
Questions, discussion, and feedback After each activity and/or demonstration

Training evaluation No more than one week after the training
Customer Satisfaction
Attitude inventory using Likert Scale Post-training
Training evaluation No more than one week after the training

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the training session, the participants will complete a brief survey
(Appendix B). The survey will gather evidence to assess participant perspectives on their level
of engagement, relevance, and satisfaction of the training content. Specifically, the survey data
will be utilized to assess participant relevance of the material in helping them with more
effectively teaching African American students in their classroom settings. This goal will also
be achieved through occasional pulse-checks throughout the training session that include
questions that allow participants to make relevant connections between the presented material
and their work setting as well as checks for understanding through collaborative scenario-driven
discussion-feedback sessions.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six weeks
after the training implementation, the administrative team will issue a survey using the Blended
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 129
Evaluation Approach (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This evaluation seeks to gain
participant feedback relative to all four evaluation levels and the extent to which the training
influences satisfaction and relevance (Level 1), confidence and value of application (Level 2),
application of training to their classroom teaching of African American students (Level 3), and
the extent to which the training has increased communication and achievement pertinent to
African American students (Level 4). The survey will also be administered 15 weeks after
training implementation.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The goal is for classroom teachers to demonstrate the use of research-based instructional
strategies that will provide more equitable schooling for African American students by
increasing their academic achievement and decreasing their out-of-class discipline rates. Thus, a
weekly self-reflection will be embedded in teacher lesson plan templates. For each weekly
lesson plan, the classroom teachers will identify two research-based strategies they utilized as
well as the number of out-of-class discipline occurrences that arose with African American
students for the given week. Monthly professional learning community discussions will take
place where the research-based strategies and number of out-of-class discipline rates will be
shared in the form of pie graph and bar graphs. Figure 6 provides illustrations for how data will
be collected. The pie graph presents the percentage of times classroom teachers utilized a
research-related instructional strategy while the bar graph presents the number of out-of-class
discipline incidents for African American students that occurred in each respective teacher’s
class.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 130

Figure 6. Data collection instruments.
Summary
This research project utilized the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) throughout the planning, implementation, and evaluation process. From a
planning perspective, it was critical to consider the relevant and appropriate data sources that
would influence classroom teachers’ considerations of equitable schooling for African American
learners (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) referenced the
importance of having the clearest signal-to-noise ratio. This notion speaks to the importance of
sifting through the enormous amounts of organizational data to find what is most relevant and
impactful in achieving the goal. From an implementation standpoint, it will be equally important
to determine the specific knowledge that needs to be obtained by the participants as well as the
desired behaviors that needed to be present so that the stakeholder goal can be achieved.
Additionally, how to go about assessing the participants’ knowledge proficiencies as well as the
critical behaviors will guide the implementation process. Lastly, from an evaluation perspective,
consideration will be given to how the stakeholders will assert the necessary critical behaviors
and apply their level of knowledge to produce the desired organizational results and achieve the
stakeholder goal.
The expectation is that organizations would utilize this framework in a similar context to
the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model. Organizations should visit their goals to ensure
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 131
the framework is conducive to what they are trying to achieve. Additionally, organizations
should take value in maximizing stakeholder feedback to gauge reactions and to ensure that
optimal learning is taking place. However, it is also essential that organizations are willing to
allocate the adequate amount of time to evaluating the behavioral expectations as well as to how
they are lending themselves to achieving the desired results. The organization that implements
this type of process will realize the four levels of evaluation and will subsequently have a higher
likelihood of success in achieving goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Limitations and Delimitations
This study was a mixed-methods research project that incorporated interviews,
observations, and artifacts. As stated in Chapter Three, limitations of the study consisted of
teacher uncertainty of how the researcher might utilize the information to impact their school
standing. At the inception of the project, the researcher served in an instructional leadership role
at the school. Since the researcher was no longer in the instructional leadership position, this
should have helped ease teacher tensions in this area making it a little easier to be candid with
their responses. Additionally, the researcher provided participants with verbal and written
indications about the study being anonymous and their having the opportunity to opt out at any
time. However, the possibility still existed for them to have been critical about how the
information would be used outside of the study.
The interview length possibly influenced teachers to limit their responses to the interview
questions. All interviews were conducted at the end of the day, and many teachers are tired at
this time. So, participants may have been willing to contribute to the study but were abrupt in
their responses due to fatigue. Each participant was told that their interview would last
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 132
approximately 45 to 60 minutes. However, the average interview lasted 37 minutes, which
should have helped make the time factor less of a concern for teachers.
The subject of race served as a potential limitation of teacher responses and/or behaviors
when being interviewed and/or observed due to the sensitive nature of the topic. So, there was a
possibility of teachers manufacturing politically correct responses to sound more appropriate
rather than providing the responses that represented a true reflection of their perceptions and
opinions. However, other than stating the purpose of the study and ensuring anonymity, the
researcher could not think of other safeguards to ease participant perceptions in this area.
Data were collected over approximately six weeks with two major delimitations in the
study. First, all participants taught in self-contained classrooms for at least five hours per day.
This setting ensured that they had a substantial period of daily engagement with students and
parents to provide meaningful evidence-based feedback. Second, all observations were
conducted in the teachers’ classrooms. This approach was determined to be important for
ensuring as much consistency relative to the learning context as possible so that the researcher
could observe the most authentic interactions within the learning setting with which the teacher
and the students were most accustomed.
Future Research
A couple of recommendations for future research serve to advance this study as well as
the discourse of equitable schooling for African American students. First, conducting a
longitudinal study which includes a higher volume of participants involving administrators,
teachers, teacher assistants, student support members, students, and parents would contribute to
the credibility of this research as well as enhance the discourse. Additionally, including more
school-related data and artifacts for analysis would strengthen the merits of this type of study.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 133
Another potential for future research is to conduct a mixed-methods study that pursues
the characteristics of schools that have the most success with African American students. The
researcher could conduct interviews and focus groups with a random sampling of African
American students and their families as well as teachers, support staff, and administrators from
multiple schools to analyze and compare the level of success students and parents feel is
achieved by the African American students in the various settings. Surveys could be completed
by students, parents, teachers, support staff members, and administrators to determine if the
criteria for student success are compatible between home and school. If any perceptual gaps
were to exist from this research, it would provide parents and schools with a starting point for
having engaging dialogue about closing these gaps to help African American students experience
greater success in schools. If the criteria for student success between school and home were
compatible, the researcher could triangulate interview, focus group, and survey data to determine
what qualities about the sample schools make them effective and/or ineffective in promoting
success for African American learners.
Conclusion
In many schools, African American students represent a significant part of the student
population. However, whether these students represent a majority or minority of the school or
classroom populations, they deserve to receive equitable learning opportunities that are
commensurate with their backgrounds, experiences, and their values as learners. This study
explored FT Ford Elementary School’s classroom and organizational practices to determine the
extent to which they provided African American students with equitable learning experiences.
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework guided the study by helping the researcher
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 134
to identify potential knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that contributed to the
school’s challenges relative to this area of research.
Data from this study indicated that the teachers believed that African American students
could learn. Also, some of the teachers believed that building relationships with African
American students and their families was the primary catalyst for advancing student
achievement. However, some teachers both consciously and unconsciously engaged in practices
and/or approaches that created a consequential disconnect between African American homes and
the school relative to communication and involvement. Research suggests that the subsequent
disconnect created by some of these practices contributed to adversely impacting the teachers’
and schools’ abilities to provide equitable learning. Further, the multiple leadership transitions
over such a short period of time created a degree of teacher uncertainty as it pertained to support
and expectations in given organizational dimensions.
This study provided FT Ford with meaningful feedback from critical stakeholders in the
school with respect to a starting point for closing the African American home-school disconnect
and engaging in intentional classroom and organizational practices to promote equitable learning
experiences for African American students. It challenged the stakeholders to think outside of
efficacious bureaucratic practices they may be accustomed to and recognize critical approaches
that potentially help strengthen African American student achievement and positively immerse
them into the learning environment. Relevant literature supports the importance of using student
and family interests to create more fulfilling learning environments. Thus, conducting class or
school using a business as usual approach without the willingness to consistently learn more
about African American students’ families, backgrounds, and values as well as applying the
knowledge within the instructional context will render the status quo relative to student
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 135
achievement and discipline statistics. Shifting the paradigm of African American student
underperformance means that educators also need to adjust certain mindsets, organizational
protocol, and instructional approaches so as to create more inviting learning environments for
these learners.
This study focused on identifying influences as well as making recommendations for
schools in providing more equitable schooling for African American students because low
achievement and high discipline rates for these learners presents an epidemic for many schools
and districts across the country. Although this study attempted to provide a template for meeting
these learners’ needs through equitable schooling, this same approach can be utilized in meeting
the needs of students from any ethnic group. Evidence has shown that educators knowing more
about students, their backgrounds, and their values increases the likelihood of providing more
meaningful learning experiences for students. While not being the simplest of tasks to
accomplish, research suggests that, if educators invest time to implement these approaches, there
is a higher probability of students achieving more successful results. The profession of
education is by far not an easy one. Getting meaningful results from students does not simply
happen through teachers showing up every day with well-orchestrated lesson plans or through
measuring growth through a standardized test score. Thus, achieving meaningful results in
growing all students requires passionate education professionals who find value in spending the
time to continuously learn about their students and build their classrooms and schools based on
that knowledge.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 136
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EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 145

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 146

APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
1. What is the frequency and level of home interaction that you have with African American
students’ families that are in your classroom?

2. Describe your decision-making process when considering how to monitor and adjust
instruction for African American students.

3. How do you use the information that you know about your African American students in
the classroom setting?

4. How does the data from home interactions help you with planning and/or structuring your
classroom setting?

5. Describe how you go about building a sense of community with your African American
students in your classroom.

6. Describe your communication experiences with African American families?

7. How does the school provide support with home communication for African American
students?

8. What do you think are African American students’ family’s perceptions of home and
school communication?

9. What do you think are African American students’ perceptions about teacher-student
communication?

10. Describe the level of communication between school administration and African American
students’ homes.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 147
APPENDIX B
Initial Training Workshop Evaluation
Indicator Strongly Agree Agree Disagree
Level 1 -
Engagement

The session was
engaging.

Level 1 - Relevance
The training will help
me learn more about
African American
students to increase
their academic
achievement.

The training will help
me in more
effectively
communicating with
African American
parents.

Level 1 - Satisfaction
I would recommend
this training to other
educators.

Level 2 - Knowledge
I have a clearer
understanding of how
the student support
personnel at the
school can assist me
with establishing or
maintaining
consistent and
positive home-school
communication.

I have a better
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 148
understanding of how
to use relevant data
for making
instructional
decisions.
I have a better
understanding of how
to use relevant data
for building stronger
relationships with
African American
learners and their
families.

Level 2 - Attitude &
Confidence

I am confident that
the support and
strategies presented
will play a critical
role in increasing
African American
student achievement.

I am confident that
the support and
strategies presented
will play a critical
role in building
positive home-school
communication with
African American
families.

Level 2 -
Commitment

I plan to incorporate
the information and
strategies presented
with a higher level of
frequency.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 149
APPENDIX C
Codebooks

Codebook (Participant F -Alt)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation 6
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 12
Frequent & Direct Communication with 10
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 10
Use of Non-main-stream Data Sources 5
Use of main-stream data sources 8
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 9
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Families 7
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 3
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 12
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 8
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 7
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 4
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 6
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 8
Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 12
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 150
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 3
And Services (Listening to Feedback)

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 151
Codebook (Participant B -Alt)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation 2
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 5
Lacking Personal Knowledge of Students/Families 5
Frequent & Direct Communication with 3
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 7
Use of Non-main-stream Data Sources 5
Use of main-stream data sources 13
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 8
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Students/Families 3
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 3
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 5
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 2
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 5
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 9
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 5
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 4
Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 9
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 3
And Services (Listening to Feedback)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 152
Codebook (Participant C -Prim)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 5
Lacking Personal Knowledge of Students/Families 3
Frequent & Direct Communication with 1
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 7
Use of Non-main-stream Data Sources 6
Use of main-stream data sources 12
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 7
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Students/Families 2
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 2
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 6
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 2
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 2
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 7
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 6
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 5
Lack of Knowledge/Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 11
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 5
And Services (Listening to Feedback)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 153
Codebook (Participant A -Inter)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation 1
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 6
Lacking Personal Knowledge of Students/Families 1
Frequent & Direct Communication with 5
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 9
Use of Non-main-stream Data Sources 5
Use of main-stream data sources 11
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 10
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Students/Families 4
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 3
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 6
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 6
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 4
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 7
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 6
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 3
Lack of Knowledge/Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 3
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 6
And Services (Listening to Feedback)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 154
Codebook (Participant D -Inter)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation 1
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 10
Lacking Personal Knowledge of Students/Families 11
Frequent & Direct Communication with 4
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 12
Use of Non-main-stream data sources 11
Use of main-stream data sources 12
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 11
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Students/Families 9
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 5
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 12
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 4
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 5
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 12
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 8
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 8
Lack of Knowledge/Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 14
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 11
And Services (Listening to Feedback)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 155
Codebook (Participant E -Inter)
Conceptual Framework Interview Frequency
Knowledge of Students (Yellow) October
Local Community Affiliation 1
Personal Knowledge of Students/Families/Trust 6
Lacking Personal Knowledge of Students/Families
Frequent & Direct Communication with 2
Students/Families
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Recognition of Student/Family Needs 8
Use of Non-main-stream data sources 6
Use of main-stream data sources 5
Connect Instruction w/Needs/Interests 7
Build Relationships
Culturally Relevant Conversations with Students/Families 8
Incorporates Culturally Relevant Activities in Classroom 5
Classroom Community Building/Efficacy 8
Professional Accountability
Active Learning about A Amer. Students 7
Active Engagement with A Amer. Students/Families 7
Experiences/Collaboration Guide Decisions 10
Values/Recognizes Diversity Needs 8
Values Career Choice/Metacognition 6
Lack of Knowledge/Distrust in Organizational Decision-making, 4
Interventions, and Services (Listening to Feedback/
Teacher/Administrator/Home Disconnect)
Knowledge/Trust in Organization Decision-making, Interventions, 6
And Services (Listening to Feedback)
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 156
APPENDIX D
Informed Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS

You are invited to participate in a study conducted by Tawio J. Barksdale, MAT (Dr. Monique
Datta, Advisor) at the University of Southern California, because you are a classroom teacher at
the research site. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and
ask questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate.
Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss
participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign
this form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which the school provides equitable
schooling and communication for African American student and parent stakeholders.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to engage in an initial interview,
one focus group, an initial and post-observation, and a post-interview. You will be asked to
provide your opinions, attitudes, and pedagogy relative to the dissertation topic, and you will be
observed to see how the above items connect to instructional delivery. Also, you will be asked
to supply class newsletters, sample formative assessments, and test data in order to understand
classroom culture, assessments, and student performance.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Your inconveniences for participating in this study include researcher imposition on the
instructional setting which potentially may cause some distraction of ordinary classroom routines
and practices. Also, your participation will require giving additional time (approximately one
hour) for participating in an after school interviews and supplying documents and artifacts.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The potential benefits of your participation are obtaining information and evidence that possibly
contributes to a more in-depth action research project relative to your instruction. However, the
overall benefit for society is bettering the achievement of African American students, which
serves to increase stakeholder morale.

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 157

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid or compensated in any way for your participation. However, you will
receive a ‘Thank You’ card at the end of your participation in the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The data will be stored in a combination brief case to ensure confidentiality. As a participant,
you will have the right to review and edit recordings of the interviews you conduct with the
researcher. Otherwise, no one else be permitted to have access to your data except the
researcher. All data will be stored in a combination briefcase. Audio recordings will be stored
on a storage device that is not connected to the internet. All data will be confidentially discarded
via shredder or deleted (in the case of audio) after the study has been completed for minimum
time requirement of three years.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this study. If you provide the researcher with data
and/or information that is construed to be illegal and/or unethical, the researcher reserves the
right to withdraw from using you as a participant.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Tawio J.
Barksdale: Principal Investigator. Daytime telephone number is 864 567-0426. Email address is
tbarksda@usc.edu.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the researcher, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the researcher, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.
EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 158

AUDIO/VIDEO/PHOTOGRAPHS

□ I agree to be audio/video-recorded /photographed (remove the media not being used)

□ I do not want to be audio/video-recorded /photographed (remove the media not being used)

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 159
APPENDIX E
Observation Protocol

Grade: __________ Subject/Time: __________

Number of Students: __________ Number of African American Students: _________

Teacher Assistant: Yes No

I. Rapport/Classroom Community

A. Teacher-Student Interactions:

B. Student-Student Interactions:

II. Instruction and Pedagogy

A. Cultural Relevance:

B. Student Engagement/Motivation:

C. Teacher Engagement/Motivation:

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 160
APPENDIX F
Program Evaluation

Indicator Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Level 1:
Reaction

The training
provided valuable
information to
help me with
increasing
African
American student
achievement.
and parent
communication.

The training
increased my
awareness of how
the available
organizational
support can assist
me in teaching
and
communicating
with African
American
students and
parents.

Level 2:
Learning

The information
presented helped
to increase
confidence in my
ability to more
effectively
communicate
with African
American
families.

The information

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 161
presented helped
to increase
confidence in my
ability to teach
African
American
learners.
Level 3:
Behavior

My school and
grade level use
the job aid, the
information,
and/or the
strategies
presented to
communicate
with African
American
families/students,
make
instructional
decisions about
African
American
students, and/or
strengthen
classroom
community for
African
American
students that we
serve.

Level 4: Results
The information
presented has
provided support
for me to have
more quality
conversations
with African
American
families/homes.

The information
presented has
supported me

EQUITABLE SCHOOLING FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS 162
with strategies for
teaching African
American
students for
mastery rather
than
performance.

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Barksdale, Tawio James (author)

Core Title Equitable schooling for African American students: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/11/2018

Defense Date 02/22/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American learners,African American students,cognitive frames,culturally responsive pedagogy,equity cognitive frame,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Maddox, Anthony (committee member), Smith-Maddox, Renee (committee member)

Creator Email infinityaspirations@aol.com,tbarksda@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-12390

Unique identifier UC11670857

Identifier etd-BarksdaleT-6212.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-12390 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BarksdaleT-6212.pdf

Dmrecord 12390

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Barksdale, Tawio James

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA