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Girls in cybersecurity: an evaluation study

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Girls in cybersecurity: an evaluation study

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Content GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY: AN EVALUATION STUDY by Jeffrey Horne A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2018 Copyright 2018 Jeffrey Horne GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY To my daughter Adelaide. May you overcome the barriers that will surely stand in your way along this path of life. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY iii Abstract Female underrepresentation in the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields is a multipronged issue that is of a particularly pressing nature given that the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that nine million new STEM jobs will be created by the year 2022. The underrepresentation is a result of, among numerous factors, stereotypes related to women and their roles in society, such as that math and science are men’s fields, women’s and girls’ lack of confidence in their abilities to succeed in STEM careers. This study is an investigation of one organization’s attempt to address this gender gap in STEM fields specifically through a K-12 cybersecurity program, including an annual competition. The study specifically examines the organization’s attempts to increase female participation in the program and in the competition with a focus on the possible factors that impede girls from participating in the program and the barriers program staff face in efforts to increase female participation and representation in the program. The investigation ends with recommendations for the organization’s leadership regarding assisting the cybersecurity program staff in efforts to achieve the goal of increasing female representation in the program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY iv Acknowledgements When I began this academic journey, I was focused on the impact I would have on the world around me. Thoughts of providing new insights into learning theory and the practical application of learning filled my mind. Little did I know, the major impact this dissertation would have was on my conceptualization of the knowledge. Quickly, I learned that the mastery of some segment of knowledge is refined over the iteration of one’s own thinking. This humbling journey has helped me realize how little I understand about most everything else in the world; I rely on others to become experts in their field, as I am becoming in mine. It is my privilege to now recognize the many (certainly not all) individuals who have supported me, taught me and propelled me along this EdD journey. Where would I be without my family? Absolutely nowhere. I first want to thank my wife and my daughter, as they were the inspiration, support, and motivation for this EdD. I am grateful for their sacrifice and love throughout the journey, and I must specifically note that their sacrifice included four moves among three states and the District of Columbia. My wife has proved to be the most encouraging and supportive person I have ever met; she provided many meals, kisses and encouraging words to help me make progress on my dissertation each day. My daughter Adelaide was the inspiration for all of this. Not only was her birth the propelling moment in my life that sent me down this path, but being her father led me to study more about gender inequity within engineering and computer science. This journey has been amazing, and I am grateful they continue by me side. Thank you to my mother, Hollie, and my father, Brett. Throughout my life, they sacrificed their time, health, and everything they had to provide me with more opportunities than they ever had—this is a debt that I could never repay. My foundations in understanding educational theory are rooted in the learning I have had from each GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY v of them. They truly emulate the modeling that needs to occur for one to learn, and their example has been the foundation to my life. Thank you to my three little sisters: Hailee, Hadley and Hillary. Every time I buried my head to achieve some goal, they were always there cheering me along the way. They are truly my most dedicated cheerleaders. I would also like to thank my dissertation committee, as they have been instrumental in guiding me along this path. Each of them believed in me in ways that I cannot fathom. Their expectations and encouragement were pivotal in guiding me through times where only grit and work help me get through. The first time I began working with Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, her radiant smile beamed through as a guiding light to help me along the way. This smile would continue over the space of the three years that I worked on this dissertation. There was never a moment of discourage from her. I also appreciate her proactive style. She was truly committed to keeping me on track and ensuring that little by little my dissertation was being completed. Thank you to Dr. Angela Hasan and Dr. Frederick Freking for the input and guidance you provided to enhance my dissertation. In thinking about my dissertation committee, I cannot help but take a moment to thank all the professors in the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. Throughout both my masters and doctoral degrees, these faculty have imparted their expertise and knowledge to me. For that, I am forever grateful. As the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education main focus it to improve urban education, I had the ample opportunity to research the impact of communities on one’s education. Much research has been done on the impact of learning communities and sociocultural learning. Needless to say, those around you affect your educational attainment. As Booker T. Washington said, “Associate yourself with people of good quality, for it is better to be alone than in bad company.” I would not be where I am today without my best friends and the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY vi colleagues I have made in the 32 years on this earth. First, thank you to Mac Brady, Hank VanderMeyden and Chase Bailey. They have been by brothers from such an early age. Throughout my formative years, these gentleman stood by my side and ensured that I had friends to rely upon and models to learn from. These men ensured that I would be successful in life by being an example to me by way they lived their lives. As such, I cannot thank them without thanking their families. I truly was raised by a village. Thank you to Dana, Lu, Jill, Gary, Jerry and Don. They allowed me to enter their homes. They fed me both physically, spiritually and academically. Thank you to their brothers, sisters and cousins for treating me as family. I am a result of the time and effort they each invested in my life. Thank you to Ryan “Pooky” Christensen and Kaycee Anderson, my other brothers whom have stood by my side. They each provided insights to life that have helped me better understand the world around me. Lastly, thank you to all whom I have gone to school with. Those at Viewmont High School, Weber State University, The University of Utah and the University of Southern California. AS noted, we are a result of the communities they surround us. Each individual whom I have taken a class with has been an instrument in my academic career. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY vii Table of Contents List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................. 12 Introduction to the Problem of Practice ............................................................................... 12 Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 13 Organizational Goal ...................................................................................................... 14 Related Literature .......................................................................................................... 15 Importance of the Evaluation .............................................................................................. 16 Description of Stakeholder Groups...................................................................................... 17 Stakeholder Group for the Study ................................................................................... 18 Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 19 Methodological Framework ................................................................................................ 19 Organization of the Project ................................................................................................. 20 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ................................................................................................ 21 Gender Gaps ....................................................................................................................... 21 Historical Perspective .................................................................................................... 21 Current State of Gender Gaps in STEM ......................................................................... 23 Barriers and Facilitators in K-12 to Closing the STEM Gender Gap .................................... 24 STEM Gender Gap Barriers .......................................................................................... 24 Recruiting Young Women into STEM........................................................................... 28 The Framework................................................................................................................... 30 Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ................................... 31 Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................................... 31 Motivation Influences ................................................................................................... 36 Organizational Influences ................................................................................................... 41 The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context ............................................................................................................................... 48 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 48 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 52 Chapter 3: Methods .................................................................................................................. 54 Research Design ................................................................................................................. 54 Survey and Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale .................................................. 56 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY viii Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................................... 57 Surveys ......................................................................................................................... 57 Interviews ..................................................................................................................... 59 Data Analysis...................................................................................................................... 60 Credibility and Trustworthiness..................................................................................... 61 Validity and Reliability ................................................................................................. 63 Ethics ............................................................................................................................ 64 Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 4: Results and Findings ................................................................................................ 68 Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................... 69 Findings .............................................................................................................................. 71 Research Question 1: Is the Association Meeting Its Goal of Increasing Female Participation in Its Program? ......................................................................................... 71 Research Question 2: What Are the Program Staff Members’ Knowledge and Motivation Related to Increasing Female Participation in the Program? .......................................... 72 Research Question 3: Interactions Between Organizational Culture and Context and Knowledge and Motivation ........................................................................................... 90 Summary of Results and Findings ....................................................................................... 95 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................................... 97 Discussion and Recommendations for Further Research ................................................ 97 Knowledge Recommendations .................................................................................... 101 Motivation Recommendations ..................................................................................... 105 Organization Recommendations .................................................................................. 107 Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ................................................................ 112 Implementation and Evaluation Framework ................................................................ 112 Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations ......................................................... 114 Evaluation Tools ......................................................................................................... 126 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 129 References .............................................................................................................................. 131 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 142 APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................ 150 Interview Protocol............................................................................................................. 150 Interview Questions .......................................................................................................... 150 APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................ 153 APPENDIX D ........................................................................................................................ 156 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY ix APPENDIX E ......................................................................................................................... 158 APPENDIX F ......................................................................................................................... 160 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY x List of Tables Table 1 Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment .......................... 36 Table 2 Assumed Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessment .................... 41 Table 3 Assumed Organizational Influences Assessment ........................................................... 48 Table 4 The Perceived Effects of Gender Role Models ............................................................. 76 Table 5 Staff Perceptions of Females’ Expectations of Success in STEM .................................. 79 Table 6 Program Staff Self-Efficacy .......................................................................................... 83 Table 7 Staff Confidence in Recruiting Females ....................................................................... 87 Table 8 Staff Confidence in Recruiting Females ....................................................................... 88 Table 9 Importance of Recruiting Females................................................................................ 89 Table 10 Knowledge Influences and Recommendations........................................................... 102 Table 11 Motivation Influences and Recommendations ........................................................... 106 Table 12 Organization Influences and Recommendations ....................................................... 108 Table 13 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 115 Table 14 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers ..................... 116 Table 15 Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors ............................. 118 Table 16 Components of Learning for the Program ................................................................ 122 Table 17 Components of Measuring Reactions to the Program ............................................... 124 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY xi List of Figures Figure 1. The knowledge, motivation, and organization conceptual framework for analyzing the Association’s efforts to achieve the goal of increasing female participation in its cybersecurity program ................................................................................................... 51 Figure 2. Female Representation Tracking Dashboard ............................................................ 128 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 12 Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction to the Problem of Practice Female underrepresentation within computer science and engineering is a multipronged issue and with a projected nine million new science, engineering, technology, and mathematic (STEM) jobs being created by 2022, now is the time to address this societal issue (Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2014). While graduating enough STEM related candidates into the workforce is a top priority for state officials, America is not on pace to fill its computer science demand (Xue & Larson, 2015). There is a need for qualified talent within STEM fields, and women continue to be severely underrepresented. They occupy a mere 15% of the engineering workforce and 26% of the computer and mathematical science workforce (National Science Board, 2015). The lack of female representation in STEM subjects such as computer science and engineering is a problem because it is rooted in inequity that has stemmed from many societal, cultural, and traditional gender norms that have gone unchallenged (Parekh, 2011). Recruiting young females to enter these fields has been an issue because low female self-efficacy regarding STEM subjects and negative societal stereotypes regarding women in STEM inhibit females from pursuing STEM careers (Bottia, Stearns, Mickelson, Moller, & Valentino, 2015; Bystydzienski, Eisenhart, & Bruning, 2015; Jones, Howe, & Rua, 2000). It is important for society to address these issues of inequity and look for ways to overcome the common societal barriers that exclude females from these subjects. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 13 Organizational Context and Mission The organization evaluated shall be referred to as the “Association” throughout this study for confidentiality purposes. The Association runs a year-round K-12 cyber education program that teaches students how to defend computers from cyber-attacks. The program culminates with a national competition in which teams of students from around the nation fend off simulated cyber-attacks created by the Association’s staff. The mission of the Association is to promote a strong national defense through educational programming directed at the public, advocating for STEM education, and supporting veterans. Their cybersecurity program supports two of these missions: educating the public and advocating for STEM education. With a desire to increase the diversity of its program, the Association looks to increase the number of females who participate because they currently represent 23% of the total participants in their K-12 cybersecurity program. The Association is currently made up of three dimensions: the national youth cybersecurity competition, cyber camps, and the elementary school cyber education initiative (ESCI). The national youth cybersecurity competition is for students between the ages of 13 and 18; it runs each school year from October through April. Students from all over the nation compete with one another in teams of eight to defend computer networks from simulated cyber- attacks. Association summer camps occur each June, July, and August and are held at various locations each year. These camps are also geared toward 13- to 18-year-old students and are condensed week-long experiences that immerse students in cybersecurity techniques, theory, and practices within. Lastly, the ESCI is geared toward elementary ages students. It comprises three separate interactive learning modules that are distributed to teachers and parents throughout the nation. They promote a safe online presence for students, as well as online games revolving GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 14 around cybersecurity. This study will focus on the first of the three programs, the national youth cybersecurity competition. While the Association consists of 72 employees, their cybersecurity program team is made up of a team of eight individuals; in keeping with a desire to promote equity, the team is made up of five women and three men. The national commissioner and director of operations constitute their leadership staff; these two individuals oversee the strategic direction of the program as well as manage the remaining six employees. Two of the staff members specialize in creating the simulated cyber-attacks, two support the program during registration periods and the national finals competition, one oversees all the budgets and logistics that pertain to the national competition, and finally the last employee assists all of the above in their various job functions. Organizational Goal The Association’s organizational goal is to deliver a high-quality national cybersecurity program that reaches the broadest possible student population defined by age range and geographical demographics. In efforts to address the STEM gender gap, the Association is attempting to increase the participation of female students in their national youth cybersecurity competition. Females currently represent 24% of the total participants in the competition, and the Association’s goal is to increase that to 35% in the next five years. For the purposes of this study, the goals specifically related to the cybersecurity competitions were evaluated. These goals were set up internally by the Association’s cybersecurity program team after the successful completion of the eighth year of the program in the spring of 2016. Under the direction of the national competition commissioner, the team gathered participation data from previous competitions and outlined areas for improvement and desired growth. One of the areas they identified as needing improvement was increasing female participation in their program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 15 Related Literature Since 2002, 58% of bachelor’s degrees have been earned by females, with women enrolling in college at a greater rate than their male counterparts (Beyer et al., 2003; National Science Board, 2010). Also, as of 2010, females constituted 50.8% of the total population in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Yet the STEM gender gap is still apparent in society as females make up only 29% of science and engineering occupations (National Science Foundation, 2015). Females who do pursue STEM careers tend to gravitate toward biology, environment, and life science subjects, constituting more than half of scientists in the abovementioned STEM fields. While these statistics show much improvement, within the technical and mechanical sciences, the underrepresentation gap is quite large. Females constitute only 30.7% of physical scientists (Meiksins et al., 2016), 20% of engineering school graduates, a mere 11% of practicing engineers (Holme, 2016), and 26% of computing and mathematical professionals (Corbett & Hill, 2015). With such disparity in the larger STEM field, it is important to address gender representation within engineering and computer sciences to provide access and opportunity to this traditionally marginalized group (Jones et al., 2000). Gender inequity has always been part of American society, and many gender norms have gone unchallenged, leading to inequitable gender distribution in these occupations (Kern & McMillen, 2009; Parekh, 2011; Wooten, 1997). The signing of Executive Order 10925 (1961) charged society with ensuring that gender is not held against applicants seeking to gain employment. Unfortunately, negative societal stereotypes regarding women in STEM often inhibit females from pursuing STEM careers before they ever get to the application process (Doerschuk et al., 2016; Koch, Konigorski, & Sieverding, 2014). Females are an untapped societal resource; each brings different experiences and perspectives that help in building a GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 16 robust workforce in computer science and engineering (Ong, Wright, Espinosa, & Orfield, 2011). With America needing to fill nine million new STEM jobs by 2020, failing to tap into this resource would be unwise. Organizations have knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that either stand in the way or help address the gender representation issue within STEM. Important knowledge needed to address gender representation issues by organizational stakeholders includes an understanding of the aspects within STEM that engage teenage females’ interest, as well as the specific barriers to female participation in STEM. Motivationally speaking, organizational stakeholders must also have both self-efficacy, expectancy, and value aimed at creating greater representation of females in STEM to be successful in changing the current paradigm. Lastly, organizations face cultural models of gender stereotypes and cultural settings such as goal prioritization and goal communication that either facilitate or inhibit their ability to provide access for females. Importance of the Evaluation With continued growth over the past eight years, the Association is currently positioned to both help address the STEM gender gap and help fill some of the nine million STEM career opening projected by 2022. Females comprise a majority of recently earned bachelor’s degrees (Beyer et al., 2003; National Science Board, 2010), and continued exposure to STEM through the Association’s cybersecurity high school and junior high competition increases the likelihood of students’ pursuing a STEM career (Faitar & Faitar, 2013). It was important to evaluate the Association’s progress toward achieving this performance goal for a variety of reasons. First, the program is still in its infancy, and it needs to continue to grow to keep its funding. Funding ensures that the program can continue to educate and expose elementary and secondary GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 17 education students to the field of cybersecurity within STEM. Also, exposure to STEM programs in elementary and secondary schools increases the likelihood of students pursuing a STEM career (Faitar & Faitar, 2013). The Association’s successfully attaining its goal of engaging 35,000 students annually, with 35% of the participants being female, could help close the gender gap in computer science and engineering. This evaluation study was important for the Association as it helped identify current strengths and gaps regarding its efforts in recruiting female participants to its extracurricular cybersecurity program. Description of Stakeholder Groups While there are many stakeholders with a vested interest in the success of the Association’s cybersecurity program, including parents of participating students, funding sponsors of the program, teacher/coaches, STEM education experts, and support departments within the Association, three stakeholder groups directly affect the success or failure of the program’s performance goals: Association’s program staff, Association leadership, and students. The program staff are the frontline employees who directly affect the achievement of the goals listed above. Their day-to-day job functions include creating the competition platform and program, responding to participant technical inquiries in a timely and professional manner, fielding and answering coach inquiries into the program and educating new coaches, and creating the user interface and cybersecurity educational product. Adequate performance of these job functions can increase user satisfaction and in turn promote increased participation, which helps the organization achieve its goals. The Association’s leadership play a major role in helping the Association’s cybersecurity program achieve its goals. First, they are the personnel who hold the program staff accountable for the goals they have created; with the organization’s long-term vision and strategy in mind, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 18 they track these long-term goals. Lastly, they help cultivate relationships with key stakeholders nationwide and promote the cybersecurity competition, as well expand the program’s sponsorship pool. Student participants make up the third major stakeholder group; they are both users of and ambassadors for the cybersecurity program. Students come from various backgrounds including, economical, geographical, social, and racial demographics to name a few. Continuation of the program is predicated on the continued participation by students as well as by peer referrals; word of mouth can be a strong marketing tool for any organization, and as such the Association relies on both student and teacher referrals for growth. Stakeholder Group for the Study While the success and continuation of the Association’s cybersecurity program does rely on the integrated efforts of all stakeholders, evaluating the program support staff was imperative as they constitute the key stakeholder for the entire program; without their efforts, all other efforts by stakeholders would fail. Therefore, the stakeholder focus for this study was each member of the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff. The stakeholders’ goals are to increase the number of females participating in the program and increase the percentage of female participants to 25% by January 31, 2019. To achieve this goal, the program support staff must periodically communicate current team and student registration numbers, publish a registration report for the Association’s leadership, sponsors, and program support team, and execute internal processes for developing and sustaining the cybersecurity program. These include managing the registration portal, responding to teacher and student concerns and questions, building competition scenarios, managing the competition and program timeline, and handing all other competition issues. Failure to execute necessary tasks and achieve the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 19 stakeholders’ will lead to a loss of sponsorship and funding for the program, and this loss will lead to the termination of the Association’s cybersecurity program. Purpose of the Project and Questions The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which the Association is meeting its goal of increasing the total number of female participants in the program and increasing the representation of female participants to 35% in the next five years; the analysis focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving these goals. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders of focus in this analysis were the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff. This included analyzing four main questions: 1. To what extent is the Association meeting its goal of increasing female participation in its program? 2. What are the Association’s cybersecurity program team’s knowledge and motivation related to increasing female participation in the program? 3. What are the interactions between the Association’s organizational culture and context and this knowledge and motivation? 4. What are the recommendations for female recruitment in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? Methodological Framework For this evaluation, the researcher employed the Clark and Estes gap analysis conceptual framework to analyze and assess the Association’s current performance goal of increasing female representation in its cybersecurity program. Having identified the both the Association’s business and individual performance goals, the gender gap within their program was analyzed GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 20 through a knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). A qualitative approach was utilized through a review of literature pertinent to this topic of study as well as of surveys and interviews. In Chapter 5 of this study, research-based solutions will be offered that are recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner. Organization of the Project Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the key concepts and terminology commonly found in discussions about female underrepresentation in STEM. The Association’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the review of the evaluation framework were provided. Chapter 2 provides a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of gender inequality, female underrepresentation in STEM and gender gaps within K-12 STEM will be addressed. Also outlined are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements to be examined. Chapter 3 details the methodology for participant selection and data collection and analysis. In Chapter 4, the data and results are described and analyzed. Chapter 5 provides recommendations for practice based on the data and the literature as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 21 Chapter 2: Review of Literature In this literature review, the researcher will examine the gender gap in the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program. The review begins with general research on female underrepresentation in American society. This is followed by an overview of female underrepresentation in STEM, accompanied with specific highlights of female underrepresentation in the K-12 space. The review will provide an in-depth discussion on cultural, systemic, and environmental issues that influence a lack of female participation in STEM. Following the general research literature, the review turns to the Clark and Estes gap analytic conceptual framework (2008), specifically the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on the Association’s ability to increase the number of female participants in its cybersecurity program. Gender Gaps Gender representation in American society is a result of the of the subcultures and historical precedents that have developed throughout time. To fully understand gender gaps in modern society, one must understand both the historical milestones relating to gender equity and the current state of gender equity throughout the nation. As such, in the following two sections are highlighted the history of the women’s rights movement and what has resulted from its efforts. This includes both the laws and declarations that have been made by the U.S. government in response to the women’s rights movement. These sections will act as a foundation for understanding gender gap issues in STEM. Historical Perspective Addressing gender representation gaps was part of American society long before Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton pioneered the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women’s GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 22 rights convention, in 1848 (Kern & McMillen, 2009). This convention produced the Declaration of Sentiments, a document that outlined the origins of the feminist movement geared toward creating gender equality in American society. It has been an uphill battle for more than a century, as many cultural and traditional gender norms have gone unchallenged (Parekh, 2011), and these societal attitudes toward gender roles affect gender distribution in occupations (Wooten, 1997). Since 1848, there have been great gains in the push for addressing gender inequality. The 19th Amendment was passed May 19, 1919, and granted women the right to vote (U.S. Const. amend. XIX). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act was passed to legally protect American citizens from gender discrimination in 1964 (H.R. 7152, 1964). Title IX of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 was passed to further gender equality within education (20 U.S. Code § 1681 – Sex, 1972). These events helped the 1970s become a period of unparalleled gender desegregation (Wooten, 1997). While American society has seen a dramatic increase in female achievement, especially in math and science (Corbett & Hill, 2015), gender differences are still apparent, and females continue to be underrepresented in STEM career fields, especially computer science and engineering (Nimmesgern, 2016). As females occupy only 29% of science and engineering occupations, with higher concentrations in life and social sciences, engineering and computer and mathematical science continue to lack gender equity (Anderson & Kim, 2006; Griffith 2010; Hill, Corbett, & Rose, 2010; Huang, Taddese, &Walter 2000; Kokkelenberg & Sinha, 2010; National Science Board, 2015; Shaw &Barbuti 2010). While much has been done in recent years to address gender issues in America, both current and historical societal attitudes affect gender roles in workplaces (Nimmesgern, 2016; Wooten, 1997). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 23 Current State of Gender Gaps in STEM Progress has been made in closing the STEM gender gap. Biology and the social sciences have been major contributors to increases in the number of females in STEM careers; within those fields, the female gender gap has closed or is closing. Since the turn of the century, women have earned half of all science bachelor’s degrees (Charlestson et al., 2014), are on par with their male counterparts in the health and biological science fields (Smyth & Nosek, 2015), and have become the majority of social scientists (Meiksins et al, 2016). The gap has closed faster in these areas as female interest has traditionally been more aligned with people-oriented fields (Su & Rounds, 2015) and the humanities and creative subjects (Stanko, Zhirosh & Krasnikhin, 2014). While the gap has been reduced or completely closed in areas such as the environmental and behavioral sciences, a large gap still exists in math-centered sciences such as computer science and engineering (National Science Board, 2015); males account for roughly 80% of the bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering, computing, and physics (Charleston et al., 2014) and 80% of computing doctoral degrees (McGrath Cohoon, Wu, & You, 2006). Within engineering itself, there is an unequal distribution between different subfields. For example, as of 2013 females constituted 33.8% of environmental engineers, 32.1% of biomedical engineers, 22.7% of chemical engineers, 17.5% of civil engineers, 10.7% of electrical/computer hardware engineers, and a mere 7.9% of mechanical engineers (Meiksins et al., 2016). It is important to note that progress has been made: As the total number of females in engineering from 1994 to 2013 grew from 22.9% to 29%. Thus, while female achievement and representation in the broader STEM field has grown significantly in the last decade, the hard science subjects including computer science and engineering are still lacking in major progress. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 24 The current global economy needs employees in STEM fields, and females can help fill those needs. The need to expand the STEM workforce has become increasingly pressing in the last 20 years (BLS, 2014; Xue & Larson, 2015), and in computer science for example, U.S. universities are on track to only produce half the of graduates needed to fill positions (Bottia et al., 2015). Therefore, for the United States to economically function as a nation, it would be advantageous to cultivate female interests in the hard STEM sciences to help fill those roles. Barriers and Facilitators in K-12 to Closing the STEM Gender Gap While progress has been made towards degreasing gender gaps within industries throughout America, gender representation continues to be an issue. Specifically, the industries of computer science and engineering have seen little progress toward increasing female representation. Because the issue has not been resolved, it is important to understand the barriers that still affect gender participation in STEM and the efforts that have been made to remedy the gender gap. As such, the following sections will highlight current barriers that still plague gender equity in STEM and methods that have been successfully utilized to increase female participation in STEM. These sections will provide further insight into the current state of the gender gap specifically within STEM. STEM Gender Gap Barriers There are certain subfields within STEM in which far less progress has been made in closing the achievement gap; these include engineering, computer science, and other math-heavy fields (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006; Meiksins et al., 2016; Smyth & Nosek, 2015). There are various impediments to the female pursuit of STEM within K-12 education, including insufficient exposure to STEM outside of school for females (Jones et al., 2000; Pan, Shehab, Foor, Trytten, & Walden, 2015), a lack of female participation in advanced math courses GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 25 (Master, Cheryan, & Meltzoff, 2016; Ellis, Fosdick, & Rasmussen, 2016; Stanko, Zhirosh, & Krasnikhin, 2014; Watt, Eccles, & Durik, 2006), low female self-efficacy regarding STEM subjects (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014), and negative societal stereotypes regarding women in STEM (Bottia et al., 2015; Jones et al., 2000; Master et al., 2016; Smyth & Nosek, 2015; Stanko et al., 2014). The first barrier females face in closing the STEM gender gap is a lack of exposure to STEM experiences outside of school. Jones et al. (2000) noted that females continue to have fewer extracurricular experiences related to the physical sciences than do their male counterparts. Those authors focused on examining gender differences in extracurricular experiences, interest, and attitudes among 427 sixth-graders from rural, urban, and suburban schools around southeastern United States; the extracurricular experiences available to young girls tended to be focused on biology, animal sciences, and social sciences. Jones et al. (2000) also noted that the experiences available to both females and males are expressions of the cultures in which the youth live (p.190). Even when females are presented with the opportunity and choose to participate in extracurricular activities focused on the hard sciences, they still face determents that dissuade their persistence with these activities. These deterrents include a lack of leadership opportunities for young females within those extracurricular activities, the need to prove advanced skill within these areas to fit in with male counterparts, and the need to develop male allies within those activities to gain male acceptance (Pan et al., 2015). A second barrier to female participation in the hard STEM subjects is advanced math courses. Researchers have attributed the lack of females within the broader STEM workforce to their underrepresentation in specific milestones along STEM career pathways, with math courses such as calculus being some of these milestones (Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014; Watt et al, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 26 2006). Watt et al. (2006) labeled math courses a critical filter, noting a significant decrease in females as the courses become more advanced. Using an expectancy-value model, the authors focused their five-year longitudinal study on analyzing samples from southeast Michigan to determine why girls progressively opt out of math-related studies and careers. They noted that motivation for females to continue in advanced math courses is affected by expectancy and value; specifically, females are less likely to associate advanced math skills with long-term personal value. Furthermore, researchers have found that females are 1.5 times more likely to leave STEM after calculus, are less willing to work with numbers, report a lack of understanding regarding math, and see a greater drop in mathematical confidence during a semester than their male counterparts (Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014). While calculus seems to be the primary stopping point in the female pursuit of STEM, there is gradual drop-off in young females’ progress through math courses throughout their academic careers (Watt et al., 2006). According to Ellis et al. (2016), the main culprit in the female separation from math is more lack of confidence than lack of ability. Beyond math, females on average tend to believe that they lack the aptitude to do well in hard STEM fields in general. Stanko et al. (2014) noted a tendency for females to perceive that they lacked aptitude regarding STEM. Utilizing focus group interviews of females involved in extracurricular informational technology (IT) activities in school, the authors conducted a qualitative research study to explore the reasons girls with an interest in IT in secondary education failed to pursue IT as a career. Stanko et al. observed that STEM subjects tend to be highly competitive and that parental pressures to choose more family-friendly careers, the girls’ fear of failure, and gender stereotypes all kept females from pursuing STEM (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Stanko et al., 2014). Self-efficacy plays an important role in females’ pursuit of the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 27 harder STEM subjects, and while females may prepare diligently, their lack of confidence hinders their progress in these courses even when they perform as well as their male counterparts (Faitar & Faitar, 2013). Lastly, the hard STEM subjects such as engineering and computer science have been widely perceived as male fields, which in turn has led to societal stereotypes and expectations such that males receive more encouragement from parents, peers, school leaders, and others to pursue these careers (Bottia et al., 2015; Smyth & Nosek, 2015; Stanko et al., 2014). As noted by Smyth and Nosek (2015), these stereotypes are implicit and affect the perceptions, performance, and decisions of both males and females who lack awareness. These authors tested explicit and implicit gender stereotyping in STEM by analyzing the participation of 176,935 individuals on a public website known as Project Implicit. They found that areas of STEM in which there were lower numbers of females, such as computer science and engineering, showed stronger gender stereotypes in those fields. Smyth and Nosek also uncovered implicit stereotypes while parents toured science museum exhibits with their children; they observed that parents more often directed spontaneous science explanations toward their sons than toward their daughters. These stereotypes can produce far-reaching consequences such as stalling girls’ early math development or spurring bias or derogatory attitudes towards females who pursue field within the hard STEM sciences, and they could influence girls’ interest in these science subjects as well as their accomplishments and persistence (Smyth & Nosek, 2015; Stanko et al., 2014). It is also useful to note that the middle school years are a volatile time when the different attitudes toward in gender achievement in STEM start to cause the gap to widen (Jones et al., 2000). Master et al. (2016) conducted two experiments investigating whether stereotypes in the field of computer science influence high school females’ interest in the subject. The authors also tested whether GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 28 those stereotypes could be communicated through the high school classroom. Their research highlighted that even when young females take advanced math classes in high school, the stereotypes about people who participate in STEM subjects result in women’s self-selecting out of the field. Even more, Master et al. concluded that computer science classrooms make these stereotypes salient to young females, resulting in females’ avoidance of computer science for fear that they do not belong. It is perceived that these occupations are for males who do not have a problem with social isolation and are born with a measure of brilliance in the subject. This is a daunting stigma about STEM and could create doubt in many people, in particular in underrepresented populations throughout American society. Societal stigmas and pressure provide a host of barriers to female STEM success. Implicit messages sent to girls by parents and other adults reinforce the idea that STEM is a male field, which leads to social isolation for females who pursue topics such as computer science and engineering. Societal stigmas and pressures lead to fear and anxiety for females. As the middle school years are typically the years when girls’ interest in STEM begins to decrease, young girls are unprepared to deal with the fear and anxiety they encounter. Recruiting Young Women into STEM The STEM gender gap has been narrowed in the past 20 years as researchers, organizations, and society have begun to identify influences that lead to the successful recruitment of females into engineering and computer science (Meiksins et al., 2016). These include female exposure to STEM through middle and high school extracurricular activities (Jones et al., 2000; Pan et al., 2015) and encouragement from teachers, guidance counselors, and parents (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Faitar & Faitar, 2013; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). Scaled implementation of the above efforts, accompanied with new and innovative efforts to increase GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 29 female participation in STEM, can provide more access to well-paying quality careers for this traditionally underserved population within American society (Jones et al., 2000). Middle and high school extracurricular STEM activities are important in creating confidence, developing the skills students need to excel in STEM, and developing the career connections needed to succeed in STEM (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Jones et al., 2000; Pan et al., 2015). In a recent study conducted by Bystydzienski et al. (2015), 82% of the high school- aged aged females reported that they knew little or nothing regarding the engineering field or what an engineer does and had never considered engineering a career possibility. The authors’ seven-year longitudinal study involved analyzing 131 high-achieving young women who participated in extracurricular engineering activities in high school and their career trajectories after STEM exposure. The authors concluded that cultivating young females’ participation in extracurricular programs in which they are exposed to STEM fields is imperative in encouraging them to pursue the physical sciences. Unfortunately, as Pan et al. (2015) noted, female participation in extracurricular STEM programs is low. Activities such as attending monthly informational meetings directed at young females, attending career fairs, meeting engineers, and visiting engineering schools and workplaces have influenced young females to become more eager to learn more about STEM (Bystydzienski et al., 2015). Another influencer of female participation in STEM programs is parents, teachers, and guidance counselors. These stakeholders comprise much of the social support in a young female’s life and provide the encouragement that motivates young females to persist in pursuing STEM fields (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). Bystydzienski et al. (2015) highlighted that this type of social support, rather than a lack of academic preparation, kept females from pursuing STEM. They also observed that young females’ sense of belonging influenced their decisions to GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 30 choose educational and career paths other than STEM, and those who did not perceive support from parents, teachers and guidance counselors felt they did not belong in STEM. The gender gap in STEM is a complex phenomenon. Historical events have had major implications on the current state of female representation in traditionally male-dominated fields. While there has been much progress in closing the gender gap within many areas of STEM such as the environmental and behavioral sciences, the fields of engineering and computer science still face a severe lack of female representation. Beyond understanding the literature presented, the Association’s program staff must also be aware of the knowledge, motivational, and organizational characteristics of their own workplace that support or deter their efforts to address the lack of female participants in their own program. The Framework For this evaluation, the researcher employed the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic conceptual framework to analyze and assess the Association’s current performance goal of decreasing the gender gap within its program. The framework is a systematic data-driven method for identifying and diagnosing organizational performance gaps. The process begins by clarifying organizational and stakeholder performance goals and then identifying the gaps between actual performance and the identified goals. Specifically, the framework uses stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as the key areas that may affect performance gaps. By examining these areas, practitioners can utilize research-based guidelines to support organizational change (Clark & Estes, 2008). Stakeholder knowledge can be framed into four types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). These are used to analyze a stakeholder’s understanding of how to achieve performance goals. Motivation influences consist of the reasons behind stakeholder actions taken toward GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 31 organizational goals ( Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003). These include the things people value in their work, their desire to complete the tasks required of them, the types of goals people orient themselves toward, and their persistence with goal achievement (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011; Yough & Anderman, 2006). Motivational principles such as expectancy, value, and self-efficacy can be considered when analyzing performance gaps (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Finally, other organizational influences on stakeholder performance considered throughout this study are work processes, resources, and workplace culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). Each of these elements of Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework will be addressed below in terms of the Association’s program staff knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to meet their performance goal of increasing the number of female participants in their cybersecurity program by April 2021. In the first section, the author explores the knowledge and skill assumed influences on stakeholder performance. Next, motivational influences on the attainment of the stakeholder goal will be considered. Finally, assumed organizational influences on achieving the goal will be examined. Each component will then be analyzed through the methodology discussion in Chapter 3. Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Knowledge and Skills When analyzing the Association’s goal of increasing both the number and percentage of females participating in their program, it is important to understand underlying knowledge and skills needed by programmatic staff; skills and knowledge have been identified as critical components of analyzing performance objectives (Clark & Estes, 2008). To enhance the acquisition of knowledge and skills within the workplace, leaders should use both individual and GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 32 group scaffolding techniques (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009), as well as manipulate instruction to the needs of individual learners to achieve their organizational goals (Mayer, 2011). Knowledge influences. The knowledge and skills necessary for the success of the Association’s cybersecurity program include understanding the aspects of STEM that spark female interest (Schraw & Lehman, 2009) and the barriers the impede females from pursuing STEM (Jones et al., 2000; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006; Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006). In the next sections of this analysis, a review of literature related to the gender gap in STEM and tied to the knowledge and skills listed above will be provided. This is important as it highlights the roles of both knowledge and skills in the lack of female representation in STEM. Aspects of STEM that engage teenage females’ interest. When addressing the gender gap with in STEM, the ability for the Association’s program team to build on the current interests of young women and connect those interests to STEM could result in increased female participation in their programs as well as pursuit of eventual STEM careers. Therefore, understanding how interest plays a role in young females’ decisions to pursue STEM programs should be taken into consideration. Schraw and Lehman (2009) highlight that building on an individual’s interest can increase learning and motivation regarding a given subject. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) expound on the complexities of interest by highlighting the differences between two types of interest, situational and personal. They describe situational interest as spontaneous, transitory, and influenced by one’s environment; this initial interest is often the type one experiences when engaging in a new activity. For the Association’s program team, situational interest could be cultivated by student or teacher referrals, or simply by new learners’ exposure to cybersecurity. There is a need to facilitate the transition from situational interest to long-term motivation, which is also known as personal interest. Schraw and McCrudden describe GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 33 personal interest as an internal interest that is less spontaneous and that can cultivate long-term mastery of a topic. It is important for the Association’s program staff to be able to cultivate personal interest among their female participants for continued engagement in their program offerings. This would also increase the likelihood that these participants will encourage other females to engage with the Association’s program. Barriers to female participation in STEM. As the Association’s program team pursues increasing female participation in their program, it is advantageous that they also understand the barriers that have impeded females from pursuing STEM subjects in the past; this knowledge will help them avoid pitfalls that have traditionally affected STEM programs. These barriers include a lack of role models in STEM (Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006), gender stereotyping (Jones et al., 2000), and female expectations of success in STEM fields (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). Each barrier is complex and poses a different challenge to STEM programs. The first major barrier that affects female participation in STEM is the lack of role models for young females in the industry. This is problematic because learning is more likely to be successful if role models reflect one’s gender (Meiksins et al., 2016). As males comprise 85% of engineering and 74% of computer and mathematical science professionals (National Science Board, 2015), there is simply not enough gender representation in the field to support young girls. Kamphorst et al. (2015) suggested that developing strong positive relationships with same- sex mentors correlates to persistence in STEM. To combat this barrier, the Association’s staff must foster opportunities for young females to see their gender represented within the program. Increasing the recruitment of female teachers and coaches to the program would be beneficial for inciting young female interest. The Association staff should also look to facilitate interactions between female participants and successful females in STEM careers. This could cultivate GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 34 confidence in young females as they identify with successful role models in STEM (Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006). Cultural beliefs and stigmas have been identified as another barrier to addressing the underrepresentation of females in STEM (Charles & Bradley, 2006; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). Within modern culture, gender stereotyping has been a major problem, and it continues to discourage female participation in STEM. For example, Leslie, Cimpian, Meyer, and Freeland (2015) identified a cultural belief that women “lack the natural talent” to excel in STEM. This perception has been fueled by the variance in math achievement between males and females. While female math attainment has increased over the past two decades, it has not been sufficient to fundamentally change the societal view of female STEM ability (Meiksins et al., 2016). Historically, women have also tended to value math less than their male counterparts, which in turn has led to lower math achievement and lower interest in entering careers that involve math (Wang, Degol, and Ye, 2015). Jones et al. (2000) assessed that female math achievement and lack of extracurricular STEM opportunities available to females are the result of the values and attitudes of a larger culture. Gender stereotyping has resulted in many negative experiences for females who persist in STEM programs and careers (Meiksins et al., 2016) such as discrimination, sexist behavior, and uncomfortable environments caused by gender imbalance on teams (Koch et al., 2014; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006; Meiksins et al., 2016). For the Association’s program to be successful in increasing the percentage of female participation, staff must cultivate a programmatic culture that is accepting of females, challenges cultural stereotypes, and fosters gender-balanced team composition. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 35 The final barrier that is discussed in this literature review is female expectations of success in STEM. This barrier is a result of the lack of female role models in STEM and gender stereotyping caused by larger cultural influences. What is interesting about female expectations of success in STEM is that they decrease with age (Watt et al., 2006). In the primary years, females exhibit similar expectations of their ability to perform in STEM subjects. It is in the middle school years when gender differences in attitudes and achievement typically begin to widen (Jones et al., 2000). As the pressures of social norms begin to influence both females and males in puberty, cultural stereotyping begins affected women regarding their self-confidence in relation to STEM. Wynarczyk and Ebrary (2006) noted that personal barriers to female expectations of success are a result of a lack of self-confidence and self-esteem. To facilitate female success within STEM, the Association’s cybersecurity program staff must cultivate self-efficacy and self-confidence in the program’s female participants. Research has highlighted that positive prior experience and encouraging adults, and confidence in math abilities are predictors of female success in STEM (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). Program staff can support high expectations among female participants by highlighting the importance of STEM, ensuring that the program is relevant and useful to female participants (Pintrich, 2003), female teachers’ and coaches’ modeling enthusiasm and interest in STEM (Eccles, 2006), and ensuring that the people who facilitate the program are culturally appropriate and can foster positive views of females in STEM (Pajares, 2006). Table 1 presents the two knowledge influences identified in this literature review related to the Association’s organizational mission and global and stakeholder goals. The Association’s organizational mission is to deliver a high- quality national cybersecurity program that reaches the broadest possible student population defined by age range and physical demographics. Its global goal is to expand the cybersecurity GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 36 competition to 35,000 annual participants and increase female participation in the cybersecurity program to 35% in the next five years, and the stakeholder goal is to register a total of 16,000 students by January 31, 2018, with an increase of female participation to 25% of that total. Table 1 Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment Knowledge Influence What knowledge does the Association’s team need to achieve its goal? Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment The Association’s program staff need to understand the aspects of STEM that spark the interest of young females. Declarative (Conceptual) Interview questions focused on understanding the program staff’s knowledge of motivational influences for female participation in STEM. The Association’s program staff need to understand the Barriers that impede females from pursuing STEM. Declarative (Factual) Surveying program staff on the barriers that impede females from pursuing STEM. Interview questions focused on understanding the program staff’s knowledge of barriers to female participation in STEM. The Association’s program staff must understand how to recruit young females. Declarative (Metacognitive) Interview questions aimed at understanding program staff’s perceptions of why young girls participate in their program. Interview questions focused on understanding the program staff’s knowledge of motivational influences on female participation in STEM. Motivation Influences Motivation is another important component of organizational success. The Association’s goals are largely dependent on program staff’s motivation to achieve its goals. Researchers have described motivation as what explains people’s actions, what people want, whether they can and GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 37 want to complete required tasks, and their goal directions (Yough & Anderman, 2006). Each of these influences affects an individual’s efforts toward achieving a goal. Understanding motivational influences is important, and the Association’s leaders can utilize academic research to understand how to effectively motivate program staff toward successful global goal achievement. Two motivational theories stand out as major influences for the Association: expectancy-value theory (EVT) and self-efficacy theory. EVT is important in that it relates to two major themes regarding the motivation of the program staff: Do they expect to increase female participation in the cybersecurity program, and do they value increasing female participation? Self-efficacy theory is defined as self-perceptions of an individual’s capabilities (Pajares, 2006), or in this case, the program staff’s basic beliefs in their ability to increase female participation. The next sections of this literature review will provide an overview of these motivation-related influences that are pertinent to the Association’s goal of increasing female participation in STEM. Expectancy-value theory. Per Eccles (2006), EVT comprises two components: an individual’s expectations for success and what is known as utility value. Expectations for success can be distilled to the essential question of whether one expects to accomplish a given goal? Utility value, meanwhile, is the value that one attaches to achieving the goal (Eccles, 2006). The theory suggests that individuals are most likely to be fully engaged in an activity if they believe they can perform the activity well and they value doing so. There are four principles to cultivating motivation based on EVT: highlighting the importance of a task (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003), offering learners choice and control over aspects of their work (Eccles, 2006), modeling high expectations and fostering confidence in staff by organizational leaders, and providing opportunities for individuals to successfully GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 38 complete difficult tasks (Borgogni, Dello Russo, & Latham, 2011). In the following section, each of these principles will be discussed and applied to the Association. Nonprofit expectations and values. The first principle is to increase motivation by increasing utility value among program staff regarding activities that are aimed at increasing female participation. Leaders can, and should, highlight the importance of these activities (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). This would require educating program staff on the importance of increasing female participation with STEM and on how the cybersecurity program plays a role in this. This is known as a sense-making mechanism, which helps facilitate a positive view of individual’s workplace activities (Consiglio, Borgogni, Tecco, & Schaufeli, 2016). The second principle program leaders can utilize to increase workplace motivation is to provide program staff choice and control over certain aspects of their work (Eccles, 2006). This can include where they perform their jobs, what methods they use to perform assigned tasks, and, to some extent, the types of activities that are assigned to them. Consiglio et al. (2016) that work relationships and motivation improve when individuals’ exercise control over their own environments. The last principle in creating positive motivation through EVT is providing opportunities for individuals to successfully complete difficult tasks (Consiglio et al., 2016). When program staff members are assigned items that are not normally entrusted to them, they begin to perceive confidence from their leaders, which in turn positively influences their motivation (Eccles, 2006). Within the Association’s team, employees must be challenged with assignments and tasks that stretch them beyond their current abilities. This allows for program staff to accomplish tasks they have never accomplished before, thus further facilitating confidence in their abilities. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 39 Cultivating self-efficacy within an organization can also energize employee persistence in the workplace, and this persistence is beneficial for completing difficult tasks. Building confidence through challenging tasks creates improvements at the individual level, as well as proactively developing the social work environment (Consiglio et al., 2016). By cultivating the development of self-efficacy through challenging tasks, Association program leaders can develop a culture of persistence within the organization as well as develop persistence in pursuing the organizational goal of increasing female participation in the program. Self-efficacy theory. Originating from Albert Bandura’s (1986) work surrounding social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is defined as individuals’ beliefs in their capacities to learn or perform at various levels of proficiency. It is different from EVT because it focuses on beliefs in ability alone, not necessarily beliefs regarding the consequences resulting from one’s behavior (Pajares, 2006). These beliefs are important as they have been positively tied to motivation (Bandura, 1986,, 1997; Pajares, 2006). Pajares (2006) noted that self-efficacy affects individuals through the choices they make, how much effort they expend on an activity, and their thought patterns and emotional reactions. Applying self-efficacy theory within an organization can be beneficial for facilitating progress toward achieving organizational goals. Research indicates that facilitating deliberate practice in the workplace can cultivate skill acquisition and in turn improve motivation (Anders- Ericsson, 2008; Duckworth, 2016). Deliberate practice is defined as creating close, concrete, and challenging goals, and self-efficacy can often be cultivated through the use of deliberate practice in conjunction with providing timely feedback to individuals (Duckworth, 2016; Pajares, 2006). The section below will provide an overview of the application of each of these strategies and their relationship to the Association’s program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 40 Nonprofit self-efficacy. Deliberate practice in the nonprofit world requires that individuals refine their performance through deliberate effort beyond their current levels of performance (Anders Ericsson, 2008). This requires leaders to scaffold and structure environments to the individual needs of their employees. It places the focus on progress in individuals’ personal improvement rather than on comparing individuals with their peers (Pajeres, 2006). In focusing on personal improvement, leaders create clear structure and expectations for organization staff. This is beneficial because minimizing social comparisons can increase engagement and motivation (Bandura, 1997). Organization leaders for the Association should look for avenues to create individualized goals for each of the program staff members that challenge their current ability levels. Experiencing success when performing a difficult task can result in higher self-efficacy among program staff, which in turn can lead to higher motivation toward increasing female participation in the cybersecurity program. Anders Ericsson (2008) notes that providing feedback is an important aspect of cultivating deliberate practice and self-efficacy. He suggests that beyond leaders’ providing verbal feedback, learners should be provided with ample opportunities for practice and gradual refinement of their skills. This is yet another way to provide feedback, as learners will gain experiential feedback from struggling with challenges. Hetzner, Heid, and Gruber (2015) supported this by highlighting that actual work being performed within an organization is an important source of workplace challenge. Pajares (2006) noted that while mere feedback is important, it needs to be persuasive to lead to encouragement and empowerment. Leaders must be aware that negative persuasion can cause defeat and a weakening of self-efficacy. The Association’s leaders should look to cultivate deliberate practice and self-efficacy through persuasive feedback that empowers GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 41 program staff to tackle organizational challenges. Table 2 shows the two motivational influences identified in this literature review and their applicability to the Association. Table 2 Assumed Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessment Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment Self-Efficacy: The Association’s program staff need to believe they are capable of increasing the number of females who participate in their cybersecurity program. Survey and interviews questions focused on understanding individual program staff member’s beliefs regarding their expectation of achieving the organizational goal of decreasing the STEM gender gap. Expectancy and Value: The Association’s program staff need to believe in the importance of increasing the number of females who participate in their cyber security program. Survey and interviews questions focused on understanding individual program staff member’s beliefs regarding their individual ability to help increase the number of females participating in the cybersecurity program. Organizational Influences The organization itself is the final performance influencer that will be highlighted in this literature review. As Clark and Estes (2008) noted, organizational factors can prevent any organization from achieving stated goals regardless of employee motivation, skill, or knowledge. The focus of this section will be on the aspects of organization culture that influence the Association’s progress toward decreasing the STEM gender gap in their K-12 cybersecurity program. Culture is defined as the conscious and unconscious understanding of what is valued, how and why things are done a certain way, and what an organization stands for (Clark & Estes, 2008). Culture can be broken down into two main influencers, cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models reflect the broader societal norms and beliefs that influence every aspect of an organization (Schein, 2004); examples of cultural models include religion, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 42 nationality, gender, and ethnic background (Fryberg & Markus, 2007). Cultural settings differ because they comprise the micro aspects of a specific organization such as processes, material resources, and subcultures (Schein, 2004). Both cultural models and cultural settings form the overall organizational culture, and that culture influences the achievement of identified goals. Cultural models. Cultural models are the societal norms, beliefs, and attitudes that affect an organization. These macro influencers come from outside an organization and help construct the values deemed important by internal individuals, the meaning individuals make from a phenomenon, and the beliefs on which individuals center their decisions (Kezar, 2001). The major cultural model that influences the Association is American culture and gender, specifically, American beliefs, values, and perceptions of gender equity. The model that is discussed in this study is gender stereotypes within American culture that affect individual attitudes and beliefs about gender equity. Gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are a constant in society and have been prolonged through biases that have cultivated professional cultures that are highly segmented based on gender (Aaltio-Marjosola, 1994). As early as the late 1980s, Albert Mills (1988) began to note how classic organizational studies misrepresented organizational issues related to gender. For example, in studies of alienation in the workplace, female discontent was often attributed to biological reasons or family circumstances rather than being identified as legitimate feelings of alienation, and for decades, these misattributions were held as truths. While society has begun to resolve them, the workplace is still full of such biases that negatively affect females (Aaltio- Marjosola, 1994). Predominant gender stereotypes in the workplace hold that women are less ambitious, less competent, and less competitive than their male counterparts (Rudman & Phelan, 2008), and GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 43 the negative effects from this alone are many. These beliefs lead to a lack of female access to leadership positions, as well as negative reactions to female authority when women do reach levels of power (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Within STEM specifically, masculinity is viewed as a needed dominant trait and therefore creates a gender disparity within the field (Kiefer & Sekaquaptewa, 2007; Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002; Nosek & Smyth, 2011). These stereotypes can propagate gender biases within the workplace because they exist at both implicit and explicit levels of the human psyche. Because macro-cultural influences such as gender stereotypes can undermine organizational goals, it is important that the Association ensure that gender stereotypes and biases are eliminated from within the organization to ensure that individuals, teams, and organization subcultures are facilitating the achievement of decreasing the STEM gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program. It is important that program staff expect females to have the attributes and abilities to perform well in the STEM field. Cultural settings. Cultural settings, as briefly described above, include organizational components of culture such as the work environment, group culture within an organization, and procedural and material management. These all directly affect the day-to-day workings of an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Two cultural settings stand out as major influences on the Association’s goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program: goal prioritization and goal communication. Goal prioritization is defined as managing progress and resource allocation directed toward competing goals within an organization (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Because decreasing the gender gap is merely one of many organizational goals for the Association, individual staff members must prioritize which goals receive the bulk of their attention. Goal communication also influences the Association’s achievement of its goals GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 44 because program staff must understand the importance that Association leaders place on decreasing the gender gap. Goal prioritization. Modern organizations, attempting to engineer efficiency and accomplish more with less, have multiple priorities and goals that often conflict with one another (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007), and the Association is no different. Beyond its goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program, the Association is also attempting to increase the total number of participants in the program, increase the number of disadvantaged participants such as inner-city minorities, and expand the program overseas; meanwhile, the program team oversees planning, managing, and executing the cybersecurity program every year beyond recruiting participants. With limited resources and time, program staff members must make difficult decisions regarding the attention, resources, and time they allocate to each of these competing goals (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). To better understand the extent of the Association’s success toward achieving the goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program, we must evaluate the organizational influences that determine how employees decide to allocate finite time and resources. Schmidt and DeShon (2007) noted several factors that influence how one prioritizes the allocation of resources, attention, and time among competing goals, including the current progress toward goal, incentive structures related to each goal, and the amount of time remaining for an individuals to complete each goal. The first factor entails examining the current progress toward achieving each goal, related to what is known as goal-performance discrepancy or GPD. GPD refers to the discrepancies between defined goals and their actual attainment (Donovan & Hafsteinsson, 2006). In the context of managing multiple divergent goals, GPD has been analyzed to identify how individuals address discrepancies among competing goals. One major GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 45 influencer of GPD is the loss looms larger effect, which states that losses are weighted more heavily than equivalent gains in decision-making (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). In accordance with the loss looms larger effect, research highlights that when all else is equal, individuals are more likely to focus on goals with the greatest discrepancy in attainment (Freitas, Liberman, Salovey, & Higgins, 2002; Higgins, 1997; Higgins, Shah, & Friedman, 1997; Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Therefore, one component that may affect attention, time, and resources devoted toward decreasing the STEM gender GAP in the Association’s cybersecurity program is the extent to which the Association is making progress on completing that goal compared with other goals. As noted by Jenkins, Mitra, Gupta, and Shaw (1998), incentives tied to goal performance can be potent motivators for achieving desired results. As common sense would dictate, when imbalances in the incentives associated with competing goals are apparent, individuals tend to focus on the goals associated with incentives at the expense of the unrewarded goals (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Therefore, it is important to examine the incentive structure related to the Association’s goal of decreasing the STEM gender gap and how that compares with all the Association’s other organizational goals and incentives. This will help in better understanding how the Association’s program staff prioritizes the STEM gender gap goal. It is also important to evaluate the incentives tied to organization goals because research has highlighted that discrepancies in incentives influence recourse allocation, which in turn leads to progress discrepancies among different goals and future resource allocation (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Lastly, it is necessary to consider time and the role it plays in how organization goals are prioritized. There is has been little research on the influence of time on goal prioritization, but Schmidt and DeShon (2007) have provided the beginnings for understanding these effects. Their research has identified two different relationships between time and goal prioritization. In the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 46 early stages of making progress toward a goal, individuals first tend to allocate more resources to whichever goal has the biggest discrepancy; this, however, does not continue as time passes. As deadlines near, individuals tend to allocate more resources to whichever goal or task has the smallest discrepancy. Therefore, as individuals get closer to deadlines, they tend to focus more resources and efforts on the goals that can be obtained (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Goal communication. Another imperative influence on organizational performance is communication. According to Berger (2014), employee performance is most greatly affected by the organizational variable of communication. He noted that communication affects many aspects of organizations including employee engagement, trust, and retention as well as the onboarding, change management, and branding. This is not a new phenomenon: Roethisberger and Dickson (1939) found that informed employees felt more involved and valued in their organizations, and this led to improved performance. While it may sound like common sense, organizations still encounter communication issues that deter employees from being successful and in turn keep the organizations from achieving their stated goals. In a recent study, one- quarter of employees do not trust their companies, and communication from leaders was a major influencer of this distrust (Weber, 2014). This was one of the more positive studies completed in recent years. Blessing and White (2011) found that fewer than 60% of employees felt their organizations did not model core values or communicate honestly with them. The Association’s goals will be best achieved if program staff clearly understand expectations and accountability regarding the gender gap in the cybersecurity program and receive honest communication from leaders in the organization. Communication is complex, and there are many ways to convey a message. These include face-to-face conversations, phone calls, email communications, visibility among GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 47 employees, actions taken by individuals within the organization, and organization processes and business documents to name a few (Berger, 2014). However, the modes of communication mentioned above are not sufficient to increase employee productivity alone. How leaders communicate is just as important as the modes of communication they use (Ballard & Seibold, 2004). Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002) described this as a culture of communication. Rather than merely utilizing modes of communication in any way, a culture of communication is participative and decentralized, and it promotes openness. Wenger’s (1998) communities of practice perspective supports a culture of communication through what is known as constitutive communication. In constitutive communication, there is mutual commitment and engagement to the communication process by all individuals involved. Cultures of communication and constitutive communication are important because they facilitate quality feedback and information to assist individuals and organizations in meeting their goals (Ballard & Seibold, 2004; Berger, 2014). By providing an environment that is conducive to open communication through cultures of communication and through constitutive communication, the Association can enhance its ability to decrease the STEM gender gap in their cybersecurity program. With this study, the researcher aimed to analyze the communication environment within the Association to better understand the role of communication in helping leaders achieve their goal of decreasing the gender gap in their cybersecurity program. In the attempt to execute and achieve identified goals, the Association faces a multitude of influences on the success of their efforts. These include cultural models such as gender stereotypes within American society, and cultural settings within the organization such as goal prioritization and communication. To maximize the Association’s leaders’ ability to achieve their desired goals, they should be practicing quality communication, supporting goal prioritization, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 48 and eliminating gender stereotypes and biases within the organization. In the next chapter, the researcher discusses the methods used to evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences described in this chapter that affect the Association’s ability to achieve its organizational goals (see Table 3). Table 3 Assumed Organizational Influences Assessment Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment Culture Setting Influence 1 Task Orientation: The Association’s program staff must juggle competing organizational goals. Other metrics may deter competition staff members’ focus on and dedication to increasing female participation. Survey questions to identify how many competing tasks and metrics program staff members have and where they rank decreasing the STEM gender gap among them. Cultural Setting Influence 2 The Association’s goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program will be best achieved if program staff receive clear communication regarding expectations and accountability for the goal. Survey and interview questions identifying how many female role models there are in the Association’s cybersecurity program, as well as questions directed toward understanding whether gender bias is being perpetuated within the program. Cultural Model Influence 1 Disparity between female and male staff perspectives on closing the gender gap in STEM may inhibit the effects of staff efforts to close the gap. Interview questions directed at understanding each program staff member’s perspective on his or her ability to close the gender gap. The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context Conceptual Framework Many mistakenly believe that a conceptual framework is merely a literature review (Maxwell, 2013): In fact, a conceptual framework provides structure, coherence, and scaffolding to a study. As all research is rooted in a question being asked, theory in naturally present (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). It was important to provide structure to this GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 49 research because there are many ways one can view the STEM gender gap. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described these as different lenses one can use to make sense of the question being asked. It is important to highlight that the lenses researchers use to conduct studies derive from four main sources: the researcher’s experiential knowledge, existing theory and research, pilot and exploratory research, and thought experiments (Maxwell, 2013). The research being conducted is highly influenced by the researchers, specifically their backgrounds, experiences and perceptions of the world. To begin, it is necessary to understand researchers’ disciplinary orientations. Disciplinary orientation is the socialized discipline from which the researcher hails, and it provides vocabulary, concepts, and theories for sense making (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this study, the researcher employed a conceptual framework that framed the relationships between the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on the organizational goal of decreasing the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program. The concepts, theories, and vocabulary that influenced this study were factual and conceptual knowledge about the STEM gender gap (Schraw & Lehman, 2009) and barriers that impede female participation in STEM (Jones et al., 2000; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006; Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006), expectancy-value theory (Eccles, 2006), self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Pajares, 2006), goal prioritization (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007), organizational communication (Berger, 2014), and the cultural model of gender stereotypes (Aaltio-Marjosola, 1994; Mills, 1988, Rudman & Phelan, 2008). While each has previously been presented alone as potential independent influences of the STEM gender gap, they do not act in isolation from each other. The conceptual framework helped to highlight their interactions and combined influences on the Association’s ability to address the gender gap in its cybersecurity program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 50 As illustrated in Figure 1, the framework for this study was that organizational culture settings and models have complex interactions with stakeholder knowledge and motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008), which in turn influences the Association’s ability to create change in its cybersecurity program. These interactions are reciprocal, and together they directly affect the Association’s achieving its goal of increasing female participation in the cybersecurity program from 23% to 35% in the next five years. As outlined in the figure, organizational influences have a major role in the outcomes of employee performance because the organization itself is the entity identifying the goals and driving employees toward their achievement. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 51 Figure 1. The knowledge, motivation, and organization conceptual framework for analyzing the Association’s efforts to achieve the goal of increasing female participation in its cybersecurity program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 52 In a similar way, the organization’s specific cultural settings of task prioritization and communication have a reciprocal relationship with stakeholder knowledge and motivation. For example, the way in which the Association facilitates and emphasizes it goal of decreasing the gender gap in it program against its other programmatic goals can influence both employee motivation to achieve that goal and employee desire to gain the knowledge necessary to do so (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Similarly, individual stakeholder knowledge about the STEM gender gap and motivation toward closing it can influence the organizational priority of that goal. Also, the way in which the Association facilitates communication and learning regarding the organizational goal of decreasing the gender gap can both support and detract from employees’ knowledge and motivation regarding achieving the goal (Berger, 2014). In the end, the combined influence of the interactions outlined above results in the effectiveness of the organization and its employees in achieving the organizational goal of decreasing the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program. Conclusion The STEM gender gap is a complex cultural issue that is deeply rooted in American history as well as in current American culture. While there has been a closure to the gap in recent years (Charleston et al., 2014), there are active barriers that still impede females from pursuing the hard STEM subjects of computer science and engineering. These include a lack of exposure for females to out-of-school STEM programs (Jones et al., 2000), female achievement in math (Watt et al., 2006), and societal gender stereotypes (Smyth & Nosek, 2015). For any organization to address these barriers and create change, internal knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences must be addressed (Clark & Estes, 2008). Specifically, knowledge is necessary GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 53 regarding the barriers impeding females from pursuing STEM and what sparks female interest in STEM for successfully closing the STEM gender gap. A review of the literature also identified expectancy, value (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003), and self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006) as important motivational concepts for helping organizations achieve their stated goals. Lastly, goal prioritization (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007), goal communication (Berger, 2014), and the broader cultural influence of gender stereotypes in America (Aaltio-Marjosola, 1994) are cultural settings and models that affect the achievement of organizational goals. To better understand the influence of the Association’s cybersecurity program on the STEM gender gap, it is first necessary understand how the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences noted above affect the Association’s achieving its goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 54 Chapter 3: Methods This study was performed to better understand the extent to which the Association’s program staff is able to recruit young females at a rate that will decrease the gender gap in its cybersecurity program. As such this study entailed evaluating the program to answer the following research questions: 1. To what extent is the Association meeting its goals of increasing female participation in its cybersecurity program? 2. What knowledge and motivation to the Association’s cybersecurity program team’s employees have related to increasing female participation in their program? 3. What are the interactions between the Association’s organizational culture and context and staff knowledge and motivation? 4. What are the recommendations for female recruitment in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? This chapter focuses on the research design and methodology for data collection and analysis, including an overview of the stakeholders for this study, survey and interview sampling strategies, data collection instruments, data analysis procedures, credibility and trustworthiness considerations, validity and reliability efforts and ethical considerations. Research Design This research was conducted as a qualitative evaluation study of a nationwide organization focused on supporting STEM education. The data collection strategies utilized were surveys and interviews to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the alignment and execution of the organization’s mission and programmatic outcomes. Because the cybersecurity team was the primary stakeholder group of this study, the surveys were designed to gauge their self- GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 55 efficacy, expectancy, value, and knowledge of barriers to recruiting females into their program. Program staff members were also interviewed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the roles of self-efficacy, expectancy, value in increasing female participation in the cybersecurity program, as well as to gain insights into organizational barriers that inhibit staff members’ ability to achieve their program goals. While the data alone cannot be employed to determine causality, the analysis may offer insight into the knowledge, motivation, and organizational practices that are necessary to increase female participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program. This study was inherently limited in that it could only reflect the experience of one organization in the K-12 STEM field and therefore its results cannot be generalized. Participating Stakeholders This study employed the two-tier sampling strategy developed by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). The first tier being sampled is the case, which is the Association’s cybersecurity program; this program was purposefully chosen, which means there was no random assignment (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It was chosen based on convenience: The Association is located near the researcher’s place of residence, and the researcher is specifically interested in the Association. The researcher was able contact the Association’s cybersecurity program head and gain permission to conduct the study. The second tier of sampling is used to identify who within the case will be studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this research, the group for study was the Association staff members who were specifically involved with executing the cybersecurity program and with the identified program goal of decreasing the STEM gender gap overall. Only eight individuals comprise the Association’s cybersecurity program team, and therefore, all eight individuals were both surveyed and interviewed. It was important to collect data from everyone who worked on GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 56 the program because each program staff member could provide a different perspective that was going to be valuable in understanding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational issues relating to achieving their goal of decreasing the STEM gender gap and increasing female participation specifically in the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program. Because the universe for the study was small, data needed to be collected from all involved in the organizational goal of increasing female participation in the program. Survey and Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale The study criteria for both the survey and the interviews were that participants had to be employed by the Association and specifically had to be staff members on the Association’s cybersecurity program team. Survey sampling. Surveys are beneficial for understanding a population’s knowledge, feelings, values, and behaviors (Fink, 2013). Surveys were employed for this study to better understand program staff knowledge regarding the barriers that impede females from pursuing STEM, the aspects of STEM that entice females, and the program staff members’ backgrounds and histories. In this study, all eight-program staff were surveyed because they constituted the entirety of the study’s population. Because the population was so small, gathering insights from all was imperative for understanding each research question. Therefore, a unique purposeful survey sample strategy was utilized. One survey was conducted, a self-administered questionnaire that was utilized in the initial stages of the study to gain a baseline understanding of program staff knowledge around the STEM gender gap, motivational influences on achieving their goal, and organizational barriers that could have affected their goal progress. The survey responses helped guide the other aspects of the study including in-depth interviews. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 57 Interview sampling. Surveys alone did not suffice in providing the data necessary to understand the program staff’s influence on the Association’s ability to achieve its goal. Therefore, the researcher also employed interviews to gather insights and understanding as well as a range of data survey responses alone could not provide (Krueger & Casey, 2009). As with the surveys, all eight-program staff were interviewed; gathering insights from all was imperative for understanding the range of opinions as well as any disparities. Interviews took place after the initial surveys and built from the survey responses. Data Collection and Instrumentation It is important to gather data from multiple sources in qualitative research to provide the clearest and most accurate understanding of the problem being studied (Maxwell, 2013). As such, this researcher employed both surveys and interviews to better understand the research questions posed in this study. Surveys aimed to gain a broad understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the Association’s cybersecurity program. The responses provided a baseline understanding of the program staff members’ knowledge, feelings, values, and behaviors (Fink, 2013). Interviews were then conducted to help in gaining a deeper understanding of these influences; interviews aimed to help validate or contradict survey responses that were gathered. Each tool provided data from a different research perspective, thus enhancing the validity of this study through triangulation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Surveys Because the aim of conducting this study was to understand the multiple influences on the problem of practice, including knowledge, motivation and organizational culture and context, surveys were utilized because they allowed for gathering large amounts of information both effectively and efficiently that were used to inform the researcher on a wide range of attitudes, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 58 opinions, and behaviors regarding the Association’s goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program (Irwin & Stafford, 2016). Surveys are also an integral part of society, and thus a tool that respondents were both familiar with and comfortable using. The survey was at the beginning of the data gathering phase to provide baseline data to inform other data gathering techniques. The survey was conducted in October 2017 to prepare for the interviews that were conducted throughout November and December of the same year. Utilizing Qualtrics surveying software, participants completed a survey consisting of 41 items. The first three items focused on acclimating the survey participants as well as gathering basic demographic data pertinent to the survey. This was followed by eight items regarding the participants’ knowledge of issues that affect female participation in STEM, 12 items on the participants’ self-efficacy of regarding closing the gender gap in their program, 16 items on expectancy and value regarding closing the gap, and two items on general motivation. Closed- ended questions were utilized for their ease of scoring, analysis, and interpretation; open-ended questions were not used because the participants were to be interviewed later in the study, and the interviews were their opportunities to express opinions in their own words with deeper explanations. The survey also employed different types of scales because the problem of practice being studied benefited from nominal scales to gain basic respondent information, ordinal scales to allow respondents to rate statements based on their beliefs and opinions, and interval scales to gain more precise data (Fink, 2013; Irwin & Stafford, 2016). Some survey questions were developed by modifying modern survey tools such as Schwarzer and Jerusalem’s (1995) general self-efficacy scale and Panchal, Adesope, and Malak’s (2012) framework based on EVT, while others were created solely by the researcher. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 59 One week before the survey was administered, potential respondents were notified of the survey via email to inform participants regarding the dates the surveys would be open and to provide general information about the study, including the purpose of the survey and the research questions. The email also informed participants of the voluntary nature of the surveys and their right to forgo participation in the survey. Respondents were then informed via email the day the survey was opened for completion and the duration the survey would be open. The survey was solicited through the Commissioner of the cybersecurity program to all the staff members who work on his team. There were two main concerns with utilizing surveying in this study. First, there was a concern that participants might be affected by social desirability bias and respond to the questions in a manner they thought the researcher wanted to hear. Gender gaps are a popular topic in society, and respondents might have wanted to give answers they felt would be more acceptable to the larger cultural climate of the nation rather than answering the questions based on their own personal views. To mitigate this possibility, interviews were also conducted for the study; the purpose of interviews was to allow the researcher to compare the survey responses to the interview responses for validity purposes. The researcher was also able to ask questions that allowed for a deeper understanding of the problem of practice. The researcher understood that surveys do not automatically lead to causality (Creswell, 2014), and therefore, the interviews were also performed to gain more data and shed further light on the problem of practice. Interviews Interviews were conducted with the Association’s cybersecurity program team over the span of two months in the fall of 2017. These were semi-structured interviews that were conducted in person and recorded with the permission of each participant; the interviews were GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 60 scheduled through an Association program employee. Each interview lasted from one to two hours. An overt approach was utilized throughout all data collection procedures in hopes that trust would be gained, and deeper responses elicited. The researcher utilized a semi-structured interview protocol to assist respondents in providing rich and detailed data for better understanding the study research questions. The semi-structured approach was determined to be the most useful because the questions were open ended and focused on specific topics including knowledge about the STEM gender gap, motivation to decrease the gender gap in the Association’s program, and cultural and organizational barriers to achieving the organization’s goals (Bogden & Biklen, 2007). There needed to be some structure to the interviews to ensure that data collected correlated to the research questions, but they were not completely structured because that would have limited the respondents’ ability to provide the researcher with insights he might not have had. Bogden and Biklen (2007) described this approach as a “guided conversation.” This allowed the researcher to gather quality data through open-ended questions focused on the problem of practice. Data Analysis Because qualitative data were collected for this study, qualitative data analysis techniques for both were utilized. After each survey had been submitted, frequencies and averages for each of the Likert-scale items were calculated. Then, memos were written after each interview utilizing the notes the researcher took during the interviews. These documented thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions. Each interview was transcribed and, following transcription, coded. In the first phase of analysis, the researcher used open coding, looking for empirical codes and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. These codes were highlighted and noted directly GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 61 on each of the transcribed interviews. In the second phase of analysis, the researcher aggregated the empirical and a priori codes into axial codes. Each axial code was compiled into a codebook, and Microsoft Excel was utilized to group the codes and compile them into trends. In the third phase of data analysis, the researcher identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual framework and study questions. Credibility and Trustworthiness Credibility is the extent to which data from a study reflect reality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, for a study’s findings to be credible, the researcher must link the findings to tangible real-world phenomena. Components of credibility include data trustworthiness, transferability, and triangulation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Trustworthiness refers to researchers’ ability to understand their role as the instrument including accounting for their biases (Maxwell, 2013). In light of this, this researcher constantly reflected on each piece of data collected throughout the study in order to be able to inform the reader of the complexity and context of data gathered; specifically, the researcher maintained a journal to document the choices made throughout the study. Research trustworthiness also reflects the researcher’s honesty. Honesty in this study can be seen in the extent to which the study’s methodology has been clearly communicated throughout this chapter and the context to which the findings are being generalized. This study was conducted on a small department within the Association. As such, the findings are not generalizable to a larger population but must be kept in the context of improving the Association’s cybersecurity program. As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted, research studies are rigorously conducted so that stakeholders may be able to act on their findings. Therefore, the findings need to be authentic, valid, and reliable. Because the researcher used a qualitative approach to gathering data for this GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 62 study, descriptions of the state of the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program were sought. Researchers on qualitative studies have identified terms such as credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability to ensure validity and reliability (Guna & Lincoln, 1981; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Utilizing a constructivist view, this researcher focused on methodological rigor (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), including making every effort to conduct surveys and interviews with the total applicable population to check for credibility and confirmability across all program staff. In alignment with Tracey’s (2013) criteria for conducting high-quality qualitative research, this researcher performed the following tasks: conducting the study on a worthy topic, utilizing rich rigor and transparency in identifying methods and tools to collect and evaluate data, and providing meaningful coherence through a thorough, credible literature review that could resonate with a variety of audiences. To support internal validity, or the extent to which the research findings match reality, it was important to use rigor to understand the different perspectives that each of the participants could bring to the study. Using these different perspectives, it was the job of the researcher to ensure that a holistic view of recruiting females into the Association’s cybersecurity program was provided (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Transferability in this study does not reflect generalization to a larger population as it would in a quantitative study. Rather, it describes the ability for future researchers to build on the study’s findings to further improve the Association’s organizational performance. As such, this study provides rich and descriptive data through interviews and survey responses to inform future studies of the Association’s cybersecurity program. This includes providing a clear methodology, that can be used in the future to provide longitudinal data on the research question. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 63 Validity and Reliability Validity and reliability in qualitative research highlight how researchers attempt to ensure that they are correctly measuring the phenomenon they are attempting to measure (Salkind, 2017). For this study, validity and reliability referred to whether the survey instrument being used was both effective and accurate for answering the study research questions. To ensure that the survey data would be valid and reliable, the survey instrument utilized nominal, ordinal, and interval scales; this was done because one scale alone would not provide sufficient views on the research questions to gain a credible understanding of the problem of practice. Nominal scales were utilized to gain basic information about the respondent. While these are the least precise measurement scales, they were important for gathering demographic data, which was necessary for understanding perceptions among a diverse population (Salkind, 2017). Ordinal scales were utilized to allow the respondents to rate questions based on their beliefs and opinions (Fink, 2013; Irwin & Stafford, 2016); this type of scale is more precise than nominal scales and was beneficial for understanding the presumptions of the Association’s staff as they ranked their beliefs regarding their motivation to decrease the gender gap in their program. Lastly, interval scales were utilized as they are the most precise form of data measurement and were imperative for gathering how often certain actions occurred within the Association with regard to decreasing the gender gap in the cybersecurity program (Salkind, 2017). To further enhance the validity and reliability of this study, some survey questions were developed by modifying modern survey tools that have been successful in measuring self- efficacy, expectancy, and value. These include Schwarzer and Jerusalem’s (1995) general self- efficacy scale and Panchal et al.’s (2012) framework based on EVT. Not all the questions were modified from these two instruments; the researcher created the questions regarding knowledge GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 64 and organizational factors. Lastly, to enhance the validity and reliability of this study and survey instrument, the researcher utilized doctoral writing centers, colleagues, and professors to help review and revise the protocols and instruments. Ethics Within this study of the STEM gender gap, and specifically the gender gap in participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program, the researcher’s primary responsibility was to gather quality data regarding the problem of practice (Patton, 2015). While gathering the necessary data to shed further light on these gender gaps was important, certain ethical dilemmas arose that were handled with care and thought, and the decisions made during the data gathering stages would directly affect the validity and trustworthiness of this study. As such, it was important for the researcher to be aware of the role and impact he had on the data being gathered (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Study data gathered must be credible, which included for this study ensuring that the interviews and survey were conducted in such a manner that they did not lead the participants or the researcher to preconceived answers (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The survey and interviews were also conducted in a manner that protected the human participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that “Qualitative researchers are guests in private world[s]” (p. 262). A such, there is an ethical and moral responsibility to protect subject’s privacy, keep them from emotional and physical harm, and ensure that no deception is being used against them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure the safety of the participants, the researcher divulged no identifying data from the participant responses, and the data were stored and protected so that participants’ responses and information could not be connected back to them. The study was then submitted to the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board; the researcher ensured that their rules and guidelines were followed regarding GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 65 protecting the rights and welfare of the participants in this study. Confidentiality was critical for the study, and any participants who wanted to withdraw from the study would have been allowed to do so with no consequences; fortunately, no one requested to be removed from the study. Prior to the interviews, the researcher gathered permission to conduct audio recordings of the interviews and also informed participants that they could request transcripts of their interviews to allow them the opportunity to ensure that their words were not changed. No incentives were used to coerce programmatic staff into participating in the study. The researcher conducting this study had no personal connections to the Association; the Association was approached unsolicited and chosen because of the researcher’s interests in evaluating K-12 STEM programs sponsored by major defense contractors, and as such, the researcher’s role in relation to the Association was simply that of a researcher. First, the researcher obtained consent to perform the study from the Association’s cybersecurity program commissioner in the form of a signed acknowledgement and agreement to allow the study. This agreement included gaining permission to conduct both the survey and interviews, access to organization documents and data, and access to the program staff’s building and work environment, as well as including an outline of how the data would be stored on the researcher’s laptop and external hard drives. Informed consent was also gathered from individual participants to ensure that they were aware of the voluntary nature of their participation and that all interviews, surveys, and discussions were to be kept confidential (Glesne, 2011). Participants were also informed of their ability to withdraw at any point throughout the study without penalty. This researcher had certain biases and assumptions that needed to be accounted for, such as that being a male meant that the researcher lacked personal experience regarding the STEM gender gaps in schools and workplaces. Second, the researcher was a Caucasian, middle-class GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 66 male, which entailed certain assumptions about the world that were different from those of people who are ethnically and socioeconomically different. Lastly, one major source of inspiration for the researcher was his three-year-old daughter. As such, he had to ensure that he did not allow a desire to know more about the barriers young females face when pursuing STEM to cloud or skew the respondents’ answers. Limitations As with any study, there are certain limitations that were taken into consideration. This study was limited in the following ways: It was conducted to evaluate a specific organization (the Association) and a specific program within that organization (the K-12 cybersecurity program). The population for this study was also extremely small, and therefore, the first major limitation of this study was its scope. As the Association’s program and staff represent a purposeful sample and not a sample of the larger STEM gender issue, the findings from this study cannot be generalized to the larger issues of female representation within STEM. Furthermore, multiple stakeholders influence the success of the Association’s cybersecurity program including other Association staff, local participants, local educators, and corporate sponsors; to gain a more complete understanding of the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program, there should have been an analysis of each stakeholder’s influence on the problem. Unfortunately, because this study was to be completed by the summer of 2018, there were not sufficient time or resources to conduct it with each of those stakeholder groups. Another limitation was the truthfulness of the respondents; because the population of the study was so small, any participant untruthfulness would have had a significant impact on the study’s findings. Time constraints were also study limitations. Data were gathered over a three- month window in the fall of 2017; because seasons can influence the quality of data being GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 67 gathered, the failure to collect data over the span of a full year limited the scope of this study. Furthermore, this study provided a simple snapshot of the program’s success. For a more thorough analysis of the Association’s cybersecurity program, a longitudinal study analyzing the changes over time should be conducted. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 68 Chapter 4: Results and Findings The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which the Association was meeting its goal of increasing the total number of female participants, as well as the representation of female participants to 35% in the next five years. The analysis for this study focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving that goal. While a complete performance evaluation would have focused on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focused in this analysis was the Association’s program support staff. This entailed analyzing three main questions: 1. To what extent is the Association meeting its goals of increasing female participation in its cybersecurity program? 2. What knowledge and motivation do the Association’s cybersecurity program team members possess related to increasing female participation in the program? 3. What are the interactions between the Association’s organizational culture and context and knowledge and motivation? Survey and interview data supported the assertion that program staff have a clear understanding that gender role models play a role in enhancing female participation in STEM. While it is clear that the programmatic staff have this understanding, the data also highlighted a need to increase their knowledge of other barriers that impede female participation. Furthermore, the data also revealed that program staff have high self-efficacy, expectancy, and value with regard to increasing the number of females who participate in the program. Lastly, the interactions between the Association’s organizational culture and context and its knowledge and motivation are discussed. In the area of organizational context, data highlighted that new employees to the Association’s cybersecurity team are often influenced by gender GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 69 stereotypes when they first begin working for the Association; the data also suggested, however, that with time and employee program exposure, these stereotypes are broken down. Also, the data gathered suggested that program staff are influenced by competing organizational goals that deter the competition staff’s focus on and dedication to increasing female participation in the competition. Competing goals included increasing minority participation, increasing overall program participation (males included), and goals tied to other cybersecurity programs the team runs. Furthermore, the data suggested that program staff members do not have a clear understanding of the organization’s identified goal of increasing female participation and representation in the cybersecurity program or of their role in helping achieve that goal. Participating Stakeholders The participants in this study were K-12 cybersecurity program staff employed by the Association. To be eligible for the study, participants had to work directly on the program; all other Association employees were excluded due to their lack of understanding of the program and their lack of exposure to recruiting females to STEM. Eight individuals comprised the entirety of the staff working on the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program, and all were both surveyed and interviewed. In order to make sense of the data, it was important to understand the organizational structure and lines of authority throughout the Association. Specifically, how the K-12 cybersecurity team functions in relation to the rest of the Association is atypical. A military culture is a major influence on the Association, and as such, the Association has more of a hierarchical structure. While the K-12 cybersecurity team has direct reporting lines to the Association’s organizational leadership, it functions differently: The team works somewhat GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 70 autonomously from the rest of the Association and is collaborative in nature with a flat internal, team-based structure. Of the eight individuals who comprise the K-12 cyber security program team, five are female and three are male. The first member of the team is the program’s national commissioner. As a retired general, he comes from a military background. However, he has employed a flat, collaborative rather than linear and authoritative structure to the team. The rest of the team is structured by job function. Two females work on program administration and recruiting efforts; they oversee programmatic matters such as reporting on participant demographics, managing the program registration portal, and developing program recruiting material. Three individuals, two male and one female, work on the technological aspects of the cybersecurity program. Their job is to ensure that the outward (participant)-facing program functions properly, and they also manage the scoring of the program. The two remaining members of the team are both female. One oversees the team’s elementary school offerings and supports the cybersecurity competition during competition finals and during other periods of competition-related high work volume, and the other provides general team support. Because the team is small, no other identifying information was provided to ensure that participants’ identities would be protected in the responses and data provided below. This decision was made because many of the participants wanted to ensure that their identities would be kept confidential. The study employed both a survey and interviews as data collection tools, and participation in both was voluntary. The survey was administered via Qualtrics online software and was available to participants at any time during two weeks in October 2017; the interviews were coordinated with an individual on the Association’s cybersecurity program staff, and they were conducted in person from late October to late December 2017. While volunteer forms were GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 71 distributed at the beginning of each interview, no one declined. Each interview was conducted at the Association’s headquarters, in either the main conference room or in the interviewee’s office. It was important to sample everyone working on the program because the population was so small. Furthermore, each program staff member provided a different perspective that was valuable in understanding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational issues relating to achieving their goal of decreasing the gender gap in the cybersecurity program. Findings The findings are organized first by research question and then by the assumed influence coordinated with each question. As such, findings related the extent to which the Association is meeting its goal of increasing female participation in its program are reviewed first; in short, the Association’s goal of increasing female representation in its program is ambitious and will require them to recruit females at a rate higher than historically they have been able to. Then, findings relating to the cybersecurity program team’s knowledge and motivation regarding increasing female participation in the are presented. The following sections provide further insights into the contexts and complexities of each finding. Research Question 1: Is the Association Meeting Its Goal of Increasing Female Participation in its Program? There are two distinct organizational goals related to increasing female participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program: First, there is the goal of increasing the overall annual number of female participants, and second, there is the goal of increasing the program’s female representation from 24% to 35% in the next five years. These goals were identified through conversations with the program’s national commissioner as the study was developed. While the commissioner wanted to see the program’s representation reflect the United States’ population GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 72 distribution of 51% females and 49% males, the goal of increasing female representation to 35% over the next five years was chosen because it is more achievable. Program staff members are meeting their goal of increasing female participation in the program. In the 2017-2018 school year, the Association’s cybersecurity competition had 3,928 female participants, 643 more than the previous year and 3,417 more than five years ago. The staff members have also seen an increase in the total number of female participants every year for the past seven years. While program staff have successfully increased the female representation in the program for the past five years, the rate has not been sufficient to achieve the goal of 35% representation within the next five years. Females represented 14.73% of the participants in the 2012-2013 school year, 16.46% in 2013-2014, 19.93% in 2014-2015, 22.58% in 2015-2016, in 2016-2017, and 24.41% in 2017-2018. This equates to a 9.68% increase in female representation over the past five years, but to achieve the goal, they will need to increase the percentage of female participants by 10.59% over the next five. This is an ambitious goal and will require them to recruit females at a higher rate than previously. Research Question 2: What Are the Program Staff Members’ Knowledge and Motivation Related to Increasing Female Participation in the Program? Both survey and interview data were gathered to assess the knowledge and motivational influences on the organization’s goal, and the data highlighted four main findings. First, the cybersecurity program staff members believe that factors such as social networks and reduced fees for participation encouraged females to participate in their program. Second, while staff members have a clear understanding that gender role models play a role in enhancing female participation in STEM, they do not have clear knowledge of other barriers that impede female participation. Third, program staff members understand the importance of exposing girls to GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 73 cybersecurity early and have eliminated the fee for all-girl teams that register for the competition; they have also utilized gender modeling in their promotional materials to encourage female to participate in their program. Lastly, program staff have high self-efficacy, expectancy, and value related to increasing the number of females who participate in their program. The sections below highlight the data gathered for each of these major findings and the assumed influences tied to them. Understanding the aspects of STEM that spark young females’ interest The first knowledge influence evaluated was the program staff members’ understanding of the aspects of STEM that sparks girls’ interest. To gain this understanding, the researcher asked each interviewee to describe the girls who participate in the program, what each believed were the most attractive aspects of the program to girls, and why each felt fewer girls enroll in the program than boys. No theme arose from the interviews that provided clear evidence that staff members understood what specific aspects of the cybersecurity program engaged female interest. Instead, staff members believed that factors such as social networks and reduced fees for program participation encouraged females’ participation. Social factors. Staff members felt that cybersecurity alone as a topic did not bring females into the program. Instead, interviewees noted a variety of other reasons they believed girls participated in their program. For example, four interviewees described students’ social networks such as “friends” and “boyfriends” as major influences on female participation in the program. Another major theme that arose was the fee waiver the Association provides for all teams of girls; every interviewee noted the waiver and its impact on recruiting more females into the program. Furthermore, two interviewees noted “swag” such as the chance for an all-expense paid trip to Baltimore as sparking females’ interest. Lastly, each employee described how GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 74 cybersecurity as a quality career path encouraged females to participate in the program. For instance, one stated, “There's such an enormous appetite for cybersecurity talent that young women can get a job, and another noted that “people are realizing that cyber security is a good career path.” Each of these comments highlights how situational interest might affect participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program. As Schraw and McCrudden (2006) described, situational interest is spontaneous, transitory, and influenced by one’s environment. The social influences, financial incentives, and connection to quality jobs provide the initial exposure to the program that is needed to motivate pursuit of any subject. While the interviewees gave multiple examples of what could be called situational interest, they only made a few comments regarding what could be considered personal interest. Personal interest is less spontaneous and leads to long-term mastery of a subject, which in this study would be exemplified by females who initially choose to participate in the Association’s program because they are specifically looking to enhance their skills in cybersecurity. The few comments regarding personal interest did not correspond to one another and were so few that no assertion could be made regarding the interviewees’ understanding of them. Female participant characteristics. One other theme arose regarding staff members’ perceptions of the females who participate in their program. Specifically, the staff members believed that there was no single defining characteristic of the girl who participated in the program. Seven of the eight interviewees commented on the vast diversity of the personalities and characteristics that they felt made up the females in their program. For example, one interviewee noted that their female participants are, “girls with all types of personalities.” Furthermore another noted that, “some are more studious and others like to participate in GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 75 multiple extra-curricular activities.” Interviewees described the female participants in a variety of ways including, “quiet, timid, insular, not particularly social, competitive, outgoing, articulate, and involved in many extracurricular activities.” Female participants were described as having both very and not very technical backgrounds; as one interviewee described it, “participants come from a broad range of technical talent.” Understanding the barriers that impede females from pursuing STEM As noted in the literature review, common barriers to female participation in STEM are a lack of role models in STEM (Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006), gender stereotyping (Jones et al., 2000) and female expectations of success in STEM fields (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). While there is evidence that program staff members had a clear understanding that gender role models play a role in enhancing female participation in STEM, survey and interview data suggested that they did not have clear knowledge of any other barriers. Gender role models. The Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff members understood that same-sex role models positively influence female participation in STEM; they showed the strongest knowledge about this item. To better understand the respondents’ knowledge relating to the influence of gender role models, the survey asked three questions, numbers 3, 4, and 5, and 66% of the responses to those questions indicated that role models either decently or greatly affected respondents’ goal of increasing female participation. Additionally, 87.5% of respondents believed that having more female engineering and computer science professionals would help either decently or greatly increase the number of female students in the cybersecurity program, and all respondents believed that having more female coaches would have a decent or great impact on increasing the number of female students in their program. The outlier was survey question number 5: 62.5% of respondents did not feel that have GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 76 more female program staff members would affect the number of female program participants (see Table 4). Table 4 The Perceived Effects of Gender Role Models Survey Item Number of respondents who agreed that the survey item decently or greatly affected female participation (n=8) Percentage of respondents who agreed that the survey item decently or greatly affected female participation (n=8) The extent to which more female engineering and/or computer science professionals would affect female participation 7 87.5% The extent to which more female coaches would affect female participation 8 100% The extent to which more female program staff would affect female participation 1 12.5% Interview data also supported that the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff understood that same-sex role models positively influenced female participation in STEM. Every interviewee highlighted the Association’s efforts to provide visual representation of females throughout the entire program; seven of the eight interviewees noted that the Association is very strategic when choosing participants to highlight in their annual finals competition video. Two interviewees specifically noted that the Association ensures that half of the promotional video shows girls and other underrepresented minorities. Another interviewee said, We try and make sure all of our marketing materials and our newsletter and different things that we're sending out show females, so that if they see a poster or information about our program, they see females participating in it and maybe they'll say, okay they can kind of see themselves doing that better. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 77 Six of the eight interviewees also described other areas in which the Association highlights female role models. For example, one described how the Association holds an all-girls camp on behalf of one of the social media technology giants. She described how they brought in a female executive, and a plethora of female engineers, to address the girls attending the camp and encourage them in pursuing engineering by giving them advice on what to do and how to succeed in the STEM world. Another described a time when she and a colleague were addressing a female audience. This interviewee noted that her colleague suggested that she address the audience, as she was a female and he was not. She quoted that he said, Maybe this is better for you because you're younger and you're a female. Why would a group of young girls want to listen to me, an old man, when they can listen to somebody they can identify with and connect with on maybe a better level? The rest of the interviewees also made ample comments suggesting their knowledge and understanding of the importance of role models to persistence in STEM. When asked what would help the program recruit more females, one interviewee responded with, “maybe having more female coaches, and more females that are willing to help.” Furthermore, another interviewee noted that, “more success stories of female who have gone through our program,” would help increase female participation. When asked if interviewees could describe the types of skills they believed would help staff within their organization recruit more girls to the cybersecurity program, two noted that they felt simply having more female coaches and female mentors from outside the school would help them recruit more girls. Furthermore, two more specifically mentioned that young children need an example of people who they identify with as they are growing and developing: “little kids need an example.” Research has shown that GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 78 learning is enhanced when people engage with same-sex role models (Meiksins et al., 2016). The Association’s program staff members made many comments in their interviews in which they highlighted the importance of young girls’ seeing successful role models within the STEM industry and also seeing young girls their own age engaging successfully in cybersecurity. Gender stereotyping. The data gathered provided no themes that supported an assertion relating to the Association’s team participating in gender stereotyping . Female Expectations of Success. Survey data (items 6 through 9) highlighted that the Association’s program staff lack the knowledge that females in general have low self-efficacy relating to STEM subjects. Among the related survey items, participants were asked if the females they are attempting to recruit to their program feel they have the natural talent to do well in cybersecurity, expect to succeed in the cybersecurity competition, feel they have to work harder than their male counterparts, and are confident in their math skills. The majority of the respondents either contradicted modern research relating to female efficacy in STEM subjects or said that they neither agreed nor disagreed with the related statement. Half of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the females they are trying to recruit feel they have the natural talent to do well in cybersecurity, and 75% agreed or strongly agreed that female participants in their program expect to succeed in the cybersecurity competition. Furthermore, 75% of respondents neither agreed nor disagreed that the females they are attempting to recruit feel they must work harder than their male counter parts to succeed in cyber security, and a majority also neither agreed nor disagreed that females entering their program feel confident in their math skills. The data clearly suggest that the Association’s program staff members lack knowledge of critical barriers to females’ success in STEM (see Table 5). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 79 Table 5 Staff Perceptions of Females’ Expectations of Success in STEM Survey Item Number of respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed with the question. (n=8) Percentage of respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed with the question. (n=8) Number of respondents who agreed or strongly agreed with the question. (n=8) Percentage of respondents who agreed or strongly agreed with the question. (n=8) Q6- Females recruits feel they have the natural talent to do well in cyber security. 3 37.5% 4 50.0% Q7- Females recruits feel that they must work harder than their male counterparts to succeed in cyber security. 6 75.0% 1 12.5% Q8- Females in your program expect to succeed in the cybersecurity competition. 2 25.0% 6 75.0% Q9- Females entering your program feel confident in their math skills. 7 87.5% 1 12.5% Staff members’ understanding of how to recruit young females Success in the STEM subjects of computer science and engineering often require advanced training in math (Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014), and this advanced math requires the sequential acquisition of math skills including algebra, trigonometry, and calculus (Watt et al., 2006). The Association’s ability to recruit females throughout middle school and high school (Jones et al., 2000; Pan et al., 2015) via teachers, guidance counselors, and parents (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Faitar & Faitar, 2013; McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006) is pivotal in ensuring female success in STEM. In the interviews, staff members were asked about challenges they faced in trying to recruit more females into their program, the types of skills they believe would help staff recruit more girls, and why they felt more boys enrolled in the program than GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 80 girls. Three major themes emerged in the responses to both these and other interview questions. First, it became apparent that program staff members understood the importance of exposing girls to cybersecurity early in life. Second, the staff members’ primary method of recruiting females has been to eliminate the fee for all-girl teams that register for the competition. Lastly, program staff members utilized gender modeling in their promotional materials to encourage female participation. Early exposure. Regarding early exposure to cybersecurity, six of the eight interviewees highlighted the need for the Association to engage females before they entered high school: “You don't go to a young girl and say, ‘We need you in STEM’ when she's in high school. That’s why we've pushed down to middle school.” Another interviewee noted that they push their program offerings down to younger ages in hopes of interrupting stereotypical mind-sets at earlier ages, and a third described how their team has introduced a female-centric elementary school program into their offerings in “hopes” that it will help girls think cybersecurity is not just a guy thing; this same interviewee also noted that they have expanded the competition to the middle school grades. She hopes that more girls become involved before gender biases, such as cyber security being a “guy thing,” enter their minds. Another piece of evidence that supported the assertion that programmatic staff understand the importance of exposing females to cybersecurity early in life was the staff members’ references to a new product they have developed, a children’s storybook series; the series is intended to promote cybersecurity to elementary-aged students. Five of the eight interviewees noted that the main character of the series was intentionally chosen to be a girl; one said, “If you look at our little children's storybook, that's not about a little boy. It's about Sarah the Cyber Hero. We were very intentional about that. I said, ‘Make it a girl,’ because we need to communicate that.” GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 81 Program staff members also highlighted the need to engage younger audiences, specifically females, with access to cybersecurity programs and resources. The fee waiver. Another strategy the cybersecurity program staff utilized to increase female participation in their competition was to eliminate the fees for all-girl competition teams. Seven of the eight interviewees noted that they believed the fee waiver encouraged young females to participate in their program, and this was the most commented on item throughout the interviews; the topic came up many times and was unsolicited. Since the fee waiver was implemented in the 2015-2016 school year, the percentage of females participating in the cybersecurity competition has risen from 19.93% to 24.41% of the total. Gender role modeling. Lastly, the Association’s program staff members utilized same-sex role modeling to promote female participation in their program. Each of the interviewees noted that females are well represented in their promotional materials, and two specifically noted that they partner with other organizations to target females in the materials. One interviewee noted, “Every month in our newsletter, I try to include female representation.” Beyond these noted items, the researcher identified no other strategies for targeting or recruiting females. Currently, the Association engages in three main tactics to recruit females to their cyber security program. These include female early exposure to the Association’s K-12 cyber security program, waiving the cyber security competition fee for all girl’s teams, and providing female role models within the Association’s cyber security promotional materials. These tactics have been helpful in increasing overall female participation within the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. The Association’s ability to address their knowledge gaps relating to gender stereotypes, the impact of math on female STEM attainment and female efficacy relating to STEM could enhance their ability to recruit more females to their program. Knowledge gaps are GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 82 merely one aspect to addressing performance issues. Motivational and organizational influences were also addressed during the study. The following section highlights the motivational findings from the study. Staff members believe they are capable of increasing the number of female participants Program staff members’ self-efficacy affects their individual efforts toward the Association’s goal of increasing female representation (Pajares, 2006), and their self-efficacy was measured with interview data and survey responses; the survey questions (items 11-22) were modified from Jerusalem’s (1995) general self-efficacy scale. The data gathered from these items suggested that the Association’s cybersecurity program team members believed they had high self-efficacy. They were asked how they faced their daily stresses, particularly in the context of trying to increase female participation in the program. The major theme that arose from the responses was that all staff members had confidence in their abilities, even in terms of increasing female participation in their program. Survey data highlighted that the majority of the program staff members perceived that they had the resourcefulness and ability to problem solve, and 62.5% of respondents felt that they could overcome obstacles to recruiting females. All respondents felt that they could manage unforeseen circumstances that affect their work and could achieve the goals they set for themselves, and a clear majority felt that they were able to help females in their program. A majority of survey respondents responded positively to all self-efficacy items on the survey except for item 20; only 50% felt that it was easy to stay focused on the goal of recruiting more females into their program (see Table 6). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 83 Table 6 Program Staff Self-Efficacy Survey Item Number of survey respondents who have much or complete confidence with the item (n=8) Percentage of survey respondents who have much or complete confidence with the item (n=8) 11- I rely on my abilities and remain calm when facing difficulties in recruiting females. 8 100.0% 12- I can usually find several solutions when I am confronted with a problem. 8 100.0% 13- I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort. 8 100.0% 14- Whatever comes my way in my job, I can usually handle it. 8 100.0% 15- My past experiences have prepared me well to help females succeed in our program. 6 100.0% 16- I meet the goals that I set for myself in my job. 8 100.0% 17- I feel prepared to help encourage young females to participate in our program. 8 100.0% 18 - I can always manage to solve difficult problems at work if I try hard enough. 7 85.5% 19- If something gets in the way of recruiting young girls, I can find ways to overcome that obstacle. 5 62.5% 20- It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish the goal of recruiting more females into our program 4 50.0% 21- I am confident that I could deal with unexpected events surrounding the recruitment of females. 6 75.0% GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 84 Throughout the interviews, four respondents highlighted confidence in both their own and their teammates’ abilities; one specifically said, “I have a lot of confidence in my team.” Another noted they everyone on staff pitches in to help each other and get things done, alluding further to their confidence in their teammates. A third interviewee noted that the team members “value teamwork with everybody sort of pulling their own weight.” The fourth noted that the staff members support each other well and that this support cultivates effective working relationships within the team. Throughout the survey responses and interviews, cybersecurity program staff members clearly that they perceived high self-efficacy at work. On the 11 related survey questions, no one reported feeling little or no confidence in their abilities, and for six of the questions, 100% of respondents reported much or complete confidence in their abilities; with the remaining five questions, respondents reported moderate confidence in their own or their team’s skills. This is important because Bandura (1997) supported the notion that minimizing social comparisons can lead to more engagement and motivation. This was seen in program staff members comments on the strength of the team and on their confidence in one another. Staff members expect to increase the number of female participants In order for an individual to accomplish a certain goal, that individual must have some expectation for success in achieving the stated goal (Eccles, 2006). To increase female representation in the Association’s cybersecurity competition, program staff members must expect that their efforts will be effective. Staff members’ expectations were assessed utilizing both survey and interview questions. Sixteen survey items (numbers 23-26 and 29-37) assessed 22- Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to encourage young females to participate in our program. 5 62.5% GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 85 expectations; they were modified from Panchal et al.’s (2012) EVT framework. Program staff members were also interviewed about their confidence in the organization’s ability to achieve its goal of decreasing the gender gap in the cybersecurity program, what they believed would be the long-term effects of increasing female participation in their program, and how they would describe how the work they perform helps the Association achieve its goal of decreasing the gender gap in the cybersecurity program. The data from these assessments showed that program staff members believed they could help the Association achieve its goal of increasing female representation in the cybersecurity program. For example, in the interviews, every single staff member believed that their team could recruit more female participants. Aligning with Eccles’s (2006) ideas of expectancy and value, the team believed not only that they could recruit more female participants but that they would. For example, one team member noted that program growth was “astronomical” and that the numbers of both male and female program participants were increasing. Furthermore, when asked specifically about their confidence in increasing the number of females in their program, all staff members reported at least some level of confidences. These beliefs are important because they are positively tied to program staff members’ motivation and affect their individual choices regarding the effort they expend on activities as well as their thought patterns and emotional reactions (Pajares, 2006). One interviewee captured this effort by describing four different colleagues as “tirelessly promoting the program, travelling across the nation and visiting schools.” Program staff members also reported believing that their efforts to increase the number of females in their program would address larger societal issues regarding females in STEM; this belief in their efforts provides both utility value and motivation for increasing female program GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 86 participation in. Multiple staff members noted a desire to help females access STEM careers. One highlighted, “There would be more females pursuing cyber security careers, filling that huge gap right now,” and another described that “the cyber program can help girls decide in high school to pursue cybersecurity.” Furthermore, the staff members attempt to track the number of participants in their program who enter the STEM fields. The belief that their efforts help address larger societal issues regarding females in STEM provides motivation for the staff to focus on this goal. One employee described it as a “personal” motivator because of personal experiences in STEM; the respondent wanted to ensure that girls have more access and opportunity to careers in STEM. Survey data supported that program staff members had strong beliefs in their ability to fulfill the association’s goal of increasing female representation in the cybersecurity program. The first theme that arose from the survey responses was staff members’ confidence in their abilities to recruit females and increase female representation in the program. On the four related questions, a clear majority of program staff members rated their confidence as high: On 5-point Likert scales, no one reported his or her confidence at 1 or 2; 87.5% of staff respondents also agreed that their participation in trying to achieve the goal was helping (see Table 7). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 87 Table 7 Staff Confidence in Recruiting Females Survey Item* Number of survey respondents who rated their response to the survey item high (4 or 5) (n=8) Percentage of survey respondents who rated their response to the survey item high (4 or 5) (n=8) Number of survey respondents who rated their response to the survey item low (1 or 2) (n=8) 23- How would you rate your proficiency in recruiting young girls to your program? 6 75.0% 0 24- Compared to the rest of the employees on staff, how would you rate your ability to recruit girls to your program? 5 62.5% 0 25- What is your level of confidence that you will be able to increase the number of female participants in your program? 5 62.5% 0 26- What is your level of confidence that you will be able to increase the representation of female participants in your program? 5 62.5% 0 * - rated on a numeric Likert scale Data gathered from the surveys also revealed high confidence in each other’s abilities to increase female representation. On the related items (29-31 and 36), the vast majority of respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that someone on the team was proficient at recruiting females and that they and their team were confident they could accomplish the goal of increasing the number of females in the program; again, no one gave any of the items scores of 1 or 2 (see Table 8). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 88 Table 8 Staff Confidence in Recruiting Females Survey Item* Number of survey respondents who agreed or strongly agreed with the survey item. (n=8) Percentage of survey respondents who agreed or strongly agreed with the survey item. (n=8) Number of survey respondents who disagreed or strongly disagreed with the survey item. (n=8) 29 - Someone on the team (which includes you) is proficient in recruiting females into your program. 5 62.5% 0 30- Your team is confident that you can accomplish the goal of increasing the number of females within your program. 7 87.5% 0 31 - Your team is confident that you can accomplish the goal of increasing female representation within your program. 7 87.5% 0 36- I believe that my participation in recruiting females into the program will make me more likely that females will join than if I did not participate in helping achieve that goal. 7 87.5% 0 * - rated on an agree/disagree Likert scale Lastly, program staff members also responded positively to the survey questions regarding the value they attached to the task of recruiting females; the majority of respondents rated each question on the subject as important. Specifically, 75% of respondents felt that it was either very or extremely important to increase the number of females in the cybersecurity program, and 75% felt that increasing female representation within their program was either very or extremely important. Additionally, 75% of program staff members rated that for their program to be considered successful, it would be extremely useful to have females participating, and GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 89 100% reported that they enjoyed recruiting females; the majority also reported being very or extremely motivated to increase the number of females in their program (see Table 9). Table 9 Importance of Recruiting Females Survey Item Number of survey respondents who responded with important or very important to the survey item (n=8) Percentage of survey respondents who responded with important or very important to the survey item (n=8) Number of survey respondents who responded with slightly or not important at all to the survey item (n=8) 32 - How important is it for you to achieve the goal of increasing the number of females within your program? 6 75.0% 0 33 - How important is it for you to achieve the goal of increasing female representation within your program? 6 75.0% 0 34- How much do you enjoy recruiting females to the program? 8 100.0% 0 35 - How useful do you feel it is to have females participating in the program to be considered a successful program? 7 87.5% 0 37 - How do you rate your level of motivation to increase the number of females in your program? 7 87.5% 0 Data gathered from the survey and interviews supported that program staff members were confident in both their individual and their team’s abilities to recruit females and accomplish the organizational goal of increasing female representation. Furthermore, staff members valued the task of recruiting females and saw larger societal implications to their ability to increase female GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 90 participation in their program. These beliefs and values are important for achieving the Association’s goals regarding females in STEM. Research Question 3: Interactions Between Organizational Culture and Context and Knowledge and Motivation Data gathered from both the study survey and interviews suggest two main findings relating to the Association’s organizational culture and context; it was assumed going into the study that there would be disparities between female and male perspectives on closing the gender gap and that this would inhibit staff efforts toward closing the gap. In the interviews, program staff members were asked to describe the core values of the Association, how the employees reflected those values, how male and female staff members interacted within the Association, and how cybersecurity program staff members interacted with male and female program participants. However, throughout the interviews, responses provided no evidence either in support of or against the researcher’s above assumptions. The first finding relating to organization culture and context suggested that program staff members were influenced by competing organizational goals in their attempts to increase female participation in their program, specifically, goals to increase minority participation, goals to increase overall program participation (males included), and goals tied to other cybersecurity team programs. These other goals interfered with competition staff members’ focus on and dedication to increasing female participation in the cybersecurity competition. The second finding relating to organizational culture and context suggested that program staff did not have a clear understanding of the organization’s goal to increase female participation and representation within their program or of their role in helping to achieve that goal. These two findings highlight all organizational influences on the gender gap found within the scope of this study. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 91 Competing organizational goals In an attempt to support efficiency, modern organizations develop multiple priorities and goals aimed at achieving success, and when there are conflicts between organizational goals, the incentives tied to goal performance can often dictate which goals are prioritized (Jenkins et al., 1998); furthermore, competing goals often create conflicts for employees (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). With this study, the researcher sought to identify the competing goals tied to the Association’s cybersecurity team through both interview and survey questions. In the interviews, the program staff members were asked to describe how their performance was evaluated at work, describe their cybersecurity program goals, and describe which if any of those goals were specifically tied to performance evaluations. Survey questions asked how many goals were tied to the Association's cybersecurity program, how the respondents would rank the goal to increase female participants in the program against other organizational goals, and how many hours per week each staff member spent on activities to increase female participation in the Association's cybersecurity program. The data from both the interviews and the surveys supported that competing organizational goals deterred the cybersecurity competition staff members’ focus on and dedication to increasing female participation in their cybersecurity competition. With only eight individuals, the Association’s cybersecurity team is rather small, and the team is attempting to accomplish multiple program goals, some of which compete with one another; the data also revealed this need to accomplish multiple program goals made it difficult to achieve them simultaneously. One interviewee highlighted this directly: “There's competing objectives growing the competition overall and growing females. It's hard to do all of the things that we want and be successful in all of them.” One staff member did not respond to the survey question regarding the cybersecurity program’s number of goals, but among the seven who did GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 92 respond to, there was no consensus on the number of goals. Most team members reported five goals, the responses ranged from one to six, and the mean number of goals was 4.29. Related to the competing goals, six staff members noted that they were attempting to increase program participation among minorities as well as among females, and one interviewee specifically noted that “attracting more minorities to the competition…competes with trying to attract more females.” This interviewee was suggesting that attempting to recruit Hispanics, Blacks and females each takes time and effort. They weren’t sure which one should be prioritized. A different interviewee noted that attempts to attract minorities could result in recruiting only males, which would conflict with increasing female representation in the program. Thus, this interviewee was suggesting that they shouldn’t sacrifice getting minorities to participate at the sake of recruiting more females. Furthermore, five individuals highlighted that beyond increasing female participation alone, the staff wanted to increase the overall participation in the program. As one interviewee described, It would be one thing if we had the same number of teams as last year and we tried to get more females to participate, but we're growing the number of teams by twenty-six percent and also trying to grow the female participation rate on top of that. It can be hard. A second interviewee said, Another problem is that we're trying to grow the competition overall, so we have some competing goals. We're trying to grow minority participation, and doing some of those things, you know, when you grow by a thousand teens, it's hard to also grow your female participation rate. Beyond demographics and the cybersecurity competition goals themselves, program staff members reported being responsible for juggling the other Association goals, including GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 93 “broadening the age range of programmatic offerings, the development of a cyber generations program for elders, increasing programmatic sponsorship, and have more cyber camps than we did the year before, and goals tied to their new children’s book series.” As is presented here, the Association’s cybersecurity staff members must juggle competing organizational goals that can deter their focus on and dedication to increasing female participation. The Influence of Communication on the Gender Representation Goal Employee performance is greatly affected by organizational communication (Berger, 2014). In this study, the researcher assessed communication regarding the goal of increasing female participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program during the interview phase. Program staff members were asked to describe how their goals were communicated throughout the organization, the types of messages that had been communicated regarding the goal to increase female participation in the program, the modes of communication used to update employees on the status of the organizational goals, and the cybersecurity staff members’ perceptions of their leader’s expectations to increase female participation in the program. The responses to these questions highlighted two key themes. First, program staff members did not have a clear understanding of the organization’s goal to increase female participation and representation in their program or their roles in helping to achieve that goal. Second, there was no respondent consensus on how the cybersecurity program team communicated its program goals. Specific interviewee responses highlighted that the majority of the program staff did not clearly understand the goal to increase female participation and representation in the cybersecurity program or their specific roles in doing so. Half of the interviewees reported being unaware that there was even a specific goal to increase female participation: “I don't think there's GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 94 a goal in mind, other than we'd love to see growth up a percent a year. Over ten years, that's a lot.” Two interviewees said that the team did not “necessarily have a particular goal to recruit girls,” and another said, “We would need is just a clear, definitive goal saying that this is the number of girls we want to reach.” Lastly, another interviewee described the goal to increase female participation in the program as being “generally communicated.” Only three of the interviewees noted that there was a specific goal to increase female participation in the Association’s cybersecurity competition, and the Association’s goal to increase female representation to 35% in the next five years had not been clearly communicated to the programmatic staff. As indicated, there appeared to be a lack of specificity relating to the goal of increasing female participation in the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program, and this lack of specificity appeared to cause confusion and uncertainty among the program staff members. From the interview responses, there was no consensus among the Association’s program team members regarding how program goals were communicated to them. Specifically, program staff members reported that both formal and informal methods were used to communicate goals. Each interviewee mentioned weekly meetings during which goals were generally discussed, but agendas for these meetings were noted to cover a variety of items pertaining to the cybersecurity program. One interviewee reported that the weekly meetings were for the team leader to brief team members on what they need to know about the program, and another said that the weekly meetings were to “recap on anything that's going on in our offices.” While the subject of female representation was noted to come up in the weekly meetings, only one interviewee mentioned it specifically. Furthermore, regarding how the team communicated specific goals, one interviewee said that “goals are not typically written down,” and another noted that “goals are communicated GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 95 informally through conversations”; one interviewee also noted that the team leader communicated goals to different team members at different times. For the Association’s cybersecurity program team to be successful in increasing the percentage of female participants in their program to 35% in five years, this goal needs to be clearly communicated and tied to staff members’ performance (Berger, 2014; Jenkins et al., 1998). Summary of Results and Findings For this study, the researcher employed the qualitative data collection methods of interviews and surveys to gather evidence to validate the assumed influences related to the Association program staff’s knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers to decreasing the gender gap in the K-12 cybersecurity program. The findings suggest that the Association’s cybersecurity team possessed high self-efficacy, expectancy, and value related to their jobs and to the goal of increasing female participation in their program. Program staff members believed they had the ability to increase female participation in their program and also that they themselves could achieve this increase. Program staff members also clearly understood that gender role models play a role in enhancing female participation in STEM, and they utilized this knowledge to create their recruiting materials. However, staff lacked an understanding of the other barriers to females’ participation in STEM and needed to increase that knowledge. This includes the role of math in females’ pursuit of STEM programs, and the continuing gender stereotyping within computer science and engineering. Furthermore, the Association’s cybersecurity program staff members were influenced by competing organizational goals; females are not the only demographic for which the Association is attempting to increase its numbers. These competing goals appeared to affect the cybersecurity program team’s focus on and dedication to increasing female participation in their cybersecurity GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 96 competition. Program staff members also did not have a clear understanding of the organization’s identified goal of increasing female participation and representation within their program or of their roles in helping achieve that goal. They did understand that increasing female participation in their program was important but were not clearly aware that the Association would like to increase the representation of females in their program to 35% in the next five years. The Association’s goal of increasing female representation in the cybersecurity program is ambitious and will require the team to recruit females at rates higher than the previous ones. In Chapter 5, the researcher will discuss research question 4, which relates to recommendations for female recruitment in the contexts of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 97 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations This study was conducted to evaluate the degree to which the Association is meeting its goal of increasing the total number of female participants, as well as the representation of female participants to 35% in the next five years. Focusing on the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to achieving that goal, this. study analyzed four main questions: 1. To what extent is the Association meeting its goals of increasing female participation within their program? 2. What is the Association’s cyber security program team knowledge and motivation related to increasing female participation within their program? 3. What are the interactions between the Association’s organizational culture and context, and knowledge and motivation? 4. What are the recommendations for female recruitment in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? Utilizing a qualitative approach, data was gathered by surveying and interviewing the eight individuals who make up the Association’s K-12 cyber security program team. This data was then analyzed for trends relating to the team’s knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to increasing female representation within their program. This chapter will focus on providing recommendations for future study, recommendations for addressing the K,M and O influences to the Association’s goal to increase female participation and representation within their program and a conclusion to this study. Discussion and Recommendations for Further Research As no gender equity research had been conducted on the Association’s K-12 cyber security program, this study acts as a foundational for further research and analysis of the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 98 knowledge, motivational and organizational barriers that impede female participation in the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. Further research into the Association’s efforts towards increasing female participation and representation within their program could lead to greater female access to the nine million new science, engineering, technology and math (STEM) jobs that will be created by 2022 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). This study highlighted that the Association’s program staff are motivated towards increasing female participation and representation within their program. This was the strongest theme amongst all data collected. Programmatic staff held high self-efficacy towards increasing female participation and representation. Furthermore, the data suggested that they also have high expectancy-value towards achieving their goal. Yet, one limitation to this study was its sample size. While the study did interview and survey all involved in the Association’s goal to increase female participation and representation within their program, and employed multiple tactics and opportunities to gather data, untruthfulness by participants in the study could have had a major impact of the study’s findings. With the issue of gender equity becoming more central to societal politics, it is unsure if the responses within the study were merely a product of social desirability bias. Thus, follow up studies should be completed to gather longitudinal data relating to the program team’s motivation towards increasing female participation and representation within their program. The findings from the study also highlighted the program team’s knowledge of the importance gender role models play in increasing female participation within STEM programs. Further data should be gathered to analyze the team’s efforts towards providing mentors and role models to the program’s participants. Furthermore, this study did not address whether or not the Association directly recruits female coaches. It is also good to note Association allows each GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 99 participating team to manage their affairs fairly independent of the Association. Thus, recruiting the day to day mentors for the program participants is currently a role of each individual team. It would be beneficial to analyze the impact that the Association’s program team could have on recruiting more female coaches and helping teams throughout the nation recruit and retain female mentors and role models. The study highlighted how organizational barriers influences the team and their pursuit of increasing female participation and representation within their program. First, the data suggested that competing organizational goals influence the program staff’s ability to focus on the goal to recruit more females to their program. Goals such as increasing minority participation, continuing to increase overall participation, broadening the age range of programmatic offerings, the development of a cyber generations program for elders, increasing programmatic sponsorship, developing more cyber camps, and goals tied to their new children’s book series all compete with the goal to increase female participation. While these goals are all admirable, it is unlikely that eight individuals will have the time and energy to successfully accomplish all of them. It will be important for the Association to revisit all the goals tied to the K-12 cyber security team. If they are truly wanting to increase female representation within their program, they should look to prioritize that goal over other goals identified. The second organizational influence on the K-12 cyber security team is that programmatic staff do not have a clear understanding of the organization’s goal to increase female participation and representation within their program. While the programmatic team is both motivated to increase female participation and expects to do so, there is not a consensus on what that goal is or how they should go about achieving it. This supports the need for longitudinal research to be conducted on the team’s motivation to ensure that social desirability GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 100 bias is not affecting their responses. Furthermore, this highlights a need for the Association to clearly identify the goal to its team and provide ways for the team to track their progress towards increasing female participation and representation within their program. Without a culture of communication, the Association will find it difficult to achieve their goal of increasing female participation and representation within their program (Ballard & Seibold, 2004; Berger, 2014). The last piece of data that sticks out from the study is that there was only one aspect of motivation where the programmatic staff did not show complete confidence in increasing female participation. The program team did not feel that greater representation amongst their own team would affect female representation within their program. This may be due to the fact that the team only interacts with the program participants once a year at the National Competition Finals. Furthermore, they only interact with roughly 200 of the roughly 8,000 participants of the program at this event. The Association’s current disconnect from the majority of the participants may cause them to be affected by that researchers call moral licensing (Merritt, Effron & Monin, 2010). This theory suggests that people can initially behave in a moral way, but then later display immoral or unethical behavior (Blanken, Van de Ven, & Zeelenberg, 2015). Moral licensing could present itself throughout the Association in the following way: After having successfully seen females participate at the highest levels of the competition, programmatic staff could unconsciously begin participating in behaviors that are unequitable towards the majority of females within their program. Having believed that they have successfully opened the door for females, this behavior would then produce the opposite effect. It would inhibit the access for the majority of females to their program. As the Association’s programmatic team is fairly disconnected from the day to day experiences of females within their program, and are not directly recruiting females onto the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 101 competition teams, it would be beneficial to broaden this study to better understand the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect cyber security program coaches as they recruit females to participate in the program. This study would be much leger in scope, covering more than 4,000 cyber security coaches. It would be influential in providing large amounts of data that could influence the Association’s ability to increase female participation within their program. As that study is yet to be commissioned, the rest of the recommendations in this study will focus on practical tactics the Association can utilize to influence the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences affecting their eight-man team that runs the K-12 cyber security program. Knowledge Recommendations Table 10 presents the knowledge influences that were assumed to affect the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program and whether or not they were validated based on stakeholder participants’ responses to the study survey and interview questions. These influences were also supported by the underlying knowledge and skills needed by program staff that were identified from the literature. Clark and Estes (2008) identified skills and knowledge as critical components of analyzing performance objectives, and thus, it is important for the Association to understand which knowledge and skills identified in Table 10 were validated by the study data. While each knowledge influence is listed in the table, for practical purposes there are only recommendations for change for the influences that were validated and that had high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. These context-specific recommendations are based on theoretical principles for quality learning. Krathwohl (2002) noted that four knowledge types were needed to master human learning: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Each knowledge influence in Table GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 102 10 has been connected to one of these knowledge types; for the purposes of this study, factual and conceptual knowledge were combined into the single category declarative knowledge. The Association should focus on facilitating knowledge gains in each category in order to achieve its goal of decreasing the gender gap in its cybersecurity program and in STEM fields overall (see Table 10). Table 10 Knowledge Influences and Recommendations Assumed Knowledge Influence Validated Yes, High Probability, or No (V, HP, N) Priority Yes, No (Y, N) Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation The Association’s K-12 cyber security program staff members lack comprehensive understanding of all the barriers females face in participating in STEM. (D)* Y Y Learning is best accomplished when a learner’s working memory is not overloaded (Kirshner et al., 2006) Program staff members should receive frequent trainings spread out over short learning sessions to acquire knowledge of the barriers females face in participating in STEM; this allows for the Association to present information in manageable parts (Mayer, 2011). Cybersecurity program staff members lack a comprehensive understanding of the aspects of STEM that spark the interests of young females. (D) N Y Assumed knowledge influence was not validated. No recommendation made. The Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff HP Y Often, employees lack the opportunity to practice transfer Hold quarterly brainstorming sessions for program staff members to reflect on GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 103 members are looking for new ways to recruit young girls into their program. (M) and must be given the opportunity to apply what they have learned. (Clark and Estes, 2008) Facilitating transfer promotes learning (Mayer, 2011). methods they can utilize to actively combat barriers to female participation in their program (Baker, 2006). * - (D) = declarative, (P) = procedural, (M) = metacognitive Declarative knowledge recommendation. The first knowledge recommendation pertains to program staff members’ understanding of the common barriers females face to participating in STEM. While staff members clearly understood the importance of gender role models in young girls’ pursuit of STEM (Wynarczyk & Ebrary, 2006), they lacked comprehensive understanding of other common barriers females face including gender stereotyping (Jones et al., 2000) and of females’ expectations of success in STEM fields (McGrath Cohoon et al., 2006). To actively combat these barriers, program staff members must first develop conceptual understanding of each barrier (Anderson & Krathwohl., 2001), which is best accomplished when learning facilitators ensure that a learner’s working memory is not overloaded (Kirshner, Kirshner & Paas, 2006). Thus, it is recommended that program staff members receive short but frequent trainings spread over a long period of time to acquire this conceptual knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Schraw and McCrudden’s (2006) research findings support this recommendation in that they highlighted the importance of continued practice in developing conceptual mastery of knowledge and a strong working memory. With continued practice, each program staff member’s learning would be enhanced through exposure to information broken down into manageable parts (Mayer, 2011). Furthermore, each training should build from the previous one(s) to ensure that new content is connected to the learners’ prior knowledge (Mayer, 2011). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 104 Metacognitive knowledge recommendation. The second knowledge recommendation relates to the Association's recruitment of female participants for their cybersecurity program. Currently, the Association's main strategies for recruiting females are waiving the competition team fee for teams that consist of all females and highlighting females in the program’s brochures and media. While these efforts have been successful, the program staff members are looking for more ways to encourage and entice females to participate in their program. As noted in Chapter 4, the Association's program staff identified a multitude of personalities and traits they felt female participants in their program possessed, and it is important that staff members engage in metacognitive processes in which they reflect on their own understandings of female interests and strategies to increase female participation in their program. It is recommended that the Association hold quarterly brainstorming sessions for program staff members to reflect on methods they can utilize to actively combat barriers to females’ participation in the cybersecurity program (Israel, Block, Bauserman, & Kinnucan-Welsch, 2005), thereby combining their knowledge and understanding regarding females who participate in their program to devise new methods of reaching more females. Metacognition is important in enhancing understanding of content and the ability to transfer learned concepts into actions (Israel et al., 2005; Mayer, 2011). Israel et al. (2006) noted that talking out loud and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of one’s ideas are beneficial for improving metacognition. By reflecting as a group, program staff members will also be engaging in social interaction and cooperative learning, which helps in constructing new knowledge (Scott & Palincsar, 2006). By engaging in quarterly brainstorming sessions as a group, program staff members will have the opportunity to cooperatively reflect on collective knowledge relating to the interests of females who participate in their program. These sessions will also be beneficial in GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 105 that they will allow for staff members to transfer their learning into actionable steps to apply what they have collectively learned (Clark & Estes, 2008). Research has shown that transfer such as this promotes further learning (Mayer, 2011). Motivation Recommendations Introduction. The motivational influences in Table 11 are those that were assumed to affect the gender gap in the Association’s cybersecurity program as well as whether or not the assumptions were validated based on the program staff members’ interview and survey responses. These influences are also supported by the underlying motivation needed by program staff that were identified in the literature review. Motivation is an important component of organizational success, and the Association’s goal of increasing female representation within its cybersecurity program depends largely on the motivation of program staff members to achieve that goal (Pintrich, 2003). Thus, it is important for the Association to understand which motivational influences identified in Table 11 were validated. While each influence is listed in the table, for practical purposes there are only change recommendations for the influences that were validated and that were rated as having high priority regarding achieving the stakeholders’ goal. The Association should focus on facilitating the continued development of program staff members’ motivation in order to achieve its goal of decreasing the gender gap in cybersecurity program participation (see Table 11). GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 106 Table 11 Motivation Influences and Recommendations Assumed Motivation Influence Validated Yes, High Probability, No (V, HP, N) Priority Yes, No (Y, N) Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation The Association’s program staff members believe they are capable of increasing the number of females who participate in their cybersecurity program. (Self- Efficacy) Y Y Feedback and modeling increase self- efficacy (Pajares, 2006). The Association should internally highlight a successful female participant who has gone on build her career in STEM to cultivate and build self- efficacy and enhance motivation for staff (Pajares, 2006). The Association’s program staff members believe in the importance of increasing the number of females who participate in their cyber security program. (Expectancy and Value) Y Y Learning and motivation are enhanced if the learner values the task (Eccles, 2006). The Association should continue to provide the cybersecurity program staff with rationales regarding the importance of increasing gender representation in their program. (Pintrich, 2003) Self-Efficacy. The first motivational recommendation relates to the Association’s cybersecurity program staff members’ self-efficacy regarding increasing the percentage of female participants in their program. The data gathered in this study showed that in general, the team has high self-efficacy; they believe they can achieve the goal of increasing female participation in their program. As such, it is recommended that the Association continue to cultivate self-efficacy among the program staff. To do this, the Association should internally highlight a successful female participant who has gone on build her career in STEM. This will GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 107 cultivate and continue to build self-efficacy among the program staff members in that it will reinforce the narrative that they are successful in their pursuit of increasing female representation in STEM (Pajares, 2006). Expectancy and value. The second motivational recommendation relates to the program staff members’ expectations and related value regarding increasing the percentage of female participants in the cybersecurity program. Data gathered in this study showed that in general, the staff members have high expectancy and high value for the organizational goal; they believe they will achieve any goal they are charged with. Furthermore, the Association’s program staff members believe in the importance of increasing the number of females who participate in their cybersecurity program; there is no gap between the team’s expectations and how they value the goal of increasing females’ participation. Therefore, it is recommended that the Association continue to provide the cybersecurity program staff members with rationales about the importance of increasing gender representation in their program (Pintrich, 2003). This will help keep the cybersecurity program team members’ expectations and value high as they continue to attempt to increase female representation in their program. Organization Recommendations Introduction. The organization influences in Table 12 are the complete list of assumed organization influences and whether or not they were validated based on the influences most frequently cited in the study interview and survey responses. These assumed influences are supported by the literature review including the review of organization and cultural theory. Cultural theory describes two main constructs of culture within an organization: observable beliefs, also known as cultural models, and the values shared by individuals in groups, known as the cultural setting (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These constructs are important because GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 108 they constitute the cultural influences that often affect attaining organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In order to facilitate change, organizational processes and resources must interact with cultural models and settings in a way that aligns to the organization's strategic mission and goals. As indicated in Table 12, some of the researcher’s assumed organizational influences were validated and had high priority related to achieving the stakeholders’ goal. The table also shows the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles. Table 12 Organization Influences and Recommendations Assumed Organization Influence: Cause, Need, or Asset* Validated Yes, High Probability, No (V, HP, N) Priority Yes, No (Y, N) Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation The Association’s cybersecurity program staff members do not receive clear communication regarding expectations and accountability related to the Association’s goal of increasing female representation in its cybersecurity program. HP Y Clear and candid communication helps team members adjust their performance toward achieving a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). The Association should establish consistent and clear communications policies relating to its goal of increasing female representation in the cybersecurity program. Also, the Association should ensure that this communication includes clear goals and accountability measures for each individual on the cybersecurity program team. Program staff must juggle competing organizational goals. Other metrics may thwart competition staff members’ focus on and dedication to HP Y Individuals are more likely to focus on goals with the greatest discrepancy in attainment (Freitas et al., 2002; Higgins, 1997; Higgins et al., Create a board for tracking the goal of increasing female participation against overall program participation numbers. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 109 increasing female participation. 1997; Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Disparity between female and male staff members’ perspectives on closing the STEM gender gap may inhibit the effects of staff members’ efforts to close the gap. N N Effective goals are results-oriented, priorities should be clarified, progress indicators should be clarified, and continuous improvement should be embedded throughout the organization (Dufour, Dufour, Eaker, and Many, 2006). Not a priority. Goal communication. As noted by Berger (2014), organizational communication affects employee performance and its lack can keep organizations from achieving their stated goals. Data gathered throughout this study highlighted that the goal to increase female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity competition has not been clearly communicated to the cybersecurity program staff. Furthermore, there is also a lack of understanding about the expectations and accountability regarding that goal. In order to support the goal to increase the representation of females within the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program and competition, the Association should establish consistent and clear communications relating to that goal. Also, the Association should ensure that this communication includes clear accountability measures for each individual on the cybersecurity program team. It is recommended that the Association employ both formal and informal communications relating to the goal of increasing females’ participation in its K-12 cybersecurity program because both are important for attempting to cultivate change within an organization. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 110 Formally, it is important for organizational leaders to set the tone for goal or change initiatives (Smith, Lewis, & Tushman, 2012). This should be done by making official announcements of goals to clearly define them and establish them as priorities for employees, in the case of this study, specifically for the Association’s cybersecurity team employees. It is important to strategically consider how to employ these official announcements given that case studies have shown that inability to set the tone at the outset of a change initiative can cause defensiveness and pushback regarding changes (Smith et al., 2012). In the context of this study, once formal communications relating to the Association’s goal of increasing female participation in its program have been employed, it is imperative to establish informal communications. Informal communications relating to an initiative are spontaneous, and they often play a greater role in determining the initiative’s outcome. Some tactics that can be employed include off-the-record encounters and anonymous communication channels (Smith et al., 2012). These tactics allow for organizations’ leaders to gain more realistic pictures of how employees feel about the organization’s goals and initiatives. In this stud, utilizing informal modes of communication also will help the Association apply the concept of constitutive communication, which refers to environments in which there is mutual commitment by all employees to actively participate in open communication relating to a goal, in the context of this study to increase female participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program and competition. This is important because constitutive communication provides quality feedback and information to all individuals involved, which assists them in meeting organizational goals (Ballard & Seibold, 2004; Berger, 2014). This feedback is essential in the context of this study because improving cybersecurity program staff members’ understanding will help them interpret the messages that have been communicated regarding the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 111 goal of increasing the representation of females in their program (Smith et al., 2012). Thus, both formal and informal communication strategies can assist the Association in effectively outlining and highlighting its goal of increasing female representation in its cybersecurity program. Goal prioritization. Multiple priorities and conflicting goals can pose barriers to employees’ abilities to accomplish all of their assigned tasks Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). The data collected for this study highlighted that the Association’s cybersecurity program staff members must juggle competing organizational goals that interrupt their focus on and dedication to increasing female participation in their program. To address this barrier, it is recommended that the Association create a goal-tracking board that publicly informs all staff members of their progress towards achieving their goals. Research highlights the loss-looms-larger effect, that individuals are more likely to focus on goals with the greatest discrepancy in attainment (Freitas et al., 2002; Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Providing a goal-tracking board for the Association’s goals is beneficial as it communicates to employees what Smith et al. (2012) call a discrepancy message, a message that suggests to those throughout an organization an urgency to change. With regard to this study, the urgency provided by the board would be related to the discrepancy between overall participation in the Association’s cybersecurity program and female participation in the program. Furthermore, studies show that monitoring the performance of employees correlates to organizational outcomes (Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003). A goal-tracking board would provide a system of publicly monitoring the progress made toward achieving the Association’s goals: As Kirkpatrick (2016) concisely stated, “If something is measured, it means it’s important.” Thus, monitoring the progress made toward recruiting more females into the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program directly against the Association’s other organizational GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 112 goals should motivate all stakeholders directly working on the goal to increase female participation in the cybersecurity program. Lastly, research also shows that in the early stages of making progress toward goals, individuals tend to allocate more resources to the goal that has the greatest discrepancy. Thus, a goal-tracking board at the Association should spur the allocation of resources toward the cybersecurity program staff members’ efforts to increase female participation in the program by continually reminding them of the gender gap in their program. These recommendation will help support the Association as it implements the following integrated implementation and evaluation plan. Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan In order to support the recommendations that have been made, the Association should look to implement the following implementation and evaluation framework. This framework has been influenced by the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). It has been developed to support the Association’s staff as they address gaps in staff knowledge and motivations towards increasing female participation and representation within their program. Furthermore, it will assist them in overcoming the organizational barriers that also stand in their way of achieving their goal to increasing female participation and representation within their program. This framework is meant to be a starting point for the Association. As such, once the framework has been implemented, the Association should look to iterate on the framework to enhance its ability to address the influences on the gender gap within the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. Implementation and Evaluation Framework This implementation and evaluation plan was influenced by the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016); the model emphasizes four distinct levels that GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 113 influence employee job performance and is based on Kirkpatrick’s original Four-Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006); the levels are reaction, learning, behavior, and results. Specifically, the model suggests that employees need to find training and professional development favorable (Level 1: Reaction), acquire the knowledge and skills needed to increase their own performance (Level 2: Learning), and apply what they have learned (Level 3: Behavior) in order to increase their individual influence on organizational goals (Level 4: Results). The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) improved on the four-level evaluation model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) by starting the development of any implementation and evaluation plan with level four and working backward. In the case of this study, the implementation and evaluation plan starts with the Association’s goal of increasing the female representation in its cybersecurity program and with the results the Association needs to achieve that goal. Once organizational goals and results have been clearly identified, organizations must uncover the “leading indicators” that bridge employee behaviors to the results needed to achieve the goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Next, evaluators then must identify the employee learning that is needed for a behavior to be produced in the workplace. Finally, it is important to for an evaluator to identify how to evaluate employee satisfaction with a training or professional development opportunity; employee satisfaction is important because learners are more likely to persist if they find what they are learning favorable (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Designing implementation and evaluation plans in this manner ensures that immediate recommendations and solutions are clearly tied to influencing larger organizational goals. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 114 Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations The Association's overall mission is to promote a strong national defense through educational programming directed at the public, advocating for STEM education, and supporting veterans. As such, the Association’s organizational goal relating to the K-12 cybersecurity space includes delivering a high-quality program that reaches the broadest possible student population defined by age range and geographic demographics. In efforts to address the STEM gender gap, the Association is attempting to increase the participation of female students in its national youth cybersecurity competition; its goal is to increase the number of female participants in the program from 24% to 35% in the next five years. The nation projects the need for nine million new STEM employees by 2022, and the Association is positioned to help fill this societal need for more computer science and engineering experts and also to help address the larger gender gap within STEM through its efforts to support female interest in cybersecurity. It is expected that supporting the suggested recommendations regarding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences by implementing Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four levels of training evaluation will help the Association’s cybersecurity program staff members develop the behaviors and skills and needed to achieve their goal. Level 4: Results and leading indicators Table 13 shows what Kirkpatrick (2016) calls the Level 4 results and leading indicators; these are the short-term outcomes, metrics, and methods that will suggest that critical behaviors are influencing the Association’s progress toward achieving its organizational goal of increasing female participation in its K-12 cybersecurity competition; this list includes both external and internal outcomes that relate to the Association's goal. If the internal outcomes are met through implementing the strategies identified in this chapter, then progress toward achieving the overall GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 115 goal of increasing female participation in the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity competition should also be realized. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 116 Table 13 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes Outcome Metric(s) Method(s) External Outcome: More female students will pursue STEM careers in computer science and engineering. 1. Female participants will develop what Schraw and McCrudden (2006) call situational interest in the Association's cybersecurity competition. The number of female participants who compete in the Association's cybersecurity competition will increase more than one year in a row. Registration data End-of-year survey items 2. Improved access for female participants to same-sex role models in the fields of computer science and engineering 2a. The number of female role models throughout the Association’s cybersecurity competition. 2a. Registration data and internal tracking of national volunteers 2ba. The number of events during which females are exposed to a female computer science and/or engineering role model. 2b. Internal reporting data on Association-sponsored events. 3. Decreased gender stereotyping in the Association's cybersecurity competition Decrease in negative comments and complaints from female program participants Survey data gathered at the end of the year 4. Improved female participant self-efficacy and expectancy relating to cyber security Increase in positive comments from females about their ability to do well in cyber security Survey data gathered at the end of the year accompanied by informal interviews and formative assessments made during live events organized and executed by the Association Internal Outcomes: The Association will increase the number of female participants in its cybersecurity program from 24% to 35% in the next five years. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 117 5. Increased resources allocated to recruiting and retaining female participants Number of hours and days program staff members spend addressing the gender gap in the cybersecurity program Weekly reporting of employee time allocations related to organizational goals 6. Increased employee confidence in supporting female participants Annual survey results on key questions Compare annual survey results 7. Increased employee awareness of the organization's specific goal of increasing female participation Annual survey results on key questions Compare annual survey results 8. Increased employee members’ awareness of their specific roles in increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program Annual survey results on key questions Compare annual survey results Level 3: Behavior Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus were the Association’s K-12 cybersecurity program staff members; they develop, manage, and execute the program. The first critical behavior is that program staff members must identify and recruit female mentors for the cybersecurity program. The second is that staff must identify gender biases or non-gender- neutral copy in program materials and events, and the third is that staff must accurately and timely submit biweekly reports of the hours they have allocated to different Association activities. Lastly, program staff will receive constant and clear communication on the goal of increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcomes are listed in Table 14. Table 14 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing 1. Identify and recruit female engineers and computer scientists The number of female speakers and mentors who participate in Association events 1a. The Association's cybersecurity program team shall track the number of female role 1a. Weekly throughout the year GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 118 to speak and interact with the Association’s cybersecurity program participants. geared toward K-12 students models identified via referral forms submitted by program staff members and by coaches around the nation. 1b. The Association's cybersecurity program team shall track the number of female role models solicited from the referral forms submitted by program staff members and coaches around the nation. 1b. Weekly throughout the year 2. Identify gender biases or non- gender-neutral copy in program materials and events. The number of major corrections made by the reviewee of program materials. National commissioner shall review program materials and track the number of corrections via an internal tracking mechanism created by the programmatic team. Initially from June 2018 through September 2018 to review all current material Thereafter, any time new material is created for the program 3. Accurately and timely submit a biweekly report of the hours cybersecurity program staff members have allocated to different Association activities. The number of accurate reports submitted to the national commissioner on time 3a. The national commissioner shall track the numbers of biweekly reports submitted to him/her. 3a. Biweekly throughout the year 3b. The national commissioner shall evaluate the submitted biweekly reports for accuracy and record the 3b. Biweekly throughout the year GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 119 ratio of accurate to nonaccurate reports. 4. Constant and clear communication regarding the goal of increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program The number of official communications delivered by the national commissioner to the cybersecurity program staff members regarding the goal increasing females’ program participation and each employee's specific role in helping to achieve that goal The national commissioner shall track and record all communications delivered to program staff members relating to the goal of increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program. Monthly throughout the year Required drivers. In order to increase the likelihood that program staff members will apply what they have learned about gender inequality, staff members’ direct supervisors should support and reinforce what the staff members are learning in trainings; furthermore, they should encourage staff members to apply what they have learned and establish incentives for achieving performance goals that enhance recruiting female participants into the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program. Table 15 shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of new reviewers. Table 15 Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors Method(s) Timing Numbers of Critical Behaviors Supported Reinforcing Job aid that provides a description and overview of quality mentors Ongoing 1 Job aid that highlights the appropriate use of gender-neutral language. Ongoing 2 Job aid to help cybersecurity program staff members track the hours spent on program tasks Ongoing 3 Job aid to provide communication tools and their uses in the workplace Ongoing 4 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 120 Encouraging Reminder email or notification regarding soliciting female mentors and turning in the biweekly staff hours allocations Biweekly 1, 3 Feedback and coaching from national commissioner Ongoing 2 Reminders from the national commissioner that encourage program staff members to clearly communicate with one another the goal of increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program Ongoing 4 Rewarding Referral incentives for the numbers of mentors the cybersecurity program staff members place in the program Annually 1 Performance incentives for when an error rate decreases Project based 2 Public acknowledgement in all-hands meetings when team performance hits the benchmark for turning in accurate and timely hours allocations Quarterly 3, 4 Monitoring national commissioner publicly announces metrics from the metrics reports Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4 National commissioner solicits feedback relating to the metrics for the key behaviors Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4 National commissioner should assess learners’ performance. Frequent, quick checks can help the organization monitor progress and make adjustments if results do not match expectations at that time. Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4 Organizational support. To increase the likelihood that the cybersecurity program staff members will apply what they have learned about gender inequality, the Association should support the training efforts by establishing consistent and clear communications relating to its goal of increasing the representation of females in its cybersecurity program. The Association must ensure that this communication includes clear goals and accountability measures for each individual on the cybersecurity program team. Furthermore, the Association should support the required drivers of changes in key behaviors by creating a goal-tracking board with which to track the goal of increasing female participation in the program against overall participation. Level 2: Learning GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 121 Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, the Association's program staff members should be able to • Identify and correct language within marketing and programmatic material that contains gender stereotyping. (D) • Evaluate female expectations of success in the STEM field. (D) • Identify communications tools that can be utilized to enhance the Association's efforts toward increasing the participation of females in its cybersecurity program. (D) • Successfully recruit quality gender-specific role models from computer science and engineering. (P) • Successfully track and report the hourly allocation of work directed toward organizational goals. (P) Program. The learning goals identified in the previous section will be best achieved with a training program that educates cybersecurity program staff members on the nuances of gender issues within STEM and the proper processes for tracking the time they each allot to making the program more female friendly. As such, the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program staff members will study common misconceptions and barriers relating to the gender gap win STEM. This includes insufficient extracurricular exposure to STEM for females (Jones et al., 2000; Pan et al., 2015), a lack of female participation in advanced math courses (Master et al., 2016; Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014; Watt et al., 2006), low female self-efficacy regarding STEM subjects (Bystydzienski et al., 2015; Ellis et al., 2016; Stanko et al., 2014), and common negative societal stereotypes relating to women in STEM (Bottia et al., 2015; Jones et al., 2000; Master et al., 2016; Smyth & Nosek, 2015; Stanko et al., 2014). This learning program is blended in nature and comprises both asynchronous articles and videos consumed online and GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 122 face-to-face workshops; the content will be delivered through online modules and five face-to- face sessions. The total time for completion is 12.5 hours over the course of five weeks. During the asynchronous portion of the training, learners will be asked to digest both an article and supporting content videos; the content will be housed in the Association’s learning management system called Canvas, and each module will cover a different barrier to female participation in STEM. The videos will be three to five minutes in length, and learners will have the ability to pause and take notes during each video. Each module will also include both a knowledge check assessment and a discussion prompt that will be housed in the learning management system’s discussion software, Yellowdig. Each week, participants will be required to take the knowledge assessment and respond to the discussion prompt and at least three other participants’ comments. The discussion board will be moderated by the training instructor. To support learning the content in each module, participants will be provided a key of terms and references relating to the module’s video and reading once the module has been completed. Lastly, the asynchronous material will culminate in an online simulation in which participants will engage with student avatars in a scenario in which the participant is managing coed students in a K-12 science classroom. This scenario will test participants’ knowledge of barriers that females face when pursuing STEM and require them to both support the females in the class and address gender stereotypes being made by both males and females in the class. The simulation will be moderated by the training facilitator and operated through the use of software called Mursion. Feedback will be provided through the module assessments, discussion boards, and the final simulation of the asynchronous content. During the synchronous in-person sessions, learners will apply learned asynchronous material to authentic situations within the Association's cybersecurity program. Here, GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 123 participants will learn to revise program materials to reflect copy that is free from gender bias language, identify negative experiences for female program participants, and track their work in relation to increasing female participation in their program. This includes the opportunity to participate in a learning community in which all training participants peer model and give each other feedback. Participants will review examples of bias-free program content and compare that with gender-biased content. Furthermore, each participant will be asked to create original copy for program material. Lastly, participants will have ample opportunities to review the time allocation sheet provided by the Association’s national commissioner and practice completing it and turning it in. Components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is often necessary as a precursor to applying the knowledge to solving problems; thus, it is important to evaluate learning of both declarative and procedural knowledge. It is also important that learners value training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned knowledge and skills on the job. However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge and skills and be committed to using them. Table 16 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning. Table 16 Components of Learning for the Program Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.” Knowledge checks using multiple choice In the asynchronous portions of the course after video components of the module Notes taken during formative knowledge checks during face-to-face discussions and asynchronous discussion posts Periodically during each face-to-face live session and with each module’s asynchronous discussion post GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 124 Post training assessment At the end of the training Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.” Demonstration of interacting with female and male participants through an online simulation within the asynchronous material utilizing the software Mursion Module 5 of the asynchronous material Demonstration of recording and submitting an hourly allocation form to the national commissioner During the 4th face-to-face session. Demonstration of reviewing and correcting materials with gender bias language During the 3th face-to-face session Demonstration of successfully identifying and recruiting quality gender-specific role models from computer science and engineering through live role- playing simulations During the 5th face-to-face session Post training assessment survey asking participants about their levels of proficiency before and after the training At the end of the training Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.” Instructor’s observation of participants’ statements and actions demonstrating that they see the benefit of what they are being asked to do on the job During the workshop Discussions of the value of what they are being asked to do on the job During the workshop Retrospective pre- and posttest assessment item After the course Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.” Feedback session following the Mursion simulation During the 5th face-to-face session after they have completed the simulation Post training assessment item After the course Commitment: “I will do it on the job.” Discussions following practice and feedback During the workshop Create an individual action plan During the workshop Level 1: Reaction Continuing to follow Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model, the plan laid out above will also include monitoring whether or not the participants enjoy the training and find it engaging and relevant to their jobs. While this step is last in the model, it should not be GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 125 overlooked. Schraw and Lehman (2009) noted the positive impact of learning when it is built on a learner’s interests; by making the training favorable, the Association will increase the amount of the training that participants retain. Furthermore, Eccles (2006) showed that when a learner values the task being learned, learning becomes enhanced, and this is what Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) are referring to when they describe making the training relevant to the participants. When a task directly reflects an aspect of the participant’s job, it will enhance the participant’s learning. Table 17 below provides the methods for assessing cybersecurity staff members’ reactions to the training being provided. Table 17 Components of Measuring Reactions to the Program Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing Engagement Data analytics in the learning management system Ongoing during the asynchronous portion of the course Completion of online modules, lessons, and units Ongoing during the asynchronous portion of the course Observation notes taken by the training instructor or facilitator During the workshop On-time attendance During the workshop Course evaluation One week after participants finish the course Relevance Course evaluation One week after participants finish the course Participant engagement survey Three weeks after participants finish the course Customer Satisfaction Brief check-ins with participants via discussions After every module, lesson, or unit and the workshop Course evaluation One weeks after the course. Participant engagement survey Three weeks after participants finish the course GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 126 Evaluation Tools Throughout the program In order to gain quality data on participant engagement, participants will be monitored throughout the Association’s learning program; this includes both asynchronous and in-person components of the program. Because Canvas, by Instructure, will be utilized as the learning management system to deliver the asynchronous course material, quantitative data will be gathered from its analytics tools; this includes data about the progress participants make throughout each learning module. Each activity will be tracked by its completion percentage and the duration of engagement. These data points will not only help judge the quality of the program overall but also help identify areas of the training that may be less engaging. During the in-person workshops, the instructors will act as the data-gathering tool. They will ensure that attendance is taken every day and that on-time attendance is noted. Furthermore, they will take notes throughout the live workshops after conducting periodic brief check-ins with the participants. At these brief check-ins, the instructor will ask the participants about their satisfaction with the training and the relevance of the material, and these data will be utilized to gather qualitative program data. The combination of qualitative data gathered during the live sessions and quantitative data gathered through the asynchronous experience will provide the Association with the formative data needed to make changes during the program. Delayed for a period after the program implementation Approximately three weeks after the implementation of the training, and then again at 12 weeks, the Association should administer a participant engagement survey containing open and scaled items to measure, from the participant’s perspective, satisfaction with and relevance of the training (Level 1), confidence in and value of applying their training (Level 2), application of the GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 127 training in their daily routines (Level 3), and the extent to which their efforts have resulted in recruiting and retaining more female participants in the K-12 cybersecurity program (Level 4). Data analysis and reporting As described throughout the integrated implementation and evaluation plan, there are many different pieces of data that are needed to be gathered to inform the Association of the success of the learning program described. Data gathered from the learning program alone is insufficient as there is a need to ensure that the results of the learning program affects the attainment of the Association's organizational goal to increase female representation within their program. As such, data relating to level four, level three, level two and level one items described in the implementation and evaluation plan will be gathered, analyzed and reported on. Following Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Model, the data piece that will be the focal point of analysis and reporting will be the Association’s success towards increasing female representation within their program. The program facilitator will gather data relating to each of Kirkpatrick’s and Kirkpatrick's (2016) levels in order best understand the training program’s effect on the Association's goal. Immediately following the execution of both the course evaluation and the check in survey, the course facilitator will be analyzing the data gathered from the entire course. This will be the first step in analyzing and reporting the data from the learning program. Utilizing Qualtrics software, the facilitator will analyze the survey data. At the same time, the facilitator will also pull reports from the LMS on the activities performed and the assessments taken there. The facilitator will analyze the survey instruments for participants perceptions of knowledge gained, motivation towards applying the training content into the workplace, the relevance of the course material and the satisfaction each participant had with the training. The data gathered GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 128 from the learning program will then be ready for the facilitator to compare to the results of the employee’s behaviors in the workplace. After data gathered from the learning program has been analyzed and compiled into a preliminary report, the facilitator for the learning program will then gather data from levels three and four in the integrated implementation and evaluation place to ensure that the program is actually affecting the key behaviors and skills that have been identified as influencing the organizational goa to increase female representation within their program. This includes items such as the number of days/hours programmatic staff spend addressing the gender gap within their program, increased employee confidence in supporting female participants, increased employee awareness of the organization's specific goal to increase female participation and increased employee awareness of their specific role towards increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cyber security program. After having compared the results of the training to the key skills and behaviors identified in levels three and four of the implementation and evaluation plan, the learning program facilitator will compile all the results and present his or her findings to Association's leadership. Reporting the success of the learning program shall follow a two-step process. First, the facilitator for the learning program shall create a six-page memo providing the Association's leadership the detailed synopsis of the results of the training and the metrics related to the key behaviors and skills the training is supposed to be influencing. This memo shall also provide initial recommendations for suggested iterations to the learning program. Following the submittal of the learning program memo, the facilitator shall schedule an hour meeting to present the memos findings and field questions from the Association's leadership. In that hour meeting, the facilitator shall present the condensed findings from their evaluation of the learning program GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 129 utilizing presentation software of their choice. Furthermore, the facilitator shall also provide each member of the Association's leadership with a one-page handout that includes the major data charts from the learning program. See Figure 2 below for an example of the data chart that shall be included in the one-page handout. This shall be taken from the dashboard that the programmatic team keeps as it tracks its progress towards achieving its goal. The presentation shall be limited to a half hour, after which the Association's leadership will pose any questions concerns or recommendations they have for the learning program. Figure 2 Female Representation Tracking Dashboard Summary Utilizing Kirkpatrick’s New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), this training program emphasizes four distinct levels that influence job performance with the goal of ensuring that Association cybersecurity program training participants find it favorable (Level 1: GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 130 Reaction), acquire the knowledge and skills they need to increase their own performance (Level 2: Learning), and have applied what they have learned (Level 3: Behavior) in order to increase their individual influence on organizational goals (Level 4: Results). The training plan starts with the end in mind: Everything is focused on the Association’s goal in increasing the female representation in the K-12 cybersecurity program and the results that program staff members need to show they have achieved that goal. Working backward, and utilizing “leading indicators” as a focal point, the learning program will assess employee knowledge gains and motivation throughout the training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). The results from the various assessments that will be implemented will then be used to iterate and improve the training in order to best support each employee on the Association's K-12 cybersecurity program team. Conclusion This study was conducted to evaluate the degree to which the Association is meeting its goal of increasing female participation and representation within their K-12 cyber security program. Over the space of three months in the fall of 2017, qualitative data was gathered by surveying and interviewing the eight individuals who make up the Association’s K-12 cyber security program team. This data was then analyzed for trends relating to the team’s knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to increasing female representation within their program. This study found that the Association’s goal of increasing female representation in their program is an ambitious goal and will require them to recruit females at a rate higher than historically they have been able to. Furthermore, programmatic staff have a clear understanding that gender role models play a role in enhancing female participation in STEM, have high self- efficacy and expectancy-value towards increasing the number of females who participate in their program, that programmatic staff are influenced by competing organizational goals that deter GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 131 competition staff’s focus and dedication to increasing female participation in their cyber security competition and staff do not have a clear understanding of the organization’s identified goal to increase female participation and representation within their program. 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STEM crisis or STEM surplus? Yes and yes. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics Monthly Labor Review. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2015/article/stem-crisis-or-stem-surplus-yes-and-yes.htm GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 142 APPENDIX A The Association and the Gender Gap This survey is designed to better understand the gender gap, and its influences, within the Association's cybersecurity K-12 program. Q1 I have worked for the Association for ____ years. Q2 I am a: o Male (1) o Female (2) Q3 To what extent do you believe having more female engineering and/or computer science professionals would help increase the number of female students in your program? o 0- No Impact (1) o 1- Little Impact (2) o 2- Some Impact (3) o 3- Decent Impact (4) o 4- Greatly Impact (5) Q4 To what extent do you believe having more female coaches would help increase the number of female students in your program? o 0- No Impact (1) o 1- Little Impact (2) o 2- Some Impact (3) o 3- Decent Impact (4) o 4- Greatly Impact (5) Q5 To what extent do you believe having more female staff within the cyber security program would help increase the number of female students in your program? o 0- No Impact (1) o 1- Little Impact (2) o 2- Some Impact (3) o 3- Decent Impact (4) o 4- Greatly Impact (5) Q6 The females you are trying to recruit feel they have the natural talent to do well in cyber security. o Strongly disagree (1) o Disagree (2) o Neither agree nor disagree (3) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 143 o Agree (4) o Strongly agree (5) Q7 The females you are trying to recruit feel that they must work harder than their male counterparts to succeed in cyber security? o Strongly disagree (1) o Disagree (2) o Neither agree nor disagree (3) o Agree (4) o Strongly agree (5) Q8 Females in your program expect to succeed within the cyber security competition. o Strongly disagree (1) o Disagree (2) o Neither agree nor disagree (3) o Agree (4) o Strongly agree (5) Q9 Females entering your program feel confident in their math skills. o Strongly disagree (1) o Disagree (2) o Neither agree nor disagree (3) o Agree (4) o Strongly agree (5) Q10 Females entering your program expect to become computer scientists or engineers. o Strongly disagree (1) o Disagree (2) o Neither agree nor disagree (3) o Agree (4) o Strongly agree (5) Page Break Q11 I can remain calm when facing difficulties in recruiting females to our program because I can rely on my abilities to do so. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q12 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 144 o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q13 I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q14 Whatever comes my way in my job, I can usually handle it. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q15 My past experiences in my job have prepared me well to help females succeed in our program. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q16 I meet the goals that I set for myself in my job. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q17 I feel prepared to help encourage young females to participate in our program. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q18 I can always manage to solve difficult problems at work if I try hard enough. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 145 Q19 If something gets in the way of recruiting young girls to participate in our program, I can find the means and ways to overcome that obstacle. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q20 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish the goal of recruiting more females into our program. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q21 I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events surrounding the recruitment of females into our program. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Q22 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to encourage young females to participate in our program. o 0- No Confidence (1) o 1- Little Confidence (2) o 2- Moderate Confidence (3) o 3- Much Confidence (4) o 4- Complete Confidence (5) Page Break For the next 5 questions, please rate them on a scale of 1-5, with one being low and 5 being high. Q23 How would you rate your proficiency in recruiting young girls to your program? o 1- Low (1) o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5- High (5) Q24 Compared to the rest of the employees on staff, how would you rate your ability to recruit girls to your program? o 1- Low (1) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 146 o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5- High (5) Q25 What is your level of confidence that you will be able to increase the number of female participants in your program? o 1- Low (1) o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5- High (5) Q26 What is your level of confidence that you will be able to increase the representation of female participants in your program? o 1- Low (1) o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5- High (5) Q27 In terms of the difficulty, how would you rate the goal of increasing the number of females in your program compared to other program goals? o 1- Very Easy (1) o 2- Easy (2) o 3- Neutral (3) o 4- Difficult (4) o 5- Very Difficult (5) Q28 In terms of the difficulty, how would you rate the goal of increasing female representation within your program compared to other program goals? o 1- Very Easy (1) o 2- Easy (2) o 3- Neutral (3) o 4- Difficult (4) o 5- Very Difficult (5) Q29 Someone on the team (which includes you) is proficient in recruiting females into your program. o 1- Strongly Disagree (1) o 2- Disagree (2) o 3- Neither agree nor disagree (3) o 4- Agree (4) o 5- Strongly Agree (5) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 147 Q30 Your team is confident that you can accomplish the goal of increasing the number of females within your program. o 1- Strongly Disagree (1) o 2- Disagree (2) o 3- Neither agree nor disagree (3) o 4- Agree (4) o 5- Strongly Agree (5) Q31 Your team is confident that you can accomplish the goal of increasing female representation within your program. o 1- Strongly Disagree (1) o 2- Disagree (2) o 3- Neither agree nor disagree (3) o 4- Agree (4) o 5- Strongly Agree (5) Q32 How important is it for you to achieve the goal of increasing the number of females within your program? o 1- Not at all important (1) o 2- Slightly important (2) o 3- Moderately important (3) o 4- Very important (4) o 5- Extremely important (5) Q33 How important is it for you to achieve the goal of increasing female representation within your program? o 1- Not at all important (1) o 2- Slightly important (2) o 3- Moderately important (3) o 4- Very important (4) o 5- Extremely important (5) Q34 How much do you enjoy recruiting females to the program? o 1- Not Very Much (1) o 2- Slightly (2) o 3- Moderately (3) o 4- Somewhat (4) o 5- Extremely (5) Q35 How useful do you feel it is to have females participating in the program to be considered a successful program? o 1- Not Very (1) o 2- Slightly (2) o 3- Moderately (3) o 4- Somewhat (4) o 5- Extremely (5) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 148 Q36 I believe that my participation in recruiting females into the program will make me more likely that females will join than if I did not participate in helping achieve that goal. o 1- Strongly Disagree (1) o 2- Disagree (2) o 3- Neither agree nor disagree (3) o 4- Agree (4) o 5- Strongly Agree (5) Q37 How do you rate your level of motivation to increase the number of females in your program? o 1- Not Motivated (1) o 2- Slightly Motivated (2) o 3- Moderately Motivated (3) o 4- Very Motivated (4) o 5- Extremely Motivated (5) Q38 What is your level of confidence in achieving similar goals in the future? o 1- Not Confident (1) o 2- Slightly Confident (2) o 3- Moderately Confident (3) o 4- Very Confident (4) o 5- Extremely Confident (5) Page Break Q39 How many goals are tied to the Association's cyber security program? (1-20) 3 Q40 Compared to other goals tied to your performance, how would you rank the goal to increase female participants in the program? o 0 (0) o 1 (1) o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5 (5) o 6 (6) o 7 (7) o 8 (8) o 9 (9) o 10 (10) Q41 How many hours per week do you spend on activities that help increase female participation in the Association's cyber security program? (0-40) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 149 Q42 Do you have a female mentor within the Association? o Yes (1) o No (2) Q43 How many female role models are available to the participants of the cyber security competition? (0-100) Q44 How many females hold leadership positions within the Association? (0-100) Q45 On a scale of 1-10, with 1 being not at all and 10 being extremely prevalent, do you feel there is a negative bias towards women within the Association? o 0 (0) o 1 (1) o 2 (2) o 3 (3) o 4 (4) o 5 (5) o 6 (6) o 7 (7) o 8 (8) o 9 (9) o 10 (10) GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 150 APPENDIX B Interview Protocol This study will utilize a semi-structured interview guide to assist respondents in providing rich and detailed data for better understanding the researcher questions in this study. Bogden and Biklen (2007) have described this approach as a “guided conversation,” which allows the researcher to gather quality transcripts through open ended questions focused on the problem of practice. Before any questions are asked of the participants, consent forms will be provided, and the participants will be reminded of their ability to withdraw from the interview at any moment before or during the interview. General information regarding study and the problem of practice will also be provided to the participants in the initial moments of the interview. Interview Questions Knowledge 1- Could you describe the girls who participate in your program? 2- What do you believe are most attractive aspects your program to girls? 3- Why do you think less girls enroll in the program than boys? 4- What do you find most challenging about trying to recruit more females into your program? 5- Could you describe the types of skills do you believe can help staff within your organization recruit more girls to the cyber security program? Motivational 6- How confident are you that the organization will be able to achieve its goal of decreasing the male to female gap within your program? GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 151 7- Could you describe for the how the work you perform helps achieve the goal of decreasing the gender gap within the cyber security program? 8- What do you believe will be the long-term effects of increasing female participation within your program? Organizational 9- Please describe the core values of your organization? o Follow up: In what ways do employees exhibit those values? o Follow up: In what ways do they act counter to those core values? 10- Could you describe for me the ways in which your performance is evaluated at work? 11- Could you describe for me the types of goals tied to the cyber security program? o Follow up: Which if any of these goals are specifically tied to your performance evaluations? o Follow up: In what ways do the goals we have identified compete with the organizational goal to increase female participation within your program? o Follow up: Which goals do you feel you have the most resources allotted to them? 12- Could you describe for me how programmatic goals are communicated throughout the organization? o Follow up: What types of messages have been communicated regarding the gender gap goal? 13- What resources do you feel are needed to make your program more appealing to females? 14- How do male and female staff interact within the Association? 15- Please describe the ways in which programmatic staff interact with male participants of the program? GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 152 16- Please describe the ways in which programmatic staff interact with female participants of the program? 17- What modes of communication are used to update employees on the status organizational goals? o Follow up: Describe for me how the goal of decreasing the gender gap within your program has been communicated? o Follow up: How would you describe your leader’s expectations for this goal? GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 153 APPENDIX C Informed Consent/Information Sheet INFORMED CONSENT TITLE: Understanding the STEM Gender Gap within the Nation’s Cyber Security Education Program PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Jeffrey Horne DEPARTMENT: University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education We invite you to take part in a research study conducted on the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. If you find any of the language difficult to understand, please ask questions. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. WHY IS THIS STUDY BEING DONE? This study is about gender underrepresentation within subjects such as engineering and computer science. We hope to learn about the influences that affect the gender gap within the Association’s cyber security program. You are invited as a possible participant because you are employed by the Association, and work directly on the cyber security program team. About eight participants will take part in the study. WHAT IS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY? If you decide to take part in the study, this is what will happen: You will be asked to take an initial survey that will be focused on understanding your day to day work related to increasing females within the Association’s cyber security program. After the survey has been conducted, you will be asked to participate in 2-3 interviews to gain further knowledge regarding the gender gap within the Association’s cyber security program. These interviews will be one on one with the principal investigator, and none of your identifying information will be revealed throughout the study. POSSIBLE RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS You might have some or all of the following discomforts or risks if you take part in this study: Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can choose to skip or stop answering any questions that make you uncomfortable. The principal investigator in this study will go to all lengths necessary to keep your information GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 154 private and secure. There is a small risk that people who are not connected with this study will learn your identity or your personal information. INFORMATION PRIVACY We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) may review your records. The IRB is a research review board that is made up of professionals and community members who review and monitor research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research participants. We may publish the information from this study in journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name. The people who work on the study will see your records. BENEFITS OF TAKING PART IN THIS STUDY You may not receive any direct benefit from taking part in this study. However, your participation in this study may help us learn how to better support organizations, especially the Association, in efforts to increase female access and participation in educational programs. COMPENSATION There is no compensation for taking part in this study. COSTS There is no cost to you for taking part in this study. INJURY OR THE NEED FOR EMERGENCY CARE If you think you have been hurt by taking part in this study, tell the study doctor immediately. If you require treatment because you were injured from participating in this study, treatment will be provided. You and/or your health plan/insurance will be billed for this treatment. The study sponsor will not pay for this treatment. There are no plans to offer any type of payment for injury. However, by signing this form you have not given up any of your legal rights. WHAT ARE YOUR RIGHTS AS A PARTICIPANT, AND WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF YOU DECIDE NOT TO PARTICIPATE? Your participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to take part will not affect your current employment at the Association. You are not giving up any legal claims or rights. If you do decide to take part in this study, you are free to change your mind and stop being in the study at any time. You will not lose any rights if you decide to stop being in the study. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 155 WHOM DO YOU CALL IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS OR CONCERNS? You may contact Jeffrey Horne at 801-419-4292 with any questions, concerns, or complaints about the research or your participation in this study. If you feel you have been hurt by taking part in this study, please contact Jeffrey Horne at 801-419-4292. If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about the research and are unable to contact the research team, contact the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Office at 323-223-2340 between the hours of 8:00 AM and 4:00 PM, Monday to Friday. (Fax: 323-224-8389 or email at irb@usc.edu). If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, or want to talk to someone independent of the research team, you may contact the Institutional Review Board Office at the numbers above. You will get a copy of this consent form. AGREEMENT: I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. All my questions have been answered. By signing this form, I am agreeing to take part in this study. Name of Research Participant Signature Date Signed (and Time*) I have personally explained the research to the participant using non-technical language. I have answered all the participant’s questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this informed consent and freely consents to participate. Name of Person Obtaining Informed Consent Signature Date Signed (and Time*) A witness is required when: (1) the participant cannot see, read, write, or physically sign the consent form, or (2) the Short Form method is used to obtain consent. In these situations, the witness must sign and date the consent form. If no witness is needed, leave this signature line blank. Name of Witness Signature Date Signed GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 156 APPENDIX D Recruitment Letter The Association Cyber Security Gender Gap Recruitment Letter 01 September 2017 <<Name of potential participant>> <<Address>> <<City, State, Zip>> Re: Understanding the STEM Gender Gap within the Nation’s Cyber Security Education Program. Dear <<insert name>>: I am writing to you today to let you know that I am conducting a study of the Association’s Cyber Security program, and would love for your participation. I am conducting this study as part of my doctoral work through the University of Southern California, that focuses on the underrepresentation of females within computer science and engineering. The specific purpose of this study is to better understand the influences that effect the underrepresentation of females within the Association’s cyber security program. As you play a key role in the execution of the program, your view of the Association’s ability to increase females within their program is pivotal. I will be reaching out within the next month with a survey for all Association cyber security program staff to participate in. Following the survey, I will be conducting 2-3 interview with each staff member throughout October, November and December to better understand your roles at the Association and thoughts and feelings towards the Association’s goal of increasing the number of female participants within your program. I would like to note that you are not required to participate in this study, and that even if you do choose to participate in this study, you can remove yourself from it at any time. You may opt out of this study by contacting myself via the information listed below. Thank you for your time and I look forward to interacting with you over the next few months. Sincerely, Jeffrey Horne Doctoral Candidate GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 157 University of Southern California Jeffreyhorne@alumni.usc.edu 801-419-4292 GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 158 APPENDIX E The Association’s Training Program Evaluation This survey is designed to acquire feedback on the Association's Training Program relating to the organizational goal of increasing female participation within the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. Your Name: Date Course Was Taken: Course Name: Course Facilitator: Survey Item Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree -1 -2 1 2 Was the course engaging... 1 I found the content to be interesting. 2 The course lured me into wanting to learn more about the topics presented. 3 The course was memorable. Did you find the course relevant... 4 I feel able to immediately implement what I learned from the course into my job. 5 The course utilized real-life stories and real-world tasks that apply to my job. 6 The course made a strong argument as to why the content is important for my job. 7 The course effectively and efficiently achieved its stated objectives. Were you satisfied with the course... 8 I felt the course to be worth the time I spent participating in it. 9 I would recommend this course to a colleague. 10 I would take another course that the course facilitator delivers. What did I learn... GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 159 11 I now better understand the barriers female face when pursuing STEM careers. 12 I know how to better engage female participants in the Association's K-12 cyber security program. 13 I know how to record and submit an hourly allocation form to the National Commissioner. 14 I know how to review Association materials for gender bias language. 15 I know how to correct gender bias language within Association materials. 16 I feel confident in identifying appropriate female role models for program participants. 17 I am motivated to increase the number of females in our program. 18 I believe that our efforts will help lead more females to careers within STEM. 19 I believe that I will be able to help the program increase the representation of females within the program. 20 I am committed to applying the skills I have learned throughout the training. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 160 APPENDIX F The Association’s Training Program Evaluation (6-month Check-In) This survey is designed to acquire feedback on the Association's Training Program relating to the organizational goal of increasing female participation within the Association’s K-12 cyber security program. Your Name: Date Course Was Taken: Course Name: Course Facilitator: Survey Item Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree -1 -2 1 2 1 On my own, I have learned more about the topics presented at the Gender Representation training. 2 I continue to reflect on activities that I engaged with during the Gender Representation course. 3 I have implemented what I learned from the course into my job. 4 I have recommended the gender representation course to a colleague. 5 I have taken another course that the course facilitator delivers. 6 I have effectively identified and resolved a barrier that our female participants are face in the program. 7 I have effectively engaged female participants in the Association's K-12 cyber security program. 8 I have efficiently recorded and submitted an hourly allocation form to the National Commissioner every two weeks. 9 I have reviewed Association materials for gender bias language. 10 I have corrected gender bias language within Association materials. 11 I feel confident in identifying appropriate female role models for program participants. GIRLS IN CYBERSECURITY 161 12 I am motivated to increase the number of females in our program. 13 I believe that my efforts have help lead more females participating in our program. 14 I have regularly utilized the job aids provided to me in the training. 15 I have received feedback and support regarding my efforts towards increasing female representation from my immediate supervisor or the National Commissioner. 16 I have received acknowledgement or an incentive for my efforts towards increase female representation within our program. 17 The National Commissioner periodically and publicly announces the female metrics from the metrics reports. 18 I have been solicited feedback relating to the goal metrics report. 19 Since the training has ended, My supervisor or the National Commissioner has checked in with me to help me continue to develop and utilize the skills learned in the Gender Representation training. 20 I am aware of the organization's specific goal to increase female participation. 21 I am aware of my specific role towards increasing female participation in the Association's K-12 cyber security program. 22 In the past quarter, I have allotted more resources and time to recruiting and retaining female participants. 23 We “The Association” are decreasing the gender gap within our K-12 cyber security program.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Horne, Jeffrey Adam (author)

Core Title Girls in cybersecurity: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 08/09/2018

Defense Date 05/07/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag after school programs,Computer Science,cyber security,Engineering,extra curricular activities,Females,gender,gender gap,math,non-profits,OAI-PMH Harvest,Science,STEM,Technology,underrepresentation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Freking, Frederick (committee member), Hasan, Angela (committee member)

Creator Email jeffreah@usc.edu,jeffreyhorne@alumni.usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-61722

Unique identifier UC11670843

Identifier etd-HorneJeffr-6700.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-61722 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HorneJeffr-6700.pdf

Dmrecord 61722

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Horne, Jeffrey Adam

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA