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Labor displacement: a gap analysis an evaluation study addressing professional development in a small business environment

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Labor displacement: a gap analysis an evaluation study addressing professional development in a small business environment

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Content Running head: LABOR DISPLACEMENT 1

LABOR DISPLACEMENT: A GAP ANALYSIS

AN EVALUATION STUDY ADDRESSING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN A

SMALL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

by

Allyson Rameker

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Allyson Rameker

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 2

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This experience has been one of extreme personal, academic and professional growth.
There are so many individuals that have contributed to making this chapter of life the most
rewarding of them all. To bring the feelings of gratitude to paper almost seems to minimize my
actual emotion, but I will attempt it anyway.
To my husband, Victor, my love. We have built our best life together, driven by a
constant and shared set of goals and filled with endless challenge. You inspire me with your
passion for life, love for family and magnetic personality. I will go anywhere with you.
To my three beautiful children, Oliver, Alila and Julian. Oliver, my hardest worker.
Alila, my enthusiastic learner and Julian, my miracle baby. To see the world through your eyes
motivates me to continue this journey of learning. I look forward to joining you in veterinary
school, at the police academy, law school or whatever learning journey you decide to take!
To my parents, siblings and wonderful family. Whenever I reflect on our family, I feel so
blessed to have the best everythings in the world – best parents, best sisters, best brother,
grandparents, aunts, in-laws, cousins, nieces, nephews, and on and on. I do not know what I did
to deserve such a wonderful family, but I am eternally grateful. I love you all, to the moon and
back again.
To my USC Organizational Change and Leadership Cohort Four. It has been wonderful
getting to know you all over the past three years. I will miss seeing your beautiful faces every
week and learning from your thoughtful minds. I look forward to staying in touch and seeing
how you all change the world. A special note to Ginger Carlson for encouraging me and being
my most northern star. Without you, I am not sure I would have been able to see the path.
Matthew Neal, thank you for keeping my head up and always being such a positive influence.
Thank you!
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 3

And finally, to my chair, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores. I feel fortunate to have had the
opportunity to learn from and work with you. Your guidance through this process made it a
manageable and enjoyable experience. To my committee members, Dr. Brandon Martinez and
Dr. Kathy Stowe. Thank you for your guidance and feedback. This study is stronger for your
contributions.

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 4

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... 2
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES............................................................................................ 7
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 9
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ................................................................................... 9
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................... 10
Organizational Goal .............................................................................................................. 11
Related Literature .................................................................................................................. 12
Importance of the Evaluation................................................................................................. 13
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................ 14
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals ............................................................................. 14
Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................... 15
Purpose of the Project and Questions..................................................................................... 15
Methodological Framework .................................................................................................. 16
Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 16
Organization of the Project .................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................. 18
Displacement Unemployment ............................................................................................... 18
Professional Development ..................................................................................................... 19
Historical Perspective ........................................................................................................ 19
Participation in Professional Development ........................................................................ 20
Antecedents to Participation in Professional Development ................................................ 20
External environment ........................................................................................................ 23
Displaced Workers ................................................................................................................ 24
Historical Perspective ........................................................................................................ 24
Impact of Professional Development on Displaced Workers .............................................. 25
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework ....................................... 25
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ..................................... 26
Knowledge and Skill Set ................................................................................................... 27
Motivation......................................................................................................................... 30
Organizational Influences .................................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.................................................................................. 37
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context ......................................................................................................... 37
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 43
Sampling Criterion and Rationale ...................................................................................... 43
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale..................................................... 44
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale ........................................................................... 45
Data Collection and Instrumentation ..................................................................................... 45
Interviews ......................................................................................................................... 46
Survey ............................................................................................................................... 47
Documents ........................................................................................................................ 48
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 48
Credibility and Trustworthiness ......................................................................................... 50
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Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................................... 51
Ethics .................................................................................................................................... 52
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ..................................................................... 55
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 55
Results .................................................................................................................................. 56
Motivation Results: Self Efficacy ...................................................................................... 56
Self-Efficacy Scale Results................................................................................................ 61
Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................................... 63
Findings ................................................................................................................................ 63
Knowledge ............................................................................................................................ 64
Professional Development Knowledge .............................................................................. 65
Metacognition ................................................................................................................... 67
Motivation ............................................................................................................................ 68
Self-Efficacy ..................................................................................................................... 68
Attribution Theory ............................................................................................................ 69
Interest .............................................................................................................................. 70
Organization ......................................................................................................................... 71
Organizational Communication ......................................................................................... 71
Organizational Time Constraints ....................................................................................... 72
Professional Development Participation ............................................................................ 73
Synthesis ............................................................................................................................... 74
Knowledge ........................................................................................................................ 74
Motivation......................................................................................................................... 75
Organization...................................................................................................................... 75
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 75
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 77
Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 77
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences .................................................. 78
Knowledge Recommendations .......................................................................................... 79
Motivation Recommendations ........................................................................................... 82
Organization Recommendations ........................................................................................ 85
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 88
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ...................................................................... 88
Organizational Purpose, Needs, and Expectations .............................................................. 89
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................................ 89
Level 3: Behavior .............................................................................................................. 90
Level 2: Learning .............................................................................................................. 94
Level 1: Reaction .............................................................................................................. 97
Evaluation Tools ............................................................................................................... 98
Data Analysis and Reporting ............................................................................................. 99
Summary............................................................................................................................... 99
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 99
References .............................................................................................................................. 101
APPENDIX A: Interview Protocol .......................................................................................... 109
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APPENDIX B: Self-Efficacy Survey ..................................................................................... 112
APPENDIX C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet .............................................................. 115
APPENDIX D: Deswin Professional Development Memo: Redacted ...................................... 118
APPENDIX E: Evaluation Tool .............................................................................................. 119

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Stakeholder Goals 14
Table 2. Knowledge Influences 29
Table 3. Motivation Influences 33
Table 4. Organizational Influences 36
Table 5. Goal Responses 58
Table 6. Effort Responses 59
Table 7. Challenge Responses 60
Table 8. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 79
Table 9. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 82
Table 10. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 85
Table 11. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods 89
Table 12. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing 91
Table 13. Required Drivers 92
Table 14. Components of Learning for the Program 96
Table 15. Components to Measure Reaction to the Program 97
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and 42
Motivation within Organizational Cultural Models and Settings

Figure 2. Effort, Goal, and Challenge Comparison 57

Figure 3. Self-Efficacy Survey Results 63

Figure 4. Conceptual Framework: Influencers 64

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ABSTRACT
This study explores a performance gap in professional development participation in a
small-business environment. The purpose of the study was to analyze factors that contribute to
the performance gap and present solutions that increase professional development participation.
The project uses several learning, motivation, and organizational change theories within the
framework of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis. Using both quantitative and qualitative data
collection, the study found that, while employees had sufficient motivation, they were lacking in
key knowledge and organizational supports. These gaps were then used to present strategies to
bridge the performance gaps.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Economists have studied the impact of work displacement since the early 1980s;
however, the topic has received renewed interest since the great recession of 2007–2009 (Lagoa
& Suleman, 2016). Between these years, 15.4 million workers were displaced from their jobs
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2010). Displaced workers are different from those in other types of
unemployment categories, as they are characterized by the effect of a permanent elimination of
their job, either due to company closure or industry shrinkage (Hamilton Project, 2010).
Displaced workers are more likely than those in other categories of the unemployed to see
sustained earnings losses of over 30% (Couch & Placzek, 2010). The wage loss of the displaced
workers is partially due to obsolete skill set, a problem that can be corrected with additional
education or training (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016).
As most displacement occurs within specific industries or occupations, displaced workers
are often forced to find new jobs in a separate industry or occupation (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016).
Due to these changing conditions, a displaced worker’s reduced wages can be due to a mismatch
between a worker’s skill set and the requirements of his or her new position (Ormiston, 2014).
This can be partially offset by education or training, as it acts to create a greater alignment
between the worker and the new position’s required skill set (Ormiston, 2014). Education acts to
raise the long-term earnings of displaced workers by an average of between 9%–13% overall, or
between 14%–29% if the worker takes courses in more technically oriented vocational areas
(Jacobson, LaLonde, & Sullivan, 2004). While displaced workers can benefit from education and
professional development during the event of displaced unemployment, they may not take
advantage of these opportunities.
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Despite the benefits education contributes, displaced workers tend to underinvest in
training relative to its benefits (Hamilton Project, 2010). The most recent recession and the
prolonged unemployment of displaced workers has further highlighted the gap between workers
with and without postsecondary education and training. According to Kelly and Strawn (2011),
this has resulted in an “economic imperative” for more workers to have some type of
postsecondary training. This study therefore reviews how programs in an organization can
contribute to a worker’s overall skill set in a way that would offset wage losses in the case of
displacement.
Organizational Context and Mission
Deswin Homes (pseudonym) is a regional home-building company based in Nevada. It is
a medium-sized enterprise with just over 20 employees. With approximately $40 million in
annual revenue, Deswin focuses mainly on building single-family homes, but is also involved in
multi-family and commercial projects. Deswin was founded in 1994 in Southern Nevada.
Recently, Deswin has diversified its business model to include the purchase of downtown
property with plans to convert it into high-end apartments.
The mission of Deswin is “to enable and empower customers, employees, business
partners and the community to live their best” (Deswin, n.d.). From the perspective of its main
business, i.e., building and selling single-family residential homes, this translates into providing
customers with a functional floor plan that maximizes the benefit of homeownership. From the
perspective of its employees, Deswin encourages a strong work–life balance with benefits that
include unlimited paid leave for use as the employee determines. Deswin also encourages and
supports all employees to engage in professional development activities regardless of whether
they are directly applicable to their current job. Deswin encourages this type of professional
development, which has been found to aid in creativity and innovation in the workplace (Dyer,
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 11

Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011) and serves to broaden their overall skill levels. Professional
development is led by two individuals: the owner of Deswin and the director of construction.
Both individuals are responsible for enabling and empowering DWH employees to engage in
professional development activities.
Organizational Goal
Deswin’s organizational goal is that 100% of its employees will have engaged in
professional development activities by December 2018 that serve to broaden their skill set
outside of the skill set obtained in their current position. Deswin established this goal after
acknowledging the importance of continuing education for workers who are employed in a
traditional cyclical industry and are at risk for future displacement unemployment. Displacement
unemployment also has an emotional competent for the organization. During the Great
Recession (2007–2009), Deswin had to lay off approximately 60% of its employees, many of
whom did not find work for many months or years. Eventually, these individuals found work in
other industries. Presently, Deswin struggles to find employees and is experiencing a labor
shortage due to the absence of these individuals from the construction workforce.
While Deswin employees are offered opportunities to engage in professional
development activities, most Deswin employees are not taking advantage of these opportunities,
despite the encouragement from the owner and director of construction. Opportunities for
professional development are communicated to the employees as part of a continued learning
initiative. There is no mention of displacement unemployment in any employee communication
to minimize any worry on the part of the employees. The professional development program is
simply a policy that reimburses employees for professional development and allows the time off
from work.
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 12

While most Deswin employees have chosen not to engage in professional development,
one individual in particular did take advantage of the program. To that extent, this employee has
been an example to others. This individual decided, after 20 years in the construction industry, to
finally take a course and study and complete the testing required to become a licensed general
contractor. While uncertain at the undertaking, he was successful and now has the license, which
could potentially be a useful tool during differing market conditions.
Related Literature
Job displacement results in sustained earnings losses, which result in losses that are
dependent on the industry and market conditions present when the displacement occurs (Couch
& Paczek, 2010). Displaced unemployment is defined as a worker who lost or left his or her job
due to a plant or company closure, insufficient work, or a position being eliminated (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2010). Tenured displaced workers, or those who were employed for at
least three years prior to being displaced, are particularly at risk, as they are assumed to have a
job-specific or company-specific skill set or knowledge that is susceptible to lose value when
changing companies or industries (Ormiston, 2014). Displaced workers are faced with the
challenge of correcting long-term sustained wage losses (Hamilton Project, 2010). While real
wage losses depend on many variables, including market conditions, alignment between pre-
displacement and post-displacement position and tenure of worker pre-displacement, many
workers find that additional training and education can offset a portion of the wage losses
(Jacobson, et al., 2004). Vocational and technical programs have the largest impact on reversing
wage losses and can be attributed to increasing long-term wages of displaced workers by
between 14%–29% (Jacobson, et al., 2004). While displacement unemployment is a
macroeconomic occurrence, the construction industry has been particularly affected over the last
decade.
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 13

While the Great Recession from 2007–2009 saw overall job losses over 15 million, the
construction industry was disproportionately affected by displacement unemployment (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2010). Between 2007–2009, 1.1 million tenured construction workers lost
their jobs, accounting for 16% of all tenured job losses despite comprising only 7% of the entire
U.S. workforce (Center for Construction Research and Training, 2010). Data from the recession
illustrated the difficulties facing displaced workers. With over 1.1 million tenured displaced
construction workers during that time, approximately 25% of these workers were still
unemployed five to seven years after their initial job loss (Sparshott, 2015). This reemployment
rate of tenured displaced construction workers was the lowest reported since 1984 (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2010). Of the workers who found new employment, a third changed
industries after having been unemployed for more than a year (Sparshott, 2015). Additionally,
many of these reemployed workers are considered underemployed, as their new job conditions
were involuntary, and the workers were not employed in a manner that maximized their skill set
or abilities (Center for Construction Research and Training, 2010).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate Deswin’s performance in relationship to the performance goal
of 100% of employees engaging in professional development activity for a variety of reasons. If
the organization does not meet this goal, Deswin will not have achieved its mission of ensuring
that employees of Deswin “live their best.” Additionally, without a broader skill set that can
offset wage loss, Deswin employees are at risk to sustain wage loss in the case of displacement
unemployment. There is evidence that additional training and skill sets can offset wage losses
associated with displacement unemployment (Jacobson, et al., 2004). As real estate is a
traditionally cyclical industry, if employees do not engage in professional development to
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 14

broaden their skill set, displacement unemployment could result in a substantial sustained wage
loss (Hamilton Project, 2010).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are two stakeholder groups that directly contribute to and benefit from the
achievement of the Deswin’s performance goal: program directors and employees. Program
directors consist of the owner of Deswin and the director of construction. Both program directors
have significant influence on the professional development program. The program directors
further benefit from the program, as its success contributes to Deswin’s overall mission. The
employees benefit from the program, as it has a direct impact on the value they can bring to the
market in the case of displacement.
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational mission, global goal and stakeholder goals

Organizational Mission
Deswin’s mission is to enable and empower customers, employees, business partners, and the
community to live their best.
Organizational Performance Goal
By December 2018, 100% of Deswin employees will have engaged in some professional
development activities that serve to broaden their skill set.
Program Directors
By December 2017, the program directors will
meet with all employees to determine an area of
interest of professional development activities
and subsequently research and enroll them in
related training.
Deswin Employees
By December 2018, Deswin employees will
enroll in and complete professional
development training that is unrelated to
their current job.

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Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the combined efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the
overall organizational goal of 100% of employees participating in professional development
activities, it is important to evaluate where the employees are with regard to their performance
goals. For practical purposes, the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis includes the
employees who benefit from the program, as it has a direct impact on the value they can bring to
the market in the case of displacement. Additionally, the selection of employees as the primary
stakeholder group is due to the ability for data collection to result in the deepest understanding of
the influences that are interfering with the organizational goal. Failure to accomplish this goal
will lead to employee skill set stagnation. A skill set that is specific to an industry or organization
contributes to substantial and sustained wage loss in the case of displacement unemployment
(Ormiston, 2014). For this reason, the specific stakeholder group will be tenured construction
workers, which make up approximately 50% of Deswin’s employees.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with Deswin’s goal to have 100% of
employees engaged in professional development activities. While Deswin offers employees
resources to participate in continuing education or professional development through paid time
off and reimbursement for the costs, only 10% of Deswin employees have participated in such
programs. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed interfering
influences that will be examined systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering
influences. As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is Deswin meeting its goal of 100% of professional development
participation amongst employees?
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2. What are the knowledge and skill set, motivation, and organizational elements related to
achieving Deswin’s goal of 100% of professional development participation amongst
employees?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes’ gap analysis framework (2008) will be adapted to an evaluation
model as the conceptual framework. The Clark and Estes’ gap analysis is a systematic approach
to analyzing an organization’s goals with performance by identifying the knowledge, motivation,
and organization influences that impede performance. The methodological framework will
integrate descriptive statistics with a qualitative case study. Assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences on an employee’s decision to participate in voluntary professional
development opportunities will be generated based on personal knowledge and related literature.
These influences will be assessed using interviews, surveys, document analysis, literature, and
content analysis. Research-based solutions will then be recommended and evaluated.
Definitions
Displacement Unemployment: Unemployment caused by a job loss because of a plant or
company closure, insufficient work, or a position being abolished.
Professional Development: Voluntary and mandatory activities, formal and informal activities
and those related to an employee’s current job or related to personal interests (Hurtz & Williams,
2009).
Tenured Displaced Workers: Workers employed for at least three years prior to being displaced.
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 17

Organization of the Project
This study is organized into five chapters. This chapter provides the reader with key
concepts and terminology that are common in a discussion about displacement unemployment.
Additionally, information is provided regarding the organization’s mission, goals, and
stakeholders, and the framework for the project is introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of
current literature surrounding the study. Chapter Three details the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences that will be examined as well as the methodology for the
study. In Chapter Four, the study data and results are presented and analyzed. Chapter Five
proposes research-based solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as
well as a recommended implementation and evaluation plan for the suggested solutions.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The following literature review will examine the influences that impede employees from
participating in professional development opportunities. The review begins with general research
surrounding the type of professional development education that will have the greatest impact on
reducing wage loss in the case of displacement unemployment. This is followed by a review of
the factors that could have an impact on an employee’s willingness to engage in professional
development activities. Research is then presented that incorporates best practices for effective
methods through which employers can motivate employees. The final section transitions to Clark
and Estes’ gap framework, which reviews knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that could have an impact on an employee’s decision to participate in voluntary professional
development opportunities.
Displacement Unemployment
Displacement unemployment is a unique type of unemployment that has a negative
sustained and lasting impact on an individual’s income (Hamilton Project, 2010). Over 15
million individuals were impacted by displacement unemployment during the recession alone
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2010). While the individual worker is not able to control the
macroeconomic conditions that cause displacement unemployment, research has shown a
relationship between certain types of professional development and its ability to reduce the
associated wage loss (Ormiston, 2014). The same research also analyzed Department of Labor
data to study the effects of occupation-specific human capital on post-displacement wage loss
and found that skill sets that are transferable across occupations are most effective in reducing
wage loss.
Effective professional development can increase long-term earnings of displaced workers
by 14%–29% (Jacobson, et al., 2004). Jacobson, LaLonde, and Sullivan (2004) studied
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 19

approximately 97,000 workers who were laid off between 1990 and 1994 in Washington State.
They found that technically oriented courses reduced wage losses of displaced workers by 14%
for men and 29% for women.
During the recession, a third of displaced workers changed industries to find new
employment opportunities (Sparshott, 2015). The change in industry was due to a prolonged
period of an unsuccessful job search within the construction industry. Without prior professional
development experience, the change in industry resulted in wage loss due to a mismatch between
a worker’s skill and the requirements of the new position (Ormiston, 2014).
Professional Development
Professional development is a broad term that has continued to change along with the
demands of business and industry. This section begins with a discussion on how the
understanding of professional development has changed. The second sections presents research
on antecedents that can assist in predicting participation in professional development.
Historical Perspective
Changes in the economy have had an impact on professional development both in terms
of responsibility and necessity. Economic and technological changes have fostered an
environment that has shifted the responsibility of professional development from the
organization to individuals due to the decrease in an employers’ commitment to retain employees
in the long term (Garofano & Salas 2005). Due to an increase in life expectancy, financial need,
and personal preference, Americans are remaining longer in the workforce, which also results in
the need for additional education and training throughout their careers (Van Noy & Heidkamp,
2013). Due to the changing environment, employees need to engage in professional development
activities throughout their careers to remain attractive to employers (Garofano & Salas 2005).
Traditionally, professional development included formal job training, which is current-job
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 20

training provided in a structured manner; informational job training, such as mentorships and
professional societies; and other-job related training such as skill sets to start a new career path
or leadership training (Garofano & Salas 2005). However, with the rapid advancement of
technologies, the emphasis placed on professional development has broadened to include
voluntary and mandatory activities, formal and informal activities, and those that are related to
an employees’ current job or related to personal interests (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Despite the
benefits that education contributes, displaced workers tend to underinvest in training relative to
its benefits (Hamilton Project, 2010).
Participation in Professional Development
While participation in professional development is low compared with the expected
benefits, organizations can take measures to maximize enrollment. Participation in professional
development is often lower than organizational expectations (Kyndt & Baert, 2013).
Participation rates in professional development are largely driven by the recognized availability
of those activities and programs, suggesting that if an employee knows that these opportunities
exist, they are more likely to participate (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). An individual’s choice to
participate in professional development is driven by his or her perceived need, or “discrepancy
between the current and desired situation” (p. 276), to gain additional knowledge or skill set
(Kyndt & Baert, 2013). Employee participation in professional development is important for an
organization, as it has an impact on an employee’s ability to be innovative and to remain
competitive (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015).
Antecedents to Participation in Professional Development
Sociodemographic. While sociodemographic factors can have an impact on an
employee’s likelihood of participating in professional development activities, some factors have
a stronger relationship than others. In general, age is negatively related to participation in
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 21

professional development activities (Kyndt & Baert, 2013). Specifically, middle-aged employees
demonstrate the highest participation in comparison with their older and younger colleagues, and
employees older than 56 have the lowest participation (Sanders, Oomens, Blonk, & Hazelzet,
2011). In addition to age, education levels have been linked to participation in professional
development. Employees without a college education are less likely to engage in future learning
activities and have the lowest learning intentions (Kyndt & Baert, 2013). Other socioeconomic
factors have been found to have conflicting effects on professional development.
While other socioeconomic factors have been found to influence professional
development intentions, gender and type of employment have resulted in conflicting research.
Sanders et al. (2011) found that women have higher participation in professional development
than their male counterparts. Two additional studies (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Zoogah,
2010) found that gender resulted in no differences in professional development involvement.
Differences in gender participation could be due to women being offered less training
opportunities (Selmer & Leung, 2003) or the time required to participate in such programs
(Greenhalgh & Movrotas, 1994). There is also conflicting research on how the type of
employment (full- or part-time) affects an employee’s learning intention: Kyndt et al. (2011)
found that full-time employees have a lower learning intention, while Greenhalgh and Mavrotas
(1994) found that part-time employees had a lower learning intention.
Career stage. Another antecedent to professional development is career stage; however,
the impact is not always on participation rates. The more an employee is working toward his or
her career goals in a strategic way, the more likely the employee is to engage in professional
development (Kyundt & Baert, 2013). Career stage also has an impact on the type of
professional development an employee selects, as individuals who perceive themselves to be in a
later career stage are more likely to choose professional development activities that are of a
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 22

shorter duration or involve less strenuous time commitments (Garofano & Salas, 2005).
However, the aspiration of an employee to become a higher-level employee is not related to
learning intention (Tharenou, 2011). This link between career stage and professional
development has weakened, as many workers no longer remain within a specific organization or
career for their entire working life (Garofano & Salas, 2005).
Job requirements. The daily requirements of an employee’s job also play a role in the
participation of professional development activities. High workloads and the related time
constraints limit the amount of time and mental effort an employee is willing to spend on
professional development (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015). An employee’s formal release from
work duties can have an impact on an employee’s participation (Sankey & Machin, 2014). The
perceived challenge and novel nature of a position also has an inverse relationship to formal
professional development participation, as the requirements of the job satisfy the employees’
need for the acquisition of work-related knowledge and skill set (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015).
Susomrith and Coetzer (2015) studied 20 employees in five small engineering firms to
investigate barriers to employee participation in professional development. The study found that
internal work factors were the major barrier to employee participation in training and
development.
Perceived benefits. Perceived benefits, both intrinsic and extrinsic, are antecedents to
professional development decisions. An employee’s participation in professional development
activities is impacted by rewards he or she received for engaging in previous activities (Garofano
& Salas, 2005). Intrinsic benefits such as interest and personal value have a positive relationship
to an employee’s learning intention (Kyndt & Baert, 2013). While extrinsic benefits to the
employee have a positive relationship to professional development intentions, benefits for the
organization had no effect on their intentions (Kyndt & Baert, 2013).
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 23

External environment
Economic. Research has not been consistent regarding the impact of the overall
economic conditions and the associated perceived job security in relation to participation in
professional development. One study found that an employee who perceives him or herself more
likely to lose a job is also more likely to engage in professional development activities (Elman &
O’Rand, 2002). Elman and O’Rand (2002) used the 1995 Adult Education Data File from the
Bureau of Labor Statistics to analyze the structural conditions under which workers perceive
their jobs and how those perceptions have an impact on their participation in additional
education. However, another study found no relationship between retraining and job insecurity
(Sanders, et al. 2011).
Organizational. Organizational culture and policies can have an impact on an
employee’s decision to participate in professional development activities. Organizational culture
can also have an impact on an employee’s decision to request or initiate a professional
development activity. A strong emphasis on resource constraints negatively affects an
employee’s willingness to engage in professional development requests as he or she forms an
impression that the request could be denied (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015). Centralized decision-
making can also have an impact on an employee’s willingness to request professional
development, as he or she can be intimidated by the business owner (Susomrith & Coetzer,
2015). However, an organization can take measures to increase professional development
participation.
Creation of a formal professional development plan can reduce the impact of the
centralized decision-making problem but is a departure from the traditional tendency of a small
business to adopt informal processes (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015). Support for learning, such as
management and coworker support, can also result in a positive relationship with learning
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intention (Kyndt & Baert, 2013). Sanders, et al. (2011) studied data from 213 workers in The
Netherlands who were not participating in professional development and looked at several
factors, including attitude and expected value, management support, job security, and prior
participation. The study found that participation can be influenced through management and
coworker support. Increased participation can also result from a continuous learning culture, one
that values and supports learning as a key responsibility of all employees (Bates, 2001;
Armstrong-Stassen & Skillset, 2008; Renkema, 2006). Finally, a job development climate, one in
which jobs are structured to promote learning, is positively associated with learning intention
(Armstrong-Stassen & Schosser, 2008).
Personal. An employee’s personal environment can also play a role in professional
development decisions. The employees’ personal environment can have an impact on their
decision to engage in professional development, as too many nonwork demands can have an
impact on the amount of time or mental resources they can put into their professional
development (Garofano & Salas, 2005). Perceived value of the professional development by
significant others (friends, colleagues, and family) can have an impact on an employee’s decision
to enroll (Sanders et al., 2011).
Displaced Workers
Historical Perspective
While displaced workers have been an economic focus for several decades, the Great
Recession and shifting economic conditions have recently highlighted the issue. Economists
have studied the impact of displaced workers on economies since the early 1980s; the topic has
received renewed interest since the recession of 2007–2009 (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016). Between
these years, 15.4 million workers were displaced from their jobs (U.S. Department of Labor,
2010). In a study that analyzed public information of over 95,000 workers in Connecticut, Couch
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and Placzek (2010) found that displaced workers are more likely than other categories of the
unemployed to see sustained earnings losses of over 30%. The wage loss of the displaced
workers is partially due to obsolete skill sets, a problem that can be corrected with additional
education or training (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016).
Impact of Professional Development on Displaced Workers
While there are many proposed solutions to ease the impact of sustained wage loss
among displaced workers, professional development and continued education is one solution that
research has shown to be most effective. As most displacement occurs within specific industries
or occupations, displaced workers are often forced to find new jobs in a separate industry or
occupation (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016). Due to these change conditions, displaced workers’
reduced wages can be due to a mismatch between a worker’s skill set and the requirements of his
or her new position (Ormiston, 2014). This can be partially offset by education or training, as it
acts to create a greater alignment between the worker and the new position’s required skill set
(Ormiston, 2014). Education acts to raise the long-term earnings of displaced workers by an
average of between 9%–13% overall or between 14%–29% if the worker takes courses in more
technically oriented vocational areas (Jacobson, et al., 2005).
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is a systematic approach to analyzing an
organization’s performance in terms of achieving its goals by identifying knowledge, motivation,
and organization influences that impede achievement. Knowledge influences are critical, as they
analyze whether individuals know how to achieve their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). These
influences are categorized as factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive (Rueda, 2011).
Motivational influences are more complex but critical to analyze (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Motivational influences include an individual’s choice to engage in an activity, the individual’s
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persistence to continue working toward the goal, and the mental effort required to accomplish the
goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Finally, organizational influences are used to analyze if
organizational processes are contributing to or hindering his or her ability to achieve a goal.
These influences can include organizational culture, structure, practice, or policies (Rueda,
2011).
Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences will be used to analyze the
performance of Deswin’s employees in achieving their goal to complete professional
development activities by May 2018. The first section will review the literature in terms of the
knowledge and skill set necessary to complete the goal. Next, assumed motivational influences
will be analyzed. Finally, organizational influences will be reviewed, as they could potentially
have an impact on achievement of the goal. Each of these assumed stakeholder knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences will be examined through the methodologies described
in Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The following section is intended to review literature that focuses on knowledge-related
influences that are applicable to stakeholder achievement of reaching a goal. Deswin’s
professional development program provides employees the opportunity to engage in professional
development activities that focus on areas of interest that are not related to daily job
responsibilities. A goal of the program is to have 100% participation by December 2018, wherein
all employees have enrolled and completed some type of professional development activity. To
accomplish this goal, certain knowledge and skill sets are needed to facilitate its success.
Specifically, employees need to have knowledge of the benefits of professional development.
Additionally, employees should have the knowledge necessary to best integrate professional
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development activities into their work routines and daily schedules. To assess the employees’
pertinent knowledge and skill set, a gap analysis will be performed.
An important part of analyzing a performance gap is to examine knowledge and skill
influences to properly identify the problem. If performance gaps are not appropriately defined,
solutions can have the opposite effect on performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Over 60% of
performance solutions are abandoned due to their failure to adequately address the problem
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge influences are important to analyze when diagnosing a
performance problem, as it is necessary to ensure that individuals have the knowledge or skill set
necessary to achieve their goals. Often individuals are unaware of the knowledge and skill set
they do not have (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge and Skill Set
The following sections contain a literature review of knowledge influences that are
relevant to stakeholder goals. It is important to accurately categorize the knowledge type to
ensure that the appropriate instructional methods are used to close the knowledge gap (Rueda,
2011). Rueda (2011) defined four distinct categories: factual, procedural, conceptual, and
metacognitive. Factual knowledge is synonymous with facts and includes things like terminology
or details that are necessary to function within a given domain. Conceptual knowledge is
knowledge of concepts, theories, models, or structures within a given domain. Procedural
knowledge is knowing how to do something, such as a method or technique. Finally,
metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s own cognitive process.
Knowledge of the benefits of effective professional development activities. The
knowledge of the benefits of effective types of professional development activities is an example
of conceptual knowledge. One reason for displacement of unemployment wage loss is that the
skill set valued and compensated for at the previous employer is less valuable to a new company
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or within a new industry (Couch & Placzek, 2010). Additional training or education can reduce
the impact of wage loss of impacted workers by up to 29% (Jacobson, et al., 2004).
The goal of engaging in professional development activities that broaden an employee’s
skill set is to make them less susceptible to these wage losses by increasing their value to future
employers. The greater the alignment between a displaced worker’s skill set and the post-
displacement position requirements, the less the wage loss (Ormiston, 2014). A worker’s skill set
can be categorized as firm-specific, industry-specific, occupation-specific, and intermediate
(Lagoa & Suleman, 2016). Intermediate skill sets are defined as those that are valued by more
than one employer and are the most effective at reducing wage losses during displacement
(Lagoa & Suleman, 2016).
While intermediate skill sets are the most effective in mitigating wage loss during
displacement, specific subcategories are found to be particularly effective. Technical skill sets
have been found to be more effective in increasing earnings of displaced workers, whereas more
general intermediate skill sets are less effective (Jacobson, et al., 2004). Professional
development activities should be focused on intermediate skill sets to maximize effectiveness in
reducing wage loss during displacement (Lagoa & Suleman, 2016).
To apply new knowledge, such as that of effective professional development, it is
beneficial to connect the new knowledge to information already learned. Information processing
theory states that individuals can learn and apply information more successfully when they can
organize new information and connect it with prior learning (Shraw & McCrudden, 2006). If the
employees’ have a basis of knowledge that includes understanding effective professional
development skill sets, they will be better able to gain new knowledge and to apply this
information to the professional development program.
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Metacognition. For employees to reflect on their ability to effectively implement
professional development into their work routines and daily schedules is an example of
metacognitive knowledge. As there is not much research regarding an employee’s metacognition
influences, the role of student is being substituted. An employee engaged in professional
development and a student with similar characteristics are both working to achieve a learning
goal. Metacognition is known to play an important role in predicting student performance (Jiang,
Ma, & Gao, 2016). It is important that employees reflect upon their use of professional
development best practices, as this metacognition is proven to facilitate engagement (Baker,
2006). Table 2 details the identified knowledge influences in regards to the stakeholder goals.
Table 2
Knowledge Influencers
Organizational Mission
The mission of Deswin is to enable and empower customers, employees, business partners,
and the community to live their best.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2018, 100% of Deswin employees will have engaged in some professional
development activities that serve to broaden their skill set.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, employees will work with program directors to determine an area of
interest of professional development activities and subsequently research and enroll in related
training.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Employees need to have the
knowledge of the benefits of
Declarative
(Conceptual)
Interview
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professional development
activities.
Employees need to know how to
integrate professional development
activities into their routines and
daily schedules
Metacognitive Interview

Motivation
The following section is intended to review literature that focuses on motivation-related
influences that are applicable to the stakeholder achievement of reaching certain goals. The
success of the program directors in engaging employees in professional development activities is
largely dependent on how motivated the program directors are to achieve this goal. Motivation is
a determinant of success, as it is ultimately a belief that an individual develops for him or herself
in terms of the ability to achieve a goal (Rueda, 2011). Motivation also determines an
individual’s ability to start, continue, and complete a task (Rueda, 2011). In the case of the
professional development program, it is important that the employees commit to the program,
follow through with their commitments and complete the professional development.
While there is not one overarching theory that encompasses all aspects of motivation, the
many theories available provide several different constructs to analyze motivational performance
gaps (Rueda, 2011). While over 55% of performance problems can be attributed to motivation
problems, it has historically played a secondary role in performance gap analysis due to its
complexity (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation problems are diagnosed using three categories:
active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice is an individual’s decision to actively
pursue a goal, persistence is his or her ability to reach that goal, and mental effort is his or her
willingness to put forth an appropriate amount of mental effort to achieve the goal (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
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Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can succeed in a
specific task and is based on that individual’s prior performance in similar tasks and the amount
and type of feedback received (Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy differs from other concepts such as
self-confidence or self-esteem, as it focuses less on the whole individual and more on the
individual’s belief that her or she can succeed in a specific task (Rueda, 2011). Social cognitive
theory emphasizes self-efficacy as the foundation of motivation. If an individual lacks the belief
that her or she is capable to complete a task, there is little incentive to do so (Pajares, 2009).
Self-efficacy highly correlates with performance. Pajares (2009) found that self-efficacy
has an impact on motivation from an active choice and persistence aspect. The same research
found that individuals tend to choose tasks in which they feel they are competent and avoid those
in which they do not. From a persistence perspective, the study noted that individuals with high
self-efficacy are found to persist in the face of obstacles and show more resilience when
completing a task. Finally, self-efficacy belief has been found to be a strong predictor of
performance (Pajares, 2009).
Employees’ Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy is an important influence on an individual’s
decision to participate in professional development. Work-related positive self-efficacy is
necessary for positive outcome expectations (Garofano & Salas, 2005; Kyundt & Baert, 2013).
Self-efficacy due to previous educational experiences is also important, as employees with a
higher level of education are more likely to participate in professional development and the
relationship with formal learning is particularly strong (Tharenou, 1997). A high self-efficacy
has a positive influence on motivation (Parajes, 2006). One element that can have an impact on
an employee’s self-efficacy for career-relevant learning is age, as an individual’s self-efficacy
for skill development has been found to decline with age (Maurer, 2000). The employee’s belief
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that her or she can succeed in professional development activities will have an impact on the
motivation to meet a goal.
Attribution theory. Attribution refers to an individual’s belief as to the cause for success
or failure at a specific task and the control he or she perceive themselves as having in regards to
the outcome of the task (Rueda, 2011). Attribution theorist Bernard Weiner described three
causal elements to motivational problems: locus, stability, and controllability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009). Anderman and Anderman (2009) defined the locus dimension as relating to
the individual’s perception that an outcome was internal or external, the stability dimension as
relating to the individual’s perception of whether an outcome was stable or unstable in terms of
time and environment and finally, the controllability dimension as refering to how the individual
perceives outcomes to be within his or her control. An individual’s belief in the value of certain
attributions can have an impact on his or her behavior (Anderman & Anderman, 2009).
Performance is improved when an individual attributes outcome to effort, and
performance is negatively impacted when that person attributes outcome to lack of ability
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009). If an individual attributes his or her failure in a task to a lack of
effort, that person is more likely to be motivated to put additional effort into the task on
subsequent attempts in order to improve performance. However, if an individual attributes failure
on his or her lack of ability, that person will be unlikely to exert additional effort in subsequent
attempts (Anderman & Anderman, 2009).
Employee’s Attributes. In the professional development and training literature, certain
attributes have been noted to have a positive impact on an employee’s decision to engage in
professional development. Locus of control is one attribute that is positively linked to
professional development attitudes. Colquitt, LePine, and Noe (2000) linked locus of control to
the motivation to learn in the professional environment with those employees who have an
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internal locus of control having more motivation to learn. Learning goal orientation is another
attribute found to have a link in the professional learning setting. Those with a mastery mindset
are more motivated to participate in professional development than those with a performance
mindset (Garofano & Salas, 2005). Table 3 details the identified motivation influences in regard
to stakeholder goals.
Table 3
Motivational Influencers
Organizational Mission
The mission of Deswin is to enable and empower customers, employees, business partners, and
the community to live their best.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2018, 100% of Deswin employees will have engaged in some professional
development activities that serve to broaden their skill set.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, employees will work with program directors to determine an area of interest
of professional development activities and subsequently research and enroll in related training.
Motivational Indicator(s)
Active Choice
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment

Attributions: Employees should feel that
successfully completing professional
development activities is a controllable attribute.
Interview question item: “What are some of
the factors that impact how you benefit from
professional development activities?”
Self-Efficacy: Employees should believe that they
are capable of successfully completing
professional development activities.
Interview question item: “How do you feel
about your ability to perform and benefit
from professional development activities?”

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Organizational Influences
General theory. The third cause of organizational performance gaps is the lack of
efficient and effective organizational processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). An employee with the
appropriate knowledge and motivation can still fail at achieving his or her goals if the
organizational does not have processes and resources in place to support the performance goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational performance gaps can be categorized as either a cultural
model or a cultural setting. A cultural model is a shared mental schema or normative
understanding on how the world works and is often automated (Rueda, 2011). A cultural setting
is the tangible context where behavior is enacted such as the who, what, when, why, and how of
the behaviors in an organization (Rueda, 2011). The two concepts, culture and settings, are not
independent of each other, as settings are shaped by individuals and groups that operate with
cultural models that have an impact on their behavior and beliefs (Rueda, 2011). It is important
to examine organizational influences to ensure that organizational culture is aligned with
performance goals, as a common cause of performance gaps is when people fail to receive the
necessary resources and organizational support needed for a work goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
An organization’s culture also provides insight into why people in that context think and behave
the way they do (Rueda, 2011).
A strong organizational culture controls organizational behavior and can block an
organization from making necessary changes for adapting to a changing environment (Schein,
2004). Organizational effectiveness increases when leaders ensure that employees have the
necessary resources to achieve the organization’s goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study will
review both cultural models and cultural settings to analyze Deswin’s organization and how
culture has an impact on the organizational goal.
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Organizational priorities. Employee perceived importance of an organizational goal is
important to examine. Adults are more motivated to participate when they understand the
relevance of a task (Jahns, 1973). Even an employee with the appropriate knowledge and
motivation can still fail at achieving his or her goals if the organizational does not have processes
and resources in place to support the performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is important
that an employee is given the resources and time to complete the professional development
goals, as employees typically perceive high workloads and the related time constraints to be
major barriers in participation of professional development (Susomrith & Coetzer, 2015).
Managers also play a critical role in achieving organizational goals and ensuring communication
(Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). Behavior of the manager in terms of providing the employee
the appropriate resources and time for professional development programs was found to be the
most important aspect of the work environment, as it has an impact on employee participation
(Tharenou, 2001).
Organizational supports. Organizational support has a strong influence on an
individual’s decision to engage in professional development (Garofano & Salas, 2005).
Organizational support for professional development can be categorized in terms of social
support, such as support from colleagues or supervisors or categorized in terms of physical
support, such as opportunities for in-house training or development benefits (Garofano & Salas,
2005). In one study, the largest effect an organization had on employee participation rates in
professional development was simply the recognition of the availability of the activities (Hurtz &
Williams, 2009). Another study found that a formal company policy that addresses participation
in professional development activities was found to be a positive indicator of employee
participation (Bates, 2001). However, research has shown that, while often used, monetary
incentives are not an effective organizational support. Research has shown that intrinsic
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motivation on behalf of the employee is a much stronger indicator of participation in professional
development than extrinsic motivators such as monetary incentives (Sankey & Machin, 2014).
Table 4 details the identified organizational influences in regards to the stakeholder goals.
Table 4
Organizational Influencers
Organizational Mission
The mission of Deswin is to enable and empower customers, employees, business partners, and
the community to live their best.
Organizational Global Goal
By December 2018, 100% of Deswin employees will have engaged in some professional
development activities that serve to broaden their skill set.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, employees will work with program directors to determine an area of interest
of professional development activities and subsequently research and enroll in related training.
Assumed Organizational Influences

Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: There is a general
priority placed on daily activities and
responsibilities and not on professional
development.

Interview question regarding the priorities
within Deswin.
Cultural Setting Influence 1: The organization
does not have adequate processes and procedures
in place to support an employee’s professional
development.

Interview questions about perceived
organizational support.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to analyze knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers
that have an impact on Deswin’s ability to achieve its goal of 100% of employees participating in
professional development. As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is Deswin meeting its goal of 100% of professional development
participation amongst employees?
2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational elements related to
achieving Deswin’s goal of 100% of professional development participation amongst
employees?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation and organizational resources?
In this chapter, the research design and methods for data collection and analysis will be
presented. The chapter will begin by discussing the participating stakeholders and the rationale
for their inclusion. Next, the use of surveys and interviews for data collection will be discussed
followed by sections on reliability, validity, and ethics.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The conceptual framework is used as a framework for the study that consists of concepts
and theories that support the research question (Maxwell, 2013). This framework draws on the
research literature to incorporate the concepts, terms, definitions, models, and theories of a
particular topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework is developed through
empirical and theoretical literature, personal experience, and thought experiments (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual framework serves to refine goals, develop research questions,
select appropriate research methods, and identify possible validity threats (Maxwell, 2013). For
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this study, the conceptual framework will guide the sampling decisions, data collection choices,
design, and data analysis. Additionally, the conceptual framework will be used to illustrate the
interaction among the assumed stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences.
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model is a systematic approach to analyzing an
organization’s performance in terms of achieving its goals by identifying knowledge, motivation,
and organization influences that impede achievement. Knowledge influences are critical, as they
analyze whether individuals know how to achieve their goals; motivational influences are more
complex but critical to analyze, and organizational influences are used to analyze if
organizational processes are contributing to or hindering their ability to achieve a goal (Clark &
Estes, 2008). While each of the potential influencers are independent of each other, they do not
exist in isolation from each other.
The way in which it is believed the influencers interact with each other is driven by a
constructivist worldview. A constructivist worldview assumes that human individuals seek
understanding of the world and seek to develop meanings of their complex environments
(Creswell, 2014). This philosophical worldview assumes that there is no single realty but only
individual interpretations of events (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this way, the conceptual
framework serves to provide a visual representation of the complex manner through which the
influencers interact.
This purpose of this study is to review and analyze the specific knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that are impeding Deswin’s goal of 100% employee participation
in professional development activities by December 2018. The knowledge influences being
analyzed are both conceptual and metacognitive. Conceptual knowledge is the knowledge of
concepts, theories, models, or structures within a given domain (Rueda, 2011). In this manner, it
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 39

is critical that Deswin employees have the knowledge of the most effective types of professional
development activities in reducing the effects of sustained and substantial wage loss in the event
of displacement unemployment. A strong alignment between a worker’s skill set and position
decreases the potential for wage loss (Ormiston, 2014). A second knowledge type that has an
impact on Deswin’s organizational goal is metacognitive knowledge.
Metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s own cognitive process (Rueda, 2011).
Metacognition is known to play an important role in predicting performance (Jiang, et al., 2016).
Deswin employees need to have the ability to reflect upon their performance and integrate
professional development into their routines and daily schedules. It is important that the
employees reflect upon their use of professional development best practices, as this
metacognition is proven to facilitate engagement (Baker, 2006). In addition to knowledge
influences, motivational influences are also analyzed.
Motivation is a determinant of performance, as it is ultimately a belief that an individual
develops for him or herself in terms of the ability to achieve a goal (Rueda, 2011). While there is
not one overarching theory that encompasses all aspects of motivation, the many theories
available provide several different constructs to analyze motivational performance gaps (Rueda,
2011). For this study, both self-efficacy and attribution theory will be used to identify possible
motivational influences.
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can succeed in a specific task and is
based on prior performance in similar tasks and the amount and type of feedback the individual
has received (Rueda, 2011). Social cognitive theory emphasizes self-efficacy as the foundation
of motivation (Pajares, 2009). If an individual lacks the belief that he or she is capable to
complete a task, there is little incentive to do so (Pajares, 2009). As individuals tend to choose
tasks in which they feel they are competent and avoid those in which they do not (Pajares, 2009),
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 40

it is important that Deswin employees have the necessary self-efficacy to be successful in
professional development. Attribution theory is also important to analyze for the context of this
study.
Attribution refers to an individual’s belief as to the cause for success or failure at a
specific task and the control he or she perceives as having in regard to the outcome of the task
(Rueda, 2011). One of the three causal elements that attribution theorist Bernard Weiner
described is controllability. Controllability dimension refers to how the individual perceives
outcomes to be within his or her control (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Colquitt, et al. (2000)
linked the control attribute in the professional environment to an employee’s motivation to learn.
The manner through which Deswin employees believe that successfully completing professional
development is a controllable attribute is critical to analyze. Finally, potential organizational
influencers are examined.
The third cause of organizational performance gaps is the lack of efficient and effective
organizational processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Even an employee with the appropriate
knowledge and motivation can still fail at achieving his or her goals if the organizational does
not have processes and resources in place to support performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). It
is important to examine the organization’s cultural model and settings, as it provides insight into
why people in that context think and behave the way they do (Rueda, 2011). For this study, both
organizational culture models and settings will be examined to determine the potential
organizational influences on the performance gaps.
An organization’s cultural model is a shared mental scheme or normative understanding
on how the world works and is often automated (Rueda, 2011). It is important to ensure that
cultural models are aligned with performance goals, as a common cause of performance gaps is
when people fail to receive the necessary resources and organizational support needed for a work
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 41

goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). High workloads and the related time constraints limit the amount of
time and mental effort an employee is willing to spend on professional development (Susomrith
& Coetzer, 2015). For this reason, this study will examine the perceived importance of an
employee’s daily workload as a possible organizational influencer. Deswin’s cultural settings
will also be analyzed.
An organization’s cultural setting is the tangible context where behavior is enacted such
as the who, what, when, why, and how of the behaviors in an organization (Rueda, 2011).
Organizational support has a strong influence on an individual’s decision to engage in
professional development (Garofano & Salas, 2005). In one study, the largest effect an
organization had on employee participation rates in professional development was simply the
recognition of the availability of the activities (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Deswin’s
organizational supports and the policies and procedures in place to support professional
development will be examined as a potential influencer on the organization’s performance goals.
To appropriately diagnose performance gaps, all three factors must be examined to
ensure they are aligned with each other (Clark & Estes, 2008). The knowledge, motivation, and
organizational components must cooperate effectively to achieve the organization’s goals. If only
one of the areas is focused on when examining a performance gap, an incomplete diagnosis will
result in only part of the solution (Clark & Estes, 2008). The conceptual framework used in this
study has been designed to illustrate how the three components interact with each other and how
the performance gap will be examined as part of a system that includes knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences.

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Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework in Figure 1 illustrates how knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences all work together to have an impact on the progress of the stakeholder’s
goal. The large blue circle represents the organizational context in which the stakeholder is
operating. Within the organization, both cultural models and cultural settings will be analyzed in
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terms of how each can have an impact on the achievement of the stakeholder’s goal. The orange
oval represents the knowledge and motivation influences that affect the stakeholder. The orange
oval is positioned within the blue circle to indicate that the stakeholder and the associated
knowledge and motivation influences are operating within the context of the organization. The
result of the organization’s context and the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation influences
reveals the progress of the stakeholder’s goal. This relationship is represented by the blue line.
The red box contains the stakeholder’s goal.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus for this study was tenured construction industry
employees whose primary skill set and experience are specific to the industry. The selection of
this stakeholder population was due to the pronounced impact of displacement unemployment on
construction industry employees who have a specific skill set that contributes to sustained wage
loss (Sparshott, 2015). Tenured workers are those who have been employed for three years in a
specific industry (Ormiston, 2014). For the purposes of this study, specific criteria were applied
to the stakeholder population for purposes of selection.
Within the stakeholder population, selection was based on specific criteria. These criteria
were based on antecedents to professional development participation as identified by the general
research. Individuals were selected purposefully based on the sampling criteria.
Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Organization / Industry. Individuals were selected based on the qualification
that they were working within the construction industry at Deswin. The use of industry for this
study was based on the research that shows that the construction industry was disproportionately
affected by displacement unemployment (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010). Between 2007–
2009, 1.1 million tenured construction workers lost their jobs, accounting for 16% of all tenured
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 44

job losses, despite comprising only 7% of the entire U.S. workforce (Center for Construction
Research and Training, 2010). The organization, Deswin, as the criterion, is based on the
research questions that focus on goals specific to the organization and the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that have an impact on the attainment of those goals.
Criterion 2. Tenure. The use of tenure for this study was based on general research that
shows that an employee’s tenure is a factor that has an impact on the severity of displacement
unemployment. Tenured displaced workers, or those who were employed for at least three years
prior to being displaced, are particularly at risk, as they are assumed to have job-specific or
company-specific skill sets or knowledge that are susceptible to lose value when changing
companies or industries (Ormiston, 2014). For the purposes of this study, only employees who
have been employed with their organization for at least three years were considered. Amongst
the participants, the average tenure within an organization was 15.7 years.
Criterion 3. Specificity of Skill Set. The use of experience for this study was based on
general research that shows that specificity of a skill set is a factor that has an impact on the
severity of displacement unemployment. Research illustrates that a portion of the wage loss
attributed to displacement unemployment can be accredited to the mismatch between pre-
displacement and post-displacement job requirements, but that a broader skill set can offset a
portion of these losses (Jacobson, et al., 2004). For the purposes of this study, only employees
that had skill sets specific to their job were considered.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
For the purposes of this study, a two-tier sampling approach was used. In a two-tiered
approach, the first level of selection includes the case to be studied, followed by the selection of
the people, activities, or documents within the case (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The specific case
was that of the organization, Deswin, as the organization is aligned with the research questions.
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Within that case, the selection of people was based on purposeful sampling, which is based on
selection criteria derived from the purpose of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This method
was used to best align with the research questions and how they relate to the organization.
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy for this survey was single-stage sampling, which is appropriate
when the researcher has access to the individuals’ names that fit the sampling criteria (Creswell,
2016) and thus was appropriate for this study. The target completion rate of the study was 100%
of the population. The actual completion rate met the target rate of 100%. The researcher
allowed two weeks for the respondents to complete the survey. Due to the relationship between
the researcher and participants, the researcher followed up with the respondents to ensure an
adequate completion rate.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative research is used to address research questions that are descriptive, seeking
meaning or addressing a process (Creswell, 2014). The research questions for this study are
descriptive or seeking to describe the influences that are affecting the performance of a specific
organizational goal. The research questions were used to determine what knowledge and skill set
and motivational and organizational factors are having an impact on the ability of Deswin to
achieve its professional development goals for its employees. These questions are descriptive in
nature and are used to address a topic for which there is no existing research; thus, a qualitative
approach was used to give participants the opportunity to share their own explanations and
insights into the influences having an impact on the goal.
The qualitative approach is used for research questions that are broad and general to
allow the researcher to allow the participants the opportunity to create their own meaning and
explanations (Creswell, 2014). The purpose of qualitative research is to determine how
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individuals make sense of their lives and explain the process of meaning-making (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Using a qualitative approach for this study allowed the researcher to use an
inductive approach that allowed the researcher to formulate a hypothesis during the data
collection process. This is consistent with a characteristic of qualitative research in that a
hypothesis is formulated after the research has been collected and which is grounded in the data
(Maxwell, 2013). This type of research, known as grounded theory, also tends to be substantive,
in that it applies to specific, everyday situations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Again, this is
consistent with the study, as it is being used to answer questions that are specific to an
organizational challenge. With a qualitative approach to the research, specific qualitative
research methods were used in the data collection and analysis. This study used interviews to
understand the targeted population and surveys to gain insight into one specific influencer, self-
efficacy, which has been thoroughly researched.
Interviews
The purpose of interviewing is to gain insight into another person’s perspective and is
useful in collecting data that are not observable such as feelings, thoughts, and intentions (Patton,
2002). Through interviewing, we can also learn about peoples’ “interior experiences” and how
they perceive reality or how they interpret reality (Weiss, 1994). The interviews for this study
were conducted to allow the individuals the space to freely develop and communicate their
responses to the interview questions.
Based on the selection criteria, individuals were contacted (phone call or in person) to
request their availability. During this initial communication, the purpose of the study, their
importance in the study, and logistical concerns (schedule, location, etc.) were explained. Once
all individuals were contacted and a list of willing participants compiled, exact times and
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locations were scheduled. Interviews were scheduled to accommodate the needs of the
participants and to maximize participation.
For this study, the researcher conducted seven interviews, face-to-face in a semi-
structured and generally informal manner to ensure that participants were given the opportunity
to contribute their own meanings. Interviews were kept relatively short, approximately 30
minutes, to maximize participation. A semi-structured interview ensures that the interviews are
conducted in a relatively consistent manner but allow the researcher to probe for additional
information if appropriate (Patton, 2002). The interviews were recorded and notes were taken.
Based on the results and analysis from the initial interviews, a second round of interviews were
conducted to verify the results and to ask clarifying questions.
Survey
At the conclusion of the interview, participants were given a link to a survey, which was
intended to measure self-efficacy. The survey questions combined elements from two self-
efficacy surveys. The decision to use an existing survey for self-efficacy was because this topic
has been thoroughly researched. If the desired content of the survey is a subject that has already
been widely researched, an existing study may be the most appropriate instrument (Irwin &
Stafford, 2016). The first survey used was the general self-efficacy scale (Schwarzer &
Jerusalem, 1995) and is intended to assess an individual’s general perceived self-efficacy. The
second survey used was from the University of Kentucky (Gaumer, Erickson, Soukup, Noonan,
& McGurn, 2016) and is used to assess a student’s perceived self-efficacy.
The survey was short and utilized a numerical scale to assess the individual’s self-
efficacy. The survey contains 23 closed questions (LIKERT scale format). The closed-question
format is useful for its ease of analysis and interpretation (Fink, 2013) and, for this reason, was
selected as the question format for this survey. While the two surveys used contain differing
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Likert skill sets (one even, one odd), an even scale was used for this study. When an even
number of responses is allowed, it encourages the participant to choose a position rather than
take a neutral stance (Fink, 2013). Encouraging participants to choose a position was important
for this group of respondents, as the researcher felt they may take a neutral position if given the
option. The survey took the respondent no longer than five minutes to complete and was used in
the overall analysis along with the interviews and documents. The survey results were kept
confidential.
Documents
Documents are useful to support qualitative research if they can provide relevant
information that can lead to insights significant to the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). One advantage of document analysis is the stability of the information, in that the
information is not altered by the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents pertinent to
this study were collected and used for data analysis. The document used for analysis was a
professional development memo distributed to employees with the intent to communicate details
about the program.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted on the qualitative and quantitative components of the study.
Due to the nature of the collected data, the analysis of the qualitative data differed from that of
the quantitative data. Qualitative analysis conducted simultaneously with the collection of the
data and consists of meaning-making of both the implicit and explicit components (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), which distinguishes it from quantitative analysis, which is conducted after the
data are returned and is completed in accordance with the data analysis plan (Pazzaglia, Stafford,
& Rodriguez, 2016).
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The survey was emailed to all participating stakeholders after the interview was
conducted. Every stakeholder had completed the survey within seven days of being sent the link.
The data were reviewed for completion and accuracy, and all respondents completed the survey
in its entirety. Additionally, no responses required cleaning or modifications. As the survey was
based on existing surveys used to measure self-efficacy, the responses utilized a Likert scale,
which uses ordinal data (Salkind, 2017). This type of data lends itself to frequency and central
tendency analysis (Salkind, 2017), both of which were completed. However, dispersion
calculations are not appropriate for ordinal data (Salkind, 2017), so were not calculated.
Interview data analysis began as soon as the first interview was conducted. Analytic
memos were completed after each interview to document initial thoughts and concerns. These
memos were used in a later stage of analysis, as memoing is a useful tool to assist in analyzing
themes in the data (Harding, 2013). After the interviews were conducted, the transcripts were
transcribed and coded. A codebook was developed to match the responses back to the conceptual
framework and research questions.
The purpose of the first stage of analysis is to assign codes to data chunks to assist the
researcher in identifying patterns or themes (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Open coding
was used to begin the data analysis. Open coding is commonly used to start the analysis, as it
consists of making notations next to any piece of data that could potentially be useful to the
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Next, the transcripts were reviewed for direct connection to the
research questions and conceptual framework. The Corbin and Strauss (2008) questioning
analytic tool was used to assist in the meaningful interpretation of the data. Finally, axial coding
was used to group the responses into categories. Axial coding and the act of combining responses
based on the researcher’s interpretation of the meaning (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally,
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themes were developed from the categories to make meaning of the interview responses and
connect the data to the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
A cornerstone of qualitative research is the acknowledgment of the researcher as an
instrument. As every individual perceives the world through his or her own worldview, the
researcher as an instrument presents natural bias. To preserve the credibility and trustworthiness
of a study, these biases can be offset by specific activities of the researcher. The credibility of a
study refers to the extent that the research findings match reality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One
method that can be used to increase this credibility is triangulation (Creswell, 2014). The use of
multiple sources of data is one form of triangulation and will be used in this study. After the
initial interviews had been conducted and analyzed, follow-up interviews were conducted to
clarify various aspects of the data. The content of this interview was based on the responses of
the first round of interviews. The second round interviews were used to member check or to
validate the responses given in the initial interviews. The use of member checking or respondent
validation is another way to increase credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, the
survey and document analysis acted as another form of data for triangulation purposes.
The researcher can also introduce biases that are as a result of their background. In
addition to the researcher’s professional relationship with the participants, which could introduce
assumptions in the collection and interpretation of the data, the researcher is a student within a
doctoral program and holds both a bachelor and master’s degree, which could introduce a bias
toward additional education/training. Critical self-reflection can be used to analyze the way in
which biases, worldviews, or assumptions may affect the study. The researcher incorporated the
use of critical self-reflection to analyze bias and to minimize the impact on the research. The
exercise of self-reflection was conducted throughout the data collection and analysis and
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discussed during a peer review. This peer review will be conducted at the end of the data analysis
phase with another member of the construction industry. The purpose of the peer review was to
verify that findings are consistent with other organizations within the industry.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability are important considerations in quantitative research studies.
Validity refers to the accuracy of a study’s findings, the assurance that an instrument is
measuring what the researcher is intending to measure (Salkind, 2017). Reliability refers to the
generalizability of the research findings (Salkind, 2017). Validity will be addressed using a
variety of methods.
Validity will be addressed using two strategies. Prior to the launch of the survey, a pilot
test was conducted. Pilot tests are used to ensure the survey is formatted correctly and to
anticipate any issues (Fink, 2013). Additionally, the researcher used existing surveys, which have
been researched and tested to ensure their validity when testing for self-efficacy.
The use of the two existing surveys allows the researcher to address reliability using their
alpha scores. The general self-efficacy scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) maintains
Cronbach’s alphas ranging from between 0.76 to 0.90 with the majority in the high 0.80s. The
second survey from the University of Kentucky (Gaumer et al., 2016) was tested for reliability
with results from 1,370 students and achieved a Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.90. These alpha
scores are considered reliable and ensure that the results from the survey can be used to
generalize the findings to the population.
Sampling was used to increase validity. Purposeful sampling serves to increase the
validity of a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The participants for this study were selected
purposefully, and the researcher achieved 100% of the population in the sample. With a large
sample size in relation to the population, the validity of a study is improved, as there is adequate
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data to generalize the findings to the population (Johnson & Christenson, 2014). To promote a
high completion rate, the respondents were sent an email with the survey link at the completion
of the interviews. Reminder emails were sent to encourage completion.
Ethics
The ethics of a qualitative researcher has an impact on the validity and reliability of a
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A researcher must take precautions to ensure that human
subjects are treated with respect. Ethical considerations include protecting research participants
from harm, privacy considerations, informed consent, and deception (Merriam & Tisdell 2016).
The use of informed consent can ensure that participants are able to make an informed
decision to participate by ensuring they understand the purpose of the study, how the data will be
used, that their participation is confidential and voluntary, and finally that they are able to
withdraw at any point during the study (Glesne, 2011). For this study, informed consent forms
were used, which communicated the voluntary nature of their participation, the confidentiality of
their responses, and a summary of the study and how their responses were used. Prior to each
interview, participants were asked permission to record. The password-protected audio
recordings were stored on a hard drive. The recordings were then transcribed and sent to the
participants to ensure that their responses were accurately depicted. As the voluntary nature of
participation will be carried through the study, participants were given the opportunity to redact
anything within the transcript that they did not want included in the study. No participant chose
to redact or revise any of their responses.
The took place within the Deswin organization, of which the researcher is a manager. The
relationship between the researcher and participant can introduce additional ethical concerns.
Power can be disproportionately located on the side of the researcher in a manager–employee
relationship, which can create a need for additional privacy considerations (Glesne, 2011). In the
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case of this study, the participants and the researcher work in separate departments. The
researcher manages the sales department, in which professional development is mandated by
state licensing guidelines, and the research is centered around the construction department where
professional development is voluntary. The researcher receives no benefit from the construction
team’s completion of its professional development goals. To avoid any confusion, the researcher
discussed the study with the construction manager to ensure that it does not interfere or create
confusion within the construction department.
Another ethical consideration of qualitative research is to ensure that no harm is done to
participants, and that, if there are potential benefits to the participants, those are maximized
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). While the subjects of the study received no compensation for their
participation, they may have gained knowledge of company-supported professional development
programs that they did not previously have. The researcher provided participants’ information
regarding the Deswin professional development policy to ensure that all subjects left the study
with information that could be to their benefit.
Limitations and Delimitations
While outside of the researcher’s control, limitations and delimitations must be
acknowledged by the researcher prior to the beginning of a study. Some limitations present for
this study were as follows:
• The study was limited to the extent that the participants are truthful.
• The research was conducted over a short period of time and, thus, was only representative
of the participants’ responses at that specific time.
Delimitations are those restraints that are based on decisions within the researcher’s control. The
delimitations present for this study were as follows:
• Data were collected using interviews, which provide data filtered through the views of
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the interviewee and may be biased due to the presence of the interviewer.
• Documents will be used as a source of data, so the information provided may be
incomplete or not useful.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of the study is to analyze knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers
that have an impact on Deswin’s ability to achieve its goal of 100% of employees participating in
professional development. The questions that guide the study are
1. To what extent is Deswin meeting its goal of 100% professional development
participation amongst employees?
2. What are the knowledge and skill set, motivation, and organizational elements related to
achieving Deswin’s goal of 100% professional development participation amongst
employees?
The data were collected using surveys, interviews, and document analysis. The survey
was designed to capture the participants’ perceived self-efficacy. The interview was designed to
collect data on all aspects of potential knowledge, motivation, and organization barriers that
could be impeding the organizational goal as illustrated in the conceptual framework.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of the study were identified as tenured construction workers with a
specificity of skill set within the Deswin organization. For the purpose of this study, tenure was
defined as those individuals who had worked at the organization for a minimum of three years.
Specificity of skill set refers to skill sets that are specific to one’s job. The study participants
were all in a superintendent or project manager role and, as such, have a set of industry and
organizational skill sets that are specific to their role at Deswin. At the time of data collection,
the individuals that fit this criterion totaled seven. All individuals were contacted and invited to
participate in the study at their convenience. All seven individuals agreed to participate and
complete both the interview and survey.
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Of the seven participants who completed the survey, only one had previously engaged in
some sort of professional development activity. This individual enrolled in a self-study course
that was a requirement for the state contractor’s exam. He was ultimately successful in the course
and in completing the licensing requirements. The other six individuals had not participated in
professional development courses and had not expressed interest. However, as described below,
two individuals discussed their intention to engage in professional development during the
interview process.
Results
This section details the results of both the survey and interviews. The results report on the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as they relate to the research questions. To
begin with, the motivation quantitative results are presented. This is followed by the qualitative
findings are presented in knowledge, motivation and organization. Following the results, there is
a discussion of what the results mean for Deswin and its performance goals.
Motivation Results: Self Efficacy
The purpose of the survey was to collect data on a specific component of motivation, i.e.,
self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the self-perception that individuals have regarding their capabilities
(Parajes, 2006). According to social cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs are the foundation of
motivation (Parajes, 2006). Self-efficacy can help determine how much effort an individual is
willing to expend, how he or she will persevere to achieve stated goals and how resilient the
individual will be when facing challenges (Bandura, 1994). These three components of self-
efficacy, effort, goal perseverance, and resilience in the face of obstacles were measured as part
of the self-efficacy data collection. Figure 2 illustrates how the three components of self-efficacy
compared. The survey participants had the strongest belief in their abilities to affect outcomes by
increasing their effort, with a mean response of 3.554. They were also confident in their abilities
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to set and complete goals, as the mean response rate was 3.263. With a mean response rate of
3.0, the participants felt the least confident in their abilities to overcome obstacles. This
component of self-efficacy, resilience in the face of challenges, is related to one’s willingness to
try new and novel tasks (Bandura, 1994).
Figure 2
Effort, Goal, and Challenge Comparison

Ability can grow with effort. If an individual does not believe that his or her actions
can have an impact on outcomes, the individual will have little incentive to take risks (Parajes,
2006). This concept is important for the study stakeholders, as enrollment and completion of
professional development will require effort as this is a new type of activity for many. Responses
to these effort items are shown in Table 5. Overall, the respondents scored well in their belief
that effort will have an impact on their performance. Respondents agreed most strongly to two
survey items (i.e., “I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort” and “My ability
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grows with effort”) in which 100% of the respondents selected “Exactly True” as their response.
Two of the questions, “If I practiced every day, I could develop just about any skill” and “I
believe the brain can be developed like a muscle,” were the only items in this section to have any
“Hardly True” responses. The remaining items all had 100% of responses as either “Moderately
True” or “Exactly True.” The belief in one’s ability to control their performance outcome
through effort affects motivation and performance (Bandura, 1994).
Table 5
Goal Responses
Survey Item
Not at all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly True
I can solve most problems if I invest the
necessary effort.
0% 0% 0% 100%
I can figure out anything if I try hard
enough.
0% 0% 57% 43%
If I practiced every day, I could develop
just about any skill.
0% 14% 71% 14%
I believe hard work pays off.
0% 0% 29% 71%
My ability grows with effort.
0% 0% 0% 100%
I believe the brain can be developed like
a muscle.
0% 14% 43% 43%
I think that no matter who you are, you
can significantly change your level of
talent.
0% 0% 57% 43%
I can change my basic level of ability
considerably.
0% 0% 43% 57%

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Ability to meet goals. Individuals with strong self-efficacy set challenging goals and
remain committed to those goals (Bandura, 1994). For stakeholders to enroll and complete a
professional development program, they will need to set and complete personal goals. Responses
to these effort items are shown in Table 6. Overall, the respondents scored well in their belief
that effort will have an impact on their performance. Two of the items (i.e., “Once I have decided
to accomplish something that is important to me, I keep trying to accomplish it, even if it is
harder than I thought” and “I will success in whatever professional development program I
choose”) had the most positive responses with 100% of respondents selecting “Moderately True”
or “Exactly True.” The two most negative survey items had 14% of respondents selecting “Not at
all True.” These survey items were “It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my
goals” and “I can learn what is being taught in a class setting.” One of the other survey items
(i.e., “I am confident that I will achieve the goals that I set for myself”) also had a negative
response with a “Hardly True” selection. The stronger an individual’s self-efficacy, the greater
the likelihood that an individual will set and commit to goal challenges (Bandura, 1994).
Table 6
Effort Responses
Survey Item
Not at all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly True
It is easy for me to stick to my aims and
accomplish my goals.
14% 0% 57% 29%
Once I have decided to accomplish
something that is important to me, I
keep trying to accomplish it, even if it is
harder than I thought.
0% 0% 14% 86%
I am confident that I will achieve the
goals that I set for myself.
0% 14% 29% 57%
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I can learn what is being taught in a
class setting.
14% 0% 71% 14%
I will succeed in whatever professional
development program I choose.
0% 0% 57% 43%
I will succeed in whatever class I
choose. 0% 14% 71% 14%

Ability to overcome challenges. Individuals with strong self-efficacy approach
challenges as something to be mastered rather than avoided (Bandura, 1994). This component of
self-efficacy is related to one’s desire to participate in novel and complex activities. For most of
the participants, professional development is a new and complex activity, so this component of
self-efficacy is important. The responses to these effort items are shown in Table 7. While the
respondents indicated confidence in their ability to overcome challenges, this was the lowest
rated component.
Except for two survey items, all the survey items in this category saw 100% positive
responses, either “Moderately True” or “Exactly True.” One of the exception survey items (i.e.,
“I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities”) had one
“Not at all True” response. The second exception survey item was, “When I am struggling to
accomplish something difficult, I focus on my progress instead of feeling discouraged,” which
had two “Hardly True” responses. This ability to overcome challenges is important as it allows
the individual to remain goal oriented when facing setbacks Bandura, 1994).
Table 7
Challenge Responses
Survey Item
Not at all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly True
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I can always manage to solve difficult
problems if I try hard enough.
0% 0% 14% 86%
If someone opposes me, I can find the
means and ways to get what I want.
0% 0% 100% 0%
I am confident that I could deal
efficiently with unexpected events.
0% 0% 71% 29%
Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know
how to handle unforeseen situations.
0% 0% 43% 57%
I can remain calm when facing
difficulties because I can rely on my
coping abilities.
14% 0% 57% 29%
When I am confronted with a problem, I
can usually find several solutions.
0% 0% 43% 57%
If I am in trouble, I can usually think of
a solution.
0% 0% 29% 71%
I can usually handle whatever comes my
way.
0% 0% 14% 86%
When I’m struggling to accomplish
something difficult, I focus on my
progress instead of feeling discouraged.
0% 29% 57% 14%

Self-Efficacy Scale Results
The survey questions combined elements from two self-efficacy surveys. The first survey is
the general self-efficacy scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) and is intended to assess an
individual’s general perceived self-efficacy. The second survey used is from the University of
Kentucky (Gaumer et al., 2016) and is used to assess a student’s perceived self-efficacy. The
survey contained 23 closed questions (Likert scale format). In addition, original questions were
included in the survey to collect demographic information as well as to collect data on some
organizational influencers.
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Overall, the data required no cleaning, as both the survey response rate and item response
rate was 100%. The responses to the self-efficacy survey were converted into a numerical scale
(1 = Not at all True; 2 = Hardly True; 3 = Moderately True; 4 = Exactly True) based on
administrative guidance from the original survey (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). When
converted numerically, the respondents’ data resulted in a mean of 34.86 on the general self-
efficacy scale (items 1–10). As this survey is based on a total number of points of 40, the
respondents mean was 84.17% of the total number of possible points. On the second survey, the
self-efficacy questionnaire (items 11–23), the respondents’ data resulted in a mean of 43.86,
which represented 84.34% of the total possible points of 52. Figure 3 provides details on each
survey item in terms of response frequency and the sample mean of each item.
Overall, the responses illustrated a positive self-efficacy from the survey respondents. As
evidenced from Table 4, the majority of responses for all items were either “Moderately True” or
“Exactly True.” Only three survey items saw one “Not at all True” response, and there were only
six “Hardly True” responses throughout the entire survey. The survey item with the most
positive response was, “I can solve problems if I invest the necessary effort,” which saw 100%
“Exactly True” responses. The two survey items with the lowest overall responses were “When
I’m struggling to accomplish something that is important to me, I focus on my progress instead
of feeling discouraged” and “I can learn what is being taught in a class setting,” which had a
mean response of 2.86, which translates to an average response below “Moderately True.”

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Interview Protocol
Figure 3

Self-Efficacy Survey Results

Findings
Interviews were conducted to analyze potential motivational, knowledge, and
organizational barriers that could be preventing stakeholders from participating in professional
development. The interviews were conducted over a course of one week with seven individuals
who satisfied the selection criteria of industry, tenure, and specificity of skill. The individuals
were all male construction field employees of Deswin with an average tenure of 15.7 years. Each
respondent either completed a high school education or obtained a GED. One of the individuals
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completed an undergraduate degree. The following section discusses the findings of these
interviews. The findings are organized within the motivation, knowledge, and organization
headings based on the conceptual framework influencers.
Figure 4
Conceptual Framework: Influencers

Knowledge
The interviews were conducted to collect data on specific knowledge influencers that
could be potential barriers against Deswin’s organizational goal for professional development.
These questions were based on specific knowledge influencers that research shows can prohibit
students from engaging in learning activities. Interview questions focused on the two knowledge
influencers. The first being the stakeholders’ knowledge of professional development as well as
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the benefits. The second knowledge influencer involved stakeholders’ abilities to integrate
professional development activities into their daily routines. The stakeholder interviews lent
insight into both their knowledge on professional development and benefits as well as their
ability think about the challenges they may face when participating in professional development.
Professional Development Knowledge
Certain knowledge and skill sets are needed to facilitate an employee’s willingness to
engage in professional development. Specifically, employees need to have knowledge of what
professional development is and the benefits of professional development. The participants did
not have a clear understanding of what professional development included or the benefits of
participating in professional development. Of the seven participants, two were unwilling to
provide a definition of professional development, while the remaining five provided a definition
that was not consistent with the meaning of the phrase as used in modern language.
Professional development includes voluntary and mandatory activities, formal and
informal activities and those that are related to an employees’ current job or related to personal
interests (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). However, participant responses had a large range. Some
individuals expressed uncertainty: “I really don’t have a good answer for that one.” Others
described it as learning professionalism: “I think it’s for somebody coming up in an industry,
maybe to learn the professionalism of the industry or the company that they’re working for and
need to find out what the nuance is and niches are.” Another described it behaving formally in
their workplace: “The first thing that comes to mind is ‘formal.’ Articulate. Being able to form
sentences in a professional manner.” None of the participants had a clear understanding of the
meaning of professional development.
It is also important for employees to understand the benefits that professional
development can provide. Employees who engage in professional development activities
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throughout their careers remain more attractive to employers (Garofano & Salas 2005).
Professional development is also beneficial in the case of displacement unemployment, reducing
long-term wage loss by up to 29% (Jacobson, et al., 2004). None of the participants
demonstrated any evidence that they were aware of how professional development could have an
impact on their professional careers in a quantifiable manner. While the participants could
discuss some benefits, none of them demonstrated that they were aware that it could have an
impact on their earning potential in the case of unemployment. Four of the individuals listed
some specific benefits such as more informed decision making, or confidence.
Well, I think it helps give you confidence. And I think it also projects confidence. I mean,
if you know what you’re doing, and you are professional about it, I think it carries a lot of
weight with the people you’re working with. I think if you are confident and project
professionalism in the work environment, I think that comes off as somebody, your
coworkers and subordinates, all of a sudden feels that you know what you’re talking
about and are more apt to follow your lead.
Another respondent articulated the benefits of professional development as being able to
act more professionally: “You are able to develop yourself professionally somewhat, mold
yourself into that.” This was also given as a benefit from another individual, “I think excelling at
a career.” While another said, “My initial thoughts for being professional development would be,
uhm, development—developing as a worker or someone in a professional experience.”
While all participants discussed their perceived benefits of professional development,
such as confidence and improving their behavior in a professional environment, they did not
demonstrate an understanding of how their participation in additional professional development
could have an impact on their earning potential in the case of displacement unemployment. This
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is not surprising, as Deswin has not presented the professional development program in this
manner.
Metacognition
It is important for the employees to reflect on their ability to effectively implement
professional development into their work routines and daily schedules. Metacognition is known
to play an important role in predicting student performance (Jiang, et al., 2016). It is important
that employees reflect on their use of professional development best practices, as this
metacognition is proven to facilitate engagement (Baker, 2006). Two of the participants
discussed the aspect of time management and how it would be critical in their success: “I think
the thing right now is being on top of time management. I mean, time management is a big one
in my world.” Another participant stated,
Time management would be a big one. The next step would be a master’s degree for me,
and that’s a big, big push. Time management is something I’ve always been bad at, and
it’s something I’m working on right now.
One participant, who had recently participated in professional development in a licensing
attempt, reflected upon how his view on available time had changed since before his experience.
I just didn’t think I would have had the time; I didn’t think I would be able to get back
into a good study habit and just doing it. I think it, even though it was stressful, I was
nervous. When I look back on it, I think it was definitely a lot easier than I thought it
would be.
While three of the participants mentioned time as a potential challenge, no one was able
to discuss solutions that could assist the employee in overcoming these problems. Employees
need to be able to reflect on their experiences and discuss possible solutions in order to facilitate
engagement (Baker, 2006).
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Motivation
The interviews were conducted to collect data on specific motivation influencers that
could be potential barriers against Deswin’s organizational goal for professional development.
These questions were based on specific motivation influencers that research shows can prohibit
students from engaging in learning activities. Interview participants discussed both their self-
efficacy beliefs as well as how they believed their efforts could influence outcomes. The
following themes were the result of the stakeholder interviews.
Self-Efficacy
When diagnosing performance problems, motivation is an important factor to analyze.
Over 55% of performance problems can be attributed to motivation problems (Clark & Estes,
2008). Social cognitive theory highlights self-efficacy as the foundation of motivation as an
individual who lacks the belief that he or she can complete a task if there is little incentive to do
so (Pajares, 2009).
During the interviews, the participants all indicated a strong belief that they could
accomplish a variety of tasks, including those related to professional development. All seven
participants expressed a high level of self-efficacy throughout the interview. In response to a
question that probed how well they thought they would perform on professional development,
one respondent answered, “I mean, I think I can do–I think I can do quite well; actually, I think
anybody can do quite well if they set their mind to it.” Another response echoed the same
sentiment: “My whole thing is just do the best you can do and always—I mean I don’t fail. I
mean it’s just my, my nature.” One respondent discussed how a previous educational success
increased his confidence for future attempts.
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Actually, at the County, I was able to 100% perform and give it everything I had and in
the educational sense. I exceeded my own expectations, and it showed me what I can do
and what I could’ve done in a classroom setting, uhm, if I had taken it seriously.
This response illustrates the self-efficacy principle, i.e., that previous successes increase an
individual’s self-efficacy (Pajares, 2009).
Self-efficacy is an important component of performance for learners. Self-efficacy has an
impact on motivation and the persistence of an individual to complete a goal. Individuals with
high self-efficacy are found to persist in the face of obstacles and show more resilience when
completing a task (Pajares, 2009). This stakeholder group expressed high self-efficacy in their
ability to perform in professional development activities. This is particularly notable as Bandera
cautioned against using general self-efficacy assessments, as self-efficacy is a context-specific
construct, so results of a general confidence can be misleading (Bandera, 1994). The discussion
of self-efficacy in the specific context of professional development is insightful, as it gives us
context-specific self-efficacy data. This finding is consistent with the quantitative results of the
survey.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is another important factor of motivation. Attribution theory refers to
an individual’s belief as to the cause for success or failure and what control he or she perceives
as having over the outcome (Rueda, 2011). Performance is improved when an individual relates
outcome to effort (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Colquitt, et al. (2000) found a link between
an internal locus of control and the motivation to engage in professional development.
The stakeholder group was consistent in its control over its performance in educational
activities. All the respondents felt that there was a strong correlation in the effort they exerted
and their performance. When asked about how he would perform in a professional development
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activity, one respondent spoke about how his effort would dictate his performance: “Pretty
strong—pretty strongly if I put my best foot forward and actually take the time and do everything
that I’m supposed to.” A second participant similarly referenced his belief as it relates to
performance. “You can always improve your performance, absolutely. Believe in yourself to go
forward and do it.” Additionally, all participants answered affirmatively when asked if their
effort was related to their performance in prior educational settings.
An individual’s perceived link between effort and performance is an important indicator
of motivation in professional development (Colquitt, et al., 2000). These individuals showed that
they believe that their effort and mindset have an impact on their performance. This internal
locus of control is a positive indicator of learning intention.
Interest
An individual’s interest in the learning content can have an impact on their motivation.
Interest can be considered individual or situational. Individual interest is of personal meaning
and is long-lasting. Situational interest is based on environmental factors and may be short-lived.
Both types of interest can lead to an increased learning motivation for the individual (Shraw &
Lehman, 2009).
An individual’s interest in the professional development topic was not an attribute found
in the literature. Perhaps this is due to the nature of the literature focusing more on employee-
sponsored professional development, while the study is focusing on voluntary professional
development that may or may not be central to an employee’s occupation. The theme of interest
was noted by three participants. When questioned about how they may succeed in future
professional development activities, three individuals noted that having a topic that interested
them would be a factor in their decision to participate: “Have to be something I’m really
interested in.” Another individual mentioned lack of interest as a potential challenge in
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completing professional development: “Well, one would be, I would say, lack of interest.”
Finally, one participant discussed how interest in a topic has an impact on the decision to
participate in other programs, “In the past, I got excited when it comes to things I am interested
in learning about.” These individuals acknowledged that their interest in a topic has an impact on
their decision to participate.
Organization
The interviews collected data on specific organization influencers that could be potential
barriers against Deswin’s organizational goal for professional development. These questions
were based on specific organization influencers that research shows can prohibit students from
engaging in learning activities. The data collection on organizational priorities and supports was
the result of the stakeholder interviews and document analysis.
Organizational Communication
An employee with the appropriate knowledge and motivation can still fail at achieving
his or her goals if the organizational does not have processes and resources in place to support
the performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Behavior of the manager in terms of providing the
employee the appropriate resources and time for professional development programs was found
to be the most important aspect of the work environment, as it has an impact on employee
participation (Tharenou, 2001). In this study, the participants were all aware of the professional
development program; however, they did not fully understand the details of the program.
While all of the participants acknowledged they had received communication regarding
the professional development program, not one of the participants understood how they may
utilize the program to participate in professional development. One participant responded, “They
communicate quite well about it. And they definitely push it, but I just would not know where to
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begin.” Another participant stated, “I have no idea how I would get involved. I know there is a
program; I got an email. But who do I talk to?”
This lack of detail was also evident in the document analysis of a memo, “Professional
Development Opportunities,” regarding the professional development program. The memo was
written and distributed to encourage employees to research professional development
opportunities and start a discussion of how Deswin could support their interests. However, the
memo lacked the details on how an employee can take advantage of the program, “Please reach
out to your direct supervisor, so that we may develop a professional development plan together.
We will contribute financially and will ensure you have the resources needed to succeed.” The
memo lacked specific details to give the employees direction on how to participate in the
program.
Organizational Time Constraints
Organizational support has a strong influence on an individual’s decision to engage in
professional development (Garofano & Salas, 2005). This support for professional development
can be categorized in terms of social or physical support. Social support comes from colleagues
or supervisors. Opportunities for in-house training or development benefits are examples of
physical support. The participants in this study expressed a lack of time to participate in
professional development due to the demands of work.
Most, six out of seven, study participants expressed the organizational stress that is
present and how this has an impact on their ability to find the time to participate in professional
development. One participant responded: “I think in this particular industry everybody is so
pushed and so stressed right now that we don’t think we can find the time.” Another participant
responded with the understanding of others feeling that they may not have the time to complete
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professional development, but with the explanation that additional support could help reduce that
factor.
You know, I think everybody is just trying to find the time, and actually everybody thinks
they don’t have time, but after doing it, I disagree; I think you’ll find the time whether
you’re single or have a family, and especially with a lot of people who support you–that’s
the biggest thing.
Others mentioned time as a barrier against professional development participation. The
lack of perceived time due to work demands suggests that the organization is perhaps not
adequately communicating its support for professional development. Several studies have
confirmed that management support for learning has a positive impact on an employee’s
participation in professional development (Kyndt & Baert, 2013; Sanders, et al., 2011). The
participants’ work demands could be interpreted as an implicit lack of support for professional
development.
Professional Development Participation
Prior to the start of the study, it was understood that only one of the participants had
engaged in any professional development activities. This particular employee had enrolled in a
course to study for his contractor’s license. No other employee had communicated interest in
professional development to Deswin. However, it was learned during the interview that two
other participants had intentions to engage in professional development.
Two participants discussed their desire to enroll in some type of professional
development activity. One stated,
Plans change, and this one has changed multiple times, but the goal still remains the
same, whether it’s five years from now or 10 years from now. I still want to do my
master’s, and it is something that I have the full support of everybody I’ve talked to about
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it, but it is something that I want to do, regardless of the timeframe for me to do it. I’m
going to do it.
Another participant discussed his desire to study for the licensing test to become a real
estate agent and discussed how his desire to move to the sales side of real estate is due to his age
and his concern that he will not be able to fulfill the physical demands of the construction
position. This suggests that, while only one participant has engaged in professional development,
there are others who have a learning intention but may need additional organizational support,
knowledge, or motivation to fulfill their goals.
Synthesis
This chapter presented data from both a quantitative survey and a qualitative interview
that were designed to gain insight into the factors that are preventing Deswin from achieving its
organizational goal for participation in professional development. The data analysis supports a
picture of stakeholders that have the motivation to engage and complete in professional
development activities but require support in knowledge and organization to contribute to
Deswin’s organizational goal. The findings are encouraging, as they indicate that, with some
adjustments to training and communication, Deswin could meet its organizational goal.
Knowledge
Data collection indicated that gaps existed in both declarative and metacognitive
knowledge. Two aspects of declarative knowledge were explored in the study, i.e., the definition
of professional development and the benefits for professional development. The participants did
not have a clear concept of the declarative portions of professional development. Additionally,
while the participants recognized that there were benefits of professional development, they did
not demonstrate the benefits related to a reduction in wage loss. Metacognition was explored to
study if participants had the ability to identify possible challenges and work, though internally
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how these challenges could be overcome. Three of the participants discussed the challenges of
engaging in professional development. However, none of the participants were able to think
through the possible difficulties with time availability and offer potential solutions. The
knowledge gaps were reinforced by the organizational data as both sets of data suggest that the
employees do not have adequate information, both declarative knowledge and organizational,
that would assist them in participating in the program.
Motivation
The results and findings support a consistent message for motivational influencers of the
stakeholders. The survey found that the stakeholders had an adequate level of perceived self-
efficacy. The interview supported these results, as the stakeholders shared their confidence in
their ability to succeed in professional development settings. Additionally, the participants
exhibited confidence in their ability to affect the outcome of their own performance in
professional development. These findings support an adequate level of motivation among the
participants.
Organization
The organizational supports and priorities resulted in findings that could lead to areas of
organizational improvement. The participants discussed an organization in which resources are
stretched and employees would find it challenging to commit time beyond what is demanded
from them during the work day. Additionally, there seemed to be no clear direction to employees
on how they were expected to take advantage of the professional development program. The
interview data was consistent with the document analysis on the lack of direction.
Conclusion
This chapter presented both the results of the survey and the findings of the interview and
document analysis. The data were collected to offer insights into the gaps facing Deswin as
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related to its professional development organizational goal. The result of the data collection and
analysis paints a picture of an organization that has a motivated group of individuals who are in
need of both knowledge and organizational supports.
The study participants did not have an accurate concept of the meaning or benefits of
professional development. This was not surprising, as a review of the one document distributed
to employees regarding the professional development program did not provide any background
information on the meaning of professional development or how it related to either Deswin’s
organizational goals or how it could potentially benefit the employees’ professional paths. The
benefit of a knowledge performance gap is that it can be solved through job aids and training.
While over 55% of performance gaps are the result of motivation problems (Clark & Estes,
2008), it was not the case in this study.
Employee motivation was evaluated through a quantitative survey and a qualitative
interview. Both self-efficacy and attribution theory were targeted through the data collection, and
the concept of interest was a theme that developed organically through the interview process.
The survey participants indicated a high level of self-efficacy. They scored well in their
confidence in that results are a factor of their own effort, their ability to meet their goals, and
their capacity to overcome challenges. The survey results were confirmed by the qualitative
interview, as individuals discussed the confidence they had in their ability to successfully
complete professional development programs.
Organizational barriers were confirmed as a factor in professional development
participation. Study participants were unaware of the full details of the program, including the
process for enrollment or participation. Additionally, the employees felt as though time
constraints, which were a result of daily responsibilities, were a limiting factor in professional
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development participation. The interview data were confirmed by document analysis, as details
of the program were not made clear to employees.
The participants expressed their self-efficacy and belief that their actions would
contribute to their own success. However, the knowledge and organizational supports needed to
be successful indicate gaps that can be addressed. These gaps in necessary knowledge and
organizational supports could be bridged to accomplish Deswin’s goal. Chapter Five will discuss
recommendations for the organization as well as an evaluation plan.

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter Four presented the results and findings of the survey and interviews, which
aimed to discover gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organization that are contributing to the
prevention of Deswin’s professional development goal. Chapter Five addresses the final research
question: “What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?” The proposed solutions are followed by an
implementation and evaluation plan.
Discussion
As the construction industry is again positioned to a recession, it is important that the
many men and women currently employed in the construction industry are positioning
themselves to withstand the impact of displacement unemployment. For an individual to make
the decision to participate in professional development, he or she requires the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational supports that enable success. This study focused on finding the
gaps in a small business in the construction industry that prevented professional development
participation.
It was not surprising to find that the major performance gaps were knowledge and
organization. While the program had been communicated through informal verbal discussions
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and a short memo, there was no communication plan available to equip Deswin employees with
the knowledge they needed to participate in the program. Many of the employees had never
participated in professional development and therefore did not have prior experience in the
selection or enrollment process, much less how to take advantage of Deswin’s support of their
professional development process. The employee’s knowledge gap and organizational gap are
consistent, as they both require job aids and training to provide employees with the information
and support necessary to succeed.
As a majority of performance gaps is the result of a motivation problem (Clark & Estes,
2008), it was a surprise to find an employee group that did not have motivation concerns as
related to self-efficacy or attribution theory. These results were confirmed by both the qualitative
interviews and the quantitate survey. However, as the theme of interest arose from the qualitative
interviews, it would be worth exploring how interest has an impact on the decision to enroll in a
voluntary professional development program and how this relates to the employees’ perceptions
of organizational support for programs outside of those that have an impact on their daily work
role.
The following recommendations have the potential to be generalized in other business
settings. The use and participation of professional development is widely studied in both
academia and large corporate settings, however, there is minimal research on voluntary
professional development in a small business environment. Therefore, the data and
recommendations could be generalized to other small business environments.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
This study’s research questions were focused on identifying the performance gaps
preventing Deswin from achieving its goal of 100% participation in the organization’s
professional development program. These performance gaps were analyzed using Clark and
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Estes’ (2008) framework. The following sections outline specific recommendations for Deswin
using Clark and Estes’ framework categories: knowledge, motivation, and organization.
Knowledge Recommendations
For this study, the data collection and analysis phase served to validate assumed
influences that have had a negative effect on Deswin’s professional development organizational
goal. Table 8 represents the list of assumed knowledge influences based on the literature review.
The table also illustrates the assumed influences’ validation result and priority for achieving
stakeholders’ goals. Finally, recommendations based on theoretical principles are proposed for
each of the influences.
Table 8
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Employees do not have
the knowledge of the
benefits of professional
development activities.
(D).
V Y Information processing
theory states that
individuals can learn
and apply information
more successfully
when they can organize
new information and
connect it with prior
Provide employees
further
clarification and
training on what
qualifies as
professional
development under
the program.
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learning (Shraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Employees need to
know how to integrate
professional
development activities
into their routines and
daily schedules. (M)
V Y Modeling a
metacognitive behavior
by talking aloud is
useful when attempting
to engage others in the
same type of thinking
(Baker, 2006).

Conduct a
workshop to
discuss the
professional
development
program, which
includes discussion
time regarding the
challenges of
incorporating
professional
development into
employee
schedules.

* (D)eclarative; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions or description of needs or assets. The data illustrated
a need for employees to gain an increased understanding of what qualifies as professional
development. Currently, the study participants are not able to give a clear definition of
professional development. It is important for Deswin employees to know what activities for
which they enroll qualify for the Deswin professional development program. It is useful to
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identify and highlight important pieces of information to ensure information is transferred
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). If connected to prior knowledge, such as linking professional
development benefits to the previous construction downturn that all the employees experienced,
it would help the participants to process the newly introduced knowledge concepts.
Deswin would be able to provide this information to its employees through a clearer
description of the policy as well as an explanation that could be given during a workshop.
Cognitive load theory states that, for optimal learning to occur, intrinsic and extraneous loads
should be reduced to allow the learner to use his or her cognitive capacity on processing and
constructing (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Paas, 2006). An extraneous cognitive load is the result of
poorly designed instruction, as learners need to search through material to find information they
need to perform a task (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Paas, 2006). As such, the definitions will be sent
out in pre-workshop material for the employees to read and understand prior to the event. This
workshop would be useful for explaining the program details and ensuring that employees have
an opportunity to seek clarification if necessary.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions or description of needs or assets. The study
participants demonstrated a concern that time could be a constraint to implement professional
development into their schedules. However, they did not offer any evidence that they would be
able to overcome the time-constraint obstacle through self-regulation or individual strategies.
Providing individuals with opportunities to consider and debrief their thinking process improves
their ability to perform (Baker, 2006).
To support an individual’s ability to consider the challenges of a time restraint and
solutions to resolve these concerns, employees should be given the opportunity to discuss their
thinking process. Deswin would have the ability to engage employees in this conversation during
a staff meeting. Modeling a metacognitive behavior by talking aloud is useful when attempting
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to engage others in the same type of thinking (Baker, 2006). This knowledge solution is best
delivered in a training workshop to ensure employees are given the appropriate platform to
discuss their thought process and to ask questions. Training is the most appropriate knowledge-
transfer solution when employees require guided practice and feedback (Clark & Estes, 2008).
During the meeting, the meeting organizer could discuss overcoming his or her own experience
and challenges prior to opening the conversation for all to participate. The discussion would also
assist in developing new routine thinking for the participants, which is important for instilling
metacognition in the workplace (Munby, Versnel, Hutchinson, Chin, & Berg, 2003).
Motivation Recommendations
For this study, the data collection and analysis phase served to validate assumed
influences that have had a negative effect on Deswin’s professional development organizational
goal. Table 9 represents a list of assumed motivation influences based on the literature review.
The table also illustrates the assumed influences’ validation result and priority for achieving the
stakeholder goal. Finally, recommendations based on theoretical principles are proposed for each
of the influences.
Motivation includes three types of actions necessary to complete a goal, i.e., active
choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice is the decision to work toward a goal,
persistence is the decision to continue working toward the goal, and mental effort is the choice to
direct adequate mental resources toward completing the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). While
motivation influencers were not validated as obstacles to the organizational goal,
recommendations are provided to emphasize the importance of motivation in performance.
Table 9
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
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Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Employees do not feel
that successfully
completing professional
development activities
is a controllable
attribute. (A)
N N If individuals attribute
their failure on their
lack of ability, they will
be unlikely to exert
additional effort in
subsequent attempts
(Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).

Frame by
discussion the
success of
professional
development in
terms of effort
rather.
Employees do not
believe that they are
capable of successfully
completing professional
development activities.
(S)
N N Self-efficacy highly
correlates with
performance, as
individuals with high
self-efficacy are found
to persist in the face of
obstacles and show
more resilience when
completing a task
(Pajares, 2009).
Communicate to
employees that
they are capable of
successfully
completing
professional
development
programs.

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* (A)ttribution; (S)elf-efficacy
Attribution. While the interview data resulted in findings that do not support that the
employees feel as though success in professional development is outside of their locus of control,
it is worth providing recommendations that will help to reinforce an environment where
employees believe that success in professional development is controlled by their actions.
Providing feedback to learners that stress effort and self-control can be a positive reinforcement
to a healthy attribution mindset (Pintrich, 2003). Thus, it would be productive for managers to
discuss these aspects with the employees during professional development discussions and
throughout the program duration. A second strategy would be to clearly communicate to the
employees their ability to choose and control their professional development opportunities.
Offering students opportunities for choice and control may be helpful in reinforcing attribution
beliefs (Rueda, 2011). While Deswin allows employees control over their learning choices, it is
important that this benefit is clearly and consistently communicated.
Self-Efficacy. The study resulted in findings that do not support stakeholders who have a
low level of perceived self-efficacy. However, recommendations are provided to reinforce the
self-efficacy of stakeholders. Providing feedback to individuals that reinforce their ability to
learn what is being taught is helpful in reinforcing self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006). As such,
managers should include this dialogue in their conversations with employees. In addition to
feedback, milestone tasks should be assigned to the employees. A program that is designed so
that tasks are clear and give learners an opportunity to be successful is helpful in reinforcing self-
efficacy (Rueda, 2011). These milestones can include researching potential professional
development opportunities, submitting a list of potential programs and setting up a meeting with
their direct supervisor to discuss professional development.
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Organization Recommendations
Introduction. For this study, the data collection and analysis phase served to validate
assumed influences that have had a negative effect on Deswin’s professional development
organizational goal. Table 10 represents the list of assumed organizational influences based on
the literature review. The table also illustrates the assumed influences’ validation result and
priority for achieving the stakeholder goal. Finally, recommendations based on theoretical
principles are proposed for each of the influences.
Clark and Estes (2006) present six types of support necessary for organizational change.
The necessary support includes clear goals, alignment of organizational processes with the goals,
communication, involvement of top management, and adequate knowledge, skill set, and
motivational support. In the absence of this support, individuals are not motivated to work
toward organizational goals with their best efforts (Locke & Latham, 1990). The interview
findings indicated that the neither the cultural model nor cultural setting contributed toward the
success of the organizational goal.
Table 10
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
There is a general
priority placed on daily
activities and
responsibilities and not
on professional
development. (CM)
V Y It is important that an
employee is given the
resources and time to
Clearly
communicate the
professional
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complete the
professional
development goals as
employees perceive
high workloads and the
related time constraints
to be the major barriers
in participation of
professional
development
(Susomrith & Coetzer,
2015)
development
program to
employees.
Include the
process required to
participate, the
benefits to the
employee, the way
their participation
furthers the goals
of the organization
and the rewards
for completing the
program.

The organizational does
not have adequate
processes and
procedures in place to
support an employee’s
professional
development. (CS)

V Y Organizational support
has a strong influence
on an individual’s
decision to engage in
professional
development (Garofano
& Salas, 2005).
Provide direct
supervisors with
training on how to
support and
encourage their
employees in
professional
development.
* (CM) Cultural Model; (CS) Cultural Setting
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Cultural Model. The results of the study indicated that employees were not clearly
aware of the importance of the professional development plan. The participants were also unclear
about the program, including details of the program, the process to participate, and any rewards
for completing the program. This resulted in a cultural model, where the participants did not
perceive there to be organizational importance to the professional development program.
Communication of organizational programs is an important factor in predicting program
success. Employees need to understand how the program fits into the organizational goals and
strategies. Individuals are more likely to participate when they see how their learning is part of
the organizational goals (Jahns, 1973). Employees also need to be made aware of the rewards,
both intrinsic and extrinsic, of the program. Rewards are best used for extrinsic motivation and
get you “in the game”; recognition is best used for intrinsic recognition and help you “win the
game” (Hansen, Smith, & Hansen, 2002).
While the study participants were aware of the program, there was confusion as to any of
the details. To improve clarity, Deswin can issue a revised memo with the program details. This
memo should include the purpose of the program, how it contributes to the broader
organizational goals, details on the process to participate, and explanation of rewards. This
memo should be distributed prior to the meeting and discussed during the meeting to field any
additional questions.
Cultural Setting. The interview findings suggested lack of adequate perceived
organizational support. The participants described an environment where the high workload and
daily stress did not support a reality, where there would be the flexibility to enroll in professional
development. It is important that an organization’s communication, rewards, and policies are
consistent and support the organization’s goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the case of Deswin, the
study indicated a conflict between the communication and encouragement provided to enroll in
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 88

professional development and the daily emphasis and workload that did not support such a
reality.
Managers and supervisors play an important role in program implementation. Not only
do managers play a critical role in effective organizational change (Buckingham & Coffman,
1999), but supervisory communication is also critical to having engaged employees (Berger,
2014). Thus, supervisors should be trained and guided on how to support and encourage their
employees to participate in communication. The training should encourage supervisors to meet
with their direct reports on a regular basis to discuss their professional development plans as well
as to follow-up informally during daily conversation. This will allow more frequent
communication in the program to emphasize its importance. Communication, particularly from
an employee’s director supervisor, is critical to having engaged employees (Berger, 2014). In
this small business setting, the supervisory communication should be in conjunction with
messaging from leadership. Deswin leadership should communicate to and encourage
employees to provide additional motivation to enroll in a professional development program.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is used to develop
the implementation and evaluation plan. Based on the original Kirkpatrick four level model of
evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006), this newer model suggests that an evaluation plan
begins with the goals of the organization and works backward to evaluate the success of the
implemented solutions. The model uses “leading indicators” to inform early program results and
evaluates the program to determine its effectiveness in contributing toward the organizational
goals. Use of the new world Kirkpatrick model ensures that program evaluation is linked to
organizational goals.
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 89

Organizational Purpose, Needs, and Expectations
The purpose of the professional development program at Deswin is to lessen the impact
of displacement unemployment on construction workers. At the beginning of the study, only one
employee had participated in this voluntary program. Deswin set a goal to achieve 100%
participation in the professional development program. This project evaluated the potential
knowledge, motivational, and organization barriers that prevented Deswin from achieving its
organizational goal. The proposed solution—a workshop, related job aids, and training to
encourage supervisory support—should result in the achievement of Deswin’s organizational
goal.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
The ultimate success of a training program is judged on how it contributed to the
organizational goals. To measure the outcomes of the program, leading indicators are used to
connect the training results with the organizational goals. The presence of the leading indicators
predicts progress of the training program. Leading indicators also help keep initiatives on track,
as they can illuminate early signs of program failure. The leading indicators for this study are
derived from the organizational goals. The external outcomes involve lower impact for
employees in the event of displacement unemployment. The internal outcomes are comprised of
increased participation in professional development programs. Table 11 shows the proposed
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of outcomes, metrics, and methods.
Table 11
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
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1. Reduction in length of
unemployment for employee in
the case of displacement.
Collect data from employee. Compare data from pre-and post-
displacement.
2. Reduction of wage loss for
employees in case of
displacement.
Collect data from employee. Compare data from pre-and post-
displacement.
Internal Outcomes
3. Increased enrollment into
professional development by
employees.
The professional development
enrollments by employees.
Manager report from supervisors.
4. Increase in organizational
funds committed to
professional development.
Total budget committed for
professional development.
Compare quarterly budget data.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Level 3: Behavior focuses on the impact training has on an
employee’s behavior at work. To evaluate an employee’s behavior post-training, these behaviors
must first be identified and defined (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The critical behaviors are
those that indicate that the employee has learned from the training and is changing his or her
work behaviors due to the training. The first critical behavior is an employee’s initiative to
research professional development programs that would be of interest to him or her, which
includes brainstorming possible topics and programs, and can be measured through employee
self-reporting. The second critical behavior is a noticeable increase of interest in the professional
development program. This can be measured by the number of meetings held between the
employee and his or her supervisor. This meeting is the first step in employment enrollment, as
the supervisor and employee discuss the employee’s short list of topics, program cost, and
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 91

possible dates. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors
appear in Table 12.
Table 12
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Employee
showing initiative
into professional
development by
performing
research into
possible topics.
Progress on
employees short list of
potential professional
development topics.
Employee self-
reporting.
Starting 30 days
after the training.
Monthly for the first
six months.
2. Increased interest
into professional
development by
employees.
The number of
meetings held
between supervisor
and employee to
discuss professional
development
opportunities.
Manager report from
supervisors.
Starting 30 days
after the training.
Monthly for the first
six months.

Required drivers. Level 3: Behaviors are critical to ensure that Level 4: Results are
obtained. To emphasize the importance of Level 3: Behaviors, and to encourage critical
behaviors, a system should be put into place to reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward these
behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Reinforcing drivers include job aids to assist
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 92

employees in the process required for program participation and resources to assist the employee
in selecting a program of interest. Encouraging drivers focus on communication and support
from colleagues, supervisors, and management. Reward drivers include both recognition and
rewards for employees that are triggered by both program enrollment and completion. Table 13
details the drivers, their timing, and their relationship to the critical behaviors.
Table 13
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
Reinforcing
Job aid, including step-by-step
process required to participate
in professional development
program.
Ongoing 2
Job aid, including resources
for employee topic research
(class catalogues at
community college, technical
school information, etc.)
Ongoing 1
Discussion of professional
development program at
weekly staff meetings.
Discussion topics to include
an update of participation /
Weekly 1, 2
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 93

interest and conversation
about resources, possible
topics.
Encouraging
Collaboration and discussion
about professional
development program at team
meetings.
Weekly 1, 2
Feedback and support from
direct supervisor.
Ongoing 1,2
Monthly communication from
director of construction
providing program update and
encouraging participation.
Monthly 1, 2
Rewarding
Incentive at specific
professional development
milestones (enrollment,
completion).
Quarterly 1, 2
Acknowledgment of
employee participation in
professional development at
Monthly 1, 2
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 94

specific milestones
(enrollment, completion).

Monitoring. Monitoring of post-training behaviors is important to demonstrate
accountability. Employees pay attention to the items an organization measures, as they perceive
what is measured to be important to the organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). To
emphasize the importance of the professional development program, the program should be
discussed at all staff meetings and weekly between supervisor and employee. Success stories,
such as an employee’s enrollment or completion of professional development, should also be
shared organization-wide as they occur.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2: Learning is the degree to which training participants take away knowledge and
skill sets from their participation in the training program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In
order to evaluate learning, learning goals must first be established. At the completion of the
recommended solutions, the employees should be able to do the following:
1. Understand the definition and benefits of professional development (declarative
knowledge);
2. Understand the process of enrolling in professional development (procedural knowledge);
3. Plan and monitor their progress toward enrolling in professional development (procedural
knowledge, metacognition);
4. Engage and communicate about professional development programs with a supervisor
(cultural model); and
5. Recognize the level of importance of the professional development program (cultural
setting).
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 95

Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved through a
training program that gives employees the knowledge and information required to succeed in the
professional development program. The program will take place in a half-day workshop and will
touch upon several different topics, including background, program process, and benefits. In
addition, the workshop will give employees time to brainstorm ideas for professional
development and discuss challenges that may arise from participation.
The program will begin with a request to participate in the program. Along with this
request, the employees will be provided job aids that will include background information such
as definitions, benefits, and a revised program information sheet that details the process of
participation, timeline, and benefits of participation. These job aids will be distributed prior to
the workshop and will also be discussed in person.
The workshop will include all Deswin employees as well as the director of construction.
It will begin with a review of the program, and the job aids will be referenced. This will be
followed by a brainstorming session, where employees can discuss possible professional
development topics that would be of interest to them. After the topics are listed, the group will be
asked to come up with ideas on where they may be able to take professional development on
each of the topics mentioned. They will work together in a group and then spend some time
individually where they can come up with a short list of potential topics. Finally, they will come
back as a group and spend some time discussing possible challenges to enrollment and
participation and work as a group to talk through these obstacles.
Components of learning. For employees to feel confident in their ability to participate in
professional development, it is important that they have the pertinent knowledge. This
demonstration of knowledge is critical, as it is a precursor to the application of knowledge that
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 96

follows. To ensure that employees have this knowledge, it will be evaluated as outlined in Table
14.
Table 14
Components of Learning for the Program
Method or Activity Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussion and
group game activities
Periodically during the workshop
Procedural Skill set “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration of individuals use of the job
aids in brainstorming possible topics
During the workshop
Demonstration of individuals use of job aids to
discuss the process of enrollment
During the workshop
Demonstration of individuals’ discussion of
how to research programs
During the workshop
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions of the value of professional
development
During the workshop
Discussions of the professional development
program
After the course, as reported by direct
supervisors
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussion following workshop After the workshop, as reported by direct
supervisors
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Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions during workshop

During the workshop
Discussions after workshop with supervisor

After the workshop

Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend evaluating reaction in regard to
engagement, relevance, and satisfaction. It is recommended that reaction is measured during the
workshop to gain formative feedback. The benefits of gaining this data during the workshop is so
the trainer can adjust the approach if needed to improve the quality of the training. Table 15
outlines the components needed to evaluate reactions from the training.
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance During the workshop
Observation During the workshop
Count of individuals that read job aids prior to
attending workshop
During the workshop
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via
discussion
Occasional during workshop

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End of workshop evaluation One week after the workshop
Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via
discussion
Occasional during workshop

End of workshop evaluation One week after the workshop

Evaluation Tools
During and immediately following the program implementation. During the
workshop, evaluation will occur to measure both Level 1: Reaction and Level 2: Learning. This
evaluation will take place using a variety of methods. For Level 1: Reaction, the instructor will
take a series of pulse-checks throughout the workshop by asking participants about the relevance
of the material and their satisfaction with the program. The instructor will also take note of
attendance, a count of who had reviewed the material prior to the workshop, and the visible
participant engagement. For Level 2: Learning, evaluation will occur using knowledge games
and discussion. To assess the learning of declarative knowledge, the instructor will play a game
that challenges the participants to recall the information shared on the job aid material.
Additionally, procedural skill set, attitude, and commitment will be assessed during discussion
using guided questions.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. One week after the workshop, an
evaluation will be sent to the participants. The delay will give the participants time to digest the
material and provide feedback that is deeper than what is typically produced when an evaluation
is used as an “exit ticket” to a training. This evaluation will cover relevance and satisfaction.
Additional follow-up will be used to evaluate the program as listed below:
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 99

1. Discussions of the professional development program between employee and supervisor
(Level 2: Learning, Attitude, and Confidence).
2. Discussion of professional development program at staff meetings (Level 3: Behavior).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of total participants in the Deswin professional development program is
measured in count of those enrolled. Each month, Deswin will track the number of employees
who have enrolled in the program. Deswin will also track those who have completed their
professional development program. The dashboard below will report on the data described.
Summary
The implementation and evaluation plan was based on the new world Kirkpatrick model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which is an update to the Kirkpatrick four level model of
evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). The model was developed to emphasize the
importance of the organizational goals. The model works back from the broader goals to develop
learning outcomes and evaluation methods that work to enhance the program. Through this
suggested training, Deswin can proceed in addressing the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps that were validated in this study. By addressing these gaps, Deswin will
achieve its organizational goal of 100% participation in its professional development program.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to address the gap within Deswin that prevented the
organization from achieving its goal of 100% participation in its professional development
program. The gap analysis was performed using Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework, which
categorizes performance gaps into three categories: knowledge, motivation, and organization.
The research indicated that Deswin can address the areas of knowledge and organization to close
the performance gap. The implementation and evaluation plan suggested would serve to close the
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 100

knowledge and organization gaps and assist Deswin in achieving its professional development
goal.

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 101

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LABOR DISPLACEMENT 109

APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
In an effort to build rapport with the interview subjects, the interview protocol has been
drafted to present the questions in simple yet inviting language that would not intimidate the
interviewees.
Welcome
• Thank you for your time today, I appreciate your willingness to spend a part of your day
with me.
• I don’t wish to rely only on my memory and brief notes. Would it be okay if I record the
interview?
o If at any time you want me to turn off the recording, just let me know, and I will
be happy to do so.
• I also brought two copies of the confidentiality agreement; if you wouldn’t mind
reviewing, and, if it looks okay to you, sign a copy and keep the other one for your
records.
• In short, this interview is not intended to be evaluative, and I will not be making any
judgments in regard to your responses. Additionally, everything shared will be kept
confidential.
• I am trying to learn about what impacts an individual’s decision to participate in
professional development activities.
• This is part of my dissertation work for my doctorate program at USC.
• So, if you don’t mind, I will get started.
Interview Questions
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 110

Note: The text bolded and in parenthesis will not be spoken and is intended to assist in
coding after interview.
1. Walk me through any experiences you have had as a student. (KNOWLEDGE)
2. When I say the phrase “professional development,” what comes to mind? What are your
initial thoughts? (KNOWLEDGE)
Just to clarify, when I use the phrase “professional development,” I am referring to any formal or
informal education or training that gives you a new skill set or knowledge that can be related to
your current job but does not necessarily have be related (Garofano & Salas, 2005).
3. With that definition in mind, tell me about any opportunities you have had to participate in
professional development, whether it be related to work or not. (KNOWLEDGE)
4. What benefits could you see, if any, of professional development activities? Hypothetically
or from experience. (KNOWLEDGE)
5. Say you decided to participate in professional development in the future, what challenges
could you anticipate facing? (KNOWLEDGE)
6. In your opinion, what additional skill set or knowledge, if any, would increase your
performance in your specific job? (KNOWLEDGE)
7. What do you think prevents you or others from participating in professional development
activities? From your experience or from your observation of others. (KNOWLEDGE,
ORGANIZATION)
8. What would motivate you, if anything, to participate in professional development?
(MOTIVATION)
9. Are there topics or subjects about which you would be interested in taking professional
development? (MOTIVATION)
o Tell me about why that interests you?
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 111

10. How do you feel about how well you could do in a professional development activity?
(MOTIVATION)
o Why do you think that?
11. Tell me about a time you performed well in an educational environment? (MOTIVATION)
o What did you do to impact your performance?
12. Tell me about a time you did not perform well in an educational environment?
(MOTIVATION)
o What could you have done to improve your performance?
13. Okay, now I want to shift gears. Could you walk me through a typical work day?
(ORGANIZATION)
o Talk to me about how prepared you feel to succeed in these specific aspects of your
day.
o If you wanted to engage in professional development, how would you integrate it into
your schedule? How would you find the time?
14. Another question about your specific job. How is your performance evaluated in your current
job? (ORGANIZATION)
o How does professional development factor into your assessment?
15. How does your organization communicate about professional development opportunities?
(ORGANIZATION)
o Is there a formal program or policy in place regarding professional development that
you know of?

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 112

APPENDIX B
Self-Efficacy Survey
1 = Not at all true
2 = Hardly true
3 = Moderately true
4 = Exactly true
1. I can always manage to solve
difficult problems if I try hard
enough.

1 2 3 4
2. If someone opposes me, I can
find the means and ways to get
what I want.

1 2 3 4
3. It is easy for me to stick to my
aims and accomplish my goals.

1 2 3 4
4. I am confident that I could deal
efficiently with unexpected
events.

1 2 3 4
5. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I
know how to handle unforeseen
situations.

1 2 3 4
6. I can solve most problems if I
invest the necessary effort.

1 2 3 4
7. I can remain calm when facing
difficulties because I can rely on
my coping abilities.

1 2 3 4
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 113

8. When I am confronted with a
problem, I can usually find
several solutions.

1 2 3 4
9. If I am in trouble, I can usually
think of a solution.

1 2 3 4
10. I can usually handle whatever
comes my way.

1 2 3 4
11. I can figure out anything if I try
hard enough.

1 2 3 4
12. If I practiced every day, I could
develop just about any skill.

1 2 3 4
13. Once I have decided to
accomplish something that is
important to me, I keep trying to
accomplish it, even if it is harder
than I thought.

1 2 3 4
14. I am confident that I will achieve
the goals that I set for myself.

1 2 3 4
15. When I’m struggling to
accomplish something difficult, I
focus on my progress instead of
feeling discouraged.

1 2 3 4
16. I believe hard work pays off.

1 2 3 4
17. My ability grows with effort.

1 2 3 4
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 114

18. I can learn what is being taught
in a class setting.

19. I will succeed in whatever
professional development
program I choose.

20. I will succeed in whatever class I
choose.

21. I believe the brain can be
developed like a muscle.
22. I think that no matter who you
are, you can significantly change
your level of talent.

23. I can change my basic level of
ability considerably.

(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995; Gaumer Erickson, Soukup, Noonan, & McGurn, 2016)

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 115

APPENDIX C
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

LABOR DISPLACEMENT: A GAP ANALYSIS
AN EVALUATION STUDY ADDRESSING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN A
SMALL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Allyson Rameker, candidate for
doctorate of education in organizational change and leadership under Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores at
the University of Southern California because you are (insert eligibility criteria). Your
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below and ask questions about
anything you do not understand before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time
as you need to read the consent form. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this
form. You will also be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this evaluation study is to identify the barriers that prevent participation in
voluntary professional development in the construction industry. The researcher is seeking to
identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence that prevent participation.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will asked to participate in an interview for
approximately 30 minutes. The interview will cover questions related to knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that affect participation in professional development. The
interview will be recorded to ensure the researcher is accurate in analyzing the responses. As a
participant, it is within your right to request that the interview not be recorded. This request can
be made at the beginning of the interview or at any time. As a participant, you will also be
requested to complete a brief survey regarding self-efficacy. The results of the survey will also
be confidential.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no foreseen risks to your participation in this study. You may only be inconvenienced
by the time it takes to participate.

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 116

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
This study anticipates direct benefit to the organization as a result of your participation. This study
also anticipates the improvement of the professional development program at the company. As
this is a research study, the benefits are contingent upon the results.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and
will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The members of the research
team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The data will be coded with a false name or pseudonym; identifiable information will be kept
separately from your responses.
The data will be stored on password-protected computers and held for three years after the study
has been completed and then destroyed. Recorded audio files will be destroyed immediately
upon transcription.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Allyson Rameker
Phone: (775) 513-3612
Email: rameker@usc.edu

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT: IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 117

(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO

□ I agree to be audio-recorded

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe that
he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 118

APPENDIX D
Deswin Professional Development Memo: Redacted

TO: Desert Wind Homes Staff

FROM: , President

DATE: January 10, 2015

RE: Professional Development Opportunities

______________________________________________________________________________

As you all know, learning and education is an important part of our culture. We believe that to
stay competitive and relevant, both as an organization and as individuals, we must continue to
educate and challenge ourselves.

We would like to contribute to your learning journey. If you would like to explore the
possibility of taking a class, embarking on a degree or certification, or learning a new skill, we
want to support you.

Please reach out to your direct supervisor, so that we may develop a professional development
plan together. We will contribute financially and will ensure you have the resources needed to
succeed.

LABOR DISPLACEMENT 119

APPENDIX E
Evaluation Tool
Thank you for your participation in the professional development workshop. To assist us in
refining our training technique, please respond to the short survey below. Your feedback is
important to us as we can use it to improve the training methods. Thank you!
1 = Not at all true
2 = Hardly true
3 = Moderately true
4 = Exactly true
Level 1: Reactions

1. I felt engaged in the workshop.

1 2 3 4
2. The content was easy for me to
follow.

1 2 3 4
3. The content was relevant.

1 2 3 4
4. The workshop was a valuable use
of my time.

1 2 3 4
Level 2: Learning

5. I am clear on how to proceed in
enrolling in the professional
development program.

1 2 3 4
LABOR DISPLACEMENT 120

6. The workshop increased my
knowledge about the benefits of
professional development.

1 2 3 4
7. The workshop increased my
understanding of the
organizational importance of
professional development.

1 2 3 4
Level 3: Behavior

8. Since the workshop, I have spent
time thinking about possible
professional development topics.

1 2 3 4
9. Since the workshop, I have
discussed professional
development with a coworker.

1 2 3 4
Level 4: Results

10. Since the workshop, I have made
progress in the professional
development enrollment process.

1 2 3 4

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explores a performance gap in professional development participation in a small-business environment. The purpose of the study was to analyze factors that contribute to the performance gap and present solutions that increase professional development participation. The project uses several learning, motivation, and organizational change theories within the framework of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis. Using both quantitative and qualitative data collection, the study found that, while employees had sufficient motivation, they were lacking in key knowledge and organizational supports. These gaps were then used to present strategies to bridge the performance gaps.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rameker, Allyson Sloan (author)

Core Title Labor displacement: a gap analysis an evaluation study addressing professional development in a small business environment

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/12/2018

Defense Date 03/06/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag displacement unemployment,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Martinez, Brandon (committee member), Stowe, Kathy (committee member)

Creator Email rameker@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-3260

Unique identifier UC11670841

Identifier etd-RamekerAll-6229.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-3260 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RamekerAll-6229.pdf

Dmrecord 3260

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rameker, Allyson Sloan

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA