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Making a case for teaching religious literacy in Ethiopian schools: an innovation study

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Making a case for teaching religious literacy in Ethiopian schools: an innovation study

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Content Running head: RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 1

MAKING A CASE FOR TEACHING RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN
SCHOOLS: AN INNOVATION STUDY

by

Nefertiti Makeda

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Nefertiti Makeda

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Monique Datta, and committee
members Dr. Ruth Chung and Dr. Lawrence Picus. Your guidance and support helped me
make sense of my writing and kept me focused on my goals. I am humbled and grateful.
After my tremendous struggles to cope with two states of emergency and continuing
infrastructure problems in a developing country, there were many times when I doubted I
would complete the Global Executive Ed.D program. Now, I am in awe of the sheer power of
perseverance; I have achieved what I first thought would be impossible but help from my
professors, friends and family brought me to this point in my life.
I would also like to thank the faculty and staff of the Rossier School of Education for
your patience. I am especially grateful to Dr. Mark Robison and Dr. Sabrina Chong for your
flexibility for the many times that I panicked because I was unable to access the internet or
there was a power outage. I would also like to thank Dr. Kiley Adolph and Dr. Helena Seli,
who patiently guided me through the dissertation defense writing process and helped me to
organize my scattered thoughts. Thank you to Dr. Kathy Krop and Dr. Tracy Tambascia for
helping me to discover my potential. I would also like to appreciate Dr. Kenneth Yates who
always provided targeted and timely feedback on my assignments and Dr. Anthony Maddox
for stretching my mind to go beyond the realm of possibilities.
At Andinet International College in Ethiopia, I would like to acknowledge my data
collector, Dr. Habtamu Andualem, for taking the IRB training, conducting the interviews for
this study and facilitating the online survey. To my colleagues at school, thank you for your
unwavering support and encouragement throughout this twenty-five month process.
Personally, I am eternally grateful to Cohort 5 for being there for me as my Global
extended family. I will always cherish your collective wisdom and sense of humor. Without
you, I would not be here. Finally, to my precious daughter, Andinet Mayibuye, our many
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 3
conversations about exploring consciousness and philosophy and living purposefully inspire
me to continue growing setting a good example. Thank you for taking this amazing Global
journey with me and I hope this experience inspires you to find your own unique path in life
and to discover your dreams.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction 11
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 11
Background of the Problem 13
Organizational Context and Mission 16
Religions Represented in Ethiopia 19
Religious Hostilities 20
Organizational Performance Status 22
Definitions 22
Related Literature 23
Importance of Organizational Innovation 29
Organizational Performance Goal 30
Stakeholders and Stakeholder Performance Goals 31
Stakeholder Group for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Needs 32
Purpose of the Project 33
Research Questions 34
Methodological Framework 34
Organization of the Project 35
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 37
Overview of Religious Literacy 37
Relationship Between Religious Literacy and Cultural Competency 38
Religion and History 39
Value of Religious Literacy 40
Scholars’ Recognition of Religious Literacy 42
Pedagogy of Religious Literacy 43
Evidence of Successful Religious Literacy Programs 44
Teacher Preparation for Religious Literacy 49
Learning and Motivation Theory 50
Factual Knowledge 50
Conceptual Knowledge 51
Procedural Knowledge 51
Metacognitive Knowledge 52
Motivational Influences 53
Motivational Indices 54
Organization Influences 55
Conclusion 56
Chapter Three: Methodology 58
Stakeholders of Focus 58
Methodological Framework 59
Assumed Influences 60
Preliminary Scanning Data and Critical Observations 60
Factual Knowledge Assessments and Measurements 61
Conceptual Knowledge Assessment and Measurements 62
Procedural Knowledge Assessment and Measurements 63
Metacognitive Knowledge Assessment and Measurements 63
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 5
Motivation Assessment and Measurements 64
Organization Assessment and Measurements 65
Sample and Population 67
Data Collection 68
Survey 68
Interviews 69
Trustworthiness of Data 71
Role of the Investigator 71
Data Analysis 72
Limitations and Delimitations 73
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 75
Participating Stakeholders 76
Data Collection and Validity 77
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs 78
Discussion on Validated Assumed Knowledge Needs 78
Validation of Factual Knowledge Needs 79
Validation of Procedural Knowledge Needs 85
Validation of Assumed Conceptual Knowledge Needs 87
Validation of Metacognitive Assumed Needs 90
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs Validation 91
Key Research Findings Related to Knowledge 92
Assumed Motivation Needs 92
Key Findings for Assumed Motivation Needs 93
Validation of Assumed Motivation Needs 93
Summary of Assumed Motivation Findings 96
Assumed Organizational Needs Results and Key Findings 97
Validation of Assumed Organizational Needs 97
Summary of Organizational Findings 100
Conclusion of Assumed KMO Needs Validation and Findings 101
Chapter Five: Findings, Recommended Solutions, Implementation Plan and Evaluation 102
Validated Needs and Rationale 102
Findings for Knowledge Needs 103
Factual Knowledge 103
Procedural Knowledge 104
Conceptual Knowledge 104
Metacognitive Knowledge 105
Findings for Motivation Needs 105
Findings for Organizational Needs 106
Implementation Plan 107
Stage 2: Reflection Stage 108
Organizational Environment and Features Relevant to Implementation 110
Related Solutions and Organizational Capacity to Implement 111
Proposed Solutions 111
Planning 111
Organizational Policies 112
Financial Planning and Analysis 113
External consultants, trainers and curriculum experts 113
Ministry of Education Engagement 114
HIA Parent Discussions 114
HIA Religious Literacy Curriculum 115
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 6
Evaluation Plan 115
Level 1: Reactions, Assessing Satisfaction 115
Level 2: Learning, Commitment, Confidence 116
Level 3: Transfer, Assessing Behavior Change, Application of Learning 116
Level 4: Impact, Assessing Impact 117
Limitations 118
Implications for Future Research 119
Conclusion 119
References 121
Appendix A: Survey Instrument Protocol-Sample Group 128
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 133

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Preliminary Survey Depicting Religious Diversity at Harmony International
Academy in 2015/2016 17
Table 2: Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 32
Table 3: Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs 66
Table 4: Survey Q5 - Teachers Should Understand the Major Definitions Associated With
Religious Literacy 80
Table 5: Survey Q17 - Teachers Should Know the Religious History of Ethiopia 82
Table 6: My Personal Religious and Cultural Beliefs Prevent my From Teaching About
World Religions in a School 83
Table 7: Teachers Should Be Able to Explain About Religious Violence and Terrorism 85
Table 8: Survey Q11 - Teachers Should Learn How to Recognize Religious Intolerance and
Defend Vulnerable Students 87
Table 9: Survey Q9. Teachers Should Design Activities to Help Students Discuss Sensitive
Topics About Religion in the Classroom 88
Table 10 Q7 - Teachers Should Understand Their Own Personal Views About Religious
Literacy 90
Table 11: Validation of Assumed Knowledge Needs 91
Table 12: Survey Q6 - Teachers Should Practice Self-Efficacy When Learning About World
Religions 93
Table 13: Survey Q18 - Teachers Should Be Able to Speak Confidently With Parents About
World Religions in Schools 95
Table 14: Validation of Assumed Motivation Needs 96
Table 15: Survey Q4 - Policies and Resources Are Necessary Before World Religion
Courses 97
Table 16 Q13 - Teachers Should Receive Incentives For Teaching World Religion Courses 99
Table 17 Q8 - Teacher Training and Professional Development can Help Teachers
Understand how to Teach Religion in a School 99
Table 18: Validation of Assumed Organizational Needs 100
Table 19: Summary of Validated Needs 103
Table 20: Validated Needs for Knowledge and Findings 105
Table 21: Validated Needs for Motivation and Findings 106
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 8
Table 22: Validated Needs for Organization and Findings 107
Table 23 Stage 3: Implementation 109

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Religions at HIA 18
Figure 2: Religious practice among Ethiopians. 20
Figure 3: Overview of gap analysis model. Adapted from Rueda (2011). 59
Figure 4: Teachers Should Understand the Major Definitions Associated With Religious
Literacy 80
Figure 5: Teachers should know the religious history of Ethiopia 82
Figure 6: My personal religious and cultural beliefs prevent my from teaching about world
religions in a school. 84
Figure 7: Teachers should be able to explain about religious violence and terrorism. 85
Figure 8: Teachers should learn how to recognize religious intolerance and defend vulnerable
students 87
Figure 9: Teachers should understand their own personal views about religious literacy. 90
Figure 10: Teachers should practice self-efficacy when learning about world religions. 94
Figure 11: Teachers should be able to speak confidently with parents about world religions
in schools. 95
Figure 12: Policies and resources are necessary before world religion courses. 98
Figure 13: Teachers should receive incentives for teaching world religion courses. 99
Figure 14: Teacher training and professional development can help teachers understand
how to teach religion in a school. 100
Figure 15: Reactions, assessing satisfaction. 116
Figure 16: Learning, commitment, confidence. 116
Figure 17: Transfer, assessing behavior change, application of learning. 117
Figure 18: Impact, assessing impact. 118

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 10
ABSTRACT
This study was an innovation project designed to help a K-12 school in Ethiopia to
create a religious literacy program. This inquiry used the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis as a
framework to investigate the types of knowledge and skills, motivation and organizational
resources that would be needed by teachers to help the organization meet its goal of
graduating culturally competent seniors who demonstrate religious literacy. This gap analysis
study began with related literature and an overview of religious literacy and cultural
competence. The results of collected data yielded 13 validated assumed needs out of 15 and
solutions were recommended in the final chapter of the study. Key findings were 1) Teachers
were ready to learn factual knowledge beginning with religious literacy terminology. 2)
Training and professional development is needed for teachers to learn how to teach world
religions and to learn how to weave connections between concepts. 3) Suggested solutions,
based on the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model of evaluating programs, are presented in
Chapter Five.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Religion is a sensitive issue that often leads to heated debate, political posturing and
conflict which makes teaching religious literacy an urgent matter for many schools (Bishop &
Nash, 2007). The current use of the term religious literacy is an expanding concept built on
foundations laid by Moore, Prothero and other scholars. One was to contextualize religious
literacy is to see the concept constructed on four pillars: knowledge, ecumenical orientation,
self-awareness leading to reflection, and application (Ennis, 2017). Knowledge is described
as an understanding of the basic tenets of world religions and the connections religions have
with the social, cultural and political lives of human beings (Ennis, 2017). Ecumenical
orientation is experiential learning of religions and a desire to explore across religious and
cultural boundaries (Ennis, 2017). Self-awareness and reflection are described as,
exemplifying a certain perceptiveness about the convergence of personal religious identity
with global influences (Ennis, 2017). Finally, religious literacy is a call to action that centers
on committing oneself to use the four pillars to unite intercultural divides (Ennis, 2017).
Therefore, religious literacy challenges people to adapt to the reality of religious pluralism.
Diana Eck of the Harvard Pluralism Project describes pluralism as an achievement of
“energetic engagement with diversity,” (Eck, 2006). In addition, Eck explains that diversity
without relationship building results in more uneasiness and hostility in the world (Eck,
2006). Globally, some form of religious violence occurs almost every day (Emerson &
Sanders, 2006). Even though religious practices have always played an important role in the
lives of human beings, unfamiliarity with diverse religious views can unknowingly create
problems (Hustedt-Jacobson & Jacobsen, 2012).
In today’s interconnected and globalized world, lack of religious knowledge can be
detrimental and may lead to misunderstandings between individuals, groups of people and
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 12
even entire countries (Hustedt-Jacobson & Jacobsen, 2012). Ignorance of such critical
matters that people so deeply associate with their identity can have catastrophic results such
as the Charlie attack in Paris in 2005. After the satirical magazine published a cartoon
version of the Prophet Muhammad, Muslim gunmen entered the magazine offices and shot
12 people dead including the cartoonist (Fassin, 2015). Parisians were outraged and saw the
violence as an attack on free speech and the French Republic. Many Muslims expressed an
opposing view. The education system reacted when some Muslim students refused to respect
the moment of silence for the victims of the attack; the students were suspended, expelled
and some underwent police interrogation (Fassin, 2015).
When people from diverse cultures interact regularly in school and college
classrooms, through employment, world travel, social media, or by simply living in
religiously diverse neighborhoods, learning how to understand one another is necessary for
peaceful coexistence. How many people know what it means to be an Orthodox Christian
who fasts more than 200 days each year or the meaning of the Jewish observance of Yom
Kippur or the meaning of a Sunni Muslim girl’s choice to wear a head scarf? How many
people take time to understand any other religion different from their own? It is surprising
how little even friends know about one another beyond surface knowledge of religious
practices, even though religious issues are interwoven with everyday life (Graham, 2012).
With such close interactions, religious literacy education has become necessary to help
people avoid misreading cultural attitudes, decisions, and beliefs which can quickly
deteriorate into conflict (Sanders et al., 2010).
When diverse groups of children attend school together, there are opportunities to
gain exposure and learn cultural awareness which can develop into meaningful learning
outcomes for students (Arweck & Penney, 2015). When children feel confident in their
surroundings and with their relationships with teachers and friends, more experiences are
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 13
presented for them to learn about one another in a safe environment (Arweck & Penny,
2015). Understanding the connections between world religions and their followers is one of
the goals of religious literacy through Harvard’s Religious Literacy Program (RLP). RLP’s
aim is to generate peace through an educational approach that helps people understand how
religious influences affect social, cultural, and political life (Harvard Divinity School
Religious Literacy, 2018). Students who learn about diverse cultures and religions are more
prepared to practice respect and tolerance of religious differences (Moore, 2010). The
purpose of this study is to examine religious literacy in Ethiopia by focusing on one
religiously diverse K-12 school and identifying the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support needed to enable the school to build its own religious literacy
program. Specifically, the study will identify what kinds of knowledge teachers will need for
creating a curriculum and teaching in the program. For example, knowledge of how to
respect one another’s religions, languages and cultures can contribute to more peaceful
societies by creating a sense of well-being and belonging (Rosen, 2007). This study will
further examine teachers’ motivational influences that may affect their interest and
confidence in teaching religious literacy in a new program. Additionally, the study will
identify what organizational resources are needed to develop and sustain a religious literacy
program at Harmony International Academy (pseudonym).
Background of the Problem
The problem of practice addressed by this dissertation is to guide the school in
starting a religious literacy program with an aim to help its community to become more
inclusive and to graduate seniors who are culturally competent global citizens. Anecdotal
evidence and observation over many years of living in Ethiopia suggests that people are very
religious and spiritual matters are generally kept to themselves and certainly not taught in a
school setting. School systems and ministry of education offices around the world struggle
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 14
with the “religion in schools” issue. Even Finland, the highly ranked Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) country that is leading the world with its
innovative educational ideas, cannot agree on the right approach to teaching religion in
schools. Currently all students in basic education from grades 1 – 9 are required to take
religion classes, and if students are not part of a religious community, they will take the
ethics course instead (A. Kallioniemi, lecture, April, 2018). Even though the Finnish school
system is beginning to create more integrative learning experiences rather than teaching
subjects in isolation, religious education will remain locked in a silo until the country’s
conservative government can decide how best to proceed (A. Kallioniemi, lecture, April,
2018). This means for example, Lutheran students, who are the overwhelming majority, will
continue to be taught by Lutheran teachers, Orthodox Christian students by teachers who are
also Orthodox, Muslim by Muslim and so forth. However, with an influx of immigrants from
different religious backgrounds, solutions will be needed before problems appear (T.
Haapalehto, lecture, April, 2018). Salberg (2015) describes the increase in the immigrant
population on schools as one of those Finnish paradoxes of education. This situation can be
compared to the case in Modesto, California when the immigrant population increased over
many years until the problem of religious intolerance became apparent (Lester & Roberts,
2009) and the school district was forced take action by creating a course to educate students
about their religious similarities and differences.
The message of acceptance and tolerance can be woven into a school’s mission and
vision statement and infused with such transformative language that it helps a school engage
in transformative student learning outcomes (Kose, 2011). For example, Kose’s study of
principals in six schools found transformative language includes concepts like equity and
inclusion as well as diversity and social justice. Examples of such language can contribute to
visions that are positively reflected in staff and community in most schools in the study.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 15
However, the same language had an opposite effect by creating resistance among staff in
other schools. In cases of resistance, Kose’s findings suggest possible tension between strong
transformative language and a shared school vision. Transformative language encourages
change by individuals and change is not always easy. However, when some individuals feel
compelled to change themselves by a transformative mission statement, others may still need
more convincing reasons to change (Kose, 2011). As more people embrace the vision, the
resisters may become positively influenced. Transformative language supports peace
education which requires students from diverse religious, cultural and languages backgrounds
to share the same space and learn these lessons together (Grover, 2007). In a setting where
students and teachers are taking this transformative journey together, less resistance may
result.
Harvard’s Religious Literacy Project (RLP), initiated by Professor Diane Moore, uses
transformative language in its educational programs to increase public awareness about
religions (Harvard Divinity School Religious Literacy Project, 2018). RLP uses a cultural
lens to teach the concept of religion as an expression of culture through ideas, rituals, and
principles as well as stories that have been interwoven with culture throughout history.
Increasing public awareness of religions can help decrease many forms of violence and by
training religious leaders and educators who welcome cultural diversity, a continuous
campaign against teaching and preaching hate can begin (Sacks, 2015). To avoid confusion
about how the RLP approaches teaching about religion, the website distinguishes between
faith-based religious interpretations and the study of religion that is not associated with any
one religion. (Moore, 2018). which clarifies the difference between a theological approach to
teaching religion and teaching religion from a social science perspective.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 16
Knowledge of diverse religions is necessary for achieving cultural competency in the
21
st
century and the United States, which is the most religiously diverse country in the
developed world, needs help with its basic understanding of religions (Rosenblith & Baily,
2008). The researchers revealed that many people who are religiously discriminated against
attribute negative attitudes to ignorance and the study calls for people to engage one another
across cultures (2008). Moreover, Remiers et al. (2016) expressed a sense of urgency in
creating innovative curricula to educate all students to be culturally competent global
citizens. Their research establishes religious literacy as an important component of global
citizenship.
Organizational Context and Mission
Harmony International Academy (HIA) (pseudonym) is a K-12 private school
established 20 years ago in the capital city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. HIA is consistently
ranked by parents as the best private school in the country. HIA offers the Ethiopian National
Curriculum, International Primary Curriculum (IPC) and it is also a Cambridge International
Examinations Center offering IGCSE, AS and A Levels. Students typically achieve high
scores on their national examination results and 100% of HIA graduates are admitted to
either top Ethiopian universities or highly ranked institutions in the United States and other
countries. HIA’s mission uses transformative language to define itself as an international
school that values and promotes diversity, equity, inclusiveness and cultural competency.
The purpose of this study is to identify and contextualize the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources needed for HIA to achieve its goal of graduating culturally
competent students who demonstrate religious literacy. Of the 1,400 students in the school
there are nearly equal numbers of girls and boys enrolled from early childhood through high
school. Twenty-five plus nationalities are represented including: Ethiopia, The United States,
Britain, Italy, France, The Gambia, China, India, Pakistan, Canada, Egypt, Nigeria and more.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 17
In addition to the various nationalities and Ethiopian ethnic groups, there is also great
diversity of religions represented in the school community which reflect the greater Ethiopian
society. The school’s admissions data indicate the following religions are practiced by
Ethiopian nationals and expatriates: Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity and Protestant faiths,
including, Evangelical Christianity, Mekana Yesus, Lutheran, Seventh Day Adventist,
Catholic, and Jehovah’s Witness. Islam, Hinduism, Judaism and Ba’hai Faith. With such
diversity, the school fills an important niche in the Ethiopian education market. Harmony
International Academy’s mission statement emphasizes preparing globally competent
graduates by creating culturally rich and innovative learning experiences for K-12 students.
Table 1 shows the results of a 2015/2016 survey conducted by upper secondary students on
the religions represented in the student population at HIA. Respect, compassion, diversity,
inclusion and acceptance are part of the school ethos. HIA aims to attract a diverse student
body and faculty to facilitate culturally rich learning experiences and learning outcomes in
line with its mission.
Table 1

Preliminary Survey Depicting Religious Diversity at Harmony International Academy in
2015/2016

Ethiopian
Orthodox
Christianity
Catholicism Mekane Yesus
Evangelical
Protestantism
Evangelical
Christianity
Islam Others: Jehovah’s
Witness, Seventh Day
Adventists, Judaism,
Hinduism, Buddhism,
Bahai Faith,
Mennonite
42 4 7 6 26 15
*Percentages Reflect a Student Population of 1,300 and Administrative, Faculty and Staff
Population of 200
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 18

Figure 1. Religions at HIA
Prominence of Religious Life in Ethiopia
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have deep roots and ancient history in Ethiopia
beginning with Judaism that Ethiopians believe was brought to their country by the Queen of
Sheba after her visit to King Solomon that produced a son, Menelik I, in approximately 581
A.C.E. (Trimmingham, 1952). Orthodox Christianity was established in approximately 410
A.C.E. as the Axumite Church (Trimingham, 1952). The Prophet Muhammad and his first
followers established Islam in Ethiopia when the King of Abyssinia gave them safe-haven in
what is now present day Axum, Ethiopia, in approximately 615 A.C.E (Trimingham, 1952).
Religion in Ethiopia today can be compared to a powerful vortex of emotional
currents that touch every facet of life beginning with simple greetings. When two Christians
greet one another, they ask “how are you?” and the response will be, “Good, all thanks to
God.” The Muslim response will be, “Good, all thanks to Allah.” References to God and
Allah are interwoven with everyday speech. The religious landscape in Ethiopia has grown to
become a complex mix of national and ethnic relationships. The country’s constitution allows
freedom of religion and in contemporary times does not claim any one religion as an official
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 19
state religion. The government maintains a strict separation between church and state
however, the Ethiopian Constitution does not permit either public or private schools to teach
religion courses (“International Religious Freedom Report,” 2017). The Ethiopian law states
that religious schools may operate under the jurisdiction of mosques and churches but are
accountable to the Charities and Societies Agency which reports to the federal attorney
general. The law allows religious schools to teach both secular and religious instruction,
however, the Ministry of Education supervises only the secular education (“International
Religious Freedom Report,” 2017).
Religions Represented in Ethiopia
The 2018 Ethiopian Census reports that of the 107,421,970 population, 63% are
Christians, 34% are Sunni Muslims, 3% practice the monotheistic Waaqeffanna and other
indigenous beliefs, Judaism and Bahai Faith are 0.7% and remaining 0.7% practice different
denominations of Christianity including Seventh Day Adventists, Roman Catholicism,
Jehovah’s Witness, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day (Mormons). Protestants,
including foreign mission churches like Mekena-Yesus, Baptist, Lutheran and Mennonite are
the second largest group of Christians in Ethiopia at 18.6% of the 63% from the Census
report. Waaqeffanna is an indigenous belief system practiced by many of the Oromo people,
who are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (“Ethiopia Population,” 2018). Figure 2 shows a
graphic depiction of religions practices by Ethiopian citizens and expressed in percentages.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 20

Figure 2. Religious practice among Ethiopians.
The 2004 statistics from the United States Department of State had reported that of
the approximately 71 million Ethiopian people nearly 45% of the population is Ethiopian
Orthodox Christian, another 40% were Muslim, and roughly 10% were Evangelical and
Pentecostal Protestant Christians. The remaining numbers were comprised of small numbers
of Catholics and various protestant denominations, including: Jehovah’s Witnesses, and
foreign mission churches such as Mekane-Yesus, Baptist, Lutheran and Mennonite. Ex-
patriots in the international community practiced Armenian or Greek Orthodox Christianity,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Islam, Judaism, Catholicism and various protestant
denominations (“Ethiopia 2004 International Religious Freedom Report”, 2004). The
statistics from the 2004 and the 2018 show increased population and a rising number of
Christians.
Religious Hostilities
The 2015 Department of State’s Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor
reported religious violence at a five-year low in Ethiopia. Contrary to the State Department
report, Ethiopia was listed in the 2015 WEF Global Peace Index as one of 78 countries that
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 21
became less peaceful (“Global Peace Index,” 2015). Additionally, the World Economic
Forum (WEF) reports religious violence in neighboring countries that share borders with
Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and the Sudan. The Marrakesh Declaration on religious violence in
Africa, which was signed in 2016, reported similar findings were reported by the WEF that
Ethiopia became less peaceful in its 2017 report.
Though Ethiopian people of different religious faiths have a long history of living side
by side, the country also has a history of religious violence (Tolera, 2017). In contemporary
times, there is religious contention or disagreement with the government about religious
issues (Desplat, 2005). For example, tensions and continuing conflicts exist between
Ethiopian Orthodox Christians and Muslims, between Ethiopian Orthodox Christians and
Evangelical Christians, and between Muslims and the Ethiopian government due to Muslim’s
claims of discrimination (Desplat, 2005). Historically, there has also been widespread
discrimination against Ethiopian Jews, known as the Beta Israel, that led to approximately
8,000 Ethiopian Jews being relocated to Israel (Lazin, 2002). The widely publicized airlift
program was called Operation Moses. Occasionally large groups of Beta Israel people can
still be seen leaving for Israel from the international airport in Addis Ababa, as observed by
this researcher. When the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church published a newly translated
Bible in 2007 from their ancient language of Ge’ez, Evangelical Christians expressed outrage
over theological differences and other factors (Asale, 2014). Such tension has the potential to
spread further misunderstandings and conflict through lack of trust.
Conflict in a community is difficult for everyone, but children are particularly
vulnerable and confused; their worldviews become affected when they witness conflict
(Garbino, 2001). The educational literature suggests that school communities also feel some
of the religious conflict expressed in the wider society. Therefore, if school curriculums
include religious literacy, then schools will be able to help children understand how and why
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 22
religious violence occurs. Reimers (2016) and his team of global education scholars assert
that children can be taught about the belief systems of many religions including their
contributions to world civilizations and the historical context of religious conflicts (Reimers
et al., 2016). For the above stated reasons, Harmony International Academy wants to
establish a religious literacy program.
Organizational Performance Status
For Harmony International Academy (HIA) to meet its goal of creating a religious
literacy program and graduating students who demonstrate competency in this subject matter,
the school will have to identify a clear direction and create a curriculum that is goal driven
(Gallagher, 2009). Learning outcomes should be reflected in the assessments to be used and
quality teaching and learning activities should be designed. HIA has no such program and the
school has no systematic way of determining how to achieve its goal. This study uses the
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis framework to examine the knowledge and motivation needed
by teachers and the organizational resources needed by the school to create a new program.
Definitions
Terminology that may be helpful to the reader include: religious literacy, religious
education, global competence, [inter] cultural competence, religious plurality, religious
fundamentalism, cultural violence, othering and global citizenship. Following are definitions
for key terms:
Religious literacy is having the ability to think critically about world religions and
their current and historical connections to family life, culture, and politics (Moore, 2010);
Religious education is an academic approach to teaching about world religions that
creates awareness without promoting the practice any one religion (Moore, 2010);
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 23
Global competence is keeping an open mind as one attempts to understand cultural
norms and expectations in diverse cultures and using this knowledge to communicate and
interact outside of one’s environment (Betancourt, 2003; Hunter, 2004);
[Inter]Cultural competence is a term that is often interchanged with global
competency. “The ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes that lead to
visible behavior and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural
interactions” (McKinnon, 2013);
Religious plurality deals with a multiplicity of religions and religious fundamentalism
is explained as when a religious identity that asserts supremacy over other religions and
compresses one’s worldview (D’Souza, 2012);
Religious fundamentalism is a contextual term and as scholars argue, it is ai loose
term that has different meanings such as groups want to elevate the role of their religion in
the public sphere or that use some type of action to assert their religious convictions
(Emerson & Hartman, 2006);
Cultural violence, as defined by Galtung, is any part of culture that either directly or
indirectly endorses violence (Galtung, 1990);
“Othering,” is described by Kameniar as a looking at another as different from one’s
self (2007);
Global citizenship has many interpretations but for the purposes of this project, it
means developing global awareness and understanding of global issues, and encouraging
people to see the interconnectivity of the world and to acknowledge global problems to take
action to help solve the problems (Wang & Hoffman, 2016).
Related Literature
Religious literacy courses can be taught using innovative lessons similar to
curriculum ideas detailed in the World Course, designed for an independent New York
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 24
school (Reimers et al., 2016). The authors suggest that studying world religions as powerful
institutions that organize human behavior can be taught within the classification of culture,
religion, history and geography (Reimers et al., 2016). An example of this concept would be
the World Course theme in sixth grade that examines cultural values and the impact on the
lives of people and their institutions (Reimers et al., 2016). Religious diversity, world
religions and philosophical traditions are included in this unit. With many schools around the
world serving diverse communities, children from many cultures are now learning side by
side. Alternatively, misunderstandings and religious intolerance may surface when children
disagree if they mirror their family’s negative perceptions about other religions. Such
religious diversity topics can be addressed in discussions about culture and historical
connections between different religions (Reimers et al., 2016).
Religious violence and extremism are not new. Students know about terrorism and
religious violence from social media and television news reports where they see graphic
images on the screen (Sachs, 2015). Some students have experienced religious intolerance
first hand. Bishop and Nash (2007) contend that teaching religious literacy helps students to
understand extremism and its many complexities. Through peaceful and open
communication, solutions can be explored, but ignorance and religious fanaticism may give
rise to intolerance, discrimination and sometimes violence. Conflict can occur especially
when followers can be persuaded to ignore what their religions teach about peace and instead
follow the words of extremists (Pearce, 2005).
One can learn from a case in Modesto, California where a schoolwide course on
world religions was instituted after large numbers of immigrants from diverse cultural and
religious backgrounds moved into the Modesto community over a period of many years. As
the numbers of Arab and non-Arab Muslims, European Jews, Catholics from Latin America,
Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists multiplied in the Modesto community of Evangelical
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 25
Christians, other Christian denominations and Jews, intolerance and misunderstandings
increased (Lester & Roberts, 2008). Immigrants then began to feel uncomfortable about
expressing their religions publicly (Lester & Roberts, 2008). Various types of discrimination
occurred and became noticeable in community and school interactions (Lester & Roberts,
2009). Tension grew as the numbers of immigrants continued to increase in the community
over the years, but an unexpected controversy brought the community’s emotions to the
surface. When a gay student was advised by her counselor to accept Jesus, she complained
and the district superintendent took immediate action by holding meetings with parents,
teachers, students and religious leaders to discuss discrimination in their schools (Lester &
Roberts, 2009). “Safe schools” policies were created to protect students from harassment and
discrimination based on racial, religious, socio-economic background, gender or sexual
orientation. Additionally, the acknowledgment that religious intolerance existed in Modesto,
precipitated a committee to emerge from the town meetings with a plan to establish a world
religions and religious literacy course for Modesto High School students (Lester & Roberts,
2009).
The findings of Lester and Roberts’ study indicate that there was a shift in thinking
amongst high school students. Prior to the course they were less tolerant, but after the course
they become more tolerant and developed a mutual understanding. The Modesto religious
literacy initiative has been the subject of several empirical studies on teaching religion in
schools and may serve as a model for other districts.
Religious intolerance and violence take many forms and such acts driven by religious
beliefs are increasing as evidenced by the number of terrorist attacks in the United States,
Europe, Africa and Asia as reported by news media. For example, the 2017 Manchester and
London attacks and memories of the 9/11 deadly terrorist attacks in New York remain in the
collective memory. The World Economic Forum’s (WEF) 2017 statistics show over 33,000
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 26
people have been killed in Africa in terrorist acts committed by Boka Haram and Al Qa-ida
over a five-year period (Yahya, 2017). The bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and
Tanzania and the 147 murdered Kenyan University students are extremist acts committed in
the name of religion. The 200 kidnapped Nigerian school girls by Boka Haram strike the
most vivid images (Yahya, 2017). The fight for good over evil is how religious extremists
justify their violent acts (Garbarino, 2008). Religious studies scholar, Mark Juergensmeyer,
explains acts of religious violence emanate from a cosmic war worldview which is described
as a war of honor to defend identity and dignity (Juergensmeyer, 2017). He further elaborates
on how losing a struggle seems unfathomable to those who fight for their religions; therefore,
when the struggle feels hopeless, it is then re-envisioned and transferred to the sacred realm
with the “victory in God’s hands” (Juergensmeyer, 2017). Violence, Juergensmeyer (2017)
contends, is then legitimized by the perpetrator.
Religious violence can occur anywhere and affect large numbers of people from
diverse cultural and religious backgrounds especially when they live in densely populated
areas (Rakodi, 2012). A mixture of many people from diverse cultures who develop religious
and ethnic misunderstandings can spark communal violence, such as in the cases of inter-
religious violence between Hindus and Muslims in Ahmedabad and Mumbai, India (Rakodi,
2012). The Hindu-Muslim violence in 1992-1993 and the Mumbai riots in 1992, killed 900
people and touched the lives of an estimated 75,000 people (Rakodi, 2012).
Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus and other believers have at times used
violence when they felt their spiritual beliefs were threatened (Juergensmeyer, 2004; Pierce,
2005). One contemporary example cited by a United Nations report states the UN’s concern
in Myanmar over high numbers of violent acts, and controlled movement and discrimination
against the Myanmar Muslim minority by the Buddhists majority (United Nations Human
Rights Office of the High Commissioner, 2017). The issue has not yet been resolved. In cases
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 27
of Christians who resorted to violence, Juergensmeyer (2017) recalls the reports of the
Norwegian man, Anders Behring Breivik, who killed 77 people in 2011, and American man,
Timothy McVeigh, who killed 168 people and injured hundreds more in the 1995 Oklahoma
City bombings. Both men were terrorists who relied on their personal understandings of
Christianity to justify saving their society from multiculturalism that allowed non-whites and
non-Christians to be accepted as equals. Juergensmeyer (2017) further explains the two
extremists thought their actions were “necessary” even though hundreds of people died in the
attacks. Increased religious violence in the world is the reason why religious literacy
education is needed in schools (Bishop & Nash, 2007). If children grow up educated with an
understanding of religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence, extremists will not easily find
audiences for their violent messages (Juergensmeyer, 2017).
Juergensmeyer’s (2017) study on religious terrorism, speaks of communities that
believe their culture is under attack and they are defending their families and communities.
Exposure to frequent violence has a devastating effect on everyone, but children are the most
vulnerable victims. Children growing up in communities where “justifiable” violence is
acceptable, are at risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and developing
symptoms of anxiety, depression and nightmares (Garbarino et al., 1991; Gabarino and
Kostelny, 1996). Violence experienced either first hand or second hand through repeated
media reports has a tremendous impact on a child’s worldview, social map and moral
development (Garbarino, 2008).
Jawoniyi’s (2014) study addresses how the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child (UNCRC) is related to the expansion of children’s worldviews. The researcher
contends that a UNCRC infused curriculum empowers children and helps them develop
better understandings of human rights and social justice. Moreover, such education can help
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 28
reduce violence and develop students’ metacognition as children broaden their
understandings of world religions.
Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Hinduism should be taught in
the schools to help children develop balanced views (Jawoniyi, 2014). Additionally, the
researcher challenges conventional thinking that not only must these major religions be
understood, but also other faiths and ideologies such as Zoroastrianism, Rastafarianism,
Jainism, Ba’hai Faith as well as New Age and secular knowledge should also be included in
children’s religious literacy education (Jawoniyi, 2014). Scholars differ on their opinions of
how religion should be taught. The Harvard Religious Literacy Project (RLP) speaks of
making a distinction between religious devotion and the study of religion. RLP explains three
points about religion: 1) there are many different expressions within the same religion, 2)
religions change over time and 3) religion affects culture (Moore, 2018). Children can learn
about similarities between religions and they can also learn how to respect differences. An
open mind will help them to avoid using their own religious lenses to interpret others (Moore,
2014). The seeds of hatred, bigotry and division are sown when myopic and judgmental
views of religions are taught instead of teaching to understand similarities (Moore, 2014).
Oikonomidoy (2016) refers to scholarly studies that examine how intolerance in
schools reflect intolerance in the larger society. When a society does not welcome diversity
or acknowledge religious pluralism, some students hide their religious beliefs to avoid being
on the receiving end of bigotry, religious intolerance or bullying (Moulin, 2015).
Oikonomidoy (2015) asserts that some immigrants keep to themselves, to their groups or they
resort to blending in with the majority. Moulin echoes this concern and points to children of
religious minorities who are often presented with serious decisions about religion at critical
child development ages when children are just beginning to learn about themselves (Moulin,
2015). Such issues can be emotionally unsettling (Lugg, 2004). If students attend schools
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 29
where they are the religious minority and their beliefs are not respected, they are forced to
make decisions about being an outsider, blending in or assimilating (Lugg, 2004).
Many students are open to the idea of learning about religion. An empirical study on
religious pluralism by the Academy of World Religions and Education at Hamburg
University suggests that students want to know about other religions (Weisse, 2016).
Hamburg, Germany’s second largest town recently has become religiously diverse with a
new population of Muslims, Catholics, Hindus, Buddhists and other religions and there is
renewed interest in interreligious dialog (Weisse, 2016). Students say they want to know
more and they are proposing their own solutions to create a society that lives in harmony.
Gallager (2009) contends there are many ways to discuss religion with students. For example,
through discussions about modern music like hip-hop where religious themes are often part
of the lyrics. Hip-hop artists sing about the Five Percenters as a reference to the Nation of
Islam and Rastafarian Bob Marley’s reggae lyrics include references to Babylon and Zion
(Gallager, 2009). Contemporary music presents many opportunities to engage students in
conversations about religious views.
Importance of Organizational Innovation
This project is meant to disrupt the status quo. First, Harmony International
Academy’s plan is to create a more inclusive school environment that reflects its mission.
Second, teaching world religions will help students relate as fellow human beings rather than
by religious labels. Furthermore, educating children about religion reduces religious illiteracy
and contributes to the development of 21
st
Century global competency skills (Zahabioun et
al., 2013). Third, schools with religious education curriculums can attract more international
investment to the country. Harmony International Academy fills a niche in the private
education market. Investors are drawn to the school’s mission that emphasizes diversity and
inclusiveness, as well as its modest fee structure. If HIA is successful in building its religious
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 30
literacy program, more Ethiopian schools may do the same. Therefore, as one of the fastest
growing economies in the world, Ethiopia should consider the role of religious literacy given
the country’s ancient religious history and its potential growth in investment and tourism.
Using the Clark and Estes performance evaluation model, the plan to introduce a new
religious education program at Harmony International Academy is an innovation model,
therefore, the gap in performance is 100%. Understanding major religions practiced in
Ethiopia and learning about major world religions are important components of achieving
competency in religious literacy. Cultural competency is the capacity to develop and use the
ideal knowledge, skills and attitudes that produce visible changes in behavior that lead to
effective and appropriate communication (McKinnon, 2013). Therefore, to fulfill the
school’s mission of graduating culturally competent students, attracting diverse students,
faculty and foreign investors, Harmony International Academy must offer a religious
education program.
Organizational Performance Goal
By September 2020, Harmony International Academy administration plans to
implement a religious literacy pilot program for students in seventh, ninth and eleventh-
grades. These grade levels are selected because they do not have any national examination
preparation and they can afford the time for a new program. Ethiopian students in eighth,
tenth and twelfth grades are required to sit for the Ethiopian national examinations and are
required to take Saturday examination preparation after classes and on Saturdays; therefore;
they would not participate in the pilot program. After successful implementation and
feedback of the pilot, the program can be introduced in phases. The first phase would fully
incorporate seventh through twelfth grades and the subsequent phases would incorporate first
through sixth grades. The final learning outcomes of the program could be assessed in the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 31
senior capstone project with the aim of achieving pre-determined benchmarked mastery in
religious literacy and cultural competency.
Stakeholders and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Before starting a religious literacy program, HIA stakeholders must be considered
first. The primary stakeholders are teachers, students, parents, and the school administration.
Teachers are key to facilitating meaningful lessons on world religions that help students to
connect learning to real-life experiences and measurable learning outcomes. Teachers will
also guide graduating seniors in planning and designing capstone projects that demonstrate a
benchmarked level of mastery in religious literacy. Students are also critical stakeholders.
Students are both contributors and recipients of the learning as they seek to understand world
religions and achieve mastery based on standards and benchmarks for success. Parents are
also important. Students are expected to discuss the program with their parents who are
encouraged to urge their children to be active learners by attending classes, asking questions,
completing homework assignments and preparing for assessments.
The Harmony International Academy administration is another vital stakeholder. The
administration consists of senior management and the board of directors. If the religious
literacy program is to be successful, the school management must encourage an inclusive
school environment by creating an organizational culture that believes in the value of
religious literacy in the HIA community. Additionally, the administration must provide
books, teaching aids, training and continuous professional development for teachers as well
as support for teachers who will teach world religion courses. Administrators must also
evaluate the program’s effectiveness during the pilot year through a series of formative
assessments. The organizational mission, organizational goal and stakeholder performance
goals are displayed on Table 2.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 32
Table 2
Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals

Stakeholder Group for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Needs
All stakeholders listed above are critical to this study. The HIA school administration
is important for advanced planning, providing teacher training and engaging in discussions
with parents and students about the new program. The students and their parents are
important stakeholders because they will experience the new courses first hand and provide
feedback about their experiences, however, this study will concentrate on the teachers as the
stakeholders of focus. With initial training, professional development, material support,
examples of successful curriculum content and support, teachers will be trained and
empowered to teach the new program. Furthermore, teachers are critical stakeholders because
their skills will be needed to take existing religious education curricula and adapt them to the
Harmony International Academy
Harmony International Academy is committed to developing graduates who are inter-
culturally competent global citizens. The HIA Ethos: inclusion and acceptance of cultural
and religious differences, respect, diversity, compassion, creative thinking, excellence and
equity in education, environmental sustainability, competent and ethical use of technology,
and life-long learning.
Organizational Assessment Goal

By June 2020, Harmony International Academy will graduate the first seniors who
demonstrate competency in religious literacy.

School Administration Teachers Students
By December 2018, the School
administration will formally
introduce its plan for supporting
a new HIA religious literacy
program that will include new
policies, analysis of financial
and other resources necessary to
make the program successful,
overview of training and
professional development
programs ready to be
implemented and its plan to
incentivize the teachers.
By August 2019, teachers
will begin using the new
religious literacy curriculum
which will be designed with
appropriate cultural
references, research and best
practices with an outcome of
graduating the first seniors
who have completed
capstone projects on religious
literacy.
By September 2019,
students will begin pilot
religious literacy
program. Parents will
support students in the
successful completion of
the program.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 33
Ethiopian context. Moreover, teachers have a sensitive role and responsibility for using their
training and knowledge of religions to defend the religious views and practices of all students
(Allgood, 2016).
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis that examines stakeholder knowledge,
motivation, and organization will be used to make recommendations concerning the
development of the religious literacy program at Harmony International Academy. The study
will gather data to determine how teacher training and professional development can
familiarize them with the terminology associated with religious literacy and historical
background of religious interactions. As an innovation model only informal discussions have
taken place and teachers appear to be interested.
This study will also investigate how the organization can support the key
stakeholders, how they might emphasize acceptance and inclusion of different cultures and
religions and thus support the HIA mission. This research may help the school community to
understand how the religious literacy program is important to the school’s fulfillment of its
mission in graduating culturally competent global citizens. In promoting global citizenship
skills, HIA administrators can encourage teachers to make learning about world religions a
priority. It will be important to ensure the new program has the following: policies in place
that address organizational culture shift, clear expectations of program goals, adequate
resources, consultants and experts on board, and teachers who feel empowered to introduce
the new program with confidence.
Purpose of the Project
The purpose of this project is to examine teaching world religions in one Ethiopian
school to explore how religious literacy could look in many schools. The religiously diverse
K-12 school has plans to establish a program that will prepare students to graduate from high
school with religious literacy knowledge and who strive to be culturally competent. With
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 34
HIA’s new organizational performance goal of establishing the new program, the study seeks
to establish teachers’ current knowledge, motivation and organizational needs for this
program to close the 100% performance gap.
Research Questions
The following research questions that guided this inquiry:
1. What kinds of knowledge and motivation do teachers need to implement a religious
literacy curriculum program to achieve Harmony International Academy’s goal of
graduating culturally competent students?
2. What are the organizational needs and practices necessary for HIA to achieve its new
organizational goal of graduating culturally competent students?
The outcomes of the data analysis generated by the research questions will be used to
advise HIA in creating, measuring and evaluating a successful religious literacy program.
Clark and Estes (2008) innovation gap analysis is the model used to guide this research,
however Rueda’s definition related to the problem of practice-based dissertations makes the
research more relevant to education. Assumed causes for performance gaps are determined
by the literature and will be validated by surveys and interviews with teachers. The evidence
will guide the proposed solutions after the assumed influences are validated. Gap analysis
will be explained in more detail later in this chapter.
Methodological Framework
This project is based on an innovation model adapted from Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis that utilizes years of research and evidence from best practices taken from
studying organizational performance reviews. Based on decades of organizational
performance research, the project will identify what assumed knowledge, motivation and
organizational context are needed to close the organization’s performance gaps. In the case
of HIA, there is no religious literacy program in place which means there is a 100%
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 35
performance gap. Therefore, the innovation model is most appropriate and the solutions will
be proposed after identifying what is needed to achieve the new organizational goal of
establishing a religious literacy program. Evidence that supports the move from 0-100% is
found in the literature.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. Chapter One introduced the concept of
religious literacy and its relevance to this project. This chapter also elaborated on challenges
faced by different countries in their approaches to teaching religion in schools and how
transformative language in school mission statements can help diffuse intolerance.
Additionally, this chapter provided an overview of the organizational context and the mission
of HIA’s operation within Ethiopian culture where religion occupies a prominent position.
Furthermore, religious conflict in Ethiopia was presented and an overview of religious
affiliations in the country. Definitions and key terminologies associated with religious
literacy and related literature were introduced to provide context to the problem of practice
and related research suggested approaches to teaching world religions in schools with an aim
to create peaceful and safe school environment. Finally, the organization’s mission, goals and
stakeholders were presented as well as the initial concepts of the adapted gap analysis.
Chapter Two provides a review of current literature to contextualize the study. The
following topics will be addressed in the literature: background of cultural competence and
religious literacy, the relationship between religious literacy and cultural competence,
religion’s historical connections, religious literacy overview, scholars’ recognition of
religious literacy, pedagogy of religious literacy, evidence of successful religious literacy
programs and teacher preparation for a religious literacy program. Chapter Three explains the
assumed needs for this study as well as methodology, the choice of participants, and finally,
data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the results of the data collection are assessed,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 36
analyzed and findings are presented. Chapter Five proposes solutions, based on the analyzed
data, the findings and a synthesis of the literature, for addressing the assumed needs and
closing the performance gap. Finally, recommendations for a program implementation plan
and evaluation of the solutions will be proposed.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 37
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter reviews a brief historical overview of religious literacy, growth within
the domain of cultural competency and it further examines how religious literacy is related to
cultural competency. Additionally, Chapter Two explains the key terms and definitions of:
religious literacy, cultural competency, intercultural competency, religious pluralism, global
competence, 21
st
Century global citizenship, cultural violence, and tolerance. These
definitions are used in many countries in religious education programs. Finally, teacher
knowledge, motivation, organizational factors and teacher preparedness and training are
reviewed.
Overview of Religious Literacy
Religious literacy is not a new term; its use returned after a long absence when
religion scholar, Steven Prothero, used the term in his New York Times best seller, Religious
Literacy, What Every American Needs to Know—and Doesn’t, published in 2007. The term
has been used since the 1950’s but then religious literacy was limited to the literacy of one’s
own religion. Ward (1953) may have been one of the first to argue that all children have a
right to learn religious literacy associated with many religions. Scholars today support the
view that religious literacy is necessary for everyone to understand world religions. For
example, Graham contends that even though people today have colleagues, friends and even
family members from different faiths, religion is still widely misunderstood (Graham, 2012).
Rosenblith and Bailey (2008) contend that young people need religious literacy to help them
succeed in today’s globalized and democratic world. In addition, Jacobsen and Hustedt
Jacobsen (2012) use examples from a Pew Forum that posed questions about major religious
figures and basic facts about world religions to demonstrate how much religious literacy is
needed today. More than half of the respondents answered incorrectly (Jacobsen & Hustedt
Jacobsen, 2012).
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 38
The term religious literacy is often used in conjunction with cultural competency, 21
st

Century Global Education and religious pluralism. The notion of cultural competence
emerged after World War I and World War II. As corporations began to expand around the
globe, student exchange programs became popular also. New research began to focus on
Americans living overseas, and when school desegregation in the United States took center
stage, these events began to broaden the understanding of how culture was perceived
(Bustamante, Nelson & Onwuegbuzie, 2009). Similar ideas flourished in Britain after World
War II. Research interests turned to intercultural relationships, intercultural communication
and multicultural education (Yershova, DeJaeghere & Mestenhauser, 2000). After two
devastating world wars, peace had become the main agenda for most countries. As Reimers
(2003) explains, out of the necessity for promoting and ensuring global peace and security,
the Declaration of Human Rights was created, followed by the creation of the United
Nations. When the right to education was added to the Declaration of Human Rights,
UNESCO’s aim was to transform global education and to push for access to basic education
for children around the world (Reimers, 2013). The contemporary version of that initiative is
the Millennium Development Goals. However, religious literacy and religious education are
not specifically named as part of the Millennium Development Goals. Instead, UNESCO’s
broader view of education focuses on educating children to learn about human rights, peace,
tolerance and democracy (Pigozzi, 2006).
Relationship Between Religious Literacy and Cultural Competency
The terms cultural and intercultural competence have been reinterpreted by
McKinnon of Glasgow Caledonian University’s Global Perspectives project as a reflection of
today’s highly globalized and interconnected world. McKinnon (2013) defines intercultural
competence as, progressive targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes that produce a
recognizable behavior change and sensible intercultural exchange. Cross cultural researchers
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 39
Lustig and Koester define intercultural competence as effective communication with people
from different cultures (2002). Global citizenship is very similar in its meaning except the
definition from the United Kingdom’s Oxfam organization and other similar publications
includes an emphasis on economy, social justice and sustainability (Oxfam, 2006).
Global competence can be interpreted as a prerequisite for global citizenship and
acquiring religious literacy. The Asia Society provides a simple definition, “Global
competence is the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global
significance” (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p. 3). One could argue that this definition
should include understanding religion, which could mean acting against religious intolerance
and religious bigotry and other forms of religious oppression. Reimers (2013) urges the
current understanding of global competence education to be expanded and upgraded from an
education that focuses on thinking to becoming an education of doing and cultivating.
Furthermore, global competence learning experiences should not be overly complicated;
learning should translate into easily accessible knowledge (Reimers, 2013). Therefore, global
education should produce citizens who are compelled to action to solve pressing world
problems and promote social justice and democracy in their own communities, countries and
the world (Zahabioun et al., 2013).
Religion and History
Students should learn how to engage in critical thinking about world religions as part
of a comprehensive education that exposes children to religious history, literature, art, culture
and politics (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2007). Both Jawoniyi (2014) and Weiss (2003) believe a
comprehensive education presents opportunities for students to learn about religious plurality
without using differences against others. Since religion and human history are intertwined,
Passe and Willox (2009) argue that it is necessary to study about religion in schools to gain
deeper understanding of world historical events. The Crusades, the India-Pakistan separation,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 40
the current Israeli-Palestinian conflict and even controversial issues from today’s headlines
like abortion rights and same-sex marriage should be some of the topics discussed (Passe
&Willox, 2009). Taking controversial issues further, Jawoniyi (2014) implores schools to
delve into ethical issues such as genetic engineering, animal welfare and war to explore
connections to religious worldviews. Religious interpretations have impacted each of these
events and are worth discussing in classrooms (Jawoniyi, 2014). Therefore, students need to
learn about such issues and how they may relate to historical relationships between religion,
power, economics and citizenship (Bishop & Nash, 2007).
Value of Religious Literacy
Religious literacy attempts to answer the question of what educated people should
know about religions around the world (Jacobsen & Hustedt Jacobsen, 2012). The authors
compare religious literacy to language literacy in levels of understanding and describe it as
multi-layered, beginning with learning facts about religions and progressing to familiarity
with how real people live their religious lives through personal. The researchers further
explain the goal is nonjudgement. However, the final step they refer to as assessment, may be
difficult, particularly when religious conflict occurs. Such conversations are often held on
college campuses in religious studies programs or in interfaith programs. For example, the
University of Southern California’s (USC) Office of Religious Life supports university
students through various campus programs and moral, religious or spiritual missions (Office
of Religious Life, 2018). USC also extends its support beyond the campus with community
programs. Many universities today have interfaith programs to address the needs of their
students and faculty from different religious traditions. For instance, Yale, Duke, Harvard,
Princeton, Stanford maintain websites that welcome all faiths to their campus interfaith
communities through programs to foster religious literacy familiarity and deeper
understanding of one another.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 41
Religious literacy does not need to wait until college studies. The American Academy
of Religion (AAR) in the Schools Task Force published a curriculum guideline for K-12
American schools that provides advice on how to teach religion in schools. The research
suggests that religious literacy education should start early.
From the literature, an argument can be made that misunderstanding world religions
leads to an incomplete understanding of history and culture and therefore, religious literacy
programs are needed in schools (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008). The researchers cite many
scholars who contend that students can become religiously literate by examining the
contributions of major religions to world history through literature and other texts (2008).
The alternative is religious illiteracy which the AAR defines as a general lack of
understanding of world religions, diversity, and how religions influence human lives (Moore,
2010). Religious illiteracy can feed intolerance, bigotry and even violence, therefore
education about religions is critically needed in this time of religious discord (Sanders et al.,
2010). However, intolerance, bigotry and violence do not have to be physical to cause harm.
Galtung’s (1990) research shows that cultural violence is used to condone direct or structural
violence. Direct violence is expressed as all types of physical violence, bullying, or
threatening and structural violence is expressed as exploitation and marginalization (Galtung,
1990).
The opposite of religious illiteracy is religious literacy, which is having the ability to
think critically about world religions with their current and historical connections to family
life, culture, and politics (Moore, 2010). Scholars contend that religious literacy can reduce
feelings of separateness and reduce tendencies to see practitioners of diverse faiths as the
“other” (Linares, 2016). The goal of a curriculum that focuses on intercultural competency
and religious literacy means teaching to diminish the idea of “othering.” Linares (2016)
explains that “othering” is a kind of self-created dichotomy that sets individuals or groups
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 42
who see themselves as the norm against groups of people or individuals who are perceived as
foreign to them.
Jawanoniyi’s (2014) research implies that cultural and religious differences should
not create prejudice and intolerance. To the contrary, differences can even increase one’s own
religious understanding and practice. However, promoting tolerance of differences does not
go far enough; expanding the attitudes of civility, discretion and decency toward the “other”
is critical to affirming every person’s right to be (Jawanoniyi, 2014). Though tolerance does
not require a person to change internally, it helps one to move in the less hostile direction
(Tolera, 2017).
Scholars’ Recognition of Religious Literacy
Scholars are acknowledging the need for religious education in schools to address
religious intolerance and conflict (Reimers et al., 2016). Since religion is an integral part the
human experience, whether it is for positive influence or negative, used to create peace or
sow seeds of conflict, it is clear that religious literacy will continue to be an essential
determinant for the lives of all human beings (Graham, 2012). One way of learning about
religion is through the Harvard Religious Literacy Project (RLP) which is prominent in
defining religious literacy and religion as an expression of culture. The organization uses its
website to educate the public about religion and to promote teacher education using the RLP
methodology (Harvard Divinity School, Religious Literacy Project, 2018). Governments and
religious organizations are beginning to recognize that religious literacy programs can be
used to promote peace between religions, races and cultures and have formed interreligious
organizations that promote peaceful coexistence. For example, UNESCO’s Interreligious
Dialogue Program encourages communication and open dialog among different religions,
spiritual and humanistic traditions. Peace and dialog through research also informs the
organization’s religious education curriculum for schools. The American Academy of
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 43
Religion (AAR) is the world’s largest association of scholars who research or teach topics
related to religion that are applicable to schools and higher education religious education
programs. The AAR’s aim is to eradicate religious illiteracy by teaching about world
religions, their cultural expressions and religious influences on societies, (American
Academy of Religion, 2018). There are also many other organizations with similar missions
around the world.
Pedagogy of Religious Literacy
Scholars are divided in their opinions about the right approaches to teaching religious
literacy. Some experts advocate a human rights approach while other researchers prefer a
social-studies or a historical approach. Passe and Wilcox (2009) make the following analogy:
history that is taught without religion is like making beer without yeast; a vital ingredient
would be missing. Their perception of the importance of studying religion within the context
of historical events could bring more clarity of human history. Owen (2011) questions the
current world religion education paradigm. He contends that such a paradigm is too limiting
and uncritical and religious education should be taught using a cultural studies approach,
which should be divided into moral philosophy and religious studies (Owen, 2011). Other
researchers believe the reason for teaching religion in schools is mainly for teaching about
morality. Moore (2017) has long advocated the cultural studies perspective to facilitate a
closer look at how history and religion overlap throughout human history.
Moore states the following:
The overarching goal of a cultural studies methodology is to give students the tools to
be able to recognize and understand how a series of factors converge in specific
social/historical contexts to create the conditions whereby some forms of human
agency and/or beliefs are sanctioned and encouraged while others are discouraged,
thwarted or prohibited. (Moore, 2017, p. 29)
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 44
Many countries around the world have their own approaches to teaching religious
literacy or some form of religious education classes. For example, the South African
Department of Education uses a human rights framework that it describes as a cooperative
model. The official government policy uses the term “religion” education rather than the term
religious instruction. Since the previous apartheid era had imposed Christianity as the only
religious education to be taught in schools, the new government policy emphasized learning
about different faiths and belief systems (Chidester, 2002). The South African Department of
Education’s goals for religion education include: attaining measurable educational outcomes,
creating social benefits for all, and promoting religious diversity (Chidester, 2002). Not only
are the major religions of South Africa taught, the government felt it necessary to also
include indigenous spiritual traditions in the state policy (Van der Walt, 2011). Zimbabwe,
soon after its independence created a new education policy as well, that included lessons
about African traditional religions beginning in the primary grades, to help build positive
African identity in children after the country’s long years of colonialism (Marashe et al.,
2009). Zimbabwe and South Africa’s direction allows all religious and spiritual traditions to
be equally respected.
Evidence of Successful Religious Literacy Programs
More American schools are showing interest in starting religious education and
religious literacy programs explains religion scholar, Steven Prothero (Pew Forum Faith
Angle Conference, Key West Florida, 2007). Prothero, the chair of the Department of
Religion at Boston University, explained to journalists at a Pew Forum on religion, that he
receives hundreds of requests from individuals in different school districts across the United
States asking him for advice on starting Bible classes or world religion courses. When
journalists asked Prothero about religious literacy programs that have already started in
American schools, he spoke about the Modesto School District in California as a successful
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 45
example of religious literacy at a high school level (Pew Forum Faith Angle Conference, Key
West Florida, 2007).
The world religions and religious liberty course taught in Modesto, California high
schools is considered by scholars as a successful program (Jacobsen & Hustedt Jacobsen,
2012; Lester & Roberts, 2009; Prothero, 2007). The Modesto program has influenced
students from all religious backgrounds to engage in ‘active tolerance’ that implies action and
learn that their religions were more alike than different (Lester & Roberts, 2009). Modesto
was the first public school system in the United States to require all high school students to
take the course (Lester & Roberts, 2009). Additionally, every year the school district has an
essay writing context on religion to promote understanding (Prothero, 2007).
Based on current research, Moulin (2015) states that religious education that
emphasizes religious literacy is a valuable contribution and he advocates using the UK model
in other countries. Since 1944 the British government made religious education mandatory as
part of its push to instill democratic ethics and morality and it has implemented some form of
religious education in state funded schools that has remained in place for more than 50 years
(White, 2004). Currently most state-funded schools in the UK are community schools that
use an open and liberal approach to teaching religion that does not advocate nor undermine
students’ faith (Jackson & O’Grady, 2007).
The Religion and State (RAS) database that maintains statistics in more than 180
countries shows most governments neither advocate religion nor interfere with religious
affairs (Fox, 2004). In the United States, church and state are separate as defined by the First
Amendment, which also defends freedom of religious expression as a fundamental right.
However, in the seventh century Puritans sought freedom to practice their religion in peace
when they first came to America, but they denied that same freedom to those who did not
follow their way (Haynes & Thomas, 2007). Though the early Americans developed
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 46
differences of opinion on religious matters, The First Amendment statement made clear the
fact that America would not declare any state religion and that decision paved the way for
people to live together peacefully and free of religious persecution. Since then America has
welcomed freedom of religious expression (Gorski, 2014). Today America is the most
religiously diverse country (Haynes & Thomas, 2007) but despite increased diversity, various
forms of intolerance persist. Gorski’s (2014) research explains there is not one particularly
unchanging formula or rule about religion that remained the same throughout time, but it is
rather a family recipe for religious interpretation. Moreover, the recipe excludes new
elements that require change such as understanding new immigrants into the community
which could include such as welcoming today’s Muslims and Hindus immigrants (Gorski,
2014).
When the Modesto, California school district decided to address religious intolerance
of the new immigrants in their society, the city took a bold step to create its own religious
education program to fit the district’s unique circumstances. The research explains that
knowledge gained by students in the new program contributed to a decrease in discrimination
and an increase in active tolerance indicating that Modesto School district’s program is a
success (Lester & Roberts, 2009).
Successful programs exist, but implementing a religious literacy program is not a one
size fits all. Cultural context may have to be taken into consideration, such as the cultural
thought processes undertaken by the Ministries of Education in South Africa and Zimbabwe
before they implemented their new religious education curriculums. These two countries
thought it was important to their people to include African indigenous spiritual beliefs into
their education policies. The officials insisted that curriculum design should address African
cultural needs that promote moral education, peace, and respect for diversity of religious
views and practices (Baidhawy, 2007; Marashe et al., 2009; Van der Walt, 2011). In the
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United States, the Department of Education forbids public schools from giving religious
instruction, but schools are permitted to teach about religion, however they may not celebrate
the religious aspect of holidays though a holiday’s secular characteristics may be celebrated
(“Religious Expression in Public Schools: A Statement of Principles,” 1998). The First
Amendment Center publishes A Teacher’s Guide to Religion in the Public Schools to help
public schools understand the complexity of how to treat education about religion in public
schools (Haynes, C.C., 2008).
The publication provides information about how to address religion in classrooms and it
encourages schools to work with parents and communities about how to apply the First
Amendment fairly for all public schools. The guide is endorsed by major religious
organizations in the United States.
Courses about religion can be found within the Common Core social studies
curriculum. For example, The New York standards for a high school unit on Belief Systems:
Rise and Impact, students examine the origins, core beliefs and practices, sacred texts as they
compare ethical codes from Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam,
Confucianism and Daoism (New York State Education Department, 2018). A middle school
California Common Core standard for a 6
th
grade social studies unit explores ancient
civilizations through the history of Judaism by examining the Jewish belief in one God who
delivered the moral laws for humanity, the lives of Abraham and Moses in shaping Judaism,
righteousness, justice and how these ideals influenced Western thought (California
Department of Education, 2018).
It should be noted that discussing religious education may evoke strong emotion. To
return to the case of the Modesto School District, Lester and Roberts explain how buy-in
came after a series of community meetings to discuss intolerance in the schools after large
numbers of immigrants moved to the city (Lester & Roberts, 2009). It was only after the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 48
agreement within the community was reached that planning sessions were held to develop the
world religions and liberty courses. Teams of administrators, teachers, consultants, and
university professors worked in Modesto to develop the program followed by a review from
community religious leaders. A First Amendment Center consultant assisted in providing
historical religious context to religious liberty and U.S. Constitutional references for teachers
(Lester & Roberts, 2009). The process of implementing a new religious education programs
was similar in South Africa. The Minister of Education and the national Department of
Education together with curriculum groups developed drafts and further included emphasis
on human rights (Chishom, 2005). Additionally, public hearings about curriculum content
were held and debates about interpretation of wording took place.
In some cases, new religious education programs were implemented and subsequently
changed after unintended consequences surfaced that resulted in program failure. For
example, Singapore is one country that started a new Religious Knowledge (RK) program
from 1984-1989 in the interest of creating national unity. The phenomenological approach
was used for teaching the program (Tan, 2008), but resulted in courses being taught in a
disconnected and clinical way that failed to help students gain deeper understanding and
appreciation for other religions (Tan, 2008). Barnes explains there is wide diversity of views,
however, phenomenology of religion attempts to describe religious phenomena through the
views of the religious believers instead of examining the origins or history of the religion
being studied (Barnes, 2001). Perhaps this could be a reason why the Singaporean Religious
Knowledge (RK) had unexpected consequences; it emphasized religious differences and
unintentionally promoted individual religious faiths. A contributing factor of the Religious
Knowledge program failure was because the instructions given to students was to choose
only one religion to study in either Chinese or Malay. The singular focus in RK courses
created more ethnic segregation and instigated racial tensions in schools (Chew, 1998; Tan
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 49
2008). Singapore changed its policy in 2005 from purely Religious Knowledge to
incorporating RK into Civics and Moral Education (Tan, 2008). In the new policy RK was
included as religious factual knowledge without details that could potentially divide students.
(Chew, 1998; Tan, 2008). Tan contends the change was aimed at informing students about
diverse religious beliefs while promoting religious and racial harmony but not teaching any
faith exclusively (Tan, 2008).
Teacher Preparation for Religious Literacy
One of the main challenges to teaching religion is that most teachers have little to no
training in this field and currently researchers are advocating the Harvard Divinity School’s
teacher certificate program for those who will teach religion within the Social Studies or
English curriculum (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008). Subedi (2006) observed that many teachers
have implicit and explicit bias about religion. In his study on pre-service teachers’ curriculum
development knowledge pertaining to cultural diversity including religion, the researcher
found most of the teachers knew little or nothing about religions outside of Christianity. They
had been socialized to see religions like Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism as foreign, different
and even dangerous (Subedi, 2006). Power dynamics, argues Subedi, affect how critical
topics that include knowledge, culture and identity are interpreted which implies that the
dominant view will have the greatest power to influence meaning. Moore’s (2015) work with
teachers found that peer learning seminars and creating learning communities to be effective
ways of supporting teachers who are new to religious literacy courses. Religious education
usually falls on the shoulders of social studies teachers who have no training in religious
education and they feel ill prepared to teach about religion. Rosenblith and Baily (2009)
contend that religious studies courses need qualified teachers who understand the history,
literature and art of religions and teacher training and continuous professional development
programs will be necessary to prepare teachers for teaching about religion. In the absence of
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 50
a formal training program, they suggest that preservice teachers immerse themselves in
religious studies books and internet resources (Rosenblith & Baily, 2008). Different countries
have various approaches to training teachers for religious literacy programs and additional
research is needed to determine the appropriate training that religious literacy teachers need
to prepare themselves for this complex subject (Tarozzi, 2014).
Learning and Motivation Theory
To understand how Harmony International Academy will prepare itself to start a
religious literacy program, the goal can be more easily identified based on knowledge
outcomes and assessed by a survey and interviews with teachers. The adapted version of
Rueda’s Gap-Analysis Model (Rueda, 2011), explains that the purpose of goals is not only to
provide solutions but also to direct the organization in setting objectives that identify short or
long term goals. Knowledge assessment will be based on the work of Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) definition of the four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge is specific knowledge that is basic to understanding a discipline;
the concern is with knowing all basic facts and information (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
In the case of HIA, factual knowledge means knowing the terminology and basic facts about
religious literacy, world religions and cultures.
It is assumed that teachers need to know the following key terms and definitions of
religious literacy including cultural competence, religious pluralism, and cultural violence
with an understanding that mastery goals rather than performance goals will be the aim.
Additionally, teachers need to know the basic tenets of major religions, historical context and
religious background including major acts of religious violence. Guided by Clark and Estes
Gap Analysis, solutions to closing the factual knowledge gap include training and continuous
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 51
professional development that would focus on mastering terms, definitions and the language
of religious literacy.
Conceptual Knowledge
Conceptual knowledge is the relationship between and among the categories of
knowledge. It can be described as the interrelationships of the fundamental components of
factual knowledge that can be described as the basic ingredients (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). An example of conceptual knowledge in action could be the International
Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum’s the Theory of Knowledge (TOK) where teachers are
required to engage students with questions that guide them in reflecting critically on diverse
ways of knowing and on areas of knowledge,(International Baccalaureate, 2018). Moreover,
the literature informs us that teachers need to know how to connect the dots between the
following: major religious paradigms, the dominate theories of knowledge concerning major
religions, the principles of religious literacy, theories and components of religious violence,
predominate stereotypes, generalizations of major religions, and the significant time periods
associated with major religions. Using Rueda’s gap analysis in educational settings, solutions
to closing the conceptual gap include: training and continuing professional development to
support teachers (Rueda, 2011) in acquiring the necessary knowledge to teach religious
literacy.
Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge in this instance is knowing how to teach world religions. Using
“how to” language is more concerned with the techniques and methodology of teaching
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Based on Clark and Estes Gap analysis model (2008),
assessment of procedural knowledge is based on the evidence of what actually teachers do.
For example, evidence must be shown of how teachers teach in the classroom as well as
evidence of the documents like the course syllabus, lesson plans and assessments. For
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 52
example, teachers need to indicate in their lesson plans how they will explain religious
literacy and its relationship to cultural competency and global citizenship. Moreover, teachers
need to know the following:
• How to help students discuss religious issues with sensitivity
• How to understand historical context of major religions
• How to understand theories of religious pluralism
• How to recognize forms of religious violence
• How to teach about religious violence and extremism with cultural sensitivity
• How to relate religious literacy to the Ethiopian religious and cultural context.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge is thinking about one’s own thinking and the awareness of
that process (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). It includes metacognitive awareness, self-
awareness, self-reflection, and self-regulation. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) explain there
are three categories of knowledge included in the definition of metacognition. First is
strategic knowledge which is knowing a variety of strategies for learning. Second is knowing
when and where to use the strategies within the category of knowledge about cognitive tasks.
Third, the most important expression of metacognitive knowledge is self-knowledge.
Teachers should have a good understanding of their own knowledge base and understand
how and where to use it (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Teachers need metacognitive thinking to create activities that guide students in
planned activities aimed at subject mastery. Teachers need to create their own goals for
mastering religious literacy terminology, concepts and historical context. Teachers also need
to know their own personal interests in teaching religious literacy which will help them create
opportunities to expand their interests. Finally, teachers need to create avenues for expressing
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 53
their concerns and questions about teaching religious literacy courses through self-efficacy; a
vital ingredient for learning more about one’s self.
Motivational Influences
Pintrich (2003) advocates a scientific approach to examining motivational influences
that he refers to as motivational science. His reasoning is that motivational science concerns
human behavior that can be validated with empirical studies providing the evidence to
support the research. However, Rueda’s study is more amenable to educational settings.
Therefore, the Rueda theory will be applied here. The definition of motivation as quoted by
Rueda’s study is, “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained,”
(Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2009, p.4). Four components of motivation are: personal,
activating, energizing, and directed (Rueda, 2011). Personal motivation is internal. Activating
motivation is compelling one toward action. Energizing motivation is persistence and
intensity to generate student interest in accomplishing more. Directed motivation is a set goal
to accomplish tasks (Rueda, 2011). Essential ingredients to self-efficacy include belief in
one’s competence and attributions and control beliefs, plus goal setting. Each one is a critical
factor in generating personal motivation.
Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in one’s ability to plan and complete a given task,
especially in the face of challenges (Rueda, 2011). Stability, locus, and control are three
dimensions of attribution and control beliefs. Stability defines temporary or more permanent
attributions that explain why students, or in this case teachers, perform at a low level, because
they believe their condition may be permanent (Rueda, 2011). Locus refers to internal,
meaning they are controllable or external factors, and if factors are not controllable, a
person’s ability to complete a given task may be compromised. Controllable attributions may
affect a person positively and uncontrollable attributions may affect a person negatively.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 54
Resulting behavior, understanding, and emotional states of mind are directly influenced by
these factors (Rueda, 2011).
Value and its four dimensions: attainment, intrinsic, utility and cost value refer to why
a person would complete a task or activity. The important value of the task is associated with
attainment. It is the answer to the ‘why’ questions. For example, why would the teacher
complete a given task. The ‘what is in it for me’ questions are answered by the intrinsic,
utility value, and cost value. Intrinsic tasks are those one does for the joy. For example, a
teacher teaches a certain course because he loves the subject. Utility value is more centered
on the activity’s usefulness and cost value is about the time or effort needed to complete the
task (Rueda, 2011). An example of utility value could be when a social studies teacher asks,
“Why should I teach a course that I’m not trained to teach and how much time will I have to
invest in preparation?”
Goals for achieving the end result will need to be planned. The focus can be either
goal content or goal orientation. Goal content focuses on what a person wants while goal
orientation is concerned with purposes and reasons for achieving the goal (Pintrich, 2003). To
elaborate further, goal orientation is divided between mastery goal orientation and
performance goal orientation. Mastery of a task or point of knowledge and performance goal
orientation are concerned with an outward show of understanding, recognition and avoiding
negative comments from others (Rueda, 2011). For instance, after a teacher has reached the
goal of completing the teacher training program in religious literacy and has achieved a good
level of mastery which can be demonstrated, confidence will increase.
Motivational Indices
Active choice, persistence and mental effort are motivational indices that affect
outputs (Clark & Estes 2008). This research uses an innovation model described in the Clark
and Estes Gap Analysis. Solutions to problems of knowledge, motivation and organization
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 55
pertaining to a new religious literacy program at Harmony International Academy have been
identified and are planned and the implementation dates are proposed in Chapter Five.
Motivational problems became more clear only during data collection phase and analysis of
the survey and interviews. Therefore, the intention was there initially, but no action was
taken.
Based on anecdotal evidence, an assumed cause of motivation problems may be
cultural influences that could affect the mental effort of some teachers. Religious ties are very
strong in Ethiopia and some people may not understand the need for a school to teach
anything about religion. This kind of thinking could affect how much teachers value the
religious literacy program and their moods toward teaching the courses.
Organization Influences
The framework used to assess and recommend solutions for organizational influences
are derived from Gallimore and Goldenberg’s (2001) theories of cultural setting and cultural
models. Their definition of cultural models borrows ideas from many studies about shared
complex cultural interactions that define rules of participation including what is valued, who
is valued, who participates and other decisions concerning culture interactions that have
developed over time (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This pertains to HIA’s organizational
culture as an organization based in Ethiopia and that is heavily influenced by Ethiopian
culture. Though HIA is an international school, most of the teachers and administrators are
Ethiopian. Present circumstances imply an Ethiopian worldview may inevitably affect
decision making processes and discussions about the value of religious literacy. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that only a surface level of culture is observed as in peeling the layers of an
onion, but as the research shows, most of an organization’s culture is beneath the surface and
not easy to detect such as in the iceberg analogy (Schein, 2004), where the deep layers are
hidden.
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Conclusion
The gap in performance is a 100% since the project has not yet begun. This
investigation is concerned with the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
needed to help HIA achieve its goal of implementing a religious literacy program that reflects
the mission of the school and produces culturally competent graduates.
The literature affirms the need for religious literacy courses to be taught in schools,
but researchers disagree about the approach and the worldview that should be used to teach
the courses. Though religious literacy is a not a new field of research; interest in this area of
study began after World War I and World War II but was confined to studying one’s own
religion. Recently, the term religious literacy has achieved new scholarly interest as well as
interest from educational institutions. However, gaps exist in the literature that address the
evolving terminology and meanings. But what is clear is the emphasis on building peaceful
societies. An overview of the history of religious literacy is presented in the literature and
studies that examine religious extremism and violence are becoming more prominent in the
literature as well as in today’s headlines. However, few studies were found on how religious
extremism affects children’s mental health and skews their worldviews, therefore more
research is needed to develop new theories about how children acquire their knowledge about
religion and how they develop religious worldviews.
Researchers agree that religious literacy is an important tool for peacemaking and at
the same time, courses must to be taught by teachers who are well trained and have genuine
interest to teach world religions. The literature also highlights different lenses that were used
to examine religious literacy and approaches to teacher preparation. Finally, examples of
successful implementation of religious literacy programs by governments and school
districts, as well as failures were discussed in the literature. For example, the success of a
California school district’s implementation of a world religion course and the failure of a
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 57
state-wide program in Singapore that ultimately led to a better program that met student
needs. The conclusion by most researchers is religious literacy is important to creating peace
and programs should be taught in schools. However, there is not a clear agreement about how
the courses should be taught. Some researchers suggest individual courses on each religion
and others insist that integrated world religion programs work best.
Finally, learning and motivation theory, through the works of Rueda, Anderson and
Krathwohl, and Clark and Estes, are introduced to guide the researcher in assessing the
assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational needs for HIA. The aforementioned
authors concur with one other about the types of knowledge, the types of motivation and
what kinds of organizational needs should be in place before innovation can take place.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 58
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The philosophical foundation for this research is based on the pragmatism worldview.
It assumes that the events investigated for this project happen within the context of social,
historical, political and other complex interactions and events (Cresswell, 2014). Such
research is informed by actions, situations and consequences guided by real solutions to real
problems (Patton, 1990). The purpose of this project is to examine religious literacy in
Ethiopia by studying one school. The religiously diverse K-12 school has plans to establish a
program that will prepare students to graduate from high school with religious literacy
knowledge and who strive to be culturally competent. The following research questions that
guided this inquiry were:
1. What kinds of knowledge and motivation do teachers need to implement a religious
literacy curriculum program to achieve Harmony International Academy’s goal of
graduating culturally competent students?
2. What are the organizational needs and practices necessary for HIA to achieve its new
organizational goal of graduating culturally competent students?
Stakeholders of Focus
Multiple stakeholders have interest in HIA’s programs, particularly the Board, school
administration, teachers, students, and parents. However, teachers are the stakeholders of
focus for this study because teachers will have the responsibility of developing the religious
literacy curriculum. Teachers will invest a substantial amount of time and energy learning the
terminology associated with religious literacy and familiarizing themselves with the cultural-
historical connections to religion that is required for this program. Teachers are the main
stakeholders who will help the school reach its goal of graduating students who will attain a
level of competency in religious literacy courses.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 59
Methodological Framework
This study was conducted using an adaptation of the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis
which is a systematic approach to achieve an organization’s goal by improving the
performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Rueda (2011) adapted the work of Clark and Estes to
educational setting. The starting point in gap analysis begins with the organizational mission
to determine which measurable goals are to be achieved and then setting benchmarks for
successful achievement of the goals (Rueda, 2011). As mentioned in the previous section, the
goal for Harmony International Academy is to graduate students who are culturally
competent and have achieved a level of religious literacy.

Figure 3. Overview of gap analysis model. Adapted from Rueda (2011).
To achieve the final goal, short term performance goals followed by intermediate
level goals must be set (Rueda, 2011). For this innovation project, the short term performance
focus centers on the process involved in identifying the KMOs, the knowledge, motivation
and organizational constraints as assumed needs through data collection from the
stakeholders of focus. The intermediate level goals are analyzing the raw data and validating
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 60
the results, determining the key findings and making recommendations for how to close the
100% performance gap.
This chapter began with a discussion on assessing and measuring assumed factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge needs. The next section explains the
sample and population for this study, an overview of the data collection methods, data
trustworthiness and the role of the investigator. Finally, this chapter concludes with a brief
overview of how the data was analyzed for this study and the limitations and delimitations of
this research.
Assumed Influences
Rather than moving directly to solutions, this investigation begins with asking
questions that must be answered to help the researcher determine the assumed needs for an
innovation project where there is a 100% gap in performance. Clark and Estes (2008)
describe three critical factors needed in the initial phase of diagnosis, which are knowledge
and skills people need to the achieve the goal, motivation to achieve the goal and
organizational needs to achieve the goal and thus make the new project successful. Therefore,
this project investigates the assumed needs that will help Harmony International Academy
achieve its goal of graduating students who achieve a pre-determined level of religious
literacy and cultural competency. To avoid jumping to conclusions and acting without asking
the right questions, the assumed needs for the project must be assessed through a process of
evaluation and validation (Kirkpatrick, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Preliminary Scanning Data and Critical Observations
Harmony International Academy is a religiously diverse school. Students from a
variety of Christian denominations, Muslims, Jews, Hindus and religions attend classes
together without incident, however occasional complaints have arisen stemming from
insensitive remarks made by students to one another. Informal talks with HIA teachers during
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or after professional development programs suggest there is interest among teachers to know
more about religious literacy. Teachers are aware of religious diversity in the school but they
may not know how to address it in the classroom, therefore, the issue is ignored. Conversely,
a few teachers have addressed religious differences by calling out a student by his or her
religion or by describing students by their religions. For instance, a teacher might refer to a
student as “that Muslim girl” or asking a student his religious affiliation during a class
session in front of other students. Complaints made to the school administration have come
from parents and students. Teacher complaints stem from colleagues making insensitive
remarks about their religions. For example, Rastafarian teachers have complained about a
general lack of understanding of their religion and way of life by other teachers. Through a
process of mediation, teachers were advised to be more culturally sensitive and practice
mutual respect.
Factual Knowledge Assessments and Measurements
Knowledge and skills are basic for teachers’ understanding of religious literacy. They
are the first steps to helping teachers understand the effects of insensitive remarks. Moreover,
learning the basic tenets of world religions can help teachers build more authentic
relationships with students thus creating a more emotionally safe space for both students and
teachers.
Assessing factual knowledge requires face-to-face interviews with teachers to assess
their knowledge of religious literacy terminology. The interviewer asked interviewees to
explain what they know. The research is conducted in one school, therefore, convenience
sampling is used in this instance. All interested teachers were interviewed individually in a
private room by a trained data collector. As most of the participants speak English as an
additional language, the data collector conducted the interviews in English with printed
interview questions to ensure that the same questions were asked for each participant in the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 62
same way with the same exact language. In keeping with the appropriate protocol, the
interviewer assured the participants that their answers would be kept confidential and he
asked each participants’ permission before using a recording device to ensure accurate
transcription of the interviews. Each participant consented to the audio recorded interview.
Conceptual Knowledge Assessment and Measurements
Critical observations of teachers, students and staff interaction suggest that members
of the school community can benefit from learning the type of conceptual knowledge that can
help them understand how many world religions have shared histories and cultures. For
instance, the three Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam have ancient roots in
Ethiopia. All three religions have great reference for Abraham and additionally, since they
have a shared history in Ethiopia they have some things in common. There can be common
ground in which to build mutual respect through learning how ideas relate to one another and
serve as a base for dialog. Informal discussions with teachers suggest that most Ethiopians
don’t value the commonalities. They see the world through the lens of their own religions. As
the stakeholders of focus, teachers need to learn conceptual knowledge for curriculum design,
lesson planning and leading discussions in the classroom or with parents.
As with factual knowledge, assessment of conceptual knowledge relies on the
researcher’s self-designed survey instrument using a Likert type scale that was administered
to all interested teachers online. Four possible answers ranged from strongly disagree to
strongly agree so that participants were forced to choose an answer rather than take a neutral
position. Questions were designed to solicit answers about the participants’ interpretation of
religious literacy, cultural competency, religious extremism, tolerance, and whether or not
they believe world religions should be taught in the school. Their answers measured the depth
of knowledge and interest teachers have about how the concepts are interrelated and how
they feel about the new program in their school.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 63
Procedural Knowledge Assessment and Measurements
Teachers appear willing to learn but they express an insistence on training and
professional development, which will help them grasp the how-to knowledge. For example,
teachers need to know how to design a curriculum, how to handle sensitive classroom
discussions about religion and how to guide senior with a capstone project. Training teaches
them the how-to fit the pieces together. Face-to-face interviews with six interested teachers
were conducted by the trained interviewer using printed interview questionnaires. The aim
was to solicit answers that would inform the researcher and measure the depth of procedural
knowledge elements concerned with how to teach religious literacy. As mentioned above,
most of the participants speak English as an additional language and the concern was that
they understand the questions, therefore, the data collector conducted the interviews using a
printed interview survey to ensure that the same questions were asked in English to each
participant in the same way. If there were any language misunderstandings, the data collector
asked the same question in Amharic, Ethiopia’s national language. The interviewer assured
the participants that their answers would be kept confidential. As with the question for
conceptual knowledge assessment, the data collector asked the participants’ permission
before recording the interviews.
Metacognitive Knowledge Assessment and Measurements
Metacognitive knowledge is a critical aspect of knowledge acquisition for teachers
because the anecdotal evidence based on working with Ethiopian teachers for 15 years,
Ethiopian teachers are not accustomed to discussing their beliefs simply because the
hierarchal education system in this country expects teachers to follow the supervisors’
instructions such as sticking to the prescribed syllabus without questions. Thinking for
themselves is new for many teachers especially if they are new to the Harmony International
Academy environment where teachers are encouraged to think creatively beyond the
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syllabus. Therefore, new teachers may not even know how they feel or what their beliefs are
because no one has ever asked them. That is the feedback given by teachers during
professional development sessions. Moreover, self-efficacy skills need further development.
Measuring and assessing metacognitive knowledge is complex. There is no single
right answer. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) advise helping the learners, in this case the
teachers, to become more aware of their beliefs. Teachers should learn how to monitor and
evaluate their feelings about their faith. An online survey facilitated by the data collector was
used at a separate location to ensure teachers had privacy and could answer questions
anonymously. The aim of the questionnaire was to measure the degree of teachers’ self-
efficacy and metacognitive awareness. The questions used the same Likert type scale as
described previously. Table 3 lists the assumed knowledge, motivation and assumed
organizational needs for the religious literacy program to begin at HIA.
Motivation Assessment and Measurements
Observed motivation challenges begin with salary complaints. Most HIA teachers feel
they are underpaid and overworked. Even though HIA teachers are paid competitively with
schools that charge similar student tuition and fees, including professional development
support throughout the school year, the HIA teachers complained that more is expected from
them at Harmony, than from local schools, therefore HIA teachers feel they should be paid
more because the school has an international focus. Teachers appear to be intrigued with the
idea of a new religious literacy program, however, a higher salary for teaching in the program
may be the impetus for their interest. Therefore, cost value may be most important to
teachers.
Motivation is inherently a cultural construct; it is context-specific and motivational
challenges are not effectively dealt with using solutions designed to answer knowledge gaps
(Rueda, 2011). For instance, motivational beliefs are influenced by others in the same
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 65
environment so if a few teachers feel they are underpaid, their dissatisfaction could reach a
critical mass that affects more teachers. Rueda (2011) explains there is no single theory of
motivation because there are many motivational variables that come into play. Within the
context of Ethiopian teachers, self-efficacy, confidence levels and stability, locus and control
are concerns. Self-efficacy has already been mentioned. Confidence, locus and control may
be affected by outside influences such as the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, which controls
curriculum decisions for all private schools in Ethiopia, including private schools.
Assessment of motivation needs will be conducted by a survey instrument and face-to-face
interviews with teachers.
Organization Assessment and Measurements
Observed organizational challenges include the Harmony International Academy
Board’s commitment to ensuring the school has quality educational teaching aids and other
materials that support the education programs. Purchase requisitions are frequently delayed
and items that have been ordered are often replaced with less expensive and lower quality
items without discussion with the school administration. Such decisions adversely affect
morale of teachers, staff and administration. Another challenge centers on changing the
organizational settings and models. HIA has a complex bureaucratic and nebulous structure
where accountability is often unclear. Therefore, questions arise when the school
administration plans a new religious literacy program, with Board support, as to whether the
organization is committed to making the program successful by putting policies in place that
address issues that concern the cultural model and setting. Rueda (2011) explains that cultural
model and setting need important questions to be answered, including: what are the HIA
beliefs, attitudes and ways of thinking, what are the spoken and unspoken rules and how are
decisions made? Measuring and assessing organizational needs were conducted with the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 66
online survey instrument and through face-to-face interviews with teachers who volunteered
to be interviewed.
Table 3
Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs

Assumed Knowledge Needs Survey Interview

Factual
Teachers need to know definitions and terminology X
associated with religious literacy and world religions.

Teachers need to know definitions and terminology X
associated with cultural competency.

Conceptual
Teachers need to know significant time periods X X
associated with major religions and their relationship
to Ethiopian history

Metacognitive
Teachers need to know their personal feelings X X
about religious literacy and teaching religions different
from their own.

Assumed Motivation Needs Survey Interview

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation
Teachers need to know their intrinsic and extrinsic X X
motivation for teaching religious literacy.

Self-efficacy
Teachers need to understand the role of self-efficacy to make X X
learning and professional development purposeful.

Metacognitive
Teachers need to be aware of their own learning. X

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 67
Table 3, continued
Assumed Organizational Needs Survey Interview

Cultural Model
HIA needs to create a cultural model that supports X X
high school students graduating with pre-determined
competencies in religious literacy.

Cultural Setting
HIA needs policies that promote diversity and cultural X
inclusion.

Organizational Resources
The organization needs to communicate its commitment X X
to the religious literacy program by ensuring resources
are available for teachers and students.

Sample and Population
Participating stakeholders for the innovation gap analysis at Harmony International
Academy were teachers. The sample size for the survey consisted of 20 teachers, who have
employment contracts with Harmony International Academy. All twenty participants were
Ethiopian citizens. Seven participants were female and 13 were male. Fifteen of the teachers
identified themselves as Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, three as Protestant without any
reference to a specific denomination, an additional two participants identified themselves as
from the Lutheran denomination and one teacher identified from the Bahi Faith. The
participants were asked to complete the Likert type scale survey online. The final question on
the survey asked participants if they would like to voluntarily participate in a follow up
interview. Those participants who answered yes, were asked to send an email to the data
collector to express their interest. In being interviewed. To ensure anonymity of the
participants, only the data collector had access to the emails. Six teachers were selected by
the data collector and contacted to schedule face-to-face interviews. The principal
investigator in this study is an administrator in the school, therefore, to ensure the privacy of
the participants, the data collector facilitated the online survey in a computer lab in away
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 68
from the school, personally contacted the potential interviewees, and conducted all interviews
privately.
Data Collection
Permission from the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board
(IRB) was obtained before data collection began in December, 2017. Data collection included
a Likert style scale survey and face-to-face interviews with a trained data collector who was
instructed to take careful field notes. This researcher used the Qualtrics online survey
instrument using Likert style scales designed by the researcher. Other instruments for this
research include face-to-face interviews with questions designed by the researcher. Each
interview took approximately one hour.
The accuracy and validity of the instruments were determined after the data was
collected and analyzed. It is preferable to conduct a pilot test of the instruments to correct any
defects in the instrument before the actual data collection begins, however, due to time
constraints, it was not possible. The data collection began before teachers left for their
holiday break and continued until they returned after three weeks. Every effort was made to
ensure the validity and reliability of the instruments through peer evaluation. To ensure that
this researcher was not biased, respondent validation was used to check for the participants’
understanding. This method rules out the chance of the data collector’s misunderstanding of
the observation (Merriam, 2009) or in this case, misunderstanding the participant’s
explanations.
Survey
A survey consisting of 20 questions was facilitated by the data collector and
administered online. The survey questions were asked in English and the results were kept
anonymous. There was no identifiable information about the participants was known by their
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 69
survey answers. The validity and reliability of the survey was triangulated using multiple
investigators and multiple data collection methods to confirm findings (Merriam, 2009).
A survey was distributed in December, 2017 through online software with a paper-
pencil backup, after approval from the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional
Review Board (IRB) was received. The paper and pencil backup was made ready in the event
of internet power outage, which frequently occurs in this country. The survey was
administered by a PhD candidate who is a faculty member in the school’s university college.
Participants used desktop workstations at a separate location to eliminate any possibility
seeing which teachers participated and IP addresses were not tracked. Additionally, the
participants were not asked any identifiable demographic information. Limited demographic
information was collected for the study including nationality, age, gender, religion, and years
of teaching experience, however the participants’ names and subject expertise were not
included. All participants names and any other identifying information will be kept
confidential by the data collector.
The survey consisted of 20 questions consisting of Likert style scale questions and
dichotomous survey items to measure motivation and interest which was based on already
existing instruments. Knowledge and organization items for this study were designed as part
of the survey and the answers were collected anonymously. Qualtrics professional online
survey software with statistical analysis that enabled quick and accurate tabulation of the
responses. An electronic copy of the completed survey was saved on flash and on an external
hard drive. The copies are stored in a secure location under lock and key. The survey protocol
is listed as Appendix A.
Interviews
Harmony International Academy participants were interviewed in person individually in a
private room in the school’s university college. The language of instruction at HIA is
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 70
English, therefore the interviews were conducted in English but when necessary questions
were explained in Amharic, the country’s national language. Teachers’ English skills can be
described as intermediate to near proficient, however as English is a second or third language
for most participants, extra time was allocated to ensure participants understood the questions
and they could easily answer the questions. The interviews consisted of 16 questions and the
time allotment was approximately one hour for each participant. A standard interview
protocol was used. The interviewer introduced himself, thanked the interviewees for
participating in the study, and assured their anonymity by explaining that no personal
information would be asked of them. The interviewer further explained that their
participation was completely voluntary and he asked permission to use a recording device for
accuracy, interview transcription and coding. Additionally, the interviewer informed the
participant that if he or she were to become uncomfortable at any time during the interview,
he or she could stop the interview at any time. After interviews were completed, the
interviewer was instructed to send the voice recorded interviews directly to a selected
transcriber by courier and after transcription and coding, the recorded interviews were erased
thus leaving only the raw data for the researcher. Only the written word for word
transcriptions were given to the principal investigator for analysis.
Using an adapted version of Gale, Cameron, Heath, Rashid and Redwood’s (2013)
work, the first step in the coding process for this dissertation began with preliminary scanning
of the interview transcriptions followed by developing a code manual beginning with open
coding based on the research questions that addressed knowledge, motivation, organizational
needs. The initial analysis began with the researcher assigning hand written codes, Teacher
A, Teacher B, Teacher C, Teacher D, Teacher E, and Teacher F as pseudonyms for the
interviewees. The second step was summarizing the raw data from the interview
transcriptions on chart paper and creating matrices for the KMOs to identify common threads
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 71
and to identify themes. The third step was the application of the codes to relevant sections of
the interviews, followed by connecting the codes through axial coding to the identified
themes and sub-themes. The final step was connecting and simplifying the codes and
supporting the themes with evidence that included summarized interview answers and
identified direct quotes (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The Interview protocol can be
found in Appendix B.
Trustworthiness of Data
The most important question for qualitative research is whether the results are
consistent with the data collected (Merriam, 2009). To ensure the trustworthiness of the data
the following measures were taken: 1) triangulation of data between surveys and interviews
to corroborate findings, 2) survey items were based on reliable and existing instruments using
Qualtrics survey software, 3) assurance of anonymity concerning surveys and confidentiality
concerning interviews was made and 4) member checks for any possible misunderstanding of
respondent’s answers were conducted.
Role of the Investigator
This researcher is the principal investigator and the head of school that is the subject
of the study. She is responsible to lead the school in meeting its mission and vision, therefore
she is the person who indirectly supervises all learning through principals, lead teachers and
classroom teachers. She is considered the educational leader of the school who inspires the
faculty, staff and students to ensure learning is purposeful, enjoyable, and efficient with
measurable learning outcomes and to produce culturally competent graduates who will be
accepted at universities in Ethiopia and abroad. She is responsible for connecting and
forming partnerships with other international schools and universities to form partnerships
inside and globally to create opportunities for students to experience interactions with
students in other countries and college admissions process exposure. She is also responsible
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 72
for overseeing all curriculum matters, human resources, planning and budgeting, and
administration and faculty supervision.
The role of the principal investigator is to ensure all steps are in place to preserve the
anonymity of each participant in the survey and interviews. The principal investigator
arranged to have a qualified data collector on this project team to access employees’
personnel information and who ensured that all participation was voluntary and that all
information was kept confidential including participants’ names and their responses to
surveys and interviews. The data collector for this project has recently earned his PhD at
Addis Ababa University in the College of Humanities, Language Studies, Journalism and
Communication. He has conducted interviews for his own research in his dissertation on
teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL). Additionally, the data collector completed
the online iStar training program required by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) before
engaging in any data collection for this project.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis began during the interview phase as field notes and
observations were collected and recorded (Merriam, 2009). Interviews were transcribed and
categorized to fit knowledge, motivation and organizational needs classifications (Creswell,
2014). Codes for knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were developed to assist
in organizing the data, including assigning pseudonyms for HIA teachers. For clarity, first the
initial broad category of codes were identified based on knowledge needs, motivation needs
and organizational needs. For example, codes for knowledge needs included factual,
procedural, conceptual and metacognitive needs. Each transcribed interview was analyzed
separately and individual codes were assigned for learning religious literacy definitions,
learning the how to teach religious literacy concepts, learning how concepts were interrelated
and metacognitive knowledge that asked teachers to reflect on their own knowledge. Second,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 73
in summarizing the raw data from the transcriptions, common threads were identified from
answers to questions such as, “What would prevent you from teaching world religion
courses,” “How important is it for teachers to explain relationships between major religious
events and world history?” and “Should teachers receive incentives for teaching religious
literacy courses and what kind of incentives do you think teachers should receive?” Third, in
applying the codes a hand written chart was created using portions of the interview
transcriptions that were organized based on the data that would be identified under the
categories of knowledge, motivation and organizational needs. Fourth, evidence was
corroborated with direct quotes from the interviews and summaries of common threads.
Quantitative data analysis began with descriptive statistics taken from the survey responses to
determine how the participants answered the questions and further statistical analysis resulted
in percentages displayed on visual graphs and charts (Fink, 2017).
Limitations and Delimitations
Some limitations were identified in this project’s design. First, the proposed sample
size was small and focused only on one school. Second, the project was limited by possible
bias of the principal investigator and the participants themselves wanting to provide socially
acceptable answers that they may have believed were expected of them. Third, the project
may have been limited due to participants’ language skills; all participants speak English as
an additional language and concern was that participants may not have fully understood the
questions and therefore, provided unintended answers. Fourth, correlational and not
causational relationship will impact any statistical analysis and finally, the project limits the
stakeholder of focus to only one which may or may not be a true representation of other
stakeholder groups. Other stakeholder groups’ experiences would have been valuable to this
project however; such investigations lie outside the scope if this project. The focus of this
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 74
project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine root causes of the organizational problem of
creating a religious literacy program that will help the school fulfill its mission.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 75
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this inquiry was to examine religious literacy in Ethiopia. Moreover,
the study was focused on identifying the knowledge, motivation and organizational resources
needed to enable one religiously diverse K-12 school to initiate the first religious literacy
program in Ethiopia. The study’s purpose was not to delve deeply into the broader topics of
religion and inter-cultural competence, but to research global religious education only as it
relates to Harmony International Academy’s (HIA) objectives in Ethiopia. The school’s goal
is to graduate culturally competent seniors, who have attained pre-determined competencies
in religious literacy, which helps the school fulfill its mission and diversity statement. If
successful, HIA would then be in a better position to prepare students for 21
st
Century
changing realities of religious pluralism in Ethiopia and to promote inclusionary values and
respect for religious differences.
The framework for this inquiry is based on decades of organizational research
conducted by Clark and Estes (2008). The gap analysis model created by the researchers
investigates assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational (KMO) causes or needs to
close an organization’s performance gap. The gap analysis model was introduced in Chapter
Three of this study. Chapter Four concentrates on data validation of KMO needs by either
validating, partially validating or not validating assumed needs based on the substantiated
collected data from survey and interview answers.
The assumed knowledge needs focus on factual, procedural, conceptual and
metacognitive knowledge. Assumed motivation needs address effort, self-efficacy, and also
metacognition. Within the organizational context, the assumed needs are what the
organization must do to facilitate the stakeholder goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). As an
innovation study, this inquiry is designed to examine the assumed needs for a new program.
In this case, a 100% gap in performance exists because the program has not yet started (Clark
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 76
& Estes, 2008). All assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational resource needs and
requirements for this study were either validated, partially validated or not validated based on
the collected data from the teachers who were the stakeholders of focus. The minimum value
set for assessing an assumed KMO factor was 60%. If at least sixty percent of respondents
agreed on a survey question, the assumed need was considered validated. If most
interviewees concurred on the same points, the need was considered validated.
The KMO assessment for this study is based on qualitative data and statistical
analysis of data from an online survey administered to the stakeholders. Twenty teachers
participated in the survey and six teachers were interviewed in person by a data collector,
who assisted the principal researcher for this study.
Motivation was assessed primarily from interviews to determine teachers’ interest in
the program, value attached to religious literacy, self-efficacy, choice and mental effort
needed to invest in the new program. The results of the collected data relating to the assumed
motivation needs were analyzed and then validated, partially validated or not validated. A
discussion of the findings is also presented in this chapter.
Organizational resource needs, including policies and incentives are the final KMO
assumed needs to be analyzed. This chapter addressed all validated assumed needs and
findings and concludes with a synthesis of collected findings. The next section in this chapter
will address the results, validation and findings unique to the knowledge assumed needs.
Subsequent sections will address the results, validation and findings for motivation, and
finally for organizational needs.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study were teachers employed by Harmony
International Academy (HIA). Twenty teachers participated in a survey in December 2017.
Of the 20 Ethiopian teachers, 7 were women and 13 were men. Their ages ranged from 35 –
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 77
66 years of age and teaching experience ranged from 7 years to 30 years. The majority of the
participants identified themselves as Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, three as Protestant with
no reference to a denomination, two as Lutherans, and one identified as Bahai Faith. Six
teachers who had participated in the survey volunteered to do face to face interviews where
they were each asked a set of 16 open-ended questions. The identities of all participants were
kept anonymous. Both the survey and interviews were facilitated by a data collector, who
assisted the principal investigator for this study.
Data Collection and Validity
Two research questions guided this inquiry:
1. What kinds of knowledge and motivation do teachers need to implement a religious
literacy program to achieve Harmony International Academy’s (HIA) goal of
graduating culturally competent students?
2. What are the organizational needs and practices necessary for HIA to achieve its new
organizational goal of graduating culturally competent students?
Three analytical components were examined using the Clark and Estes gap analysis
model to determine how to close the gap in achievement in the organization’s goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). First, do teachers have the required knowledge and skills? Second, are teachers
motivated to achieve the school’s goals? Third, what organizational barriers are present that
might prevent the school from reaching its goal. All three components must be established
and they must work together to achieve the stated goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
In measuring teachers’ knowledge, motivation and the organization’s needs,
respondents answered survey questions designed in a Likert type scale ranging from 1,
strongly disagree to 4, strongly agree. The survey instrument is listed in Appendix A.
Interviews with teachers were the other means of collecting data. Interviewees answered
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 78
sixteen questions asked by this study’s data collector. The interview instrument is listed in
Appendix B.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
Gaps in knowledge require solutions that include information, job aids, training and
education (Clark & Estes, 2008). Having the right information helps to decrease ambivalence
or anxiety about a new task. Job aids are self-help information about performance goals to
empower employees to make changes on their own (Rueda, 2011). Training is associated
with procedural “how to” declarative knowledge that could be in the form of guided practice
and corrective feedback (Clark & Estes, 2008). Education provides the kind of conceptual
knowledge that gives people strategies for addressing current and future challenges (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Discussion on Validated Assumed Knowledge Needs
The collected data for this study resulted in seven validated knowledge needs
including factual knowledge for learning definitions and associated meanings related to
religious literacy and world religions. Factual, procedural, conceptual and metacognitive
types of knowledge are essential for teachers in the new program. Teachers must be able to
use conceptual knowledge to relate religious literacy definitions to cultural competency and
demonstrate the relationships with other necessary elements. Krathwohl’s (2002) revised
Bloom’s Taxonomy explained this type of conceptual knowledge as interrelationships
between basic elements that work together. For example, the relationship between religious
literacy and cultural competency can be illustrated with a picture of how and where major
events in world religion occurred and by examining where major historical events intersected
with religion. Relevancy to religious literacy is one reason why logical connections must be
made, therefore, procedural knowledge provides the how-to part of knowledge acquisition
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). For instance, teachers need to know how to design sensitive
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 79
and engaging lessons about religious literacy. Metacognitive knowledge includes
understanding of one’s self, how one learns and how a student is able to control their learning
process, for example, control of the cognitive processing during learning (Mayer, 2011). For
instance, teachers need to be aware of what they know, how they access knowledge about
religious literacy and how they control their thinking process while they are in the process of
learning (Mayer, 2011). How much of the new knowledge gets into the working memory and
transferred to long term memory where it becomes prior knowledge after integrating with
working memory? (Mayer, 2011). Such awareness empowers teachers with a deeper
understanding of how they can connect to their own learning (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
The foundation for understanding religious literacy has not yet been built at Harmony
International Academy, therefore many assumed knowledge needs are required to provide a
base from which to build further knowledge.
Similar assumed knowledge needs were combined to reduce the total number of
assumed knowledge needs. For example, assumed knowledge needs addressing definitions
and terminology were grouped as one assumed need.
Validation of Factual Knowledge Needs
Unless there is understanding of key terminology associated with religious literacy,
teachers will not achieve the school’s goal and since the program is new, the knowledge part
of the gap must to be fulfilled (Clark & Estes, 2008). Factual knowledge is required for
religious literacy because it is the essential ingredient needed to function within this specific
discipline (Rueda, 2011). Remembering knowledge must become meaningful learning that
leads to integration into the bigger picture of knowledge construction or solving new
problems (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). For example, teachers must first learn the
definition of religious literacy and related terminologies and connect the new understanding
to what they already know about world religions to create new understanding. Religious
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 80
literacy is a relatively unknown concept at Harmony International Academy and to most
Ethiopians. For instance, in the interview with Teacher D, the perspective was expressed as,
“…teaching world religions is kind of pretty new to Ethiopia. I don’t think there are any
schools which teach religion as far as I know. Therefore, we have to take this very
delicately.” Since Harmony International Academy is pioneering the idea of teaching
religion in an Ethiopian school, teachers need to acquire as much information and factual
knowledge as possible to build their competence and confidence to teach in the program. Just
as importantly, teachers need to be equipped with facts to explain and defend the new
courses. The Table 4 exhibits survey respondents’ answers to the assumed knowledge need
associated with religious literacy definitions.

Figure 4. Teachers Should Understand the Major Definitions Associated With Religious
Literacy

Table 4

Survey Q5 - Teachers Should Understand the Major Definitions Associated With Religious
Literacy

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.00% 1
2 Disagree 5.00% 1
3 Agree 25.00% 5
4 Strongly Agree 65.00% 13
Total 100% 20

These data indicate that HIA teachers believe they should learn the factual knowledge
necessary to teach religious literacy courses, anecdotal evidence from 15 years of employing
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 81
Ethiopian teachers suggests that teachers who were educated in the Ethiopian national school
system learned to memorize facts very well. The Ethiopian national curriculum is based on
rote memorization. Ninety percent of survey respondents agreed that teachers should learn
the definitions. The interview answers confirm that teachers lack basic understanding of
terminology and interrelated concepts, therefore, this knowledge assumed need is validated
based on the 60% of respondents who agreed with the survey statement.
Harmony International Academy’s student population represents at least 25
nationalities who speak different languages and practice different world religions. To
facilitate a climate of mutual respect and understanding, knowing the basic elements of the
world’s major religions can be indispensable for prepared teachers of religious literacy
classes (Subedi, 2006). Factual knowledge enables teachers to more easily function within
the program and to problem solve (Rueda, 2011). Additionally, it empowers teachers to
dispel myths, rumors and misunderstandings.
The assumed factual need associated with teachers learning the basic tenets of world
religions follows the same logic as a teacher’s need to know the definitions and terminologies
of religious literacy. Learning about the different world religions from a cultural and
historical perspective is part of learning religious literacy (Moore, 2015). For example, the
interview with Teacher B revealed readiness to teach religion courses because the teacher
explained that Ethiopian culture has already laid the groundwork for teaching religious
literacy since religion, culture and history are interwoven with Ethiopian life.
Another assumed factual need associated with definitions was religious pluralism.
Teacher A alluded to knowledge and acceptance of religious pluralism in the interview by
explaining how many people in the teacher’s community saw people as people; they did not
identify a person as Muslim or Christian. Teacher A explained how people help one another
and how neighbors attend one another’s life ceremonies marking weddings and births,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 82
whether they are from Christian or Muslim families. The teacher further shared how
community children in the neighborhood play together without thinking about one another’s
religion. It was Teacher A’s opinion that if Harmony International Academy introduced a
religious literacy program, it would reinforce the bonds between people and keep conflict to a
minimum. Teacher A shared the following, “My daughter and my son have friends from
different religions. I have very close friends, intimate friends from different religions. You
see, if we introduce this religious literacy program, it will just strengthen the ties between us.
So, I am confident it will work.” An additional assumed need relating to Ethiopian culture
and history, was partially addressed in the survey question, “Teachers should know the
religious history of Ethiopia.” Ninety-five percent of survey respondents agreed, therefore
validating this assumed knowledge need associated with learning facts.
Table 5
Survey Q17 - Teachers Should Know the Religious History of Ethiopia
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.26% 1
2 Disagree 0.00% 0
3 Agree 31.58% 6
4 Strongly Agree 63.16% 12
Total 100% 19

Figure 5. Teachers should know the religious history of Ethiopia
Table 6 shows how teachers responded to the survey question concerning internal
conflict about teaching a religion different from one’s own. Approximately one third of
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 83
participants believed their personal religious beliefs would prevent them from teaching about
religions different from their own. The results suggest that teachers would not be motivated
to teach in the program if they were required to teach about many different religions.
Moreover, the perceived biasness toward their own religions might affect their ability to
teach world religions with a balanced perspective or to not teach at all. Anderson’s (2013)
study on primary and middle school pre-service social studies teachers in the United States,
found an overwhelming Christian bias through subtle and explicit language. He described
pre-service teachers’ frequent references to Christianity and infrequently using the name of
other religious followers, like Muslims, Hindus or Jews (Anderson, 2013). The researcher
further explained about a teacher who asked his students what they know about other
religions, like Buddhism, and the teacher answered his own question by telling the students
that they probably did not know much because those religions were not as popular as
Christianity (Anderson, 2013). Question 16 in Table 6 closely relates to Survey Question 7
that states, teachers must understand their personal feelings about religious literacy, however,
Question 16 can be understood within the context of motivation. Based on this assumption,
the answer to this question is associated with the attainment dimension of motivation.
Attainment is the importance of the task perceived by the learner (Rueda, 2011).
Table 6

My Personal Religious and Cultural Beliefs Prevent my From Teaching About World
Religions in a School

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 52.63% 10
2 Disagree 15.79% 3
3 Agree 26.32% 5
4 Strongly Agree 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 84

Figure 6. My personal religious and cultural beliefs prevent my from teaching about world
religions in a school.

Sixty-nine percent of respondents disagreed with this statement which indicates that
the majority believe they can teach different world religions, however, interviews with
participants implied a Christian bias expressed by 31% of respondents who agreed with the
statement. This assumed need was validated, although the implication is that many of the
participants believed they would be unable or unwilling to teach about religions different
from their own. Field note written during the interviews suggested that most of the
participants appeared defensive about their own religions and even though all three
Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, have ancient roots in Ethiopia
(Trimingham, 2008), no teacher mentioned anything about the history of Ethiopian Jews or
Islam in Ethiopia dating back to the time of Prophet Muhammad. Perspectives provided by
the interviewed teachers were confined to Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity or other Christian
interpretations. One teacher referenced the Orthodox Church’s historical support of
Ethiopia’s wars to defend their country against invaders as an example. The assumed
knowledge need associated with knowing the components of cultural violence was addressed
by several related survey questions. Survey question 14 in Table 7 focused on recognizing
violence connected to religion and ninety percent of respondents agreed with the survey
question.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 85
Table 7
Teachers Should Be Able to Explain About Religious Violence and Terrorism
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
2 Disagree 10.00% 2
3 Agree 55.00% 11
4 Strongly Agree 35.00% 7
Total 100% 20

Figure 7. Teachers should be able to explain about religious violence and terrorism.
Validation of Procedural Knowledge Needs
It is not enough to know only the facts, teachers need to know how to connect them to
prior knowledge, create new knowledge and explain facts in interrelated ways (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001; Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002: Rueda, 2011). The first procedural
knowledge point was addressed in the interviews with the following question, “How do you
understand the relationship between religious literacy and cultural competence?” The
interviewees had not yet been trained in religious literacy and therefore, expressed varying
degrees of comprehension and unfamiliarity with concepts relating to religious literacy and
cultural competency. Language differences meant that some terms did not easily translate
from English to Amharic, Ethiopia’s national language. Answers from each of the six
interviewed teachers were lengthy, therefore, the responses were condensed to help the reader
gain a sense of how the question was interpreted as there were also misunderstandings due to
certain concepts that were not easy to grasp for several teachers.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 86
With respect to religious literacy and cultural competency, the following responses
were made by six HIA teachers. Teacher A stated, “Our culture is our religion, our religion
is our culture…it is really interrelated…this religious literacy can also teach culture because
they grow up together.” Teachers E and F both elaborated on the idea that society and
religion go hand in hand, when you talk about one, you are also talking about the other.
Teacher C spoke of understanding the religion of a people and how much easier it is to
understand the culture in that country. Teacher D, expressed the interrelatedness of religion
and culture and how being culturally competent helps people to become religiously literate.
The data collector attempted to help Teacher B understand the question by defining cultural
competency and asking the follow-up question:
For example, we two are from the same religion and you know a lot or much more
about religions, other religions and I am very much limited, so how do you see our
religious interactions, just to have good cultural communication and good cultural
competence?
Teacher B responded, “One thing that intertwines us or connects us is our
culture…everybody has different levels of understanding, you know…there is individual
differences. So, we have to accept that there are individual differences.” The responses from
the interviewees suggest that teachers do not understand how religious literacy is linked to
cultural competency, therefore this procedural assumed knowledge needed was not validated.
Learning procedural knowledge can be addressed in teacher training and continuing
professional development. The next procedural knowledge need was addressed by the survey
question, “Teachers should learn how to recognize religious intolerance and defend
vulnerable students.” This need was validated by 95% of survey respondents who agreed
with the statement. Responses from the interviewed participants agreed that they should
learn about religious intolerance during future teacher training sessions because to understand
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 87
the issue thoroughly, they want training. This assumed procedural need was validated based
on the survey answers.
Table 8

Survey Q11 - Teachers Should Learn How to Recognize Religious Intolerance and Defend
Vulnerable Students

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.00% 1
2 Disagree 0.00% 0
3 Agree 45.00% 9
4 Strongly Agree 50.00% 10
Total 100% 20

Figure 8. Teachers should learn how to recognize religious intolerance and defend vulnerable
students

Validation of Assumed Conceptual Knowledge Needs
When teachers begin to build new schemas and new knowledge becomes integrated, it
forms the ideas that become conceptual building blocks that make understanding possible
(Ambrose et al., 2010; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Furthermore, the transfer of new
knowledge from prior knowledge can be positive, negative or neutral when performing new
tasks (Mayer, 2011). The primary goal of education is positive transfer of new knowledge
from prior knowledge (Mayer, 2011).
Referring to the conceptual item concerned with guiding students in discussions about
sensitive religious topics, 65% percent of respondents agreed with survey question 9, as
depicted in Table 9.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 88
Table 9

Survey Q9. Teachers Should Design Activities to Help Students Discuss Sensitive Topics
About Religion in the Classroom

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 15.00% 3
2 Disagree 20.00% 4
3 Agree 55.00% 11
4 Strongly Agree 10.00% 2
Total 100% 20

Since 65% percent of participants agreed and 35% disagreed, this assumed need was
validated. The result was similar with that of question 16 where 31% agreed with the survey
question that stated, “My personal religious and cultural beliefs prevent me from teaching
world religions in a school.” Respondents’ answers to both questions 9 and 16 imply that
teachers may not be interested in teaching different religions or do not plan to discuss
sensitive religious topics in the classroom.
Within the context of historical and religious events related with Ethiopian history,
the interview question was asked. “How important is explaining the relationships between
major religious events and historical events,” which addressed the conceptual assumed
knowledge need of interrelatedness and how new knowledge connects with prior knowledge.
For example, Teacher B’s perspective on understanding the correlations began recounting the
glory days of the Ancient Ethiopian Zagwe Dynasty and its encounter with the European
Crusaders. The teacher also mentioned the Auxum and Lalibela historical periods in
Ethiopian history that impacted growth in the kingdoms as well as societal failures.
“ Every history is affected by religion, every country’s religion, because there were wars
between Christians and Muslims, you know. Whether you like it or not, when you teach
history, its major religious events are also there.”
Similarly, Teacher F responded by relating the same question to Ethiopian history and
religion by explaining the country’s most important historical victory, The Battle of Adwa,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 89
when Emperor Menelik and his army defeated the fascist Italians and stopped them from
colonizing Ethiopia. The teacher further elaborated that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
played a significant spiritual role in supporting the war against the Italians. History lessons
were recalled on how the Orthodox priests carried the Books of Moses on their heads to the
battle sites and gave their blessings when the Ethiopian army ambushed the Italian soldiers.
Teacher C responded, “So if teachers explain the relationships between religious
events and historical events, students will know what happened previously, now what is
happening, and they can plan better things for their future.” These data imply that learning
conceptual knowledge of religious events can help teachers better explain the historical and
religious connections to their students with various examples from Ethiopian history. Teacher
D explained that universal beliefs might have been spread to many countries as the result of
the relationships between major religious events and historical events. “…it is important
relate because things are vertically or horizontally related one way or the other. It is through
interconnectedness that we benefit, not by isolation.”
Teacher E’s opinion was stated as, “They are very much…they are very much related,
but negatively. If you’re talking about religion in terms of history, you can go back to
different times in Ethiopian history during the time of Mohammed Gragn, the Sutanates, their
war again Christian princes, so it’s all talking about conflicts than talking about history.”
Teacher A’s response echoed other teachers, “We have all those major religious events,
historical events, the religion and everything. It is one of the wealth that Ethiopia has in
tourism. The major religion here is one that created the Ethiopian alphabet. The alphabet is
related to religion and the major religions are controlling Ethiopia and again the events. We
have one fourth of the cross that Jesus was crucified on, so all this makes Ethiopia very
important to start this religious literacy.” The answer to interview question 15 tell the story of
how Ethiopia’s rich history and religion are intertwined and it is not easy to separate them.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 90
The shared views of the participants convey an assumption that Ethiopian teachers are using
new knowledge to connect to their prior knowledge to make meaning of the question. This
assumed need is validated based on a common thread of understanding that each participant
touched on.
Validation of Metacognitive Assumed Needs
Metacognition is a critical skill for lifelong learners in one’s professional work when
more responsibility for complex tasks are taken on (Ambrose et al., 2010). Teachers as
lifelong learners need to think about how they learn. For example, as teachers for this
innovation project take more responsibility for their own learning, they must, “learn to assess
the demands of the task, evaluate their own knowledge and skills, plan their approach,
monitor their progress, and adjust their strategies” (Ambrose et al., 2010, p.191).
Metacognition is a skill that can help teachers gain clarity and awareness of their feelings
about teaching world religions and monitor their progress. Table 10 shows the survey
question addressing the respondents’ feelings about religious literacy.
Table 10
Q7 - Teachers Should Understand Their Own Personal Views About Religious Literacy
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.00% 1
2 Disagree 0.00% 0
3 Agree 35.00% 7
4 Strongly Agree 60.00% 12
Total 100% 20

Figure 9. Teachers should understand their own personal views about religious literacy.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 91
These data suggest that teachers grasp the complexity of this statement however, the
concern requires further exploration about the sensitive nature of religion in Ethiopia. This
metacognitive need is validated by 60% of participants’ responses.
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs Validation
Teachers know they must learn the language of religious literacy and cultural
competency and they are confident in their abilities to do so. Definitions and terminology
associated with factual knowledge was validated. The how-to procedural knowledge was not
validated because the data from interviews implied that procedural knowledge was a
challenge for teachers because training and professional development for religious literacy
had not yet taken place. Religious literacy is a new proposal in Ethiopia and teachers have
much to learn for the development of engaging lessons for their students. However, two
assumed conceptual knowledge needs were validated and one metacognitive need was
validated as shown on Table 11.
Table 11
Validation of Assumed Knowledge Needs

Assumed Knowledge Needs Validated Partially
Validated
Not
Validated
Factual
Teachers need to know definitions and terminology
associated with religious literacy and world religions
including basic tenants of world religions.
Ö
Teachers need to know definitions and terminology
associated with cultural competency.
Ö
Procedural
Teachers need to know how to recognize cultural
violence
and how to guide students in peaceful discussions
about
different religious perspectives.
Ö
Teachers should learn how to recognize religious
intolerance and defend vulnerable students.
Ö

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 92
Table 11, continued
Assumed Knowledge Needs Validated Partially
Validated
Not
Validated
Conceptual
Teachers need to know how significant time periods
are associated with major religions and relationships
to Ethiopian history.
Ö
Teachers should be able to explain religious
violence and terrorism

Ö

Metacognitive
Teachers need to know their personal feelings about
religious literacy and teaching religions different
from their own.
Ö

Key Research Findings Related to Knowledge
Five key findings corresponding to knowledge were confirmed: 1) Factual, the need
to master terminology and meanings associated with religious literacy and cultural
competency, 2) Conceptual, understanding the relationships between historical religious
events with Ethiopian history, 3) Metacognitive, the need to be clear about their personal
feelings about teaching religion and biasness toward one’s own religion, 4) Motivation,
confidence levels affected by approval of parents and teachers 5) organizational, policy
formation and implementation are essential, followed by organizational culture change and
financing for the program.
Assumed Motivation Needs
Motivation plays a critical role in success or failure (Rueda, 2011). Rueda (2011)
explains there are many factors that determine how motivated or unmotivated a person may
be depending on the intrinsic or extrinsic value attached to the task. Lack of motivation or
poor motivation affects employee and organizational performance and could have a negative
impact on an organization’s ability to achieve its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore,
motivation is an essential part of determining Harmony International Academy’s ability to
reach its new goal.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 93
Key Findings for Assumed Motivation Needs
The first finding that impacted motivation was teachers’ belief in the religious literacy
program. The second finding was teachers want parent and government authority approval of
the program. These data suggest that while teachers believe in self-efficacy, as they indicated
on the survey, this finding did not correlate to the interview answers. Teachers appeared to be
less self-efficacious in the interviews while discussing parents’ possible reactions to the
religious literacy program. Most interviewees said their confidence levels would be affected
by positive or negative parental reactions to teaching religion in the school. The consensus
among the interviewees was unless parents believed in the program and had initially
approved of it, teachers implied there could be problems later.
One disparate finding was survey answers relating teaching religions different from
their own. Most participants said teaching other religions would not negatively affect them,
however, four of six interviewed teachers expressed doubt in their ability or interest to teach
other world religions.
Validation of Assumed Motivation Needs
The survey asked several questions related to self-efficacy and confidence. For
example, the following survey question in Table 12 directly addressed self-efficacy. Ninety-
five percent of the respondents agreed that self-efficacy can help teachers as learners.
Therefore, this assumed need was validated.
Table 12
Survey Q6 - Teachers Should Practice Self-Efficacy When Learning About World Religions
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.00% 1
2 Disagree 0.00% 0
3 Agree 35.00% 7
4 Strongly Agree 60.00% 12
Total 100% 20

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 94

Figure 10. Teachers should practice self-efficacy when learning about world religions.
The interview question associated with self-efficacy indicated that some participants
lacked confidence or belief in religious diversity. These data show high confidence levels
among participants on survey responses, however, confidence levels appeared to drop sharply
during the interviews depending on perceived or anticipated parental feelings and Ministry of
Education’s approval of religious literacy of world religion courses in a school. For example,
on the assumed motivation need, “Teachers need to know how to explain religious literacy
and cultural competency confidently to parents”, the survey question stated, “Teachers should
be able to speak confidently with parents about world religions in schools.” Eighty-four
percent of respondents agreed on this survey question.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 95
Table 13

Survey Q18 - Teachers Should Be Able to Speak Confidently With Parents About World
Religions in Schools

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.26% 1
2 Disagree 10.53% 2
3 Agree 57.89% 11
4 Strongly Agree 26.32% 5
Total 100% 19

Figure 11. Teachers should be able to speak confidently with parents about world religions in
schools.
However, the interview answers to the related question, “How do you think your
motivation might be affected by parents’ positive or negative concerns about world religion
courses?” revealed disparate findings. For example, from six interviews, Teacher D
answered, “The driving force is inside…it’s up to me so as to motivate them, cultivate them,
teach them, nurture them so as to bring them toward the common goal.” The remainder of the
teachers showed visible discomfort when answering the question. Typical responses showed
a significant concern for parental approval of the program. The interviewed teachers appeared
to lack confidence in explaining the importance of religious literacy to parents. “...I don’t
think parents will be happy about it…the reaction of the parents will affect me negatively or
positively,” answered Teacher B. The interview answers suggested that teachers preferred not
to speak with parents about religion courses unless parents had approved of the program prior
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 96
to implementation. Overall, teachers agreed they should be able to speak confidently with
parents about the religious literacy courses, but serious reservations were expressed in the
interviews. Based on the survey responses, this motivation assumed need was validated.
The assumed need concerned with teachers asking questions when they do not
understand instructions or how to complete a task, is based on anecdotal evidence as a
longtime school leader in Ethiopia as well as through cultural observations, was not
validated. Generally, people do not ask many questions, particularly when speaking with a
person who is considered in a superior position. The list of validated assumed motivation
needs is displayed in Table 14.
Table 14
Validation of Assumed Motivation Needs
Assumed Motivation Needs Validated

Partially
Validated
Not Validated
Teachers need to understand self-
efficacy for their own training and
professional
development(Metacognitive)
Ö
Teachers need to ask questions when
they do not understand instructions.
(Metacognitive Self-efficacy)
Ö
My religious and cultural beliefs
prevent me from teaching world
religions in a school.
Ö
Discovered Motivation Needs
Teachers need parent approval before the
program begins.
Ö
Teachers need Ministry of Education
approval before the program begins.
Ö

Summary of Assumed Motivation Findings
The assumed motivation needs were validated by survey answers, however responses
to the interview questions significantly differed. Where 84% of teachers agreed on the survey
that they need to speak confidently with parents about religious literacy courses, the
interview answers revealed doubts and perceived changes in teachers’ confidence levels
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 97
depending on the parents’ feelings about teaching world religions in the school and
government authority approval.
Assumed Organizational Needs Results and Key Findings
Making change in a school environment or any organization is not easy (Schein,
2004). Change implies a shift in the organizational model and culture (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). For example, changes in a shared vision should define how the
organization is expected to function in terms of acceptable and unacceptable behavior and the
way things are done. Making change for the sake of change will not contribute to reaching
the organization’s target, therefore, the task must be to identify the specific needs that will
help the organization meet its goal (Rueda, 2011). The key findings for assumed
organizational needs include policy articulation and implementation, organizational culture
change, training for teachers and financing the program.
Validation of Assumed Organizational Needs
Teachers need to know the school has articulated policies for the religious literacy
program, funds are allocated and organizational commitment to supplying the necessary
resources to ensure program success are in place.
Table 15
Survey Q4 - Policies and Resources Are Necessary Before World Religion Courses
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 10.00% 2
2 Disagree 5.00% 1
3 Agree 65.00% 13
4 Strongly Agree 20.00% 4
Total 100% 20

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 98

Figure 12. Policies and resources are necessary before world religion courses.
Responses to the assumed organizational need related to incentives for teaching in the
new program indicated seventy percent agreement among respondents that teachers should
receive incentives for teaching in the new program. A total of thirty percent disagreed; 20%
strongly disagreed and 10% disagreed. The issue of incentives was controversial amongst the
participants as many teachers understood incentives to mean increased salary, however,
interviewees shared alternative interpretations of incentives that are not only in terms of cash.
Such views were most intensely expressed by teachers who either strongly disagreed or
disagreed with teacher incentives on the survey question. For example, Teacher A elaborated
on the notion of incentives by first underlining the point that teachers are not well paid,
particularly in developing countries. This teacher further explained that cash incentives could
certainly help teachers, but the school could offer other incentives in addition to cash or in
lieu of cash, such as field trips or travel to religious and historical sites. The third type of
incentive explained by Teacher A was a teacher training program and continuing professional
development.
Teacher E strongly disagreed with the views expressed by teacher A. This participant
argued that it’s a teacher’s responsibility to teach whichever courses are assigned and should
therefore, not receive any extra incentives because it’s all part of the job. Teacher F
concurred with this perspective by relating incentives to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
and rather than looking outward for monetary rewards, teachers should find the intrinsic
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 99
motivation to teach. The graph in Table 16 depicts teacher survey responses about incentives.
Seventy percent of participants believe the school should provide various kinds of incentives
for teachers in the religious literacy program.
Table 16
Q13 - Teachers Should Receive Incentives For Teaching World Religion Courses
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 10.00% 2
2 Disagree 20.00% 4
3 Agree 35.00% 7
4 Strongly Agree 35.00% 7
Total 100% 20

Figure 13. Teachers should receive incentives for teaching world religion courses.
For the organizational assumed need concerning training and professional
development for teachers, Table 18 shows 85% of the respondents agreed with the statement.
Table 17
Q8 - Teacher Training and Professional Development can Help Teachers Understand how to
Teach Religion in a School
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Disagree 5.00% 1
2 Disagree 10.00% 2
3 Agree 25.00% 5
4 Strongly Agree 60.00% 12
Total 100% 20

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 100

Figure 14. Teacher training and professional development can help teachers understand how
to teach religion in a school.

Table 18
Validation of Assumed Organizational Needs
Assumed Organizational Needs Validated Partially
Validated
Not Validated

Teachers need to know the organization
has written policies and allocated funds and
other resources
for the program
Ö
Teachers need to know the organization
will provide incentives for teaching
in the new program
Ö
Teachers need to know the organization will
provide training and professional
Development
Ö

Summary of Organizational Findings
All three assumed organizational needs were validated by the data which implies that
the stakeholders of focus believe setting policies, providing resources, training and
continuous professional development are all necessary for establishing a new religious
literacy program. The data also suggest some form of incentives are expected by teachers,
whether it is a salary increase or non-monetary incentives such as educational trips paid for
by the school.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 101
Conclusion of Assumed KMO Needs Validation and Findings
Findings from the knowledge, motivation and organizational needs at Harmony
International Academy were analyzed based on the collected data from a survey and from
interviews with HIA teachers. Fourteen of sixteen assumed needs were validated. Moreover,
the interviews revealed two discovered assumed needs.
The key findings for assumed knowledge needs are mastery of terminology and
meanings associated with religious literacy and cultural competency, making connections
between important concepts, and teachers reconciling their feelings about teaching religion.
The key findings for discovered assumed motivation needs are teachers’ belief in the program
and approval of the program by parents and government authorities. Key findings for
assumed organizational needs include policy articulations and implementation, organizational
culture change, and training for teachers.
This chapter began with an overview of how a religious literacy program can help
Harmony International Academy (HIA) fulfill its vision and mission that focuses on
graduating students are religiously competent. Additionally, the innovative program would
make HIA the first school in Ethiopia to introduce a religious literacy program. The findings
suggest how the organization can meet its goal of graduating culturally competent seniors
who are tolerant and capable of using religious literacy to better understand complex human
relations in the 21
st
century in Ethiopia and abroad.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 102
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION
PLAN AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this inquiry was to understand what Harmony International Academy
(HIA) in Ethiopia needed to start a religious literacy program that would help the school meet
its goal of graduating seniors who achieve competency in religious literacy. Furthermore, the
program would help the school fulfill its mission and diversity statement and position HIA to
become the first school in Ethiopia to start such a religious literacy program. Using Clark and
Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) as a framework for the assumed needs within the bounds of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational input, the gap analysis model guided this study.
Validated assumed needs were assessed based on an online survey questionnaire completed
by HIA teachers and interviews with six teachers. This chapter clarifies the findings from the
collected raw data, interprets the validated needs and rationale, presents recommended
solutions, implementation plan and evaluation of the plan based on the Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2006) model. The conclusion of this chapter focuses on a brief discussion of the
study’s limitations, challenges and suggestions for further research about religious literacy in
Ethiopian schools.
Validated Needs and Rationale
The validation of fourteen assumed needs from knowledge, motivation and
organizational input was presented in Chapter Four. Since this inquiry was specifically
designed to address Harmony International Academy’s current situation and was presented as
a case study, generalizability may be limited to the extent of Ethiopian schools. The rationale
for the selection and validation of the assumed needs was based on the reality that teaching
religion in Ethiopian schools is an unknown concept and the idea has not been openly
discussed. Therefore, teachers need a substantial amount of support in terms of the
knowledge acquisition, the motivation to teach in the program, and organizational support
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 103
including policies, organizational change in culture, resources and teacher training. Table 19
shows the validated needs.
Table 19
Summary of Validated Needs
Gap Analysis Aspect Validated Needs
Knowledge Factual
Teachers will learn the definition of religious literacy,
including the associated terminology, the basic tenets of
world religions and an understanding of cultural
competency.

Findings for Knowledge Needs
Validated needs based on survey results indicated that participants agree they should
learn definitions and terminologies associated with religious literacy and cultural
competency. Though teachers agreed to learn the factual knowledge, several teachers
expressed reservations about teaching world religions that were different from their own
religions. There were also teachers who were concerned about teaching religion without
parents’ full support and without formal approval from the Ministry of Education prior to the
program’s implementation date. Procedural knowledge was not validated in the interviews
due to teachers’ insufficient background to relate religious literacy to cultural competency
beyond any association with Ethiopian history. Furthermore, teachers have not been trained
in religious literacy therefore, they did not have the skills for teaching religion. Recognizing
religious intolerance or cultural violence, understanding the meaning of religious pluralism,
and other conceptual knowledge required to guide students in developing different
perspectives during classroom discussions, was not validated for the same reason.
Factual Knowledge
Teachers who were educated within the Ethiopian national curriculum, which relies
on rote memorization, learn to memorize facts easily, therefore, HIA teachers agreed in the
survey and the interviews that they can and should learn whatever religious literacy
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 104
terminologies needed for them to teach in the program. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
extended Bloom’s Taxonomy to refer to factual knowledge as one of four classifications of
knowledge. Factual knowledge includes the basic elements needed to understand specific
disciplines (Rueda, 2011). This finding implies that teachers will learn the definitions,
terminology and language related to religious literacy and cultural competency.
Procedural Knowledge
Validation of procedural knowledge was not possible due to the limited scope of this
study, which concentrated on factual and metacognitive knowledge. The participants were
not able to answer procedural knowledge question because they did not have the experience.
The situation was similar with social studies teachers in the United States who were assigned
to teach religion without having adequate training; the teachers said they were not prepared
(Moore, 2015). Religious literacy teachers need to be qualitied and well trained (Rosenblith
& Bailey, 2008). The interviews disclosed that teachers have much to learn about how to
teach world religion courses. Procedural knowledge is described as the “how to” part of
knowledge (Rueda, 2011), which cannot be assessed until the teacher training program has
begun. Most of the interviewees answered procedural knowledge questions within the context
of their own prior knowledge about Ethiopian history and religion.
Conceptual Knowledge
For the same reasons explained about procedural knowledge, the conceptual
knowledge needs were also not validated. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) consider
conceptual knowledge as understanding theories, models, generalizations related to an area of
study. Without training and professional development, teachers would not be ready to teach
the new courses (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008). This assertion underscores the significance of
training and professional development for the teachers.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 105
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge is explained as one’s awareness of one’s own learning and
cognitive processes which enable learners to understand when and how to do a given task
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Teachers did not have the background to understand
themselves as learners and they requested training and professional development to increase
their confidence and to develop metacognitive skills. Teachers will then begin to understand
their own learning and may become more self-efficacious. Moreover, teachers will gain a
better understanding of their own feelings about world religions and their feelings about
teaching religions that are different from their own. Self-efficacy skills can also increase
confidence in teachers who have undergone training. These findings explain the
metacognitive aspect of knowledge and their importance to this study.
Table 20
Validated Needs for Knowledge and Findings
Validated Needs Findings
Factual Teachers are ready to learn new terminologies and meanings
associated with world religions and cultural competency to
prepare themselves to teach in the religious literacy program.
After training, teachers will gain a better understanding of the
procedural and conceptual knowledge needed to establish
cultural and historical connections with religions.
Metacognitive Teachers must learn to reconcile their personal feelings about
teaching religions different from their own. Bias toward one’s
own religion was evident during interviews and survey answers.

Findings for Motivation Needs
Teacher’s uncertainty about world religion courses taught in a school if parents
objected, and teacher apprehension about approval from the Ministry of Education were
concerns that required more investigation. The two discovered needs may adversely affect
teachers’ motivation to instruct students about world religions at Harmony International
Academy. Rueda (2011) explained motivation as a cultural expression in that people form
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 106
their motivational beliefs from social interactions within the society. This assertion could
explain why teachers agree that they should teach world religions but are hesitant to commit
themselves fully until they have permission from other important stakeholders. Moreover,
anecdotal evidence based on this researcher’s cultural experiences in the country for 17 years,
indicates that teachers would rather first have permission instead of taking the risk of
punishment.
Lack of self-efficacy can affect motivation based on feedback from others (Rueda,
2011). This belief could explain why teachers felt uneasy during interviews about how their
motivation might be affected by parents’ views on world religion classes.
Table 21
Validated Needs for Motivation and Findings
Validated Needs Findings
Confidence and Self-efficacy Teachers’ confidence levels are affected by parents’
perceptions about the religious literacy program and
concern about Ministry of Education permission.
With training programs, the assumption is that
teachers will develop confidence to build self-efficacy
skills that will help them understand their own their
own learning, clarify their feelings about teaching
world religions and how teachers reconcile teaching
religions different from their own. Approximately one
third of participants felt they would have problems
teaching different religions. They would rather teach
their own religions.
Utility Value Most teachers see value in religious literacy courses
in helping students to better understand culture and
history and to reduce religious tension and conflict.

Findings for Organizational Needs
Findings for assumed organizational needs are supported by the survey and interviews
with participants. The implication of the findings suggested that the school must establish an
inclusive culture through well-articulated policies in line with the school mission. Table 22
shows the summary of the validated needs and their relationship to the findings.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 107
Table 22
Validated Needs for Organization and Findings
Validated Needs Findings
Policies
Policies needed to guide the new program
Respondents want articulated policies
implemented to clarify program mission,
decision making, direction and goal setting
for the program.
Training and Professional Development
Initial teacher training in religious literacy
Teachers want training and continuing
professional development. Research says
religion programs must have qualified
teachers who have been trained to teach
religion in schools.
Resources HIA will need to provide resources for the
new program, including textbooks, videos,
internet access, library resources, budget
allocated to field trips, for example to
historic religious sites and other relevant
trips.
Teacher Incentives HIA will need to plan monetary or non-
monetary incentives for teachers who are
considering the cost value of time and effort
to prepare themselves for the new program.

Implementation Plan
Based on research findings in Chapter Four, Harmony International Academy should
proceed cautiously because of the sensitive nature of religion in Ethiopia. Each proposed
solution must be carefully analyzed before implementation of a religious literacy program.
Implementation begins with planning.
Planning Stage
The introduction of a religious literacy program schools in Ethiopia may potentially
disrupt the status quo by encouraging fierce debate among families, religious leaders, and
policy makers which could eventually agitate change in the country’s education policy.
Therefore, a planning stage will be needed first, followed by a reflection stage before the
implementation begins.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 108
The planning stage will require Harmony International Academy to craft policies that
are aligned with the school mission and ethos that emphasize inclusiveness and diversity.
Clear policies are needed in the initial stage of building the program and all policies should
be written with the end in mind. For example, good policies start with consideration of the
impact on all people who will be affected, they examine the spillover effect on people or
communities beyond the intended recipients of the policy, impact on the future, direct costs
and indirect costs (Dye, 2011). Moreover, policy should reflect an image of how the school
will operate with the religious literacy program in place. Additionally, policy should present a
picture of the social context of Harmony International Academy in terms of articulating the
values, goals, beliefs of the organization and how people interact with one another.
The next step would be financial planning. Allocation of budget for teachers’ salaries,
teaching resources, additional classrooms, if needed, library resources, technology support,
field trips and site visits, must be carefully planned to demonstrate to all stakeholders the
school’s commitment to the program is serious and additionally, to ensure program
sustainability.
The final step would be planning the teacher training and continuing professional
development plan. The literature addressed the importance of developing qualified teachers
for religion programs. Findings in this study also show that HIA teachers insist on training
before they begin teaching in the program.
Stage 2: Reflection Stage
During the reflection phase, a prudent decision would be to involve other stakeholders
in discussions about the new religious literacy program before implementation. The most
important stakeholder would be the Ethiopian Ministry of Education. Key policy makers
could be invited to HIA for information sessions and discussions. The reason for discussions
at this stage is the Ministry of Education makes all policy decisions concerning both public
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 109
and private schools. HIA would present evidence to the Ministry officials of the program’s
viability with using current research, examples of successful programs, and plans for the HIA
program. The aim of the discussions would be to convince the stakeholder that the religious
literacy program is not confessional, the program is based on well documented and
researched religion curricula that provide instruction about world religions from a cultural
and historical rather than theological perspective. Theology would be left to the religious
organizations. If HIA meets resistance, the goal of the discussions would be to convince the
stakeholder to support a limited pilot religious literacy program at HIA and conduct a joint
evaluation at the end of the pilot to determine the program’s success or shortcomings.
Discussions with the stakeholders could then be held to decide if the program continues at
HIA and if a religious literacy program would be beneficial to other schools in Ethiopia and
to the country. If permission is granted by the Ministry of Education, HIA parent
stakeholders would then be invited for discussions.
Table 23
Stage 3: Implementation
Proposed Solutions Strategies and Action
Steps
Time Line
Write clear organizational
policies
HIA administration and
board will write policies
aligned with school mission
and vision
By November 2018
Ministry of Education
for discussions
Invite Ministry officials to
discuss the program and
present proposal
September
Set realistic budget
and monitor carefully
HIA will construct a
financial plan that will
include teacher salaries,
resources, and consultancy
with curriculum experts.
By November 2018

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 110
Table 23, continued
Contract external curriculum
consultants and trainers
HIA will discuss curriculum
ideas and negotiate fees
By January 2019
Create robust teacher
training
and professional
development
program
HIA Professional
development coordinator
plans with consultants
Begin in March 2019
HIA parent discussions Discuss with HIA
parents after Ministry
approval.
Begin in January 2019
Teaching aids/resources Purchase teaching recourses,
including textbooks,
technology support, site
visits
Begin in June 2019
Teachers begin training
program
Teachers will follow
prescribed plan
Begins in September 2018
Teachers complete religious
literacy curriculum
Teachers will begin with
existing international
curricula as a base to create
curriculum relevant to
By 1 August 2018
HIA religious literacy pilot
program begins
Begin with grades 7, 9
and 11.These three grades
do not sit for Ethiopian
National Examinations,
therefore, no conflicts with
national class scheduling
will exist.
September 2019

Organizational Environment and Features Relevant to Implementation
Harmony International Academy (HIA) is a private K-12 school in Ethiopia. The
school’s location is in the capital city, Addis Ababa, which is home to the African Union,
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) which is the third largest UN Mission in the world,
the European Union mission, more than 100 Embassies representing countries around the
world, and more than 100 International Non-Governmental Organizations.
More than twenty-five nationalities who come from other countries in Africa, Europe,
the United States, and the UK are represented at HIA. Ethnic and religious diversity are the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 111
part of the HIA ethos. Though religious diversity is welcomed on the HIA campus,
intolerance and misunderstandings occur from time to time. Religious prejudice, intolerance
and some conflict is also seen in the wider Ethiopian society.
Related Solutions and Organizational Capacity to Implement
Harmony International Academy is a large school with more than 1,400 students with
three divisions: early childhood, primary and secondary. The administrative staff includes
twelve main administrators with their assistants and other administrative support. More than
150 teachers and teaching assistants are employed at HIA.
Harmony International Academy has sufficient personnel to support a religious
literacy program, except professional trainers and experts from abroad. World religion
courses are planned to begin in grades nine and eleven, which are part of the school’s
secondary division. Forty-five subject teachers are assigned to teach in the high school.
Revenue for creating new programs is approved by the Board after a needs assessment,
examination of the school mission, and after conducting a cost benefit analysis.
Proposed Solutions
Planning
As explained in the previous chapters of this study, Harmony International Academy
plans to start a religious literacy program in its high school division, however, careful
planning is essential to ensure best results. People in the planning group must work in
between diverse stakeholders (Forester, 2006). For example, the planners must work through
a complex web of relationships between HIA school administration, the Board, parents, and
the Ethiopian Ministry of Education to forge policies for a potentially politically charged
issue. Ethiopia is a country where fluid changes are taking place led by a new prime minister
as Ethiopia’s major change agent. Through immense complexity, the planning group must
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 112
work to gather all perspectives ranging from the technical understanding of the program to
the political feasibility both inside in the school and in the broader society (Forester, 2006).
Through formal and informal interviews, the planners can get a clear sense of how all
stakeholders feel about the religious literacy initiative. As explained in Chapter Four, the
Ministry of Education may be considered a stakeholder of concern because this body makes
all policies regarding curriculum for both public or government schools. Even private schools
which are considered by the government as investments, are also governed by the Ministry.
Also, as mentioned in Chapter Four, this study is a disruptive step meant to influence a
twenty-four-year-old education policy. It is essential to convince the Ministry of Education
officials that religious literacy programs in schools will help Ethiopian children learn mutual
respect and grow up in a country that believes in peaceful religious coexistence. The new
Prime Minister of Ethiopia is speaking the same language, therefore, the HIA religious
literacy initiative may be possible. However, the planners must tread carefully in
recommending sustainable program growth and advise the policymakers to use discernment
when crafting the policies to engage and not repel conservative government officials. The
planning group will advise and follow the development phases from planning to program
launch.
Organizational Policies
Following advice from the planning group, the policymakers must write policies that
are aligned with the school mission and that support the school ethos and that reflect the
concerns of all stakeholders. Additionally, the policymakers must ensure the policies are
sustainable and as much as possible, free of unintended consequences. New policies may
have to be introduced to focus groups to receive critical feedback before implementation.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 113
Financial Planning and Analysis
HIA must engage in careful financial planning and analysis to ensure the religious
literacy program is well funded and sustainable. Teachers and students must have sufficient
resources including textbooks, reference books, library resources, videos and technology
support. Incentives may be offered to teachers in terms of additional salary or non-monetary
incentives like visits to religious sites around Ethiopia and other countries. Most importantly,
funding for teacher training and continuing professional development must be the highest
priority. Consistent support of teachers by providing training will create a more sustainable
program.
Funding for the program can be secured from HIA’s cash reserves which are held in
high interest fixed term deposits. With pre-planning the funds can be withdrawn when the
deposit matures. The return from the bank term deposit are expected to be sufficient to fund
the religious literacy program. Capital expenditures, requiring fixed asset purchases like
technology and furniture for classrooms for the new program may be required and with a
sound business plan can be approved by the Board. Teacher salaries and incentives for
teachers and staff in the program, field trips and travel related items will become budgeted
line items within the school’s approved annual budget. If a new building is required for the
program, the school’s shareholders may be asked to raise the necessary capital.
External consultants, trainers and curriculum experts
Experts in religious literacy curriculum design, such as the American Academy of
Religion may be consulted on how to modify the organization’s K-12 curriculum on
Teaching about Religion to the Ethiopian context. Additionally, consulting contracts with
training and coaching professionals for the teacher training program and continuing
professional development will be needed. Experts from other countries can be invaluable in
preparing teachers for the new program. However, teachers may take advantage of free
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 114
resources on the web that include curricula, curriculum support and webinars. Online
curriculum or training consultation fees will need to explored and planned accordingly.
Ministry of Education Engagement
Engaging the Ethiopian Ministry of Education is critical for the success of the HIA
religious literacy program. This government entity is a stakeholder in all schools. Even
though HIA is a privately owned investment, the Ministry still regulates all curriculum
decisions regarding Ethiopian students in public and private schools. HIA’s contact is with
the Federal office of the Ministry of Education rather than at the local level, therefore the
probability of getting higher-level government officials’ attention may be positive.
Furthermore, Ethiopia has a new progressive prime minister who has spoken widely about
the need for education reform and he frequently speaks about religious tolerance for peace.
The HIA religious literacy initiative challenges the status quo, therefore, government officials
must be convinced that teaching world religions is good for Ethiopian students and good for
the country. Therefore, sharing examples of research based best practices will be necessary.
Samples of the forthcoming HIA curriculum must be submitted to the Ministry of Education
and discussed.
HIA Parent Discussions
Parents are expected to ask questions about the religious literacy program and the
school should be ready to engage parents. Questions about religious theology being taught in
classrooms may surface, but school leaders must help parents to understand that world
religion courses at HIA will be taught from a cultural, historical social science perspective to
help students learn the basic tenants of religions and their historical connections. Theology
will be left to the religious institutions. The school must tell parents that religious beliefs will
not be forced on any student. Parents will more likely agree to the program if the Ministry of
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 115
Education agrees because parents are already accustomed to a government mandated
curriculum for Ethiopian students.
HIA Religious Literacy Curriculum
With the guidance from experts, HIA teachers will modify existing religious literacy
curricula to fit the Ethiopian context. Lessons should be practiced in the classroom before the
program launches in September 2020. As mentioned in Chapter Four, curricular support is
available online at no cost from organizations including: the South African education policy
for teaching religion and culture in schools, American Academy of Religion (AAR) that
maintains an educational website and a free publication to support religious literacy teachers,
Tanenbaum Center for Interreligious Understanding K-12 lesson plans, The First Amendment
Center’s guidelines for teaching about religion for public school social studies teachers and
the Common Core religion education benchmarks and lesson plans. The online support will
give HIA teachers adequate resources to begin planning the new curriculum.
Evaluation Plan
Evaluating the new religious literacy program is based on the Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick model for measuring program effectiveness. Four steps are used: Level 1,
reaction to assess satisfaction with a program; Level 2, learning to assess commitment and
confidence; Level 3, transfer of learning to assess changes in behavior after learning; and
Level 4, assessing impact (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Level 1: Reactions, Assessing Satisfaction
An online forum could be helpful in determining what teachers think they need to
make the program a successful learning experience for students. Knowledge learning for
teachers must be conducted under the guidance of contracted experts in teaching world
religions. Online discussion forums can be held between teachers and experts. Additionally,
teachers can be observed during in person trainings to gage interest levels, engagement in the
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 116
learning process, training session attendance and completion, and monitoring online idea
exchanges.

Figure 15. Reactions, assessing satisfaction.
Level 2: Learning, Commitment, Confidence
Policy must reflect diversity and inclusiveness and brief interviews with stakeholders
to assess commitment to religious diversity. Additionally, policies should be written to show
the school’s commitment to religious diversity in admissions, hiring practices, and even
selection of textbooks and teaching aids that show diversity in the images.
For all proposed solutions listed in Table 23. Level 2 suggestions are to conduct brief
pre and post interviews with teachers to gage how much knowledge they have learned, and
administer a survey to assess how committed teachers are to change, training and continuing
professional development.

Figure 16. Learning, commitment, confidence.
Level 3: Transfer, Assessing Behavior Change, Application of Learning
Beginning with policies, Level 3 suggestions are to survey the Board, principals,
student council and PTA executive committee to get their feedback on how the policies
encourage or discourage diversity and acceptance. With teacher training for knowledge about
Monitor online open forum for
teachers' feedback and idea exchange
Survey of teacher satisfaction
Monitor training session attendance
Observe teachers in classroom to gage
teacher and student interest
Level 1:
Reactions, Assessing
Satisfaction
Conduct Pre and Post Interviews with
teachers
Monitor school's commitment to
implementing new policies
Teacher survey after training and after
professional development
Observe teachers in classroom to gage
confidence and effectiveness
Level 2:
Learning, Commitment,
Confidence
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 117
religious literacy, teachers can complete individualized action plans, principal’s view’
towards teachers progress can be monitored to determine how teachers are learning, and how
they are applying their knowledge in the classroom and the school organizational culture can
be monitored to gage whether there is a shift in attitudes and behavior after training. For
assessing behavior change related to new curriculum, teachers can demonstrate a lesson for
their principals either in person or on video. Visiting religious literacy consultants may also
observe the teachers in their classrooms and prove constructive and targeted feedback. When
engaging parents during information sessions about religious literacy, a survey can be
administered to determine if parent behaviors changed after the information sessions. The
same action can be taken with discussion sessions with the Ministry of Education officials.

Figure 17. Transfer, assessing behavior change, application of learning.
Level 4: Impact, Assessing Impact
Assessing impact of the religious literacy program can be done by monitoring
numbers of possible complaints to school administration about the program that may ,
complaints about cultural or religious misunderstandings or lack of inclusiveness, similar
complaints posted to the school website, increased number of policies in the handbook
addressing diversity and religious inclusiveness. In Ethiopia, complaints are common and
because the religious literacy program enters unchartered and sensitive territory, the school
expects complaints from different stakeholders. Program resources can be assessed by the
amount and quality of resources purchased for the program, monitoring teacher complaints
about resources, and monitoring students and parent complaints. Assessing teacher training
Teachers complete individualized action
plans
Teachers demonstrate a lesson
Monitor teacher lesson plans Monitor principal's behavior toward
teachers in religious literacy program
Level 3:
Transfer, Assessing Behavior
Change, Application of
Learning
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 118
impact can be through classroom observation to observe how the training has been
implemented in the classroom, monitoring lesson plans, monitoring students and parents
feedback and by monitoring teacher complaints. In assessing impact with the Ministry of
Education, it will be important to monitor feedback from students and parents, monitor press
coverage about teaching religion in schools, monitor Ministry officials’ reactions and
examine the Ethiopian constitution and the UN Human Rights Charter.

Figure 18. Impact, assessing impact.
Limitations
Several limitations affected this study. First, the principal investigator’s own school,
was the subject of this case study and to limit biasness, an experienced data collector was
brought in to facilitate the online survey, conduct all in person interviews, and to take field
notes. However, the head of school who is the principal investigator had to make every
attempt not to discuss the study with any teachers. Biasness on the part of teachers was also a
concern that required all sides to exercise a high degree of restraint concerning discussions
about religious literacy and finally, complete avoidance of the subject with one another. Until
the plan for the program is more tangible. The second limitation was a language barrier. All
teachers speak Amharic, the official working language of the federal district of Addis Ababa,
the capital city. Certain concepts did not have equivalent meanings when the ideas were
translated from one language to another. Additionally, all participants speak English as an
additional language and some concepts and words were not clear to them. Careful selection
For Ministry of Education, monitor
press coverage
Feedback from students and parents
through survey and interviews
Monitor policy changes that reflect
religious diversity and inclusiveness
Monitor complaints
Level 4:
Assessing Impact
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 119
of an Amharic and English transcriber had to be made to accommodate teachers’ accents and
the ways that Ethiopians speak English.
An additional bias was discovered in the survey answers concerning teachers who
expressed that they did not want to teach classes on religions that were different from their
own. Thirty one percent of participants agreed, which gave rise to concerns that a small
percentage of teachers might represent a larger percentage in the school who might share the
same sentiments.
Implications for Future Research
First, future studies conducted on religious literacy would benefit from larger sample
sizes, perhaps using several schools and involving more stakeholder participants. A second
implication to consider for future research in planning world religions courses in schools, is
to consult ministries of education or other governing bodies early in the research. However,
there is risk that religious literacy efforts could be prematurely squashed for various political
reasons. Through the experience of this study, important lessons have been learned. In
countries where a central government authority controls the entire education system,
including private schools, the teachers and parents have expressed concern to have
government approval for programs that might be considered controversial. Lastly, final
approval could even result in parliamentary discussions about teaching religion in schools.
Such discussions could possibly create a national dialog on religious literacy and what it
means to Ethiopia.
Conclusion
The focus of this innovation study was to identify what a K-12 private international
school in Ethiopia would need to start a program to teach world religions. The program
would help the school meet its goal of graduating seniors who are competent in religious
literacy. Additionally, this study focused on the school’s mission statement of inclusiveness,
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 120
equity and diversity. The Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework was used to examine
which knowledge and motivation factors were needed for the stakeholders of focus, and what
organizational resources would be needed to create and successfully run the program.
This innovation study was intended to disrupt the status quo and create awareness that
religious pluralism has become a 21
st
Century reality in Ethiopia. If countries do not educate
their young people about the basic tenants of world religions, then intolerance and conflict
can continue to gain ground. If inclusiveness of diverse religious views could become the
norm, then violence and extremism may not easily find willing ears to listen to distorted
rhetoric. Establishing peaceful coexistence amongst ethnic groups, religious groups and even
countries should be the aim.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 121
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RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 128
APPENDIX A
Survey Instrument Protocol-Sample Group

Date of Survey Administration______________
Dear_________________________________:
Thank you for participating in this survey. This online survey will be administered by
_______________, a faculty member of Harmony International Academy’s sister
organization, Harmony International University College and it should take approximately 20
minutes to complete. The results will be used to assess knowledge, motivational and
organizational influences that may impact teaching religious literacy courses at Harmony
International Academy. Your participation is completely voluntary. The survey will not
contain information that can identify you. I will have no way of knowing who you are. Your
answers will be completely anonymous and all responses are confidential. My name is
Nefertiti Makeda, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at
University of Southern California. This research is part of my dissertation, examining
religious literacy at Harmony International Academy and it has been approved by
administration and board of Harmony International Academy.
Again, thank you for your participation. Please click this link to begin the
survey_______________________.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 129
Survey

Teaching World Religions in Schools

Please choose only
one answer per
question.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree

2
Agree

3
Strongly
Agree

4

1. Understanding
world religions
is an important
part of being a
culturally
competent
global citizen.

2. Teaching about
world religions
will help
students
develop
tolerance.

3. World religions
should be
taught in
schools from a
cultural and
historical
perspective.

4. Policies and
resources are
necessary
before world
religion courses

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 130
5. Teachers
should
understand the
major
definitions
associated with
religious
literacy.

6. Teachers
should practice
self-efficacy
when learning
about world
religions.

7. Teachers
should
understand
their own
personal views
about religious
literacy .

8. Teacher
training and
professional
development
can help
teachers
understand how
to teach
religion in a
school.

9. Teachers
should design
activities to
help students
discuss
sensitive topics
about religion

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 131
in the
classroom.
10. Religious
literacy is
important for
building peace
and tolerance in
Ethiopia.

11. Teachers
should learn
how to
recognize
religious
intolerance and
defend
vulnerable
students.

12. I am confident
I can help
students learn
tolerance of
religious
differences.

13. Teachers
should receive
incentives for
teaching world
religion
courses.

14. Teachers
should be able
to explain
about religious
violence and
terrorism.

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 132
15. World religions
should be
taught in
schools.

16. My personal
religious and
cultural beliefs
prevent me
from teaching
about world
religions in a
school.

17. Teachers
should know
the religious
history of
Ethiopia.

18. Teachers
should be able
to speak
confidently
with parents
about world
religions in
schools.

19. World religions
should only be
taught in
religious
institutions.

20. You are invited to participate in a follow-up interview on religious literacy. Please click
on this link, if you would like to volunteer to be interviewed about religious literacy.
religious_literacy_interview@gmail.com

RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 133
APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol

Interviewer (Name and Title):__________________________________________________
Date of Interview____________________________________________________________
Post interview comments or leads:_____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Motivation Assessment Interviews
Introductory Protocol for Religious Literacy in Schools
Thank you for agreeing to this interview. I am conducting this interview as part of a
dissertation for a student enrolled in the University of Southern California’s Global Executive
Doctor of Education Program. The purpose of the research is to explore what knowledge,
motivation and organizational barriers exist for teaching religious literacy at Harmony
International Academy.
This interview is completely voluntary and it may take approximately one hour. You
will be asked a series of questions related to the topic mentioned above. Answer only the
questions you feel comfortable responding to. If time runs short before you can complete the
interview, I may need to interrupt you to remind you of the time.
To ensure your answers are accurately transcribed, I would like to ask your
permission to use an audio recording device.

1. Describe how you feel about teaching world religion courses in a school.
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 134
2. Describe how your cultural background might influence your teaching courses about
religions.
3. How do you think your motivation might be affected by parents’ positive or negative
concerns about world religion courses?
4. How do you think the school should support teachers teach religious literacy courses?
5. What kind of incentives do you think teachers should receive for teaching religious
literacy courses?
6. Describe how motivated or unmotivated you are to teach religious literacy courses.
7. Describe how confident you feel about the success of a religious literacy program in
your school.
8. Describe how confident you feel about your ability to learn the terminology and
historical facts about world religions that will help you teach the religious literacy
courses.
9. Describe how confident do you feel about designing enjoyable and interesting learning
activities for religion courses?
10. How important is a teacher’s confidence level in explaining religious diversity to
students and parents?
11. How important is a teacher’s confidence level in explaining religious terrorism to
students?
12. Explain what would prevent you from teaching the religious literacy courses well.
13. How do you think people from your own religious community might feel about
religious literacy courses being taught in your school?
14. How would you describe the role of self-efficacy in teacher training and continuing
professional development?
RELIGIOUS LITERACY IN ETHIOPIAN SCHOOLS 135
15. How important is it for the teacher to explain the relationship between major religious
events and historical events?
16. How do you understand the relationship between religious literacy and cultural
competency?

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Makeda, Nefertiti (author)

Core Title Making a case for teaching religious literacy in Ethiopian schools: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 08/13/2018

Defense Date 08/13/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cultural competence,cultural diversity,diversity,Ethiopian schools,global competence,intercultural competence,OAI-PMH Harvest,Religion,religion in Ethiopia,religion in schools,religious diversity,Religious Education,religious literacy,religious literacy policy,religious pluralism,religious tolerance,religious violence,school policy on religion,tolerance,world religion policy

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Chung, Ruth (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email nefertiti.makeda@gmail.com,nmakeda@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-65683

Unique identifier UC11670556

Identifier etd-MakedaNefe-6739.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-65683 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MakedaNefe-6739.pdf

Dmrecord 65683

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Makeda, Nefertiti

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA