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Educational journeys of continuation school graduates with trauma and the role of school counselor support
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Running head: EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 1
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS OF CONTINUATION SCHOOL STUDENTS WITH
TRAUMA AND THE ROLE OF SCHOOL COUNSELOR SUPPORT
by
Randelle Lorraine Kirkemo
______________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2019
Copyright 2019 Randelle Kirkemo
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 2
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I am honored to recognize the eight participants that vulnerably
shared their beautiful journeys with us. Their stories bring heart into this work, and allow us to
recognize the importance of hearing them first. Students have always been close to my heart,
thus, it is vital I open with deep gratitude to all of my past, current, and future students. For you
are what gives me life, passion, and hope for a better tomorrow. Thank you for allowing me take
part in your educational journey; for you have been just as vital to mine. As I reflect on my own
educational journey, I am struck with beautiful memories of adults that have inspired my mind to
dream, deepened my love for learning, and supported me to reach my greatest potential. I think
of the love and care of my elementary teachers, Ms. Deborah Fenn, Ms. Carla Yawney and Ms.
Michelle Van. I feel inspired thinking of my high school counselor, Mr. Lance Pruett who helped
me find my path towards college by easing my mind and listening to my relentless questions. I
think of Mrs. Melinda Turray, who challenged me to look beyond myself, towards other cultures
and communities, and fostered within me a love for all people from all backgrounds. I feel
fortunate to have attended San Diego State University, and reminisce fondly of Dr. Estralita
Martin, who created the space for me to become a leader, and who planted the first seed that I
was not only capable, but meant to pursue this Doctorate degree. I think of my master’s program
at Chapman University, where I became that school counselor I dreamt of. Thank you to my
professors, Dr. John Brady, Dr. Kelly Graydon (Kennedy), Cynthia Olaya, Dr. Jami Parsons, and
Dr. Michael Hass. It is an honor to be back at Chapman teaching alongside the best.
I reflect fondly on my first school counseling job at the continuation school, and the
amazing supports from my colleagues, Dr. William Olvera, Karen Wright, and Nina Shine. I am
especially grateful for Dr. Olvera for pushing me to not only earn a Doctorate degree, but
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 3
ingraining in me that I was meant to become a doctor at only the best, the University of Southern
California. Thank you to my Orange Grove family for always putting a smile on my face. To the
future Dr. Torres and Dr. Zaragoza, you got this! A special shout out to Dr. Gustavo Oceguera,
an incredible mentor and friend. Thank you all for believing in me. To the weekend cohort of
2016, I have learned just as much from all of you as our courses. A special thank you to Dr. Luz
Arellano for giving me the push to join the program, and Dr. Natasha Denmark for being my
writing partner, we did it! To my second family at T3 fitness, thank you for being an anchor for
me over these last three years, you truly are my happy place.
To my committee chair, Dr. Briana Hinga, words can’t express the gratitude and warmth
you have provided me along this journey. Thank you for being there to push me for greatness,
and opening my mind and heart to viewing research as revolutionary. Dr. Alan Green, thank you
for your commitment to our field, and the amazing guidance you have provided me. I will always
remember our study abroad trip to Hong Kong. Dr. Milisav Ilic, you inspire me to keep fighting
for our kids, thank you for always being a bright and powerful light. Thank you for being my
champion from day one. I am honored to have you all on my committee.
Finally, with special gratitude, I want to thank my family. Thank you mom and dad for
always putting us first and working tirelessly to make college a possibility for all of us, I love
you and am proud to be your daughter. To my siblings, Jimmy, Madison, and Cade, thank you
for the encouragement to succeed. To my grandparents, I wish you could be here, I know you are
smiling down on me. To my life partner, Ronald, thank you for loving me completely, I am so
fortunate to have you in my life. Lastly, to my beautiful puppies, Rocky and Rhea, thank you for
bringing me joy. My heart is full thinking of all the remarkable people that have supported me on
this journey, I love you all.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 4
Dedication
On January 1, 2019, as people around the world were celebrating new beginnings, a
former student of ours was shot and killed. Three days later in retaliation, on January 4, another
was shot and killed. The first student was ours for only a brief time, but his connection to our
staff and other students was paramount. He was 18 years old and left behind a baby daughter.
The death of the second student crushed my spirit and devastated my soul. He was on my
caseload for three years, and I was incredibly close to him. He too had just turned 18 years old,
and was set to graduate this spring.
It is vital to note that while the pages of this dissertation share amazing stories of
promise, we must never forget the power of our position, or the ones we’ve lost. This is my
eulogy I read at his funeral. This is for the one we couldn’t save.
“My name is Randee Kirkemo, or as Walter would call me Ms. Kirkemo. I was fortunate
to be both Walter and Mia’s high school counselor. I became a school counselor to save lives, so
I can’t tell you how hard this is today, that we have to try to say goodbye to such an incredible
person. I still remember the first day I met Walter Macklin. I told him I loved his name, that it
sounded like the name of a famous movie star. He smiled, laughed and said in Walter fashion,
‘Haha, yup, pretty much,’ and that he was named after his dad who he loved and missed
tremendously. Over the years, Walter and I had countless conversations—conversations about
life, about his hopes and dreams.
You see, Walter was a complicated person, who I knew to be both a boy and a man. He
was mature beyond his years and could talk endlessly about anything. He held the weight of the
world on his shoulders and thought deeply about life. However, he was also a complete goofball
who loved Dragon Ball Z and that massive Buzz Lightyear toy. And did I say he could talk? The
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 5
only person that could stop Walter Macklin from talking was Walter Macklin. Walter loved to
clown around with his friends, but he also loved them completely.
Walter was the type of student you ALWAYS knew was on campus. Mostly because you
could hear him yelling down the hallway at his friends or chatting up our staff telling us a story.
You know if anyone could tell a story, it was Walter Macklin. But Walter was the kind of kid
who always said good morning. No matter what was going on, he always tried to smile and be
kind to us at Orange Grove. He was the kind of kid who brought light into every room and a
powerful yet kindhearted energy to our campus.
When I heard the news of Walter, I could also hear my heart breaking—breaking for Mia,
for his family and mostly for him. But just as the news hit me, I was struck with a beautiful
memory of Walter that I want to share with all of you here today. One day, Walter was in my
office, and I was trying to get him to think positively because he was having a tough day. I asked
him to think about what it would be like if he had a perfect day. I asked him to imagine what that
might look like and feel like. And he was quiet. Walter was quiet. But not for very long. He
looked at me in my eyes, with a bright smile on his face, and he told me, ‘Well you see Ms.
Kirkemo, I don’t have to imagine the perfect day. I’ve actually already had the perfect day. So
you see I don’t have to think about it, because it actually already happened.’ In that moment. he
seemed at peace as I asked him to tell me about this day. ‘Ok so let me tell you about this day.
Ok so you know the fight was on this last weekend, so my mom told me I could have my friends
over. And I remember being so excited because it wasn’t just my friends who were coming over,
my whole family was there. Family that I haven’t seen in ages. Everything was just awesome
catching up with them, and of course hanging out with my friends. My mom made NACHOS.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 6
There was so much food, delicious food. Everyone was getting along, and it was just the best
party.’ I asked Walter how he felt. He said ‘Amazing, Peaceful, Happy.’
You see, that was Walter. He could have said anything, but that’s what he dreamed of.
Being surrounded by the people he loved. Being surrounded by all of you. And that’s how I’ll
remember you, Walter. As a kid who loved deeply and who we all loved as well. Rest in
paradise, sweet Walter.”
For Walter Macklin
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 7
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
Dedication 4
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 10
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Research Questions 17
Significance of the Study 18
Organization of the Study 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review 20
Theoretical Framework 21
Ecological Systems Theory 21
Emergent Strategy 23
Conceptual Framework 25
Figure 1.1. Conceptual framework 26
Historical Framing 28
Historical Trauma 28
Educational Debt 29
Literature Review 32
Trauma 33
Adverse Childhood Experiences 33
Trauma and Development 34
Trauma and Schools 36
Continuation schools 37
Trauma-informed 39
Healing from Trauma 41
Relationships 42
Relationships and Achievement 43
The American School Counselor 45
Perception of Barriers: Caseload Sizes 46
Mental Health Training 47
Student Voice 50
Summary 54
Chapter Three: Methodology 59
Testimonios 59
Positionality 61
Research Questions 64
Setting 66
Participants 66
Data Collection and Instrument Protocols 66
Instruments 67
Process 67
Data Analysis 68
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 8
Limitations and Delimitations 69
Credibility and Trustworthiness 70
Ethics 70
Chapter Four: Presentation of the Data and Findings 73
Introduction 73
Theoretical Framework and Research Questions 73
Presentation of the Findings 75
Trauma’s Impact on Schooling (RQ1) 76
Comprehensive Schooling Experiences (RQ1) 76
Continuation School as a Turning Point (RQ1) 76
School Counselor Supports (RQ2) 76
Supporting Students with Trauma (RQ2) 76
Relationships Repair (RQ1 & RQ2) 76
Personal Growth and Resilient Mindset (RQ1) 76
Trauma’s Impact on Schooling 76
Comprehensive Schooling Experiences 81
Elementary School Experiences 81
Middle School Experiences 83
Comprehensive High School Experiences 85
Continuation School as a Turning Point 88
Statement about Their Continuation School 96
School Counselor Support 97
Elementary School Counselor Support 98
Middle School Counselor Support 100
Comprehensive High School Counselor Support 102
Statement to comprehensive high school counselors 107
Continuation School Counselor Support 110
Statement to continuation high school counselors 116
Supporting Students with Trauma 117
Relationships Repair 121
Personal Growth and Resilient Mindset 125
Conclusion 129
Chapter Five: Discussion 131
Summary of the Findings 132
Recommendations for Practice 138
Systemic Trauma-Informed Practices 138
School Counselors: Quantity and Quality 139
Increased College and Career Focus at Continuation School 140
Increase Opportunities for Resilience and Growth 140
Implications: For Researchers, Educators and Students 141
Conclusion 142
References 143
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 152
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Flyer 155
Appendix C: Counseling Resources for Participants 156
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 9
Abstract
The present study sought to uncover the educational journeys of eight continuation school
graduates with a history of trauma. The purpose of this qualitative study was twofold: first, to
understand the perspectives of a group rarely mentioned in the literature and shed light on both
the impact of trauma on schooling and promising stories of resilience. Second, the study
emphasized continuation school graduates’ holistic experiences with school counselors in the K–
12 system. Centering around the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) and emergent
strategy (Brown, 2017), the study was framed from a lens which views systems as critical and
change as possible and transformative. Utilizing testimonios as the methodology allowed for a
rich gathering of participants’ personal stories. Testimonios are authentic narratives and personal
journeys that reveal one’s experiences with systemic injustice (Brabeck, 2001; Yudice, 1991).
Thus, the findings unearthed the impact of trauma on their schooling experiences, as well as the
critical need for caring relationships with educators at all stages of K–12 schooling. Further
findings pointed to continuation schools as a place of hope, filled with caring staff, a small,
family-like environment, and a place from which students were proud to graduate. School
counselors were found to be both sources of strength and defeat with their journey, as
participants reflected on the holistic support received. Participants shared about their
relationships with various counselors and teachers as paramount during their K–12 journey.
Ultimately, participants reflected that within them resided the strength to overcome their
circumstances and develop mindsets that fostered immense levels of resilience.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
In the United States, 50% of school aged children come to school with some form of
trauma, ranging from abuse, witnessing violence, homelessness, and parental incarceration to a
variety of others (NCTSN, 2018). This trauma can have major implications on their development
and ability to succeed academically (Hopkinson, 2017; NCTSN, 2018; Schultz et al., 2014).
Students with a history of trauma often fall behind in school (Schultz et al., 2014). Among
continuation high schools, one study found that 90% of students had experienced some sort of
trauma (West et al., 2014). Research on resilience has illuminated the impact of relationships on
mitigating against the effects of trauma, and educators have been found to play a key role (Ludy-
Dobson & Perry, 2010). One member of a school community that has been trained to support all
student’s holistic needs is the school counselor (ASCA, 2012). School counselors can play a vital
role in assisting students navigate school and serve as advocates and mentors for those with a
history of trauma (ASCA, 2016). Specifically, within the continuation high school setting, school
counselors are positioned to support students with greater academic and social-emotional needs
than those at a comprehensive high school (West et al., 2014). However, discrepancies exist, as
research highlights that many school counselors feel unprepared to support the intense mental
health needs of students with trauma and are plagued by a multitude of barriers that limit their
ability to fully provide the support for which they hope (Morris & Minton, 2012; Carlson &
Kees, 2013). Research on student experiences with school counselors has found that while some
have been helpful, there are also reports of absenteeism (Vela-Gude et al., 2009).
School counselors are placed in an educational institution to provide comprehensive
support, and the role of the continuation high school counselor is no different. Therefore, the
purpose of the present study is to uncover the educational journeys of continuation high school
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 11
students with a history of trauma, including their experiences with school counselors. The
researcher hopes that the rich personal narratives of the students will unearth a conversation
surrounding best practices for school counselors in supporting this population of students.
Background of the Problem
The schooling practices of students with a history of trauma can be conceptualized in
terms of the notion of education debt (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Education debt is described as the
accumulation of years of inequitable schooling practices and withheld resources within
marginalized communities of students (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Instead of viewing students’
educational discrepancies as an achievement gap, Ladson-Billings (2006), suggested that we
reframe our approach to name, understand, and rectify systemic barriers that create this gap
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). One focus on the education debt within oppressed communities is their
widespread experiences of traumatic stress and its impact on schooling (Alvarez, Milner, &
O’Connor, 2016). Underlying the traumatic stress within these communities are deep historical
wounds that have added to the growing educational debt. From a systemic perspective, historical
and societal trauma intersects with generations of oppression experienced by communities of
color. For instance, people of color are disproportionately impacted by mass incarceration
(Nellis, 2016). In California, men of color represent 58% of the state’s population, but 79% of
the prison population (Goss & Hayes, 2018). Research reports that incarcerated adults are found
to have experienced high levels of traumatic stress in their lives (Nellis, 2016; Wolff & Shi,
2012). One study illuminated that 56% of incarcerated men reported childhood trauma,
depression, anxiety, and comorbidity of disorders, including alcoholism and addictions (Goss &
Hayes, 2018; Wolff & Shi, 2012). The needs of incarcerated people of color are further
illustrated in that 77% of California inmates with moderate mental health needs are serviced by
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 12
the Correctional Clinical Case Management System, and 18% of these inmates were reported to
need intensive mental health care (Goss & Hayes, 2018).
National reports on imprisoned adolescents seem to mirror the adults: between 70 and
80% were found to have some sort of mental health need, and 88% of those incarcerated were
children of color (Child Trends, 2015). The duality of these issues calls to the forefront a need
for educators to recognize the dire implications of untreated trauma within all students,
specifically those from communities of color, and unearth ways to rectify this insurmountable
debt. In California, it is abhorrent that three out of four prisoners are nonwhite and alarming that
three out of four prisoners have mental health needs (Goss & Hayes, 2018). Further, many
inmates report traumatic experiences as children, which is important to address (Wolff & Shi,
2012).
Trauma has been found to have implications on children’s healthy brain development, as
well as their ability to focus and attend to information in schools (Hopkinson, 2017; NCTSN,
2018; Schultz et al., 2014). These developmental concerns have been found to impact students’
educational outcomes, including greater incidences of academic failure, chronic absenteeism,
and enrollment in alternative school settings (Henderson, Hill, & Norton, 2014; West et al.,
2014). Further, youth who have experienced trauma are more likely to be involved with child
welfare agencies and the juvenile justice system (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall, Cusick, & Griffen,
2013). This involvement in multiple social systems perpetuates the likelihood that students with
a history of trauma may fall into a pipeline to prison (Smithgall et al., 2013). Indeed, “97% of
youth taken into state custody by the child welfare system had experienced a traumatic event,
and 25% had an identifiable trauma symptom, while 75% of youth in juvenile justice systems
have experienced traumatic victimization and 50% may have some post-traumatic stress
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 13
symptoms” (Smithgall et al., 2013, p. 42). Considering that the demographics of alternative
schools and juvenile justice systems disproportionately house children of color, their history with
trauma is an underlying social-emotional issue requiring educators’ attention (Dunning-Lozano,
2016; Smithgall et al., 2013; West et al., 2014). However, continuation schools can be a place of
hope that works to dismantle this pipeline and education debt. One participant in continuation
schools that is vital in fostering safe, stable, restorative, and nurturing relationships with students
from high stress backgrounds is a school counselor.
The American School Counselor Association’s position statement on trauma-informed
practice states the following:
School counselors understand the impact adverse childhood experiences have on
students’ academic achievement and social/emotional development. School counselors
strive to identify, support and promote the success of students who have experienced
trauma through the implementation of a comprehensive, data-driven school counseling
program. (ASCA, 2016)
This program is holistic in nature and focuses on supporting the academic, college/career, and
social-emotional development of all students on campus (ASCA, 2012). While the American
School Counselor Association’s stance is to utilize a comprehensive program to support the
needs of students, research has found discrepancies surrounding this topic (Barna & Brott, 2011;
Lapan, 2012). For instance, school counselors report feeling underprepared to support the mental
health needs of students in crisis and those with individual/family levels of trauma (Morris &
Minton, 2012). Additional findings reveal that while school counselors do wish to counsel
students in these areas, an array of barriers exist that limit their ability to do so (Carlson & Kees,
2013; Morris & Minton, 2012). However, research on school counselor effectiveness has found
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 14
that when students have a positive relationship with their counselor, they are more likely to
graduate high school, be prepared for college, and attend school regularly and are less likely to
be suspended (Barna & Brott, 2011; Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014; Lapan
2012). The findings on relationships consistently suggest the magnitude of their ability to
facilitate resilience and foster positive academic outcomes, especially among students with a
history of trauma (Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010). The role of school counselors with traumatized
students should be prioritized to develop safe, stable, and nurturing relationships (ASCA, 2016).
While school counselors are employed in the educational system to support the
comprehensive needs of all students on campus, disparities exist in services provided to students
with a history of trauma. Consequently, students with trauma fail in school at greater rates than
their non-traumatized peers and are more likely to attend alternative schools due to credit
deficiencies and behavioral consequences (West et al., 2014). Within the field of school
counseling resides a duality of outcomes; some students report school counselors as being
helpful, while other students perceive them as absent or even harmful (Slaten et al., 2015; Vela-
Gude et al., 2009). Research on the effectiveness of school counselors in alternative settings is
sparse (Mullen & Lambie, 2013). Thus, the aim of the present study is to understand the
effectiveness of school counselors in an alternative setting, specifically a continuation school
setting, to support students with a history of trauma and hear the perspectives of former
continuation school students surrounding their educational journey and path to resilience.
Statement of the Problem
The present study addresses the problem of inequitable services students with a history of
trauma have experienced throughout their journey in the K–12 educational system. To address
this problem, the study adds to current understandings of the how traumatic stress impacts
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 15
academic engagement and school connectedness by uncovering personal narratives of students
with this background. Prolonged traumatic stress has implications on children’s healthy physical
and cognitive development, which can impact their academic achievement and personal
adjustment (Anda et al., 2006; Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Felitti et al., 1998; Hopkinson, 2017;
NCTSN, 2018; Perry, 2009). Students with a history of trauma are more likely to grow
disconnected from the school system due to familial, community, and/or mental health
challenges that may be left unaddressed (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Felitti et al., 1998; Perry,
2009). School counselors are in a unique position to foster this connection, but research has
pointed to barriers that limit their ability to meet their students’ holistic needs. This problem is
important to address because students with a history of trauma continue to fail at greater rates
than peers, leading to negative academic, emotional, and societal outcomes. Further, incarcerated
youth and adults are found to have greater rates of traumatic stress and mental health needs.
Thus, it is imperative that educators recognize the dire implications of trauma and the importance
of their role.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the educational journeys of continuation school
students who have experienced trauma and the role of school counselors within this journey.
A desire-based theory of change is utilized as a framework for the study. Tuck and Yang (2014)
referred to theories of change as “beliefs or assumptions about how social change happens, is
prompted or influenced” (p. 125). Further, “reflecting a theory of change is an ontological and
epistemological activity, related to core questions of being and knowing” (Tuck & Yang, 2014,
p. 126). Theories of change inform everything from how a study begins, when it ends, who is
studied, ethical stances, data collection, and the interpretation of findings (Tuck, 2009). An
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 16
important note surrounding theories of change is that many are deficit-based, which views
populations from oppressed communities as damaged, defeated, and broken, while failing to
recognize their unique strengths, stories, and desires (Tuck, 2009). A desire-based theory of
change is utilized in the present study (Tuck, 2009). Such a theory of change is imperative to this
study because while stories of pain and trauma are uncovered, it is important the participants and
their journey are not flattened to the harm experienced but presented with powerful stories of
hope and resilience (Tuck, 2009). Thus, a desire-based theory represents participants as diverse,
with “an assemblage of experiences, ideas and ideologies” (Tuck, 2009).
Framed within this desire-based lens is the theory of emergent strategy (Brown, 2017).
This theory of change is grounded in the belief that it is human nature to transform the toxicity of
pain into just and healing solutions. Thus, the aim of this study is to understand the role of
education within this growth. Another theory of change that guides this study is the ecological
systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986), which focuses on various systems that influence change,
specifically the relationship among school counselors and students. As school counselors and
students interact on an individual, group, and schoolwide levels, it is important to understand the
function of these systems. Another goal is to illuminate the student voice surrounding academic
success by incorporating their personal stories of trauma, resilience, and hope as well as the role
their school counselors played along this path.
To achieve this goal, a qualitative design is utilized to uncover the stories of change in
continuation high school students with a history of trauma. The study explores eight students’
personal journeys through education, including perspectives of their former school counselors.
The design is based on a theoretical principle within emergent strategy (2017), fractals, which
posits that through individual, relational interactions, large-scale change can occur. This
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 17
principle is based on natural elements that alone may be small, but together are vast (Brown,
2017). Fractals are specific pieces of a larger puzzle, and each piece is just as important to the
rest (Brown, 2017). This relates to the present study in that each experience within a student’s
life makes them who they are, and each student makes up the larger caseload of a school
counselor, then expands to the school, district, and community as a whole.
Research Questions
The present study aims to illuminate the personal educational journeys of continuation
school graduates who have experienced traumatic stress and understand the role of school
counselors within this journey. To understand this, student perspective is the driving voice
behind the study. Since the purpose of qualitative inquiry is to uncover and understand the
experiences of specific groups of people, a qualitative design guides this study (Maxwell, 2013).
Utilizing the qualitative, critical methodology of testimonios, the study seeks to uncover the
personal narratives of participants. As testimonio is a critical methodology, it is vital that these
stories allow “the individual to transform past experience and personal identity, creating a new
present and enhancing the future” (Cienfuegos & Monelli, 1983, p. 46). The following research
question serves as a roadmap throughout the duration of the study:
1. How do California continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive
their journey through the K–12 educational system?
2. What do California continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe
about their school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs?
The theoretical framework for this study includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory (1986) and Brown’s emergent strategy (2017). These theories celebrate the impact of
connections and systems in facilitating growth and change and view the individual as a piece of a
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 18
larger whole (Brown, 2017; Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Individuals interact with, and are impacted
by, the environment. Thus, the notion that “All that you touch you change. All that you change,
changes you” (Butler, 1993, p.1) frames the way the literature review is viewed and the way the
study is conducted. Further, each student is a piece of the larger student body, the larger school
district, county, state, and nation. We must view each life within our school system an integral
piece of a larger whole—each life matters. Both theories celebrate the impact of the individual,
which is why the present frameworks were selected.
Significance of the Study
Research surrounding the perspectives of continuation high school students is sparse;
thus, one significant gain the researcher aims to achieve is to add voice to the literature (Mullen
& Lambie, 2013). As school counselors serve students with histories of trauma, it is vital to
understand what students believe about this layer of support. A significant hope of this study is
to utilize these stories to create change in the field of education and school counseling.
Organization of the Study
The following study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of
the study, including the background and statement of the problem, as well as the purpose and
significance. Additionally, a brief synopsis of the theoretical and conceptual framework is
discussed along with the research questions and methodology proposed for the study. Chapter
Two includes historical framing of the topic as well as an in-depth explanation of the theories
that ground the study, emergent strategy and ecological systems (Brown, 2017; Bronfenbrenner,
1986). Chapter Two also details relevant literature surrounding trauma, relationships, school
counselors, and student voice. Chapter Three is the methodology section, which describes the
design of the study, measures, participants, context, ethics, credibility, limitations, and data
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 19
analysis. The methodology guiding the design of the study is testimonios, allowing for the
uncovering of rich, personal narratives. This section includes the specific research questions that
guide the study along with the interview questions developed for participants. Chapter Four is
the findings section, which permits an exploration of the data collected along with an analysis.
This includes thorough coding of the data into themes along with a discussion of these themes.
Chapter Five is the concluding chapter that explores a summary of findings, implications for
practice, recommendations for research, and a cessation of the dissertation.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review
“All that you touch you change. All that you change, changes you” - Octavia Butler, 1993
This quote resonates within the heart of this study in that the lived experiences of
students with trauma have profound implications on their academic and socio-emotional well-
being. The interplay of school counselors within these experiences similarly fits within this quote
in that we have the capacity to change, and be changed by, each life in front of us. Thus, the
following chapter explores this notion of change using theories, concepts, and literature. A
theoretical and conceptual framework is presented along with relevant research to explain the
basis for this topic. Emergent strategy, as explained through the work of Brown (2017),
illuminates the core beliefs of this project along with the ecological systems theory by
Bronfenbrenner (1986). Historical framing surrounding this topic is revealed, along with an
exploration of the ways in which school counselors have contributed to the educational debt
within marginalized communities.
To understand this further, the theoretical framework is presented first, along with a
literature review on four critical topics. The first topic, trauma, is explained in the context of how
trauma impacts brain development and learning, while incorporating research on healing
practices for students. The section also explores the connection between trauma and continuation
school settings. The next topic highlights the history of the American school counseling
profession, the National Model of School Counseling, and explores school counselor’s
perspectives surrounding their preparation in the domain of mental health. The section on
relationships includes the impact caring relationships can have on engagement, learning, and
healing, specifically within a trauma context. Student voice is central to this topic and must be
celebrated to provide a rich understanding of their experiences with school counselors. A map of
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the theories, concepts, and a transformative worldview encompassing this topic is embedded
within a conceptual framework (Figure 1.1).
Theoretical Framework
Underpinning the framework of the present study are two related theories that explain the
approach to the problem and the lens of the researcher. Namely, Bronfenbrenner’s (1986)
ecological systems theory and Brown’s (2017) emergent strategy are two connected paths of
understanding that highlight the role relationships play in an individual’s life. Brown (2017)
unearthed the natural way in which simple interactions and deep relationships can create
profound global impacts and that “we each have important pieces of the whole” (Brown, 2017, p.
57). Emergent strategy connects with Bronfenbrenner’s approach in that we must view ourselves
as microsystems of fractals, or pieces of a larger society (Brown, 2017). Brown shared that “our
friendships and relationships are systems. Our communities are systems. Let us practice
upwards” (Brown, 2017, p. 60). Bronfenbrenner argued that we reside within multiple systems
that shape our world, connecting symbiotically with Brown’s view (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). He
viewed the self as influenced by, and influences, the community, including school, family, peers,
and the neighborhood, as well as the greater political society and time in which we live
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986). First, the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) is explored
including the ways in which trauma can embed in each of the systems. Next, emergent strategy
(Brown, 2017) is shared regarding the ways relational connections can yield resilience from
trauma.
Ecological Systems Theory
The ecological systems theory by Bronfenbrenner proposes that individuals are
influenced by multiple systems, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 22
macrosystem, and chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). All people, especially children, can be
traumatized at each level of these systems (AHWG, 2013). The spectrum of trauma children
experience aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which posits that individuals
interact with, and are influenced by, their immediate and external environment, as well as within
the historical, sociopolitical, and economic contexts in which they exist (AHWG, 2013;
Bronfenbrenner, 1986). The microsystem includes immediate environments and people an
individual interacts with frequently, including family, school, peers, religious/community groups,
and neighborhood play areas; the mesosystem includes how these systems relate to one another
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Santrock, 2015). For example, one form may include how family
systems influence a child, and thus influence their schooling. Extended further, the exosystem
incorporates the larger community, such as neighborhoods, counties/states of residence, mass
media, and family friends (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Santrock, 2015). The macro system can
include one’s cultural beliefs and national systems of influence. Within all layers, the
chronosystem looks at how these systems interact on historical, sociopolitical, and chronological
planes (Bronfenbrenner, 1986).
In 2013, the Adolescent Health Working Group presented a toolkit for educators working
with students who have experienced trauma; within the toolkit, trauma is described through the
lens of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory as a phenomenon that resides within a
spectrum (AHWG, 2013). First, trauma can be individual, and include emotional, physical and/or
sexual abuse, neglect, and a variety of illnesses and injuries (AHWG, 2013). The next level
highlights how parents and caregivers can traumatize youth via incarceration and drug/alcohol
abuse. Peers, school, and extended family are another layer of trauma and include partner
violence, school violence, and bullying. Other traumas at the school level include discrimination
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 23
and institutionalized racism (Alvarez, Milner & O’Connor, 2016). At the community level,
poverty and community violence can be factors that traumatize youth (AHWG, 2013). Lastly, the
globalized world level included political violence, war, forced displacement, and natural
disasters (AHWG, 2013).
The specific types of trauma reside on a continuum and include adverse childhood
experiences (ACES), toxic stress, vicarious and secondary trauma, as well as historic and
intergenerational trauma (AHWG, 2013). Further, this theory highlights that school systems are
central to a child’s life and influence the internal and external system greatly (Bronfenbrenner,
1986; Santrock, 2015). As school counselors are vital members of a school community and
interact with students daily, it is imperative that their role be reviewed in relation to students who
have experienced trauma. Connections are vital in this theory and are also tied to the next theory
that supports this study.
Emergent Strategy
Emergent strategy is a way of understanding the world through a lens that elevates human
growth via natural relations (Brown, 2017). Brown (2017) shared that “emergent strategy is how
we intentionally change in ways that grow our capacity to embody the just and liberated worlds
we long for” (p. 3)—emergence being how we change, and strategy meaning “a plan of action
toward a goal” (Brown, 2017). Together, emergent strategies are “ways for humans to practice
complexity and grow the future through relatively simple interactions” (Brown, 2017, p. 20).
These simple interactions are a core principle of emergent strategy, in that individuals must focus
on fostering critical connections between one another to reach large-scale change (Brown, 2017).
These simple interactions are defined in nature as fractals, which are “an object or quantity that
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displays self-similarity, which means it looks roughly the same at any scale. Small-solutions
impact the whole system” (Brown, 2017, p. 45).
School counselors are agents within school systems that design, implement, and evaluate
small-scale solutions to support the larger schoolwide system (ASCA, 2012). Additionally,
school counselors interact with students individually, in groups, and larger classroom settings. It
is through these interactions that significant relationships between counselors and students can
grow. With a good morning greeting, or a passing smile, school counselors can foster warmth on
campus with their presence alone. Further, it is through these small interactions that counselors
can attune to the energy of a school and be aware of students’ needs. For students who have
experienced trauma, school counselors are there during the storms and guide them toward a
brighter day. To a counselor these interactions may seem simple, but to the students they can
make a world of difference. Over the years of a school counselor’s work, collecting these simple
moments of change can facilitate growth on a macro level. This is the beauty of healing work, to
understand that “existence is fractal—the health of the cell is the health of the species and the
planet,” and to know that “emergence is beyond what the sum of its parts would even imagine”
(Brown, 2017, p. 13).
Brown (2017) further articulated that we must “build the resilience by building the
relationships” (p. 42). In nature, resilience is abundant; therefore, emergent strategy proposes
that within each human is the capacity for overcoming great obstacles (Brown, 2017). As
students navigate their lives, school counselors can be there to support and help them carry the
weight of their pain. School counselors can help students recognize that their past does not define
them and help them find strength and power from experiences. Within emergent strategy resides
the belief that “change is constant” and “never a failure, always a lesson” (Brown, 2017, p. 42).
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 25
As healers, it is our role as school counselors to reiterate to students “that a storm can be used to
clear out branches that are dying, to let go of that which was keeping us from growing in new
directions” (Walidah Imarisha, as cited in Brown, 2017, p.78) and to persist and persevere,
“because in the end ‘nothing stops nature.’ If a rose can grow out of the concrete, then so can
we” (Micah Hobbes Frazier as cited in Brown, 2017, p.164).
Conceptual Framework
The following section provides an explanation of the following graphic, which is the
conceptual framework for the study. The framework incorporates central topics that are explored
in the literature review, including trauma, student voices, relationships, and the school
counselor’s role and beliefs. Surrounding these topics are the theories that underpin the design of
the study, emergent strategy by Brown (2017), and the ecological systems theory by
Bronfenbrenner (1986). These are all supported by a transformative worldview of the power of
relational connections.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 26
Figure 1.1. Conceptual framework.
The conceptual framework presented above illuminates that a significant number of our
nation’s children come to school each day with a metaphoric backpack filled with the memories
of traumatic experiences in their lives. This trauma significantly impacts their brain
development, which can have detrimental effects on engagement and learning. However, it is
vital to highlight that students not only come to school affected by trauma but filled with a
significant amount of hope for a bright future. While sometimes invisible, these backpacks may
be an incredibly heavy weight to carry. School counselors must stand beside these students every
day and support them by helping to carry this weight. As evidenced by the literature presented
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below, nurturing relationships have been found to mitigate the effects of trauma in the lives of
students. Thus, relationships are included as a topic within the conceptual framework.
Embedded within the greater context are important concepts to understand regarding this
topic, including school counselor beliefs, student voice, trauma, and the impact of relationships.
Within the students themselves, it is vital their voice is valued and elevated. Therefore, a specific
purpose of this study is the uncover student perspectives surrounding this topic, as their voice is
commonly absent from the literature. Additionally, the school counselor perspective, including
beliefs about their ability to support students with mental health needs, is a vital factor within the
framework. These concepts are positioned within Brown’s emergent strategy (2017) and
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1986). These theories support the notion that
individuals connect with one another in deeply relational forms and that through these
interactions, systemic change can emerge, and students can flourish.
Surrounding an interconnected system resides a worldview that transformation is
possible. As humans interact with the world and the world interacts with us, we evolve and
continue to evolve. Through relational interactions, our world is shaped and reshaped. The image
of hands holding the earth symbolizes the author’s deep belief that school counselors have the
ability to change the world when we work hand in hand for the betterment of all students. This
image celebrates the beautiful colors and heritages of our students and puts into perspective the
immense potential we have to influence lives. Further, it brings attention to the need for school
counselors to be cognizant of this influence and aware of the amount of harm that can and has
been done to students from marginalized groups, including students with trauma. The image of a
butterfly as a symbol of transformation is incorporated because of its representation of both
change and resilience. Change and transformation is an essential outcome of education; thus, it is
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 28
critical that school counselors hold a theory of change that both acknowledges the pain of the
past, while celebrating each student’s rich story.
A backpack of trauma is also a backpack of hope, and school counselors must be there to
remind students that each and every day, within them resides incredible beauty of resilience, just
as that of the
...butterfly, a most magical creature. The wings of the butterfly are already inside the
caterpillar, and as it breaks down its old self into goo the wings emerge ready to go. That
process is amazing and teaches me that as we change and transform, we also have
everything we need already right inside of us. So, my organizing and healing work
becomes about building the cocoon that can hold the goo so that wings can emerge.
(Micha Hobbes Frazier, as cited in Brown, 2017, p. 131)
Historical Framing
Understanding the current state of the school counseling profession and students who
have experienced trauma requires a reflection of the past and a critical view of the educational
context which framed this present state. A reflection of how school counselors have contributed
to the educational debt of marginalized populations, specifically within traumatized populations,
is explored through a historical lens.
Historical Trauma
In our nation’s history, students from oppressed communities have encountered a
longstanding fight for equitable schooling conditions. For many of these students, the battle for
equity and justice has both contributed to incredible resilience and intergenerational trauma.
Intergenerational trauma is categorized as trauma that has passed on from one family member to
another (Chan, 2017). Children of trauma survivors have been found to have similar traumatic
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 29
symptoms as their parents, including higher rates of depression and anxiety (Yahuda, Halligan,
& Grossman, 2001). The longstanding racism, discrimination, and oppression that communities
have encountered through slavery, colonialism, war, internment, and social ostracism are major
forms of trauma that have deep roots within American history. For healing to occur, it is critical
we name these injustices and acknowledge their contribution to the traumas children experience.
One of these injustices is educational debt.
Educational Debt
There has been a tendency amongst policymakers, politicians, educators, and researchers
to study gaps between the performance and outcomes of various populations of students
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). The National Education Association (NEA) defined the achievement
gap as “the differences between the test scores of minority and/or low-income students, and the
test scores of their White and Asian peers” (NEA , 2018). For years, the achievement gap has
been studied, but efforts to eliminate the gap have failed, as it persists year after year. Ladson-
Billings (2016) argued that “this all-out focus on the ‘achievement gap’ moves us toward short
term solutions that are unlikely to address the long-term underlying problem” (p. 4). We have a
much larger problem than a gap; we have an incredible debt own to generations of people
residing in our country, and without attention to this debt, gaps may never cease (Ladson-
Billings, 2006).
The educational debt, as coined by Ladson-Billings (2006), can be compared to that of
America’s financial deficit and national debt. A deficit is the amount of spending that exceeds a
budget each year, while a debt is the accumulation of each deficit. She further explained that the
achievement gap is akin to a focus on a deficit, while “what is truly happening to African
American and Latina/o students is really more like the national debt. We do not have an
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 30
achievement gap; we have an education debt” (Ladson-Billings, 2006, p. 5). Further, economist
Robert Haveman (as cited in Ladson-Billings, 2006, p5), added the following:
The education debt is the foregone schooling resources that we could have (should have)
been investing in (primarily) low income kids, which deficit leads to a variety of social
problems (e.g. crime, low productivity, low wages, low labor force participation) that
require ongoing public investment. This required investment sucks away resources that
could go to reducing the achievement gap. Without the education debt we could narrow
the achievement debt… The message would be that you need to reduce one (the
education debt, defined above) in order to close the other (the achievement gap). A
parallel is trying to gain a growing and robust economy with a large national debt
overhand. (February 6, 2006, email)
While school counselors are embedded in an educational institution to support all
students, there have been findings that point to school counselors contributing to this debt, both
presently and historically (Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007; Lee & Ekstrom, 1987; Slaten et
al., 2015; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). School counselors, and the systems that organize school
counselors, have added to this debt by first withholding school counseling resources from
schools that serve students from low income and minority backgrounds, and second, by utilizing
traditional guidance programs that lack social justice frameworks (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007; Lee
& Ekstrom, 1987; Orfield & Ee, 2014).
Over the history of the profession, there is a lack of literature that points to school
counselors even being present within segregated schools. As Bang and Vossoughi (2016),
illuminated, “Invisibility is not an innocent oversight, but often an historically accumulated
manifestation of power” (p. 182). Thus, it is hypothesized that for generations, school counselors
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 31
have failed to support a magnitude of students due to their absence, further perpetuating this
educational debt. While all students can experience trauma, students who attended segregated
schools are more likely to experience higher rates of trauma and less likely to receive appropriate
supports than white, more affluent schools (Holcomb-McCoy, 2005; Orfield & Ee, 2014).
Alvarez, Milner, and O’Connor (2016) shared that “racial discrimination and racial incidents are
prevalent in schools and broader society, and there is strong evidence that people of color
experience high-stress levels and exposure to traumatic events as related to both overt and covert
racism” (p. 29). This falls along the spectrum of trauma presented above, which holds true that
racism is a detrimental form of trauma affecting communities of the past and, shamefully, the
present.
Once school counselors were regularly situated within schools, those with larger
populations of minority and low-income students were found to have disparities within access to
counseling resources, and larger caseload sizes for school counselors (Holcomb-McCoy, 2005).
Practices that perpetuate inequitable school counseling services for minority youth include less-
rigorous course-taking patterns, expectations surrounding capability, cultural competence, the
overidentification of special education, and deficit-based language (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007;
Yosso, 2006). Still, in the year 2016, Barnum reported that within the largest public school
districts in the country—New York, Chicago, Houston, and Miami—cities with great income
disparities and students of color, security officers outnumbered school counselors. It is evident
that while some historians could argue that the American school counseling profession is one of
evolution and identity exploration, others view the profession just as stagnant as the overall field
of education itself, subservient to the dominant population of America’s schools, and blind to the
disparities and systems which perpetuate inequities amongst our nation’s most vulnerable youth.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 32
While school counselors can be an incredible source of strength for students who have
experienced trauma, dualities between pain and promise emerge throughout the history of the
field.
Literature Review
The following section outlines the relevant literature surrounding the topics of trauma,
relationships, school counselors, and student voice. The section on trauma includes a review of
how Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES) affect development as well as implications for
learning and engagement. Research on practices that support healing from trauma is reviewed,
including trauma-informed schools. The section also includes research surrounding continuation
schools. The topic of trauma is relevant to the study because a significant population of students
experience trauma, and it is important to understand how it impacts development and schooling.
The impact of relationships on students’ engagement and achievement includes how
negative relationships with school staff can impede progress, but how positive relationships can
facilitate resilience. This topic is important to include because relationships have been found to
play a central role in academic outcomes, and the aim of the present study is to understand
whether this is also true for continuation school students.
Next, the American school counseling profession is explored, including the National
Model for school counseling. Within this section, school counselors’ perspectives surrounding
their ability to support students who have experienced trauma is shared, including their beliefs
about their preparation. This section is important to explore to understand what research exists
on this profession and to add more to the literature on continuation school counselors, as their
presence is limited.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 33
Finally, a review of literature on students’ voice brings to light the experiences of youth
and their belief about their school counselor’s ability to support their needs. This section is
important to include because often research is conducted on how to support students without
including their perspectives. As students are a key stakeholder, it is vital their voice is heard.
All sections of the following literature review are included to provide a comprehensive
picture of the topic and shed light on the perspectives and issues these students have
encountered. The section on trauma highlights the importance for educators to be sensitive to
students with a history of trauma and develop systems that support their unique needs. As a key
purpose of the study is to understand how students with a history of trauma have experienced
schooling practices, it is imperative to understand what the literature highlights about these
practices and student needs. However, it is necessary to state that after a thorough review of
existing literature on these four topics, no study was found which connects these, specifically
within the field of school counseling and continuation school students. Therefore, it is the
important to understand how these topics add to the body of literature in an effort to develop best
practices for practitioners.
Trauma
Adverse Childhood Experiences. The American Psychological Association (APA)
(2014) defined trauma as “the body’s natural response to threat, high stress, and danger, and is an
outcome associated with traumatic experiences, events, or situations such as war, natural
disasters, or abuse.” Felitti et al. (1998) were interested in studying how early childhood stress,
or Adverse Childhood Experiences, ACEs, impacted later adult functioning and health. Their
survey included questions related to neglect, physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as
domestic violence, homelessness, parental mental illness, substance abuse, and incarceration
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 34
(Schultz et al., 2014). Their results indicated that adults who reported six or more ACEs were
found to be more at risk for major health implications, including depression, suicide, substance
abuse, obesity, sexually transmitted infections, and, most importantly, a lifespan reduction of 20
years (Felitti et al., 1998). Another study found that for persons with four or more ACEs, the risk
of panic reactions, depressed mood, anxiety, sleep disturbances, obesity, and hallucinations were
increased by two to three times (Anda et al., 2006). The risk of substance abuse was also higher
for those with four or more ACEs. Smoking, alcoholism, illicit drug use, and injected drug use
were increased dramatically for those with more than four ACEs—they were up to 11 times
more at risk (Anda, et. al, 2006).
Nationally, almost 50% of children, or 35 million, have been exposed to one or more
types of trauma (Hopkinson, 2017). Untreated trauma, especially early trauma, has implications
on a child’s physical, cognitive, and psychological development (Hopkinson, 2017; NCTSN,
2018; Schultz et al., 2014). For school-aged children, ACEs were found to impact academic
functioning. Impaired childhood memory was increase 4.4 times for those who had four or more
ACEs (Anda et al., 2006). Additionally, “... kids with three or more adverse childhood
experiences had three times the rate of academic failure, five times the rate of severe attendance
problems, six times the rate of school behavior problems, and four times the rate of poor health
compared with children with no known trauma” (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). Fortunately,
educators are working to reject this deficit-based view and facilitate holistic support for students
who have experienced stressful events.
Trauma and development. Early childhood trauma and unpredicted stress can hinder
the development of a healthy stress management system in the brain and shut down the areas of
the brain involved in impulse control (Perry, 2009). Trauma may not be as obvious in young
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children as in older children, as they may not be able to vocalize the experience yet (NCTSN,
2018). Cognitively, trauma may manifest as difficulties focusing, poor verbal and skill
development as well as challenges with memory (NCTSN, 2018). Behaviorally, students may
startle easily, be unable to trust others or make friends, exhibit aggressive or regressive
behaviors, and may believe they are to blame for the traumatic experience (NCTSN, 2018).
Further, children may act withdrawn, be anxious or fearful around adults who may remind them
of the traumatic event, or be afraid from separating from their parent or caregiver (NCTSN,
2018). Children and adolescents who have experienced trauma are more likely to develop a
variety of disorders later in life, including depression and addiction (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018;
Felitti, 1998; Schultz et al., 2014). Adolescents who have been exposed to traumatic events may
show symptoms in a variety of ways, including externalizing and/or internalizing behaviors,
which may make it difficult for educators and physicians to recognize and misdiagnose (NCTSN,
2018).
Traumatic experiences are not only damaging to the physical and emotional development
of children but can significantly disrupt the development of a healthy brain (Anda et al., 2006;
Carrion & Wong, 2012; Evans-Chase, 2014). Researchers interested in understanding how
trauma affects the brain have uncovered that exposure to prolonged stress can impact the size
and activity levels of the prefrontal cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala (Anda et al.,
2006; Carrion & Wong, 2012; Evans-Chase, 2014). The prefrontal cortex is a structure in the
brain that matures in the late teens to early twenties (Evans-Chase, 2014). It is responsible for
self-regulation, response inhibition, planning, as well as shifting and sustaining attention
(Carrion & Wong, 2012; Evans-Chase, 2014). These functions are vital to the cognitive
processing needed for learning and decision making (Carrion & Wong, 2012; Evans-Chase,
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 36
2014). The hippocampus region in the brain plays a large role in memory formation and storage.
This area of the brain is vital for learning new information and is responsible for encoding and
retrieval (Carrion & Wong, 2012). A child’s brain is especially vulnerable to stressors during the
critical periods of development, which include infancy, early childhood, and adolescence (Anda
et al., 2006; Santrock, 2015).
Studies within the field of neuroscience have uncovered that chronic traumatic stress can
have significant impairments on childhood brain development and neuroregulatory activity
(Anda et al., 2006; Carrion et al., 2010; Richert et al., 2006). Utilizing MRI technology,
participants with post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) were found to have a reduction in the
total amount of brain tissue and smaller gray matter in the prefrontal cortex than participants
without PTSS (Carrion et al., 2010; Richert et al., 2006). Further, those with PTSS were found to
have reduced activity in the hippocampal regions of the brain during memory retrieval activities
and higher symptoms of avoidance and emotional numbing that those without PTSS (Carrion,
Weems, & Reiss, 2007). These regions of the brain are vital to attention and memory, which
impact academic engagement and, ultimately, performance.
Trauma and schools. As mentioned above, chronic stress can impact significant areas of
the brain required for learning. For school staff, it is thus imperative that a trauma-informed lens
is utilized schoolwide to mitigate the effects of trauma (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall, Cusick, &
Griffin, 2013; West et al., 2014). A trauma-informed lens utilizes a strength-based approach to
raise awareness surrounding the impact of trauma and builds capacity for educators to enhance
schoolwide practices that foster connectedness and restoration (Cole et al., 2005; NCTSN, 2018;
Smithgall et al., 2013; West et al., 2014). Unfortunately, youth who experience trauma may
exhibit a variety of behaviors that impact their ability to learn, and a significant number of
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 37
educators are ill versed in discerning these behaviors from defiance (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall
et al., 2013). These behaviors may include “fighting, running away, cutting, substance abuse,
inability to pay attention, and poor self-regulation skills” (Smithgall et al., 2013, p. 41). For
many students who have a history of trauma, these behaviors can impact their ability to fit the
behavioral mold of a traditional school setting and often find themselves in alternative settings,
including continuation schools (West et al., 2014).
Continuation schools. Youth who have experienced trauma are more likely to be
involved with child welfare agencies and the juvenile justice system (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall
et al., 2013). One study found that “97% of youth taken into state custody by the child welfare
system had experienced a traumatic event and 25% had an identifiable trauma symptom, while
75% of youth in juvenile justice system have experienced traumatic victimization and 50% may
have some post-traumatic stress symptoms” (Smithgall et al., 2013, p. 42). Another study found
that alternative schools had a large percentage of students with trauma; of the thirty-nine
participants, 90% were reported to have a mental health diagnosis (West et al., 2014).
In California, there are four main types of alternative education programs: continuation
schools, county-run community schools, community day schools, and independent study schools
(Ruiz De Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz De Velasco et al., 2008). Continuation schools and
independent study programs are run by school districts and are meant to serve as an alternative
placement for students who need more support than the traditional school can provide.
Community day and county run community schools house expelled students or those with
behavior difficulties. Kelly (1993) found that continuation high schools could be categorized as
either a “safety valve or a safety net program.” Safety valve schools are those that “rid
mainstream schools of failures and misfits without holding school administration accountable for
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 38
the consequences” (Kelly, 1993). Safety net schools were found to be those that focused on the
student and met the needs the traditional school could not (Kelly, 1993). Similarly, Ruiz de
Velasco (2008) found that continuation schools can be described as “student-centered, student-
reform, or dumping ground programs.” The student-centered approach focuses on developing
programs and supports around the need of students, while student reform schools focused on
“fixing” the student to rehabilitate them for reentry to their homeschool (Ruiz de Velasco, 2008).
Dumping ground programs were identified as places for students who would eventually drop out
and punished the students for their failure in the traditional setting. Dumping grounds were also
categorized as a place for ineffective teachers and administrators where employees were placed
involuntarily (Ruiz de Velasco, 2008).
A consistent finding among the literature on continuation schools was their failure to
provide the academic rigor and critical support services that students need to succeed (Dunning-
Lozano, 2016; Munoz, 2004; Ruiz De Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Researchers have
illuminated that “continuation schools are more racially and ethnically concentrated than
traditional comprehensive schools” (Ruiz De Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). One study looked
at whether the overrepresentation of minority students in a discipline alternative education
program (DAEP) was related to discipline or prejudice (Tajalli & Garba, 2014). The findings
supported the claim that the “whiteness” of the school district undesirably affected the
overrepresentation of Black students in the DAEP (Tajalli & Garba, 2014). Another study found
“that these youths, most of whom are students of color, had been systematically forced out of the
mainstream high school at a significantly higher rate than their White peers” (Dunning-Lozano,
2016). Dunning-Lozano, (2016) suggested that forcing minorities out “reveals the role of this
continuation school in safeguarding the maintenance and investment in whiteness through
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 39
relegating mostly Black, Latino, and Southeast Asian student populations to a substandard school
and a curriculum that does not prepare them for direct entry into the public California State
University or University of California System” (Dunning-Lozano, 2016).
Munoz (2004) was also interested in the sort of schooling provided for at-risk Latina
youth in a continuation school in Southern California. The results from his study indicated that
the school system promoted a “three-strikes approach to at-risk youth: Relocate, Engage in
Surveillance, Teach, if possible” (Munoz, 2004). Staff reported through interviews that they
believed their school to be a “welfare school,” where instruction and discipline were secondary
to feeding and clothing, and where students need to feel “good” first and then academic
performance will follow; yet once the students feel “good” about themselves, they do not have
the academic skills or social skills necessary to preserve the “good” feelings (Munoz, 2004).
While reports do indicate the successful outcomes of some continuation schools, they seem to be
the exception, not the norm (Ruiz De Velasco et al., 2008). More research is needed to uncover
the successful outcomes of continuation school students and the role of the school counselors
within this setting. Of schools that have been successful with this population of students, a
trauma-informed lens is suggested.
Trauma-informed. A universal approach to trauma sensitivity is recommended for
school settings (Cole, 2005; Smithgall et al., 2013; West et al., 2014). A three-tiered system of
support, which begins with socio-emotional learning embedded within the curricula of all
courses lays the foundation for more intensive services (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall et al., 2013).
Most importantly, the entire school community must be trained in how to be sensitive to the
needs of these students, but many are not cognizant of what to look for. For example, Smithgall,
et al. (2013) reported that there is a need for a “paradigm shift within schools—from a focus on
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 40
the students’ anger to a focus on the trauma students may have experienced that may have caused
that anger” (Smithgall, et al., 2013, p. 46). An administrator from one study described students as
mentally unstable, volatile, and very angry (Smithgall et al., 2013). A trauma-sensitive
perspective is needed to shift the dialogue from a focus on symptoms to a focus on the
underlying causes of the symptoms. Students shared reflective insight into how triggers can
impact their ability to focus in class.
... this song just brung back everything and I just put my head down on my desk and
bawled my eyes out… reminds you of a really hard time and is hard to like come back
and be able to focus on everything else. (West et al., 2014, p. 62)
Further, students noted the need for teachers and school personnel to treat them
respectfully, as feeling disrespected is a trigger and evokes negative responses in students that
can lead to reciprocated behavior (West et al., 2014). One participant elaborated, saying “I would
tell the staff and the teachers if they need help treat them like you would treat other people. Treat
them like how you would like to be treated if you was in they shoes or something… so if it was
me—just treat the kids with respect, help them when they need help” (p. 62).
Next, school-based intervention and prevention services should be offered to those
needing more support. Researchers have suggested utilizing school-based mental health
resources, such as school counselors who provide individual and group counseling (Cole et al.,
2005). Suggestions for trauma-informed group counseling included Cognitive Behavioral
Interventions for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) and Second Step (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall et al,
2013). Finally, at the most intensive level of support, schools must work collaboratively with
mental health agencies to refer students and families to a higher level of holistic care (Smithgall
et al., 2013).
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It is vital that educators hold a shared view of how trauma can shift the developmental
trajectory of a child’s life and coordinate a comprehensive system of care within the school
setting (Cole et al., 2005; Smithgall et al., 2013). The development of a student’s strengths,
including relationship skills, education, family support, talent, and interests, may be a key factor
in mitigating the effects of trauma and reducing the likelihood of risk-taking behaviors (Cole et
al., 2005; Smithgall et al., 2013). “Schools can provide youth with stable, caring adult
relationships and the opportunity to experience success and mastery of both academic content
and social relationships” (Smithgall et al., 2013, p. 50). While coping with the various levels of
trauma, students reported that their academic environments were not sensitive to their individual
needs and recommended that teachers and staff “promote learning environments where mutually
respectful relationships are present” (West et al., 2014, p. 63). Healing from trauma can occur,
and educators can play a significant role in this reparation (Brown & Shillington, 2017).
Healing from trauma. Research on the developing brain has found that while traumatic
experiences can be incredibly detrimental, there is room for healing (Brown & Shillington, 2017;
Grych, Hamby, & Banyard, 2015). The developing brain of a child has incredible resilience, or
plasticity (Santrock, 2015). Research has found that one significant way to combat the effects of
trauma is to foster resilience by building on strengths and helping students develop protective
factors. Protective factors include individual skills like self-regulation, positive academic and
behavioral factors as well as connecting with caring adults (Brown & Shillington, 2017; Grych,
Hamby, & Banyard, 2015; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2015). Educators
working with students who have experienced trauma should be well versed in how to build safe,
stable, and nurturing relationships with students. Further, educators must create school
communities that allow all students to thrive (Cole et al., 2005). This includes utilizing culturally
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 42
responsive teaching practices and holistic discipline policies that understand how trauma impacts
behavior. However, a recent survey found that while many students come to school with multiple
traumas, few educators feel trained on how to support traumatized students effectively
(Hopkinson, 2017).
School counselors can play a vital role in the facilitation of trauma-informed schools, but
more research is needed surrounding the ways in which school counselors can be leaders in this
work. Thus, a central purpose of this student is to hear from the students about what supported
their ability to overcome trauma and how school counselors can help. The present literature
provides a basis on the impact of trauma on a student’s development, schooling, and the school’s
role. What is missing from the literature is a link that provides school counselors with concrete
perspectives from students with this history, and ways to support their needs. However, as the
next section describes, one suggestion within the literature is that relationships may be a
significant factor in fostering resilience.
Relationships
“Relationships are everything” -Adrienne Maree Brown
Consistent findings in the literature point to the need for students who have experienced
trauma to be supported by a range of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships (Blodgett &
Lanigan, 2018; Cole et al., 2005; NCTSN, 2018). Motivational science shares that at the social
level, humans have a core need to belong and feel connected to one another (Shah & Gardner,
2008). This need to belong and connect with others does not dissipate within traumatized youth.
Research on what mitigates trauma has uncovered that even at the neurological level, human
connections can repair parts of the brain previously damaged by chronic stress and foster
protective factors that facilitate healthy development. Within a school context, school counselors
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can serve as a driving force behind this reparation and build programs that support relational
development between students and staff (Holcomb-Mccoy, 2007).
Relationships and achievement. Academically, caring relationships have been found to
significantly impact engagement and achievement and mitigate against the effects of stress (El-
Sheikh et al., 2014; Levy et al., 2016; Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010, p. 40; Roorda et al., 2011).
Utilizing a meta-analysis, Roorda et al., (2011), reviewed over 99 studies surrounding the impact
of relationships on the engagement and achievement of students. The results indicated that
students who viewed their relationship with teachers as positive were found to have stronger
engagement and achievement (Roorda et al., 2011). Interestingly, a negative relationship with a
teacher was found to be more deteriorating for students academically at risk, as having a
conflictual relationship added an extra burden (Roorda et al., 2011). Students from low-income
backgrounds were found to be significantly influenced by both positive and negative
relationships with teachers. For students who have experienced race-based stress, one study
found that higher levels of school support among African-American youth buffered against the
effects of stress, specifically in the areas of stereotype threat and perceived discrimination (El-
Sheikh et al., 2014).
Research highlights how vital it is for children who have experienced traumatic stress to
be surrounded by people who foster nurturing, warm environments (Ludy-Dobson & Perry,
2010). One study found that youth who had experienced trauma and were without a supportive
network of relationships were perceived to have “relational poverty (Ludy-Dobson & Perry,
2010). Ludy-Dobson and Perry (2010) described relational poverty, a dearth of relationships, as
having significant implications in a child’s life. “The relational poverty played a major role in
this child’s inability to progress; symptoms related to trauma and neglect persisted and increased
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 44
while he was in relationally impoverished settings. Once in a stable placement with positive
relationships created in school and the community, he stabilized and improved” (Ludy-Dobson
& Perry, 2010, p. 40). Thus, the findings support that the presence of supportive relationships
can mitigate the effects of trauma.
Schools can be a place of incredible resilience for students who have been exposed to
trauma. Stanton-Salazar (2001) was interested in understanding the experiences of Latina/o
youth in schools and what helped them overcome barriers to learning. Students reported that
positive relationships with school staff, including their school counselor, helped mitigate barriers
to academic success (Stanton-Salazar, 2001):
The existence of caring and nurturing relationships between students and school
personnel became plainly evident. Instances of loving teachers and counselors providing
emotional support and exhibiting loving parental behaviors emerged throughout our
interviews and observations. The importance of these relationships and their impact on
students were quite evident, as we shall soon see. Our data therefore leave no question
that such relationships do emerge in schools serving working-class minority students
(Stanton-Salazar, 2001, p. 163).
Stanton-Salazar (2001) cautioned that while relationships can have positive effects, often
school counselors can serve as gatekeepers to vital resources and can “play a determining role in
either reproducing or interfering with the reproduction of class, racial, and gendered inequality”
(Stanton-Salazar, 2001, p. 161). Relational wealth can be fostered by growing students’ personal
connections with school staff, students, and community members. It is through this relational
connection and mentorship that students can grow and heal from the trauma of their past
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 45
(Stanton-Salazar, 2001). It is imperative that all school counselors understand their position of
privilege within the school and empower students by building relational wealth.
Reflecting on the theoretical framework of the present study brings to light the
importance of relationships in facilitating connections among systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1986).
Further, it is theorized that it is important to build resilience by building relationships (Brown,
2017). The present study aims to understand how relationships between school counselors and
students can foster resilience and growth. The literature presented here reflects that student-
educator relationships can make an impact on achievement, engagement, and support healing
from traumatic experiences. However, more research is needed to determine the impact of the
school counselor-student relationship and whether it can also make a difference in the lives of
those with a history of trauma. The next section explores the role of the American school
counselor and relevant research related to the present topic.
The American School Counselor
Prior to the 1960s, school counselors mainly focused on vocational guidance related to
job training (ASCA, 2012; Pope, 2000). Between 1960 and 1990, the profession shifted to focus
on “guidance,” incorporating the academic development domain. In 2003, the American School
Counselor Association (ASCA) released the National Model of School Counseling, in response
to the educational accountability movement and to unify the field (Bowers & Hatch, 2005).
Currently, the field is at a crossroads, with newer generations of counselors trained in the
comprehensive school counseling model, which focuses on supporting all students in academic,
college/career and socio-emotional development, and others clinging to the role of the guidance
counselor. This inconsistency leads to an array of school counseling programs that range from
having incredible outcomes with all students compared to “random acts of guidance,” which are
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not recommended by the National Association (Bowers & Hatch, 2005). Research suggests that
some reasons school counselors are not effective is due to a variety of barriers and role confusion
(ASCA, 2012; Barna & Brott, 2011; Lapan, 2012).
Perception of barriers: Caseload sizes. Despite research on the effectiveness of school
counselors on student outcomes, significant barriers continue to plague the profession (ASCA,
2012; Barna & Brott, 2011; Lapan, 2012). One challenge that impedes the success of a school
counselor is the high student-to-counselor ratio (Lapan et al., 2012). ASCA (ASCA, 2012)
recommendeds that to provide comprehensive school counseling, where students receive support
in academic, personal/social, and career development, each counselor should hold a maximum
caseload of 250 students. Caseload sizes vary between states, from the recommended 250
students per counselor to as many as 1,500 students (ASCA, 2012; Carrell & Carrell, 2006;
Lapan, 2012). Additionally, research has found that while school counselors can create an impact
at the elementary level, they are sparse (Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014).
Even though researchers have found that school counselors can impact student outcomes
by providing comprehensive academic, career and personal-social counseling, nationwide school
counselors face barriers that impede their ability to effectively implement this program (ASCA,
2012, Lapan, 2012, Barna & Brott, 2011). Historically, school counselors were seen to provide
basic guidance services related to vocational education, but in recent decades, there has been a
dramatic shift in the profession, which highlights the importance for school counselors to support
all students in a comprehensive, data-driven system (ASCA, 2012; Cook, 2005; Lapan, 2012).
Studies have found that when students have a good relationship with their counselor, they are
more likely to graduate high school, be prepared for college, attend school regularly, and are less
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 47
likely to be suspended (Barna & Brott, 2011; Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014;
Lapan 2012).
Despite findings that smaller counselor caseloads reduce discipline incidents, increase
attendance, and improve academic outcomes, high caseloads continue to be a significant barrier
to school counselor effectiveness (Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014; Lapan et
al., 2012; Lapan, Whitcomb & Aleman, 2012). In various states, research has demonstrated that
when the student-to-counselor ratios were reduced to the recommended amount, students
improved behaviorally and academically, especially within minority and low-income groups
(Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Lapan et al., 2012). Results have indicated that decreasing caseloads
from 544 students per counselor to 250 students resulted in a 10.8% decrease in discipline
incidences for black males and a 9.6% decrease for low-income students (Carrell & Carrell,
2006). Other results indicate that counselors statistically improved achievement and reduced the
incidences of behavior infractions for male students by 29% and 20% for female students
(Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014). Further research points to the importance of counselors in decreasing
the recurrence of behavior incidences and assisting in prevention programs that assist in the
reduction of behaviors, such as anger management, social skills, and substance abuse counseling
groups (ASCA, 2012; Lapan, 2012). School counselors are trained to provide comprehensive
counseling related to the mental health needs of students, but barriers persist (Brown &
Dahlbeck, 2006).
Mental health training. While research has shown that 25% of American students have
some sort of mental illness, 75% of these students do not receive services of a lack of school-
based resources needed to comprehensively provide support (Carlson & Kees, 2013; DeKruf et
al., 2013; Velsor, 2009). One in five youth aged 9–17 have a diagnosable mental disorder, with
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approximately one in 20 youths having mental disorders with extreme impairment (Auger,
2013). Seventy percent of youth in the juvenile justice system have been found to display some
level of mental health concern (Osterlind, Koller, & Morris, 2007). Students labeled as having an
“emotional disturbance” drop out at a rate of more than 50% compared to those without (Auger,
2013). Additionally, students with “disruptive behavior disorders” have negative consequences,
including risk of juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, and a greater likelihood of imprisonment
as an adult, which can stunt their educational and career outcomes (Auger, 2013). For these
reasons, it is critical that school counselors receive the appropriate training on mental health
services and hold the belief that supporting students with these needs is vital to their role.
Research on counselors’ preparation surrounding mental health has uncovered a range of
findings on school counselors’ beliefs regarding this topic (Carlson & Kees, 2013; Morris &
Minton, 2012). Morris and Minton (2012) were interested in understanding how prepared school
counselors were in supporting students in crisis and found that the majority of participants
reported having “no or minimal training” in responding to issues related to trauma: community
disasters (71%), crisis theory (70%), crisis related to physical assault (60%), sexual assault
(59%), partner violence (59%), case management for crisis (58%), violence
management/intervention (58%), and individual/family level trauma (57%). Further, only 20% of
participants reported completing a specific course related to crisis intervention in their graduate
program, while 67% reported no such course was offered at their institution (Morris & Minton,
2012). The recurring theme of Morris and Minton’s (2012) research suggested that crisis
preparation is a critical role of school counselors and must receive further attention.
Additional findings have highlighted that school counselors need more training in how to
support the socio-emotional needs of all students and a removal of barriers that prevent them
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from being effective (Carlson & Kees, 2013; Dekruf et al., 2013; Morris & Minton, 2012).
Specifically, findings reveal that school counselors are underprepared and lack specialized
training on supporting traumatized students (Carlson & Kees, 2013; Dekruf et al., 2013; Morris
& Minton, 2012). Additionally, they are plagued by a series of barriers that impede their ability
to assist students in a comprehensive manner. Carlson and Kees (2013) surveyed 105 school
counselors surrounding their belief in their ability to support the mental health needs of students
on their caseload. Their findings revealed that the participants did not feel as though they were
provided adequate training on supporting students with intense mental health needs, nor did they
have the time considering the magnitude of their other responsibilities (Carlson & Kees, 2013).
This specifically included responding to crisis and supporting students who have experienced
trauma. Of the 24 topics surveyed, crisis and trauma ranked 18 in training competence (Carlson
& Kees, 2013). Considering many students who have experienced trauma use are at risk for
utilizing substances and developing addictions, it is imperative that school counselors be trained
on this issue; however, the study found this was not the case. Substance abuse and addiction
ranked 16 out of the 24 topics school counselors felt adequately trained on (Carlson & Kees,
2013). Conversely, school counselors report that they are qualified to provide mental health
counseling to students, but also feel that the nature of their job precludes them from doing so
(Carlson & Kees, 2013). A significant outcome of the study revealed that “88% of school
counselors reported not having enough time to provide services to students because of demands
placed on them by the school setting” (Carlson & Kees, 2013, p. 219). These demands have been
commonly known as “non-counseling related duties,” and include standardized testing, lunch
supervision, class coverage, among other things (ASCA, 2012).
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Additionally, participants were only 76% comfortable in supporting students with
“multicultural concerns,” 77% comfortable with supporting students struggling with poverty, and
only 56% comfortable in supporting students dealing with issues surrounding immigration
(Carlson & Kees, 2013). This is a concern, considering school counselors are placed to support
all students but lack comfort in supporting a large percentage of students who may be struggling
with trauma related to immigration status, racism, and poverty. Further, the school counselors
surveyed did not believe they have sufficient time to support their students’ emotional needs but
do feel moderately competent in their ability (Carlson & Kees, 2013).
Other key findings from the studies highlight the need for schools to collaborate with
external mental health services and welcome therapists into the school setting. Indeed, school
counselors in this study supported the presence of therapists on the school campus (Carlson &
Kees, 2013; Dekruf et al., 2014). Consequently, 96% of students followed through with school-
based mental health services compared to only 13% of community-based mental health services
(Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013). Building alliances within the school and community
is key; school counselors must provide direct services but also refer out and collaborate with
mental health therapists when necessary (Carlson & Kees, 2013; Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-
Trigiani, 2013). To foster healthy socio-emotional development in students, it is vital that school
counselors support their mental health needs in a comprehensive manner. It is critical that school
counselors are trained in how to support students who have experienced trauma and be aware of
the many resources available to help.
Student Voice
It is important to note that while conducting a thorough search on student perspectives on
school counselors, the literature is sparse. While some findings did reveal school counselors
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being supportive adults in their lives, most students shared that school counselors have not
supported them in the ways they needed. This topic is important to address because without
students, schools would not exist. However, as outlined in prior sections, the educational
research fails to include them at the table when designing programs. Thus, it is vital to recognize
students as a key stakeholder and empower them to voice their needs and insights.
Researchers interested in understanding the perspectives of students have found that their
experiences with their school counselor have not been especially helpful in supporting their
socio-emotional and educational needs (Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007; Slaten et al., 2015;
Stanton-Salazar, 2001; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Vela-Gude et al. (2009) were interested in
understanding eight Latino students’ experience with their high school counselor regarding
expectations. Their results indicated that the students felt their school counselors were never
there for them—emotionally or academically (Vela-Gude et al., 2009). All students, except one,
felt their counselors held low expectations of them while catering to privileged students (Vela-
Gude et al, 2009).
My other counselors, I can say they were mean because they only paid attention to the
people that they wanted to. And it wasn’t the people that needed the help because they
were the low-income people or the people that really needed help other from attending
school. They needed help when it came to their parents, and their parents taking them to
school, and the violence at home. They weren’t helping them, but yet they were helping
all the athletic people, all the popular kids, and all the rich kids of the school. But people
like me who don’t come from those rich families, and don’t come from the established
families, weren’t getting the help that we needed. (Vela-Gude et al, 2009, p. 276)
The authors illuminated that school counselors must be trained in social justice advocacy
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 52
and learn how to challenge oppression. Further, the study highlighted the need for counselors to
be culturally competent and reject deficit-based views of students from oppressed communities
and provide equitable, comprehensive services while maintaining high expectations for all (Vela-
Gude et al, 2009). While this study was unique in bringing in the voices of college
undergraduates, more information is needed to determine whether other groups of students have
similar experiences or beliefs.
Student voice was also the centerpiece of another study entitled, “Hearing the voice of
youth at risk of academic failure,” by Slaten et al., (2015). Utilizing a qualitative design, the
researchers sought to understand the experiences of youth who have been marginalized in
educational settings by being labeled at-risk of academic failure (Slaten et al., 2015). The
participants included in the study had transferred from a comprehensive high school to the small
alternative high school where the study took place, which was in a rural community in the
Midwest (Slaten et al., 2015). All 11 participants were white high school students, considered to
be socioeconomically disadvantaged, and equally distributed in gender. Utilizing interviews with
the participants, the researchers were interested in understanding what the students thought about
the adults at their former school, including their expectation of them and what types of supports
they needed to find success. One important theme amongst the findings were the students’ need
for genuine, caring relationships with adults on campus (Slaten et al., 2015). While the
participants felt their current school was supporting them holistically, they believed other schools
did not:
They didn’t ever want to take the time, it was always, “Well, I have a life, too.” That
makes you think, well, if that’s how you are, then don’t be a teacher. I mean, I guess you
may be knowledgeable in the area, but you’re not being supportive, you’re not being a
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teacher. You’re being an employee at like Taco Bell. You’re just doing it ‘cause you have
to, you’re not doing it ‘cause you want to. (Slaten et al., 2015, p. 212)
Overall, the findings illuminated that educators must refute the deficit-based notion that
students are “at-risk,” and work toward fostering relationships that emanate genuineness,
empathy, and warmth (Slaten et al., 2015).
To further the importance of student voice and highlight student needs, another study
sought to understand how Latino high school students perceive their school counselor and
understand which characteristics they believe are preferable for a counselor to embody
(Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007). Utilizing a qualitative design, researchers interviewed 10
Latino high school students using a semi-structured interview protocol. The findings from the
interviews illuminated again the voices of students and their need for school counselors who “(a)
are understanding, (b) could relate to students, (c) are patient, (d) are trustworthy, (e) try to help
with problems, (f) take the time to listen, (g) are friendly, and (h) speak Spanish” (Eckenrod-
Green & Culbreth, 2007, p. 12). Another critical finding that stood out was that multiple students
did not know who their counselor was and none sought out their counselor for personal
counseling (Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007). Students reported feeling like their school
counselor did not genuinely care about them as well as a lack of trust in them. Students also
shared that they would like to see counselors be more supportive to Latino students. One adds:
“I wouldn’t want to come back to her for help or anything...They’re just doing their jobs”
and cited feeling “like a number.” Another student stated, I don’t think I would go to the
counselors here, I guess, and tell them problems about my family. I don’t think I would
talk to them. I don’t know. I guess I just wouldn’t trust them. They’re not the type of
people I could trust. I don’t have that confidence with them... Put some posters outside in
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the halls for the peoples so they can come and see the counselor if they have some
problems. Help Americans and Hispanics. (Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007, p. 12–15)
While the studies presented here highlight the detrimental impact school counselors have
had in their lives, Stanton-Salazar (2001) uncovered that among students who have experienced
trauma, school counselors and other school personnel were key in mitigating the effects. He
reported that “Salvador carried with him a number of emotional burdens as well as memories of
past traumatic experiences that awaited future resolution.” This student shared that his school
counselor was an influential person in his life.
He’s the one that mostly influence me; ‘cause, I mean, for a while, my grades and
everything were f*ed up. Y el me decia que no, que I’m not going to make it and he’d tell
me that no, that I’m going to make it. I mean, everyone would tell me, you know, like, “I
don’t think you’ll be able to go to college cause your grades, you know, unless you work
on your grade point average,” and all this sh*t you know. But, he told me different ways
that I could do it. (Stanton-Salazar, 2001, p. 172)
The student voices presented here illuminate limited stories utilizing student perspectives
on how school counselors have supported them. School counselors are integral to the school
system and can be a major source of strength, resilience, and relational wealth for students who
have experienced trauma, but further data are needed to support this.
Summary
The present chapter revealed core pillars of the study, including theories, concepts, and
historical framing. Brown’s (2017) emergent strategy unveiled key principles that guide the
study. These principles, including fractals and relational resilience, undergird the power of
connections to build hope (Brown, 2017). Further, by remembering that small pieces make up
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the larger whole, we can start to uncover ways to make large-scale change with small and
consistent interactions. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1986) offers a global
perspective in that each system with which students interact adds a piece to their story. These
systems, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem, were shared
surrounding their ability to play a role in shaping the experiences and perspectives of our
students (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). As school counselors are key players who interact with and are
influenced by these systems, it is imperative to utilize Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical principles to
guide further sections. Emergent strategy (2017) coupled with the ecological systems theory
(1986) provided insight to the micro- and macro systems that contribute to the relationship
between students and school counselors. Further, as the chronosystem is a key piece of the
ecological systems theory (1986), a review of the historic elements that have contributed to this
topic were explored.
The historical context, including how school counselors have contributed to the
educational debt within traumatized populations, was discussed. While school counselors can be
an incredible source of hope and support for students experiencing trauma, their presence in the
school systems was not always equitable. Students attending segregated schools also attended
school with a severe lack of resources, including school counselors. Thus, for generations,
students of color have been excluded from receiving appropriate support related to academics,
social-emotional, and college/career advisement. The role of the school counselor within this
historical context has fluctuated greatly overtime, from a focus on vocational guidance, to mental
health support, to a comprehensive school counseling program (ASCA, 2012). Within this
historical context interplays the role of the counselor in acting in a system that perpetuated
inequities. Presently, it is imperative that school counselors develop and implement programs
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 56
that embody a social justice framework to ensure equitable services for all students, specifically
those who have been historically marginalized and harmed by generations of race-based trauma.
The literature review section of the present chapter illuminated four key topics: trauma,
relationships, the American school counselor, and student voices. These topics are vital to
understand for two reasons. First, when reviewed alone, each topic has a critical role in
impacting the educational outcome of students. Second, when coupled together, each piece
builds a strong mosaic of understanding that recognizes the pain and errors of the past, but also
the beautiful stories and strength and futures that can grow from pain.
Trauma, as detailed through research on adverse childhood experiences, development,
learning, and healing, can have major influences on a child’s life. As shared through the lens of
neuropsychology, chronic stress can impede the development of a healthy stress management
system within the brain as well as impact areas involved in attention, memory, and self-
regulation. These cognitive impacts were found to have implications on how students learn and
attend to material in the classroom. However, while trauma can be detrimental in the life of a
student, research is clear that healing can occur. Practices that repair trauma and create safe
learning environments for all students were described including building programs that facilitate
protective factors, such as trauma-informed schools.
Another topic that was explored includes the impact of school-based relationships on
achievement, engagement, and trauma reparation. Of the research presented, relationships were
found to be a strong influence on a student’s educational outcomes. Indeed, for students
experiencing trauma, relationships with school staff were found to mitigate against the effects
and foster resilient learners. Indeed, findings revealed that when children who had been
classified as having “relational poverty” were united with caring adults, the effects of the
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relational poverty reversed. The authors suggest that school personnel can indeed be one of those
caring adults.
Next, the section on American school counselors indicated that while school counselors
want to support students who have mental health needs, there are many barriers that preclude
them from attending fully to their students’ needs. While one of the domains of the National
Model of School Counseling is socio-emotional development, research highlights that many
school counselors do not feel adequately prepared to respond to students who have experienced
trauma or other crises. This lack of preparation coupled with a magnitude of barriers, such as
unreasonable caseload sizes and time-consuming non-counseling related duties, adds to a
widening crack students with mental health needs continue to slip through.
Student voice is critical to understand when exploring this topic. However, limited
research exists surrounding their perspectives. This is important to note because students are a
key stakeholder in their education, but many programs are designed without their input. The
research presented within this section illuminated a sparse amount of research surrounding
student experiences with their school counselors. One article, “My counselors were never there,”
documents the views of Latina/o students surrounding their school counselor’s lack of support,
low expectations of them, and overall limited availability (Vela-Gude, 2009). Other studies
shared that some students were unaware of who their school counselor even was or perceived
their school counselor to be uncaring and busy. However, other research highlights the
dichotomy of the field: some students reported their school counselor as a life-changing
inspiration. Overall, the section presented the need for more research that incorporates students’
perspectives.
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As Brown (2017) shared, “The large is a reflection of the small” (p. 41). Each topic
explored through this section are small pieces of the whole that make up this chapter. While each
small piece is mighty and imperative, put together they build a mosaic of experiences of pain and
promise. These topics weave together to build an understanding surrounding trauma and how it
can impact a student’s schooling, but also how relationships can foster resilience. Further, school
counselors and students are presented to share both sides of the story. For school counselors, it is
to share reasoning behind why there may be a lack of support surrounding mental health
services. For students, it is to illuminate their beliefs about their school counselors’ ability to
support their needs, and to elevate their voices. The relationships that students and school
counselors build together may be paramount against the shade of trauma and must be explored
further.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to understand the educational journey of continuation
school students who have experienced trauma and the role school counselors played throughout
their educational journey. However, “to change systemic outcomes within the current
educational paradigm, we need new ways of looking at the problem and different methodologies
toward reform. Critical methodologies expose approaches that challenge taken-for-granted norms
and illuminate structures of power and domination within the current system” (Hinga &
Conchas, 2016, p. 183). For the present study, a critical methodology was utilized to understand
how power structures within the educational system oppress students with a history of trauma.
Further, as Conchas and Hinga (2016) proposed, “for transformation to occur, we need to look at
the situation in new ways, from new perspectives, and through the lens of community members
most impacted by inequities” (Hinga & Conchas, 2016, p. 184). Thus, the present study elevated
the significance of student beliefs by bringing their lived experiences to life through the use of
their personal stories.
Testimonios
One type of critical methodology, testimonio, guided the design of this study.
Testimonio is rooted in Latin American cultures to record oppressive experiences and to
illuminate the voices of marginalized groups (Perez Huber, 2009). Testimonio is described as
authentic narratives and personal journeys that reveal one’s experiences with systemic injustice
(Brabeck, 2001; Yudice, 1991). As testimonio is a critical methodology, it is vital that these
stories allow “the individual to transform past experience and personal identity, creating a new
present and enhancing the future” (Cienfuegos & Monelli, 1983, p. 46). It is imperative to hear
the perspectives of students who have experienced societal trauma, including racism,
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discrimination, and poverty, and how this trauma has led to marginalization within their
schooling. Thus, it is the hope that through testimonios, the students will be able to reflect on
their own experiences with injustice within the school system and use the trauma of the past as a
source of strength for the future. Utilizing testimonios allows for a deeper understanding of the
educational journeys of a group of continuation school students and their experiences with
school counselors.
The theoretical frameworks that grounded this study are highly connected to the selected
methodology. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1986), which posits that individuals
are influenced by layers of systems, such as families, cultures, neighborhoods, peers, and
schools, connects with testimonio because each system influences an individual’s experience.
These experiences and systems can have profound impacts on how individuals interact with the
world. Further, emergent strategy deepens the connection to testimonio because small, relational
interactions have large-scale implications on an individual’s life experience and reflection of
their past (Brown, 2017). The present study examined the ways in which students with a history
of trauma have been impacted by inequities and how school counselors, whether aware or not,
have contributed to these inequities. Thus, framing the study with both a systemic, macro and
micro lens may allow rich stories of pain, change, growth, and resilience to surface. Testimonio,
emergent strategy, and the ecological systems theory align with the purpose of the present study
in a holistic, connected manner. For instance, testimonio as a method allows for the exploration
of the participants’ unique journeys and perspectives, while the lens of emergent strategy
respects the power of these individual journeys to bring about large-scale change. As Brown
(2017) stated, “Small is good. Small is all. The large is a reflection of the small” (p. 41).
Testimonios and the ecological systems theory relate by understanding that systems within
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schooling power structures oppress individuals and can be uncovered through the voices of these
students. All three relate in a critical manner in that they challenge the schooling experiences of
students from continuation schools and illuminate oppressive power structures. However, to
further unveil power structures within the present study, it is imperative to share the position of
the researcher within this system.
Positionality
Researchers who wish to study populations from a critical lens must first turn that lens
inward to both understand and reveal their view of the world. Positionality refers to the ways we
come to know and interact with the world, including our race, values, goals, political views,
gender, social class, economic status, personal experiences, and much more (Bang &
Voussoughi, 2016; Patel, 2015). Positionality influences what we choose to research, the
questions we ask, the people we choose to research as well as the way we interpret findings
(Bang & Voussoughi, 2016; Patel, 2015). It is vital that researchers divulge their positionality
early on to set a clear context surrounding decisions that impact the study, participants, methods,
and findings. Further, as Bang and Voussoughi, (2016) explained, an absence of positionality
may serve to “conceal racialized, classed, gendered, colonizing power dynamics” (p. 177).
To be transparent, Patel, (2015) suggested that researchers wishing to study communities
should first answer the following questions: Why me? Why now? Why this? Why there?
Answering these questions can help researchers take a reflective pause and analyze why they are
the right person to do the research, why this is the right time, and why the specific topic and
community they are interested in studying should be studied (Patel, 2015). These questions
should not only take place in the beginning of a research study, but be embedded throughout the
entire project (Patel, 2015). The importance of asking these questions connects to the importance
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of viewing research as a relational process and understanding the harm it can do, and has done,
to marginalized communities. Further, as traditional research seeks to find gaps and deficits in
populations, these questions can serve as a guide to mitigate the barriers of frameworks that view
populations as damaged and “at-risk” (Patel, 2015).
As a continuation high school counselor working with populations of students who have
been deemed at risk, I feel incredibly connected this population. Growing up, I developed the
belief that I was one of the “bad” kids. I was told I would make a great counselor for the “bad
kids” because I was one myself. In these respects, I feel linked to this group of students because I
know what it is like to go through adolescence with meaningless, damaging labels. Further, as a
high school student I was exposed death by gun violence, which led me to experience a great
deal of post-traumatic stress. As a student, it was difficult to navigate school while experiencing
the range of emotions that accompanied the trauma and manage the grief I was experiencing. In
school, I did not feel supported in my experience of this trauma and grief and wondered why. I
decided to become a school counselor to ensure all students developed a sense of purpose in this
world and foster a belief that they matter, that they are cared for, and that they are not a “bad”
kid. In these respects, I feel connected to this group of students because of my personal and
professional history.
I am acutely aware that from the outside, as a middle-class white woman, I have led an
incredibly privileged life and recognize how this privilege influences my experiences and
worldview. However, within my blood runs the deep wounds of historical trauma—trauma of my
ancestors and the battles they faced for freedom and land—trauma of the women who migrated
millions of miles for a better life. I am Native American. I am Mexican. I am West African. I am
Jewish. But also, within my blood runs the lineage of conquerors. Of warriors and white men. I
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am a walking conquest, a blend of victory and vain, yin and yang. I am East Asian. I am Russian.
I am Viking. I am Iberian. I am European. I am southern. I am German. I am white. We are the
killers. We are the killed. We are the conquerors. We are the conquered. But I am also a story of
how relationships filled with love prevailed in the face of this darkness, a living story of
resilience and hope. My worldview is centered around the belief that we are all connected. A
belief that through relational connections, with one another and with our past, we can recognize
that we all hold a piece of this earth.
So why am I the right person to study this population? Internally, I am struggling with
whether I should even focus on this for fear of becoming another white researcher who harms
communities. However, as Patel (2015) further illuminated, “in keeping with a view that
knowledge and ways of knowing are intricately tied and co-influential, there is not a static set of
experiences, preferred personhoods, or social locations befitting educational research. Rather, we
must be able to ask and articulate an answer to “Why me?” that is attentive to connections
beyond academic qualifications and institutional affiliations. Our responsibilities lie in how we
frame, approach, and attend to the constantly fluctuating dynamics being researched and how the
research is exacting impacts” (p. 59). Thus, I had to be cognizant at all stages of my research
about the voice of the community I am studying and potential implications of harm that may
arise. Why me? Because I firmly believe that school counselors can impact in the lives of all
students, and I know there are beautiful stories to uncover about the magnitude of change that
has come via the school counselor-student relationship. Why this? Trauma has major
implications on a child’s development and ability to succeed in academic settings. It is
imperative that school counselors are aware of the unique needs of students with a history of
trauma and recognize the power of their presence in facilitating resilience. Further, white
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students continue to persist academically at higher rates than marginalized peers. School
counselors must recognize the link between historical trauma and academic failure within
oppressed communities. Why now? Students deserve educators that will walk beside them and
support them in discovering their dreams. Our students deserve the best, and the field of school
counseling lacks clear research on this topic. The time is now to hear from a different group of
students and provide insight into how school counselors can help them persist.
Throughout my work as a school counselor, I have worked in all levels of schools but
mostly in the alternative educational setting. I have worked closely with students who have
experienced deep layers of trauma and have heard countless stories of how school counselors
have failed our students, as well as created avenues of hope and connection. In my heart, I know
that we can and must do better for our students. I also know that these are all assumptions I carry
surrounding our work and recognize the deficit view that I have developed over the years. It is
critical that I refuse to see our at-risk students as at risk and instead as beautiful, holistic people
who come from cultures with incredible strengths, dreams, desires, connections, and stories.
School counselors are trained to support all students in academic, social-emotional, and college-
career development; it is time we recognize that within our students lives vast amounts of rich
diversity that should be celebrated and integrated in all research projects. Thus, I hope that the
present study can help shed light on how other school counselors engage in this system and
magnify student experiences and perspectives.
Research Questions
The aim of the present study was to illuminate the personal educational journeys of
continuation school graduates who have experienced traumatic stress and understand the role of
school counselors within their journeys. To understand this, students’ perspective was the driving
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voice behind the study. Since the purpose of qualitative inquiry is to uncover and understand the
experiences of specific groups of people, a qualitative design guided this study (Maxwell, 2013).
Utilizing the qualitative, critical methodology of testimonios, the intention of the study was to
uncover the personal narratives of participants. As testimonio is a critical methodology, it was
vital that these stories allow “the individual to transform past experience and personal identity,
creating a new present and enhancing the future” (Cienfuegos & Monelli, 1983, p. 46). The
following research questions served as a roadmap for the study:
1. How do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive their
journey through the K–12 educational system?
2. What do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe about their
school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs?
As noted previously, the theoretical framework that grounds this study includes
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1986) and Brown’s emergent strategy (2017).
These theories celebrate the impact of connections and systems in facilitating growth and change
and view the individual as a piece of a larger whole (Brown, 2017; Bronfenbrenner, 1986).
Individuals interact with, and are impacted by, the environment. Thus, the notion that, “All that
you touch you change. All that you change, changes you” (Butler, 1993, p. 1), framed the way
the literature review was viewed, and the way the study was conducted. Further, each student is a
piece of the larger student body, the larger school district, county, state, and nation. We must
view each life within our school system as an integral piece of a larger whole—each life matters.
Both theories celebrate the impact of the individual, which is why the present frameworks were
selected.
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Setting
The present study focused on the experiences of continuation high school graduates. For
accessibility purposes, the participants were recruited from a California community college. This
context was vital to answer the research questions of the present study because the researcher
sought to understand the experiences of continuation school students and their educational
journey, including how the trauma they have experienced in their environment has played a role
in their schooling.
Participants
Eight continuation school graduates were purposefully selected to bring together a rich
understanding of each student’s individual journey and collective experiences. Purposeful
sampling is “based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and
gain insight, and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned” (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016, p. 96). Participants were recruited via email using a flyer that listed
requirements for the study. Of the eight participants, three were Latino males, four were Latina
females, and one was an Asian female. As a requirement of the study, the participants must have
experienced some layer of trauma during their K–12 schooling. All participants were first-
generation college students who attended the same California community college.
Data Collection and Instrument Protocols
A qualitative design was selected for this study for a variety of reasons. First, qualitative
designs allow researchers to understand how specific individuals experience the world and learn
from participants through their own stories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Second, they allow for a
wide array of data collection, including interviews with a variety of participants (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The aim of the present study was to understand what students believe about their
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educational journey and overall support from school counselors. To illuminate this, interviews
were utilized as the primary instruments of data collection. These methods were appropriate for
this research study due to the unique narratives the researcher sought to uncover.
Instruments
Interviews were semi-structured, which included pre-written interview questions
(Appendix A; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Semi-structured interviews also allow for flexibility in
the order and adding of additional questions if necessary (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Weiss, 1995). The interview questions were aligned with each research question and
sought to uncover information related to K–12 educational experiences, students’ perceptions of
school counselors, their journey through school, trauma, turning points, and key relationships
that supported them throughout their schooling. These instruments were effective in addressing
the research questions posed because they incorporate both academic and rich, narrative data,
and highlight multiple, varied perspectives.
Process
Interviews were a central form of data collected for this study; therefore, appropriate time
was dedicated to each. Weiss (1995) suggested that for interviews to be comprehensive, they last
between one to two hours. Thus, student interviews lasted approximately one hour, with the
longest being an hour and 40 minutes. It was critical to gain access appropriately, and thus
permission of community college staff, including the communications department, dean, and
institutional review board was garnered (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Interviews took place at the
community college, in a confidential, designated area. All interviews were recorded with
participant approval. Additionally, all participants were provided a list of counseling resources
available to them at their college and community.
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Data Analysis
The ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) and emergent strategy (Brown,
2017) were used through a lens that views systems and relational connections as vital to
understanding the educational journeys of continuation school students with a history of trauma.
Further, these theories were utilized in a manner that integrated the role of relationships within
systems, specifically with school counselors and students. These theories are useful in that they
highlight the imperative nature of connections and systems and how relational interactions are
powerful in influencing change (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Brown, 2017). This framework
permitted a way through which to engage in data analysis by utilizing the constant comparative
method. The constant comparative method is an approach that respects the emergent nature of
data collection by engaging in sampling that is purposeful and relevant to the phenomenon
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Concepts and themes were identified initially and continued to evolve
as data were collected. This method is aligned with the frameworks by recognizing that human
nature is emergent, and the systems and structures we engage with are evolving; thus, the inquiry
process should too.
After reviewing the data collected, the next step was to enter a process of categorization
called coding. The goal of coding is to “fracture the data and rearrange them into categories that
facilitate comparison” (Maxwell, 2013). The first step was to determine any a priori codes that
emerge from the topic. A priori codes for the present study were gathered from a review of
relevant research and by deconstructing research questions. Coding includes four distinct,
nonlinear processes: open coding, axial coding, category construction, and the development of
assertions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Open coding begins with establishing discrete, open codes
that are judgement free and may include direct quotes and words as basic units of identification
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(Lichtman, 2014). Open coding includes reviewing the raw data and developing names and
categories (Lichtman, 2014). After open codes are established, they were grouped together in a
process called axial coding. This type of coding goes beyond the basic description of the open
codes to bring meaning and interpretation to them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through the
process of axial coding, patterns and categories begin to emerge from the sets of data (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is important to note that
“categories must be exhaustive, mutually exclusive, as sensitive to the data as possible and be
conceptually congruent” (p. 213). This means that there must be sufficient categories to capture
all the data, be relevant for only one category, and be at the same level of abstraction (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). After all categories are complete, the next step is to bring together the data to
identify findings and justify assertions (Harding, 2013). Thus, these methods were able to answer
the proposed research questions because of the thorough and varied methods of data collection
and analysis.
Limitations and Delimitations
Delimitations are boundaries intentionally set for the study and how it is bounded in
scope. For the present study, these include the use of only one school site due to the nature of
time constraints. Other delimitations relate to the specific topic selected to explore, trauma,
which can vary for everyone. Limitations are potential weaknesses or shortcomings of the
study’s design. Limitations for this study include only using student participants selected via a
pool of email candidates. Additionally, with the sensitive nature of the topic of trauma, it may be
a limitation in that student participants needed to feel comfortable to discuss such personal
topics.
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Credibility and Trustworthiness
To ensure credibility, transferability, dependability, and trustworthiness, a variety of
methods were utilized including triangulation, an audit trail, and rich/thick descriptions.
Credibility is how believable and accurate the findings are (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Triangulation is a method used to ensure credibility by using “multiple sources of data collection
methods to confirm findings” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, p. 259, 2016). For the
present study, eight interviews were included to gather diverse viewpoints to confirm the
findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Transferability is the ways in which the findings can apply
to other situations and is not determined by the researcher, but by the context studied (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). Throughout this study, all components, methods, procedures, and data were
thoroughly described through rich descriptions for transferability purposes (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Dependability is the “consistency, trackability and logic of the research design and
process” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Methods utilized to ensure dependability include triangulation
and audit trails, which allow for multiple measures and clear documentation of how conclusions
about the data were made (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Audit trails are one way to provide
confirmability and are a “detailed account of the methods, procedures, and decision points in
carrying out the study” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Audit trails help ensure trustworthiness
because they bring transparency to the study by careful explanation of the researchers thought
process and actions taken (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Ethical questions surrounding this topic must be addressed, including, “What can
research do to really improve the situation” (Tuck, 2009)? The perspectives of students with a
history of trauma are absent from literature. It is imperative that their stories be uncovered so
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educators can learn from this otherwise silenced group. Additionally, the field of school
counseling lacks research on the role of school counselors in the lives of these students, so it is
important to address this as well.
Another question must be explored related to framing: “How does the framing of the
research impact the ethics” (Tuck, 2009)? It is critical that the framing of the research elicits a
theory of change that does not center around a damaged view of the students I studied. The
framing includes theories that showcase the strength of the participants while acknowledging that
harm has been done to them in the school system. While school counselors are central to the
research, the most powerful voice is the students. The short-term benefits of research on this
community will be awareness surrounding strategies school counselors can employ to assist
students. Long-term benefits will include a shift in the training of counselors and awareness
surrounding the harm that has been done for generations. This includes how we can serve as
advocates to disrupt systems that perpetuate educational debt and work to help repay the
educational debt own to students from oppressed communities.
Relational, historical, and ethical dimensions of research must be unveiled to ensure
transparency and limit harm. School counselors and students work together in a relational
capacity. For students to trust counselors, they must feel that they are cared about. As Bang and
Vossoughi (2016) noted, “learning environments that embrace linguistic hybridity and
multilingualism can open up distinct subject-subject relations… teachers come to recognize and
embrace who students are as well as the range of intellectual resources they bring to learning,
and students come to see teachers as caring, engaged adults invested in their well-being” (p.
179). The relational dimension of the research I wished to engage in is the foundation of trust
that counselors must build with students to foster growth.
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Historically, school counselors served to support students in vocational endeavors. What
the literature has failed to report is whether school counselors were even a part of the schooling
of oppressed students, for example those in segregated schools. As Bang and Vossoughi (2016)
highlighted, “invisibility is not an innocent oversight but often a historically accumulated
manifestation of power” (p. 182). Thus, it is evident that this profession has only recently come
to support this population and attributed for many years to the educational debt own to children
from these communities.
The mission of the ASCA is to support all students in three domains: academic,
college/career, and social-emotional development (ASCA, 2012). However, this mission is not a
reality. Students across America are consistently left behind. It is our moral and ethical duty to
support all students and recognize how our implicit biases may affect the work we do. As a
member of the school counseling community, I believe it is time that a researcher who
understands our profession takes a deeper look at the systems we have in place that perpetuate
inequities as well as uncover unique strategies and stories to support our marginalized
populations.
To ensure that the study was completed ethically, several steps were taken. First, the
subjects were provided with details about the purpose of the study, which helped to empower
them to make an informed decision whether to participate (Glesne, 2011). During the interview
process, participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, anonymous, and could
be withdraw at any moment of the study (Glesne, 2011). Informed consent was gathered on
record from interviewees upon the start of the interview. Rapport building was critical and done
during the early stages of the interview process by showing respect, honoring promises, and
doing no harm (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
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Chapter Four: Presentation of the Data and Findings
“Learning from my journey and where I came from and the whole adversity I overcame...
Yeah, I learned that I do matter and that my story matters.” Anthony
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an in-depth understanding of the
educational journeys experienced by continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma,
including the role of school counselor support. The testimonio gained from each participant
provides a unique glimpse into the lives of students otherwise absent from the literature. Their
perspective shines light on trauma’s impact on schooling and how supportive educational
environments and relationships fostered resilience and personal growth amongst the participants.
The participants further illuminate the importance of school counselors within their journey and
the power of their role. To answer the research questions below, this chapter provides a themed
analysis of the testimonios and interweaves the participants’ own words to support the themes.
Theoretical Framework and Research Questions
Utilizing the methodology of testimonios, the aim of the present study was to uncover the
unique educational journeys of eight continuation high school graduates. The methodology was
framed by two theories: emergent strategy (Brown, 2017) and ecological systems
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Emergent strategy focuses on utilizing the power of the individual to
influence the whole and supports the notion that it is within our human nature to turn the toxicity
of trauma into empowering futures (Brown, 2017). To understand the participants’ journey,
emergent strategy was used as an analytical lens. Utilizing it as a lens to make sense of the data
has brought to light the ways each participant has not only overcome their trials but used their
past and those surrounding them as a source of strength to propel them forward.
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The ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) was also utilized as an analytical
lens. The theory suggests that individuals may be influenced by the various systems that
surround them. At the microsystem level, participants described how family structures, peer
groups, neighborhood interactions, and school experiences created an impact. Through all
interviews, it was evident that the traumas students experienced at this level influenced the other
pieces of their microsystem. For example, situations occurring in their neighborhood impacted
their school attendance and situations in their peer group impacted their family connections.
Within the exosystem, participants shared how they were impacted by their parents’ work
schedules and awareness of the educational system. Within the macrosystem, participants shared
how their cultural understanding of school influenced them. For example, all participants shared
about being first-generation college students and how most of their parents did not graduate high
school. Participants noted that for many of their families, it was a general cultural belief that
while school was important, working and providing for the family took precedence. This also
includes whether participants are exposed to intergenerational trauma or trauma specific to their
generation. For the scope of this study, the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem came through during analysis of the data.
The present study utilized a desire-based framework as the foundation. A desire-based
framework seeks to reject deficit-based rhetoric surrounding communities that may have
experienced harm, by refusing to flatten people to their harms (Tuck, 2009). We do this first by
naming and recognizing the complex social and historical traumas experienced, as well as the
resilience and strength fostered through these experiences. A desire-based framework is key for
this specific study, as it is vital to empower the stories of participants by bringing out their
unique experiences with trauma, but also their vivacity to use their past as a source of
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empowerment. For this reason, the findings share the personal traumas of participants first to
name these harms and then conclude with themes surrounding resilience.
The findings are organized by themes that arose from the coding of the data. Coding
began with the establishment of a priori codes, which were garnered from the theoretical frames.
These include ecological systems of influence (Bronfenbrenner, 1986), such as the microsystem,
mesosystem, and exosystem, as well as principles of emergent strategy (2017), such as
resilience, fractals, and relationships. A priori codes were also developed to make sense of the
data and included trauma, comprehensive school, continuation school, school counselor, and
relationships. Embedded within these themes includes the analysis of the following research
questions:
1. How do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive their
journey through the K–12 educational system?
2. What do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe about their
school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs?
Presentation of the Findings
While each educational journey presents the voices of the individual experiences,
commonalities arose between several participants regarding their educational journeys. The
following section highlights the major themes that came to light through the testimonios.
Embedded within each theme includes the personal narratives of each participant and how their
story supports these themes. Further, indicated within the themes are their relationship to each
research question. Themes include:
Trauma ’s Impact on Schooling (RQ1). All participants experienced trauma outside of
school that they believed to impact their educational journey.
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Comprehensive School Experiences (RQ1). The comprehensive school experiences
discussed include various challenges and supports participants believed to impact their
educational journey.
Continuation School as Turning Point (RQ1). Participants shared about their
experiences at the continuation school being a positive turning point in their educational journey,
including a statement about their continuation school.
School Counselors Supports (RQ2). Participants reported a great deal about their
interactions with school counselors in K–12, including academic, college and career, and social
emotional support received or not received. Included are specific experiences with
comprehensive and continuation school counselors, along with a statement of each.
Supporting Students with Trauma (RQ2). Participants shared what type of support
they feel would be helpful for students experiencing trauma, including school counselors who are
non-judgmental, welcoming, trusting, friendly, genuine, and open to sharing their personal
experiences.
Relationship Repair (RQ1 & RQ2). Participants reflected on the importance of
relationships they developed with adults in the educational setting and how the support they
received assisted them in overcoming trauma’s impact on school.
Personal Growth and Resilient Mindset (RQ1). Participants believed that while many
factors impacted their schooling, it was their mindset to keep going in the face of these factors
that led to the development of personal growth and resilience.
Trauma ’s Impact on Schooling
The following section addresses research question one: How do continuation high school
graduates with a history of trauma perceive their journey through the K–12 educational system?
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This analysis within this specific section illuminates how vital the microsystem is in influencing
an individual’s life. All participants experienced trauma outside of school that they perceived to
impact their well-being, and in turn, their academics. As Jessica noted, “Trauma was pretty
consistent throughout my life. If it wasn’t one thing, it was another, and another, and another.”
These traumas range from witnessing peer and community violence and death, to parental
absence/incarceration, and neglect. Jordan added, “My house was constantly raided. Always
cops there, drugs... My brother’s older friend—he got stabbed down my street. He died in the
middle of the street. He just bled out right there. That was when I was in, I think, elementary
school still.” Similarly, Justine relayed, “My step dad was in and out of prison.” For some of the
participants, these traumas led to relational impacts, such as a lack of trust and relationships with
adults, aggression toward peers, and familial conflicts. For instance, Victoria shared, “I was four
years old when my dad got killed. And then after that, I lost six more uncles, his brothers. So, it
was every two years, they were killed… every two years, the next one would die, and the next
one would die. And so, as I was getting older, and I’m losing all these uncles, it gave me a lot of
not maybe trust issues, but just issues with attachments to people, connections with people
because you don’t know when they’re going to leave. So that’s something that I grew up with,
thinking that no one’s permanent. And that’s not okay.” Most of the participants relayed that the
traumas they experienced led to increased substance use, anxiety, and risky behavior. Anthony
shared the following:
I know you’re talking about education, but a lot of things happened outside of school that
affected my education. A lot played into a role when I dropped out of school because I
was on drugs. I was heavily into meth. No lie, I used to smoke meth and then walk five
times around the block before I went to school and then when I would go to school, I
wouldn’t really concentrate I was so high.
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Several participants noted that there were a multitude of traumas they experienced that
overwhelmed them. Utilizing an ecological systems (1986) lens, participants reported being
impacted by the various traumas across systems. Specifically, participants noted how multiple
traumas were present in multiple systems, over various times within their schooling. Victoria
shares here about how the multiple losses she experienced affected her:
High school, I couldn’t do it. I went to a party, and my friend got stabbed, fell on me. It’s
just like different little episodes of things that when you’re 15, 16 years old…you don’t
know how you’re supposed to handle it. One of my friends died when I was 16. She got
hit by a car. I think that was a big, big thing for me because she was a really good friend.
We were supposed to hang out, she left with her friend. We got a call—she got hit by a
car. The next day we were supposed to hang out because the next day I was leaving for
Mexico. So, the week that I went to Mexico, she was in a coma. So, the last day that I
was in Mexico, they let her go. So, that right there was a trauma for me, coming home to
that. So, I just didn’t want to be at school. I didn’t want to be around people. At that
point, I just couldn’t handle it. And maybe it was because of everything I was going
through personally, my personal life, that gave my anxiety, and I just couldn’t handle
having to face all these people, knowing everything that I’m going through...
Similarly, Anthony shared about multiple sources of trauma that impacted his perception
of life in general. As Anthony mentioned previously, a lot happened outside of school that
impacted the way he interacted with school. The following quote provides a glimpse into an
incident that happened after school:
One day, we were coming out from school, and yeah three of my buddies were coming
out of school, walking across the train tracks. We seen other fellow peers, gang members,
throwing gang signs, and we were just walking and my buddies and I we retaliated. We
threw back gang signs and stuff. So, nothing really happened, and they left, and we didn’t
think much of it. They left, we were walking, and they came out through the alley and
that’s when they started shooting in daylight; it was after school and one of my friends
ran across the street. I ran back to the crowd, and he got shot in his neck and back. I was
14 at the time, looking back into that it’s like, I just saw my friend shot on the
floor…can’t really do much because you know that’s a gang-related case... Yeah, with
that being said, I had my friend shot, had my girlfriend taken away from me … My mom
was going through a lot. I grew up without a father figure. So, it’s like man, everything
just hit me at once. Me, I would always ask myself, “What am I doing here? Why am I
here?”
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Most participants shared that because of what was happening in their life outside of
school, they struggled academically, ranging from a difficulty focusing on class material, a lack
of attendance, behavioral incidents, and failing grades. Two participants discussed leaving school
altogether due to difficulties with trauma. The impact of trauma in their lives was illuminated by
the type of the school environment they experienced. This specifically illuminates the impact of
a small interactions having large-scale changes, as supported by emergent strategy (Brown,
2017). As research question one is interested in the participants’ belief about their journey, the
following section clarifies what they believed about the influence of trauma on their schooling.
While a traumatic incident may only be brief, it can have long-lasting effects. This too connects
with the interplay between systems, such as the mesosystem, which participants note as having
impacted them.
For example, Jessica shared about the conflict between wanting to go to school but being
conflicted with her personal life: “I would ditch school, class a lot, or I wouldn’t even show up to
class, just to school at like 11. I wanted to go to school, but I just, I was so caught up in what was
going on with my personal life, it was just really hard for me to focus on school. I wanted to, but
I couldn’t. It was kind of a battle. I was having problems at home with my mom and my brothers.
I was just getting into trouble. I was fighting, got suspended, was up for expulsion.” Justine
recalls a shift in her behavior as relating to a change in her family system, “Yeah, as I got older,
things just started changing. I started understanding why my stepdad was always in jail. So, I
was like, okay, maybe this isn’t normal. I would get mad at my mom. I just started acting out I
guess.” Similarly, Jordan experienced difficulties attending school and focusing on the material,
“I’ll just go to school to go to school. I wouldn’t really do the work. I wasn’t really doing
nothing. I would just go to go. I would just sit there in class. I just wouldn’t really give a care in
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the world.” Victoria provided a glimpse regarding the lack of connections she had and how that
impacted her: “I didn’t have any connection at home either. My mom was always at work. My
grandma that watched us, she was already old. She just made sure we stayed alive. So, I had no
connection. I had nothing.” For Victoria, the anxiety she developed led her to be homeschooled
and ultimately leave school altogether. “And maybe it was because of everything I was going
through personally, my personal life, that gave me anxiety, and I just couldn’t handle having to
face all these people. I think that’s what started my anxiety, that I just couldn’t do it.” Luz
similarly shared that her life experiences impacted her focus on school, as well as her attention
and retention of class material:
I feel like I started kind of caring less. Even if I would go to class, I wouldn’t even pay
attention because I would be thinking about my own life situation and I wouldn’t even ...
I will try to focus and pay attention and take notes, but I wouldn’t even retain it because
if you were to ask me a couple of hours later, I would be like, yeah, I don’t know. So, I
feel like definitely whatever you’re going through at home, it kind of like ... a lot, it
impacts how you pay attention in class. Even if you’re going through the class, it’s like
but are you getting it? How are your grades? How’s everything? So, it’s definitely like ...
yeah, it shaped a lot of my grades.
For Natasha, being placed in foster care was initially hard for her, which impacted her
focus on school: “I feel like I have to start over, and everything that I know, just kind of like,
people, the environment and everything. So, that’s kind of hard. That was a really hard time for
me. I feel like I didn’t really focus. Like, I’d kind of lose track.” Anthony shared he, too,
experienced a gap in schooling due to the various experiences in his life. “In the eighth grade,
that’s when I dropped out of school. I didn’t really see a future. I didn’t really see a purpose in
education. I didn’t really care.”
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Comprehensive Schooling Experiences
The following section addresses research question one: How do continuation high school
graduates with a history of trauma perceive their journey through the K–12 educational system?
Specific to this research question is the participants’ own perception of their time in K–12
schooling. To address this, the following section focuses on comprehensive schooling
experiences, which includes schooling prior to continuation school. Analyzing these experiences
through emergent strategy and ecological systems brings to light how even a small interaction
can create a large-scale change throughout the systems. Further, these stories point to the power
of relational connections in creating change. The notion that “All that you touch, you change. All
that you change, changes you (Butler, 1993, p.1),” is captured by their words.
Elementary School Experiences
While the participants reported varied experiences in elementary school, it is vital to note
it was reported to be an important foundational period. Specific to research question one, most
participants could recall memories of elementary school and how their life experiences
influenced their academics. Some participants smiled when remembering elementary school,
noting it as a fun time spent with friends and playing. Jessica recalled elementary school as being
an enjoyable time: “I was just really hyper. I always had this energy. I was just too much
sometimes. I was just always excited to learn.” Jordan also shared positive memories of
elementary school: “I was a good student. I was always getting awards, like citizen of the month
awards.” However, for some participants, elementary school was a difficult time, marked by
silence and a lack of engagement. Victoria noted, “I don’t think that I can say that in elementary,
I learned anything. When I was younger, I just sat there. I think in elementary, I didn’t really
understand because I didn’t have the one-on-one—there were so many kids. I didn’t feel I really
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took in what was being taught. I didn’t really have the support of education at home, so it wasn’t
important.” Most participants did not recall many positive connections with adults in elementary
school, instead highlighting the impact of their peer group. However, two participants could
recall impactful memories of their teachers. For Anthony, a detrimental experience with his fifth
grade teacher was marked as a turning point and is a specific example of the emergent strategy
(2017), principle, fractals, which relays how one interaction can have longstanding impacts:
In fifth grade, I had this teacher. I think that’s where my education took a shit because he
pretty much said, "Why are you in school? You’re not even smart enough. You’re always
getting bad grades, always getting in trouble. You’re not gonna end up somewhere good
in life.” With that being said, and this teacher telling me, “You’re not good enough,” it’s
like I kinda took that to heart. It really messed with my self-esteem. Just the way I saw
myself as a student. Every time I failed a test or I failed a class, it went back to that, like
I’m not smart enough. I think so many times that I tell myself, “You’re not smart
enough.” I started believing it. It kind of became a reality that I’m not that smart, so why
am I wasting my time. I really closed many doors in my mind because of my negative
self talk. So, that was another aspect of it. Negative self talk, like, “I’m not smart. I can’t
do this.” I used to give up real quick just because I couldn’t do it. So, at that point I didn’t
really care about school because, I mean, I used to go home and my mom was never
there, so there was no one there to redirect me. Or tell me, “Have you done your
homework? Or how’s school? How’s your grades?” There was no structure, so I didn’t
really have a lot, I didn’t really care about education.
Alternatively, while Victoria reported having no other connections at school or home, she
could vividly remember her fifth-grade teacher as being supportive and someone she still
perceives as motivating. While Victoria recalled elementary school as being a tough time in her
life, she shared that her fifth-grade teacher had a positive impact on her life—another example of
how relational connections can influence change:
I had a teacher; she was my fifth-grade teacher. And I think she was the one that really ...
If I could talk to her now, I would. She was really good. She helped me through just
understanding, and she was really nice, and she gave me the time. I don’t think any of my
teachers knew anything until that teacher in fifth grade because she had made a good
connection with my mom and so my mom would talk to her. She just gave me attention,
like affection. I had other teachers like, “Why don’t you get this? Are you not paying
attention?” And it wasn’t that I wasn’t paying attention, or I didn’t care, it was I just
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didn’t understand. I couldn’t focus. I was being taught, but I couldn’t really understand
because I have other things going on.
Middle School Experiences
The following section addresses research question one, which is interested in the
participants’ beliefs about their educational journey through K–12 schooling. While each
participant’s experience in middle school was unique to them, it was clear that middle school
was a time of divergence, and a vital component of their educational journey. For most
participants, middle school was relayed as a time of turmoil, or where they began to fall through
the cracks. Several recalled this as being a time where they began using substances and
understanding more about the traumas they had or were experiencing. Jordan recounted, “Middle
school was cruel...That’s when the drugs became a factor. All the kids I’ve hung out with were
smoking weed, doing drugs, and all that stuff. I didn’t really get into until eighth grade, and
that’s probably when it made a big factor in my life because it held me back in a way.” Behavior
infractions were reported by a couple of students for fighting, and one participant recalled being
expelled from eighth grade and then dropping out altogether. Jessica shared, “I felt like in middle
school, I was just badass. I was always getting in trouble. People were just like, ‘Oh, she fights.’
So, I felt like I already had this persona. I don’t know, I was just a different person and then
being vulnerable didn’t exist in that persona.” Truancy was reported by several students and
participants reported a lack of adult presence or awareness as being a factor in their actions.
Only one participant, Victoria, reported an overall positive experience in middle school
and recalled involvement in leadership activities as one of the indicators of her success. Victoria
found middle school to be a time for her marked by connections with peers and teachers. Viewed
through the ecological systems (1986), her experiences with peers, teachers, and counselors
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created a shift in her microsystem. These connections led to a bridge in the development of
relationships she had not experienced in elementary school. Considering the multiple losses
Victoria had experienced in elementary school, it appears that she was able to overcome these
through the relationships she built and activities she participated in. As she pointed out, once she
felt as though the people around her believed in her, she wanted to come to school and the grades
followed. Viewed through emergent strategy (2017), Victoria was able to grow from the pain of
her past through the varied connections she developed:
In middle school, I actually had relationships with my teachers. A lot of teachers just talk
to the class; they don’t talk to their students. And so, in middle school, I had connections
with my teachers. I think maybe the way that they were teaching. They were able to get
to know each one of us, on a personal level, certain things. I’ve always written poetry.
So, a lot of my teachers knew that, and so they’re like, “Oh, have you wrote anything
new?” You know, “You should try this. Then you should try that.” And then one of the
teachers nominated me for president of the school and peer counseling. It was nice
because even though I was the one that needed the help, but I was helping other students
and their situations. I think for me even now, being able to help people makes me feel
good. Not just, I like that I helped you, it’s more like, it’s helping me too. They gave me
that confidence that I’m not just anybody in the class. They gave me the confidence...
And so, I think that just made it easy for me, those two years, because I had the support.
And people actually thought, like believed in me. And so, I don’t know, it just made it...I
wanted to come to school. Middle school, it was really fun. I would say even easy. It just
came really easy for me. Because those two years were super fun, I was president of the
school, most popular. I was involved in everything, the peer counseling. So, I was really
... Yeah, and it just came, like the grades and everything came really smooth for me,
those years.
Alternatively, Anthony shared an in-depth memory of middle school, which also
highlights the power of peers within the microsystem, and how a lack of caring adults can
deepen the pain. He added how he was always alone so he “adapted the mentality” of his peer
group, which led him to not care about school. Anthony was clear that he had no connections
with teachers or staff in middle school and relayed a disheartening message that one of the
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reasons that led to him dropping out was the belief that the adults around him did not care, or
have the appropriate training to work with students with trauma:
I was always alone, so my friends were ... or the people in the block were like my escape.
That also affected me because going back to school. It’s like they didn’t care about
school, so I adapted their mentality about school, so when I went to middle school, I
didn’t care about school. I just go there just to go. I didn’t have no backpack, no pencil. I
always came unprepared. Teachers would always tell me, “No pencil, go to the dean’s.”
It was always a stigma I had with me. I put that against myself too, because I didn’t care
what the teachers said, I didn’t care what they had to do, what kind of work we had to do
because I really didn’t do much. Seventh grade: that’s when I started ... going south, you
could say. I started getting into trouble in school. I started ditching, missing classes, not
going to school. I started even hanging around with the wrong crowd. That also led me to
suspension. I got suspended most of the time. In eighth grade, that’s when I dropped out
of school. I didn’t really see a future. I didn’t really see a purpose in education. I didn’t
really care.
Comprehensive High School Experiences
The following section further addressed research question one, which looks at the beliefs
participants hold regarding their journey through K–12 schooling. This specific section addresses
the participants experiences in high school prior to their transfer to continuation school. High
school is described as an important time period when connections with adults were necessary,
and the lack thereof led to a decrease in academic progress, including motivation and belief of
themselves. Present within these stories are specific influences of the microsystem, such as peers,
teachers, and school counselors. This section deepens the understanding of participants’
experiences by highlighting the impact of small interactions on creating larger changes, a
component of emergent strategy (2017). For example, participants shared how small interactions
with teachers had a long-lasting impact on their schooling experiences. Other participants
relayed how vital it was to create connections with adults on campus and the impact they can
have on their achievement. Additionally, these experiences with teachers, counselors, and peers
can be perceived as relational connections, another component of emergent strategy (2017).
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Most participants believed a major challenge at the comprehensive high schools was a
lack of connection with adults. For instance, Jessica noted, “At the beginning of high school, I
didn’t really even get a chance to build any type of relationship with teachers before I started
getting into trouble. I was just mad at the world.” Most teachers didn’t want me in their class or
stuff like that.” Participants relayed this lack of connection as demotivating, and even devaluing.
Some participants even reported a complete absence of connection, including a lack of outreach.
Most participants discussed the impact of their peer group on their behavior and recalled that
when they left friends to transfer to the continuation school, they saw a positive shift in their
focus. For Isaiah, high school was “like a jail, almost.” He specified that a major influence on
him was his circle of peers, which is an example of how important peers can be for students. He
shared, “I was around people who didn’t really care. So, it just seemed like people did not really
care about school. Like I wasn’t really focused on my education. Because at the regular high
school, people were offering me drugs and stuff, that’s not really ... That would take my focus
away from school. Your circle has a big impact on you, and a big influence.”
However, a few of the participants did recall meaningful connections fostered at the
comprehensive site, and one viewed the connection he developed with his high school counselor
as life changing. Like most participants, Luz had a difficult time with the transition to high
school and described the impact of the environment, peer group, and lack of adult connections on
her academics and personal mindset. Her story addresses the importance of relational
connections on a student’s academic well-being. “If they don’t have the emotional support at
home, who do they have? So, it’s like the teachers and the counselors, they’re it. Yeah. So, it’s
very crucial that whoever goes into the educational field that they’re like certain because there’s
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like ... it’s not only grading papers and seeing students…it’s like nine times out of ten you’re the
only person that they have.”
To contrast the shared experiences of the participants, one participant, Anthony, did relay
the importance of the connection he developed with his school counselor. Anthony’s high school
experience varied as he briefly attended schools in ninth and tenth grades but ultimately did not
fully reintegrate until he moved to a different city with his cousin. Here he shares about the
various factors that led him to re-enroll, as well as the people who played a key role in
supporting him. Anthony described his experience with being stereotyped and labeled on his first
day at his new school, but also the support he received from his high school counselor, Mr.
Washington. Anthony recounted his relentlessness with the application process to the
continuation school, CCHS, and the key people who helped him get there. Anthony was clear
that he was ready for a shift in his life and described what occurred when he decided to leave his
neighborhood for a fresh start:
So, that’s where my educational journey really shifted because I met with school
counselors and teachers that really did care about me. I don’t know, I guess I’m getting
emotional because it’s like ... but, yeah, I wanted to change… I went back to school. I
had only 20 credits as a junior. Not even a ninth-grade completion. So when I went to
California High, I was automatically put on academic probation. The front lady said,
“You gotta sign here, sign here.” I’m like, “For what?” And she’s like, “Oh, this is
probation, you’re on probation.” “Probation? I’m already on probation,” “No, no, this is
academic probation.” “What does that mean?” I had one-month academic probation,
whatever, you know like any little misbehavior or anything bad I do will be used against
me. And the first day, I was sent to the police officer, so they could take pictures of my
tattoos. I was already labeled as defiant, as a gang member. Even before I met the
principal, I was going through this, being stereotyped. They told me that I couldn’t stay
there for the whole year, so they told me I’m gonna have to look for another school, a
continuation school.
Anthony continued to describe his experience transitioning to California high, sharing
about the consistent support he received from his high school counselor, and the story behind his
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acceptance to the continuation school, CCHS. Viewing this story through an ecological systems
and emergent strategy lens, it was important for Anthony to have key trusting relationships, at
the right time and place, within his microsystem.
Every day, I was in Mr. Washington’s office, every day, asking about CCHS,
Have you heard?” “No, I haven’t heard. But you know what, I’ll check today.” So he
checked, the next day I would come every morning. I didn’t know anyone, so I was here
in his office every morning. “Have you heard?” “No, I haven’t heard. But let me check
again.” He checked, and he said that they lost the application. They lost it. So, I’m like,
“What now?” “We gotta reapply.” So, I submitted my application again. Again, I was
always in this office every day. Sure enough, supposedly they lost it again. I told him,
“Hey, Mr. Washington you can’t be playing with me like that. I have to get into that
school if not I’m going back home, and that’s something I don’t wanna go back home.
He’s like, “No, I got you man, trust me, I’m gonna take it personally because I know a
counselor there, Ms. Mendez, and I know her like that, so we’re gonna get you hooked
up.” I’m like, “Alright man, let’s make it happen.” When that was taking place, they were
having a meeting for my acceptance. They wanted me to go in there. So, for what I know
now. I didn’t know that back then, but I know now that they had a meeting and they were
debating even to get me in due to the fact that I had been a drop out, so they didn’t want
to take the risk. But, Ms. Mendez, she took the risk. She said, “I’ll take him under my
wing, and if he does anything dumb, drops out, it’s on me. But, I want to give this kid a
chance.
Continuation School as a Turning Point
The following section addresses research question one: How do continuation high school
graduates with a history of trauma perceive their journey through the K–12 educational system?
Specific to the research question, this section calls to the forefront the importance of continuation
schooling in shifting the trajectory of educational experiences for students with trauma.
Consistent in the stories shared here are the meaningful impacts of the school environment on the
participants’ journey. Viewed through an ecological systems lens, participants are clear about the
shift in environment, including the people within this environment who impacted their
transformation. Further, through emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), we can make sense of these
changes while hearing about how these deep connections fostered growth. Participants recalled
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relationships with a variety of school personnel as being just a powerful, noting it as a family
feel. These relationships were meaningful to the participants, specifically noting those fostered
with security guards, custodians, teachers, counselors, administrators and other school staff.
Keenly noted by participants was the importance of being part of the smaller school community,
tied to another component of emergent strategy: “small good, small is all, the large is a reflection
of the small (Brown, 2017, p. 41).”
Prior to transferring to the continuation school, most participants held negative beliefs
about the school and believed the shift would be detrimental. As Jessica noted, “I cried because I
was like, ‘I have to leave all my friends.’ I was like, ‘I don’t know anybody over there, and if I
do, they probably don’t like me.” It wasn’t as bad as I thought it was going to be. I thought it was
terrible; it was going to be like prison. I thought it was the end of my life, but nope.” However,
for all but one participant, the transition to the continuation school was reported to be a positive
turning point in their educational journey. For Isaiah, “It was different because I was just more
focused on my academics instead of going to school and not really trying. So, it was just
different because I had more effort into it.”
For five of the participants, their time at the continuation school was viewed as a life-
changing experience. These relational connections brought about a time of re-growth for the
students, a component of emergent strategy (2017). Justine shared that the change of
environment was paramount for her: “I loved my time at CCHS. I really think that it did change
me because if I would have stayed at California or something, I would have never graduated. I
wouldn’t have.” The participants recalled their continuation school as having a family feel with a
multitude of schoolwide connections, ranging from relationships with teachers, administrators,
counselors, security guards, custodians, and other support staff. Justine added, “I do remember
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all of the teachers there being very caring. They wanted you to excel... they really took the time...
The whole school in general, from the custodians, the principal...I feel like they really came
together as a whole, the whole school, and everybody kind of knew each other there.” Similarly,
Jordan noted, “People were nice. Everybody was close to each other. It was cool. I liked it.
Everybody was a family. We all knew each other.” Many of the participants reported these
relationships as being a blend of love and accountability, and beyond the professional, academic
role to develop into a friendship.
Participants shared that although there were some tough situations going on at home or in
their community, they were able to escape and feel supported by the people at their continuation
school. Jessica shared, “You know how they say it takes a village? It really did take a village.
Everyone was just super awesome. I felt safe, like I had a family, almost ... even when stuff
wasn’t good at home, I could always go to school, and it would all be cool because I could talk
about it with people...” The participants reported that the smaller environment was beneficial for
them, as they were able to foster meaningful connections with peers and staff and often reported
feeling like they were no longer a number. Luz relayed a significant point related to the impact of
the connection with adults at her continuation school on her overall success, illuminating the
power of relationships:
I feel like it was a smaller school and everybody kind of knew you. It wasn’t like you
getting lost between the crowd; it was like the counselors knew you, the professors knew
you. It was definitely like a lifechanging experience. I feel like I like CCHS better than
my regular high school, definitely because I had more caring professors and then my
grades actually went up. Yeah, they went up and I’m like, I didn’t even know that it could
go up. I was like, oh my god, I’m proud of myself, yeah. I definitely like it better and
even if it’s a small school they’re genuinely there to help you. I felt more my high school
experience could not have ended any better. I felt like in high school, yeah I would’ve
probably graduated if I had enough credits but I would’ve still been that student that
probably didn’t care or got caught up with friends or bad influences or stuff like that, but
the continuation school, I felt like the counselors and the professors care about me so
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much that I actually started believing in myself. Yeah ... I don’t know how that works,
but it was such an impact that I’m like maybe I could major in something, maybe I could
actually go to college. Like, who knew?
Jessica described the experience at CCHS as being surrounded by people who cared, who
were going to hold you accountable but also show love. She further highlighted that the students
at CCHS are capable of learning, but just needed the right environment. This is significant in
answering the research question because most participants believed their continuation school was
a place that brought out their full potential:
It was like they loved you, but they also were going to tell you where you’re messing up
and where your faults are. So, it was pretty cool. And, I felt like they really helped put
things into perspective for a lot of people because we don’t really notice things that we’re
doing until after it’s too late because then we get to analyze it. But people outside of us,
that are around us all the time; they’re like, “Dude, kick it. You got to stop doing that.”
They notice it faster. It was a lot of guidance that they provided. The reason we were
there was because of behavioral problems. A lot of us weren’t there because of academic
problems because a lot of us excel if you just, teach us, and set us to do something. We
can do it because we have that ability to grow our brains because we were taught that,
too, that our brains can grow. They’re not just ... we have growth mindsets. We have
other lives outside of school that affect us as well, so they take that into consideration...
also incorporates the academics, but it’s more focused on ourselves and what we need to
succeed in life. It’s my personal life, I guess. I think CCHS is my favorite place. I love it
there. Everyone’s so caring. They genuinely care about your problems, and they
genuinely want to help you find a solution. They want you to succeed, not just ... they
actually care whether you go to college or go into the workforce or going to the military.
They want to see who you become and what you become, because ... what was that? Hold
on. There’s a Lilo and Stitch, Ohana. I totally had a frame for it.
To further address the research question, Jordan described the various ways he believed
his continuation school, CCHS, supported him, including academically, socially-emotionally,
and with preparation for the future. Here he captures the humanistic connection he developed
with the adults on campus, and how the support he received within his school motivated him for
success and translated to the future. These individual interactions may be viewed through the
lens of emergent strategy as having a lasting impact on his academic and personal success:
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They helped me a lot, too, because they’re the ones that gave me scholarships to come
here. No other school would’ve done that. I feel like for a bigger high school, they
would’ve focused more on the academic kids, more the popular kid mostly. At CCHS,
they focus more on individual people. There’s more of a higher chance I would say. That
was my school. I could go there and just talk to the teachers as if they’re a friend. They
wouldn’t judge you, they wouldn’t pull you back in any way. They would just try to keep
motivating you. They were cool. You could vibe more with the teachers at CCHS than
you could at any other school because they’re closer to their students in a way. I was
more focused on school. I like it; it was cool. There was classes, like Mr. Martin’s class
for history, we would talk so depth about life, and Ms. Joy’s. It was so cool just thinking
outside the box. Yeah, it’s cool. I would say I took a lot of stuff from CCHS into the
world. Elementary school to middle school, I wasn’t really thinking of the future. Just
going. Just living life, no worries. And then once you get out of it, you’re like, you got all
these worries and stuff. CCHS, they prepare you for the future. They gave you a bigger
outlook on the outside world than what I think any other school would.
Anthony had waited relentlessly for his acceptance to CCHS and was finally able to start
the fall of his senior year. During his time at CCHS, Anthony was able to recover sufficient
credits to graduate on time despite the two-year gap in his schooling. He recalled his time at
CCHS as being more than a school, but a life changing experience. This specific story addresses
the research question by further providing evidence of the empowering experiences participants
encountered at their continuation school site. As viewed through the lens of emergent strategy,
Anthony shared he began to change because of the small humanistic connections and interactions
he experienced:
That’s where my educational journey changed. Because people really took the time to
know me as a person. They really ... they took the time to talk to me, that’s what it was.
Like, “What do you need, Anthony?” They pretty much touched the basic needs of me, or
anybody else. You know you need to be in school. Like, “Did you eat? Did you get a
good sleep?” Little things like that. Like people don’t really care about, but those are the
important things that I thought really changed for me because they would always be like,
“Hey, are you hungry? I’ve got a snack for you, but you gotta do your work.” “Hey
Anthony, what do you think about evening study group? Are you willing to come?”
“Yeah, for sure.” I guess it was more like, I was more part of the school. They were
inviting me into their own environment and culture of the school climate, which made me
more focused and made me attached to the school. I ended up graduating in my year. I
honestly don’t even think I would’ve finished high school.
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Anthony shared with a beaming, prideful smile what graduation day was like for him:
It was like, “Man, I’m not getting a GED. I’m getting a high school diploma.” That was
the best moment because I knew I worked hard for that paper. I knew it didn’t come easy,
but there was a lot of people out there helping me out, like cheering for me. I also gave
my speech at graduation. You had to apply for it, but I didn’t apply for it; they told me
you’ll be the first one. You’ll be the first one in, so don’t even apply—you got it. Then, I
wrote my letter, and I went up there and I spoke. I mean, it was amazing, just knowing
that my mom was there in the crowd, my family was there. The people that were a part of
me that helped me out. They were there. And I dedicated that diploma to them up there
on the stage. I made it known, “I may be up here by myself, but I know I didn’t do this
journey on my own. So, I thank everyone for being here and helping me out.” Just
knowing that I got the high school diploma, knowing that those applications were not
lost, they were rejected. Those applications that supposedly were lost, they were rejected.
Two times. And that principal told me, “I’m glad we got you a third time because I
rejected your application two times.” I couldn’t be mad, I was not even mad, I shook his
hand and I told him, “Thank you.” And I walked.
Alternatively, Victoria’s experience differed from the other participants due to her
attendance in a home study program within the continuation school. Victoria’s experience is
important to share because compared to the other participants, she did not develop close personal
connections with adults at her school, reporting it to be mostly academic. This specific story is
relevant to research question one because Victoria believed that her high school experience was
impacted by her lack of connection with adults at school. This further reiterated the importance
of connections in fostering resilience, and how a lack of these can further alienate those with
trauma backgrounds. Through an ecological lens, Victoria illuminated the vital need for a
microsystem to be filled with meaningful connections to overpower the impact of trauma.
Specifically, for Victoria, she recalls her middle school experience as a positive time in her life
because of the connections she had, but as the connections within her educational microsystems
changed, so too did her belief in herself. She shared that she was close to graduating but gave up
and later earned her GED. Victoria shared that the reason she had transferred to homeschool was
because of the anxiety she experienced because of her friends passing away. When asked if
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anyone reached out to her when she stopped attending school, she said, “No.” When asked what
she thinks about that, she said:
I think that sucks. I’m pretty sure it would have helped because I, at that time, I was just
searching for connection. I’ve always felt alone, so if I had some kind of connection,
even with a counselor, I would have probably wanted to actually go to school. But I had
no connection with anybody, but friends, who, I mean, they were there just to have fun. If
I had somebody there that I was able to talk to, that I knew who believed in me, then I’d
probably believe in myself, too.
Other findings amongst the participants included increased participation in schoolwide
activities and programs at the continuation school. Four participants described involvement in
leadership clubs and classes that went beyond an academic focus. These participants described
this experience as not only rewarding, but as an opportunity for a fresh chance to be something
different than their comprehensive site made them out to be. For example, three participants were
selected to speak at their graduation ceremony, and one was selected for prom committee. Many
participants shared that their time at their continuation school was their favorite year due to the
connections they developed and the personal and academic success they attained. Participants
reflected on a positive boost in motivation and self-efficacy and often shared that they are still
connected today to people at their continuation school. These stories further allude to the impact
varied connections can have on a student’s academic success. This relates to the research
question by deepening our understanding on what sorts of experiences can facilitate connection
and shares participants beliefs surrounding the programs that support this growth. Through an
ecological and emergent lens, the participants’ perspectives here provide insight to the
importance of leadership and community involvement in enhancing their experience. For
instance, Jessica shared about the various programs she was involved in that supported her
socially and fostered a connection to the school:
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I started having more social interactions. I started talking to more people, feeling safer in
my school environment. It was cool. And then, I don’t know, learning new things. I’m so
curious to learn. Leadership class was super fun. It was basically ... I don’t even know.
It’s all of us in a class. We’re just trying to basically make our campus better, make it just
... because our campus always had this bad rep like, “Oh, the bad kid school. They’re
always fighting. They’re always doing drugs.” And, it’s not really like that because we’re
more than that. Just because we’re some kids that messed up, doesn’t mean that we’re
just trash. We still have hope, but we try to make the students feel more, have more hope.
It’s not that they’re just losers. Women’s Circle helped ... I felt really empowered ... I was
always told, “You’re supposed to find a good husband and just settle and get married and
have kids and live your life." It really helped me think outside of that. That’s what I
thought my life was going to be until I joined that class. I was like, “Okay, I’m just
supposed to find a husband.” Live my life like a normal Hispanic woman, but I felt extra
empowered like, “No, you can go to school. You can go to college. You can go and get
yourself a house, take care of your own self. You don’t have to worry about a guy taking
care of you, and then you can find a guy where you guys can grow together.” I started
learning a lot more about relationships and healthy relationships and how to deal with
unhealthy ones and how to get rid of them, and just how to grow as a woman in today’s
society. It was an awesome class, super grateful for that. We went to help at a special
needs school, and we would find it rewarding. And then, the after-school classes, where I
learned how to connect light to the light switches. I felt like a whole electrician. I know
how to put grout. I know how to put in a sink. It was super cool. I liked that. I learned
how to sand and make a birdhouse. And then, the military PE programs after school—
those were cool. They were super cool.
Similarly, Justine shared about her participation in leadership programs and how the relationship
she developed with her teacher was an important part of her success:
So, while I was there, they asked me to go into ASB because again it’s a smaller campus.
I was never involved in anything prior ... because in my other schools I was never ... I
don’t even remember ever meeting with the counselor at any of those schools. I don’t
really remember anything there except just hanging out with my friends. That’s it, but
once I got involved at my continuation school, Mr. Lupin, who I’m actually still in
contact to this very day, my ASB teacher, he again, put me in ASB, and I was in charge
of the prom committee, and things like that that I would have never ... because I was what
you considered a chola. So, I was kind of in that mix, and ASB was, at the other school, it
was like preppy white kids. I mean, that’s just what it is, you know?
As the participants conveyed, continuation schools can be not only a supportive
atmosphere, but an environment that fosters personal growth and resilient mindsets. The stories
shared here illustrate a unique perspective into the experiences of continuation school graduates,
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a voice absent from the literature. Illuminated here is the power of relational connections in
fostering reparation from trauma, along with the importance of a positive, family-like schoolwide
environment in supporting success. While students did not specifically discuss the academic
support they received, they were adamant about the way they felt about their continuation school.
Statement About Their Continuation School
Participants were asked to share what they would say to someone who knew nothing
about their continuation school; all responses were thoughtful and positive. To empower student
voices, their responses are kept intact:
Jessica: I would say that they open up doors that you never thought you could open on
your own, but when you have this team of people helping you, you can go through that
door and just ... so many opportunities were opened for me and they’re like a support
system, a support system more than anything, that sometimes a lot of students need. They
give you a lot of resources, so many resources. It’s just about you getting up and getting
out there to grab them. It’s all out there, just for you, but you need to get up and look.
Isaiah: I would say don’t look at it as a bad thing that you have to go there. Just, you have
to go there for a reason, and just make the best out of it, and just do good and handle your
business. It’ll pay off in the future.
Jordan: It may be scary at first for the unknown, to not know what you’re gonna get into,
but once you see more of the iceberg, and you get more in depth of the school, get more
into it, you connect more to people. Because every day, I would hear bad things about my
school. Yeah, I went there, and it wasn’t bad, but for other people it would be bad
because they weren’t there. I guess you just have to be there to know. I love my family. I
hope to see them soon. It was a great time that I had with them. This was a great
experience. If I could relive high school again, I’d do that.
Justine: I would say that I think they were the ones who helped me to move forward in
life and like really understand that like, not education as a whole, but just like the
importance of just graduating high school. Because again college wasn’t like, I mean we
would talk about it, but I mean again my mind wasn’t there yet. I do believe that it was
the best thing for me, and I do believe it was a good thing for a lot of people.
Natasha: I feel like CCHS is mostly for the adult and for the diploma. So, if you really
want to do it, it’s a good school to go to. Yeah. They’re really helpful. They actually help
you with the credits. Yeah. And, you can finish it fast and you don’t have to be in class
like, every day.
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Luz: I would say don’t be scared. It’s not anything so dramatically different. If not, it
might be even a better experience because if they’re used to certain friends or certain
paths going to that school, to a continuation school might be even better for them to meet
new people and meet new counselors that actually care for you and not that the
counselors at the regular high school don’t care, but for me, it was such a better
experience in general that I would just recommend it to anybody. Yeah, anybody. At first,
it was kind of scary, but it’s not that bad.
Anthony: CCHS is like more than a school. It’s more like ... a different environment
within the school. Teachers are super nice. They go beyond their duty to help you as a
student, they really care about their students. The environment, just the culture of what
CCHS represents, it’s amazing for students because you go in there broken and you come
out healed. A lot has to do because a lot of teachers love their job and like what they do.
So, when they like what they do, they like helping students. I know many teachers right
now at CCHS that I still keep in touch with. I still communicate with them. And they’re
still changing lives. Even if you don’t get your life changed by a teacher, I mean just
being there and getting your high school diploma, and them giving you that second
chance because that’s what it is—it’s a school of second chances. When you think there’s
nothing out there, you go to CCHS, you get the high school diploma. I mean, it just
changes your whole perspective. Because that’s what it was for me. For me, it was
another second chance for me to think about life again. Don’t think about life, like this is
just life. There’s more in life, and that’s what CCHS gave me—a second chance. So, I
think CCHS is a great school for second chances for students who are broken, for
students who didn’t really have much, didn’t really make a lot of experiences in their
traditional school; this is where they could come, share their talent. That’s what it allows,
it allows you to be yourself. I always wanted to be in school. I would always wanna come
to CCHS and just looking forward for that next day because it was laugh and smiles and
stuff like that. Even the janitors were so nice and caring about their students. I would say
that CCHS is a school where your dreams may come true, where dreams come true.
When I went to CCHS, I was lost. I didn’t care. I didn’t know who I was. When I came
out of CCHS... I was not fixed, but I knew there was a purpose for me now. I knew I was
going somewhere; I knew that I’m not alone anymore. I had so many people in front of
me, next to me, by my side helping me out. I would say if you don’t know who you are,
you can find yourself at CCHS.
School Counselor Support
Participants were specifically asked about their experiences with school counselors in
grades K–12, as related to research question two: What do continuation high school graduates
with a history of trauma believe about their school counselors’ ability to holistically support
their needs? The following section provides a comprehensive overview of the participants’
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perceived support from school counselors K–12. At the high school level, academic, social
emotional, and college and career support are the three holistic domains of school counseling.
Participants included advice for counselors working with those with a trauma history and a
statement to their comprehensive and continuation school counselors.
Elementary School Counselor Support
Five participants did not recall any interaction with elementary school counselors or
reported lack of knowledge that they were available. Luz noted, “Elementary school counselors?
I knew they were there, but I didn’t know that they were there to help you. I believe there was
two. Yeah, but I never knew their names. I don’t think they ever came out of their office…
people knew that they were there, but they were never interacting with students or anything like
that.” Three participants did recall awareness of their presence in their elementary school, but
only one participant reported a positive experience with a counselor who supported him and his
peers. The other two participants who recalled a memory of their elementary school counselor
noted the experience as absent or focused on discipline. For instance, Jessica recalled meeting
with an elementary school counselor when she was in trouble: “I got in trouble because I bit this
girl. He wanted to talk to me about having a biting problem. I was five. He thought it was like ...
I don’t know what they called it, whatever, but I heard there was this thing where people just bite
people when they get angry. I was like, “I don’t want to bite people all the time. Somebody
pulled my dress. I was upset.”
It is important to note that due to an educational budget crisis, school counselors in the
elementary school are sparse. Isaiah did not recall meeting with an elementary counselor, or if
they even were at his school site. “I’m not even sure if ... I don’t even know if there’s counselors
in elementary. I don’t even know if I met with a counselor in elementary.” Justine similarly
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could not recall elementary school counseling services. Victoria, who in elementary school had
experienced over seven deaths in her family, also had no exposure to school counselors: “Nope.
None. None.” Natasha shared that there were no counselors in her schools in Thailand: “No, we
don’t.” Anthony similarly did not recall interacting with elementary school counselors, but did
recall meeting with administrators; “No, it was just principal and vice principal… but not for
good causes.”
While most participants experienced trauma early in life, most did not recall being
supported by elementary school counselors. For instance, only one recalled a positive experience
with an elementary school counselor. He explained that despite the difficulties he was facing, his
counselor’s positivity “overshadowed” the trauma in his life. This experience is vital to note
because, as Jordan relayed, his connection with his elementary school counselor allowed him to
work through the experiences of his life and support his academic development. This is
important to note because it provides support that relationships, especially with school
counselors, can be a source of empowerment for young children who may be experiencing
trauma. Jordan specifically remembered his elementary school counselor and shared that even
though he may have had a hard time outside of school, her happiness overshadowed this:
Ms. Madison, she was my counselor in elementary school. It was after all that stuff
happened that I got into counseling. They would pull me and all my friends, I think that
was a way because they knew that I didn’t like counseling. So that was probably a way of
them getting me to counseling, was bringing my friends there. It was me and my group of
friends at lunch, or we would go during class time to go talk about stuff. Yeah, she would
have us there. It was cool. She was constantly making sure we did our work. We were
playing games, so that’s why I liked going to her. Always interacting. Always happy.
When I was with her, I didn’t really think of any of that stuff. Thinking about it, I don’t
really think about anything that was happening. I guess the happiness overdid the …
While only one participant recalled a positive experience with school counselors in
elementary school, Jordan’s story sheds light on an integral piece of a student’s educational
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journey, elementary school, and the need for supportive adults at this age. Viewed through an
emergent lens, elementary school is a small piece of the larger whole, and it is vital that these
foundational periods be supported with multitudes of relentless, caring educators, such as school
counselors, that can find creative ways to reach students who may be experiencing trauma.
Middle School Counselor Support
All but one participant reported middle school as being the time where their educational
journey worsened. Through an ecological lens, participants described a gap in their microsystem
that impacted their ability to create connections, along with a lack of close adult relations.
Connected to research question two, most participants believed that while their school counselor
was somewhat available, they were not holistically supported. Participants noted feeling either
alone with no support or connected to peer groups that influenced them negatively. Specific to
middle school counselors, most participants remembered them, but reported the interactions as
being specific to academics or scheduling. For instance, Isaiah recalled meeting with middle
school counselors to discuss academics related to class scheduling; “In intermediate, I do
remember counselors a little bit. Maybe seeing them twice, once each year maybe, I don’t know.
I think just classes and ... Generally elective class you choose in intermediate?” While they could
recall these interactions, most participants reported a lack of meaningful interaction with middle
school counselors. Luz shared, “I feel like they were in their office and you could go see them.
The doors are open of course, but it was never like, hey, specifically, how’s Luz doing? Unless
maybe you had like a problem, but yeah, they never kept up with education like, ‘you got it’ or
something like that.” Jordan did not recall any connections with school counselors in middle
school, which was also the time he reported his education started to take a turn; “I didn’t really
know who the counselors were in middle school. Middle school, I was just going to go.” Justine
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similarly reports a brief interaction with a middle school counselor but was unclear of the
purpose: “Middle school, there was a counselor. I forgot. I don’t know what happened. I just
remember them calling me because I don’t know what they thought happened to me or ... I don’t
know, and I was just like in that group, and I was like why am I here? Like I just, I don’t know if
it was like they just wanted to meet with students. I have no idea.” Middle school was when
Anthony dropped out and did not recall any interaction with a counselor: “No. I only remember
the dean.”
One participant asked whether there were middle school counselors, and another, Jessica,
reported that her only experience was, again, related to discipline. Jessica did recall him reaching
out, but she didn’t know how to open up to him due to her life circumstances and the persona she
had developed in middle school. Jessica shared that she had spoken with him before because of
discipline, which she shares may have been one reason she was unable to establish a connection
later. This specific story illustrates the importance of connections in fostering growth, but also
how important it is for developing children to be surrounded by people who support them
positively. Jessica highlighted the impact of her peer group, which created a shift in her view of
herself, or persona, and prevented her from establishing a connection with her middle school
counselor. Understanding this from an emergent lens points to the value of connections in
creating change, and how the environment and the people within this environment can be a major
factor in how we perceive and reveal ourselves to the world:
I remember I was hanging out with this girl, and we would always get into trouble. The
counselor, he talked to us, and he was like, “Is there something going on at home, or ...?”
but I didn’t even know where to start, or I didn’t even know what to tell him. I was just
like, “No, everything’s okay.” I don’t know. I guess I was shy or scared, or I don’t even
know. I just didn’t know what to tell the guy. He had talked to me before that, but it was
mainly because of fights and trying to resolve conflict with other people. It was just stuff
like that. I felt like just being vulnerable in front of him was just weird because I already
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had this persona. I don’t know, I was just a different person and then being vulnerable
didn’t exist in that person.
Comprehensive High School Counselor Support
The following section focuses on participants’ experience with comprehensive school
counselors, specific to research question two, which is related to their perceptions of holistic
support received. This includes their experiences with high school counselors in terms of
academic, social-emotional, and college/career support. One finding consistent with most
participants was limited exposure to their comprehensive high school counselors. As school
counselors are trained to support students in three areas, participants reported gaps in the support
they perceived. For instance, most participants relayed that exposure to school counselors had
been limited, or solely focused on academic topics, such as the scheduling of classes or credits
needed for graduation. Natasha shared, “I feel like it’s also important to just like, not only focus
on their academics, but on their home life, to see like, what can you do more to support a
student.” Luz added:
I feel like that’s the only way I was supported was academically. They were like what’s
your student ID? This is a class that you need to take, and you need to take them by this
time otherwise this will happen, and you don’t want that and are we good? Have a good
day. More like academically, but nothing like are you doing okay? Is there anything at
home that’s bugging you? Anything like that. I never heard any counselor ask me that
ever. So, it was more of a how can we get you to graduate? That was all.
Alarmingly, no participants could recall any time in which a school counselor from
elementary school to comprehensive high school discussed college and career preparation with
them. Victoria indicated, “No. I had nothing about college. I had nothing.” Luz added, “It was
never like, hey, do you want to transfer to college? I never had one of those conversations with
the counselor in high school.” Further, participants had varied experiences with being supported
socially and/or emotionally by their school counselors. Jessica shared that she participated in a
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counseling group, which she perceived to be helpful because of the peer interactions. Isaiah
stated, “I don’t think, not in that aspect, no.” Jordan felt as though he could speak to a counselor:
“Mr. Washington, yeah. I could talk to him, but I can’t talk to him about everything. But him, I
feel like he won’t judge you, but I feel like he just has such a wide range of students. He’s just
focused on a lot.” However, he did not feel this way about his assigned counselor, Ms. Dunn.
“Yeah, she was my assigned counselor. I talked to her maybe like once or twice. I don’t think
she liked me as a student, so that’s probably why. Yeah, I didn’t want to deal with that
counselor.” Victoria also did not feel supported socially or emotionally by her counselors, “No.”
Luz also felt as though she was unable to develop a connection with her comprehensive high
school counselor:
Nine times out of ten, I didn’t know their names if it wasn’t on their desk. So, it was kind
of hard for me to trust them or even kids in high school or middle school; they’re going
through so much nowadays, kids are even committing suicide because they don’t have
anyone to talk to. So, it’s kind of sad because it’s like, I feel for them. I’m like, what if
you needed someone to talk to and the counselors are just there to get you to graduate but
not there emotionally. They were polite, like how are you and things like that, but never
anything like, hey, you could trust me. Those words were never mentioned. You can
come in any time; you can trust me. My name is such.
Viewing these experiences through the theoretical lenses may provide insight. Emergent
strategy (Brown, 2017) values the way social and emotional connections can foster resilience. As
most participants note, they were unable to develop a close bond with their school counselor for
a variety of reasons, including the unavailability of their counselor, or the lack of time spent. A
vital principle of emergent strategy (Brown, 2017) suggests that we must embody presence over
preparation and that the small moments make a difference. Viewed through this lens, most
participants are clear that this is what was missing from their interactions with their
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comprehensive school counselor. Isaiah shared his perspective on why he thinks his experience
with counselors was like this, and what he thinks school counselors can do to improve:
I think it’s that way because ... I don’t know. I’m not sure why it’s that way. I feel like it
shouldn’t be that way because I feel like the counselors should have more relationships
with the students, and like a little more interaction throughout the semester instead of that
one time for that one year. I know counselors; they’re very resourceful. They’ll
disseminate information about different resources for whatever problems that are going
on in your life, for your education, for your future. And I feel like counselors should be
utilized more, so they can be that outlet for everything. And just to build the relationship
on, and yeah. I feel like they should put themselves out there more and let them know
their availability, like when they can stop by or whatever. Or be like, “Hey, if you guys
want to schedule an appointment with me,” to do something like that. Instead of just, that
once a year thing, saying, “These are the classes you’re taking next year.” I feel like, if I
was in high school, I think I would want to meet up with the counselor like three times a
semester, like the beginning, middle, and end just to check in with them, see how things
are with myself. If people are going through stuff, let’s say the student feels open to that
counselor, then say, like, someone’s getting abused, and they report it to their counselor
because they have that relationship and that trust. And then the counselor just kind of
recommends, shares the resources with that student, and just helps guide them into that
better path, and just make sure they get an education, that everything else is good, too.
Addressing research question two, several participants reported their comprehensive high
school counselor as someone they did not feel they could trust and noted that they lacked the
genuine presence they needed. This, too, points to the importance of small interactions on
influencing change. One participant, Jordan, felt like his counselor disliked him and showed this
by the way she would treat other students in front of him.
I felt like she didn’t want me in her counseling office when I would go ask for help or ask
for a class change. Just the vibe was like eh, like she didn’t really want me there. I would
see her with other students. She would be all happy. They would smile. Once I was there,
it was like it was like, oh, she’s changed.
For Jordan, he recalled this being one of the reasons he stopped coming to the counseling
office all together and stopped reaching out for help. Jordan stated, “She could’ve interacted
more. I didn’t care to go and check up on my grades, do anything that involved the counselors. I
didn’t really care because I didn’t really want to go associate with her after all that.” This
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demotivation was found across several stories, as another participant felt as though her counselor
was disappointed in her, which in turn caused disappointment in herself. Luz shared the
following:
I remember one counselor at California High. I didn’t know her name, but I remember
going to her office, and she looked at my grades and they weren’t that good, and she was
like, she got mad and I understand because it’s their best interest to get you to graduate
but she took it like she got mad and she was like, “These are sort of bad grades,” and she
was just making it seem like they’re bad instead of being like, “What can we do to get
those better grades? What’s going on? Instead of... what are you doing? You’re messing
up. Stuff like that. Yeah, so I was like, oh my god. I’m pretty sure she didn’t word it that
way but it made me feel that way, like oh my god… she saw my grades and I knew they
were bad and I understood why she was kind of like disappointed, but her disappointment
was so clear that I felt disappointed in myself. It’s so funny how the mind works. Even
her body language was making me feel like, “Oh man, she’s disappointed. I’m
disappointed in myself, too.”
Overall, the participants did not report a holistic level of support from their
comprehensive high school counselors. One felt that her high school counselor did not have
enough time for her and rushed through visits. Consistent with this report was that many
participants discussed a lack of access to the counselors, such as availability, teachers not
allowing them to go, or waiting over weeks to be called out after requesting a visit. Further, the
type of support received was perceived to be somewhat unhelpful. When Jessica was asked to
report any positive experiences with school counselors prior to transferring to the continuation
school, she stated, “I don’t think I have any.” She added:
All these students want to see that person and you’re just like, “Oh, my gosh, I have to
wait till next week, or the week after. Who knows if I’ll still have the same problem at
that time?” Or I already messed it up and my problem gets even bigger. I remember there
was this one counselor from my comprehensive high school. I don’t remember her name,
but she was always like, “If you don’t get your grades up, you’re going to go to a
continuation school.” I’m just like, “Okay. What am I going to do? How can I get my
grade up? It’s an F, what do you want me to do?” I had a 19% in one class. I talked a
little bit there with some counselors about what was going on, but mostly the counselors
were like, “You’re going to have to think about four more years and you’ll be out and
you can ...” just really basic, just like, “Oh, it’ll be over soon.” And I was just like,
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“Okay, but that doesn’t help my situation right now. I still feel like I want to cry all the
time. I don’t want to be here.” But, yeah, it was very generic, not really looking into my
personal situation, not really taking in the person behind the situation. Looking at it from
the outside.
Another piece that came through was the participants’ belief that they were not supported
by their school counselor because of their background. For example, Justine did not have any
interactions with her high school counselor and believed counselors at her comprehensive site
only supported those with “assets,” like athletes or those with money. For her, high school was
the time in which she began to rebel, including a decline in her attendance, grades, and behavior,
including being arrested, suspended, and placed on probation. She reported no interactions with
counselors during this time. “High school, yeah, no. Definitely not at the bigger high schools. I
don’t remember anything with counselors.” When asked if they every spoke to her about
academics or her behavior, considering being arrested, suspended, and placed on probation, she
stated. “Never. No. Like ever. Nope.” Justine elaborated on this by sharing her perception:
I mean, I honestly, if you weren’t like an athlete, if you weren’t basically an asset in their
eyes, like you just, it’s like okay. Like that’s honestly how I feel. Because they are like,
it’s kind of like they’re destined to be great, like they’re to have you know, to go to
college and like be something you know? It’s kind of like why invest in a risk?
Like Justine, Victoria did not recall a memory of her high school counselor and
emphasized the importance of having support at this age:
In high school, I don’t even remember what any counselor look like. I don’t know what
their names were, nothing. In high school, it’s like when kids are actually like, it’s crucial
because they’re trying to figure out what they’re doing and now there’s so many suicides,
there’s so many ... Because kids are being affected at home and school, so they feel
alone.
Despite these findings, one participant described his comprehensive high school
counselor as supportive and someone he could trust. He felt this was key in keeping him
motivated to attend school. Consistent with the principle of presence in emergent strategy
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(Brown, 2017), Anthony shared the tremendous impact his counselor made on his life by being
intentionally present and real:
That was actually the first person that I felt that cared about me. In eleventh grade. I think
that was the first person that cared, and the first person that ... took an interest in me, even
though he didn’t know me. I knew that was his job, and that’s another thing, I know
that’s his job and I know he should be acting like that. But, I think he went beyond his
job to help me out. The way he approached me was not like professional. It was like,
“Hey man, how’s it going?” More like ... more where I could relate and I could like ...
yeah, you’re a counselor, but I know you’re here as a friend, too. But, when I first met
him, he had a big ol’ smile on his face. He just told me ... he has a great personality. So,
you know when he’s in the building. He told me, “Come in Anthony, come in, how’s it
going, bud?” So, he would always ...I would always feel welcomed in his office. He
would always be there. He would never say no. He would always take the time and put
anything aside and just be like, “Talk to me, talk to me…what’s going on?” Yeah, so like
I said, that trust ... it was instant, I knew he was not fake. The way he approached me, the
way he made me feel like a student, as a person it was like, “This guy is cool. I could
open up to him.” I felt like I could ... it’s hard to explain because it just happened outta
nowhere. He’s my counselor. He walked me in; he introduced me to everyone, so he put
me first. That’s what it was, he introduced me to other school counselors, to the front
desk lady, took me around the school. He was just so real. You don’t really meet a lot of
counselors like that. He followed through and then after that, I met this other amazing
counselor.
Participants reflected that they would want their comprehensive school counselor to
support students with a history of trauma in a non-judgmental, caring way that allows the
students to be heard. They reported wanting more time with their school counselors and even
suggested hiring more counselors because of the large number of students they serve.
Participants were reflective and recognized that if their school counselor had fewer students to
support, they felt they would have received a higher quantity and quality of support.
Statement to comprehensive high school counselors. After discussing the types of
support received from their comprehensive school counselors, participants were asked what they
would say to their high school counselors if they had the opportunity. To honor student voices,
their responses are kept intact:
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Jessica: Thank you, because even though it wasn’t super ... it was just, I got a lot of
resources, I think. I don’t know. When I had the group counseling, that was really helpful
for me. Yeah, she connected me with also, other students that were ... because that group
counseling connected me with other students that were going through the same thing I
was.
Isaiah: Just be there more with the students, just have a bigger impact on their lives, and
just leave a lasting impression. They’ll be thankful that they ... that you’re doing your job.
Just I don’t know, just ... Maybe just more meets with the students. Because I can’t
remember my counselors. Maybe if I met up with them more, then I would probably have
been able to remember them, but just meet up with them and always check in.
Jordan: I wish you could see the good me. I’m a good person. I’ve changed a lot. I
probably wasn’t the best to her, and that’s probably why. I just feel like she could’ve
done more instead of just pushing me away. Wish she would have helped more. Be more
associated with us, instead of pushing me away. There’s more to a person than you see.
You gotta get to know somebody in real depth to judge them, to help them.
Justine: Again, I don’t even know any of their names. I wouldn’t even know who they
were. So, I would, I feel like, I would suggest to them like to really take the time to invest
in even the students who aren’t making a mark, you know? Maybe the ones who are, you
know maybe even digging a little bit more into the ones that like are complete F’s. Those
should be the ones they’re calling in the most. I mean, starting from ninth grade, like
even if they’re not listening or don’t think they’re listening, like they need to understand
like how to apply to college. Like really like teach them how to apply, and financial aid,
like how to do all these steps. I don’t know if like there was like some kind of course they
could have or workshop. Or maybe, I mean, they don’t have to do each individual; there’s
not enough time, but like teaching kids like taking maybe like a Saturday out of the
month and teaching them how to apply and doing all that stuff, so they could understand.
You know, even if they’re not thinking about it.
Victoria: Pay attention. No, I mean, that’s just all I would say is you should pay attention
more, not just because they’re quiet and nothing’s really happening obvious. I was going
through a lot.
Natasha: Maybe be like more personal. And more in depth. Yeah.
Luz: From with my counselor from the regular high school? I would be like, look, they
actually cared about me. You never told me that, that I could actually go to college. They
didn’t even ask me if I wanted to go ... that question was never even brought up. So, I feel
like are they just choosing to leave me out of it or ... I don’t even know how you apply to
college. College wasn’t even like a ... I don’t know, nobody ... yeah, no one said
anything. Yeah, and I feel like that would’ve changed my life if somebody would’ve said,
“You don’t have to go to here for a year, but if your parents can afford it, you could
always go to community college or something like that,” but I didn’t even know that you
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could. So, that would’ve changed dramatically. I would’ve graduated already if they did.
Yeah, that would’ve changed dramatically my whole path and stuff. Yeah, so it was sad
because I had to tell myself that ... a counselor didn’t tell me to go to a community
college. I had to tell myself.
Anthony: That I’m here because of him. If it wasn’t for him reaching out and for him
going out of his way, I don’t think I would’ve been here right now. I don’t think ... maybe
I would’ve been here, but I don’t think my life would’ve been like how it is right now
and getting all these opportunities and living life in my own terms. I probably would’ve
been somewhere else. But, if I would’ve told him something, he changed my life. He
changed the way I see life. He changed my perspective of school and also educators.
There are some good educators out there that really care about their students that are not
just there for their pay. They’re there because they actually do care about students.
The perspectives shared here illuminated the experiences of continuation high school
graduates with a pertinent member of the school community, their school counselor. While
school counselors are placed within a high school to provide holistic support, most participants
believed they did not receive the support they needed to be academically successful, even though
this was the only way most were supported. Participants continued to experience trauma during
their high school years and believed social and emotional support from their school counselor
would have been beneficial during this period of their development. In one student’s case, the
support he received was critical to maintaining his persistence in school, and he viewed his
connection with his high school counselor as life changing. These stories address research
question two by specifying the participants’ beliefs about their high school counselors’ ability to
holistically support their needs. These beliefs suggest that while there were varied interactions
with comprehensive school counselors, overall interactions were either abysmal, limited, or
harmful. Viewed through the theoretical frames, one can further understand these experiences by
highlighting the importance of systems, and people within these systems, in facilitating influence
and change.
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Continuation School Counselor Support
Research question two is further addressed by sharing about the participants’ experience
with their school counselors at the continuation school. One prior theme shared about how
participants’ transfer to their continuation school was viewed as a turning point in their
educational journey. One stakeholder who was reported as playing a role in their shift was the
school counselor, and most participants reflected on positive, holistic interactions. Some
participants reported that the connections they developed with their school counselor at the
continuation school was not only life changing, but a supportive relationship that propelled them
to find academic, personal, and collegiate success. Several participants made statements that they
would have been worse off if they did not have their counselor to support them, including
thoughts of continued drug use, dropping out, jail time, or even death. These findings can be
viewed through emergent strategy (2017) as the impact of relational connections on creating
large-scale change. Further, through an ecological systems lens, as the adults in their educational
microsystems changed, so did they. Their continuation school environment coupled with a
supportive school counselor made a lasting difference for the participants.
Jordan described what made his continuation school counselor inviting and helpful: “She
was really happy all the time, never sad. Always had a big smile on her face, so it would never
bring you down. Once you were down, she would bring you up. The counselors... They were so
close to use. They would help us a lot and wouldn’t throw us stuff and let us do it ourselves, and
would be there helping us step by step, instead of other counselors expecting their students to
know it.” Luz similarly recalled a motivating experience with her school counselor when she
transferred to the continuation school:
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When I transferred to CCHS, that’s when ... it was like, whoa, counselors are actually
here, they’re good. We would go see them every couple of weeks, and I remember the
counselor was like, “You’re doing better. You’re doing great; keep it up. You can do it.
You can even transfer to college.” Things like that. Yeah, so it was definitely ... they look
at you as a whole person and what you could do after that. Yeah, so it was definitely like
... I felt like even like, oh my god, I love it here. Yeah.
Anthony shared about the type of connection he developed with his continuation school
counselor and how the positive way she treated him helped shift the way he saw himself:
Ms. Mendez was from the hood, too. She’s hood. She’s a counselor, but she knows the
ins and outs of the streets. She’s been through the same thing, even worse. But she knows
what it feels, when you come from this environment and you’re trying to change your life
and how hard it is, especially coming from a female. So, the connection was there. I
respected her because of what she had been through and because of who she was. She
was my counselor, and I was her aide. Ms. Mendez, I knew she cared. She came at me
real. I think that’s where I felt an awesome connection. I respected her because she cared.
I knew she wanted the right thing for me. And for me to do the right thing. I didn’t do it
because I wanted to. But, I did it for the respect that I had for her. I knew I had to change
a lot of things, but my counselors were always there for me. She would always talk
highly about me. “Anthony this, this is my famous student.” That also gave me ...
responsibility, but also a spot in the school. Like, “Hey, that sounds pretty cool.” People
talking about you in a positive way because you’re always so used to people talking to
you in a negative way. But, when you have someone talking to you in a positive way, and
letting people know who you are, and you’re a good kid, and just people start seeing you
different. They didn’t talk to me like something was wrong with me. They talked to me
like if I was a normal kid with no trouble; they were able to talk. They were able to talk.
they were able to communicate. They were able to relate. I never felt labeled; I never felt
like they were putting their perception on me.
However, some participants reported an experience similar to that of their comprehensive
counselor. For example, Isaiah shared, “I feel like they were absent for the most part, but they
were only there because they had to be, to make sure they were doing their job.” Justine stated,
“I got Mrs. Bear. I remember. She’s just really sweet. And I do feel like she was very genuine.
And because, I mean, school wasn’t big, but I guess she was the only counselor. I feel like it was
just like all on her. But I don’t ever. I think if she could, she would like be more invested, but I
just don’t think there was the time.”
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Further addressing research question two, the participants describe how they were
supported holistically. Seven of the participants reported that their continuation school counselor
was supportive in academics, including repeated graduation checks and a fostering of academic
resilience. For example, one participant reflected on meeting with her counselor every few weeks
and being cheered on, which helped her to start believing in herself. Most participants reported
counselors walking them through, step by step, everything they needed to graduate and making it
clear with visuals and individualized attention. Isaiah recalled, “I think it was primarily
academic, just making sure I was making up my credits. There isn’t too much interaction that I
would be able to remember.” Justine also recalled only receiving academic support from her
counselor: “She was very caring. I do remember that, but like I think like, to them, it was more
like just their focus was more like making us graduate. I do remember sitting down with her, but
again, I didn’t understand. I was just like, “Oh okay.” You know, they would call you in to like
say, “Okay, this is what you need to graduate.” You know, they always like talked about your
packets, what you needed to do, like it was always like that plan like that you needed to get to
graduate to make it to that day.” Jordan recalled his counselors were consistent with motivating
him to do his work:
Just making sure I did my work. Making sure I was constantly on it. Just them being
there. They were helping a lot. I was failing when I first got there. I wasn’t doing the
work. And she helped me get the stuff up because you don’t really need to do a lot to pass
there. I was just not giving it my all. When I first started, I never would go. I would only
go a few times. We would talk more, talk more. She was always happy. I feel like she just
made it so not as scary as I heard it was. She would actually come to our classrooms, and
she’ll be there. She’ll go onto the students’ grade portal to see which students are failing,
so help them if they’re behind. Just cool. I liked her, too. If we wanted to transfer a class,
she’ll help transfer a class.
Regarding socio-emotional support, five of the participants reported close relationships
with their continuation school counselor. On the other hand, three of the participants did not
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recall any receiving such support from their continuation school counselor and suggested the role
to be solely academic. While many of the participants still had a difficult home life, several of
them reported school and their school counselor as being a place of safety, comfort, and even a
familial feel. Jessica shared that her connection with her school counselor at the continuation
school was a close relationship that she was able to develop because of the small size of her
school:
I feel like it was just ... we just had fewer students, I feel, so it was more ... I knew my
counselors personally. They knew me personally. It was a personal relationship, and if I
told them something ... because I was going through a lot of stuff at that time, so if I told
them something, I think they knew what else was going on in my life—what other
students were going through, what played into, what made that situation even more
stressful, and helped me fix it and guided me in the direction that I needed to go.
Participants shared that they did not feel as though there was a superiority barrier
between them and their counselor, and they felt that the connections they fostered were authentic
and meaningful. One participant, Anthony, specifically shared how he could connect so closely
with his school counselor because she was vulnerable by sharing her story. Anthony described
the connection he developed with his counselor as a close friendship. He recalled being socially
supported by being taught life lessons and emotionally supported by being cared for, which
allowed for him to relate to her and build a connection that furthered his efficacy in school.
Yeah, I guess that’s the third leg that the counselors are missing… They always touched
base on those social needs of mine. It was more with Ms. Mendez, though. It was just like
a friendship relationship that we had. She always reminded me, “Whatever you need, no
matter if it’s education or not. I’m here for you. You can come and talk to me. My doors
are always open.” She would always invite me for lunch. They had lunch for teachers and
counselors. So, she would always invite me and made me feel like I was someone. She
always made me feel special. She would always talk to me about what I need, not what I
wanna do, but what do I need. She would always tell me, “What does your brain need?”
She used to buy lunch, and then she would invite me to have lunch with her and just
interact with her. I think that really played a big role in emotion also. She taught me a lot.
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Jordan described how his counselors were there for him when he needed them and shared
that the even small connections mattered. Viewed through emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), the
notion that small interactions can create large-scale change was described. Jordan adds, “If there
was something bad happening at your house, something bad just on your mind, you could just
talk to them about it, and they would help you, support you in any way that they can, even if it’s
the small things because the little things matter. They helped a lot because my aunt passed away,
too. She was there for me, too, throughout that because me and her were close.” Luz recalled her
counselor being the type of person who enjoyed her job, was welcoming to students, and was
present around campus. Also viewed through emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), Luz described
how presence was an important factor in developing a connection with her school counselor:
I just love going to see her because she was always so bright and so if you ever need
anything, I’m here to help you, and you could even see her in the hallways. She wasn’t in
only her office in there sitting. I know they have stuff to do. If you’re in the office, you
have stuff to do, but she would just recognize students. If they passed by her window was
open, she would say hello, and it was such a better experience. Yeah, she seemed like a
better ... she liked what she was doing, instead of just keeping the door closed.
While all participants are current college students, only four perceived having college and
career support from their continuation school counselors. These four participants shared how
their continuation school counselors helped them every step of the way with the college
enrollment process, making a seemingly scary process manageable. They also shared how their
continuation school counselors supported them with applying for and receiving multiple
scholarships, financial aid, and enrollment in college support programs. The other participants all
noted that they wish they could have had more support in the college-going process.
Interestingly, of the four participants who described college and career support, three entered
college directly from high school. The other five participants entered college several years after
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graduating high school (six years later, on average). This may point to the importance of
intentional support surrounding college and career preparation by school counselors in the
continuation school. Jessica shares that her counselors helped her step by step with the college
process and made it more attainable for her:
I had a lot of college support and ... I never even thought about college. I didn’t know
about going to college. I knew about college; I just didn’t think it was for me. I finally ...
they were like, “Oh, well you can do this, this, you can get all these degrees and ...”
opened me up to this new lifestyle that I never even knew about. Helped me sign up for
FAFSA. Helped me sign up for college, to take the test and to register and everything.
Literally, step by step, it was right there for us, and they made it really easy and not scary
because obviously, you’re going to college; that’s scary. That’s a scary thing to think
about.
Jordan also shared about the support he received with college, including the exposure to
current college students, workshops, and field trips. Viewed through an ecological systems
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986) lens, this experience of being exposed to college and connecting with
mentors seemed to create a shift in Jordan’s microsystem, supporting him in fostering college-
going identities:
I didn’t know I was gonna go to college either. I’m here now, so I thank them a lot. I
would’ve been somewhere else. Who knows where I would be. First-generation college
student—I didn’t really think I was gonna do it. They opened my eyes. They brought in
actual college students to come and talk to us about it. They gave us tips on how to do
good. That played a big role. They gave us some worksheets, tips, and stuff to help us
throughout college, stuff like that. So that’s pretty cool. They wanna help their students.
The field trip actually, too, that we took—that was pretty helpful. That helped a lot.
Like Jessica and Jordan, Anthony shared about how he initially did not think college was
in his future, but his school counselor pushed him for more and supported him through each step.
This quote shared by Anthony highlights how one person, by being intentional and present, was
able to change the trajectory of his life:
Ms. Mendez, my high school counselor, she told me, “What’s next Anthony?” I’m like,
“What do you mean what’s next?” “What’s next after high school?” I’m like, “I’m done
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here. I’m gonna be 18. I could do whatever I want now.” She’s like, “Have you ever
thought about college?” “I’ve heard about college, but I never really thought about it; no
one in my family has ever gone to college.” And she’s like, “C’mon.” She really insisted
and she pushed me. So, sure enough, I ended up applying. She helped me with my
financial aid. She help me with my personal statement letter, she helped me with my
whole scholarships, and she walked me step by step. Ms. Mendez was the one who
encouraged me, the one that told me, “You should do it.” She also helped me look at my
own vision in life. Like, made me think about my life of what I wanted to do when I grew
up. That was neat.
Statement to continuation high school counselors. After discussing the types of
support received from their continuation school counselors, participants were asked what they
would say to them if they had the opportunity. To honor student voices, their responses are kept
intact:
Jessica: Thank you so much. They were awesome, amazing... if it wasn’t for them, I
probably wouldn’t have been in college. I wouldn’t have gotten scholarships at all. I
don’t know what I would be doing right now, honestly. It’s so crazy to think about it
because I never thought about going to college. I didn’t think I was going to graduate. I
didn’t think I was going to make it this far. When I was in rehab, I did not think that I
was going to make it this far. And then, I’m in college. It’s like here; it’s crazy. I just ...
it’s crazy to think about it. But yeah. I’m super thankful for them.
Isaiah: Probably to meet up more, too. Because even though I was there for a short
period, just to meet up with them real quick, a little more often.
Jordan: Thanks for everything you guys have done. You’ve done a lot for me. I’m in
college now. Never thought I would be here. I’d probably be on the street. Locked up. I
don’t know. Doing drugs. Who knows. It just changed a lot (more) than what I would’ve
been doing.
Justine: Thank you, I would say. I think things were just different back then, and so I
think now, I feel like things are more—I think now they’re more focused on like being
like college driven and like things like, I think it’s a little bit different. It’s like different
times now. So, but I would hope that they would really like talk more about college. I
know they really want people to graduate high school. But I think more focus on college
and the opportunities and again, I never knew about EOPS. I didn’t know about financial
aid and what that even meant. Thank you. Yeah, because I feel like when I say that’s
where I graduated from, I’m not ashamed. But I know people are like, “Oh, wow.” You
know? But, no, like they really helped me. They really did because I honestly would have
not graduated had I stayed at another school.
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Natasha: Thank you. Yeah. Just like, helping me finish faster and on track.
Luz: I would share with her the fact that her keeping up with me and really knowing who
I am helped me get out of continuation school, and if it wasn’t for her being kind and
supportive, I probably wouldn’t have pursued going to college and getting my grades up.
Anthony: I would share, she was like that angel. The guardian angel. That she took a
chance on me without even knowing me. She was the first educator who did not judge me
based on my paperwork…did not judge me based on me appearance, the way I looked.
She accepted me with all my flaws, with everything I came with. She accepted the
challenge. She was not afraid to help this lost kid. She took it like, yeah it’s her job, but
she knew that this is why she wanted to be a counselor to help kids like us. But yeah, she
was more like my guardian angel who accepted me and opened a whole second life to my
life—changed my perspective. Ms. Mendez gave me that second life to find who I am, or
who I will become.
The perspectives shared here provided a glimpse into the perceptions of continuation
school graduates related to the school counseling support they received while attending their
continuation school. Overall, the participants shared positive stories surrounding school
counselor support, specifically in the domains of academic and socio-emotional development.
Participants relayed that the individualized, repeated support made the difference in fostering
their motivation to succeed and belief in themselves. Further, while some participants had
support with college preparation, most would have liked more help in this area. Viewed through
an emergent lens, these stories represent the power of connections in creating change and how
one person can make an impact with consistent, individualized services. These stories add rich
data to the literature on the power of school counselors and the impact of their support with
students who have experienced trauma.
Supporting Students with Trauma
The following section focuses on the participants’ perspectives on how school counselors
can support students with a history of trauma. These further addresses research question two:
What do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe about their school
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counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs? As these voices and perspectives are
missing from the literature, it is important to incorporate more participant narratives in this
section. All participants shared thoughtful responses when asked how counselors can support
students who have experienced trauma. These perspectives, when viewed through emergent
strategy (Brown, 2017), illuminate the power of small interactions on developing deep
connections and change. Most participants reported that they would like their counselor to get to
know them personally, or individually, to truly understand what they are going through. Anthony
highlighted the following:
Get to know them, not as a student, but more as a person to build that connection.
Because a lot of kids that face trauma, they deal with mistrust, they feel alone, they feel
like no one is here, but for a counselor being able to ... not open up, but make them
understand like, “I’m here for you, not only as a counselor, but as a person.” Because I
mean, when you just go over their history, it just shows that you’re not there for them.
You’re just there for your job and your career, and for school. But, when you’re there and
you talk to students and you make them valuable, and you make them feel that they
matter, then you’ll get that connection with them.
Isaiah shared, “Just to motivate that person, and just to remind them that even though it’s bad or
dark right now, things will get better. Just keep your head up. Take it one day at a time, and just
try to stay focused.” Additionally, Jessica shared that her external behavior was just a persona,
and she advised counselors to look past the behavior and try to develop a connection. She
indicated:
Maybe take a little bit more interest in what’s going on in their students’ lives. I know it’s
a lot of students, so it’s, I don’t know. Just ask more questions. You never know. It’s hard
to look at someone and know what they’re going through. Sometimes it’s really
noticeable if they’re going through something, but most of the time it’s really not. You
don’t know, so it’s like...when you notice behavioral issues and not just assume that this
kid is rowdy and not cooperative because they’re doing that, they’re acting out, but that
action, it has a reason. It didn’t just happen. These kids aren’t just acting out to act out.
Don’t assume that...There are a lot of assumptions like, “Oh, well maybe it was because
you did this or you probably caused this.” Don’t try to make it about the person that’s
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telling them because that just makes them feel attacked, how it was their fault that this is
happening to them in their life...just try to connect with that person a little more.
Several participants shared that they just wanted to be treated fairly, without judgement,
and to feel like their counselor genuinely cared for them. Anthony also shared that to support
students who may have experienced trauma, it is important to develop trust by building a
connection and helping them feel as though they matter:
I wish they could’ve talked to me and figured out what was wrong. ... I didn’t really have
a lot of connection, but with a counselor, I wish they would’ve talked to me and figured
out what I was going through and what they could do to help me so I could feel
supported. I didn’t feel no support in school. I didn’t feel supported. I wish a counselor
would’ve reached out to me and talked to me and get to know what I was going through
and where I was failing in school. I wish... that would’ve helped a lot.
Participants felt it was important for school counselors to be available, visible, and
creative in the way they foster connections. Victoria shared, “Even have workshops. I don’t think
high schools have that. They should have workshops. Invite them with food, pizza…and then
while you get them there, play games where you get to have them open up and you might be able
to help save somebody. Because if you do this a lot, you get different students in there. And if
you become a friend, you become someone that they feel like they trust, or that you actually care,
you’re able to connect.” She added that counselors can share: “If you need to talk to me, talk to
me. Like, I’ve been through this, this, and this. I know what it’s like. I have friends who went
through this.” I feel like when people actually share their own experience, it makes a difference
for the other people because then they feel like they can relate, than when they just assume that
you don’t understand me.”
Luz added that it is important for counselors to try their best to the learn names of
students rather than asking for their ID, for counselors to be compassionate, and ultimately,
schools should hire more counselors so students can get the support they need. She also offered
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some ideas on how counselors can develop connections with students and awareness of their
role. Here she points out the importance of presence over preparation (Brown, 2017):
Someone who knows your struggles, what you’re dealing with, what classes you’re
taking—someone who knows your name instead of being like, ‘What’s your student ID
and what year are you?” They didn’t know my name until I gave them my student ID and
they were like, “Okay, you already took this class, this class, this class, this class…This is
what you need to take and do you have any questions? Have a good day.” I feel like they
should hire, I don’t know if this is maybe a bit extreme, but I feel like they should hire
maybe a couple more counselors to focus not only one or two counselors, focus on a
large group of kids, but like many little counselors to focus on small groups. That way
it’s like the students feel more like, “Hey, I know this counselor and she gets me,” instead
of feeling like, “Hey, if I go to her, she might forget because she has all these other
students.” Even if you’re busy, because I know counselors are probably busy, right? But
just saying, “Hey, if you ever need anything, just know if you ever need anything, I’m
here. I’m all ears. Nobody’s going to judge you; this is a free zone.” I feel like I would
definitely have liked an orientation on the first day, when they go over expectations and
everything, just say, “Hey, the counselor office is right there; it’s always open.” So, it’s
kind of like just focus on not ... try not to get so many students in a day, but rather if it’s
possible, I don’t know if they’ll get in trouble for seeing less students, but it’s better
because it helps the students feel more welcome rather than, “Okay, next, next, next,
who’s next?”
Natasha also felt it was important for school counselors to be nonjudgmental and
understanding of students with trauma backgrounds and to support them beyond academics. This
points to the importance of creating an environment that support students’ socio-emotional
wellbeing and understanding the importance of the microsystem’s influence (Bronfenbrenner,
1986):
Be more understanding. Like, just try not to judge, I guess. ‘Cause some people like, you
know, are afraid that people are judging them. Just being friendly. I feel like it’s also
important to just, like, not only focus on their academics, but on their home life, to see
like, what can you do more to support a student, but hold him back. Yeah. Just to make
sure that they’re okay. Like, to put them, like ... I know they have like, if you don’t have
food at home, the counselor would help the student initially, to make sure that they got
the resource that they need. Yeah. ‘Cause, I feel like that’s important, too. ‘Cause some
students don’t have someone to go to with their problems. Just like, talk to them, and ask
them what we thought they need and like, actually telling them, where can they go to get
those resources.
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The perspectives shared here illuminate the voices of continuation high school graduates
surrounding their beliefs on how school counselors can support students who have experienced
trauma. The beliefs presented uncover an important piece surrounding the types of support
desired, along with specific ideas school counselors can utilize to build connections with students
from similar backgrounds. Overall, participants wanted their counselors to be present, genuine,
trustworthy, nonjudgmental, friendly, welcoming, and open to sharing their experiences with
them. Participants relayed that this type of support is paramount for those dealing with trauma
and can be a way to foster nurturing, relational connections.
Relationship Repair
The following section continues to address both research questions 1 and 2: How do
continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive their journey through the
K–12 educational system? What do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma
believe about their school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs? The theme,
relationship repair, addresses both research questions, as it highlights the participants’
perspectives on how their journey was impacted by connections, or the lack thereof, and one type
of connection being with school counselors. As the findings presented illuminate, a nurturing
relationship with a caring adult was reported to provide a buffer against the trauma experienced.
While the participants reported it was up to them to change their life and reach out for the help, it
was imperative that the right kind of help was there for them when they needed it the most.
Viewed through the principles of emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), these relationships were
critical to fostering resilience and growth within participants. Further exploration through an
ecological systems lens deepens the understanding of how important it is for microsystems to be
filled with relational connections, and educators can serve in this capacity.
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As one participant shared, it is critical that educators understand that their role goes far
beyond classrooms and offices, as for some students that counselor or teacher may be their only
hope for a relationship with a caring adult. For the participants, elementary and middle school
was a time when most were experiencing trauma. As reported, the participants felt as though
what they were going through impacted their schooling. Importantly, one student, Jordan, had a
connection with an elementary school counselor and felt as though this connection and her
“happiness overshadowed” what he was experiencing in his life. Additionally, Victoria and
Anthony recalled positive connections with two of their elementary school teachers. This points
to the power of relationships in supporting children who may be experiencing trauma.
During high school, participants shared about how the trauma they experienced impacted
their behavior, grades, and attendance in school. Only one participant, Anthony, reported a
meaningful relationship at his comprehensive high school and how important it was for him that
his counselor was authentic, “That was a great experience… just that instant relationship that he
gave me was so real. He was not faking it; we could tell when people fake it. When you’re just
there, just to be there. But he was there for his students. I knew he cared for his students. Just that
instant relationship, just happened.”
Most participants reported that a major factor that facilitated success was the caring
environment and relationships they developed at their continuation high school. For instance,
Jessica shared about the comfort and safety she felt with her school counselors. She further noted
that because of the emotional support she received at school, she was able to focus more on the
academic component:
I think it was more like I had ... I was with a friend or a family. I just could tell them and
they’d know. I felt very safe. I felt extra safe at my continuation school, just because I
knew that they weren’t going to judge me. I knew that it wasn’t unheard of. I wasn’t the
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only one going through this and that there’s people that understand me and that can see
what’s going on. And don’t just think I’m messing up because I want to. I felt like that
really helped me feel even more motivated to go to school. I like how funny they are, and
I just think that they’re so awesome because they listen. They really take your problems
and put them in front of you and help you make the best decision for your life. With
them, I feel happy. Less overwhelmed. I know that feeling. When I go in there, I’m just
so tense and I feel that weight on my shoulder and then when I leave, I’m just like,
“Okay, I can breathe now.” Comfort. I feel comfort, safe. And secure. Because if I was
being emotionally supported, I’m not going to be so stressed about it, and I can focus
more on my school and graduating and getting done with high school.
Jordan also reported the connections he developed at his continuation school as being like
a family, which helped him to focus more on school. “That was my school. Everybody was a
family. We all knew each other. I could go there and just talk to the teachers as if they’re a
friend. They wouldn’t judge you. They wouldn’t pull you back in any way. They would just try
to keep motivating you. They were cool. You could vibe more with the teachers at my
continuation school than you could at any other school because they’re more closer to their
students in a way. I was more focused on school.” Jordan made an important connection—that
because of the personal connections he developed with teachers, he was able to focus more on
his academics. This came up frequently amongst participants and addresses the research
questions by highlighting how relational connections can foster academic success. They
perceived these layers of support as pertinent factors in their ability to graduate high school and
further their education. While the connections may have been brief, lasting less than a year, they
created a sustaining ripple in their lives that they still draw on. Viewed through an ecological
lens (Bronfenbrenner, 1986), this highlights that even though these students are no longer
enrolled at their continuation school, they still view the relationships they developed as within
their microsystem. It appears that these connections can sustain over time, as many participants
noted they are still connected with people at their continuation school long after graduation day.
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Further, emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), calls upon the relationship as a powerful factor in
restoration, and these stories allude to the transformative properties of these connections. Luz
recalled how she felt that her teachers and counselor at CCHS genuinely cared about the
students, which helped her feel connected to school and fostered a deeper belief in herself:
The teacher actually got to know everybody. I felt like ... like my voice was heard in a
way. So, I felt better definitely. Because he was just like so caring about the students and
he’d be like, “Okay, are you guys ready to learn today?” Instead of chapter one, let’s
start… Emotionally, it was like a big impact because I actually started believing in
myself—not that I didn’t before, but I felt like it wasn’t as strong as I wanted to and those
counselors made me feel like, “Hey, they’re there for me—not only academically, but
emotionally.” I didn’t go and talk about my feelings, but if I wanted to, I felt safe to do
so. So, yeah, just in general it was like a better experience for me. I felt more my high
school experience could not have ended any better.
Similarly, Anthony found a connection with adults at his continuation school and
described the relationship as extending beyond the student–counselor norms to create a safe
space for him to grow and learn:
Took a long time; it was a rough road just because even though as much as I didn’t
wanna do it, I thought I couldn’t let Ms. Roberts down, or Ms. Mendez, or Mr.
Washington because they put so much time into me that if I let them down, it was more
of a slap in the face to them. If I let them down, not only am I quitting myself, I’m gonna
go back home, and that’s something I didn’t wanna do. CCHS was a different
environment. It was a different caring; it was a different thing that I got from all the
different schools and teachers, that you know, “Oh, you’re just a student. You know
you’re just here to learn. Finish up.” But, no, this was like different. They broke the
branch, and they went beyond the road to reach me from where I was. Since I didn’t have
a car, I would always walk. Then, Ms. Roberts, would give me rides to my house and
make sure that I ate. Have you seen Freedom Writers? Something like that. It’s not just a
class; it’s just a community coming together, like a village. So, we were in class, all the
students. It didn’t matter where you’re from. It didn’t matter what you believed, or if you
were from different gangs. It was just, it really came together. I think that’s what that
teacher provided you. A safe net for kids that didn’t feel safe outside of school. Ms.
Mendez used to open up about her personal life. Trying to make it relatable to my life and
how she made it. But also, “Man, you’ve been through all that stuff? And you’re here as a
counselor? You went through your educational system. I could make it too then, huh?”
“Yeah, for sure you can make it.” That’s when I started appreciating education and what
it could do for you and the purpose of it and how it not only changed my life, but it
changed many lives if you put your mind to it. It was tough because like I said I didn’t
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really have that support there, so it’s funny how other people outside of your family
become that support and how many people would take the challenge and believed in me
when I just didn’t believe in myself.
As Brown (2017) articulated, we must “build the resilience by building the relationships”
(p. 42). Consistent within the stories presented is just how important relationships are to young
people of all ages. The relational connections fostered throughout their educational journeys
were critical to their success. These stories of relationships illuminate what can be done for
children who have experienced trauma and the power of educators to serve in this capacity.
Educators can support students by developing relationships with them, and it is vital that all
students attend schools where they feel heard, loved, and nurtured. Further, it is the role of the
school to provide environments that allow students to grow personally and develop resilient
mindsets.
Personal Growth and Resilient Mindset
The following section continues to address research question 1: How do continuation
high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive their journey through the K–12
educational system? Interwoven throughout each participant’s educational journey was a clear
undertone that one of the most pertinent components of their success was found within. While
each participant did experience a multitude of traumas that had impacts on their life inside and
outside of school, they were able to overcome their circumstances by fostering personal growth
and a resilient mindset. All participants reflected on what they had learned about themselves
from this journey. They reported that within them resided a great deal of potential—potential that
just needed the right opportunity, the right environment, and the right people to believe in them
to flourish. Some had to find this opportunity on their own and grew their resilience
independently. Ultimately, they reported that they are still finding success because they
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developed a mindset of persistence in the face of adversity. They draw upon their past to see how
they made it through the hardest days and propel themselves forward. Some participants believe
that their past made them who they are and provided them the strength they needed to overcome.
As it is vital to add student voice to the body of literature, all participants’ narratives are shared
in this section. The narratives are in response to the question, “What have you learned about
yourself through this journey? What do you hope for in your future?”
Jessica: I learned that I’m a scholar. I never looked at myself as a scholar, but now I see
myself like, “Yeah, I’m a scholar because I like school. This is for me. This is my thing.”
I learned that about myself. I learned that I can do a lot of things that I never thought I
could, like, I don’t know, be in college. I never had this in mind until I went to my
continuation school. I didn’t think I was going to graduate til I got to my continuation
school. It showed me a different type of life, opened my eyes up to a different lifestyle. I
don’t have to live like the people in my neighborhood. I don’t have to live like the people
I know. I can live a better lifestyle. I can live a happier lifestyle, a healthier lifestyle, a
more emotionally stable lifestyle. I plan on hopefully graduating. I don’t know exactly
what I want to do with it yet ... I know I want to major in psychology. There’s so many
things I want to do. I want to travel. I want to go to Europe. I want to go to South
America. I want to go to Asia. There are so many things that I just want to go experience
out there. I want to get to experience other cultures and I want to transfer, hopefully to
Mexico City University. So, I’m excited for that. I know there’s so much I can do, but I
want to graduate and get a house, and I want to be successful and happy.
Isaiah: For the most part, I’ve had a positive outlook. Just the mindset, just to make sure I
just do what I gotta do. Because I went there to make up credits, I was like, alright, this is
what I gotta do, and I just have to do it. Just be you and do what you want to do. And just
don’t worry about what other people think. In high school, I was always worrying about
what other people thought. When you worry about what other people think, you kind of
lose yourself. You have to be true to yourself and just do what you want to do. I would
like to go to university and earn a bachelor’s in botany, and I wanted to live up in the
arctic to get away and kind of be on my own for a bit, to just experience that. And then
I’d like to work on a master’s or a doctorate.
Jordan: Don’t hang back on the little things. Experience the big things. Don’t let one
little small thing give you so much anxiety. Just get it done with. Over and done with.
Life’s a trip. To judge a person, you probably need to know the person. I feel like every
day you’re constantly able to change your life in any way you want, and it’s up to
yourself to do that. Maybe the impact of others, but it’s really up to yourself. I feel like
throughout all my schooling and all of that, I feel like it helped me in a way. My
continuation school especially.
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Justine: I think—not think—I know that I had it in me all along. I just didn’t see it, you
know. I went through a lot of things, but I see the bigger picture now. Like it had to
happen to bring me to this place where I’m at in my life because I never thought I was
going to be here. I am applying to transfer to a university. I never saw it; I thought that
would be cool one day, but now I want to graduate. I would love to get into something
regarding communications, but I really want to narrow my focus down to Latino
businesses and helping Latino businesses thrive—you know, like how to reach out and
things like that. I feel like that’s my passion now.
Victoria: I’m stronger than I thought. I went through a lot of insecurities and doubts, even
being a mom. But, when I really sit back, I really have overcome a lot. And here I am,
finishing my first semester of college. Something that I didn’t think was going to ever
happen. I just know that I can give more. I was worth more. I want to be able to work in
schools. Like a counselor, psychologist. Be able to do something that I like, something
that makes me feel good, something that makes me happy. I know that I’m good with
helping people, so that’s what I want to do. I want to be that person people look up to. I
didn’t have anybody that I was like, “I want to be like them. I want to do what they’re
doing.” I didn’t have anybody. And so, to be able to work with younger, like middle
school, high school, I want to make them feel like you can do it. If I did it, you can do it.
And really understand because I feel a lot of counselors and psychologists, what they
know is based off information and education that they learned, not because they’ve
actually gone through anything. And so, I feel with me, I’ve actually gone through
different experiences and then with the education that I’m going to get, I can actually
help in a deeper perspective.
Natasha: I feel like, through everything, I was resilient. I was self-sufficient. Yeah.
‘Cause, since I got into foster care, like having those experiences and having to focus on
school. I feel like most kids would just like give up... ‘cause I know of some who do.
They have experiences, like trauma, and they would just like, give up. But I feel like I
keep going. That’s why I’m like, yeah. Like I can do it. Right now, I’m doing biology, so
hopefully, I stay with it. And, I want to go to, transfer to four years. And then, medical
school. And then, I want to enter the military.
Luz: Just patience. Never giving up. Yeah, I feel like never giving up and even though it
feels like, oh, your life’s just working and doing this and what people tell you is like, but
what do you want? The patience to go through it and not giving up, yeah. I hope to
graduate with my bachelor’s and just get a career that I actually like and yeah, just
actually ... and not to prove to anybody like, oh, I did it besides what anybody told me,
but for myself, just being like, it’s possible.
Anthony: I learned that I matter. I learned to value myself. I learned that ... everything
that happened to me ... that didn’t happen to me, it happened for me. It shaped me to the
person who I am now. I learned to value myself, I learned to respect myself. Looking
back at how I didn’t respect people. I didn’t respect ... I didn’t love people. It was not
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because I didn’t respect people, I didn’t love people. I just didn’t respect myself or love
myself. That I didn’t allow myself to open up to people. But, learning from my journey
and from where I came from and the whole adversity I overcame. Yeah, I learned that I
do matter and that my story matters. We’re here for a purpose; it might take you a long
road to find out, but we’re here for a reason. It just taught me to love myself. To care
about myself—to know that I’m not alone, there’s many people going through the same
struggles as me. And just learning to accept challenges, accept help, and learning to ask
for help. I learned a lot through my journey.
Anthony concluded with his hope for the future:
I’m planning to finish my master’s degree in counseling and become a school counselor.
Yeah, and hopefully in the future open a nonprofit and have my own public speaking ...
little outreach to talk to students. My plan for the future is to help other students, kids,
understand their value of what they represent. Understand that they matter. Letting them
know that they’re not alone and it’s okay to feel how they feel; it’s okay to be angry at
the world. But, it’s like, what do you wanna do? You can’t live your life just being angry
at everyone or at everything. There’s going to be a point in your life that you’re gonna get
tired of being like that. It just drains you. Making them understand that whatever they’re
going through right now is not gonna define who they are in the future. It’s just a
temporary situation that they may be facing, but with the help of other people and
mentors and teachers, and counselors, we could help them redirect their track. I can’t
really predict the future. I feel confident. I feel like I’m on the right track to success.
Before, I just wanted to be rich. I just wanted to have all these things, but now it’s more
... it doesn’t really matter how rich you are or not. It just matters that you’re around the
people you love and care about you, and you’re living your own life in your own terms.
And you’re happy with that. So, with my educational journey, I mean, I see myself in a
good spot in the future, I just have that confidence. I have that positive mindset. I’ve been
through the worst. I don’t think nothing else would bring me down. There might be an
obstacle in my life, but not nothing I wouldn’t be able to accomplish.
As participants reflected on their journey and what they learned about themselves,
emotional and thoughtful responses were shared that empowered the space. The transformative
experiences the participants relayed encompass the research question because they believe that
while their educational journey may have been challenging, ultimately, they found strength in
their battles. Through their journey, participants learned more about themselves and how these
experiences shaped them. They learned that they matter, that they are strong, that they are worth
more than others made them out to be, and that they are scholars. They learned that within them
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all along resided unwavering patience, persistence, and passion. They learned that the traumas
they encountered, while defeating at times, did not defeat them. The participants found the light
of hope and believed in the beauty of their dreams.
As the ecological systems are centered around the self, Bronfenbrenner (1986) often
discusses how the external systems influence the self. However, vital to the system itself is the
strength of the self—one’s internal power. The narratives presented here showcase just how
important the self is within these systems and connects with the power of the self to grow. It was
evident that within each participant resides the incredible beauty of resilience, just as that of the
“...butterfly, a most magical creature. The wings of the butterfly are already inside the caterpillar,
and as it breaks down its old self into goo the wings emerge ready to go. That process is amazing
and teaches me that as we change and transform, we also have everything we need already right
inside of us” (Micha Hobbes Frazier, as cited in Brown, 2017, p. 131).
Conclusion
The present chapter provided a themed analysis of the testimonios of eight remarkable
former continuation school students in hopes of answering the research questions. The journeys
of each participant illuminated the importance of supportive environments and relationships at
each educational level. As shared in the personal narratives, the participants believed trauma to
play a role in their ability to focus, but was buffered by the close bonds they developed with
adults at school. For some students, the small interactions had an impact on their socio-emotional
well-being, and academic success. Further, the educational journeys shared in this chapter shed
light on the life-changing support continuation schools can provide for students with a history of
trauma. And, as the participants collectively shared, K–12 school counselors can make an impact
when their support is authentic, present, and holistic. Most importantly, each participant learned
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 130
that within them resided a great deal of resilience, which in turn, fostered personal growth. This
mindset, which they attribute to their journey, continues to propel them as they continue their
journey of schooling and find success in college.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
The present study sought to uncover the educational journeys of continuation high school
graduates with a history of trauma. Most research surrounding the topic of trauma has been
deficit-based, reporting it to be detrimental to the cognitive and social development as well as the
educational achievement and engagement of those affected (Anda et al., 2006; Felitti et al., 1998;
Hopkinson, 2017; NCTSN, 2018; Schultz et al., 2014). One study highlighted that among
continuation high school students, 90% had experienced some layer of trauma (West et al.,
2014). Utilizing a desire-based perspective, which refuses to flatten people to their harm (Tuck,
2009), the purpose of the present study was to first understand the impacts of trauma while
bringing to light the testimonios of strength and resilience experienced by each participant.
In the present study, the researcher sought to understand their unique perspectives and
add the voice of a group absent from the literature: continuation school students. Further, the
researcher was interested in understanding the participants’ perspectives on support from a key
stakeholder in their educational journey: the school counselor. The study addressed the problem
of inequitable services students with a history of trauma have experienced throughout their
journey in the K–12 educational system. To address this problem, the study adds to current
understandings of the how traumatic stress impacts academic engagement and school
connectedness. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance school counselors play in
creating safe spaces and relational connections that allow students to foster resilient mindsets and
personal growth. Importantly, the study illuminates the power of the students themselves,
specifically their mindset, within their educational journey. The following research questions
served as a roadmap for study:
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 132
1. How do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive their
journey through the K–12 educational system?
2. What do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe about their
school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs?
Summary of the Findings
The aim of the present study was to understand the perspectives of eight continuation
school graduates; yet what was uncovered was much more than anticipated. The stories of pain,
promise, resilience, and transformation shared by the participants allowed for a deeper glimpse
into the lived experiences of a group of people absent from the literature. The following themes
emerged from the testimonios: trauma’s impact on schooling, comprehensive school experiences,
continuation school as turning point, school counselors’ support, relationship repair, and personal
growth and resilient mindset. The following sections provide a comprehensive overview of
findings in relation to the themes, organized by research question.
Research Question #1: How do continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma
perceive their journey through the K –12 educational system?
The findings related to trauma’s impact on school were consistent with literature
surrounding participants’ ability to focus and attend to material, as well as engagement in risk-
taking behaviors, such as aggression toward peers and/or adults and substance abuse (Anda et al.,
2006; Felitti et al., 1998; Hopkinson, 2017; NCTSN, 2018; Schultz et al., 2014). For most of the
participants, trauma was viewed as an initial barrier to their success but was mitigated by the
presence of close relational connections with school staff, such as teachers and school
counselors. Consistent with prior literature, as reported by participants, adult relational
connections and a positive peer group within the school environment were key in fostering
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 133
resilience (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Cole et al., 2005; NCTSN, 2018, Shah & Gardner, 2008).
It was evident that although traumatic experiences were found to be impactful, relational
connections and a strong belief in oneself was found to be a powerful force against trauma. This
is consistent with research on the impact of relational connections in stabilizing those impacted
by trauma (Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010).
While participants varied in their individual comprehensive schooling experiences, most
were clear that the trauma they had experienced impacted their overall school performance and
behavior. Most participants shared that one factor that deepened the impact of trauma was not
only feeling alone outside of school, but also feeling like adults at school did not care for them
either. As Luz noted, “If they don’t have the emotional support at home, who do they have? So,
it’s like the teachers and the counselors, they’re it. So, it’s very crucial that whoever goes into the
educational field that they’re like certain because there’s like ... it’s not only grading papers and
seeing students, it’s like nine times out of ten, you’re the only person that they have.”
During elementary and middle school, when most participants were experiencing many
traumas, they recalled that educators were either unaware of what was happening in their lives or
failed to look past the behaviors to understand. Within the comprehensive high school
environment, participants were impacted by the lack of supportive relationships, even
detrimental experiences, with teachers, counselors, and staff. One participant reported being
disappointed in themselves due to the disappointment felt by school staff. Another recalled the
body language and facial expressions of his counselor as so harmful that he never returned to the
counseling office, stopped checking on his grades, and attending school all together. These
findings were consistent with the literature surrounding school counselor support and the impact
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 134
of negative relationships with educators on engagement and achievement (Roorda et al., 2011;
Vela-Gude et al., 2009).
Alternatively, some participants recalled meaningful connections with adults in their
comprehensive schools. In elementary school, three shared positive experiences with educators
that led them to be more academically engaged. One vital experience, shared by Jordan, was
related to how he felt with his elementary school counselor: “When I was with her, I didn’t really
think of any of that stuff. Thinking about it, I don’t really think about anything that was
happening. I guess the happiness overdid the…” This points to the power in relational
connections in fostering growth and is consistent with literature on this topic (Blodgett &
Lanigan, 2018; Cole et al., 2005; Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010; NCTSN, 2018, Shah & Gardner,
2008). Further, these findings suggest how critical relational connections can be in these
foundational years, and how elementary school counselors can serve in this capacity.
Middle school was reported as a period where most participants could have used more
relational connections but did not report this as such. Only one participant could recall a positive
experience in middle school that was marked by a great deal of relational connections with adults
and peers. Victoria recalled, “In middle school, I actually had relationships with my teachers.
And so I think that just made it easy for me, those two years, because I had the support. And
people actually, like believed in me. And so, it just made it...I wanted to come to school. Yeah,
and it just came, like the grades and everything came really smooth for me, those years.” This
story highlights the interconnectedness of social emotional support and academic achievement,
as consistent with literature on relational connections and academic engagement and
achievement (El-Sheikh et al., 2014; Levy et al., 2016; Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010; Roorda et
al., 2011). While only one participant encountered this layer of support during middle school, her
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 135
perspective highlights the importance of viewing relational connections as an academic
intervention.
Several participants shared how the connections they developed at their comprehensive
high school were meaningful and supportive. For Anthony, who had dropped out of school since
8th grade, recalled his experience with his high school counselor as life changing. Despite the
varied traumas he had experienced, this meaningful connection coupled with a positive mindset
was a critical factor in the shift in his educational journey. This, again, alludes to the importance
of a relational connection with caring adults within the high school setting (Ludy-Dobson &
Perry, 2010; Roorda et al., 2011).
Most participants noted that their transfer to the continuation school was a turning point
for them due to a change in environment. As Isaiah keenly noted, “Your circle has a big impact
on you.” The circle participants developed at their continuation school was positive for many and
resulted in academic success. Consistent with the literature describing continuation schools as
student-centered and a safety net, participants described the environment of their continuation
school as safe, welcoming, and family-like (Ruiz de Velasco, 2008). Indeed, most participants
reported the adults on campus as relatable, caring, and dependable. Participants reflected that a
key motivator in finding and maintaining academic success was not wanting to let the people
close to them down, often noting a teacher or counselor at their continuation school. Compared
to literature describing continuation schools as “dumping grounds,” the majority of participants
initially thought of their new school as the place where the “bad” kids go, but quickly shifted this
belief (Ruiz de Velasco, 2008). Participants reflected that their perception of continuation
schooling changed due to the smaller, safer environment and the presence of caring adults. These
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 136
findings bring new awareness on the topic of continuation schooling and highlight the imperative
nature of the school environment in fostering growth and resilience amongst students.
The findings ultimately pointed to the importance of the self as a critical component in
creating and sustaining change. Participants noted a shift in self-efficacy, motivation, and goals
for the future. Justine shared, “I think—not think—I know that I had it in me all along.” Jessica
added, “I learned that I’m a scholar. I never looked at myself as a scholar, but now I see myself
like, yeah, I’m a scholar because I like school. This is for me.” These findings are consistent with
literature on motivation but add new voices to the literature on the importance of the self in
overcoming trauma and fostering resilience (Shah & Gardner, 2008).
Overall, the findings presented were somewhat consistent with literature surrounding this
topic but deepen our understanding of the K–12 experiences of continuation school graduates
with a history of trauma. While some of the literature in Chapter Two painted a bleak picture for
those with trauma histories, the stories presented here uncover that while trauma is damaging, the
human capability to overcome is profound. For these eight participants, it was their inner
strength, the relationships they developed, and the safe environment in their schools that shifted
the trajectory of their life. Most participants left high school hopeful and empowered.
Research Question #2: What do continuation high school graduates with a history of
trauma believe about their school counselors ’ ability to holistically support their needs?
Further consistencies emerged surrounding the topic of school counselors. The literature
presented in Chapter Two highlights the comprehensive nature of the role of a school counselor,
while also reporting barriers to their support. Participants did not recall deep levels of interaction
with elementary school counselors, which was consistent with literature on their sparsity (Carrell
& Hoekstra, 2014). However, one participant, Jordan, shared the positive impact of his
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 137
elementary school counselor, even noting her presence as one that “overshadowed” the trauma.
This area needs further research but suggests that elementary school counselors can have an
impact on the lives of students experiencing trauma and be a strong foundational level of
support. Similarly, at the middle-school level, most participants did not relay meaningful
connections with their school counselors. While this was the case for most, Victoria did recall
middle school as a time when she developed relationships with adults, including her school
counselor. She shares how this was a time of connection, when she wanted to go to school, and
when academics and grades came easily. This points to the importance of enhancing the
relational connections during this age and the critical need for more attention to be diverted to
middle school.
Consistent with the literature on comprehensive high school counselor experiences,
participants reported feeling like a number, lack of sincerity, absence, limited time, or lack of
availability (Eckenrod-Green & Culbreth, 2007; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Consistent with the
literature (Vela-Gude et al., 2009), Justine, when asked if she met with her high school
counselor, admitted, “Never. No. Like ever. Nope. I mean, if you weren’t like an athlete, if you
weren’t basically an asset in their eyes, like you just... Because, it’s kind of like they’re destined
to be great, like, to go to college and like be something you know? It’s kind of like why invest in
a risk?”
In terms of holistic support, participants did not recall any type of college and career
support from elementary, middle, or high school counselors prior to transferring to the
continuation school. Further, only a few students could recall social-emotional support received
from their school counselors prior to continuation school. These findings are consistent with the
literature on school counselor barriers, such as a high student-to-counselor ratio (ASCA, 2012;
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 138
Barna & Brott, 2011; Lapan, 2012). Nevertheless, those who did receive socio-emotional support
were clear that it was a helpful necessity. When reflecting on how school counselors could
support them better, two participants suggested for counselors to take more time with students
and work on building quality connections over a critical mass. Others shared that they
understood that they did not receive the type of support they needed because of the large number
of students on their counselor’s caseload. Indeed, they wished there were more K–12 school
counselors to support their needs.
However, a vital finding that has not been reported in the literature is the impact of
continuation school counselors in the lives of students. Most participants reported support from
their continuation school counselor in all three domains: academic, socio-emotional, and
college/career. As most school counselors at continuation schools serve smaller caseloads, often
meeting the recommended 250:1, this finding is consistent with literature surrounding the impact
of school counselors with recommended caseload sizes (Lapan et al., 2012; Lapan, Whitcomb, &
Aleman, 2012). However, participants were clear that a heightened focus on college and career
support is needed at the continuation school level.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the findings of the present study, and an evaluation of relevant literature, the
following section provides recommendations for practice in serving this population of students.
1. Systemic Trauma-informed Practices
a. Universal screening for all students that creates awareness of which students have
experienced trauma; provide targeted school based mental health support for
students and families.
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b. Mandatory, yearly trauma-informed trainings for all current educators and school-
based personnel, like that of the yearly child abuse reporting trainings for all
school-based personnel. This includes an awareness of triggers, symptoms,
behavioral responses to threat, resources available, and how to support students
with trauma in learning and on campus.
c. Trauma-informed practices embedded within all credentialing programs for
school counselors, teachers, administrators, nurses, school psychologists, school
resource officers, etc.
d. Re-evaluation of discipline policies and the institution, with fidelity, of restorative
practices in all K–12 schools.
2. School Counselors: Quantity and Quality
a. School counselors must be cognizant of body language, facial expressions, and
welcoming to all students.
b. Increase visibility around campus and institute open-door policies for school
counseling offices.
c. Increase the amount of school counselors at each level, including elementary,
middle, and high school, to the ASCA recommended caseload size of 250:1.
d. Eliminate non-counseling-related duties for school counselors to maximize time
spent in direct services to students.
e. Provide professional development opportunities for school counselors to move
toward a full comprehensive school counseling program that reaches all K–12
students, in the domains of academics, social-emotional, and college/career.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 140
f. Professional development opportunities for all counselors to learn in depth about
the impact of trauma, including the impact of their role.
g. Provide opportunities for counselors to learn student names and foster relationship
building.
3. Increased College and Career Focus at Continuation Schools
a. Offer workshops for parents and students to learn about college, including
financial aid, college applications, scholarships, etc.
b. Create partnerships with local colleges and career organizations to create a clear
pipeline for continuation school students.
c. Offer dual-enrollment opportunities for all students on campus to begin the
fostering college identities while in high school.
d. Expand exposure to colleges and careers by offering a multitude of field trips and
guest speaking events, including college and career fairs.
4. Increase Opportunities for Resilience and Growth
a. School-based Programs: Offer programs for all students to come together and
learn they are not alone.
b. Field Trips: Provide opportunities for students to experience varied environments,
such as trips to sporting events, camps, hikes, etc.
a. Mentoring: Connect students with peers or adults with shared experiences
b. Community Involvement: Provide opportunities for students to give back to their
community.
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Implications for Researchers, Educators and Students
The findings of the present study call for a deeper understanding of trauma’s impact on
learning, behavior, and social-emotional development. Indeed, it is imperative that further
research looks to uncover ways educators can serve as buffers to the effects of trauma in K–12
settings and beyond. The findings illuminated the large-scale positive and negative impacts of
small interactions with educators—for example, body language, facial expressions, genuineness,
and visibility. Thus, understanding this in greater detail would be beneficial. Lastly, as this
study’s purpose was to present the voices of students, more research is needed that uncovers the
educational experiences of students within K–12 schooling, specifically those with histories of
trauma. It is vital to note that the present study sought out stories of success, thus more research
is needed that includes the voices of those who have not found success in our K-12 system.
Further research is also needed which uncovers stories of those not enrolled in college to
understand their perspectives and journeys.
Students come to school with a backpack filled with experiences. Some of these
experiences impact the way they interact in the school environment. Educators must understand
that these experiences and how students react to them are out of their control. It is vital educators
dig deeper into the behavior, and absence of behavior, to truly understand the underlying factors
associated with academic difficulties. Further, as the findings suggest, educators can play a vital
role in either adding to a child’s inner turmoil or being the guiding light. It is vital educators
recognize the power of their role.
For students who have experienced trauma, it is the hope of the present study that these
stories provide guidance that it is possible to overcome the pain of the past. That while there are
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 142
adults who may have failed to see your potential, there are multitudes more who recognize the
beauty in your story, and the power you hold within to reach for whatever you aspire.
Conclusion
The present study sought to add to the body of literature the voices of continuation school
students with a history of trauma. This is important, as a an in-depth literature review found no
other studies that have specifically heard the stories of continuation school students with a
history of trauma and included their perspectives on school counselor support. What has been
added to the literature is not only unique, but an illumination of the power of relationships in
mitigating against the effects of trauma. Further, tracking the educational journey of each
participant provided a holistic view of the ways in which educators can make a difference at each
level. It was evident through their testimonios that even small interactions can have major
implications on a child’s educational trajectory. Thus, it is imperative that all educators
recognize the power of their position in creating large-scale changes. Each seed planted can grow
in the proper environment, and it is our calling as educators to create these environments for all
students. Whether it be a smile in the hallway, or a friendly note, students need to know we care,
for we must never forget that we build resilience by building relationships (Brown, 2017). What
is still left to explore is the role of comprehensive school counselors in the lives of students with
trauma and to explore the self in fostering resilience over trauma.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 143
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interview Protocol
First, I want to thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to meet with me! You
input is extremely valuable and unique, and I am so fortunate to be able to learn from you. For
my research, I am interested in finding out more about the educational experiences of
continuation school students, including their journey through education and the role of school
counselors in this journey. The following research questions will guide my study:
1. How do California continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma perceive
their journey through education?
2. What do California continuation high school graduates with a history of trauma believe
about their school counselors’ ability to holistically support their needs?
Confidentiality & Consent
Confidentiality is a critical component of this project, just as in our field. I want you to know that
whatever you share with me will remain anonymous, and I will not use your name in any way.
However, to get the most out of our time together, I would like to tape our conversation so I can
be present with you and won’t need to focus on note taking. It is okay if I record our
conversation, only for the purposes of this project in case I need to pull quotes or review what we
have discussed? Do I have your consent to record our conversation? When we begin recording, I
will restate this and will need your verbal consent once more for the record. Is this okay?
(START RECORDING)
RQ #1 Student Interview Questions
How do California
continuation high school
graduates with a history
of trauma perceive their
journey through
education?
Can you please share with me what comes to mind when you think
of the word “school.”
What was school like for you in your growing up?
(Probing) Please describe your overall experiences in elementary
school. Middle school. High school before CCHS. CCHS.
What did you like most about school? Dislike most?
Which experiences stand out most?
Going back to your childhood experiences, were there any non-
school-related experiences in your life you would categorize as
stressful?
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 153
State Definition of trauma. Trauma is defined as the body’s natural
response to threat, high stress, and danger, and is an outcome
associated with traumatic experiences, events, or situations, such as
neglect, physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as domestic
violence, homelessness, parental mental illness, substance abuse,
and incarceration. Were there any experiences in your life that fit
this definition?
During this time of your life, how do you believe these experiences
impacted your schooling?
How do you think teachers would have treated you had they known
your situation? Admin? School counselors?
What were some of the difficulties you had in school?
How do you think this trauma impacted your behavior in school?
Grades in school? Attendance in school?
What led you to transfer to the continuation school?
What did you think about going to the continuation school before
you transferred?
What do you think about the continuation school now?
Reflecting on your schooling experiences, what were some of your
best memories? Most memorable teachers? Counselors?
Transition
RQ #2
Now we are going to focus specifically on your experiences with
school counselors.
What do California
continuation high School
graduates with a history
of trauma believe about
their school counselors’
ability to holistically
support their needs?
Prior to coming to CCHS, please describe your experience with
school counselors.
What do you think school counselors should do to support students?
How would you describe your ideal school counselor?
What were some of the challenges you had with school counselors?
If there were challenges, why do you think these challenges
occurred?
What were some of the positive experiences?
School counselors are trained to support students in three domains:
academic, social emotional and college & career.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 154
Please describe how your school counselor at the comprehensive
high school supported you academically. Examples?
Please describe how your school counselor at the comprehensive
high school supported you social-emotionally. Examples?
Please describe how your school counselor at the comprehensive
high school supported you with college and career development.
Examples?
Please describe how your school counselor at the continuation
school supported you academically. Examples?
Please describe how your school counselor at the continuation
school supported you social-emotionally. Examples?
Please describe how your school counselor at the continuation
school supported you with college and career development.
Examples?
What is your favorite thing about Mrs./Ms./Mr. ____?
Thinking back to your educational journey, what do you wish
school counselors could have done to support your needs?
If you could give school counselors advice on how to support
students that have experienced trauma, what would it be?
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 155
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Flyer
NOTE: The following document has been adjusted to remove identifying features.
Attention:
California Community College Students
Are you...
❏ Interested in earning a $25 visa gift card?
❏ At least 18 years old?
❏ Interested in sharing your educational journey?
❏ A graduate of a continuation high school
❏ A person who has experienced traumatic stress?
❏ Willing to give up less than two hours of your time?
If you checked all the boxes above, then please consider participating in
my study! My name is Randee Kirkemo, and I am a student at the
University of Southern California (USC). I am currently a continuation high
school counselor and am passionate about working with students.
If selected for my study, I will interview you regarding:
1. Your educational journey from elementary, middle, and high
school.
2. Your perspective on how the traumatic stress you have
experienced impacted your schooling.
3. The role school counselors played in your educational journey.
Please contact me to sign up! Kirkemo@usc.edu
Thank you for your time and consideration.
EDUCATIONAL JOURNEYS 156
Appendix C: Counseling Resources for Participants
NOTE: The following document has been adjusted to remove identifying features.
Counseling Resources for College Students
Note: As a USC student, the researcher is required to report any known or suspected
abuse or neglect relating to children to USC’s Department of Public Safety (DPS) and
the Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS).
College Student Health and Psychological Services
Resources within College (College Website, 2018)
● Personal Counseling: It’s hard to stay focused on your studies when you’re
struggling with depression, anxiety, stress, or addiction. Our licensed therapists
are here to help you. Call to make an appointment.
● Men’s Health: We offer a range of services for men including smoking
cessation, alcohol and substance abuse counseling, testicular exams, HIV
screening, and free condoms.
● Women’s Health: Women face a host of illnesses and health issues, including
breast and cervical cancer, eating disorders, pregnancy, and sexually
transmitted diseases.
Outside Community Resources
County Department of Mental Health
● Transition Age Youth (TAY) Full-Service Partnership Program
• The TAY Program outreaches to youth transitioning from adolescent
services to adulthood ages 16–18 and 18–25.
• Full-Service Partnership provides intensive wellness and recovery-based
services to youth transitioning from adolescent services to adulthood
ages 16–18 and 18–25 who carry a serious mental health diagnosis and
who are also homeless or at risk of homelessness.
● Adult Services
• Adult Mental Health Clinics provide services to adult individuals suffering
from severe and persistent mental health problems.
• These services include crisis intervention, psychiatric assessments,
recovery management, medication services, case management, and
dual-diagnosis treatment.
• An Urgent Care Program provides crisis resolution and problem solving.
Peer-to-peer recovery services are provided through the clinics and
through a contracted Peer Support and Resource Center
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The present study sought to uncover the educational journeys of eight continuation school graduates with a history of trauma. The purpose of this qualitative study was twofold: first, to understand the perspectives of a group rarely mentioned in the literature and shed light on both the impact of trauma on schooling and promising stories of resilience. Second, the study emphasized continuation school graduates’ holistic experiences with school counselors in the K–12 system. Centering around the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) and emergent strategy (Brown, 2017), the study was framed from a lens which views systems as critical and change as possible and transformative. Utilizing testimonios as the methodology allowed for a rich gathering of participants’ personal stories. Testimonios are authentic narratives and personal journeys that reveal one’s experiences with systemic injustice (Brabeck, 2001
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Kirkemo, Randelle Lorraine
(author)
Core Title
Educational journeys of continuation school graduates with trauma and the role of school counselor support
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/18/2019
Defense Date
04/29/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
continuation high school counselor,continuation school,continuation school graduates,educational journeys,K-12 schooling,OAI-PMH Harvest,Relationships,resilient mindset,school counselors,trauma
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Hinga, Briana (
committee chair
), Green, Alan (
committee member
), Ilic, Milisav (
committee member
)
Creator Email
Kirkemo@usc.edu,Randee.kirkemo@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
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UC11660532
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etd-KirkemoRan-7556.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-184861 (legacy record id)
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184861
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Dissertation
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Tags
continuation high school counselor
continuation school
continuation school graduates
educational journeys
K-12 schooling
resilient mindset
school counselors
trauma