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Women and leadership: an analysis of collegiate athletics and contributions to leadership
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Running head: WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 1
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP: AN ANALYSIS OF COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS AND
CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEADERSHIP
By
Carly Omizo
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2019
Copyright 2019 Carly Omizo
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The achievement of this degree would not be possible without the help and support of my
new University of Southern California family. To all of my professors from whom I took
courses, I thoroughly enjoyed the work and the opportunity to learn from such amazing
individuals. A huge thank you to my women in leadership group, my Wednesday cohort, and all
of the amazing friends that I’ve made throughout this journey. Your support and camaraderie
have been invaluable! I can’t wait to see what you all will do in the future!
I would like to thank Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr. Layla Hasan for serving as my co-
chairs and for guiding me through the writing process. I appreciate your tireless effort, expertise,
and support! Thank you to Dr. Cathy Creasia for so willingly stepping in to serve on my
committee. I am honored that you agreed to lend your expertise under such short notice.
I would also like to thank Dr. Jim Knowlton, the U.S. Air Force Academy Athletic
Department, Lt. Gen. Ret. Michelle Johnson, Brig. Gen. Ret. Douglas Lamberth, and Ms. Gail
Colvin for believing in me and for providing me with this unbelievable opportunity and most of
all thank you for your incredible leadership. I hope that I can return on this investment and be
half the leader that you are to me.
A special thank you to all of my friends and family who believe in me, support me, and
continue to push me toward greatness. To my California family, both related and not, thank you
so much for all of your love and encouragement. You’ve been an incredible support system and
I really couldn’t have done this without you! To my sister from another mister, Sara, thank you
for always being there no matter what! I couldn’t have asked for a better travel buddy, sis,
weirdo, and verrückte katzenfrau! To my parents, Clarence and Charlotte Omizo, thank you for
your love, support, and sacrifice so that I would have the best opportunities in life. Thank you
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 3
for instilling in me the value of hard work, dedication, perseverance, and the importance of
smiling and having fun while doing it. I would not be the person I am today without you two!
Finally, a huge thank you to all of the women in this study and to all of the women who
have paved the way and continue to pave the way for the betterment and success of future
generations. “We have to build things that we want to see accomplished, in life and in our
country, based on our own personal experiences…to make sure that others…do not have to
suffer the same discrimination.” – Patsy Mink, The Mother of Title IX.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 10
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 15
Research Questions 16
Theoretical Approach 16
Positionality Statement 17
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Key Terms 19
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Development and College 22
Identity Development 27
History of Collegiate Sports 34
Leadership 38
Leadership and Gender 41
Leadership Development 45
Leadership Development and Sport 49
Leadership and Identity Development 53
Theoretical Framework: Leadership Identity Development Model 58
Coaches’ and Teammates’ Influence on Leadership Identity Development 60
Adult Influences: Coaches 61
Peer Influences: Teammates 65
Conclusion 70
Summary of Articles 71
Chapter Three: Methodology 73
Sample and Population 74
Instrumentation 77
Data Collection 78
Data Analysis 80
Credibility and Trustworthiness 82
Role of the Investigator 83
Summary 83
Chapter Four: Findings 84
Research Question 1 88
Developing Self 89
Challenging Environments 95
Supportive Environments 97
Summary of Data 101
Research Question 2 102
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 5
Developing Self 103
Establishing Interpersonal Efficacy 109
Challenging Environments 116
Supportive Environments 129
Leadership 136
Summary of Data 139
Other Pertinent Themes 140
Challenging Environments 141
Developing Self 146
Supportive Environments 147
Giving back 149
Summary of Data 152
Chapter Five: Analysis of Findings and Conclusions 153
Discussion of Findings 153
Complementary Research Findings 155
Implications 156
Areas of Future Research 159
Conclusions 161
References 165
Appendix A: Interview Protocol (First Four) 189
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 192
Appendix C: Consent Form 195
Appendix D: Participant Information Form 199
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Definitions of Key Terms 19
Table 2: Development Targets 47
Table 3: Differences in the Content, Access and Use of Knowledge for Novice, Intermediate and
Expert Leaders 56
Table 4: Summary of Articles 71
Table 5: Methodology Overview 74
Table 6: Participant Breakdown 76
Table 7: Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis 79
Table 8: Themes and Research Questions 87
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Leadership Identity Development Model by Komives et al., 2005. 60
Figure 2: RQ1 major themes. 89
Figure 3: RQ1 theme: Developing self. 90
Figure 4: RQ1 theme: Supportive environments. 98
Figure 5: RQ2 major themes. 103
Figure 6: RQ2 theme: Developing self. 104
Figure 7: RQ2 theme: Establishing interpersonal efficacy. 109
Figure 8: RQ2 theme: Challenging environment. 117
Figure 9: RQ2 theme: Supportive environments. 130
Figure 10: RQ2 theme: Leadership. 136
Figure 11: Other pertinent themes. 140
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 8
ABSTRACT
Research in the field of leadership is vast; from studies that seek to understand what traits
good leaders possess to understanding how leadership is developed. Leadership development
research has also sought to understand how to train leaders with many researchers turning to
Bandura’s work on self-efficacy and one’s beliefs in his or her abilities. In these studies,
leadership identity was mediated by one’s beliefs in their abilities to enact leadership. Though
McCormick and McCormick et al.’s studies on leadership focused specifically on a leadership
self-efficacy, general self-efficacy can also be seen as a key component when examining gender
and leadership. Studies related to general self-efficacy (GSE) found that higher GSE was
associated with optimism, self-regulation, self-esteem, as well as motivational variables such as
openness, goal setting and orientation, need for achievement, and effort.
Recent work surrounding gender and leadership often found that women were
discriminated in hiring practices (glass ceiling), were offered precarious positions of leadership
(the glass cliff), or just have a double standard of leadership placed on them (the double bind).
These studies do not however include female motivations, identity, and perceptions of women
who have attained top leadership positions creating an incomplete portrait of women in
leadership. Sartore and Cunningham (2007) proposed a model of leadership through women’s
internalization of social roles and projection onto their identity. The current study asks the
questions: How did the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes
(FFAs) leadership development? and How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and
teammates influenced their leadership identity development? Through qualitative interviewing
this research attempted to capture the perceptions of former female student-athletes who have
been successful in gaining some of the highest leadership positions in their respective
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 9
professional careers. These opinions are important in understanding what these women attribute
to their success in rising to the upper echelons and how they have been successful in building
their leadership identities while overcoming the aforementioned theories of gender
discrimination in leadership. All ten interviewed leaders, though they may not have attributed
much to their collegiate athletic careers at the start of the interviews, credited many foundational
attributes of their leadership and leadership identity to their time in collegiate sports.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Prior to the women’s movement in the 1960, words like “sexual discrimination,”
“sexism,” and “sexist” did not exist; they were part of women’s realities (Sandler, 2007). The
idealistic portrait of the Victorian family permeated much of societal views of women’s and
men’s duties, familial responsibilities, and culture. The pervading notion of women’s inferiority
was clearly visible in the laws of the times; as the Fourteenth Amendment’s disregard for
discrimination based on sex. The Civil Rights movement established vital changes to the laws
including Title VI and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which protected individuals from
discrimination in employment and in federally assisted programs. Though these two acts were
significant, they still excluded protections on the basis of sex. It was a known fact that women
“needed higher grades and test scores in order to be accepted” into colleges and it was common
practice for women to be denied employment based on their gender (Sandler, 2007, p. 473). The
hegemony of a male driven society continued to pervade the courts until June 1972 when Title
IX was passed stating that: “No person shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation
in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program
receiving Federal financial assistance” (Sandler, 2007, p. 479). This bill was considered a
historic victory for women in education and continues to impact college admissions, sports, and
other facets of collegiate life (Burton & Leberman, 2017; Carpenter & Acosta, 2007; Hultstrand,
1993; Sandler, 2007; Walker, Schaeperkoetter, & Darvin, 2017).
The passage of Title IX was the start of a fundamental shift for women. No one predicted
the profound impacts that Title IX would have on higher education and sports. As one of the
many ways in which male hegemony continued to infiltrate society, sports were seen as
inherently masculine activities, not suitable for the delicate female body (Hargreaves, 1994).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 11
Women were often ridiculed and denied equitable opportunities to compete. With Title IX,
athletics provided one of the many platforms that continue to create new opportunities for
women to fight for a more equitable society. There have been countless stories from former
female athletes (FFAs) about the important role athletics has played in their lives. Yet, there is
limited scholarly research to determine the truth to those sentiments and to understand the FFAs
experience in collegiate athletics and leadership. This study seeks to uncover the link between
sports and leadership, and the role the collegiate athletic experience has played in creating
successful female leaders.
Early conceptions of leadership focused on the traits of great men (Northouse, 2016).
Despite the fact that the definition is not in gender binary terms, research finds that many
leadership characteristics are still thought to be masculine traits (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, &
Ristikari, 2011; Rhode & Kellerman, 2007). The ascription of masculinity to leadership creates
a barrier to women who pursue leadership positions. Recent scholarship has sought to be more
inclusive. Day and Harrison (2007) describe the evolution of leadership as moving from “role-
based authority” to shared, collaborative models. These models allow more room for women as
they no longer depend on the “great man” as the leader but a process in which leaders and
followers co-construct leadership.
Though these models may allow more room for women leaders, women continue to be
underrepresented especially in male dominated industries. One argument for why women are not
obtaining leadership positions is that there are not enough qualified women in the pipeline
(Salas-Lopez, Deitrick, Mahady, Gertner, & Sabino, 2011). At the start of the women’s
movement in 1962, the percentage of women who attended four or more years of college was
6.7% compared to the almost double amount for men at 11.4% (Statista, 2018). Since then, that
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 12
number has steadily increased and in 2017, women enrolled in college at a rate of 71.7%
compared to 61.1% for men (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Currently, women outpace men
in the attainment of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees from postsecondary institutions
(U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Professionally, according to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics (2019), women comprised 51.5% of all workers in high-paying management,
professional and related occupations in 2018. Yet, despite holding key management roles,
women across industries, from business, to sports, to Congress, continue to be severely
underrepresented in upper level leadership positions (Burton & Leberman, 2017; Lang, 2017;
NCAA, 2019; Seo, Huang, & Han, 2017; Center for American Women and Politics, 2019).
Women occupy approximately 26.9% of chief executive positions; a paltry 4.8% at S&P 500
companies (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019; Catalyst, 2019). They represent 23.4% of the
members of Congress; there were just 24% female head coaches for 2017-2018 NCAA Division
I men’s and women’s sports; and only 10.9% of NCAA Division I athletic directors were women
(Center for American Women and Politics, 2019; NCAA, 2019). There are educated women and
even women in the leadership pipeline, yet the disparities show that they are still not obtaining
top leadership positions.
Another common explanation for the underrepresentation of women in leadership
positions is due to women’s traditional responsibility as the familial caregiver. Past discussions
have centered on the women’s decision to leave professional positions; however, these
discussions often overlook familial obligations and policies of employers that influence the
decision (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). These career interruptions are not evidence of women’s
desire to stay out of the workforce. In a survey conducted by Hewlett (2007), 93% of the women
who left the workplace want to return, but only 74% are able to do so; 40% of the 74% are able
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 13
to return to mainstream, full-time employment (Hewlett, 2007). In their desire to simply reenter
the workforce, some women are forced to settle for jobs that they are overqualified to hold, lose
ambition to pursue leadership positions and are further penalized in the form of lost earning
power. The loss of talented women due to society’s inability to re-incorporate qualified women
has implications on leadership.
Having women in leadership is more than a politically correct aspiration. Economically,
the lack of diversity in leadership positions excludes multiple viewpoints, innovations, and
experiences that enrich organizations. Welbourne, Cycyota, and Ferrante (2007) reported that
companies with more women in top level management have positive impact on performance in
Fortune 500 companies as well as initial public offering (IPO) firms. Culturally, the absence
creates a void for young girls seeking role models and perpetuates stereotypical thinking
amongst men and women regarding gender norms. Having women in leadership positions also
increases the probability of reshaping societal ideas regarding gender roles and combating the
hidden discourse that reinforces the status quo (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Grappendorf &
Burton, 2017; Kellerman & Rhode, 2007; Seo et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2017). Proscriptive
societal norms, the reaction of men and women to stereotype threat and the resulting backlash
due to the unconscious desire to maintain the status quo, create barriers that women seeking
leadership positions must overcome (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Rudman, Moss-Racusin, Phelan, &
Nauts, 2012; Ridgeway, 2001). As women continue to obtain advanced degrees as well as
secure valuable positions in the workplace, the leadership development of young women will be
crucial to the continued ascension of women to leadership positions.
Significant cognitive and social development occurs during adolescence and early
adulthood (Crone & Dahl, 2012). Students spend a majority of this time with peers in school,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 14
playing sports and with family. They begin to develop deeper interpersonal connections and
build conceptions of who they can become in the future (Malin, Reilly, Quinn, & Moran, 2013;
Oyserman, Terry, & Bybee, 2002). College students’ interests become solidified, self-
conceptions built and early comprehensions of the contributions they can make to society
established. For these reasons, athletics is one possible avenue to encourage leadership
development in collegiate women.
Day (2000) distinguishes leadership development from leader development. He states
that leader development is focused on individual skills, knowledge and abilities. Self-awareness,
self-regulation and self-motivation are competencies he ascribes to the leader development
process. Leadership development is defined as an “integration strategy” that helps people
understand how they interact and relate to others (Day, 2001). Leadership is a skill that must be
developed over time with experience (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000).
Through experience gained, individuals cultivate their leadership self-efficacy; one’s belief in
their ability to lead. Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more willing to take risks, cope and
persist through obstacles and engage in new behaviors; in the leadership context, it is a
willingness to engage in leadership behaviors (Bandura, 1977; McCormick, 2001).
Studies have found a correlation between participation in sport and the development of
skills that may enhance leadership. Executive function, cognitive processes such as problem
solving and decision making, have been positively correlated with the participation in sport
(Barker & Munakata, 2015; Jacobson & Matthaeus, 2014; Keating, Castelli, & Ayers, 2013;
Wrentman, 2017). Furthermore, Jacobson and Matthaeus (2014) found that athletes
outperformed non-athletes in tasks using skills necessary for successful leaders (Ramchandran,
Colbert, Brown, Denburg, & Tranel, 2016).
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 15
Another benefit of sport is that it provides a platform for individuals to understand how
they relate to one another through their interactions with coaches and teammates (Day, 2001).
Sport is complex; not every athlete who plays a sport will become a leader but understanding
successful former athletes’ perceptions and experiences of coaches and teammates will increase
the body of literature and help future female leaders succeed.
Statement of the Problem
Women are underrepresented in senior and executive leadership positions in male
dominated industries such as the military, business and sports. Men are most often equated to
leaders because most leader characteristics are considered masculine (Kellerman & Rhode,
2007). Yet, Northouse (2016) writes that, “Women are no less effective at leadership, committed
to their work, or motivated to attain leadership roles than men” (Northouse, 2016, p. 419).
Barnett (2007) contends, society continues to gender leadership due to a presumed “natural order
in which males are innately and uniquely endowed to take charge…” (p.151). The consequence
of this societal practice has limited opportunities for women.
Over the past five years, there has been a growing awareness that women in leadership
positions, specifically the C-suite, were former athletes. Although there is heightened awareness
of a possible correlation, research on the impact of collegiate athletics on former female athletes
and their leadership development has been lacking. Furthermore, there is little research that
focuses on the lived experiences of former female collegiate athletes that evaluates the
environment and relationships one may form in that setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to extend knowledge of leadership development and the
attainment of leadership positions through the lens of the collegiate athletic experience. The
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 16
researcher used a phenomenological approach to investigate the role of the collegiate athletic
experience and its influence on former female student-athletes’ (FFA) leadership development.
To understand how FFAs successfully obtained leadership positions, the researcher examined the
impact of collegiate athletics on FFAs’ conceptualizations of their leadership potential and
ability to become leaders in their industries. And further investigated the collegiate athletic
experience by narrowing in on coaches’ and teammates’ influences on leadership identity
development of FFAs.
Research Questions
This study is guided by the following research questions:
1. How did the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes’
(FFAs) leadership development?
2. How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
Theoretical Approach
The Leadership Identity Development (LID) Model provides a framework to analyze the
role of collegiate sports in creating a leadership identity and developing aspects of leadership in
former female student-athletes. Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen (2005)
posit that leadership identity is developed, in the collegiate setting, through six stages and those
stages are moderated by developmental effects including adult and peer influences, meaningful
involvement, and reflective learning. Throughout the stages, students develop a deepened sense
of self based on group interactions. The identity development model is the best vehicle to
understand how collegiate sport, categorized as a group influence, helped to develop senses of
selves and deepened leadership conceptualizations of FFAs who are highly successful leaders.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 17
Positionality Statement
As the study is qualitative in nature, it is important to address the researcher’s position on
the subject. The goal is always to maintain the integrities of the stories and meanings derived
from the participants of the study, however there still remains a level of subjectivity as the
researcher is an instrument of data collection. The following positionality statement outlines the
researcher’s interest in the subject and her point of view.
As a former collegiate female student-athlete I’ve always felt a sense of empowerment
from what I could accomplish in the pool. I put in blood, sweat, and tears into my sport
and I always saw myself as someone who was strong, who could handle anything thrown
her way. I was lucky to have supportive parents. Who taught me the value of hard work,
of setting goals and sticking with them, and never giving up, even when things get tough;
all situations I encountered through sports. From the time that I was first starting out, I
would emulate the girls on the team who I thought were the best. I’d try to mimic their
starts, I’d model my turns after them, and I even tried to create the same stroke as
Amanda Beard, youngest member of the 1996 U.S. Olympic Swim Team and Olympic
gold and silver medalist at that meet. This continued into college as an upperclassman,
but instead of applying this to my swimming, I applied this to my leadership of the team.
I tried to be the type of leader the older girls on the team were to me; someone who was
kind, caring, inclusive, and supportive.
Sports shaped me into a strong, confident woman, but it also provided me with the
opportunities to develop my interpersonal and leadership skills. I know that my story is
not everyone’s story and I wanted to build research around successful former female
student-athletes, as a 2015 Ernst and Young study found that 94% of women in the C-
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 18
suite played a sport, 52% at the collegiate level. These women’s stories are critical in
raising the next generation of leaders.
Significance of the Study
Previous explanations of barriers that women face in attaining leadership positions have
offered many deficit-based explanations. Yet, there appears to be a connection between the
collegiate athletic experience and women who have successfully attained leadership positions.
This research explored the experiences of those women. The study not only contributes to the
current literature related to women and leadership, it also adds to the limited research regarding
the relationship between the participation in collegiate athletics and female leaders. This study is
also significant given the conversation surrounding the cost of collegiate athletics and its impact
on the educational process of student-athletes and the reputational cost to universities. The goal
is for this study to be used as a tool for administrators, coaches, and athletes to expose the
benefits to building healthy, strong, confident, and powerful women.
Limitations and Delimitations
Although the researchers desire for this study to be comprehensive there are limitations.
An inherent criticism of phenomenological studies regarding sample include the sample size and
lack of randomness in the sample pool selection (Hycner, 1985). The study is limited to former
collegiate FFAs who have now garnered successful senior executive positions or have leadership
positions in male dominated industries. In keeping this narrow population, the researchers are
purposefully excluding women who may lead in other industries and also the lived experiences
of non-collegiate athlete female leaders. It should also be noted that in defining collegiate
athlete, the researchers did not explicitly limit participation in the study based upon the NCAA
division; however, non-collegiate athletes will not be included. Finally, the researchers are not
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 19
specifically looking for women based upon race, sexual identity or sport played. This decision is
due to the researchers’ desire for women in senior leadership positions and their ability to gain
access to those women. A consequence of this decision is that the women of a certain race or
former sports may be overly represented and the experiences of women of color, for example,
may not be investigated as thoroughly as desired. That being said, the researchers are not only
aware but desire to interview a pool of women that is diverse in terms of race, sexual identity,
sport played and their current industry. The purposeful nature of the pool is not a limitation give
that the phenomenological approach is grounded in the need for individuals who have
experienced the phenomena and the need for an in-depth understanding of their personal
experience (Hycner, 1985). The study is not intended to be generalizable.
Another limitation that should be noted is impact of the researchers’ bias on the structure
of the study and other key choices that have been made and will be made. The researchers’
culture, beliefs and experiences cannot be removed or prevented from influencing the study
(Maxwell, 2013). This reality can be a limiting factor given that there is no outside, impartial
entity that inherently can remove unconscious biases. However, tactics such as member checks,
and seeking contradictory evidence enhanced validity (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014).
Key Terms
Table 1
Definitions of Key Terms
Term Definition
Adolescence A period of development, generally spanning the biological ages of 10-20-
years-old (Santrock, 2015).
C-Suite A term used to describe corporate officers and/or business directors. The letter
C connotes “most high-level positions, such as Chief Operating Officer” (C-
Suite, 2017).
Cognition “The ability to acquire and process information and the ability to adapt to
changing situations” (Keating, 2013)
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 20
Table 1, continued
Term Definition
Constructivism “Individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and
work. Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences—
meanings directed toward certain objects or things” (Creswell, 2009, p.
8). The goal of this research is to find meaning in the participants’
experiences of current and former female collegiate athletic experiences
to understand their path to leadership.
Collegiate Student
Athlete (SA)
NCAA collegiate student-athlete
Executive Function “Mental capacities [that include]...problem solving, planning,
inhibition, and decision making” (Jacobson & Matthaeus, 2014, p. 521).
Early Adulthood A period of development spanning the biological ages of 21-30-years-
old (Santrock, 2015).
FFA Term constructed for the purpose of this study, referring to former
female student-athletes; those athletes who have competed in collegiate
sports.
Identity An individual’s self-concept or “self-definition as a separate and
distinct individual including behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes” (Gardiner
& Kosmitzki, 2011).
Leadership “An individual who influences a group of individuals to achieve a
common goal.” Leadership is a complex process with multiple
dimensions, many definitions, and has been socially engendered as
masculine (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Northouse, 2016).
Leadership
Development
A social process that involves developing individuals’ leadership
competence and identities, as well as emphasizing social relationships
and interpersonal communication (Day, 2001).
Leadership Identity
Development Model
(LID)
The “framework for understanding how individual college students
develop the social identity of being collaborative, relational leaders
interdependently engaging in leadership as a group process” (Komives,
Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, & Owen, 2009, p. 12). This model is
used as the framework for this study.
NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association is an organization dedicated to
the management and success of college athletics.
Social Identity Self-concept developed by an internalization of an individual’s
membership and emotional attachment to a social group (Tajfel, 1974).
Title IX Bill passed in June 1972 that read: “No person shall, on the basis of sex,
be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any educational program receiving
Federal financial assistance” (Sandler, 2007, p. 479). This bill was
considered a historic victory for women in education and was not
originally considered to have an impact on sports. The benefits for sport
participation in high schools and colleges are undeniable, however
unintended consequences of the bill continue to be felt in collegiate
sports administrative positions.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 21
Organization of the Study
The first, third, and portions of the second chapters of this study are co-authored by two
researchers who conducted individual, yet complementary studies. A third researcher also
provided and received portions of written concepts, ideas and decisions for inquiry in Chapter 1.
The third researcher’s work will be presented in a separate study. The final products are two
separate yet comprehensive dissertations that benefit from collaborative initial work and
collective interview process. A somewhat similar research question was examined in both
studies. The complementary researcher’s findings are briefly discussed in chapter 5.
Chapter 2 focuses on key literature regarding the history of college athletics, leadership
development, identity development and finally leadership identity development. While Chapter
3 presents the methodology for the study. The researcher used a phenomenological approach
allowing for rich description and the creation of a story surrounding successful former female
athletes. To garner participants the researcher used a purposive network sampling method. Ten
FFAs were interviewed. After analyzing the findings from the qualitative interviews, the
researcher identified themes and trends (Creswell, 2014).
Chapter 4 discusses the data from the study. Analysis and themes are presented by
research question. Themes that were crucial to the women’s lived experiences but did not fit into
either research question are also presented in Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the
findings and expounds upon key revelations. The complementary researcher’s findings are also
compared and discussed in this section.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The adage that leaders are born and not made has been pervasive in leadership research.
This field seeks to understand personality and individual characteristics that explain why some
are better at leading than others (Northouse, 2016). There are also leadership researchers who
seek to uncover the social contexts in which leadership may develop (Gemmill & Oakley, 1992;
Northouse, 2016). This chapter will examine the body of literature related to participation in
intercollegiate athletics as it relates to the development of leadership and leadership identity.
First, this chapter will present literature associated with development and college, as this is the
developmental age in question of the study. Then, the researcher will outline the history of
collegiate athletics to contextualize potential experiences of participants. Next, the researcher
will explore literature as it pertains to leadership, gender and leadership, and leadership
development. Finally, the chapter will conclude with literature related to the conceptual
framework chosen for this study; introducing relevant research related to the leadership identity
development model and collegiate athletics.
Development and College
Universities must constantly wrestle with public opinion, vacillating between viewing
higher education as a public good or a privilege. Institutions of higher education face market-
driven challenges to attract students and funding; societal pressure to provide mass education to
all who seek it; and internal pressure to stay true to their academic missions (Eckel & Courturier,
2008). Moreover, some students have more flexibility when they decide on their choice of
college. This choice can be influenced by a number of factors including educational quality,
campus amenities, price and distance (Jacob, McCall, & Stange, 2018). The competition for
resources (monetary, faculty and enrollment) coupled with a more diverse student body has
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 23
forced colleges to be more responsive to issues that go beyond learning in the classroom. Due to
these concerns and constraints universities are now looking to a greater need to “develop talent
for tomorrow” (White & Eckel, 2008, p. 12). The need to develop talent in places other than the
classroom has drawn considerable debate, whether in a positive light like the research
accomplished by Webber and Ehrenberg (2010) on the benefits of student services or less
optimistically as presented by Lindo, Swensen and Wadell’s (2012) on poor academic outcomes
of student-athletes. Regardless, student development theories have been the focus of a
substantial amount of research with respect to identity and the dynamic nature of the collegiate
setting (Jacob et al., 2018; Schuh, Jones, & Torres, 2017). As the college campus can be a rich,
diverse environment for young adolescents to continue to mature and develop from the new
relationships they will form that constitute their immediate support groups to the multitude of
external factors, this setting is a unique incubator at a critical time during an individual’s life.
The average college student matriculates in late adolescence (17-20 years-old) and
graduates roughly during early adulthood (21-23 years-old). These ages are critical periods of
development of students’ cognitive and social growth (Crone & Dahl, 2012; Santrock, 2015;).
Patton, Renn, Guido, and Quaye (2016) describe these stages of college life in terms of student
development theory. Student development theory is situated in the notions of identity, possible
selves, and interpersonal relationships and examines influencers that affect these phenomena
(Albert, Chein, & Steinberg, 2013; Arnett, 2013; Boyd & Fales, 1983; Crone & Dahl, 2012;
Malin et al., 2013; Oyserman et al., 2002; Patton et al., 2016).
College provides students with the possibilities of exposure to a multitude of activities.
Through these activities, students have opportunities to meet other students from around the
country and world, to cast a wider net of role models and teachers of whom they may not have
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 24
interacted with otherwise and are exposed to different situations and experiences. These
activities and interpersonal relationships that are developed form the basis of what Boyd and
Fales (1983) label as experiential learning; the process by which individuals acquire knowledge
from exposure to different ventures.
Boyd and Fales (1983) “contend that experiential learning must be conceptualized as a
process, and that the research needed to examine the phenomenon of experiential learning must
also focus on the process as it is experienced personally by individuals” (p. 100). Thus,
individuals will derive different meanings from the same occurrences as it relates to their
previous experiences. For experiential learning to occur, individuals need to be active learners in
their own lives (Brockbank, McGill, & Beech, 2002). Simply put, individuals need to
voluntarily participate and actively construct meaning from events that occur in their lives.
Thus, if an individual is not emotionally tied to or is uninterested in the topic, learning is unlikely
to occur (Brockbank et al., 2002). One of the major components for individuals to actively
construct meaning is the concept of reflection (Brockbank et al., 2002; Boyd & Fales, 1983;
Immordino-Yang, Christodoulou, & Singh, 2016). Boyd and Fales define reflection as “the
process of creating and clarifying the meaning of experience (present or past) in terms of self
(self in relation to self and self in relation to the world)” (p. 101). Boyd and Fales pose a six-
process model of reflective learning in which the steps are not always linear, but “comparable to
alternating current, flowing back and forth between intense focusing on a particular form of
experience and outer experience; often triggered by some external experience, yet seriously
hampered by high levels of external or internal demand to react” (p. 105). The six components
of the process are:
1. A sense of inner discomfort
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 25
2. Identification of clarification of the concern
3. Openness to new information from internal and external sources with the ability to
observe and take in from a variety of perspectives
4. Resolution, expressed as “integration,” “coming together,” “acceptance of self-reality,”
and “creative synthesis.”
5. Establishing continuity of self with past, present, and future.
6. Deciding whether to act on the outcome of the reflective process (p. 106).
Reflective learning and experiential learning are often difficult to quantify because much
of what is being understood is being absorbed and reevaluated by the learner (Brockbank et al.,
2002). Many researchers use reflective learning journals to facilitate and assess an individual’s
progress (Cathro, O’Kane, & Gilbertson, 2017; Schroeder, 2010; Thorpe, 2004). However, if
journaling or facilitation by an outside source is not used, then reflection is dependent on the
individual. Thus, emotional involvement and interest continue to be a major factor in reflective
learning (Brockbank et al., 2002).
From a developmental perspective, adolescents go through major biological, emotional,
social and environmental changes (Santrock, 2015). Psychosocial researchers argue that major
social, cognitive and emotional changes occur in adolescence however neuroscientists argue that
it may be much more. Recently, they have been making large gains in understanding how age
affects not only emotions, but the cortical regions of the brain (Albert et al., 2013; Immordino-
Yang et al., 2016; Saxbe, Del Piero, Immordino-Yang, Kaplan, & Margolin, 2015; Somerville,
Hare, & Casey, 2011). Peer pressure and risk-taking behavior manifests more prominently
during adolescence and tapers off as students begin to enter adulthood (Albert et al., 2013;
Arnett, 2013; Farrell, Thompson, & Mehari, 2017; Saxbe et al., 2015). Saxbe et al. (2015) found
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 26
that peers activated regions in the brain affiliated with “others’ thoughts and feelings” and
external or social rewards when presented with peer over parental stimuli (p. 601). Also, of note,
familiarity with peers had a significant impact on emotions and thoughts, which may have
implications for members of athletic teams as much of athletes’ time is spent with their
teammates (Saxbe et al., 2015). Additionally, Farrell et al.’s (2017) study measured peer
influences in relation to not only problem behaviors but also prosocial behaviors, which are
actions associated with promoting the well-being of others (Arnett, 2013; Caprara, Alessandri, &
Eisenberg, 2012; Farrell et al., 2017). The study found that “friends’ prosocial behavior was
uniquely associated with prosocial behavior” of the individual which adds important information
to the limited body of literature focused on peer influences and prosocial behavior. But why are
peers so influential during adolescence?
Some researchers have described adolescence as a period of social re-orientation (Nelson,
Leinbenluft, McClure, & Pine, 2005). Nelson et al. outline three areas of the brain associated
with social-information processing: the detection node, which matures early in life; the affective
node, which is highly influenced by the increased number of hormones released during puberty;
and the cognitive-regulation node, which continuously develops through adolescence and into
early adulthood (Gogtay et al., 2004). The affective node is of particular importance here
because it affects how individuals respond to social stimuli (Nelson et al., 2005). Additionally,
when studying scans of adolescents, Somerville et al. (2011) found that adolescents produced
“speeded responses” to happy faces v. calm faces, but a decreased ability to inhibit their
responses to those cues (p. 2127). This study is significant in providing further scientific
evidence in adolescents’ reduced ability to “reduce[d] impulse control…when faced with cues”
that are of value (Somerville et al., 2011, p. 2129). Social contexts, hormonal changes, and brain
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 27
development are simultaneously evolving and influencing one another. Adolescents are more
positively affected by positive social cues and because of the influx of hormones to the part of
the brain responsible for decisions regarding those cues, it is increasingly more difficult to ignore
those affirmations (Albert et al., 2013; Nelson et al., 2005; Somerville et al., 2011). These
factors play a significant role in not only the actions of adolescents, but also how they see and
are shaped by the individuals with whom they surround themselves. Cognitive development at
this stage in life helps to explain why adolescence and early adulthood is so influential to the
growth of an individual (Santrock, 2015). Consequently, the dynamic nature of cognitive
development and the social setting form the base for experiential learning and identity
development.
Identity Development
A critical component of human development is the establishment of an individual’s
identity (Erikson, 1959). Understanding why individuals act the way that they do, how social
relationships work, and understanding the contexts, environments and developmental stages into
which an individual currently fits, can all factor into a person’s self-concept and identity (Albert,
et al., 2013; Arnett, 2013; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Erikson, 1959, 1980; Farrell et al., 2017;
Saxbe et al., 2015; Tajfel, 1982). These complexities of human life are outlined below including
further scrutiny from other theorists on the eight stages of life, that Erikson (1959, 1980)
originally conjectured.
Erikson (1959, 1980) concluded that an individual shapes his/her personality during eight
stages of life. Erikson uses a psychosocial model to explain development in stages as related to
the relative age of an individual (Weiten, 2008). Erikson posits that personality continues to
mature throughout the lifespan. During the stages, a “crisis” will occur signaling the individual
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 28
to move into a new stage of development (Erikson, 1959, 1980). There are no prescriptive time
periods in which these “crises” occur nor do they happen for everyone in a similar fashion.
Erikson’s eight stages are: trust vs. mistrust (infancy, first year of life), autonomy vs. shame
(infancy, one to three years), initiative vs. guilt (early childhood, three to five), industry vs.
inferiority (middle/late childhood, six to nine years), identity vs. confusion (adolescence, ten to
twenty), intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, twenties and thirties), generativity vs. stagnation
(middle adulthood, forties and fifties), and integrity vs. despair (late adulthood, sixties and on)
(Santrock, 2015). Erikson points to adolescence as the stage in which individuals are forming,
shaping and wrestling with conflicting or differing identities.
Building upon these theories of linear development, Eriksonian theorist Marcia (1966)
suggested that an individual does not necessarily pass through stages to form his identity but may
move through identity statuses at any point (Weiten, 2008). Marcia found that individuals, after
a sense of commitment or a sense of crisis, can develop four different identity statuses: identity
achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, or identity diffusion. Identity achievement is reached if
an individual has successfully “experienced a crisis period and is committed to an occupation
and ideology” (Marcia, 1966, p. 551). At the opposite end identity diffusion happens when a
crisis may or may happen, but the individual makes no commitments to an occupation or
ideology (Marcia, 1966). The two middle identity statuses signify individuals who are
experiencing a crisis, but no commitment is made in moratorium; or in foreclosure, the
individual has not yet experienced a crisis, but is committing to an occupation or ideology
(Marcia, 1966).
Social identity theorists tend to view identity formation in relation to the socially
constructed relationships individuals form. Tajfel’s (1974) original theory posits that social
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 29
identity is formed by an internalization of an individual’s membership and emotional attachment
to a social group which then develops into the individual’s self-concept. To understand social
identity, it is important to note concepts of social categorization, social comparison, and
psychological distinctiveness. Social categorization happens when an individual “creates and
defines their own place in society,” whereas social comparison happens when an individual
compares himself to others, both in the group in which an individual most identifies and
outgroups, those outside of his or her self-concept (Tajfel, 1974, p. 69). It is through the social
comparison process in which individuals evaluate their own social identity mainly within group
contexts, but may include outgroup comparisons as well (Festinger, 1954).
College life is a social context that is often a time of transition, awareness, and can be a
place that impacts students’ social, emotional, physical, and intellectual wellbeing (Chickering &
Reisser, 1993). Chickering and Reisser argue for the importance of the collegiate setting and the
impact on students’ development - especially with respect to identity - and propose seven vectors
for collegiate student development. Unlike Erikson’s (1959, 1980) linear theory of development,
in Chickering and Reisser’s seven vectors, students’ progress through the stages based on their
own individual and environmental factors. The seven vectors are: developing competence,
managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature
interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity
(Chickering & Reisser, 2005). Chickering and Reisser (2005) posit that students develop three
kinds of competence during college: intellectual, physical, and interpersonal. The collegiate
environment is an interactive, multidimensional, and highly social setting that affords students
opportunities for development, far exceeding just academia. Students have opportunities to
participate and build their physical or artistic abilities and are exposed to leisure activities that
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 30
may play an important role in their lives after college (Chickering & Reisser, 2005).
Additionally, a significant element of the competence vector is an individual’s interpersonal
skills; that is, a person’s ability to interact with, listen to, relate, and employ strategies to enhance
relationships and group interactions. Ultimately, “students’ overall sense of competence increase
as they learn to trust their abilities, receive accurate feedback from others, and integrate their
skills into a stable self-assurance” (Chickering & Reisser, 2005, p. 186).
The next two vectors, managing emotions and moving through autonomy toward
interdependence, are generally considered fundamental tasks when students are in the collegiate
setting and are now required to learn to operate independently from their parents (Chickering &
Reisser, 2005). Through the many activities offered in college students learn to develop mature
relationships and as they progress through the previous four vectors, students establish or modify
their identities accordingly (Chickering & Reisser, 2005). Chickering and Reisser discuss the
importance of social experiences as well as a host of other factors including family, cultural, and
religious beliefs that aid to establish an individual’s place in the world and understand his or her
sense of self. This picture of personal identity can also lead to Chickering and Reisser’s sixth
vector, the development of purpose (Adams, 1976). Students in this vector assess past
performance and interests, and evaluate career, personal, and family goals, endeavoring toward
those particular aspirations. These experiences are encapsulated by the last vector, which
Chickering and Reisser describe as the stage in which students are able to summarize the
previous six vectors, personalize them, and ultimately create values consistent with their own
sense of self.
Though Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) original vectors have been updated to include
gender and are widely accepted in the field of student development theory, critics interject that
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 31
the theory overlooks certain marginalized populations (Patton et al., 2016; Schuh et al., 2017).
Kodama, McEwen, Liang, and Lee (2001) point to the potential inconsistencies of the theory’s
vectors when looking specifically at Asian Pacific American students. Kodama et al. stress the
importance of diversity in the populations that are being measured and the significance of
understanding that all aspects of Chickering and Reisser’s theory do not always fit neatly into
populations for which it was not designed. Although Chickering and Reisser acknowledged
gender as a factor for potential differences in both the autonomy and mature relationships
vectors, Foubert, Nixon, Sisson, and Barnes’ (2005) longitudinal study emphasizes research
concerning gender, furthering the “importance of studying the many different areas in which
college students develop, and the factors that lead to such development” (Foubert et al., 2005, p.
470).
Early psychosocial theories focus on the identity development of white males and fail to
acknowledge other dimensions of individuals (Erikson, 1959, 1980; Marcia, 1966). Chickering
and Reisser (1993) acknowledge that gender may produce differences in development; however,
the seven vectors continue to remain despite studies noting differences in the ways in which
opposite sexes progress (Foubert et al., 2005). Josselson (1996) sought to understand women’s
identity development using Marcia’s (1966) work on identity status (Patton et al., 2016).
Josselson (1996) initially studied 60 randomly selected female college seniors between the ages
of 20 and 22 years old, gathering data over a three-year period; then again for 30 of the original
women in their 30s and again in their 40s. These studies were all aimed at understanding how
women continue to transform from early-to-late adulthood and how changing social ideals
regarding gender roles affected them (Josselson, 2005; Patton et al., 2016). Though ground
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 32
breaking in nature, Josselson’s studies of white women fail to explore intersectionality as it
relates to multiple identities (Patton et al., 2016).
Deaux (1993) calls into questions the separation of identity, gender, race, and ethnicity,
and calls for the need to “reconstruct identity” as a multidimensional entity that accounts for
social contexts (p. 4). Jones and McEwen (2000) developed a conceptual model that addresses
multiple dimensions of identities of ten female college-aged (20-24-years-old) students from
diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds. The model outlines “multiple dimensions of identity
development” as fluid and dynamic and represents a snapshot of an individual’s “identity
construction” at that moment in time (Jones & McEwen, 2000, p. 408; Josselson, 2005). They
argue that identities continue to develop into adulthood and that the growth or change in
identities is based on experiences and contextual factors, rather than life-cycle (Erikson, 1980;
Jones & McEwen, 2000; Josselson, 1996; Patton et al., 2016). Later literature from Josselson
and Harway (2012) explore ideas of multiple identities and the need to understand how
individuals negotiate and navigate senses of selves that are varied and sometimes conflicting.
Exploring multiple identities and the navigation of multiple sense of selves is often
discussed in literature concerning gender, identity and the female athlete. The prevailing attitude
prior to 1972 and the passing of Title IX, was that women were biologically inferior, too
delicate, and socially unsuited for sports participation and competition (Hargreaves, 1994). Not
surprisingly, the dominant discourse of gender and athletic identity surrounds the hegemony and
subscribed masculinity to sports and the subsequent subjugation of female athletes (Hargreaves,
1994; Walker et al., 2017). Additionally, the portrayal of the female athlete in the media has
varied, yet women tend to be more highly scrutinized based on sexual orientation, gender roles,
and beauty. Billings and Hundley (2010) argue that it is impossible to separate media influence
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 33
from the person. Thus, adolescent girls and young women are highly influenced by what they
see and how these images are internalized.
Women throughout history have been fighting for the right to compete and the right to be
seen as equals in hegemonic masculine societies (Hargreaves, 1994). Yet, others have been
content with the status quo and choose to accept or are often conflicted with social expectations
of femininity and athletic body image (Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004). These
decisions are not often conscious choices but based on subconscious socialization and the limited
categories that bind female athletes based on media construction (Mean, 2010; Sartore &
Cunningham, 2007; van Dijk, 1993). Mean’s research on FIFA, found that the organization’s
media representations of both men’s and women’s teams created gendered discourses
surrounding the players thus reinforcing masculine idealistic views of the sport. Though media
portrayals continue to reinforce gendered separations, Shaw (1994) contends that female
participation in sports can also be conceptualized as agency and resistance to the reinforced
status quo. Accordingly, studies of female collegiate athlete identity have found that athletes are
proud of their athleticism, they embrace the strength they have from being an athlete, and feel a
sense of empowerment that transcends the sporting contexts (Krane et al., 2004; Krane, Ross,
Barak, Lucas-Carr, & Robinson, 2014; Krane et al., 2010). Krane et al.’s findings of self-
representative photos of twenty female collegiate athletes in strong powerful athletic photos
paints a powerful narrative of how the female collegiate athlete sees herself, embracing her
athleticism, versus the feminine boxes the media attempt to place female athletes in.
Some research looks at athlete identity based on that negotiation against a student identity
(Sturm, Feltz, & Gilson, 2011; Yopyk & Prentice, 2005). This study incorporated both male and
female participants to understand athletes’ beliefs in their identities as students versus athletes.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 34
Sturm et al. found that when primed male athletes exhibited higher athlete identities while
females exhibited higher overall academic identities, possibly explaining that female athletes live
more balanced lives. In Yopyk and Prentice’s study of all male athletes, when primed of their
athletic status, male student-athletes performed lower on an academic assessment and had lower
self-regard than the students-athletes who were primed with their academic status. This study is
important to the overall discussion in understanding athletic identity and the possible impacts
culture and climate can have on an individual. These studies may have implications on female
athletes, though based on work by Krane et al. (2004), Krane et al. (2014), and Krane et al.,
(2010), athletic identity for females may not have the same connotations that athletic identity has
for males. The next section will examine the history of college sports and discuss how that
history of hegemonic beliefs of the masculinity of sports has shaped the landscape of collegiate
sports in America.
History of Collegiate Sports
The first universities and colleges established in the United States were modeled after
universities in England, such as Oxford or Cambridge (Theilin & Gasman, 2017). The founders
of American higher education believed that the English model was the consummate
representation of a “civilizing experience that ensured a progression of responsible leaders for
church and state” and thus was only for the elite white-male population (Theilin & Gasman,
2017; p. 5). The first institution of higher learning in the country, Harvard University, was
established in 1636, followed by William & Mary in 1693, and Yale in 1701 and six more prior
to the start of the Revolutionary War (Theilin & Gasman, 2017). It was not until 1852, however,
that the first major intercollegiate contest took place (Shulman & Bowen, 2001; Smith, 2000).
This commercially sponsored boat race between Harvard and Yale marked the start of college
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 35
athletics but faced many of the same issues and criticism athletic departments face today
(Shulman & Bowen, 2001; Smith, 2000). Since that first match, other sports began to grow, with
the first baseball game in 1859 and the first football game in 1869 (Shulman & Bowen, 2001).
Thus, began a rapid growth in the popularity of football without much regulation or any
standardization of rules or concern for safety of the game. Schools were operating many sports
in this way, but the danger and risk that football proposed over other sports drew national
attention. The 1905 intercollegiate season saw 18 deaths and 100 major injuries in the sport
which prompted a meeting with university chancellors and President Theodore Roosevelt to
discuss the rules of the game (Shulman & Bowen, 2001; Smith, 2000). From there, the
Intercollegiate Athletic Association was formed to create and regulate rules applicable to
intercollegiate sports, and in 1910 the name was officially changed to the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA; Smith, 2000). Since the formation of the NCAA, there were
additional major turning points that shaped the landscape of higher education and athletics. The
Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the GI Bill, ushered in a new era of
collegiate inclusion, admitting millions of servicemen after the war; now men other than the
social elite as well as a small number of women were encouraged to take part in higher education
(Theilin & Gasman, 2017). This increase in enrollment, coupled with the advent of television,
rapidly increased demands for the growing popularity of intercollegiate sports (Smith, 2000, p.
14).
Theilin and Gasman (2017) describe the next two decades as both a time for major
growth and major turmoil for higher education. Events like the civil rights movement and the
Vietnam War fueled activism around campuses, and the subsequent military draft only worsened
the prevailing disquiet and unrest of the student body (Theilin & Gasman, 2017). Following
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 36
passage of “Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination on the
basis of race, color, and national origin in all federally funded programs,” the Education
Amendments of 1972 crucially added protections from sex-based discrimination through Title IX
which stating that “no person shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be
denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program receiving
Federal financial assistance” (Sandler, 2007, p. 479). Though equality in athletics in higher
education was not the focus, Title IX became synonymously associated with sports as the
pervasive inequities between men’s and women’s teams were substantial (Acosta & Carpenter,
2004; Hargreaves, 1994; Sandler, 2007).
Women in history were thought to have been too delicate, biologically unsuited, or
morally unable to compete in sports (Hargreaves, 1994). Slowly, as women began to violate the
norm, obtain higher education degrees and participate in “acceptable” sports, attitudes began to
shift (Hargreaves, 1994). In 1971 the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women
(AIAW) was formed advocating for the opportunities for women to compete in higher education
(Acosta & Carpenter, 2004; Hargreaves, 1994). Under the AIAW and prior to Title IX’s
passing, over 90% of women’s teams were coached by women, usually unpaid and on a
volunteer basis (Acosta & Carpenter, 2004). Title IX expanded women’s athletic programs,
created scholarship opportunities, and provided far greater opportunities for women seeking
higher education (Acosta & Carpenter, 2004; Hargreaves, 1994; Sandler, 2007). Although seen
as a victory, many would argue that Title IX precipitated the eventual demise of the AIAW in
1984, the NCAA absorption of all women’s sports, and subsequently the institutionalized
hegemony of the male leader in collegiate athletic organizations (Hargreaves, 1994; Walker et
al., 2017). Acosta and Carpenter (2014) report that in 1970, prior to Title IX, there were
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 37
approximately 16,000 female-student athletes. Since the enactment of Title IX, the NCAA
reports a slow and steady rise in participation in sports from both men and women (NCAA,
2017). In the 1981-1982 academic year there were 74,239 females in 24 sports representing 30%
of the student-athlete population (NCAA, 2019). In the most recent 2017-2018 academic year
there were 151,322 NCAA female-athletes in 26 sports representing 44% of the student-athlete
population (NCAA, 2019). Though these numbers represent a positive increase in funding and
participation of female athletic programs, they fail to show the disappointing effects that the
male- and football-dominated NCAA had and continues to have on leadership positions across
collegiate sports (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014; Hargreaves, 1994; Walker et al., 2017).
Walker et al. (2017) explain that as institutions were “forced” to fund, include and
provide access to women’s sports, positions that were once held by women in the AIAW were
now “normalized by the belief that men should occupy them” (p. 35). Walker and Bopp (2011)
argue that women working in collegiate athletics run into a “glass wall” and contend with the
“old boys’ network” disallowing women from pursuing careers in men’s basketball even when
they had the same or better qualifications as their male counterparts (p. 55). They argue that
departments place more emphasis on male applicants and undervalue female applicants based on
gender. Further exacerbating the issue, are results from Whisenant and Mullane’s (2007) study
on athletic directors’ hiring preferences. In a cross sample of high schools throughout the United
States the gender of high school athletic directors mattered when hiring head coaches. Male
athletic directors continued to hire male head coaches for boys’ teams, continuing to perpetuate
the hegemonic masculinity. But more alarming was for two of the three girls’ teams reviewed,
girls’ basketball and softball not volleyball, male head coaches were hired over women when a
male athletic director was present. Though this quantitative study did not review the actual
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 38
applicants to attest to qualifications, this study is significant in the discussion of hegemonic
hiring practices in sports organizations. Unfortunately, as Walker et al. argue this discussion
does not stop at the high school level. The NCAA reports that 12.7% of all Division I athletic
directors are women, a number which has been very slowly increasing, compared to 9.9% in
1998 and 10.6% in 2014 (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014; NCAA, 2017). Though Walker et al.
would argue that those issues arose from the merging of the AIAW and the NCAA, Whisenant
and Mullane’s demonstration of high school athletic directors’ tendencies to hire coaches and
administrators of the same sex, could further explain the very slow growth in gender diversity
across all leadership positions of Collegiate Division I athletic programs as well. Even with
diversity and equity issues in collegiate athletic administrations, intercollegiate sports continue to
provide opportunities for women to obtain a higher education including opportunities to develop
and practice important life and leadership skills (Galante & Ward, 2016; Gould, Collins, Lauer,
& Chung, 2007; Grandzol, Perlis, & Draina, 2010; Hoffman, Hoffman, & Suggs, 2013; Ryan,
1989; Schroeder, 2010). The following section will outline the research regarding leadership,
gender, sports and leadership, and finally how research in this area has affected leadership
development.
Leadership
Defining the word leadership has been cause for much ambiguity and obscurity
(Alvesson & Spicer, 2013; Bolden, Hawkins, Gosling, & Taylor, 2011; Northouse, 2016). Kelly
(2014) simply states that leadership has been reviewed as “an empty signifier… a space through
which possible meanings can be negotiated and navigated (p. 914). In this interpretation,
context, persons, purpose, and situations must all be considered with the outcome producing
endless possible definitions (Kelly, 2014). Alvesson and Spicer see these ambiguous definitions
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 39
of leadership research as an important and essential contribution in addressing the many and
extremely varied facets of the field. Finally, in order to categorize the different assessments of
the subject, Barker (1997) divides leadership into three separate groupings: ability, relationship,
and process.
Early leadership research proposed that leadership is based on traits and characteristics of
special individuals. These ideas continue to permeate the popular discourse of the subject as a
popular style of leadership, transformational leadership, places emphasis on charismatic,
extraverted, and inspirational qualities of the leader (Northouse, 2016). Barker (1997) even
points to the etymology of the word leadership, in which the “-ship” connotes a possessive skill.
This pervasive understanding that leaders are born not made has plagued much of the
conversation of who or what a leader should be and continues to stylize what some consider an
ideal leader (Alvesson & Spicer, 2013; Bolden et al., 2011; Gemmill & Oakley, 1992;
Northouse, 2016).
Western culture idolizes the hero. Leaders who are charismatic and boisterous are
revered; those individuals like General Patton, or famous coaches and characters in popular
films. These leaders are thought to be all-knowing, are born with qualities that represent innate
leadership attributes, and work on their own to create heroic feats, but do they really operate on
their own? Rost (1993) proposed the second categorization of leadership by juxtaposing
leadership with relationships. Rather than studying leadership in terms of leaders and followers,
Rost insisted that in this new conceptualization, followers, as we traditionally see them, do not
exist. Rost saw leadership as a collaboration between individuals in which influence was
mutually shared. In this understanding, leadership is less about the leader and his or her “heroic”
traits, but more about the relationships with others to achieve a common goal (Cunliffe &
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 40
Eriksen, 2011; Rost, 1993). The “character, judgement, and personal values of leaders” are more
impactful on leadership than skills, traits, or practices outlined by theorists that view leadership
as ability.
Similarly to Rost (1993), the final categorization looks at leadership as a process.
Gemmill and Oakley (1992) define leadership as “a social process…of dynamic collaboration,
where individuals and organization members authorize themselves and others to interact in ways
that experiment with new forms of intellectual and social meaning” (p. 124). Northouse (2016)
also defines leadership as a “process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal” (p. 6). Unlike the relationship model, the leader and followers still
exist, yet there is a greater emphasis on social situations and culture. Social processes and group
identity are important in this categorization, but it is both the leader and followers that socially
construct and give meaning to situations, individuals, and ultimately leadership (Gemmill &
Oakley, 1992; Northouse, 2016). Gemmill and Oakley argue that it is actually the context and
socially constructed ideals of leadership that may spur individuals to act in ways that are typical
of the positions they hold, placing leadership on a pedestal while freeing followers from the
responsibility to take initiative. Similarly, Barker (1997) describes the leadership process as the
agency in which “roles and role expectations” are outlined. Catmull and Wallace (2014) discuss
how Pixar completely reconceptualized what they thought was leadership to promote the free
flow of ideas and accommodate the social culture of the industry and vision they were trying to
create. They restructured their teams so that leadership was not a hinderance to creativity, as it
would be in the traditional sense of the practice. Through this restructuring and empowerment of
even the lowest “ranked” person to speak up if they saw something wrong or had an idea, Pixar
turned from a company who was struggling at the box office into a company whose creative
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 41
ideas transformed them into one of the highest grossing film production companies of all time
(Catmull & Wallace, 2014). In this sense, Pixar was a company whose culture and mission was
dependent on a different conceptualization of leadership, rather than the “great man” that is so
often intellectualized.
Leadership and Gender
Keohane (2007) writes that “throughout human history and across many cultures,
leadership has been closely associated with masculinity: the king, the father, the boss, the lord
are stereotypical images of leadership” (p. 67). Women have had to fight misconceptions of
their biological inferiority and natural proclivity toward motherhood for centuries (Hargreaves,
1994). These early notions, based in biological research, formed a culture and social
understanding of women and their place in society (Hargreaves, 1994; Kellerman & Rhode,
2007; Northouse, 2016; Storberg-Walker & Haber-Curran, 2017). Thus, early leadership
theories were blind to race, ethnicity, and gender and constructed on the study of men and the
idolization of white male leaders, forming the foundations for the “great man” theory (Alvesson
& Spicer, 2013; Bolden et al., 2011; Northouse, 2016).
In response to the “great man” theories which have shaped leadership discourse, theories
of what Pittinsky, Bacon, and Welle (2007) call “great woman theories of leadership” began to
emerge. These theories like many of the “great man” theories, praise positive stereotypical
behaviors, traits, and styles of women’s leadership (Pittinsky et al., 2007). Rosener’s (1990)
influential article published in the Harvard Business Review pointed to these styles of women’s
leadership, directing public attention to women’s success in business. These successes were
achieved not by women adopting agentic male traits or styles of leadership, but by women
utilizing their “feminine” characteristics of “shared experience…[and] their socialization as
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 42
women…creating a different path to the top” (para. 1). Though these idealistic depictions of
female leadership may be attractive and, on the surface, seem to endorse women as leaders,
Pittinsky et al. warn that these trait leadership qualities can be just as toxic as “great man”
theories. Again, as trait theories of leadership tend to do, “great woman theories of leadership”
further emphasize that leadership is gendered. These beliefs “ultimately exclude, misrepresent,
mold, and polarize the sexes, and leadership in general” (p. 98). Gendering leadership could lead
individuals, companies, or followers to buy-in to either the “great man” or the “great woman”
form of leadership to the detriment of the individual and the organization.
McCormick, Tanguman, and Lopez-Forment (2002) found that women were less
confident of their leadership abilities than men, even when controlling for previous leadership
opportunities and assignments. As hegemonic beliefs and hiring practices in leadership continue
to persist, women and other minorities who are consistently omitted from the research,
stereotyped, or bound by unfair social judgements will continue to suffer. These ideals have
continued to perpetuate the idea of the “glass ceiling,” a popular colloquial phrase first coined by
Marilyn Loden in 1978 (Vargas, 2018). During a panel discussion on women’s aspirations, Ms.
Loden listened to women blame themselves for their lack of advancement in their careers
(Vargas, 2018). Rather than place the blame on women’s sense of self-image, she instead spoke
about the invisible societal barriers to advancement, the “glass ceiling” (Vargas, 2018). While it
may be true that society has placed a limit on female achievement in this regard, the glass ceiling
is but one factor that may be holding women back from attaining higher levels of leadership in
their professional lives.
As many organizations and individuals have bought into the idea of the “great man,”
Iverson, Allan, and Gordon (2017) have observed what is called “the double bind;” a situation in
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 43
which a female leader exhibits what is considered to be masculine leadership traits she will be
perceived as unfeminine and austere; yet when she exhibits feminine traits she will be received
as meager, ineffectual, or incompetent. This “double bind” experienced by individuals in
Iverson et al.’s study is an example of the oft-unrecognized hurdles women in leadership must
face. Societal ideals paint a picture of leadership that is patently masculine celebrating qualities
such as being outspoken, assertive and authoritarian. This concept is not just applicable to
business; a Swiss study conducted by Schlesinger and Weigelt-Schlesinger (2012) showed that
stereotypes in European soccer coaching also vitiate the perceptions of and hinder attainment of
female coaches. The study revealed that female soccer coaches who are perceived to have
feminine qualities are denied positions by coaches and players due to these alleged weaknesses.
Grappendorf and Burton (2017) argue the need to address the biases and stereotypes that women
face. As these stereotypical beliefs and double standards of how women should act in leadership
roles continue to persist so will women’s already limited opportunities for leadership in sports
(Grappendorf & Burton, 2017). Similarly, Pittinsky et al. (2007) emphasizes the need to
“degender” leadership and call for the best and most qualified person for the job as very few
differences in terms of leadership have been found empirically (p. 99). This is not to say that
differences do not exist between men and women, but these differences should be looked at
contextually.
Initial studies conducted by Ryan and Haslam (2005) took a deeper look into the
positions of leadership that women were attaining and what they found was a trend in hiring
practices. The phenomenon that Ryan and Haslam coin as the “glass cliff” describes the trend
that women are hired or “placed in positions of leadership in circumstances of general financial
downturn and downturn in company performance” (p. 87). Over ten years Ryan and Haslam
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 44
refined and attempted to uncover ways to diminish the effects of the phenomenon (Haslam &
Ryan, 2008; Kulich, Lorenzi-Cioldi, Iacoviello, Faniko, & Ryan, 2015; Ryan & Haslam, 2005;
Ryan, Haslam, Hersby, & Bongiorno, 2011; Ryan et al., 2016). There have been positive effects
of the phenomenon pointing to the trend for businesses to hire female leaders in times of crisis,
signaling a potential positive stereotype of women and their abilities as leaders (Eagly & Carli,
2003; Haslam & Ryan, 2008). Or in a more malign review, women are seen as “expendable;”
therefore, giving them a “golden opportunity” is not seen as an opportunity to flourish, but an
opportunity that was undesirable for a man (Haslam & Ryan, 2008, p. 452). The “glass cliff,”
just as other leadership theories discussed in this section, does not apply to all organizations and
requires critical information such as context, differences between hiring committees and
availability (Ryan et al., 2016). Studies on the “glass cliff” do not often address women’s
choices, preferences and motivations for taking the jobs, which are all important to holistically
understand the situations.
A review of the literature on the subject should be taken cautiously, as Eagly and Carli
(2003) point out that context and circumstances matter, and when doing a thorough review,
styles of men and women leaders are minimal. Though Eagly and Carli point to some
advantages that women have in leadership style, however “the double bind” states that women
are bound by both leadership and social expectations and any “advantages” that they may have
reaped based on gender may be offset by “prejudice…against women as leaders” (p. 818).
Somewhat parallel to Eagly and Carli, Sartore and Cunningham (2007) sought to explain the
underrepresentation, not just by social expectations and hiring processes, but how women
internalize those societal gender roles and inhibit upward mobility into leadership roles. These
internalizations and actions were not conscious on the part of women, but an “unconscious
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 45
manifestation of self-limiting behaviors” (Sartore & Cunningham, 2007, p. 259). Thus, if women
internalized hegemonic societal practices and expectations of them, they may subconsciously
limit their behaviors preventing themselves from obtaining positions of leadership consequently
continuing the cycle of male dominated positions of power. Expectations discussed by Killeen,
Lopez-Zafra, and Eagly (2006) were proposed as traditionally feminine sex roles of domestic
responsibilities. In this study women’s expectations of managerial and leadership positions were
dampened by their familial responsibilities. Women in this study thus thought it less possible to
attain leadership roles because of stereotypical societal expectations. Taken together women’s
manifestations of domestic responsibilities can be seen as unconscious self-limiting behaviors
that affect their ideas of possible selves in leadership roles.
Taken as a whole, the studies and this section point to the critical need to include women
in the conversations surrounding leadership (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007; Northouse, 2016;
Storberg-Walker & Haber-Curran, 2017). Perpetuating gendered leadership ensures a continuing
cycle of poor hiring practices, misrepresentation, and unnecessary polarization in all facets of
leadership from business to higher education to sports (Diehl, 2014; Pittinsky et al., 2007;
Walker et al., 2017). It is critical to develop an understanding of organizational practices as well
as critical foundations of identity development, motivational factors, and society as a whole
when examining gender and leadership, as the subject is far more complex than early leadership
trait research.
Leadership Development
The ambiguity of the word “leadership” and the equivocal nature of the definition clouds
our understandings of how development should look when considering who leaders are and how
they should be trained (Barker, 1997). In other words, how do leadership programs know what
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 46
to teach if the research cannot even agree on what leadership is? Day (2001) argues that there
are two distinct differences in the concept of development of leaders. The first is that training
individualizes and concentrates on the development of skills and abilities of individual leaders
(leader development) and the second trains individuals to consider and foster relationships to
enhance the overall cooperation and value of an organization (leadership development).
The two categories of development are important in understanding how organizations
define leadership, how they view leaders’ responsibilities, and in understanding the importance
that is placed on human versus social capital (Day, 2001). As such, under the leader
categorization, organizations see development as leader-centric and view the skill and knowledge
of the individual as most important to success. Leader development thus follows the definitions
that conceptualize leadership as a skill or as the previously mentioned heroic view (Alvesson &
Spicer, 2013; Bolden et al., 2011; Day, 2001; Northouse, 2016). This individualized approach
not only emphasizes the need to build leaders’ skills and competence but also develops leader
identity so they have the intrapersonal aptitude to lead organizations (Day, 2001; DeRue &
Ashford, 2010).
Alternatively, leadership development emphasizes social relationships and highlights
developing the intricacies behind building trust, mutual respect, and other interpersonal skills
necessary to maintain healthy working environments (Day, 2001). Leadership development thus
adds a human element of relationships and context (Day, 2001). This understanding of
leadership development is closer linked to Gemmill and Oakley’s (1992) approach to leadership
as a process. Though Day emphasizes a distinction between the two categories, it is also
imperative that both approaches be integrated and looked at to form a complete strategy for
development.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 47
Table 2
Development Targets
Development Targets
Comparison Dimension Leader Leadership
Capital Type Human Social
Leadership Model Individual
Personal Power
Knowledge
Trustworthiness
Relational
Commitments
Mutual Respect
Trust
Competence Base Intrapersonal Interpersonal
Skills Self-awareness
Emotional awareness
Self-confidence
Accurate self-image
Self-regulation
Self-control
Trustworthiness
Personal responsibility
Adaptability
Self-motivation
Initiative
Commitment
Optimism
Social awareness
Empathy
Service orientation
Political awareness
Social Skills
Building bonds
Team orientation
Change catalyst
Conflict management
Note. Summary of difference between leader development and leadership development from Day
(2001).
These approaches are imperative to understanding how much of the research in this
subject area is conducted and how many conceptualize their understandings of leaders,
leadership, and development, but what happens when an organization fails to develop leaders or
leadership? What happens when leaders in an organization do not themselves practice moral,
ethical, or positive leadership skill? How do those actions affect their followers? When we
denounce the idea that leadership is a skill that only a few possess, and accept that leadership can
be developed or learned, we can apply learning theories to help us understand the reciprocal
nature of leadership and how to foster its growth in individuals. Kellerman (2004) advocates for
the study of “bad leadership” for leaders to fully understand the intricacies of the subject yet,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 48
limited research on the subject remains. Kellerman argues that good versus bad leadership can
be quite partial, depending on the “subjective, personal, and value-driven” ideals of followers (p.
31). Nevertheless, some individuals can undoubtedly be categorized as bad leaders based on
their actions (Kellerman, 2004). Good, bad, or indifferent leadership aside, the question remains:
how do bad leaders’ actions affect followers’ development? Conrad and Nash (2013) found that
critical lessons can emerge from “bad leadership.” They found that Master of Business
Administration students were able to recognize and describe bad leaders, express what they
learned from that experience, and ultimately communicate what they would do differently.
Similarly, Collingwood (2001) outlined the importance of past experiences of prominent leaders.
Top leaders exposed the stories, the individuals - both good and bad - and the moments that
shaped them into the leaders they are today. Not all influential stories were positive, in fact
many significant lessons were learned through bad leadership or bad leaders (Collingwood,
2001). Komives, Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, and Owen (2009) discuss bad leadership or the
perception of bad leadership in terms of a “crisis.” This perception of bad leadership can have a
powerful effect on an individual, pushing them to commit to leadership with more conviction in
an effort to avoid similar detrimental leadership practices. Understanding these experiences
through the reflective process helped the leaders learn and grow from good and bad experiences
(Boyd & Fales, 1983; Brockbank et al., 2002).
Furthermore, research in the field of adversity, shows that women leaders face many
barriers in leadership positions (Diehl, 2014). Most women experienced positive effects from
these adversities with the key to success being a reflection on the experience and a positive
attitude. Women who “chose not to view difficulties as barriers” succeeded in learning and
growing from adversity (Diehl, 2014). These studies illuminate a vital component to human
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 49
cognition and learning in concert with human development. Active learning must occur
mutually with reflection to create meaning from experiences, whether these experiences are
encouraging or adverse (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Brockbank et al., 2002).
Leadership Development and Sport
Leadership in the sports setting has been researched due to the hierarchical nature of the
coach and athlete relationship. Many studies emphasize the importance of coaching leadership
as related to the athletes’ well-being and formal positions such as team captainship (Appleton &
Duda, 2016; Davis & Jowett, 2014; Fransen, Vanbeselaere, De Cuyper, Vande Broek, & Boen,
2014; Gould et al., 2007; Grandzol et al., 2010; Kerwin & Bopp, 2014; Rezania & Gurney, 2014;
Schroeder, 2010). Athletes, however, are not passive recipients of information. Through
constant reflection and experiential learning, student-athletes are constantly reviewing the
meaning of their experiences in relation to self (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Brockbank et al., 2002;
Immordino-Yang et al., 2016). From this perspective, athletics should be a perfect vehicle to
learn leadership skills, an opportunity for student athletes to practice those skills, and ultimately
to build in them a sense of efficacy and identity. Encouragingly, research has shown that
participation in college athletics can promote self-esteem, self-confidence, interpersonal skills,
and leadership development (Galante & Ward, 2016; Grandzol et al., 2010; Hoffman et al., 2013;
Poole, 2017; Ryan, 1989). However, the research regarding leadership and college athletics has
been largely mixed. In contrast to those positive findings, many studies have discussed the
negative effects that athletics have on student achievement, the high costs of athletic programs,
and have even refuted the positive data saying that athletics does not promote leadership
development; in fact, in some cases athletes regressed in their development (Huntrods, An, &
Pascarella, 2017; Jayakumar & Comeaux, 2016; Lindo, Swensen, & Waddell, 2012; Matheson,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 50
O’Connor, & Herberger, 2012; Shulman & Bowen, 2001). Unfortunately, these studies continue
to pervade the notion that universities only care about winning and will do anything, even at the
expense of university missions, ethics, and athletes’ educations.
When it comes to promoting holistic student growth, campus climate matters. Climate
and culture can affect students’ academic achievement, motivation, identity, emotions, and
athletic success (Renn & Patton, 2017). All colleges have a unique campus culture that underlies
the values and beliefs of that university (Renn & Patton, 2017). When campus culture is
negative or places excessive emphasis on certain programs students suffer. In fact, The
University of Oregon’s football success during the season was correlated to lower student grades,
increased alcohol consumption, and increased partying (Lindo et al., 2012). Interestingly,
females’ academic success was not positively correlated to football success; however, they
reported that their behavior was affected during season.
Further intensifying the debate are university scandals like the one at The University of
North Carolina. Students for 18 years were enrolled in so-called “paper classes” in the African
and African-American Studies Department (Smith & Willingham, 2015). Students were advised
by counselors, coaches, and administrators to take these courses for which they did zero work
but received grades allowing them to remain eligible in their sports (Smith & Willingham, 2015).
This blatant disregard for the student-athlete’s education, moral growth, and leadership
development is also exposed by Jayakumar and Comeaux (2016) in a study in which they
describe one former and three current male student-athletes’ and athletic department personnel’s
experiences at a university. Through observation, document review, and interviews with athletic
department personnel and current football athletes Jayakumar and Comeaux found a cultural
cover-up in which the university’s veiled attempts at emphasizing academics over athletics were
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 51
overshadowed by underlying messages pushing players’ priorities towards athletics over
academic pursuits. This indifference to the holistic well-being of student athletes reveals a
culture that places higher costs on athletic achievement at the expense of athletes’ personal and
academic growth. Rankin et al. however, found that when campus climates were perceived to be
inclusive and supportive there were “increases in student-athlete outcomes in every relationship,”
especially relative to academics (Rankin et al., 2016, p. 721).
Examining leadership specifically, Huntrods et al. (2017) surveyed 2,212 students over
four years (2006-2010) in three sessions. The purpose of the study was to understand socially
responsible leadership development which emphasizes a collaborative, mutual, and trusting
action-oriented environment focused on the betterment of the community and social change of
athletes versus non-athletes and to determine if collegiate athletic participation aided in the
development of leadership skills. Consistent with Shulman and Bowen’s (2001) findings, during
the first survey assessed during freshman year, students had high ratings of their own leadership
abilities. Participants were current student-athletes or newly graduated at the time of the final
survey. Huntrods et al.’s findings suggest that the participation in a team sport showed a decline
in socially responsible leadership development. In fact, experiences other than athletics
increased socially responsible development. However, athletes are restricted in their
advancement in areas of social responsibility because of their limited schedules. This study
demonstrates limited growth and even negative growth in areas of socially responsible leadership
development (Huntrods et al., 2017). One could argue that socially responsible leadership is not
the standard for leadership studies and that other aspects of leadership development were
discounted.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 52
Shulman and Bowen (2001) found mixed results when it came to former collegiate
athletes with respect to academic attainment and leadership. Their longitudinal studies, looking
at cohorts of student-athlete data from 1976 and 1989 reveal some interesting differences.
Among the far less-recruited 1976 class, women received more advanced academic degrees,
earned higher than average salaries after graduation, and held one percent more of the top
executive spots at the time of the survey in 1995. As recruiting became a stronger practice for
women’s athletics, the 1989 cohort, on average, were accepted to college with lower academic
preparation scores including SATs and had lower academic performance during college, as
compared to the 1976 class of women. Subsequently, the “advanced degree ‘edge’” of the 1976
class had now been leveled. Female student-athletes in the 1989 group earned the same amount
of advanced academic degrees as their more “academically accomplished peers (Shulman &
Bowen, 2001, p. 162). Compensating for their lower academic achievements were, as Shulman
and Bowen put it, “their energy and drive as athletes” to pursue their goals (p. 162). Though
these findings seem to point to a disturbing trend of university concession for athletes and
subsequent underperformance, the study of the 1989 female class found that the determination
and grit that female athletes empowered them to overcome the shortfalls of lower academic
preparation scores (Shulman & Bowen, 2001). Similarly, Ryan (1989) found that, in a
longitudinal study of 3,800 students between 1981-1985, student-athletes had more overall
satisfaction with college, more motivation to earn a degree, and interpersonal and leadership
skills that outshined those of their peers.
Hoffman et al. (2013) conducted qualitative interviews with West Point graduates and
determined that, in an institution whose mission it is to develop future leaders, participation in
athletics during college helped student-athletes practice their leadership as well as learn from
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 53
their fellow classmates’ leadership examples. The nature of athletic goals, competition, and the
emphasis on teamwork instilled at West Point were contributing factors to student-athlete
leadership development, and in environments that foster these attitudes and behaviors, women’s
participation in collegiate athletics has been shown to foster self-esteem and leadership traits
(Galante & Ward, 2016). Moreover, Poole (2017) found that relationships formed through
collegiate athletic participation as well as the group processes, like those discussed by Hoffman
et al., aid in female student-athletes leadership identity construction.
These mixed findings not only point to the importance of understanding how athletics
and the individuals involved in athletes’ lives impact their futures, and subsequently how
athletics can be utilized as a positive vehicle for development. Further research on the subject is
needed to continue to enhance student-athletes’ overall experiences with collegiate sport and to
help prepare students for professional lives as leaders in their industries.
Leadership and Identity Development
Arguably, two of the most important factors of seeing oneself as a leader is the
confidence in one’s own abilities and formerly held leadership positions (McCormick, 2001;
McCormick et al., 2002). Bandura’s (1977) work on social learning theory provide the
underpinnings for self-efficacy; a concept in which an individual holds beliefs in her abilities to
accomplish a task and realizes the successful outcome of her efforts. For years, women have
been marginalized in terms of leadership in the work place. As discussed previously,
conceptualizations of leadership are often equated to masculine ideals, and furthermore, many
positions of leadership have been and continue to be occupied by men. Thus, it is notable to
discuss self-efficacious beliefs about oneself and one’s abilities especially in terms of gender,
gender roles, and stereotypical beliefs of women as leaders in the workplace.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 54
Oswald (2008) examined gender stereotypes in relation to students’ interest in, choice of,
and “perceived ability to succeed in traditionally masculine and feminine occupations” (p. 196).
For women with a stronger sense of gender identification, Oswald found that women reported
liking and had a higher perceived ability in “feminine” occupations when gender stereotypes
were acknowledged. Effectively, their self-efficacy in a female career was tied to their
perceptions of success, especially when their gender was more strongly tied to their sense of self.
These women were more susceptible to a stereotype threat than women who were less gender-
identified. Notably, many studies on leadership in the work place focus on men versus women
or concentrate on reasons for a lack of female leadership. Though studies have found that self-
efficacy is linked to successful leadership performance, more persistence, higher rates of taking
on a leadership role, and higher achievement such as academics or athletics, an important
mediating factor for gender may require a closer look at varying degrees of gender-identity
salience and its contributions to self-efficacy or leadership identity as a factors to success or
attainment (McCormick, 2001; McCormick et al., 2002; Oswald, 2008; Prussia, Anderson, &
Manz, 1998; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Weinberg & Gould, 2003).
Looking to a broader population of both men and women, McCormick’s (2001) social
cognitive model of leadership, found that the central mediating factor of good leadership is a
“person’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully lead a group” (p. 30). Similarly, Prussia
et al. (1998) found that self-efficacy facilitated individuals’ performance in leadership tasks.
Northouse (2016) categorizes self-confidence of a leader as a trait of leadership, stating that self-
confidence is an overall strength of belief in an individual’s abilities, whereas efficacy explains a
“self-judgment about one’s task -specific capabilities (McCormick et al., 2002, p. 36; Shrauger
& Schohn, 1995). McCormick et al. found that previous leadership experiences were positively
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 55
associated with leadership self-efficacy. This finding is consistent with one of the four Bandura
principles of sources of self-efficacy: vicarious experience. Vicarious experience can be
examined through the experiences of others by observing and ruminating on others’ behaviors
(Bandura, 1977). On an athletic team, this type of behavior can be learned from seeing others
perform similar tasks, reflecting on those actions, internalizing, and creating conceptualizations
of the self without actual responsibility. This source of self-efficacy can be found when
reviewing the hierarchy of athletic team dynamics with respect to teammates and coaches and
their impacts on leadership.
Through Bandura’s (1977) second source of self-efficacy, performance accomplishments,
individuals learn through actual performance and experience. His or her beliefs in abilities
increase through repeated successful accounts and these accounts can be previous experiences as
a leader on an athletic team, both formal and informal. Both sources rely on the interpretation of
the individual, feedback from additional sources, and context of the situation to build self-
efficacy. Furthermore, research suggests that self-efficacy can also be generalized. Through
those repeated successes in varied experiences, individuals may develop a generalized self-
efficacy influencing an individual’s expectations entering into new undertakings (Bandura,
Adams, & Beyer, 1977; Sherer et al., 1982). Additionally, higher general self-efficacy has been
correlated with optimism, self-regulation, self-esteem, as well as motivational variables such as
openness, goal setting and orientation, need for achievement, and effort (Chen, Gully, & Eden,
2004; Luszczynska, Gutierrez-Dona, & Schwarzer, 2005). General self-efficacy has been
conceptualized to aid in the creation of a leadership identity by not only incorporating leadership
performance accomplishments but also building general realizations of confidence into self-
concept. General self-efficacy can also be seen as a critical component to building a leadership
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 56
identity as the motivation to persist is strengthened by a higher belief in one’s overall abilities.
These are all significant factors as Komives et al. (2005) Komives, Mainella, Longerbeam,
Osteen, and Owen (2006) and Komives et al. (2009) describe self-confidence and efficacy as
potential mediating factors in developing a leadership identity.
Drawing on similar concepts from Bandura (1977) with respect to mastery and
persistence, Lord and Hall (2005) contend that leadership develops overtime, first through
personal experiences or observational learning. Lord and Hall discuss the importance of
knowledge acquisition in the development of leadership skills and argue that as a person’s
expertise in the field of leadership grows, so too will their identification as a leader. The study
outlines three major differences in knowledge content and how that knowledge is gained by
novice, intermediate, and expert leaders.
Table 3
Differences in the Content, Access and Use of Knowledge for Novice, Intermediate and Expert
Leaders
Skill level Knowledge use Knowledge content Knowledge access
cued by
Novice Heavy reliance on
working-memory-
dependent processing to
compose novel
responses that integrate
generic knowledge with
situation
Implicit leadership
theories and
heuristics
representing generic
leadership and
problem-solving
behavior
Surface level problem
features; self-view as
leader, with emphasis
on individual level
identities
Intermediate Fewer uniquely created
solutions, more use of
connectionist networks;
integration with meta-
cognitive processes
Domain-specific
productions for
leadership and
problem-solving
behavior; greater
knowledge of others
Same as above,
plus…match of social
situation to patterns in
connectionist
networks
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 57
Table 3, continued
Skill level Knowledge use Knowledge content Knowledge access
cued by
Expert Greater dependence on
understanding of
situation; more
collaboration with
others
Principle-level
knowledge
Same as above,
plus…principled
understanding of
situation and others,
often in terms of
values, emotions, and
identities
Note. Differences in the content, access and use of knowledge for novice, intermediate and
expert leaders from Lord and Hall (2005).
The Lord and Hall (2005) development model of leadership skill is dependent on the
internalization of skill based upon social and contextual situations. This conception places a
great deal of importance on an individual’s environment and his or her ability to imagine himself
or herself as a leader (Lord & Hall, 2005). DeRue and Ashford (2010) further contend that
leadership identity is not just constructed by the leader but co-constructed by both leaders and
followers in a “claiming and granting” process during social interaction. Claiming happens
when a leader “claims” the responsibilities of a leader, and equally as important are followers’
acknowledgement or “granting” that individual as the leader. DeRue and Ashford highlight the
social nature of leadership and how leadership is reinforced by followers, thus building and
strengthening leadership identity. Other social identity theorists, like Reicher, Haslam, and
Hopkins (2005), contend that leadership identity is both a societal construction based on power
factors and on the dynamic nature of social relationships between leader and followers. Equally
important in their assertions is the leader’s ability to reflect on societal realities and interpersonal
social relationships to form his or her own notions of a leadership identity (Boyd & Fales, 1983;
Reicher et al., 2005).
Many of the studies on leadership identity do not focus on a specific timeframe of
identity formation, but rather how and through whom identity is formed (DeRue & Ashford,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 58
2010; Komives et al., 2005; Lord & Hall, 2005; Reicher et al., 2005). Early psychosocial
theories follow the developmental model, positing that identity forms during late adolescence to
early adulthood. Further scrutiny on the strict timeline from theorists like Marcia (2002) suggest
that identity formation is always rebuilding as different experiences and social situations occur
(Erikson, 1959). Developmental research suggests that emotions and changes in cortical regions
of the brain peak during adolescence and early adulthood; coupled with psychosocial research on
identity formation, it can be argued that college is a critical time for leadership identity formation
(Erikson, 1980; Jones & McEwen, 2000; Komives et al., 2005; Josselson, 1996; Patton et al.,
2016).
Theoretical Framework: Leadership Identity Development Model
The leadership identity development (LID) model is a “framework for understanding how
individual college students develop the social identity of being collaborative, relational leaders
interdependently engaging in leadership as a group process” (Komives et al., p. 12). Constructed
out of grounded theory research, Komives et al. (2005) draw on other student development
theories of research that are apparent within the model. The model identifies six stages of LID.
The first stage, awareness, is developed in childhood as girls and boys become aware of and
recognize the existence of leaders. During this stage, children view leadership as external to
themselves and do not personally identify themselves as leaders. The second stage,
exploration/engagement, is a time for involvement in a multitude of activities and interests in
which an individual could “observe adult and peer models of leadership” (p. 606). Leader
identified is the third stage in the model in which leadership is confined to acknowledged roles.
In this stage the role of the leader is clearly marked and there can only be one leader. In stage
four, leadership differentiated, members of the group recognize that anyone can be a leader,
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 59
beyond assigned leadership roles. Stage five, generativity, is when students envision a larger
purpose for themselves and commit resources and time to those goals. The final stage,
integration/synthesis, is a time when students are now “actively engaged with leadership as a
daily process…[and] as a part of self-identity” (p. 607). When students enter the final stage of
the LID model, leadership becomes a salient part of their self-concept, however as new contexts
and situations arise, students may reenter into the stages of leadership identity development as
they reaffirm their social statuses. Throughout the six stages, developmental factors such as
adult and peer influences, meaningful involvement, and reflective learning continue to change
and add importance to the individual’s identity growth (Komives et al., 2005).
Students enter colleges at different ages, with different experiences, and varied
involvements with leadership, thus students may start out at different stages of the model as they
enter college (Hall, 2015). Factors such as socioeconomic status or parental support could
influence the amount of experiences or limit the opportunities a student could have which impact
advancement. Collegiate athletics represent one of the many activities that Komives et al. (2005)
theorize fall under the category of group influences. Collegiate athletics are critical to athletes’
leadership growth as it provides an essential ecology for development at a highly influential time
in an individual’s life. Komives et al. contend that group influences include engagement and
learning from membership and peers. Students’ commitment to the group is displayed as they
actively work toward goals and improvement of the system. With the help of these factors and
the interplay between individual growth and group interactions, individuals build their leadership
self-efficacy (Komives et al., 2005). The following sections focus on the developmental factors
of the LID model as this overall study examines the specific influences in former female student-
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 60
athletes’ lives such as collegiate coaches and teammates that were influential to their leadership
growth and development.
Figure 1. Leadership Identity Development Model by Komives et al., 2005.
Coaches’ and Teammates’ Influence on Leadership Identity Development
Throughout the stages of the Komives et al. (2005) model, four factors - adult and peer
influences, meaningful involvement, and reflective learning - contribute to LID. The following
sections will outline research, as related to sports participation, found in Komives et al.’s model
under the four factors of the LID model.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 61
Adult Influences: Coaches
A collegiate coach is the formal leader of a team. It is his or her job to influence athletes
toward the achievement of a common goal (Northouse, 2016). Coaches seek to create a team
culture and climate that is not only conducive to successful competition, but also to promoting
teamwork, positive relationships, and well-being (Rankin et al., 2016; Rezania & Gurney, 2014;
Schroeder, 2010). Without positive coach and athlete relationships, adult influences - under the
LID model with respect to collegiate athletic participation - may be compromised; therefore,
unpacking this relationship is critical in understanding how coaches can impact identity
development of collegiate athletes (Davis & Jowett, 2014; Hall, 2015; Komives et al., 2005;
Rezania & Gurney, 2014).
Developing positive coach/athlete relationships. According to the LID model, each
developmental influence, to include adult or peer influences, meaningful involvement, and
reflective learning, affects how an individual refines his or her self-concept and is expanding
those views based on interactions (Komives et al., 2005). Hence, it is critical to develop trust
and build a positive coach and athlete relationship. In a student-athlete climate study of over
8,000 athletes, Rankin et al. (2016) found that the quality of relationships with athletic personnel
directly affected their academic and athletic success. In a separate study of highly successful
NCAA Division I coaches, “relationship values were a foundation for the way that coaches
interacted with players” (Schroeder, 2010, p. 72). As well, trust and care for athletes emerged as
crucial elements to rebuilding previously unsuccessful programs (Schroeder, 2010, p. 72).
Furthermore, in a study of 192 athletes, 70 female athletes, Davis and Jowett (2014) found that
attachment styles affected overall well-being, trust, and commitment of athletes. Attachment
styles, or social bonds between coaches and athletes, can have significant impacts on athlete
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 62
performance as well as overall well-being. Additionally, evidence from attachment theory
suggests that the quality of attachment styles can have significant impacts on development later
in life (Weiten, 2008). Davis and Jowett highlight the importance for coaches to understand the
needs and foster relationships with their athletes in order to create an environment that allows
them to build their own self-efficacy through meaningful experiences.
Meaningful involvement in student-athletes. A major facet of the LID model is how
involvement in an activity creates an environment in which an individual “experience[s] diverse
peers, learns about self, and develops new skills” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 598). In order for the
individual to derive meaning from the activity, the environment and involvement in the
experiences must be important to the individual. This importance engages individuals to actively
construct his or her own personal values and interests as related to the experiences with which
they are involved. Collegiate athletics is a structured environment in which student-athletes can
learn and build upon life skills. Coaches facilitate this environment by espousing team culture
and climate, giving athletes direction and purpose (Schroeder, 2010).
Schroeder (2010) interviewed ten NCAA Division I men’s and women’s coaches who
were successful in turning around unsuccessful programs that were perceived as having poor
culture. All of the coaches in the study rebuilt these programs within five years. The major
focuses of the coaches rested on articulating and guiding athletes’ actions based on those values
so that they may adopt them as their own (Schroeder, 2010). It was critical that during this
process coaches acted as role models as a “quick indisputable way to convey key cultural
desirable values” and to earn “respect and [the] trust of their players” (Schroeder, 2010, p. 74).
Additionally, Komives et al. (2005) describe some of those values under the auspices of
teamwork. They discuss one participant’s time playing sports and how he learned that to play
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 63
sports you cannot be selfish; that by playing a sport he was part of something greater than just
himself and his achievements. These values transcend sport and are critical to great leadership.
Promoting reflective learning through feedback. The type of leader and the leadership
that a coach displays are critical to setting the vision and tone of the team, but what is arguably
more important is the coach’s role in building a student-athlete’s capacity to lead (Weaver &
Simet, 2015). One way to build this leadership capacity in players is through the feedback
process. Feedback is a widely accepted educational practice that can be used to help improve
performance and/or moderate behavior (Hattie, Gan, & Brooks, 2017; Weinberg & Gould,
2003). Due to the strong correlational relationship between team cohesion and success, feedback
on performance as well as feedback on team dynamics are powerful tools for coaches to utilize
(Carron, Bray, & Eys, 2002; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Encouraging positive team dynamics
also relates to meaningful involvement as sports can be an avenue for lasting relationships and a
camaraderie that is only found through the successes and failures of a close-knit group of people.
Reinforcing feedback through reflective learning can build leadership skills in athletes
through increased self-awareness and can fortify their interpersonal skills through new
experiences and relationships (Hall, 2015; Komives et al., 2005; Immordino-Yang et al., 2016).
During reflection, student-athletes “build from prior knowledge and work to actively
accommodate new information to make sense of the current situation” (Immordino-Yang et al.,
2016, p. 53). Reflection ultimately helps student-athletes “construct an understanding of the
broader and longer-term emotional implications for one’s own or any situation,” and is an
empathetic quality necessary for good leadership (Immordino-Yang et al., 2016, pp. 53-54;
Northouse, 2016). Successful and award-winning NCAA Division I coaches were found to
promote reflective learning by requiring athletes to write essays, journal, and give presentations
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 64
on values or morals that were taught to them throughout the year (Schroeder, 2010). Coaches
encouraged student-athletes to be actively engaged in the process of development while
simultaneously urging players to take ownership of their own leadership (Schroeder, 2010). The
journaling technique was also demonstrated by Cathro et al. (2017) as a useful practice for
describing and learning about leadership. They found that journaling of group participation
helped students reflect on others’ leadership as well as their own style. Additionally, journaling
allowed students to work through interpersonal communication issues, a critical component to
group dynamics. Reflection enhances experiential learning through active construction of
knowledge in both positive and negative events (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Brockbank et al., 2002;
Conrad & Nash, 2013; Diehl, 2014; Immordino-Yang et al., 2016; Kellerman, 2004). In each of
these scenarios, coaches and professors promote journaling and reflecting to facilitate
experiential learning and growth.
Increasing self-esteem through autonomy. A major theme of coaching research is for
players not to just take ownership of their teams and of espoused team values, but for coaches to
also empower players to practice their leadership skills (Appleton & Duda, 2016; Galante &
Ward, 2016; Gould et al., 2007; Schroeder, 2010). Schroeder found that successful coaches
promoted ownership by giving student-athletes leadership roles such as helping with recruiting to
encourage them to take an active role for the betterment of the team. This technique not only
gives student-athletes the responsibility of a task, but also reinforces team values and culture by
giving them the opportunity to recruit students who fit into that culture and standard. Similarly,
Gould et al. found that students were encouraged to hold team meetings and organize group
outings, further fostering organizational skills and empowering them to build skills necessary for
future leadership roles. This coaching technique was further demonstrated in a study consisting
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 65
of 406 English athletes, ages ranging from 13- to 53-years-old (Appleton & Duda, 2016).
Findings suggest that athletes “perceptions of empowering climates were positively related to
athletes’ enjoyment and global self-esteem scores” (p. 64). Accordingly, coaches and team
culture can enhance athletes’ self-confidence and competence if given opportunities to lead.
Furthermore, Galante and Ward examined self-esteem in female student-athletes as compared to
their non-athlete counterparts and found that student-athletes scored significantly higher in
scores concerning self-esteem and transformational leadership skills. This points to the
mediating effects sport can have on the empowerment of female student-athletes and furthering
effects of self-esteem and leadership efficacy. Multiple factors of coaching behaviors, including
empowerment, creating an encouraging environment, and increasing self-esteem and
competence, are instrumental in promoting growth and shaping a student athlete’s leadership
identity development.
Peer Influences: Teammates
Just as important, and possibly more important to a collegiate student during this critical
stage in development, are teammates. Research conducted by Saxbe et al. (2015) found students
were more highly influenced by peers over parents during adolescent and early adulthood stages
of development. In a collegiate athletic setting, this could have higher implications for
teammates over coaches, as coaches could be seen as the “parents” in this situation. This section
will focus on the research pertaining to peer influences and discuss the implications of those
relationships on the development of leadership skills.
Peer influences on leadership development. Peer influences are a critical component in
the leadership identity development model (Komives et al., 2005). Komives et al. (2005) state
that during early development stages, “same aged peers served as friends and older friends
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 66
served as role models” (p. 597). Peer engagement also served as a way for athlete self-reflection
and conceptualization of their own leadership identities (Komives et al., 2005). Research of peer
leaders often focuses on formal programs, such as leadership programs or team captains.
However, Loughead, Hardy, and Eys (2006) found that team captainship was not always a
signifier of a team leader. Similarly, Fransen et al. (2014) in their study of 3,193 players and
1,258 coaches, confirmed that the team captain was not the only “leader,” but multiple athletes
on a team were looked at for leadership in many different roles. Actually, only 1% of players
noted that their team captain was the best leader in all four leadership roles as, task leader,
motivational leader, social leader, and external leader. Furthermore, Fransen et al. found that
“almost half of the participants did not perceive their captain as the most important leader,
neither on, nor off the field” (p. 1394). The diversity and number of roles (both formal and
informal) on a team may offer leadership opportunities that other co-curricular group experiences
lack (Duguay, Loughead, & Munroe-Chandler, 2016). Additionally, team dynamics and the
amount of travel sports teams do create a unique situation in which student-athletes spend time
together both on and off the field presenting additional situations for leaders to emerge and
flourish.
This runs contrary to Grandzol et al.’s (2010) study which revealed that participation in
collegiate athletics has little impact on leadership development and that the team captainship
provided a significantly better opportunity for development. It is important to note that the
population sizes varied considerably - nearly 4,500 in the Fransen et al. (2014) study and 469
student athletes in the Grandzol et al. Additionally, Fransen et al.’s study involved a Belgian
population of varied levels of play and Grandzol et al. studied only Division III athletes. Clearly,
more research is needed to understand peer leadership and role in leadership identity formation.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 67
The research does suggest, however, that the nature of organized athletics in providing multiple
roles likely gives athletes opportunities, through a constant emphasis on teamwork, to build
leadership characteristics through sport participation.
Recently universities and the NCAA have adopted more formal approaches to leadership
development (Navarro, 2015; NCAA, 2017; Voight & Hickey, 2016). Navarro’s (2015)
phenomenological study of 29 NCAA Division I athletes found that peer mentors helped student
athletes clarify personal identities, decide on a future major, and helped to prepare them for roles
in life after sport. Additionally, Navarro found that outside of the participation in the formal peer
mentorship program, student-athletes “expressed overwhelming sentiments” that the college
athletic experience and balancing the dual roles of student and athlete helped them develop
invaluable leadership skills (p. 24). In this study, interviews with participants revealed that the
mere participation in college athletics was more important to the development of leadership
skills than the formal program, again suggesting that the influence of peers and participation in
collegiate athletics is integral in the development of leadership skills. Though the trend for
athletic departments is to formalize leadership training, more work needs to be done to
emphasize teamwork and coaching practices to address a wholistic approach to student-athlete
leadership development. The research indicates that peers during college are important
influences in development. It is imperative that coaches and athletic departments create positive
cultures, foster growth, and encourage autonomy to push athletes to realize their potential and
help prepare them with skills to compete in the competitive job market.
Environment for constant practice. From this point, this chapter has presented mixed
results that the nature of the sports environment aids or detracts in the creation of a leadership
incubator. This chapter argued that coaches who emphasize strong values and culture, teamwork
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 68
and group cohesion, create positive climates, and empower athletes to form successful teams can
build strong leadership traits in student-athletes (Carron et al., 2002; Gould et al., 2007;
Schroeder, 2010). However, to be successful, there must be buy-in from athletes to the values of
these environments that allow them to thrive and grow from these experiences (Komives et al.,
2005). Komives et al. (2005) posits that athletes not only increased their own self-awareness but
engaging in groups also helped them develop their self-concept and efficacy to lead. But what
happens when there are institutions of higher learning who incorporate those same ideals and
beliefs of team concepts into curriculum for all students? How do these students view sports
participation in terms of leadership development?
West Point is a military academy where leadership principles are integrated into
curriculum and students are required to hold positions of leadership to practice these skills before
they graduate and become officers in the U.S. Army. Students develop a higher leadership
awareness as this knowledge and skill is ingrained in them and they are afforded the
opportunities to practice and learn through vicarious experiences of their teachers, coaches,
mentors, and peers. A major theme that Hoffman et al. (2013) found, through qualitative
interviewing of students at West Point, was that through sports athletes learned the importance of
leading by example. Classroom work was focused on academics and understanding principles of
leadership, but time on the athletic fields afforded student-athletes the opportunity to practice
those skills learned in the classroom. Student-athletes learned from teammates that there are
multiple ways to lead, but one major theme that emerged was the opportunity that sport pushed
student-athletes to lead by example. Athletes expressed that through sport they were able to
view teammates’ and coaches’ leadership styles and model their own style based on what they
observed, but in all sports standout qualities of leadership included physical effort exerted and an
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 69
athlete’s capacity to always do the right thing (Hoffman et al., 2013). Though West Point
teaches students about leadership in the classroom and through a multitude of extracurriculars
designed to build leadership skills, the student-athletes still felt as though sports presented them
with numerous opportunities see leadership and lead teammates.
Finally, the numerous opportunities to lead fellow teammates and the autonomy given by
coaches further builds on student athletes’ feelings of self-esteem and turns them into feelings of
self-efficacy (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001; Galante & Ward, 2016). Thus, more positive changes in
interpersonal relationships and more opportunities to lead will improve judgements about what a
student athlete believes she can accomplish (Bandura, 1977; Feltz & Lirgg, 2001; Ryan, 1989).
Much research exists on the ties to self-efficacy, an individual’s belief in his or her ability to
succeed, and athletic performance, however there is a gap in the research specifically tying
student-athlete leadership self-efficacy to leadership identity development. Komives et al.
(2005) suggest that athletics can be a perfect vehicle for leadership identity development, with
some participants describing influential experiences in athletics; however, the only study that the
researcher could find dedicated to collegiate athletics and leadership identity development was a
study conducted by Poole (2017). Through qualitative interviews, Poole found that the sports
environment and the experiences that student-athletes are exposed to, impact their development
of a leadership identity. Unfortunately, since this was the only study the researcher could find
related to sports and leadership identity development, a gap in the literature continues to exist.
Similarly, there is a dearth of research with respect to a student-athlete’s conceptualization of his
or her future possible self as a leader. Consequently, the need to understand the relationship
between student-athletes’ collegiate experiences and their leadership identity development is
imperative to grow current and future student-athletes into the successful leaders of tomorrow.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 70
Conclusion
Few empirical studies have examined leadership development as related to collegiate
sport and fewer studies examined longitudinal effects of sport participation on things like
leadership, occupational choice, or income (Galante & Ward, 2016; Grandzol et al., 2010;
Hoffman et al., 2013; Huntrods et al., 2017; Jayakumar & Comeaux, 2016; Lindo et al., 2012;
Matheson et al., 2012; Ryan, 1989; Shulman & Bowen, 2001). The researcher found only one
study that looks specifically at athletic participation’s role in the development of a leadership
identity in athletes (Poole, 2017). Poole’s findings support conjectures that intercollegiate
athletics can influence female’s leadership identity development. The sporting environment is a
unique setting that pushes physical boundaries, that forces a group of individuals to work
together through failures and successes and is an environment that forces individuals into self-
awareness and self-reflection. It has also been looked at as a volatile environment where the
need to win and the drive for money has overshadowed morality. The mixed and limited
research on the subject desperately demonstrates the critical need for more exploration in this
subject area.
This chapter has provided a review of relevant literature related to development in the
collegiate setting, to include athletics, identity, and gender. Then focused on the history of
collegiate athletics. Next, the chapter outlined theories of leadership, leadership development,
leadership development and sports, and leadership identity development. Finally, the theoretical
framework of the study was presented. Because of the limited research in the field of athletics
and leadership identity development as a whole concept, the researcher chose to present research
as related to the named developmental influences of the leadership identity development model.
Breaking down the developmental influences, allowed the researcher to present far more
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 71
research, but it also shows the need for future research within the LID model. The next chapter
will describe the methods and procedures used in this study.
Summary of Articles
Table 4
Summary of Articles
Topic Research
Question
Article
Development
and College
RQ1, 2
Albert et al. (2013); Arnett (2013, 2015); Bandura (1977); Boyd & Fales
(1983); Brockbank et al. (2002); Caprara et al. (2012); Cathro et al.
(2017); Crone & Dahl (2012); Eckel & Courturier (2008); Farrell et al.
(2017); Gardiner & Kosmitzki (2005); Gogtay et al. (2004); Immordino-
Yang et al. (2016); Jacob et al. (2018); Lindo et al. (2012); Malin et al.
(2013); Nelson et al. (2005); Oyserman & Fryberg (2006); Oyserman et
al. (2002); Patton et al. (2016); Santrock (2015); Saxbe et al. (2015);
Schuh et al. (2017); Schroeder (2010); Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece
(2014); Somerville et al. (2011); Thorpe (2004); Webber & Ehrenberg
(2010); White & Eckel (2008)
Identity
Development
RQ2 Adams (1976); Albert et al. (2013); Arnett (2013); Chickering &
Reisser (1993, 2005); Deaux (1993); Erikson (1959, 1980); Farrell et al.
(2017); Festinger (1954); Foubert et al. (2005); Gardiner & Kosmitzki
(2011); Jones & McEwen (2000); Josselson (1996, 2005); Josselson &
Harway (2012); Kodama et al. (2001); Krane et al. (2004); Krane et al.
(2014); Krane et al. (2010); Marcia (1966); Mean (2010); Patton et al.
(2016); Santrock (2015); Sartore & Cunningham (2007); Saxbe et al.
(2015); Schuh et al. (2017); Shaw (1994); Sturm et al. (2011); Tajfel
(1974, 1982); Weiten (2008); van Dijk (1993); Yopyk & Prentice
(2005)
History of
Collegiate
Sports
RQ1, 2 Acosta & Carpenter (2004, 2014); Galante & Ward (2016); Gould et al.
(2007); Grandzol et al. (2010); Hargreaves (1994); Hoffman et al.
(2013); NCAA (2017); Ryan (1989); Sandler (2007); Schroeder (2010);
Shulman & Bowen (2001); Smith (2000); Theilin & Gasman (2017);
Walker & Bopp (2011); Walker et al. (2017); Whisenant & Mullane
(2007)
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 72
Table 4, continued
Topic Research
Question
Article
Leadership RQ1, 2
Alvesson & Spicer (2013); Appleton & Duda (2016); Barker (1997);
Bolden et al. (2011); Boyd & Fales (1983); Brockbank et al. (2002);
Catmull & Wallace (2014); Collingwood (2001); Conrad & Nash
(2013); Cunliffe & Eriksen (2011); Davis & Jowett (2014); Day (2001);
DeRue & Ashford (2010); Diehl (2014); Eagly & Carli (2003); Fransen
et al. (2014); Galante & Ward (2016); Gemmill & Oakley (1992);
Gould et al. (2007); Grandzol et al. (2010); Grappendorf & Burton
(2017); Hargreaves (1994); Haslam & Ryan (2008); Hoffman et al.
(2013); Huntrods et al. (2017); Immordino-Yang et al. (2016); Iverson
et al. (2017); Jayakumar & Comeaux (2016); Kellerman (2004);
Kellerman & Rhode (2007); Kelly (2014); Kerwin & Bopp (2014);
Keohane (2007); Killeen et al. (2006); Komives et al. (2007); Kulich et
al. (2015); Lindo et al. (2012); Matheson et al. (2012); McCormick et
al. (2002); Northouse (2016); Pittinsky et al. (2007); Poole (2017);
Rankin et al. (2016); Renn & Patton (2017); Rezania, & Gurney (2014);
Rhode & Kellerman (2007); Rosener (1990); Rost (1993); Ryan (1989);
Ryan & Haslam (2005); Ryan et al. (2011); Ryan et al. (2016); Sartore
& Cunningham (2007); Schlesinger & Weigelt-Schlesinger (2012);
Schroeder (2010); Shulman & Bowen (2001); Smith & Willingham
(2015); Storberg-Walker & Haber-Curran (2017); Vargas (2018);
Walker et al. (2017)
Leadership
and Identity
Development
RQ1, 2 Bandura (1977); Bandura et al. (1977); Boyd & Fales (1983); Chen et
al. (2004); DeRue & Ashford (2010); Erikson (1959, 1980); Jones &
McEwen (2000); Josselson (1996); Komives et al. (2005); Komives et
al. (2006); Komives et al. (2009); Lord & Hall (2005); Luszczynska et
al. (2005); Marcia (2002); McCormick (2001); McCormick et al.
(2002); Northouse (2016); Oswald (2008); Patton et al. (2016); Prussia
et al. (1998); Reicher et al. (2005); Schunk et al. (2014); Sherer et al.
(1982); Shrauger & Schohn (1995); Usher & Pajares (2008); Weinberg
& Gould (2003)
Leadership
Identity
Development
Model
(Theoretical
Framework)
RQ1, 2 Appleton & Duda (2016); Bandura (1977); Boyd & Fales (1983);
Brockbank et al. (2002); Carron et al. (2002); Cathro et al. (2017);
Conrad & Nash (2013); Davis & Jowett (2014); Diehl (2014); Duguay
et al. (2016); Feltz & Lirgg (2001); Fransen et al. (2014); Galante &
Ward (2016); Gould et al. (2007); Grandzol et al. (2010); Hall (2015);
Hattie et al. (2017); Hoffman et al. (2013); Immordino-Yang et al.
(2016); Kellerman (2004); Komives et al. (2005); Komives et al.
(2006); Komives et al. (2009); Loughead et al. (2006); Navarro (2015);
Northouse (2016); Poole (2017); Rankin et al. (2016); Rezania, &
Gurney (2014); Ryan (1989); Saxbe et al. (2015); Schroeder (2010);
Voight & Hickey (2016); Weaver & Simet (2015); Weinberg & Gould
(2003); Weiten (2008)
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 73
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions across all industries
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018; Burton & Leberman, 2017; Catalyst, 2019; Center for
American Women and Politics, 2019; Lang, 2017; NCAA, 2017; Seo et al., 2017). Yet, in 2017,
women outpaced men in the attainment of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees from
postsecondary institutions (Snyder, de Brey, & Dillow, 2019). Given that the number of degrees
women earn continues to surpass men, the pipeline argument does not seem to provide a
sufficient explanation for the gap. One potential obstacle that may explain the gap is that society
continues to gender leadership (Barnett, 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Kellerman & Rhode, 2007;
Northouse, 2016; Ridgeway, 2001; Rudman et al., 2012).
The purpose of this study is to understand the impact that the collegiate athletic
experience has on the leadership development and attainment of senior leadership positions of
former female athletes. This chapter outlines the sample and population, instrumentation, data
collection methods and data analysis that was used in this study.
The following research questions guided the study:
1. How does the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes’
(FFAs) leadership development?
2. How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
The researcher conducted a phenomenological, qualitative study. This approach to
design offers insights into former collegiate female athletes’ collegiate athletic experiences and
the meanings they’ve derived from those experiences as they have navigated their professional
careers (Moustakas, 1994). In addition, a constructivist philosophical worldview also guided the
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 74
study assuming that the women leaders constructed meaning from their experiences as collegiate
athletes (Creswell, 2014). Thus, the FFAs accounts and perceptions of the collegiate athletic
experiences are integral to this study.
Table 5
Methodology Overview
Research Data
Collection
Method
Method of
Analysis
Rationale Function Implementation
RQ1, 2 Interviews Pattern codes
and continuous
memoing
looking for
themes (Miles
et al., 2014).
In-depth
Qualitative
Foundational
information for
understanding
To understand how
the collegiate
athletic experience
impacted FFAs’
leadership
development and
attainment.
To understand how
experiences with
coaches and
teammates have
shaped FFAs’
leadership
development.
Purposeful
selection
One-on-one
interviews
Network
sampling
Sample and Population
Participants chosen for this study are key to successfully answering the research
questions set forth. The foundational determinant that the researcher used for the selection
criteria was whether or not the potential participants have experienced the phenomena that is
being investigated (Englander, 2012). A stratified purposive sampling was utilized to obtain a
sample population with the specific characteristics necessary for understanding the collegiate
athletic experience (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To obtain this purposeful
sample, the researcher used hers and a co-researcher’s network of former colleagues, teammates,
coaches, mentors, and professors to help recruit potential interviewees. It should be noted that
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 75
using a network sampling technique could introduce “key informant bias” in which the
information from the selected population may not be representative of all individuals in which
they seek to represent (Maxwell, 2013, pp. 99-100). Because the population is difficult to gain
access to, network over systematic sampling was the necessary technique to secure individuals
who fit the criteria (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher interviewed a total of ten FFAs keeping
within the accepted range for phenomenological studies of at least three (Creswell, 2014;
Englander, 2012). It is not necessary to have a large sample size given that the researcher was
not looking to garner results that are generalizable (Englander, 2012; Hycner, 1985).
FFA Leaders
Leadership is often difficult to conceptualize, with differing definitions and styles
(Northouse, 2016). For this study, a successful leader is defined by using the following criteria:
1) former collegiate student-athlete; 2) hold a senior-level leadership position 3) works in a male
dominated industry; 4) and has supervisory, strategic planning and/or decision-making
responsibilities. In addition to the criteria outlined above, the researcher sought women who
provided diversity in areas such as professional industries including, Congress, the military,
professional sports organizations, and business; and FFAs who competed in a variety of sports
including team (i.e. basketball) and individual (i.e. swimming). The women in this study came
from diverse backgrounds, cultures, areas of the country, and attended and participated in sports
from very different colleges and universities. Some women competed under the NCAA in
Division I or II, or AIAW programs, while one participant practiced and competed with a men’s
NCAA Division III program. The women interviewed competed between 1974 and 2004. Many
studies conducted on leadership and collegiate athletics focus on current or newly graduated
students (Hoffman et al., 2013; Huntrods et al., 2017; Ryan, 1989). The researcher made a
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 76
concerted effort to obtain women who have 14 years or more of experience in their respective
fields. This was done purposefully as newly graduated or current collegiate student athletes have
not yet garnered major leadership responsibilities and would be considered “emerging leaders”
(Day & Sin, 2011, p. 557). Obtaining women who have considerable amount of experiences in
positions of leadership are better able to reflect on their collegiate experience and draw
connections to their own leadership as they have had considerably more experiences and time to
develop those skills.
Table 6
Participant Breakdown
Interviewee Sport Division Decade of
Participation;
How many
years
Captain
(Yes or No
and # of
yrs)
Current or
Former Line
of Work
Leader #1 Basketball NCAA
Div I
1980s; 4 Yes; 1 yr VP for non-
profit
Leader #2 Basketball AIAW 1970s &1980s;
4
Yes; 2 yrs Former
Military
General; VP
Leader #3 Softball NCAA
Div I
2000s; 4 Yes; 1 yr VP for software
company
Leader #4 Swimming Men’s
Div III
1970s; 4 No Elected state
official
Leader #5 Tennis AIAW 1970s &1980s;
2
No Sr economist;
provost
Leader #6 Basketball NCAA
Div II
1990s & 2000;
4
Yes; 1 yr Executive
Director; non-
profit
Leader #7 Softball AIAW 1970s; 4 No VP of major
corporation
Leader #8 Field Hockey;
Basketball;
Softball
AIAW;
NCAA
Div I
1980s; 4 Teams did
not select
captains
M.D.; surgeon
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 77
Table 6, continued
Interviewee Sport Division Decade of
Participation;
How many
years
Captain
(Yes or No
and # of
yrs)
Current or
Former Line
of Work
Leader #9 Basketball NCAA
Div I
1980s; 4 No Pilot, captain
Leader #10 Tennis NCAA
Div I
1980s &
1990s; 4
No CEO
Instrumentation
The researcher conducted interviews as the main source of data collection (Patton, 2002).
An interview protocol guided the interview; however, the semi-structured approach allowed the
researcher the freedom to elaborate on certain points as necessary. The researcher, as the
conductor of the interviews, was also an integral instrument in this study (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2013).
The interview protocol had a baseline of 6 interview questions and was constructed ahead
of time to serve as an interview guide in a semi-structured approach (Patton, 2002). The guide
was utilized as a tool to keep “the interactions focused while allowing individual perspectives
and experiences to emerged” (Patton, 2002, p. 344). Questions started off broad and narrowed as
the interview progressed, allowing for additional probing as necessary (Patton, 2002).
Background and demographic questions were asked in a separate participant information
questionnaire as not to color or unintentionally make the interviewee uncomfortable during the
actual interview (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Interview questions were developed using the
theoretical framework of the leadership identity development (LID) model. Please see Appendix
A for interview guide.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 78
Data Collection
The researcher conducted these interviews in an ethical manner. To protect all
participants, the study and data collection protocols were submitted to the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and follow the rules and guidelines for the
protection of all participants. Prior to participating in the study individuals were afforded the
following so that they could make informed decisions: all participants were provided with
information concerning the study; participants were allowed to ask questions regarding the
objectives and the researcher answered in as much detail as to not bias their potential responses;
and as part of the consent process, the participants were given written notice that their
participation is completely voluntary and have the right to terminate the discussion at any time.
Participants were sent the consent form to sign a week prior to the interview to signify their
agreement to participate (Glesne, 2011). Prior to the start of the interview, the researchers asked
all participants, in person, if they had any questions about the form, their participation, or if there
was anything they needed clarification on. Finally, permission to record interviews were
obtained prior to the start of the interview.
Interviews
The first four interviews were conducted with a co-researcher as the original plan was for
the two researchers to conduct sessions together. The interviews were conducted together in
one- to two-hour semi-structured interview sessions. After the first four interviews the
researchers decided to collect data separately in order to go into more depth with their research
questions. The remaining one- to two-hour interview sessions were conducted in a semi-
structured manner therefore every interview was slightly different. Interviews with former
female athletes were conducted during the months of August through October. The researcher
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 79
made every effort to travel to the interviewees and kept the interviews to two hours or less to
minimize stress and maximize time (Weiss, 1994). Six interviews not conducted in person were
done via Skype or phone call. The researcher understands that in-person interviews are the ideal
form of interviewing, however, because of the participant’s limited availability, as well as the
researchers’ availability to travel across the country, phone and Skype interviews were used as
“the next best thing” (Weiss, 1994, p. 59).
The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured manner. Semi-structured interviews
yielded a structure to ensure that common topics were discussed between interview subjects but
also allotted flexibility to obtain detailed descriptions and stories, and probe responses for more
information (Maxwell, 2013; Weiss, 1994). The originally co-constructed interview protocol
was used as a guide for the first four interviews and integrated inquiries pertinent to the
researcher’s and co-researcher’s research questions. The remaining six interviews removed
questions pertinent to the co-researcher’s study allowing the women to go into more depth. The
researcher recorded all interviews using an audio-recording device, with the interviewee’s
consent, to aide in data analysis and transcription (Weiss, 1994). See Table7 for the schedule
and sequence of data collection.
Table 7
Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis
6/19/18 8/8/18 9/27/18 11/16/18 1/5/19 2/24/19 4/15/19
Interviews
Interview Data Analysis
Investigator Triangulation
Writing Completion
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 80
Privacy Rights
Although the study does not involve a high-risk population or subject area that could
cause significant harm, maintaining privacy of the participants was vital to the researcher. The
researcher avoided collecting information that may harm participants and de-identified all
information to further protect participant privacy (Creswell, 2014). All raw data was stored in a
secure location. Recorded interviews were coded with the date and location; the names of the
participants were not used.
Data Analysis
Analysis of interview data began immediately following the conclusion of all interviews.
The researcher’s goal was to inductively allow the data to present itself and truthfully convey the
experiences of the participants without over analysis (Hycner, 1985). Thus, the decision was
made to evaluate data after the final interview was collected. The researcher and co-researcher
conducted their own analysis and exchanged the data once completed. Both researchers read
each other’s findings and presented a section entitled Complementary Research Findings in each
of their Chapter 5s.
Interviews
Interviews were transcribed from all audio recordings. Themes and patterns were
gleaned while coding tied data to themes found in the literature review and possible emergent
themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Miles et al., 2014). The first cycle of coding, which occurred
immediately after all data was collected along with analytic memo process, will “initially
summarize segments of data,” chunking data sets into manageable pieces (Miles et al., 2014, p.
86). The second cycle of coding was finalized after extensive listening and reading of raw data
(Miles et al., 2014). Interview transcriptions and recordings were read and listened to multiple
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 81
times to ensure all themes and patterns were identified. Qualitative data was transformed into
quantifiable data by creating codes and themes (Creswell, 2009). The quantifiable data enabled
the researcher to compare the qualitative data in an enumerated way across all participants
(Creswell, 2009). The stories of the women are still portrayed in the data and meaning making
still garnered, however quantifying the data helped the researcher find patterns across the women
leaders.
Memos
The researcher used fieldnotes or memos in order to capture what was seen, heard and
experienced during the interviews (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Noting the holistic environment
and features in the interview setting aided in the phenomenological analytical process which
values a “sense of the whole interview” (Hycner, 1985, p. 281). Descriptive and reflective
memos were used to create a clear understanding of details and initial impressions following the
completion of the interview (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The memos not only functioned as a
record keeping device but also helped the researcher “make sense” of the data in relation to
previous literature and interviews (Miles et al., 2014, p. 96).
Validity
Validity is a common criticism of qualitative research. The researcher’s goal was to
illustrate an honest picture of what is and utilized the many tools to ensure the data was truthfully
presented and collected with rigor (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell (2014) defines validity
as the researcher’s desire to ensure accuracy. Validity can be deemed accurate based upon the
viewpoint of the researcher, participant or trusted counsel (in this case the co-researcher)
(Creswell, 2014). Independent analysis of the data by the researchers and a comparison of the
findings strengthened the internal validity of the data and enhanced credibility of the research
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 82
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Respondent validation (member checks) allowed participants to
provide feedback regarding the data and conclusions, and was another strategy that the
researcher employed to ensure validity (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013). Hycner (1985)
encourages researchers to return to the participants with a summary and the emergent themes. It
should be noted that the member checks are no more valid than their interview responses
(Maxwell, 2013).
Miles et al. (2014) also suggest validity can be enhanced by weighting the evidence and
looking for negative evidence. Data is not equally valuable (Miles et al., 2014). That being said,
researchers that look for discrepant evidence should be wary of accepting the discrepancy as
absolute truth; however, the process of assessing all data and not ignoring conclusions is an
important validity check (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Miles et al., 2014). Descriptive
memos reminded the researcher of the entire context of the interview which aided in their
analysis and audio recordings helped to enhance accuracy.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The researcher interviewed multiple former female athletes from a diverse range of
backgrounds, looking for convergent themes and corroboration (Creswell, 2014; Miles et al.,
2014). This form of triangulation augmented the trustworthiness of the data and strengthened the
overall credibility (Miles et al., 2014). As the study progressed, the researcher was cognizant of
potential outliers to fully understand the role that collegiate athletics has played or currently
played in participants’ lives (Miles et al., 2014). There were a few outlying opinions, that are
presented in Chapter 4. These outliers “test and strengthen the basic finding[s],” which kept the
researcher honest against “self-selecting biases, and may help [you] build a better explanation”
(Miles et al., 2014, p. 301). The researcher looked to create an honest picture of what is and
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 83
utilized the many tools to ensure the data is truthfully presented and collected with rigor
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Role of the Investigator
As the main instrument of data collection in a qualitative study, the researcher was aware
that her biases may have influenced the make meaning of the data and determined significance
(Creswell, 2014). The researcher was a former female collegiate athletes as well as women of
color. Her personal experience in athletics and as a member of society influences her worldview
on the role of athletics in the study of leadership. The elimination of these biases is unrealistic
(Maxwell, 2013). The researcher strived to be transparent and forthright with regard to any
influencing biases (Maxwell, 2013). Furthermore, the researcher used analytic memos to aid in
collecting thoughts, aligning answers to research questions, discovering emergent patterns or
themes, future directions, foreseen problems, or any other related ideas (Miles et al., 2014).
Summary
This phenomenological study emphasizes the understanding and meaning making of the
collegiate athlete experience. This approach was the best design to understand the lived
experiences of former female student-athletes and the role that collegiate athletics played in their
leadership identity and subsequent attainment of leadership positions. The next chapter will
present findings from this study. The findings are organized by themes and informed by the
theoretical framework utilized, the Leadership Identity Development Model.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 84
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Collegiate athletics has been researched in many different disciplines. Focusing on
student services, researchers seek to understand how athletics affect students’ development so
that programs can better serve and prepare them for lives after sports (Schuh et al., 2017). Some
empirical research on student-athletes focus on how sports contribute to their leadership
development. This research however is mixed. Studies have demonstrated that being on a team
gives student-athletes a chance to practice leadership and interpersonal skills, opportunities to
see leadership in action, builds confidence and self-esteem, and enhances decision making
abilities (Hoffman et al., 2013; Ryan, 1989). Contrastingly, Huntrods et al. (2017) found that
compared to nonathletes student-athletes did not exhibit higher levels of leadership.
Furthermore, team-sport athletes ranked lower in leadership levels than nonathletes and some
even regressed in their abilities from the pretest as a freshman to the posttest as a senior in
college. Further mixing the debate is Shulman and Bowen’s (2001) longitudinal quantitative
study of female student-athletes, revealing different stories of females who entered collegiate
athletics from 1976 and 1989 cohorts. The 1976 class of female student-athletes outperformed
the 1989 class in academics, received more advanced academic degrees, earned higher salaries,
and held more executive spots. Unlike Shulman and Bowen’s study, this study does not compare
women based on class year. The women in this study were chosen because of their proven
ability to hold executive positions, thus having an assumed higher level of leadership skill.
The purpose of this study was not to recreate previous works on the topic of collegiate
athletics and leadership development, but to gain insight into FFAs’ athletic journey to
understand how that has shaped them as successful leaders. The semi-structured interview
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 85
format generated rich, descriptive data encompassing lived experiences of now, highly
successful female leaders. The following research questions framed the study:
1. How did the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes’
(FFAs) leadership development?
2. How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
The ten woman leaders interviewed are not referred to specifically while basic
descriptions of their current or former leadership employment are given to protect their identities.
The women held or previously held positions in: professional sports administration, law, politics,
military, collegiate and athletic administration, non-profit, marketing and sales, the airline
industry, medicine, sports consulting, and collegiate athletic corporations. Data were collected
from participants across the United States. Four of the ten interviews were conducted in person
and the remaining six were conducted via phone. The participants attended college and
participated in collegiate sports across a wide spectrum of divisions including AIAW, NCAA
Division II, and NCAA Division I. The women also attended college and were raised in
different parts of the United States from the West to East Coasts.
The researcher designed an interview protocol which was used as a guide during the
interview process. The first four interviews were conducted with a co-researcher as the original
process was for the two researchers to conduct sessions together. Initially, interviews were
conducted together in one- to two-hour semi-structured interview sessions. After the first four
interviews the researchers decided to collect data separately in order to go into more depth with
their research questions. The remaining one- to two-hour interview sessions were conducted in a
semi-structured manner therefore every interview was slightly different. The researcher found it
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 86
important to maintain the integrity of each interviewee’s story and not to lead them too closely
into specific areas. Each interviewee, however, was asked questions focused on their time in
collegiate athletics, their relationships with their coaches, and their interactions with teammates.
During the interview process five major themes evolved including: 1) developing self, 2)
establishing interpersonal efficacy, 3) challenging environments, 4) supportive environments,
and 5) leadership (see Table 6). Additionally, sub-themes that did not address RQ1 or RQ2 but
were thought to be critical to FFAs leadership development are encompassed under “other
pertinent themes.”
Leadership in this study is conceptualized as a social process by which “an individual
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p. 6).
Cultivating that social process involves developing individuals’ leadership competence and
identities, as well as emphasizing social relationships and interpersonal communication (Day,
2001). This study found a correlational relationship between participation in collegiate sport and
leadership development. Themes were conceptualized through the lens of Komives et al.’s
(2005) Leadership Identity Development (LID) model. The LID model was chosen as the
theoretical framework in this study as the components of the model were originally
conceptualized through the lens of the collegiate student. Additionally, an integral component of
the LID is an individual’s dynamic interactions between the self and a group. Accordingly, the
LID model is perfectly poised to understand how a former female student-athlete’s (FFA)
engagement on a collegiate athletic team affects her conceptualizations of self, and identity and
leadership development. Many of the themes and sub-themes that evolved from the interviews
are also reflected in the LID model and will be discussed further in subsequent sections. All
themes except for establishing interpersonal efficacy were woven through each research question
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 87
with slightly different sub-themes. This was purposefully done as themes from the LID were
found in both RQs. Some sub-themes are included in both but discussed in slightly different
contexts depending on the research question being addressed.
Table 8
Themes and Research Questions
Themes RQ1 RQ2 Sub-Themes Relevant Literature
Developing Self X X • Self-
awareness/authenticity
• Building self-
confidence
• Defined as an athlete
• Reflective learning
Chen et al., 2004; Bandura,
1977; Hargreaves, 1984;
Harter, Bresnick, Bouchey, &
Whitesell, 1997; Komives et
al., 2006; Krane et al., 2004;
Krane et al., 2014; Krane et al.,
2010; Luszczynska et al., 2005;
McCormick, 2001; Shamir &
Eilam, 2005; Sturm et al., &
2011; Yopyk & Prentice, 2005
Establishing
Interpersonal
Efficacy
X • Exposure to diversity
• Conflict management
• Teamwork
Fransen et al., 2014; Gurin,
Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002;
Komives et al., 2005;
Northouse, 2016;
Challenging
Environment
X X • Learning from
adversity/failure
• Title IX
• Issues w/coaches
• Issues w/teammates
• Feeling out of place
Collingwood, 2001; Conrad &
Nash, 2013; Diehl, 2014;
Hargreaves, 1994; Kellerman,
2004; Komives et al., 2005,
2007; Rankin et al., 2016;
Rezania & Gurney, 2014;
Sartore & Cunningham, 2007;
Saxbe et al., 2015; Schroeder,
2010; Walker et al., 2017;
Yeager & Dweck, 2012
Supportive
Environments
X X • Sport provided a
supportive climate
• Role models/athletic
personnel
• Coaches
• Teammates
• Promoting positive
culture
et al., 2014; Komives et al.,
2005, 2009; Loughead et al.,
2006; Navarro, 2015; Rankin et
al., 2016; Renn & Patton, 2017;
Schroeder, 2010
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 88
Table 8, continued
Themes RQ1 RQ2 Sub-Themes Relevant Literature
Leadership X X • Informal leadership
• Leadership by
example
et al., 2014; Gachter, Nosenzo,
Renner, & Sefton, 2012;
Hoffman et al., 2013;
Loughead et al., 2006
Other Pertinent
Themes
• Determination and
setting goals
• Title IX
• Self-confidence
• Parents and family
members
• Giving back
Burbank, 2017; Huntrods et al.,
2017; Komives et al., 2005,
2006; Northouse, 2016;
Research Question 1
How did the collegiate athletic experience influence former female student-athletes’
(FFAs) leadership development?
The purpose of this research question was to understand how and if former female
student-athletes’ collegiate athletic experience influenced their leadership development. All but
two leaders had over twenty years of experience in their respective fields giving them substantial
time to develop their experience, skills and understanding of leadership. The other two women,
at the time of the interviews, had eighteen and fourteen years of experience. A series of ten
interviews lasting between one to two hours were conducted with these women to unpack their
experiences as a college athlete. Coding and analysis of the interviews were used to understand
how and if their collegiate athletic experiences shaped their development into the successful
leaders they are today. During the analysis process the researcher coded interviews in Atlas.ti.
From there, codes were paired down and grouped into common themes including developing
self, challenging environments and supportive environments. The researcher then utilized
Atlas.ti software to create a map to help in the generation, elaboration, and organization of the
themes (Miles et al., 2014). Two of the three themes, developing self and supportive
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 89
environments, with respect to RQ1 were gleaned from the LID model; the theoretical framework
guiding this study (Komives et al., 2005). Challenging environments was an emergent theme
that evolved through coding and analysis of the data.
This first section focuses on collegiate sport and the perceived impact it had on FFAs’
leadership development. The major themes are centered around developing self, challenging
environments, and supportive environments. Themes will be further scrutinized and will
describe FFAs perceptions of how these situations in the context of sport contributed to their
leadership development and how they perceive themselves to operate in their professional lives.
The figure below outlines a broad depiction of the major themes that will be described in this
section.
Figure 2. RQ1 major themes.
Developing Self
Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, and Osteen’s (2006) identified the idea of
developing self as a critical component to the LID model. At each stage of the LID, the
individual evaluates his or her self in relation to a group. The individual continues to develop
their sense of self until he or she reaches stage six, the stage in which leadership becomes a
salient part of their identity and is incorporated into their lifelong commitment to learning and
continuous growth. Through coding and analysis the researcher discovered multiple similarities
between FFA perceptions and LID identified components of deepening self-awareness. The
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 90
researcher also discovered an aspect not addressed by Komives et al., which was simply that
being an athlete was important to FFAs’ definition of self. The two facets of the self are
discussed below.
Figure 3. RQ1 theme: Developing self.
Defined as an athlete. Four of the ten women mentioned that simply being an athlete
was important to their overall definition of self. Additionally, nine of the ten women explicitly
stated that in college, academics and future career aspirations were extremely important to them.
The women created multiple definitions of the self, depending on context proclaiming both
academics and athletics importance to their own definition of self (Harter et al., 1997). As
related to student-athletes, Yopyk and Prentice (2005) found evidence for multiple identities and
that student and athlete identities were both found in participants. In an academic context,
students could be primed to elicit one identity over the other dependent on which self-concept,
student or athlete, they self-identified as or were prompted to identify as. Nine women explicitly
mentioned the importance of academics in college. Yet with respect to confidence, self-
awareness, and empowerment post-college, “being an athlete” carried a heavy weight.
A few women explained that simply being an athlete was an important component to
their self-definition. In a question asked of one lady on what shaped her definition of leadership
she talked about how sports empowered her, gave her self-confidence and self-awareness, but
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 91
she also discussed being defined as “being physically fit and being someone who is an athlete” or
that “being a woman athlete brings credibility that people say ‘Oh you’re tough, you can hack
it.’” Analogous to previous works on female collegiate athlete identity, the women were proud
of their athleticism, they embraced the strength they have from being an athlete, and were
empowered by the experiences (Krane et al., 2004; Krane et al., 2010; Krane et al., 2014). One
woman described her sense of pride and accomplishment as a former female athlete who was
underestimated in her sports and professional careers. She described how this attitude has helped
her:
Who would have ever thought I could, and then you do, right? And it gets back to that
recurring theme for me of: ‘Tell me, I can't do something, and I swear to God, I will work
my tail off to go do that, that exact same thing.’ And that is something that I've carried
forward, and it looks in different with every scenario. But yeah, I think it's always just, I
don't know if it's proving people wrong, because that sounds like I don't know, like,
negative, but it's a little bit of that, like, you know, I'm okay. I'm going to continue to
work hard and be prepared. And slowly but surely, you know, you kind of get to where
you want to be.
The reoccurring theme of strength, self-confidence, and empowerment was seen in these
women’s definitions of themselves and what being an athlete meant to them. All women
expressed the importance of collegiate athletics as well as academics. One women leader who
was an early graduate and played her sport for two of her three years asserted that playing sports
was extremely important to her sense of self and that it “enhanced her academics and did not
detract from it.” The overall theme for the women was that sports helped them develop an
identity within themselves that allowed them to confidently embrace who they were in any
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 92
capacity. For some women this identity followed them even into their professional careers with
a couple women speculating that “the only reason she [I] got the interview” was because of her
sports background or that she was afforded a job opportunity because individuals were “probably
impressed with my Olympic background.” One woman remarked that the only reason why she
was able to become a pilot was because the person deciding who was awarded pilot training slots
was a University basketball fan. This identity as an athlete not only helped some women develop
a strong sense of self, but it was also perceived as an aid in some professional opportunities
contributing to their success.
Self-awareness and authenticity. Komives et al. (2005) posit that students continue to
deepen their self-awareness as they move through the stages of leadership identity. This sub-
theme of developing self evolved out of analysis of data and was connected to the LID under the
broader theme of developing self. Some women expressed how sports in a broad sense helped
strengthen their awareness of who they were and what they could accomplish. They also
expressed how the collegiate environment incited an added level of awareness as they were
thrust into a much larger and talented group of individuals. One woman shared that it was a very
humbling experience for her to go from a “big fish in a small pond” to a “minnow inside this big
ocean of talented kids.” She added that it was a valuable lesson to learn early on as a college
student as this scenario would repeat itself in her profession. Two other women shared very
similar experiences of entering college very confidently and being humbled by the level of talent
at the collegiate level. One of the women recounted:
I came in pretty confident and then at University I wasn’t you know, I, I think I could
have done better and been given a little bit better chances be part of the seven travel
teams, but it didn't shake out that way. But that was also good learning experience for me,
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I was still part of the team, I was not a star. But, you know, I care about my teammates, I
cared about the team, I got to exercise every day, you know, we got to compete. So I
think that the point is, is that you learn how to thrive in environments where you’re not
necessarily the star as well. You're lucky enough in life to, you know, get to institutions
where you're not the smartest and best in class, that’s very humbling and really important
part of life lessons, then you can still you can still be a leader in those contexts, and you
can certainly still be a really important member of a group.
In a slightly different interpretation of self-awareness, two of the women discussed how
sports contributed to the level of awareness of themselves and their bodies. Because sport
pushed the women to their limits, they were able to express what they could and could not handle
both physically and emotionally. Both women also shared a struggle to find their place during
their collegiate athletic journey, especially during freshman year. Throughout that process they
were able to come to a discovery of self. The women made a conscious effort to dedicate
themselves to the team. One woman explained:
I think in terms of once I started playing and start performing than they did and then in
my personality kind of came out more. I was pretty robotic when I was a freshman just
my survival mode was you can't hurt me. You can't make me laugh. You can’t make me
cry, which was pretty efficient, but it wasn't a great place to live. You know, and I
remember as a sophomore I said, ‘Okay, do I want it? Why am I doing this? Who am I
you know?’ And cost benefit wasn't a landslide, but I said I'll stay with it. But I'll try to
be more myself and I think after that then I could be could have fun and feel safe with my
team.
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Additionally, the women also acknowledged the influence that sport had in cultivating
their comfort in their own authenticity. One woman said that because she never felt the need to
conform (throughout her collegiate and professional career), she would come to “work every day
and earn people’s trust,” and because she always felt in some ways like she did not completely fit
in she was able to maintain her sense of self. Another woman noted that she will never
compromise “justice and fairness,” a carry-over from her experiences in college and her time in
sports. One woman mentioned that in the past she wanted to just be “normal,” but now she
expressed that “being not normal was normal.” Another said: “you start to pick up on what feels
natural, right? I can’t be somebody I’m not, and I don’t want to try to be somebody I’m not.” A
few women remarked of their “outspoken” and “direct” nature. Another woman added: “I'm
pretty aggressive, which I think, you know, was encouraged in sports as well, right? You can't
shy away from whether you're attacking the water here, you know, the team, the bond or
whatever.”
Like their own unique styles, there was an overwhelming sense that leadership and the
ways in which leadership were enacted were not all the same. All women conveyed stories of
leaders on sports teams or in their professional environments who led in various ways. When
asked about their own leadership many women discussed using former coaches, bosses, and role
models’ examples of leadership and molding it into their own style. They also stressed the
importance of knowing individuals’ strengths and putting them in positions that would play to
those strengths to promote growth and success. These are tactics that work well in sports, as the
best players are placed into positions and relied upon and trusted to produce in games.
Sentiments of authenticity expressed by the FFAs confirm analogous assertions by Shamir and
Eilam (2005) who posit that authentic leaders’ act in ways consistent with their self-knowledge
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and self-concept. These concepts of self are derived from an individual’s life story. Thus,
authentic leaders act in ways that are harmonious with their own acknowledgement of their own
definitions of self. Like one woman said “I can’t be somebody I’m not, and I don’t want to try to
be somebody I’m not.” It was through the experiences that women had with collegiate sports
that helped them observe others’ leadership and “realize that the leaders come in many various
molds.” One FFA went on to explain that “there's no one single type of leader that's going to be
successful” and that the reason why she’s been so effective is that she’s taken the best parts of
leaders she’s encountered and incorporated them into her own leadership and values system.
Challenging Environments
A major theme in this research was challenging environments which was discussed by all
FFAs as they described their collegiate athletic experiences. This theme was generated through
pattern codes extracted from the interview data. The major challenge identified was that FFAs
identified adverse experiences or failures they encountered through collegiate athletics that aided
their leadership growth. The LID model does not specifically mention adversity or challenging
experiences, however all participants in this study described aspects of collegiate sports that
challenged them in some way. Subsequently, the women expressed learning how to deal with
and respond to difficult situations. This section outlines this challenge identified by the FFAs
and their interpretations of their experiences as related to their leadership development.
Similar to one of Diehl’s (2014) major themes, FFAs in this study identified these
experiences as opportunities to learn and grow. Admittedly most women at the time expressed
feelings of anger or frustration, and one woman voiced her resentment of the athletic program to
this day. However, throughout the interview all women were able to articulate how those events
shaped them in some way. Many women stated that adversity during college helped develop the
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way they approach situations and ultimately expressed that being an athlete helped them
overcome hardships in their professional lives. The women sharing this opinion did not allow
road blocks to discourage them. Consistent with Hargreaves’ (1984) accounts of social norms of
the time, a few women mentioned dealing with people’s opinions of the stigma of female athletes
and ambitious women during the 1970s and 1980s. In light of criticism, the women explained
that competition and sport helped them to “remove the fear,” to “face it and overcome it,” and to
persist. As one interviewee described:
When you've suffered a reverse and can handle that, that actually shapes your
perspective. I think that's where sports may come through… you can tell when you work
with people if they've been in some endeavor like that; you know I think in terms of that
inner discipline and the toughness and not withering.
In addition to learning how to persist through adversity, they also expressed that sport
taught them how to handle defeat. One woman added that “sport is an experience and an
opportunity to shape us into the person that we are.” Another said through sport she learned how
to evaluate her behavior and came to understand that “everyone is watching how you behave,
you set the tone.” She went on to explain that as the leader “it starts and ends with you
personally” therefore it is imperative for the leader to “celebrate with grace, and lose with
dignity.” With similar sentiments another FFA discusses the elevated competition in college and
how that taught her how to be a “more thoughtful loser” and then to take it a step further and
reflect on what it is that is causing the loss; a key component to growth after adversity (Boyd &
Fales, 1983; Brockbank et al., 2002). She explained further:
I had to process through the behaviors that I needed to exhibit as leader when we won
and I needed to know what things to exhibit as leader when we lost. And I'd like to say
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that they were always the same, but they're not. I think it’s easy to be a leader when
you're winning and it's harder to be a leader when you're not winning. And I think that
those lessons served me well as the leader of people in a business environment.
I just think as athletes, it’s like stamped into you, from the maybe the first you
win to the first time you lose. You start to look at what is happening that’s making us
win and what is happening that’s making us lose and why? When we're not the best, you
know, athletes say, why are we winning and other teams are losing, you know, or worse,
we have better athletes and we're still losing, what is going on? And I just, I don't know
what that is, but I think like electroshock therapy or something, you start to really
understand the, the way people are interacting with each other. And you realize that, that
that's the secret sauce, the athletic prowess, certainly, you know, it's part of it, but it's
really more about can you get the best out of everybody. And, you know, I like the
analogy that, you know, as a team, we're better than we are, if you added up the
individual parts, you know, and I think that carries on into leadership in business.
Wins and losses and dealing with adversity is inevitable in sports competition. Whether
it was losing an actual game, not making the travel team, or being out-performed by teammates,
sports taught the women leaders how to deal with and operate in the face of loss. Consistent
with Diehl’s (2014) and Yeager and Dweck’s (2012) findings, interpretations of adverse
situations were not seen as barriers in their lives, but circumstances in which FFAs learned from
and overcame.
Supportive Environments
Previously reviewed sections in this chapter outlined elements of development of self,
challenging situations, and how those factors spurred FFAs leadership development. This
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section will focus on how supportive environments and situations, raised the women up,
encouraged and fostered growth. Every woman in this study mentioned feeling supported or
having support in one way or another. That support was important in college in dealing with the
rigors of being on a sports team, getting through academics, and helping them persist toward
their goals and aspirations. For many, sports in general facilitated friendships and meaningful
relationships. For others, support came from role models or other athletic personnel at their
universities. This section will describe the FFAs stories of support from collegiate athletics, and
role models.
Figure 4. RQ1 theme: Supportive environments.
Sport provided a supportive climate. Many women exclaimed that it was very
important for them to play collegiate sports. Most women described their collegiate athletic
experience as something that was, overall, very positive that they used to grow into the leaders
they are today. Some women, comparable to data found by Rankin et al. (2016), described the
overall climate and culture on their sports teams as an endeavor that helped promote their
growth.
Sports was a really valuable distraction, that enhanced my academics it didn’t take away
from it. And it made the university a much more meaningful experience more
meaningful for me, I would say that sports in general, and also again, even at the
collegiate level, gave me confidence, gave me a sense of what I could accomplish.
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Though she only participated in collegiate sport for two years, graduated from her
university in three years and eventually became highly successful in her career; she found that
sports was a meaningful activity and a positive influence on her life. She was also one of the
women who valued her athletic identity and continues to define herself as “someone who is an
athlete.” Another woman talked about how there was “mutual support amongst the athletes…so
you felt like you belonged.” Meaningful involvement in sports gave the women the opportunity
to clarify their own values in a comfortable environment (Komives et al., 2005). One woman
explained:
So, I think that's been a big part of my life just over many years, finally, getting
comfortable in my own skin. I think starting out in swimming, I felt like I was an
awkward kid and swimming was my refuge. I mean, that's where I could dive under the
water and know I could be really good. Then, when I had to go to school, you know, I
always felt like that was like a three footed weird person.
This vignette also divulges ideas concerning self-confidence or feeling out of place which
will be discussed in subsequent sections, but for the experiences above collegiate sports were
seen as refuges where the women could be themselves.
Role models or athletic personnel. Many women described iconic or social figures as
influential figures or role models in their lives. Moreover, half of the women described feeling
or noticing support from other athletic department employees who were not necessarily on their
coaching staff. Likewise, Rankin et al. (2016) cite athletic personnel interactions as an aspect
that influences student-athlete academic success. The two women who graduated in the 1990s
and 2000s both mentioned their senior women’s administrators as women whom they admired.
One woman had an athletic director who was female and said that she really admired the way
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“she carried herself” and the way she held her own in a career field dominated by men while
earning unequal pay.
Two other women discussed the football coaches at their universities and the imprint they
had on their lives. One woman simply discussed the football coach’s support for women’s
athletics in a period of constrained patronage and participation. She recalled that he was
supportive of the direction that the department was heading and would allow them to use “the
good weight room.” The other woman saw the university football as a role model for leadership.
She discussed further:
So it's probably a crazy thing to say since I didn't like football, but it was actually a
football coach here when I was in school and the way that he talked about the
expectations of his athletes; to leave the university and be prepared to make an impact in
every place…he would say the expectation of a student athletes leaving University is not
that it ends here, but that we are a role model of the university for the rest of our
lives…so when I'm doing something I'm not always thinking about and doing this as
Interviewee, me. I think of it as I'm doing this as Interviewee, the University alumnus
who was also an athlete on the University softball team. So, I have a lot higher
expectation of my own behaviors because I'm carrying this big load on my shoulders all
the time. Which is, people are going to make decisions about University as a result of
what I do. People are going to make decisions about you know, me as an individual,
people are going to make decisions about my family and people are going to make
decisions about 600,000 University alumni based upon how I behave, so I better show up
in a good way.
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The wisdom that this football coach imparted on his athletes also rang true to her and
greatly influenced how she was able to work her way up through the business world into
positions of leadership. She also described something that will be further discussed in RQ2,
which is this idea that sport transcends just the athlete themselves. The women explained that
being on a sports team at an institution carried a different weight than in high school. It
represented something more and raise similar sentiments to self-awareness, in that how an athlete
carries herself matters. From this she learned that a leader is more than just the individual.
People watch their leaders’ actions so it is imperative that they act in a way that sets the example.
Summary of Data
During analysis of the data, many themes complemented the theoretical framework of the
LID model. In addition, themes such as challenging environments as well as the idea that
leadership developed out of experience emerged through the analysis. As was discussed, FFAs
described their experiences in sport as foundational work that developed components of their
leadership such as self-awareness and an identity that defined them as strong women.
Experiences with collegiate athletics were both supportive and challenging which by accounts
from the women were critical.
Under LID model, students apply new leadership skills based on their experiences during
the stages of growth (Komives et al., 2005). The application of skills and the experiences that
followed were what the FFAs described as their opportunities to learn and grow into the leaders
they are today. Their growth did not stop after college, nor did most of them feel like they were
the seasoned leaders they are now. And even though many mentioned that sports built a level of
self-confidence in them, a few of women said that full confidence came with time and one said
she is still learning and that “it’s a work in progress every day.” Only one woman remarked at
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the beginning stating that her collegiate athletic experience was “something that I did and I’m
very proud of it, but it wasn’t, I would say, something that I necessarily carry conscientiously.”
Throughout the interview, however, it became clear that she equated much of her leadership and
behaviors to her collegiate career and was surprised, stating, “I really can’t believe how much of
the things I’m equating to my college, it is bananas.” Her collegiate athletic experiences, like the
other nine women were influential to their development as leaders even if they were not
conscientiously thought of. The evidence of their growth was demonstrated through parallels
found from collegiate sports and their descriptions of their leadership and professional lives.
The women leaders’ experiences revealed many parallels to the framework of the LID
model. The women however, expressed leadership lessons from not only their collegiate sports
and collegiate life experiences, but professional work environment as well. There was not one
specific defining moment that made them who they are or shaped their leadership exactly but
many different people and experiences that gave them unique perspectives and opportunities for
growth. When one woman was asked if her mindset and leadership abilities were closely tied to
what she learned through sports she remarked “there’s not one defining moment. I think it’s a
thousand moments that kind of put it all together that every experience builds upon the next.”
These findings build upon the LID model and suggest that there is a critical “continued evolution
of leadership post-college” that merits further investigation (Komives et al., 2009, p. 21).
Research Question 2
How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
The purpose of RQ2 was to understand how the women in this study viewed their
coaches and teammates interactions as related to their own leadership identity development. All
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ten interviews were conducted, and interview questions were developed to understand both RQ1
and RQ2 during one interview per FFA. Follow up questions were asked as necessary and the
transcripts of each interview were listened to and read multiple times to fully understand the
context behind the words. Coding and analysis were used to understand how the FFAs’
relationships with their coaches or teammates influenced their leadership identity development.
The second half of this chapter will focus on major themes as related to coaches and teammate
interactions. These themes include: 1) developing self, 2) establishing interpersonal efficacy, 3)
challenging environments, 4) supportive environments, and 5) leadership. Similar to RQ1,
themes for RQ2 evolved out of the theoretical framework and the data. All major themes except
for challenging environments and leadership are addressed in the LID model (Komives et al.,
2005).
Figure 5. RQ2 major themes.
Developing Self
Developing a sense of self in relation to a group is a critical component of the LID and
also an integral component to the FFAs’ leadership development (Komives et al., 2006). The
first section on developing self as related to RQ1, focused broadly on the women’s collegiate
sport experience and how that shaped their sense of self. This section narrows in on the
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interviewees’ interactions with coaches and teammates. Developing self in the LID model
includes deepening self-awareness and building self-confidence which are discussed below.
Figure 6. RQ2 theme: Developing self.
Self-awareness and authenticity. Coaches and teammates are constantly influencing
students as they progress through the stages of the LID model (Komives et al., 2006). These
influences are described below with respect to building self-awareness and accepting FFAs’
authentic style of leadership. Some women described coaching staffs’ influence in fostering self-
awareness. One woman stated broadly:
A lot of it does depend upon the kind of coaching you got. I always say that we do it to
young children. People tend to try to stamp out these qualities in people that make them
leaders, especially with children say, ‘no, you don't, be soft spoken, quiet, speak when
you're spoken to. You know, for women, it's too aggressive, you’re too direct, you’re an
ice princess, you’re this, you’re that, you know, they’re trying to label you. And they try
to stamp out what are the qualities that makes most people leaders, right. And so, I do
think it's the power of sport that has allowed me to just be very clear about who I am, in
fact, that those are good qualities, because they are the qualities that made me a leader on
the basketball court. And they are qualities that make me a good leader here.
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Another woman recalled a more specific story of when she made the basketball team her
freshman year of college. Her coach explained to the FFA that she exhibited the exact qualities
and that she was the type of person she wanted on the team. This FFAs coach illuminated the
fact that she needed a player “who's going to get along on this team and be a real teammate.”
The woman goes on to say that she developed an awareness that being on a team is “really about
a bunch of girls getting along.” Her coach, by virtue of that discussion prepared her for her role
on the team and made her more self-aware of her strengths. Another woman talked about how
aspects of teamwork helped her become more self-aware. The interviewee discussed:
I realized I was on this team not to play basketball I was on this team to help lead this
team to help teach these girls right? How they got to remove all of this junk that's in their
mind that's getting in their way of performing to their optimal level, right? Yeah, and I
realized that it's the same thing in the Olympic Games. Right, after we lost the three in a
row and I called a meeting with the team. I realized why I was on the team. I was like we
gotta remove these doubts and stop being selfish, you know, and start playing the game
you're born to play and trust the gifts you have. If we all do it, if we're the best, we will
win and if we're not…and we did our best you know and we won.
Those major moments in this woman’s collegiate career helped her to evaluate where and
how her skills were needed. Similarly, another FFA was able to assess her sense of self based on
strong relationships she developed with her teammates. She “always had a pretty good idea of
who she [I] was and who she [I] could be,” and found that sports in college and a negative
interaction with a teammate on the men’s team, helped solidify those ideas. By removing those
negative individuals from her life, she was free to become the person she wanted to be and who
she believed she could be. These interactions with coaches and teammates helped women see
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themselves more clearly and to assess themselves based on the group of individuals they
interacted with (Komives et al., 2006).
Building self-confidence. Bandura’s (1977) research on self-efficacy notes that
individuals gain an understanding of their abilities through performance and experience. Thus, it
is critical to understand contexts, the people and experiences, through which the women in this
study built their self-confidence. One woman explained that as part of her job she advocates for
young women to play sport around the globe because she believes that sports helps “young
people advocate for themselves.” That type of encouragement was explained by another FFA in
terms of her ability to say “no.” This empowering moment was the first time in which she felt
like she had her own voice and the ability to stand up for herself. For another woman, her
confidence and her voice developed sophomore year in college when her team was having
chemistry problems. She expounded:
I didn’t use it all the time but if I needed to fight back it gave me the courage to throw an
elbow in other areas like I wouldn’t have done before. And that’s totally, when I was a
sophomore, I guess in college we had major chemistry problems on the team. Like the
fucking stars on the team were all whining about losing and they weren’t leaders. Like
god I’m sorry you have a better batting average to make you team captain of this team,
and I called them out in a meeting. And then I called our coach out. ‘This is bullshit just
get out of the way, pull your heads out of your ass and get after it. And I know that you
don’t go all the way down with your push-ups and you’re upset that we’re losing games?
Like fucking finish, do your job.’ So, I sort of like, oh ok I didn’t know my voice could
get that loud. I’ve never tried before. So every so often when I’ve done it at work, huh
ok…you build up in your head like the worst thing that could happen and it’s like ‘oh god
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the world’s gonna end’ and then when it doesn’t you’re like oh alright…and in right
doses and in right scenarios it can be very, quite profound and quite powerful.
Another woman discussed her first time she spoke up for herself to her high school coach
about a teammate playing in her position, a position she believed she earned. That scenario gave
her the confidence to speak out when she felt passionately about something. She explained:
You know, I think that it was for me personally there was a time especially with softball.
We were all conference; the team was all conference; and I was all conference in that
position for the previous two years. And someone, a friend of mine actually was also a
junior, she tried out as a junior and made the team and somehow, I am like sharing my
position with this person who, didn't play as a freshman or sophomore. And in my mind,
you hadn't earned this spot and you're cutting into my time, so what gives. And I walked
out in the middle of a day, he (her coach) was teaching a PE class and I walked up to him,
and I said, my piece very professionally at that time, or whatever that means, as a junior
in high school, and just said, ‘you know, I don't think this is fair. And I've worked my tail
off. And, you know, she can go somewhere else, or she can play a different spot.’ And he
never really responded, but I never shared my spot with her again. And I think to me, that
was, speak your mind, do it in the right way. But don't let someone run you over. If you
really feel passionately about something, make sure that you go and say something about
it.
Once some women found their voice, and their confidence, they were able to project that
toward their teammates. One woman described how she was not only able to build confidence
through sport, but how she was able to build it in her teammates on the field. She said:
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We're all different and I embrace that, but I also want to stand for what I believe in right
and that's what I'd expect others to do as well but hopefully they see something in me that
can spark them to say hey how can I get better. It's like you know you know I just pray
that all the people that I have played with his teammates and against I hope that they say
not that oh god you know Interviewee was you know a great softball player I hope they
say that, you know, I played better and was lifted higher because Interviewee was on the
field…because when you're able to project your belief in something that's so powerful
that other people gravitate to it and believe it as well. That to me is leadership you know
it's like you know people are…just like this is real it's real and if she believes it in me, I
believe it in me. You know and then eventually that's that belief becomes your reality
you know?
Another woman remarked that confidence is just built into the nature of sports. She says:
“It’s like sports, whoever’s hot get them the ball right?...so in a way it builds your confidence so
you get this sort of like I can do this, I can do this…” Another said that her confidence, and her
sense of humor, was recognized by her teammates and was rewarded with team captainship. It
was through experience and performance that the women gained the courage to speak up for
themselves. Efficacious beliefs in her abilities became a salient part of their self-concept which
is also what McCormick (2001) would suggest sets them apart as leaders. Confidence was
mentioned by all interviewees and six out of ten women mentioned it in the context of team or
teammates. Confidence was a major aspect of the development of self and something that was
emphasized as a key contribution of sport and moreover an important contribution of teammates
to FFAs’ leadership identity.
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Establishing Interpersonal Efficacy
Collegiate athletics forced the women to work with others from around the country and
the world toward a common goal of winning. All women except for one attended college in a
city outside of where they grew up, thus participation encouraged the FFAs to work with women
whom they may have never worked with before. The resulting interactions were imperative to
their growth, communication, and ability to relate to others (Gurin et al., 2002). This theme was
built from the LID model and the interview data (Komives et al., 2005). Codes were first
clustered as “problem solving” then evolved and merged with the theme of interpersonal
efficacy. FFAs stated that communication, interpersonal interactions and “how you related to
others” were integral components to leadership. Major elements such as exposure to diversity,
conflict management and teamwork will be discussed in this section as these were essential in
establishing the women leaders’ own communication style and their ability to work with others.
Figure 7. RQ2 theme: Establishing interpersonal efficacy.
Exposure to diversity. Exposure to diversity was something that was mentioned by four
out of the ten women. The FFAs who shared these experiences were confronted with issues of
diversity that they had not previously encountered. The women who mentioned diversity talked
about the positive aspects of inclusion and the leadership takeaways they had from those
experiences. Like research conducted by Gurin et al. (2002), all women discussed how college
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was their first experience with diverse peers. Not specific to collegiate athletics, one woman
noted that college as a whole allowed her to “notice differences” especially when it came to
household income and racial diversity. She told a story about going home for a holiday with her
roommate in college. Once she got there she realized her pet had a racially unfavorable name
and that her roommate had no idea that this name was wrong or hurtful. She was taken aback
and spoke with her father on the incident. She continued:
And I remember telling my father. And he said, don't give up on her. My father said don't
give up on her, and I never did. And she is the sweetest woman and she has no trace of
that [racism] in her. Yeah, my father was born and raised in South America. And when he
came here he was just a messenger. He enlisted and went to the Korean War. He was in
Japan, where they kind of distribute where all the forces would go, and he got
pneumonia. So he was there for two months in the infirmary. And he was recovering
from pneumonia, and he finally went back. And he met the guys who were processing
[people in] and he was trying to explain that he had had medical training. And at that
time, they were just like get out of here, African American guy. And he was like, ‘no,
I'm, you know, I'm trying.’ He had a strong West Indian accent, and they were
dismissive. So after he came back from recovering from pneumonia. He went back
through processing, and he’s still trying to explain. And finally, a man said, Mr. Brown,
what are you saying, can you come here, and he sat next to his desk, and he listened to
him and he said, ‘okay,’ and they made him a medic in the army. And three weeks later,
his entire infantry was wiped out. The group that he would have gone out to battle, all of
them, came back in body bags. And he said to me, had it not been for this man, this man
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was a Jewish man, had it not been for that one man to take the time to listen to me. And
his lesson was give everybody a chance, you have to give them a chance.
College, like many of the women, was the first time that this interviewee noticed
differences in general, whether it was race, ethnic origin, or even socio-economic class, but for
the interviewee above, her father’s lessons in hearing everyone out and giving them a chance was
also something that aided in her ability to deal with her own feelings of diversity. She notes that
in her profession she was the only woman or the only person of color in many situations and it
was through those early experiences, through sports, and through her father that she was able to
understand others and not allow those differences to be discouraging barriers to her own
ambitions. She explained further:
And I recall, you know, we're talking obviously, a lot of this, about leadership, and just
feeling somewhat out of place throughout my entire career. I've always been in situations
where I'm the only one, only woman of color, the only woman in the boardroom and
tend, people tend to dismiss the woman, right? You can say something and make a great
point and your male counterpart will say the same thing. And they're like, ‘that's a great
idea.’ Are you kidding me? I remember saying something like, ‘I am just sick of this.’ I
remember being frustrated. And he [her father] said, I gotta remind you that remember, I
said, I'm just tired of being the only one tired of being the only this, and he’s like, I need
you to remember that we used to not be there at all. There used to be no women siting at
the table, there used to be no people of color. So, don't let that become the chip on your
shoulder that keeps you from being successful, figure out how to make it more creative
and figure out how to work around it because it's progress… But you learn through sport
to just continue to push forward.
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Like the woman above, another woman described her first experiences with other races
and ethnicities, and that participating on a sports team fostered “genuine interactions” as they
were all focused on reaching a common goal (Gurin et al., 2002, p. 336). One woman explained:
[I learned] how to value diversity. As candid as I can be, a came from a small town,
with, you know, 10,000 people in I don't even know if we had a black kid in our high
school. So you know, and so in college was my first time around a teammate who might
be gay, or African American or Asian, and so it really is, you know, this melting pot of
diversity and it didn't matter low income, high income like we were all in for one goal
and that was you know, to be a better team and to win games and to get to the sweet 16.
She explained further that diversity and inclusivity make up two of the four value
statements in her organization today and are two principles she holds in high regard. Similarly,
another woman discussed her experiences and how she “probably learned more about diversity
as a collegiate athlete.” She talked about diversity in terms of LGB and how that caused a social
divide on the team. For her, those experiences were influential in how she leads her teams in her
profession. She explained:
And you know that you know I left with, it didn't matter what side of the you know
homosexuality or straight you were on, there were times when just the fact you were one
or the other made you feel excluded. So, that probably lasted with me in terms of always
make sure my teams regardless of what the issue was, race, color, creed, religion,
sexuality, republicans, democrats, you know whatever, trying to make sure that we had a
healthy ability to be included, and not unhealthy methods of excluding others.
In each experience mentioned above, diversity enhanced the women’s experiences and
helped them understand differing perspectives and points of view in relation to their own.
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Additionally, these early experiences in college and the wisdom imparted by their parents were
influential in their ability to relate to, work with, and in some cases advocate for individuals in
their professional careers. These early experiences in college were important as they “developed
an appreciation of diverse points of view” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 601).
Conflict management. All but one woman in the study mentioned having to deal with
some sort of conflict on their collegiate team at one time or another. Competing on a collegiate
team requires commitment and extended periods of time spent with teammates. Working
together toward a common goal and persisting in the face of obstacles often with teammates of
varied backgrounds and personalities. There were certain aspects of being on a sports team that
they learned to brush off, “forgive” and move on for the sake of the greater goals they wanted to
accomplish. A couple of women mentioned that there must be a leader to keep “the team
moving in the right direction even when times are not, or things are not going so well; and
maybe the winning isn’t occurring. That person still keeps everyone on track.” In line with
work conducted by Fransen et al. (2014), women stated that there were and could be multiple
members on a team who could fulfill that role and that person did not always have to be the team
captain. Two women described their informal leadership role as the individual who ended
disagreements and refocused the team towards the goal.
Other women talked about situations of team conflict that were poorly handled by their
coaches. In one circumstance of team conflict girls were dropped from the team without a
discussion from the coaches on reasons why. The woman described this incident as a poor
example of conflict management as her coach’s lack of communication only added to the
confusion of the situation and is something she aspires not to recreate on her teams. The women
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described how these early experiences helped them in terms of thoughtful hiring practices to
minimize conflict and to enhance teamwork and optimize performance.
Teamwork. Northouse defines leadership in the context of organizational teams as an
individual who must manage a group of individuals “who are interdependent, who share
common goals, and who must coordinate their activities to accomplish these goals” (p. 363).
Nine out of the ten women in the study mentioned how teamwork in the athletic sense also
translates into their leadership. The one woman in the study who did not mention teamwork
participated in an individual sport in college on a men’s team. For her, many of her
accomplishments were reliant on her performance and her performance alone. She said that she
“didn’t have any close friendships, it was pretty much full time, get in the water early in the
morning…go to classes, do your studies, get back at night and do it the next day.” In her sport,
she did not have to rely on teammates and nor in her professional career. She talked about how
she had always been focused and goal oriented on what she needed to do which helped translate
into her professional life as a “prosecutor, and then as a judge, and now as a legislator.” She
mentioned that she has no issue with speaking out for what is right and fair but did not mention
aspects of teamwork.
The other nine women in the study placed an important value on the concept and
explained how it translated into their definitions of leadership. Most women placed a
significance on the rapport they developed with teammates, and that, as one woman put it, “as a
team, we’re better than we are, if you added up the individual parts.” Even in a smaller
leadership role, one FFA remarked:
As a captain, you get a lot of the visibility, almost all the credit for flying the aircraft. I
mean that's what people tell you as soon as they get off the airplane and they're thinking
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you had everything to do with it. And the truth is that the pilots have such a very small,
albeit very important, but very small part of how successful that flight was from the from
the moment that you made the reservation all the way up to us getting there with the
baggage and you know, getting all the things that you require for a successful or
successful travel. It takes a really huge number of people to make that work. And so
every day I go to work, I think of myself as being part of a team and that everybody has
their role and while I might have the more visible, you know, something that's kind of
akin to being a starter you know in playing a game, there are a lot of bench players and
coaches who have made that happen, who have made me look so good. And so I think
that mentality makes me a better captain for my first officers to fly with, my flight
attendants to work with, for the people that I encounter whether it's on the ramp or at the
gate on all those people I think I have a good image out there because I realized that it's
not all about me.
Similarly, one FFA describes her ideal leader as one who trusts, “empowers and rallies
those around them to believe and do the work at the level they would expect of themselves.”
These sentiments were mirrored in her description of her teammates and her time as a collegiate
athlete:
We just had such a great team culture and weren't jealous. Yes of course we were
competing for playing time and starting positions and all that, but it was really about
when one of us succeed, we all succeed. And I really try to model that even now in my
work and thinking about, let's be honest, there are few opportunities for females and
fewer especially in the world of sports. And so often women can get so competitive and
jealous and you know, we're all clamoring over the top spots that are few and far
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between. And I'm of the mindset, if another woman gets a job we should be cheering for
her…A win for one, is a win for all of us. It’s kind of how I really like to model my life.
The woman’s sentiments above not only describe the support she received from her
teammates during her collegiate career, but how that supportive environment motivated her to
give back and lift other women who share similar aspirations. For most women in this study, the
idea of a team and teamwork was key. The women shared comparable opinions saying it does
not matter who gets the credit for the task, but the real power lies in “what we can do together.”
Challenging Environments
As previously discussed in RQ1, one of the major themes that was discovered through the
interview process was that participation in collegiate athletics presented challenging situations
and scenarios. This theme was particularly interesting as the majority of the FFAs referred to
stories of challenges with teammates or coaches. By the positions of power coaches hold, they
are considered a formal leader on a team. Previous research has studied coaches as role models,
individuals who set the vision and tone, who promote teamwork, positive relationships, and
overall athlete well-being (Rankin et al., 2016; Rezania & Gurney, 2014; Schroeder, 2010).
Rankin et al. (2016) found that the quality of relationships with athletic personnel directly affect
students’ academic and athletic success. Additionally, developmental research suggest that
during adolescence and early adulthood individuals are more influenced by peers due to
hormonal changes (Saxbe et al., 2015). That being said, this section highlights adverse situations
with these groups of individuals and how the women in this study interpreted those challenges.
This section also highlights Title IX issues and social influences on FFAs leadership identity
development.
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Figure 8. RQ2 theme: Challenging environment.
Issues with coaches. The LID model suggest that adults are highly influential to
students’ leadership identity development throughout multiple stages of growth (Komives et al.,
2005). Komives et al. (2005) discuss the positive aspects of adult influences such as support,
confidence, role modeling and mentoring. In a later article they address the idea of a “crisis,” a
scenario in which adult figures do not live up to those expectations (Komives et al., 2007).
These crises can push individuals to commit to leadership practices that avoid or go against what
was perceived as bad leadership. During the interview process, it became clear that all but two
of the women either committed to differing styles of leadership, pointed to bad leadership
practices of their former collegiate coaches, or did not see their coach as an influential figure in
their leadership growth.
During the semi-structured interview sessions, questions were always asked about the
importance of the FFAs former collegiate coaches to answer RQ2. Some interviewees were
probed further depending on the depth and content of their answers. Many interviewees
answered the question and followed with examples. Some cited their coaches as not having
much impact on their development at all stating that teammates were far more valuable to their
growth than the coaches were. Three women stated that they wished their coaches had more of
an impact, but for various reasons including lack of experience, commitment and overall
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dedication to the team and to the sport, they did not see their coaches as influential to their
growth. One woman explained that they “were at the beginning so is it wasn't; the leadership
wasn't professionalized” and they “didn’t have professional coaches.” They had physical
education instructors who were previous players and not coaches whose sole focus was women’s
basketball.
Another finding was that there were concerns with how coaches handled certain events or
issues which the interviewees took note of. A couple of women cited communication as the
issue with their coaches. One woman talked about her coach’s initiative to remove two members
of the team who did not promote a positive team culture. She goes on to explain that albeit a
positive decision, it was ruined by the coach’s lack of communication to the team on why her
teammates were removed in the first place. That lesson of transparency and communication was
an important lesson in leadership that she brought with her in her profession. She explained:
As a young manager trying to think through, I realized the communication with my team
was really critical… So, I think that, you know, the real reality of today's leaders, you
kind of see it all because the training now is to be transparent, bring yourself into the
equation so that everybody else feels like you know, from an inclusion perspective, their
voice can be heard as well. And so, if your role modeling like things that are not
transparent are not humble; are not clear not, you know, your team's not gonna follow
along.
The final issue with coaches was with their poor leadership of the team. Three
interviewees saw their coaches not only as bad leaders, but as poor decision makers and terrible
role models. A few women talked about how teammates ruined team chemistry with no
intervening voice from the coach. From those experiences, a couple of women explained they
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hire people to be on their teams based on their attitudes and how they would fit into the positive
culture they try to create. One woman elaborated:
We can teach people to do the job, but we spend so much time together, I need to like
you as a human being. We're here on weekends, we travel together. You could be
extraordinarily talented, but if you don't fit, that makes life difficult. And I carry that with
me a lot. And we've passed out on many of very, very talented folks, but you just know
instinctively, you're not going to thrive in this environment...But for me personally, I
want to surround myself with good folks that are common themed with loyalty. And they
have to have a little bit of not going to stop fighting too, you know, so maybe that all
came from my time in sports.
A couple of the FFAs also talked about how their coaches were so fixated on winning
that that focus clouded their treatment of the players and overall judgement and integrity for the
sport. This vignette by one of the women demonstrates how she was able to assess a scenario in
which her coach did not live up to her expectation of leadership and vowed to never treat anyone
who worked for or with her in that way in her roles as a leader (Komives et al., 2007).
Coach, she was definitely an interesting character. She was psychology major, and I
would say she used her major, everyday practice on all of us. You know whether it was
to motivate us or to you know to encourage or pump us up or criticize. She definitely
used everything she probably ever learned in her major. And there were times, especially
as a walk-on, in those first two years that I really wanted to quit and some of it was you
know just it was hard and you don't you know as the number 10 out of 10 girls or number
14 out of 10 girls you know ranked, you're not going to get that encouragement. And you
know, while I don't coach like that, I understand that her attention was focused on her
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stars that she was trying to make better so she could win national championships. So
sometimes you go home from practice and you're like, ‘why am I doing this?’ You
know, ‘I mean I get very little attention and zero encouragement.’ And the other the
other thing you know will never leave me ever and hopefully it's made me a better coach.
I'll never forget senior night at The Arena, we're playing Rivalry University, and
that was our huge rival back then. And I knew that, you know, it might be a close game
and I knew there might be a chance I wouldn’t get to play in my senior game, you know,
because winning was most important thing, but we were up. I want to say 20 points at
halftime and I was thinking at halftime wow, I mean, Coach might even…there were five
seniors on the team, and we all played the one through five, so I thought wow Coach
could actually start the five seniors in the second half with a 20 point lead. That would be
so cool, of course that didn't happen. By halfway through the second half with 10
minutes left we were up 30 something points and I thought for sure I'm getting 10
minutes in this game. In my senior game. Well I played 30 seconds in that game. We won
by over 40; we won by over 40 points. And I remember she sent me to the to check in
with under a minute left and I'll never forget it because I kept looking at the assistant
coaches and they were looking at me like, ‘I am so sorry’ because they kept telling Coach
you need to put your seniors in, you need to put your seniors in. There were a few of us
that she didn’t put in and so you know I’ll never forget that night and how embarrassed I
was. And how you know that the fact that I felt like my coach, as a senior, couldn’t trust
me enough with a 30-point lead to let me play.
And I don't know what was going through her mind. But, you know, I
remembered that, you know, I said to myself, I will never in my life treat anyone like
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that, you know, whether it's as a coach to a player or any relationship whatsoever I will
never let anyone feel they are so insignificant and you know, but it was it was times like
that that I looked back on when I went to say pilot training. Pilot training was the hardest
year of my life and learning how to fly an airplane was just so different from anything I
had ever done. And there were some days that you were just pulling your hair out going
‘I'm just not getting it.’ And I kept feeling like and yet still this was easier than playing
basketball at University; so I would just draw back on all those days that I was so mad.
So tired. I didn't want to run the stadium steps anymore and I didn't want to do another
suicide or Russian layup and I would just go ‘you can do anything because you played
basketball for Coach.’ Not just basketball but basketball for Coach because that was kind
of how demanding she was. And that was how she treated us. She didn't treat you
should treat you necessarily great just because she could. I mean they were rare moments
that she treated great. You know, she was a tough coach. And so, you know, those are
the kinds of things that I really drew that the experiences are really drew on whenever I
kind of came upon hard times in my career. And I just realized, you know what, and the
idea of quitting you know, I was like, look, if you can make it to four years of basketball,
at University, you make through anything I mean, it's kind of funny because everybody
thinks ‘oh, basketball, come on that was the greatest,’ people always say ‘it was the
greatest experience of your life.’ Well it was, but it's also the toughest experience of my
life. You know, as far as physically and everything it was it was tough. So yeah I drew
back on that every single time I hit a rough patch saying you know ‘I could do it.’ And I
you know in some ways I thank Coach now for that because she could have been a nice
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soft coach and maybe I wouldn’t have been, I wouldn’t have ended up so tough you
know.
Congruent to Komives et al. (2007) findings, most women vowed to never act or treat
anyone as their coached did. Many of the FFAs recognized the poor examples of coaching and
emerged with critical lessons in leadership (Collingwood, 2001; Conrad & Nash, 2013;
Kellerman, 2004).
Issues with teammates. In addition to coaches, one of the challenges that the women
faced during their collegiate career was difficult teammates. Under the LID, a major
developmental influence is derived from peers (Komives et al., 2005). Many of these
challenging situations identified by the women described peer relationships and engagements
that prompted their own self-reflections and conceptualization of their identity (Komives et al.,
2005). Their teammates actions conflicted with the FFAs’ own notions of what a leader should
be prompting introspection. One woman found that her time with some of her upper-class
teammates were volatile and unsupportive:
There were four walk-ons when we were freshman, and the upper classmen were really
pissed off that we took reps away from them in practice. And were really vocal about
‘you don’t belong here, you’re a waste of time, go be a bullpen catcher, you know stop
it.’ We ran defense for them. As runners, they absolutely did not want us on the team;
they did not want me on the team. I remember asking one of them, like ‘did you ever
doubt that you should be here’ and she was like ‘NO.’ I was like “ok thanks.” Super huge
help that’s terrific…and I was a total walk-on, at tryouts one of the short-stop All-
Americans showed up in non-University gear and played left handed to make fun of us
like thought it was funny to look like a walk-on.
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She went on to explain that those experiences she had in college with her teammates
helped her to distinguish between “friends and colleagues” in her professional life. These
experiences changed her perspective on how she accomplishes her job; she stays focused on the
task and the goals of her profession with little concern for those who exhibit some of those poor
teammate behaviors. She explained:
Both with male and female relationships, with bosses it’s kinda like I’ve read this story
before and a tiger can’t change his stripes, and I’ve dated a dirtbag and umm you’re a
dirtbag. You know or I’ve been stabbed in the back by some opportunistic sales guy, and
you know I know what he looks like. I know what that looks like and I’m always going to
be on the lookout. You can’t ignore people, just like teammates, you can’t necessarily
sidestep, working with them. If I need a double play, I need a fucking short stop. So, I
think for me, again, the relationship that I have with you, is just for this thing, that we do
together…
Another woman entered college with a brand-new coaching staff and was recruited by
that staff. She saw teammates that did not promote the level integrity, hard work, and
commitment that was required of athletes by the new staff and witnessed the conflict and
leadership it took to remove individuals who did not stand for the same team values. Unlike the
situation above, this woman’s coaching staff was an integral part in promoting positive team
culture and removing poor teammates from the team to create the atmosphere they wanted. This
lesson was something that she uses in her professional life. She described her recent experience:
I’m about ready to post a job opening. And I'm like, I want somebody on my team who's
going to, to bleed our mission and who, which to me, is vital, right? And it's, it has to be
authentic. And it has to be, you know, we're a staff of five. So I need a team. I need a
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team player. I need somebody who, oh, my gosh, we have five events this week. So I
need you to help here and there. And that's how our team is. And I've worked very hard
to build change that way. Where there's no egos and no drama, and so I think, no, I
absolutely think everywhere, not just in sports.
The two scenarios mark two very different ways of interacting with individuals in a
professional setting. The first woman, who had no help from her coaches, learned to use those
experiences in an example of how to deal and work with difficult individuals. The woman in the
scenario above, instead used her experiences to create work teams, akin to examples modeled by
her collegiate basketball coaches. These are examples of two similar situations (dealing with
difficult teammates) in which two women experienced differently modeled (coaches’ responses
or lack of responses) ways of dealing with challenging “teammates.” The response how
situations are dealt with in their professional lives are noteworthy as they almost mirror the ways
in which they handled situations in college (one still had to work with individuals so she “dealt”
with them and the other’s teammates were removed).
Feeling out of place. Most women in the study remarked feeling, at times during their
collegiate career, that they were “a duck out of water,” they felt like they were “the only one,” or
they just didn’t feel like they fit in. Some felt safe on their teams, but many said they felt
excluded in some way or another. These sentiments were somewhat contradictory to group
influences under the LID model which states that “students sought a sense of belonging in
groups” (Komives et al., 2005). Additionally, all women who mentioned feeling like they were
excluded also discussed how they were in the minority, as a woman or a woman of color, in their
professional career. The women, however, revealed a level of commitment and resolve that
helped them overcome the idea of feeling out of place. They described how they adapted, grew
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and used these experiences to feel comfortable in their own authenticity. One woman mentioned
the support of her own team and camaraderie of other fellow athletes but knew that “the
basketball team wasn’t valued the same way that the football team was valued.” She talked
about how she felt supported by her team but outside of that when she was the only woman in
many situations, she “just felt really alone.” In not feeling like she was always accepted she
talked about how “taking a chance to try to do the right thing” and just being herself was okay
because she “[felt] other anyway.”
Three women discussed their feelings of unwelcome onto their collegiate teams.
Incidentally, these three women were all walk-on players to their teams, however, not all walk-
on players shared the same sentiments. One woman’s teammates were very “vocal about
[how]…you don’t belong here, you’re a waste of time…they absolutely did not want us on the
team. They did not want me on the team.” These first interactions with her teammates created a
non-inclusive environment that pitted scholarship players against walk-ons. Though the
relationships did not discourage her, she mentioned that she felt as though she had to prove her
worth on the team. The other two women did not have teammates who were overtly bullied, but
said they just did not feel as if they completely fit in. One woman talked about how as a walk-on
she was not invited to some events that other athletes were invited to by her university and the
other woman said she did not feel as talented as her teammates. Each of these women expressed
that they worked harder, put in “extra hours of practice,” and focused on improving their skills.
A large motivation for a couple of women was being underestimated and their ability to prove
people wrong. This translated into operation in their professional lives. One woman elaborated:
I think you develop kind of a battle rhythm, right? With yourself, personally. I kind of
joke over these past couple years, you know, tell me, I can't do something and then see
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what happens. You know, for me, that is a gigantic motivator, or if someone
underestimates someone's ability and to prove them wrong? Right? So, maybe that's
shaped very early in life, or you've had disappointments, or you've had great victories that
you're very proud of and that somehow sets the DNA for leadership.
Five of the women mentioned sentiments of “never want[ing] to feel like I'm just holding
a spot.” Four of the five were walk-on players, however the recruited athlete said that in college
there were many young women who were great at softball and they could take your starting
position at any time. There was a sense that you had to work to earn your spot and that attitude
helped propel her forward in her business career. She related this to her professional career:
And I was in technology field so there's oftentimes a room of people and I'm the only
woman in the room so yeah, I think, you know, kind of feeling like you're probably
having to be tested every minute. I think I've learned that absolutely. On the softball field
at University, nothing is given like…if you can't perform, we got other kids that can and,
you're going to take my seat, it's scary. I was never used to that…I mean, that's what the
world is. And it's probably good to learn as an 18-year-old, versus a 40-year-old.
Whether it was feeling like they were “holding a spot,” trying to “prove” themselves,
believing that people were underestimating them, or just feeling like they needed to do
everything they could to earn their way, all ten women talked about doing everything they could
to perform at their best. The attitude that the women were constantly trying to “prove”
themselves was mentioned by four women explaining that their time in sports helped prime them
for situations in their professions when they were “oftentimes…the only woman in the room.”
One woman elaborated:
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I think you have to be stronger, faster, more prepared kind of thing. That's always my
approach…And so I know that there's an uphill battle, uphill battle of being a woman and
uphill battle being a non-grad (from this specific university she works at). And so you
have to be smart, you have to be good at what you do… That how lucky you know? So
don't waste this opportunity. And there are people that are using that same kind of
reflection from that day and basketball. There are people watching how you handle
yourself. So, it's not necessarily, don't let them down, but don't let yourself down, you
know, make sure that you are prepared.
The sentiments of not fitting in, in the collegiate setting helped many of them tackle the
challenges of their workplace settings. These early experiences shaped their approach to
situations and made them stronger and more determined to prove others wrong, commensurate to
Diehl’s (2014) findings. Just as discussed, in previous sections Northouse (2016) states that
determination is a trait that many leaders exhibit. The characteristics of persistence and the
perseverance in the face of obstacles was described by the women above. The FFAs’ discordant
feelings were not perceived as barriers, but higher hurdles they needed to climb to get to the
positions they are in today.
Title IX. A challenge for women’s sports has always been a fight for equity. Whether it
was society’s opinions on the delicacy of the female body and their inability to compete or the
current fight for equal pay and hiring practices, women have been marginalized in the hegemonic
practices of the male leader in collegiate athletics (Hargreaves, 1994; Walker et al., 2017).
These issues, especially for women working in athletics, were not overlooked. A few
interviewees mentioned some influential women in their collegiate careers who were solid
figures for them to look up to. These individuals were women who fought for and pushed for
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women’s rights, showing and teaching them determination and drive to fight for equity. One
woman, who attended college in the 1990’s, recalled that: “we had coaches who were adamant
about Title IX, and that women should have equal opportunity that men have. So she forced our
SWA in our AD to put sometimes the men’s games before the women’s games.” This was
emphasized by her coaches and explained further that, that attitude has stuck with her into her
profession:
But looking back, you know, that really started to fuel Title IX and equal opportunity for
women. And why are women paid less, or why is marketing spending all their time on the
men and the media guide, and, you know, men get the website coverage, and the men get
a poster and the women didn't. And so, our coaches were so vocal about that; maybe they
held our university accountable in trying to make things equitable. The men got money to
renew their locker room, and guess who got the money the next year, we did. And that
was from our coaches, because they really pressed for that. And so, I think that started to
open my eyes to huh, guess everything's not always equal or not always unequal. And
really, then, I think they quickly became role models that I was aware of, strong female
role models. I played for a male coach in high school, I didn't know different and so and
had a female swimming coach in high school who I really looked up to as well. And so
that I think, kind of fueled that reality in college. I didn't realize in high school, but really
in my college years, and then, you know, if you would have asked me why I wanted to go
into coaching at the time, or why I wanted to work in sports, I would say, because I want
to be a role model. I was a tomboy, I know, I wasn't necessarily seen enough. We have a
saying, we say all the time “If she can see her, she can be her,” you know, and so we need
more women in coaching. Or we need more women in athletic careers or women in
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sports, front office, on the bench, whatever, so that the young girls today can grow up
going, I can be her.
The challenge of equity and issues brought up by Title IX, faced by the women such as
the one described above, helped them identify what their stance was on leadership issues and
were very influential to some of their career paths in the future. For three women having
powerful role models in their coaches or administrators helped them model and build their own
understandings of what it means to be a strong female and how not to “self-limit” themselves
into identities that perpetuate the stereotypical gender norm (Sartore & Cunningham, 2007, p.
245). These experiences not only shaped these women’s outlooks but also influenced their
desire to influence others and “fight” for equity.
Supportive Environments
Komives et al. (2009) emphasize that leadership identity develops through a relational
process between others and the self. The theme of supportive environments developed out of the
framework of the LID model in reviewing adult and peer influences. This chapter previously
reviewed challenging situations with coaches and teammates, elements of development of self
and how those situations impacted FFAs leadership development. The previous section on
challenging situations focused on how women dealt with issues with teammate and coaches,
while this section focuses on how teammates and coaches supported the women and influenced
growth. Congruent with the LID model, this section will address coaches and teammates’
support in FFAs’ leadership identity development. Additionally, subtheme that evolved from
interview data concerned with how coaches or teammates were able to create positive cultures
and climates will also be examined in this section.
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Figure 9. RQ2 theme: Supportive environments.
Coaches. Adults under the LID model have “different roles in influencing student
movement through the leadership identity development stages” which include role modeling and
mentorship (Komives et al., 2005, p. 596). Though there were many women who listed their
coaches as poor role models or not influential to their development, many also discussed
situations in which coaches did serve as mentors. One woman who had a terrible experience
with her head coach noted that her assistant coaches were extremely influential to her growth.
She stated that her assistant coaches pushed them, set high standards, and made them work
extremely hard but motivated them with positive reinforcement. The care and trust that this
woman felt with her assistant coaches convey analogous findings to Schroeder (2010) in which
the coach and athlete relationships were critical to the success of a team and development of the
athlete.
One woman was clear on her professional goals and thus was very attentive to her
coach’s behavior. She said she started to “tuck away” lessons and examples of both things she
wanted to emulate and things that she did not want to “carry forward.” She considered her two
collegiate coaches as “great female role models” who were very generous of their own personal
networks and who helped her in her professional journey. Ultimately, sentiments shared by
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women who valued their coaches was summed up by one woman who shared lessons she learned
from a football coach. She said:
He talks about how he wished more coaches led or serve their student athletes from the
heart, not from talent. And I think that 100% speaks to that because it of course, does
talent, win games? Absolutely. And is there a lot of high stakes at pressure to you know,
on wins and losses? Absolutely. But at the end of the day, it's about the student athlete
experience and making athletes feel heard and valued and supporting them on their
personal journeys as well.
Lessons described were that coaches set the vision, they focused on more than just
athletics, and they were both demanding and encouraging. For the seven women who discussed
coaches as positive role models and influential to their leadership development, coaches were
respected, trusted, and the women felt supported in more than just athletics.
Teammates. While coaches provided support for some of the women, nine of the ten
women stated that the more influential individuals in their lives were their teammates. Not all
were influential, but the teammates who were became lifelong friends. Not all women were
accepted immediately, but when they did, the relationships that they developed were lifelong.
Other women explained that “one of the most powerful things about being a student-athlete is the
camaraderie of the team and the sense that you have an instant group of friends and an instant
group of people to watch out for you.” Many of the women mentioned friendships with their
teammates, but they also described how their upper-class teammates were seen as role models or
mentors (Komives et al., 2005). Some women described the organic development of these
relationships, and one said that her coach facilitated a mentor-mentee program. For this woman,
her university coaching staff instilled in their players the importance of mentorship. Players
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were assigned official upper-class mentors at the beginning of their freshman year and
emphasized the importance of athletics saying, “you definitely are going pro in something other
than sports.” Correspondingly Navarro (2015) also found that peer mentors emphasized
academics and helped prepare athletes for lives after sports.
The women also discussed a deep sense of loyalty and commitment to their teammates.
The idea that “your teammates are busting their butt just as much as you're busting yours” was
paired with a sense of pride in not letting your team down. Women consistently mentioned this
message of “hard work no matter what because teammates are supporting you, so you support
them back.” With the women who were walk-ons to their teams, there was the overwhelming
sense that they “never wanted to feel like I'm just holding the spot,” while the other women
expressed “I'm going to gut it out for her and not let her down.” In all nine women who shared
these sentiments, there were notions of camaraderie and a deeper sense of loyalty. One woman
related the support and outreach of her senior teammate, in making her feel welcomed and
helping her understand the game, to how she approached leadership as a young manager. She
said:
And so, you know, when I'm in a situation where there's somebody new and they seem, I
don't know, scared or uncertain or just not sure what to do. Like, I think about her and I
try to be like her, and I think that's really helped me. You know, maybe not as a vice
president but certainly as a young manager leading people for the first time. Making
people feel special and they care about them and you know, you're invested in their
success and you know, you're going to do it together.
Finally, the LID model also examines how relationships helped clarify student’s
leadership roles which in turn helped students gain a deeper understanding of their own
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leadership identity (Komives et al., 2005). Likewise, throughout the interviews the FFAs spoke
of situations in which they were confronted with that helped them gain a deeper understanding of
their own leadership such as interpersonal communications, setting the example, conflict
management, etc. Furthermore, FFAs recognized the important contributions of their team
captains, but also talked about leadership on the team that was not formally recognized. Most of
the women noted that leadership did not stop with the coaches or the captains; that there could be
informal leaders on the team as well (Fransen et al., 2014; Loughead et al., 2006). One woman
recalled “I think I was always an informal leader.” Additionally, some of the women talked
about some of their upper-class teammates both team captains and not, and how they were able
to mentor the women and instill in them a sense of pride for the team. As one woman explained
her upper-class teammates taught them how to “win…and to succeed and do it with class;” an
important lesson that will be discussed further in the next section.
Promoting a positive culture. Renn and Patton (2017) found that climate and culture at
a university can affect students’ academic achievement, motivations, identity, emotions, and
even athletic success. Though there were stories of challenging situations with teammates and
coaches, there were also many stories from the FFAs in which teammates and coaches promoted
a positive culture of teamwork and inclusivity. As far as coaches were concerned, “painting the
vision” and promoting teamwork were the two ideas most often noted (Schroeder, 2010). One
woman stated:
The kind of head coach that I always wanted to play for which is painting the vision
explaining how we were going to get there, getting roadblocks out of the way, you know,
being there for the team and making sure the teammates play together.
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She related this head type of head coach in terms of professional leadership and her ideal
leader. Others described teammates as that coach mentioned above. They described their
teammates as those who promoted support, teamwork, and pushed for an environment that
celebrated and promoted success for all teammates no matter what. One woman said that the
“senior players were important so that people have been on the team for many years welcomed
us.” They encouraged camaraderie and teamwork and created a positive environment for
everyone to flourish. She stated below:
You really develop an identity as a team and you are really rooting for others as well as
you’re rooting for you know, yourself. And in addition, there's a sense of pride in your
teammates and what they can accomplish and in a sense of deference for people who are
really achieving and doing well. So, I think there was more camaraderie than competition
within the team. And we were, you know, we were a team that like to compete outside
the team, we appreciated each other’s talent.
Another major finding, similar to creating a vision in leadership, was the notion that
sports made most of the FFAs feel as if they were a part of something bigger than just
themselves. One woman described how her teammates fostered a culture that helped the girls
understand that they represented more than just basketball, but they represented the team, the
school, and the alumni. She explained:
I also observed kind of their effect on everyone else around me. And I will say that in
addition to being leaders, you know, trying to get us practice hard, and be on time, and
dress nicely, and the things that the leaders are supposed to make you do. The other thing
I think that they really impressed upon us was that you know that there was a brand that
they were promoting. That we are going to be different from any other team that ever
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existed we aren’t going to just be a team that wins championships but we're going to look
good and we're going to represent well and people are going to take notice…You know I
laugh about it because I’ll never forget when Reggie Bush went to USC, he used to
somersault into the to the end zone when he would score touchdowns. And Marcus
Ingram went to him and said, act like you've been there before. He goes we don’t
somersault to the end zone at USC. He goes, we run into the end zone, we hand the ball
to the ref, because we do it all the time. It’s not something that we have to celebrate like
that…that's exactly what I was taught from our seniors on the team was, hey, champions,
when we walk around school everyone looks at us. And you didn't sit in the back of the
class and you didn't come late either. I mean I remember them saying like ‘hey we sit in
the front row in our big School Colored University women's basketball sweats.’ We walk
in on time. We ride our bikes around. They they're like act like you've been there
before…And through the years that we were there that was always the theme. That
represent well. You know so it wasn't just about basketball, it wasn't just about winning,
it was all the other things that went along with that.
Those are incredibly important things to learn as a college athlete because they
carry right on to whatever profession you choose to do. And so, it's something I'm not
sure everybody learns. So there are people who somersault to the end zone in everything
they do and it's and it's annoying, you know. So there definitely is a way there's definitely
a way to win and there's definitely a way to succeed and to do it well with class and I
think that was probably an incredible lesson we learned on that team and that it definitely
came from the older girls.
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As the FFA mentions above, setting the vision and carrying yourself to the standard that
is expected of you as a member of that company is critical to most professions and is a critical
component to good leadership (Northouse, 2016). Similar concepts will be discussed in the next
section related to leadership by example.
Leadership
As previously discussed, many women revealed leadership lessons that they learned from
bosses, coaches, and teammates. Four of the ten FFAs were team captains on their collegiate
teams for at least one year, yet many of the women said they were able to practice leadership
even if they were not formal leaders on their teams. In addition, many women mentioned that
sports and teammates taught them the importance of leading by example. This section will
quickly review specific examples of leadership practices such as informal leadership experiences
and leadership by example.
Figure 10. RQ2 theme: Leadership.
Informal leadership. Komives et al. (2005) found that students’ views on leadership
deepened with experience. Students came to understand that leadership was not limited to the
formal leader but that leadership could emerge from anyone on a team. Further research on the
subject found that the captain of a team does not have to be the sole leader, nor is she always the
athlete that teammates look to for leadership (Fransen et al., 2014; Loughead et al., 2006). A few
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women in this study mentioned that even though they may not have been the team captain, they
were looked to for leadership by their teammates or felt as though they were able to enact
leadership outside of the captain’s responsibilities. One woman mentioned that leadership can be
found in different athletes not just the team captain; whether it is the person people look to as a
“gamer…[someone] who delivers when the heat is on, someone who is “selfless,” or just
someone who was there in times of need. Those qualities can be wrapped up in one person or
many different teammates. Another woman recalled of herself:
I think this is true in any and then the team I think you can be a leader at any level, you
know, certainly I felt like I could lead by being a great role model like My Teammate was
to the new kids that came into the team. I felt like I had a logical enough approach to
things that if there was some dissension about something that I could rally the team
maybe better than the captains could. I think always showing up and being the best you
can be is…you don't have to be the captain to do that.
On this woman’s team, she was given opportunities to lead her team even if she was not
the formal captain. She talked about her communication skills and her “logical approach” to a
problem which helped her gain traction and support of her teammates. Interview questions were
not specifically asked on this subject, but evolved as the women recalled their experiences with
collegiate athletics. The next section, leadership by example, was not derived from elements of
the LID but was a characteristic of leadership that was important to the FFAs and cultivated
through sports participation.
Leadership by example. Gachter et al. (2012) found that in simulated game play, groups
perform better with a leader who has a cooperative style of leadership, meaning the leader
contributes more to the group, than those who do not. Additionally, Hoffman et al. (2013) found
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that athletes emphasized the idea of leadership by example, a quality they said was highly
desirable for good leadership. Similar to the Hoffman et al. population, most women in this
study also described leadership by example as an important characteristic to their definition and
something they learned through the participation in athletics.
One woman noted that leadership by example means you do your homework, you spend
those extra hours at practice trying to perfect your skills, you come into a game or a meeting
prepared to tackle challenges. She said:
I was one of very few women in the room, that still holds true here, one of very few. It's
not a chip on my shoulder, it's just an observation for sure. That how lucky you know, so
don't waste this opportunity. And there are people that are that same kind of reflection
from that day in basketball, there are people watching how you handle yourself. So it's
not necessarily don't let them down. But don't let yourself down, you know, make sure
that you are prepared.
Similarly, another woman said that for her “actions have always spoken louder than
words. So I try to practice what I preach and be the first one to critique myself.” Likewise, a
couple of women said that they were elected co-captains because of their hard work and
leadership by example. One of the women explained that her sister, co-captain was the more
vocal one and she was the one who led by example. She elaborated:
I was never going to be outworked. I had the biggest heart, the biggest hustle, sprint, you
know, worked my butt off through every practice. And really that lead by example,
especially for the freshmen sophomores and the younger ones, and somebody who's
going to walk the talk and obey the rules and be a good role model in terms of ‘hey, we're
not out drinking on Friday night before the Saturday game’ and sort of the cop on the
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team and we expect everyone else to be behave, that was kind of my role as captain. Is
really the walk the walk and talk the talk because like I said, I was the more reserved,
reserved, shy, so wasn't the vocal in your face type captain.
This type of leadership continues to be important in her professional life as she said she is
“never above any job.” If she expects the people who work for her to do something, she does it
as well. Leadership by example was expressed by nine out of the ten women as a critical
component to good leadership. It did not matter if the women expressed that they were more or
less vocal, direct or aggressive, they all articulated a similar message that they learned through
playing sports, which was the importance of setting the example no matter what.
Summary of Data
Many themes that emerged in this study were also congruent to the LID model with
respect to coaches and teammates. As demonstrated by the women, relational processes between
others and the self, helped to build their leadership identity (Komives et al., 2009). Not
surprising was that teammates played a significant role in the women’s lives; however, coaches
were not seen as a major impact as the researcher had anticipated. The research consistently
discusses the importance and impacts coaches have on athletes (Appleton & Duda, 2016; Galante
& Ward, 2016; Gould et al., 2007; Komives et al., 2009). And while some women saw their
coaches as role models, many also discussed the little impact with some saying their coaches’
poor leadership actually helped them see the type of leaders they did not want to be (Conrad &
Nash, 2013). The experiences they had with both coaches and teammates helped them expand
understandings of themselves, interpersonal communications, and ultimately cultivated building
blocks of leadership identity in the FFAs. Solidification of a complete leader came later with
experience and with mentors in their professional environments.
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Other Pertinent Themes
The focus of the two research questions were on the collegiate athletic environment.
While most of the interview questions were focused on that topic, interviewees raised other
pertinent subjects. Many women discussed the importance that sports in general had on their
lives as well as their parents and the importance of family support. Though some previous
sections discussed parents and sports in general these topics below did not fit specifically within
either of the two research questions. As previously mentioned, many themes were woven
through each research question. As such, conceptualized themes are also discussed in this
section. Thus, under challenging environments, determination and setting goals; and Title IX will
be discussed. Under developing self, building self-confidence from sport in general will be
outlined in more detail and parents and family members will be discussed under the theme of
supportive environments. The themes discussed below were also addressed in RQ1 and RQ2,
but because of their non-specific mention to collegiate athletics, the collegiate setting, or coaches
and teammates they are further scrutinized and examined below.
Figure 11. Other pertinent themes.
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Challenging Environments
The women in this study recalled that sports in general helped introduce them to adverse
situations, challenging circumstances, or just made them aware of their gender and inequities of
that gender at a young age. As the women discussed, college was not the first time they
encountered challenging situations, but that sports in general helped expose them to wins and
losses. It was also through sport in which they learned the importance of setting goals and the
determination and grit that it takes to accomplish them. This section will review FFAs opinions
on determination and setting goals, and then examine how Title IX and role models outside of
their immediate network influenced their leadership development.
Determination and setting goals. Similar to previous sections describing adversity and
mindsets, this section discusses the interviewees’ stories of their determination and ability to set
goals enabling them to push through situations despite potential difficulties or barriers.
Examining leadership trait research, Northouse (2016) contends that determination is an attribute
that many leaders exhibit and “includes characteristics such as initiative, persistence, dominance,
and drive. People with determination are willing to assert themselves, are proactive, and have
the capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles” (p. 25). In addition, Northouse asserts that
leadership must include “attention to common goals” (p. 6). These two attributes were
mentioned together by most of the interviewees as determination and goal attainment.
Some women discussed their own determination in terms of competitiveness, directness,
or aggressiveness. Many women described anecdotes of how athletics in general helped develop
a determination that translates into an attitude of someone who “never backs down,” who does
not quit, and who is mentally tough. One woman’s insight:
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I think the thing about sports that I laid over [in my career]…what I said before, it was
perfect if we want to win and if our goal is to win…I think it plays out on when life isn’t
going your way. You just dig in right. You don't quit. You keep trying. And I think
those things translate over to a mental toughness to go with the physical toughness.
Determination was most always discussed in relation to a goal. For some, parents were
highly influential to their development into being focused goal setters. One woman discussed
that having and setting goals were things that were stressed in her family. Goal setting started at
an early age, helped her through college and into her professional life. She explained that in her
professional life she focuses on the company’s goals to better assess her own courses of action
and how she prepares her team to accomplish them. Parental advisement was also shared by two
other women as critical to their development. Parents stressed the importance of setting goals
and helped them reflect on what they needed to do to stay focused and improve to reach it.
Likewise, another interviewee also discussed her parents’ and coach’s ability to impart that sense
of determination to keep working. She said: “You know you’re never at your best. You’re
always working. You got to always improve.” Reciprocally, she mentioned that she always
wanted her father “to be proud of her [me],” and attributed her discipline and drive to her success
in her profession.
For most women in this study, having a drive toward a goal was something that was
formulated as a child with the help of parents, cultivated through college and through
participation in sports, then carried forward into their professional lives. Setting goals and
staying focused on achieving those goals were critical for the FFAs who explained that they were
often the only woman or one of few in their professional lives. Perseverance and goal setting
helped the women through situations in which they were judged for social stereotypes as a “girl
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who plays sports,” cultivated critical mindsets for leadership, and facilitated their professional
successes. The next section will outline societal figures and experiences that also influenced
FFAs mindsets and development.
Title IX. All of the women in the study except for one attended college before 1995. For
some women Title IX and the idea of the women’s movement was front and center in their
minds. Others were less aware but were influenced by the events, people, and opportunities of
the time. Many women recalled that they were always good at sports. They were always
“playing with the boys” and one recalled that her teachers told her parents that “there was
something wrong with their daughter.” One woman said that prior to college she had to “fight to
be able to play.” She recalled that she would go to the parks to play basketball with the boys and
a “guy literally punched her [me] in the face because he didn’t want her [me] on the court,” but
she kept coming back and kept fighting for her right to play. These encounters shaped their
perspectives as they were the first dealings of gender the women were confronted with.
Additionally, the women described social influences outside of immediate circles that
impacted their worldview and perspectives on women’s rights to play sport. In line with
Burbank’s (2017) work on the impacts that blockbuster films can have on leadership self-
imagery, real-life social icons and events of the time influenced many of the women. One FFA
described how she was heavily influenced by the events of an Olympic Games and wanted to
represent and “fight for American values.” Another described her influencers as “iconic figures”
in society:
But terms of the people in my life who were role models, I didn't have them. I kind of
looked to iconic figures that, I looked at history of people work and life. I admired
people who have made a difference in the world. I became fascinated with reading and
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learning about some of those people. I really admired what Billie Jean King did for
tennis. I really admired some of the women tennis players and then women political
figures, but also men who made changes in the world. I admired student activist really
young. This was in the 70s, late 60s and early 70s. But I came of age to the era that saw
the assassination of Martin Luther King and Bobby Kennedy. I really thought and
admired how students came together to protest what was going on, so, you know, the
things that were going on in the world and tried to have a collective voice but yeah, those
are all impressionable kids.
Another woman also remembered watching iconic social figures, noting their fight for
equity and wanting to have the same impact. She also described leadership by example and one
that inspires people just by simply doing what is right, standing up for what you believe, and
setting the example. On her impressions of prominent social figures:
I remember watching Billie Jean King. When she, you know, took Bobby Riggs’
challenge to play tennis. You know, and you know, if you look at a leadership in that
regards somebody who ventures into the unknown to say I’ve had these walls put up and
restricting me, how am I going to get either over the wall, through the wall and around it.
How am I going to be able to open those doors of opportunities not just for myself but for
the future. And that was a moment in time. That was a leadership moment for me with
her. I remember praying so much like, you know, please Lord let her win so I can play
sports because girls are not allowed the opportunity to be able to compete, you know,
organize teams when I was younger. Yeah. And then you saw Chris Evert and I
mentioned these two, I'm not a tennis player, you see leadership with Chris Evert. You
know, it was tennis that kind of got the TV exposure for women that men tend to take for
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granted that they had. So, here's the young girl and you know you're watching men play
baseball or football and you're like, well, I'm not a man and I'm not playing football. I
can't even play baseball because they won't allow girls to play baseball. This is when I
was younger. Yeah, so it was tennis. You saw tennis, you know, it's like, wow. So, I
remember seeing Chris Evert and I remember asking my mom and dad to buy me Chris
Evert racket. And I went out for the tennis team in 10th grade. And it was because of her.
So that's a leadership quality that, you know, to in be an inspiration, you know, to, to be
able to, you know, to inspire people and she never met me. I met her later, but you never
knew, you know. So, I think we can't be pigeonholed and leadership thinking it's a CEO
or the C-Suites. You know, I think leadership quality can be found at a lot of people that
haven't yet gotten to those employment positions.
For the women sharing these perspectives, iconic figures and societal influences created
major impacts on their outlook and perspectives in life. Whether it was Chris Evert, Billie Jean
King, Babe Dickerson Zaharius, or individuals in their lives who had negative opinions about
girls who were athletes; these moments and role models helped shaped them into the determined
women who fought to obtain their goals and pursue their passions.
Not all women however shared the same sentiments and passion on the impacts that Title
IX had on them as the women above did. A couple of the women discussed how they did not
really realize the impacts that Title IX had or that, in one woman’s case, did not understand, at
the time, that being among the first classes of women admitted to the University was
groundbreaking. She saw it just as an opportunity to get a “good education, play college
sports…and…a good foundation for whatever else she [I] does in life.” Many women, though
they did not realize that Title IX was such an important milestone, acknowledged the
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opportunities they were granted for higher education and to play their sport at the collegiate
level.
Developing Self
Northouse (2016) notes that self-confidence is a “trait that helps one to be a leader” (p.
24). Additionally, the LID model posits that self-efficacy and self-confidence are vital to
building a leadership identity (Komives et al., 2006). Every interviewee expressed gaining
confidence in some way or another and most attributed athletics to that growth. FFAs gained
self-confidence as young girls, playing and doing what boys could do in terms of athletics. That
confidence was further fostered by their parents through participation and encouragement.
Simply put one woman stated: “I think sport really solidified the confidence yeah and that's what
it does. I mean, I'm a huge advocate in girls playing sport.” Similarly, another woman
mentioned:
Sports was incredibly important to my self-esteem and my sense of self as a person and
as a leader, there's no question about it. I was really good at sports period. And it gave me
so much confidence. I used to play with the boys all the time after school. I’d play with
the boys at school, the sixth-grade teacher called my parents and said, ‘something's
wrong with your daughter, she’s playing with the boys at recess.’ Like I was obsessed
with running and competing and throwing balls, I just loved it. If I could have played
baseball, I would have been a baseball player, but you know, then it's like there was
nothing for me to do back then and I played basketball and I did gymnastics in middle
school, I was like, always the top of everybody doing those things. I was doing things on
the horse you know always doing things that other people couldn’t do. And it was it's
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just very empowering and it just gave me and then you know, I think it just gave me a lot
of self-confidence, self-awareness.
Two other women also mentioned “playing with the boys” when speaking about their
childhood and growing up playing sports. For both women, parents delivered positive
affirmations in their beliefs of their abilities and were supportive their interests in sport. One
woman recalled a conversation with her mother:
I said ‘mom, why can't I play baseball?’ And she didn't say because you're born a girl,
girls aren't allowed to play. She said, ‘because when you strike out on the boys, the
parents will have trouble dealing with it.’ And that was powerful. Yeah. Because it said, I
believe in your gifts and your talents, right? And you're going to be successful. Because
that's how good you are. Yeah, you know, what I mean, yeah. And that was powerful.
And so that is a leadership quality that was shaped my whole life with my mom.
The women’s general level of self-confidence was built early on with their experiences of
“playing with the boys” and then nurtured by their parents. This suggests that the women’s
generalized self-confidence as a result of parents and sports, may also attribute to their drive and
goal setting abilities (Chen et al., 2004; Luszczynska et al., 2005). The next section will expand
on the women’s opinions of their parents as influential figures in their development as leaders
and in their lives.
Supportive Environments
Parents and family members were mentioned by almost all women as important figures
and individuals who fostered the FFAs’ leadership development. Additionally, family was
mentioned by many as crucial support as the women progressed in their professional journeys
and as they continued to advance in their careers. Under the LID model, adult influences were
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important in building early self-confidence and “being an early building block of support”
(Komives et al., 2005). Komives et al. explains that as individuals advance, adults play a
different role, going from supportive, to role models, to mentors. Though parents were not a
focus of interview questioning, these conjectures were discussed by the women. Parents
continued to play that important “mentorship” role for some even into their professional careers.
However one woman said that her parents were very supportive of her as a child, but she “grew
past them about the moment she [I] set foot at University” and one woman out of the ten did not
mention parents at all in terms of support or influential figures in her growth as a person or
leader. Pointed questions about parents were not asked in the interviews. The interviewer
allowed the women to answer freely on who or what influenced their definitions of leadership.
One woman said “leadership really begins in your home, as you watch the interactions of
your parents. I think that's probably the first moment that we all have those leadership
experiences.” For her, and for a couple women, seeing how their parents dealt with adversity
and learning from those experiences shaped who they became and how they tackled situations.
Many women talked about how their parents never stifled their athletic talents or aspirations
while growing up, but always emphasized the importance of a good education. One woman said:
I will credit my parents with this sort of like, you’re going to school, you are getting an
education, because you can’t play sof-, not that they’re anti-softball, they were like this is
not how you make a living, which is true. And so it was like a point of pride to have
academic, conference honors, to graduate on time, to do all that stuff.
Many women also describe their parents as “leadership role models” and individuals
whom they’ve tried to emulate, “make happy,” or look to for advice. As previously reviewed,
one woman talked about her father’s influential words on dealing with diversity and how that
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impacted her as a person and as a leader. For many women these life lessons were influential to
their formative development, on through college, and later in their professional lives. As they
began to have families of their own, the women also mentioned the support of their families and
how that was important in their continued success and growth. Having that unconditional love
and support and while maintaining a healthy “work-life balance” was important in many
women’s professional lives.
Giving back
Somewhat related to the idea of socially responsible leadership, many FFAs mentioned
giving back to their institutions or that bringing up the next generation of women was important
to them. Contrary to research from Huntrods et al. (2017) most of the women in the study in fact
said that “you gotta pay it forward, especially as it pertains to women.” Though these ladies
were athletes, not all of them attributed their time in athletics to those sentiments. The woman
who uttered the phrase above attributed that knowhow to her parents and mentors in her
professional career. Another woman said that she identified in high school that she wanted to
play for a female coach “and was fortunate to play for two great female role models in college.”
Now, her professional career is built on mentoring young female coaches and helping young
women succeed. Another woman who works in business said:
I am a firm believer in paying it forward. I think that you know, you can have talent and
opportunity all you want. But luck does come into it. And, folks reaching out their hand
and giving you opportunities, you must give those back no matter what that looks like. So
I try to spend some private time with our younger female staff members, and just kind of
get a gauge on where they're at, and try to just listen and provide feedback too if they
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want and need that. But I think that that's extraordinarily not only important, but I think
it's required.
A few other FFAs did not only mention bringing up women, but they talked about
helping others in general succeed. Many women described the importance of being the leader
who puts people in “the right positions to succeed” or someone who is a “coach boss;” a boss
who if someone asks her a question on how to do something she will “ask you first what you
think you should do” because she “wants you to develop.” As it pertains to her athletic and
professional career, one woman said that “she reached a level of success in a very small part of
her life” and now her main goal is “helping others.” Another woman channeled her idea of
“giving back” into coaching outside of her professional career. She said:
You out there, go find something and be a part of something that's bigger than just you.
And that's your way of giving back. And that's your way of making an impact on the
world. And I think that one is the one that maybe the message that doesn't get out there
that much you know because you know for 20 years of your life it's been about just you
and hey be the best basketball player, volleyball player swimmer whatever. Be the best
that you can be and make your team better. But we never talked about okay but so now
what do you do after college because I mean you know, 80% of us will not going to be
professional athletes. And so what how do you translate? What do you do with all of that
motivation and passion about you and where do you turn your concern?
A couple of women talked about giving back to their university athletic programs, while
one who felt “unsupported” her last year. She had a tumultuous experience at her university’s
athletics program and remarked that she donates to the athletic department but “cuts a check to
the band” and nothing more. Another woman who spoke very highly of her university said:
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So you know, it truly for me, the experience at University and the entire athletic
experience really kind of shaped and molded who I became and my level of success.
And it also kind of molded how I give back because I think that's what completes the
circle. That's what brings everything you know, fully around is once you go out and do
whatever it is that you want to do, and you've reached that level of success you're trying
to reach, and you turn around and give back so that it doesn't end with you. And so that's
where I think I am in my life right now where I'm trying to do that give back portion.
And it really all started with, it didn't start with high school sports, although that's what
gave me opportunities, it really truly started with the opportunity I had at University.
This particular woman did not have the best head coach or supportive university. As a
walk-on she was not allowed to attend certain functions or events as they were for recruited
athletes only. However, her experiences with her teammates, the camaraderie that she
developed, and the physically and mentally grueling aspects of collegiate sports “molded who
she [I] became.” For these reasons she believes in the power of collegiate athletics and chooses
to give back to her institution in financial donations and as a speaker and mentor. For others,
mentors in their professional careers emphasized the importance of supporting the next
generation of professionals and women.
Finally, some women also expressed the idea that sports allowed them to be a part of
something bigger. One woman expressed that as an Olympian she could “fight for American
values.” Other women mentioned that for them, being on a collegiate team and contributing to
that legacy and a “tradition of excellence” was extremely important. Another woman remarked
that for her sports represented opportunities that were greater than just being able to play but
understanding that your actions can impact generations to come. She recalled watching women
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like Billie Jean King and thinking “how am I going to get either over the wall, through the wall,
or around it. How am I going to be able to open those doors of opportunities not just for myself
but for the future.”
Summary of Data
Data revealed that participation in collegiate sports accounted for just a portion of the
contributing factors that FFAs credited in their development as leaders. Parents and sports in
general were perceived as critical influencers in the development of FFAs determination, goal
setting, social perspectives, self-confidence, and socially responsible leadership. The interviews
revealed similarities in the LID framework in that development began prior to and continued
through college. Highlighted as a limitation of the LID model, this study also addresses the
lessons that FFAs learned post-collegiate athletics and into their professional lives (Komives et
al., 2009). The women expressed their gratitude for the mentors they had in their professional
lives who continued to challenge them and push them into further career leadership
opportunities. The collective experiences, to include the collegiate athletic journey, and the
internalization of those experiences contributed to FFAs’ efficacy as leaders.
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CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
In the limited body of research concerning leadership development of student-athletes,
studies are often conducted in the collegiate setting or immediately following graduation. This
research limits understandings of how leadership develops over time and may create false
pretenses with respect to collegiate athletics and development. Not all athletes will become
leaders, however as confirmed by the women in this study, sports taught them valuable lessons in
work ethic, overcoming adversity, and self-awareness. These crucial lessons formed the base of
their self-concept. Leadership identity and development formed as result of a gradual process of
self-awareness, clarity, and practice (Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Their persistence, goal setting, and
authentic approach to situations propelled the women in this study to success.
Discussion of Findings
Insights into the women leaders’ athletic journeys revealed significant parallels to
Komives et al.’s (2005) leadership identity development (LID) model. Lived experiences, both
positive and negative, of the women leaders uncovered critical insights into their meaning
making and mindsets. Five major themes emerged related to findings connecting the
development of a leadership identity and the collegiate sports experience. They are: 1) Elements
of the self, such as self-awareness and athletic identity, were further developed as a result of the
participation in collegiate athletics; 2) Teammates helped to establish interpersonal efficacy; 3)
Collegiate sports presented challenging situations and scenarios for the women leaders; 4) The
women leaders felt supported or safe while participating in collegiate sports; and 5) Participation
in collegiate sports exposed women leaders to varied leadership. The negotiation and movement
between these themes were demonstrated to have a significant impact on the FFAs.
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Leadership identity and leadership development were concurrent occurrences. The
women’s experiences of social and dynamic collaboration in a team environment aided in their
conceptualizations of what leadership is (Gemmill & Oakley, 1992). Synchronously, reflections
of their experiences promoted self-awareness, self-confidence and interpersonal efficacy
(Komives et al., 2005). Consistent with Shamir and Eilam (2005), leadership identity was also a
central component to the FFAs’ self-concept. Though the women’s participation in collegiate
athletics complements Komives et al.’s (2005) research in the creation of a leadership identity, it
also highlights the criticality of experience and learning from challenging situations. Challenges
and adverse situations were pivotal moments in the meaning making process that promoted
leadership growth and did not hinder it. These “crises” helped the women reflect on their own
practices and ultimately led to a greater sense of self-awareness and self-concept (Komives et al.,
2005). Simply being an athlete for many women aided in their self-confidence and
empowerment; giving them the courage and resilience to push through adversity (Krane et al.,
2004; Krane et al., 2010; Krane et al., 2014). That being said, influences before and after the
collegiate athletic experience were also crucial to women’s interpretations of adversity. The
women were active learners in their lives who used their multitude of experiences as a gradual
achievement of self-clarity (Shamir & Eilam, 2005).
The collegiate environment was a snapshot in time for which leadership and identity
development were cultivated. However, FFAs life stories rather than just the collegiate journey
paint a more dynamic picture of the complexities of the self. Additional influencers such as
parents, early sports experiences, social figures, and former bosses were all means by which
FFAs constructed their own conceptualizations of themselves; each experience building upon the
next creating an authentic self portrait of leadership. Themes representing leadership lessons and
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identity development were interwoven throughout the stories of the women emphasizing the
criticality of uncovering the women’s lived experiences as a whole (Shamir & Eilam, 2005).
Complementary Research Findings
This study was executed in concurrently with a separate researcher. The researchers
conducted the first four interviews together then each administered separate interviews with six
other leaders. One of the researchers’ interview questions was very similar, researching
leadership identity development. In sum, sixteen FFAs were interviewed in relation to their
perceptions of the collegiate athletic experience and leadership identity development. Both
researchers conducted interviews in semi-structured formats using interview questions as guides,
yielding rich data and lived experiences of the women. Data analysis of these interviews were
done separately by each researcher. Once the data was analyzed and composed, the researchers
exchanged findings.
Both studies yielded similar findings despite the differences in research questions and
different FFAs interviewed. Analogous themes were discovered such as coaches and teammates’
influences on leadership identity development, and collegiate sports’ contributions to self-
awareness, self-efficacy, teamwork, goal setting, and resilience. Sentiments discussed in both
studies revealed that women conceptualized their experiences as a collegiate athlete as
opportunities for growth and to practice their leadership. Experiences and individuals both
positive and negative were integral to FFAs leader identity development. Negative experiences
were not seen as barriers but critical moments from which to learn and grow.
The complementary researcher’s second research question asked: What experiences
empowered former female student-athletes to overcome stereotypes and discrimination which
could have been barriers to attaining leadership positions. Though the primary study did not
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focus on this particular research question, similar themes evolved through stories of the women’s
professional lives. One theme expressed in both studies were feelings of “otherness” or not
fitting in (Baugh, 2019). Both researchers found that the women’s collegiate athletic experiences
prepared them for the professional work environment in being the “only woman at the table.”
The women’s perceptions helped build their own sense of selves without feeling the need to
conform. Additionally, both studies uncovered themes of leadership and teamwork. Cultivating
relationships and environments that are inclusive and promote teamwork were fostered by their
participation in collegiate athletics and demonstrated through their leadership.
Finally, leadership lessons emerged from experiences outside of the collegiate
environment. In both studies early experiences such as those involving youth sports and parental
guidance built confidence and emphasized the importance of reflection, a critical component to
the learning process (Komives et al., 2005). Furthermore, experiences in FFAs’ professional
careers influenced their development and emphasized the importance of role modeling. Both
studies reported similar findings despite the differences in RQ2.
Implications
The data findings and analysis contribute to the body of literature on leadership,
leadership and sports, gender and leadership, leadership identity development, and collegiate
sports. The qualitative data provided rich descriptions of former female athletes’ experiences
with collegiate sports and how those experiences contributed to their leadership development and
the acquisition of a leadership identity. Though many LID studies used current university
students to measure leadership identity, this study demonstrates that LID may be used as a guide
to retroactively assess how leadership identity is developed in the context of college athletics
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(Komives et al., 2009). This section outlines the implications of this study in relation to previous
research, suggestions for student affairs, and collegiate athletics.
Research in sports and its relation to leadership development is relatively mixed. Some
studies have concluded that sports were actually a hindrance to development, citing that student-
athletes regressed in their leadership development after participating in collegiate sports, while
others found that participation in collegiate sports enhanced development (Galante & Ward,
2016; Grandzol et al., 2010; Hoffman et al., 2013; Huntrods et al., 2017; Jayakumar & Comeaux,
2016; Lindo et al., 2012; Matheson et al., 2012; Poole, 2017; Ryan, 1989; Shulman & Bowen,
2001). The current study adds to the body of research citing collegiate sports as influential to
leadership development. These findings are critical as the research in this area is limited. This
study also helps to clarify experiences that were influential to leadership identity development
from women who are successful leaders rather than current or newly graduated student-athletes
who have yet to embark on leadership positions in professional work environments (Hoffman et
al., 2013; Huntrods et al., 2017; Ryan, 1989). To date, the researcher has only found one study
that examines leadership development of former female athletes (Poole, 2017). The Ernst and
Young (2015) report sponsored by Ernst and Young and ESPN-W polled women on their
attributions to leadership success and provided anecdotal evidence for the positive contributions
sports provided to their leadership development. This study expanded upon the previous
research and delivered empirical evidence of the contributions of collegiate sports to former
female athletes who are now leaders in their prospective career fields.
Associations between collegiate sports and leadership also generates implications for
student affairs educators and future researchers. The LID model is a “useful framework for
formative assessment” and as such it can be used by educators or student affairs personnel for
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formal leadership studies (Komives et al., 2009). Komives et al., and Hamrick and Kinzie
(2017) address the limited research on leadership identity development but warn educators not to
use strict assessments and place students into boxes. Rather, the theory should be used to help
educators develop programs. This study along with other research specific to collegiate sports
participation and leadership development can help student affairs personnel create or improve
leadership programs. By understanding how successful leaders have interpreted their
experiences with collegiate athletics, university leadership programs can be tailored to athlete
needs based on empirical data, a practice that is expected of student affairs professionals
(Hamrick & Kinzie, 2017). Limited empirical research specifically pertaining to collegiate
sports and leadership development makes this difficult. Using evidenced and researched based
data tailored sports to inform the creation and maintenance of leadership development programs
can enhance current programs and foster a deeper understanding of leadership for student
athletes.
This study also has implications for university athletic departments and the importance of
coaching staffs for the wellbeing of athletes. One of the major findings from this study was the
emphasis that the leaders placed on how sports developed teamwork and interpersonal
communication. Athletic directors and university presidents should place a greater emphasis on
the coaching staff to not only be able to win games, but to encourage athletes to build healthy
forms of communication. The focus being that student-athletes will learn critical skills to thrive
in future workplace environments. Additionally, analogous to previous studies, climate matters
when assessing student outcomes (Rankin et al., 2016; Renn & Patton, 2017). Many women
perceived the culture and climate on their teams to be positive yet a handful of women believed
the opposite to be true. Though the women who perceived their collegiate climate as negative
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were still able to learn from those experiences, they did not have the most positive outlook on
aspects of their collegiate careers. This may have implications for women who perceive adverse
situations as barriers and who allow these situations to become hinderances in their lives (Diehl,
2014; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). With that said, it should be a priority for athletic departments to
emphasize training for their coaches and for coaches to foster athlete growth outside of just
college athletics.
Finally, this study found that parents and sports in general were important catalysts in
FFAs’ leadership and leadership identity development. The findings not only add to the growing
body of literature that correlates sports participation to self-confidence, self-esteem, and
leadership development (Galante & Ward, 2016; Grandzol et al., 2010; Hoffman et al., 2013;
Poole, 2017; Ryan, 1989). Experiences shared by the women on the impacts that sports had on
their lives and their leadership development will grow the body of research on the benefits of
sports. Additionally, the hope is that this research brings a greater level of understanding and
awareness to parents and educators of not just the health advantages, but life and leadership skills
that sports can foster in a child.
Areas of Future Research
Many studies have addressed athletics in terms of leadership development, however
studies fail to also connect motivational aspirations of participants, many of whom are still in
college or newly graduated (Huntrods et al., 2017; Jayakumar & Comeaux, 2016; Lindo et al.,
2012; Matheson et al., 2012; Poole, 2017; Ryan, 1989; Shulman & Bowen, 2001). Students in
the aforementioned studies may not have been motivated to aspire to positions of leadership, thus
leadership was not something they attempted to focus on while in college. Though this research
was also not focused on understanding motivations of a population, since it was assumed that
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leaders in this study were highly motivated, this is an area of research that is still lacking in
understanding collegiate athletes and their motivations with respect to leadership development.
Research in the area of leadership development and sports also often focuses on captains
of teams. Studies have been mixed in this area with some finding that captainship increases
opportunities and likelihood that individuals will develop leadership skills (Grandzol et al.,
2010). While others argue that both captains and non-captains in the sports environment have
opportunities for leadership development (Duguay et al., 2016; Fransen et al., 2014; Loughead et
al., 2006; Navarro, 2015). This study supported findings of the later as about half of the
participants noted that they were acknowledged as captains on their collegiate teams, however
with the limited population size more research must be done to understand how leadership is
fostered and developed in female student-athletes who are not named captains of their teams.
Another factor for understanding student-athlete development is the types of sports that
women compete in. This study grouped all women together and did not differentiate or compare
and contrast women from individual versus team sports. Studying this distinction further may
aid in understanding the dynamics of team, competition, and team competition and may offer
further insights. Additionally, distinguishing between revenue and non-revenue generating
sports may also produce varied results as this may introduce additional considerations such as
funding, media coverage, professional opportunities in these sports, etc. Similarly, gender may
pose similar considerations in development. Understanding how leadership identity is developed
in other genders should be studied further to aid in curriculum development of university
leadership programs. Furthermore, additional studies should include populations with more
people of color to continue to build inclusive research. Diverse students experience higher
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education differently therefore it is imperative to continue to tell those stories to build a more
comprehensive understanding of the complexities of leadership identity development.
Finally, this study featured women who attended college in the late 1970s through the
mid-1990s with one woman attending college in the early 2000s. The landscape of collegiate
athletics has changed dramatically from the 1970s to the early 2000s, and again for the
populations today. There may be issues that the women in the 1970s faced, that are no longer
issues for the women in collegiate athletics today. Research grouping women by the decade in
which they graduated from college may further illuminate societal issues of the time and the
impacts those issues have had on leadership development. Furthermore, longitudinal studies that
follow female student-athletes from graduation would provide a more comprehensive picture of
the attribution of sport to growth and leadership development. A longitudinal study would also
address the limitations of this study in which the extended time between graduation and
attainment of the leadership positions would cause the women to miss or alter details.
Additionally, such a study may also capture the nuances in meaning making from year to year
highlighting the complexities of lived experiences and construction of self-concept.
Conclusions
The female leaders in this study were chosen based on the positions of leadership they
held or previously held at the time of the study. By their positions of power, it was assumed that
these leaders were excellent portraits of female leaders. Their actual leadership and assessments
of what others thought of them as leaders were not accounted for. Throughout the study women
mentioned leaders such as head coaches and administrators whom they did not believe were
good leaders, yet they held positions of power. If leadership is categorized as a social process in
which leadership is granted by followers then one could argue that obtaining the best leaders for
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the study would also include narratives from individuals who worked with them attesting to their
credibility as leaders (Gemmill & Oakley, 1992).
Additionally, because this study’s population are female leaders who have garnered top
positions it ignores all other women who may have played on varsity teams in college who did
not obtain leadership positions for whatever reason. This study was not focused on the subject of
motivation; however, analysis of the interviews uncovered some themes related to motivation as
potential factors in FFAs’ ability or willingness to push through adverse situations in pursuit of
their goals. The study also does not address overall motivations to attain leadership positions
(Diehl, 2014; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Some female athletes may not be motivated to use the
knowledge that they may have gained through sport toward positions of leadership. One
possible explanation for the population studied is that these women were already inclined toward
leadership and were driven to obtain these positions no matter what obstacles were in their way.
The study was mainly focused on understanding how sport may have helped FFAs in their
leadership development process, however more research should be done to further understand
how motivation and mindsets factor into leadership development of female student-athletes.
Based on the population sought for this study, women in top leadership positions, most of
the leaders attended college in the 1970s and 1980s. Two women graduated in the mid-1990s
and early 2000s. Since the 1970s, collegiate sports have seen enormous growth especially with
regard to women’s sports. The decades in which these women competed are vastly different than
the women who compete in collegiate sports today. These differences include coaching
expertise, funding, as well as the social acceptability of female athletes. These factors may play
a role in future populations of study. The female leader who graduated college in the 1970s may
have a vastly different understanding of their collegiate athletic experiences than the female
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athlete who graduates in college in the 2010s. Therefore, the results of this study must be taken
cautiously when researching leadership development of a newer graduated population of female
leaders. Furthermore, the length of time in which many of these women graduated college until
now may have caused some women to inadvertently forget or alter events and stories. FFAs may
also look back on their time in sports and leadership lessons they garnered more favorably
because of their successes. Again, this study is limited to successful women leaders’ views of
how collegiate athletics promoted their leadership development. A larger sample size or other,
former female athletes who may not have been so successful in their careers may have differing
opinions of their collegiate athletic experiences.
The researcher attempted to recruit a diverse population of women in the study, but were
only successful in obtaining two women of color. Additionally, one woman mentioned sexual
orientation. This, however, was not a major focal point of her interview or of her leadership
identity development. Research has shown that diverse students experience higher education
differently than white students (Gurin et al., 2002). Melendez (2009) further contends that
experiences may be felt and internalized differently for student athletes of color depending on
demographic and other factors in the university setting. Many women in this study mentioned
dealing with diversity in some way or another, however only one woman mentioned a specific
instance where she had to deal with her own race in college. The population was too limited to
make generalizations of how students of color viewed their leadership and leadership identity
development.
The women’s lived experiences revealed the criticality of understanding their stories and
the meaning they make from those events. Collegiate sports team participation was viewed an
opportunity for leadership development. Simultaneously, self-conceptions consistent with
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leadership identities began to form as a result of the numerous situations sports exposes athletes
to. Beyond participation in collegiate sports, early childhood experiences and support systems
greatly contributed to mindsets, resilience, and meaning making; and then again post-college,
bosses and role models significantly impacted further development. Leadership and leadership
identity development is an ongoing and continuous process. Childhood and early adulthood
experiences are critical; they form the foundation in which leaders grow. However, leaders must
continue to be open to new experiences and to learn from positive as well as negative encounters.
Not all athletes are leaders and not all student-athletes who demonstrate leadership in college
will become leaders in their professional careers. Research of just a collegiate athletic career
presents an incomplete picture of the journey of a successful woman leader. It is critical to
understand how leadership identity is formed through collegiate athletics, but research must also
include the lived experiences of women in their professional careers to fully understand
leadership and leadership identity development.
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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (FIRST FOUR)
Former Female Student-Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaches and Teammates Role in
Leadership Identity Development
Date ___________________________
Time ___________________________
Location ________________________
Interviewer ______________________
Interviewee ______________________
I. Introduction (Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity, Permission to
Record):
Good (Morning/Afternoon) we would like to thank you again for sitting down with Stephanie
[Carly] and I to discuss the topic of leadership. The interview should take no more than two
hours.
Before we get started, we want to tell you a little bit about our study and answer any questions
you might have about participating in this interview. We are doctoral students at the University
of Southern California. We both used to be student athletes, Steph played soccer at KU and I
was a swimmer at the Air Force Academy, and we always believed that the experiences and
opportunities we had as athletes were important in developing us into who we are today. There
are a few anecdotal stories and articles linking athletics to women’s successes but we are
interested in digging a little deeper. We are meeting with former female collegiate athletes who
have been successful and inspirational leaders in male dominated industries and are studying
how their experiences as a collegiate athlete influenced their leadership development, identity,
and how this experience may have empowered them to overcome some stereotypes they may
have encountered as a “female leader.”
This interview is confidential. Your name and the perspectives you provide will not be shared
with anyone outside of my research team. The goal of this interview is to understand your
perspectives and not to judge.
Some of your words may be used as direct quotes in the final report, however none of this data
will be directly attributed to you. To protect your confidentiality, we will not use your name in
our reports, and will try our best to de-identify any other information. We are happy to provide
you a copy of the final report, if you are interested.
We will be taking notes throughout the interview and we will be using a phone to record, so that
we can accurately capture your thoughts and opinions. The recording is solely for our purposes
to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the research
team. Would you mind if we record our session? Do you have any questions about the study
before we get started? If you don’t have any (more) questions let’s begin the interview.
II. Understanding the FFAs background and relationship with her coaches
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 190
First, I’d like to start by asking you some questions about your coaches during your athletic
career.
• Can you tell me about your career in athletics?
• How would you describe your collegiate athletic career?
• Can you describe the relationships you had with your coaches on your collegiate team
specifically?
• In what ways do you feel like you were shaped, if at all, by your coaches?
• Do you feel like your coaches helped foster your leadership?
• Can you describe an example of something they did?
III. Understanding relationships with teammates
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about your leadership experiences with your
teammates.
• Can you describe the relationships you had with your teammates?
• Can you describe the teammates that you had, who you considered leaders on your team?
• Were there more leaders than just your team captains? Can you describe them?
• Did you feel like those teammates helped shape your own leadership style?
• Can you describe that style?
• Did you or your teammates identify you as a leader of the team?
• How were you able to practice your leadership skills in the athletic setting?
• How have these skills translated outside of sports? If at all?
IV. Understanding challenges as a professional
I’d like to now ask you some questions about your experiences that have helped you reach
your leadership position.
• As an athlete, did you feel there was an appropriate way to act?
• As an athlete, did you feel different from other women?
• How did you feel when you first entered a formal work environment?
• Did you perceive a perhaps unwritten way of behaving? Was it restricting or
empowering? Was it different from how you felt when you competed?
• Do you feel as if there’s a certain way you should lead?
• Did you feel you had to change in any way to be more effective?
• Do you feel your gender played a role?
• Would you describe a good leader?
• Do you feel there are differences between women and men leaders?
• Recently, women have attained more leadership positions in collegiate athletics, do you feel
as if athletics is more accepting of female leaders?
V. Closing Question (Anything else to add)
That was the last question that I have for today, is there anything that you would like to add to
our conversation today that I might not have covered?
VI. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 191
Thank you so much for talking with me today! I really appreciate your time and willingness to
share your experiences and thoughts on leadership. If I find myself with a follow-up question,
would you mind if I contact you? Does email work? Again, thank you for your time.
VII. Post interview summary and reflection
[ADD shortly after each interview]
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 192
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Former Female Student-Athletes’ Perceptions of Coaches and Teammates Role in
Leadership Identity Development
Date ___________________________
Time ___________________________
Location ________________________
Interviewer ______________________
Interviewee ______________________
I. Introduction (Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity, Permission to
Record):
Good (Morning/Afternoon) I would like to thank you again for sitting down with me to discuss
the topic of leadership. This interview should take no more than two hours.
Before we get started, we want to tell you a little bit about our study and answer any questions
you might have about participating in this interview. I am a doctoral student at the University of
Southern California. I used to be a student athlete and was a swimmer at the Air Force
Academy. I personally believe that my experiences and opportunities that I had as an athlete
were important in developing me into who I am today. There are a few anecdotal stories and
articles linking athletics to women’s successes but I am interested in digging a little deeper. We
are meeting with former female collegiate athletes who have been successful and inspirational
leaders in male dominated industries and are studying how their experiences as a collegiate
athlete influenced their leadership development, identity, and how these experiences may have
empowered them on their leadership journey.
This interview is confidential. Your name and the perspectives you provide will not be shared
with anyone outside of my research team. The goal of this interview is to understand your
perspectives and not to judge.
Some of your words may be used as direct quotes in the final report, however none of this data
will be directly attributed to you. To protect your confidentiality, I will not use your name in my
report, and will try my best to de-identify any other information. I am happy to provide you a
copy of the final report, if you are interested.
I will be taking notes throughout the interview and with your consent, will be using a recording
device to record, so that I can accurately capture your thoughts and opinions. The recording is
solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone
outside the research team. Would you mind if I record our session? Do you have any questions
about the study before I get started? If you don’t have any (more) questions let’s begin the
interview.
II. Understanding the FFAs’ experience.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 193
First, I’d like to start by asking about leadership.
• How do you define a leader or leadership?
o What experiences and/or who shaped your definition? Please provide an example.
Now, I’d like to start by asking you some questions about your experiences as a female athlete
at [insert college name].
• How would you describe your collegiate experience as a student-athlete?
• With that in mind, how would you describe your relationships you had with your coaches?
o Can you describe their style of leadership?
• Do you feel like your coaches helped foster your leadership development?
o YES – Can you give me an example of how they helped foster?
o NO – Would you say their coaching style/leadership or lack of leadership was
influential to your definition?
• Moving on to your teammates, how would you describe your relationship with your
teammates?
o Would you say that there were clear leaders on your team? Team captains?
o Were you a team captain?
o YES – As team captain did you feel like you were a leader on your team?
Can you describe?
o NO – Did you still feel like you had opportunities to lead?
o Did you feel like, as a college athlete, you had time to practice your leadership
skills?
o Reflect on leadership?
• Looking back, what were some of the lessons you learned through sport as a collegiate
athlete?
o Do those lessons still resonate with you?
o How do you think those lessons informed your career as a professional?
• If you could choose three top lessons learned from collegiate athletics what would they be?
V. Closing Question (Anything else to add)
That was the last question that I have for today, is there anything that you would like to add to
our conversation today that I might not have covered?
VI. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
Thank you so much for talking with me today! I really appreciate your time and willingness to
share your experiences and thoughts on leadership. If I find myself with a follow-up question,
would you mind if I contact you? Does email work? Again, thank you for your time.
VII. Post interview summary and reflection
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 194
[ADD shortly after each interview]
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 195
APPENDIX C: CONSENT FORM
Study Title:
Principal Investigator:
IRB Study Number:
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by two students in their second year
of a doctoral program (Ed.D) at the University of Southern California in the Rossier School of
Education. This form contains pertinent information detailing the purpose of this study, what
will be required of you as a participant and your rights, and how we will use the information that
you share.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the impact that the collegiate athletic experience has
on the leadership development and attainment of senior leadership positions of former female
athletes (FFA). Over the past five years, there has been a growing awareness that women in
leadership positions, specifically the C-suite, were former athletes. Although there is heightened
awareness of a possible correlation, research on the impact of collegiate athletics on former
female athletes and their leadership development has been lacking. The following research
questions guide the study:
• How does the collegiate athletic experience influence current and former female student-
athletes’ (FFAs) leadership development?
• How do FFAs feel their interactions with coaches and teammates influenced their
leadership identity development?
Participant Involvement
As a participant in the following, your participation will entail:
• One (1) in-person interview lasting no more than 2 hours will be conducted in a secure,
quiet and familiar setting to the participant;
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 196
• Prompts will be provided prior to the interview so that the participant can reflect before
the discussion;
• The interview will be audio recorded and the interviewer will take notes. All data
(recordings and notes) will be confidential and securely stored in a locked file cabinet. I
may quote your remarks as part of findings from the study. A pseudonym will be used to
protect your identity, unless you specifically request that you be identified with your true
name.
Possible Risks or Discomforts
To the best of our knowledge, participation in this study does not involve any more risk of harm
than may be encountered in everyday life. Please note, the interviewer will ask about personal
experiences and the impact of gendered stereotypes on your career trajectory.
• If you feel uncomfortable at any point, please inform the interviewer if you wish to not
answer the question, take a break or stop the interview.
As with all research, there is a chance that despite all efforts to ensure confidentiality, the
information that we collect could be breach. We will take all necessary steps to minimize risks
(see below for more details).
Possible Benefits
This study is designed to understand the impact of the collegiate athletic experience on female
athletes. Thus, you likely will not receive a direct, personal benefit.
Use of Information and Privacy Rights
The researchers will avoid collecting information that may harm participants and will do their
best to de-identify all information (Creswell, 2014) All raw data will be stored in a secure
location. Recorded interviews will be coded with the date and location; the name of the
participant will not be used. Results from this study will be reported as findings in a dissertation
and may be used in future scholarly publications.
Financial Information
Participation in this study will involve no cost to you nor will you be compensated for
participating.
Participant Rights
Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right to not answer any question. If at any
time and for any reason you would prefer not to participate in this study you may stop
participating. You have the right to take a break or stop at any point during the interview. You
may withdraw from the study at any point. Please note, if you choose to withdraw from this
study, you will be asked if the information previously collected may be used.
If you have any questions about your rights as a participant in this research you can contact the
following office at the University of Southern California:
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 197
University Park Institutional Review Board (UP IRB)
University of Southern California
3720 South Flower Street #301
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702
Phone: (213) 821-5272
Email: upirb@usc.edu
The University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. Members of
HSPP may access collected data in their oversight capacity.
Investigator Contact Information
Principal Investigator:
Carly Omizo
Dissertation Committee Chair:
Margo Pensavalle
Rossier School of Education
You will be given a copy of this form to keep for your records.
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions I asked. I consent
to take part in the study.
Your Signature ___________________________________ Date ________________________
Your Name (printed) ____________________________________________________________
In addition to agreeing to participate, I also consent to having the interview audio recorded.
Your Signature ___________________________________ Date _________________________
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 198
Signature of person obtaining consent _________________________________Date__________
Printed name of person obtaining consent ____________________________ Date ___________
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP 199
APPENDIX D: PARTICIPANT INFORMATION FORM
*Adapted from Google Worksheet
Study: The impact of collegiate athletics on leadership development and attainment
• Email Address:
• Phone Number:
• What college/university(ies) did you attend?
• What sport/sports did you play inn college?
• What division did you compete in?
• How many years did you compete? 1, 2, 3, 4, other?
• Were you the captain or co-captain of your team? Yes or no?
• If you were a team captain, how many years did you serve as captain or co-captain?
1, 2, 3, 4?
• Where did you grow up? (City, State)
• What gender do you identify as? Female, Male, Prefer not to answer?
• What is your race/ethnicity? White alone, Black or African American alone,
American Indian or Alaska Native alone, Asian alone, Native Hawaiian and Other
Pacific Islander alone, Some other race alone, Two or more races?
Abstract (if available)
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Omizo, Carly Aiko
(author)
Core Title
Women and leadership: an analysis of collegiate athletics and contributions to leadership
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/23/2019
Defense Date
05/06/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Athletics,collegiate athlete,collegiate sports,Female,female leader,former female athlete,intercollegiate athletics,Leader,leadership,leadership development,leadership identity,leadership identity development,OAI-PMH Harvest,Sports,Women
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Hasan, Layla (
committee chair
), Pensavalle, Margo (
committee chair
), Creasia, Cathy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
carly.omizo@gmail.com,omizo@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-185545
Unique identifier
UC11660549
Identifier
etd-OmizoCarly-7573.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-185545 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-OmizoCarly-7573.pdf
Dmrecord
185545
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Omizo, Carly Aiko
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
collegiate athlete
collegiate sports
female leader
former female athlete
intercollegiate athletics
leadership development
leadership identity
leadership identity development