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Promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going culture: a charter-school case study

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Content COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 1

Promising Practices to Promote and Sustain A

College-Going Culture: A Charter-School Case Study

by

Traci L. Calhoun

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

© 2019 Traci L. Calhoun

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 2

Acknowledgements

A special thank you to Dr. Kathy Stowe, my dissertation chair, for her guidance,
structure, and demand for excellence throughout this process. I am grateful that she truly pushed
me to do my best work. Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Ahmadi and Dr. Malloy for
serving on my committee and offering their time and expertise.
I must acknowledge my dissertation group members for being true partners throughout
this process -Vicki, Jeremy, Luz, Consuelo, and Sal. Your humor and positivity was invaluable. I
would also like to acknowledge all of my USC colleagues for their support, encouragement,
feedback, and laughs throughout this journey.
Finally, thank you to all of my friends and family (too many to name) who have
encouraged me throughout the past three years. I am incredibly grateful to all of you.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 3
Dedication

“I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me (Phillipians, 4:13)!” Thanks be to
God for giving me the opportunity and strength to successfully complete this part of my
educational journey. HE kept me… and for that, I am grateful.
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First and foremost, a special thanks to my
mother, Donna Clay, and grandmother, Rebecca Haley. I am extremely grateful for your
unwavering love and support. You taught me that I could do and be anything! The two of you
are truly the wind beneath my wings.
Additionally, thank you to my amazing siblings. Shannon and Jason, you have been my
cheering squad and biggest supporters. I am humbled by your belief in me and honored to be
your big sister. This journey would have been incomplete without your encouragement and love.
Also, this dissertation is dedicated to my nephews Ronnie W. Martin III and the Clay
boys. Jason II and Akcire, you are my angels and have been the inspiration for this work. My
desire is for all schools to be college-going cultures that are ready to provide you, and other
children like you, with an environment in which you are able to soar and reach your full potential
while preparing for college acceptance and success. Thank you both for keeping me filled with
joy and laughter during this entire process. I love the three of you with all of my heart and know
that you will make a transformational multi-generational change in this world.
Finally, this dissertation is dedicated in memory of my father and brother, Ronnie W.
Martin Sr. and Ronnie W. Martin Jr. I know that you would both have your heads held high
while beaming with pride and joy about my accomplishment. This is for the Martins!
“For real…For real.” – Ron Ron

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………..2
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………3
Tables……………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Figures……….…………………………………………………………………………………....8
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..….9
Chapter One: Introduction.………………………………………………………………………11
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………...20
Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………..........21
Significance of the Study…………………………...........................................................22
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………23
Limitations and Delimitations ……………………………………………………………24
Organization of the Study………………………………………………………………..25
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………………25
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………………...27
Equity and College Access………………………………………………………………29

College Enrollment and Degree Attainment……………………………………………..30
Social Capital and Access to College……………………………………………………31
Family Engagement, College-Going Culture, and College Attainment…………………40
Summary……………………………………...…………………………………..……...44
Chapter Three: Methodology………………..…………………………………………….……..46
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………46
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 5
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………….47
Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………………….49
Research Design…………………………………………………………………………49
Sample and Population…………………………………………………………………..52
Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………………..55
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………..56
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….57
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………58
Chapter Four: Results……………………………………………………………………………59

Overview of Participants…………………………………………………………………60

Overview of the Organization……………………………………………………………63

Findings Research Question 1: What perceived strategies do school leaders
at Sunshine High School employ to promote a college-going culture?.............................63

Theme 1: Leader’s Role in Creating a School Culture…………………………..64

Theme 2: Leader’s Role in Building College Knowledge……………………….69

Theme 3: Leader’s Role in Ensuring All Students Have Access
to Rigorous Academics…………………………………………………………..83

Findings for Research Question 2: What perceived challenges
do school leaders at Sunshine High School encounter in sustaining
a college-going culture?.....................................................................................................97

Theme 5: Workload Demands of Staff…………………………………………..97
Theme 6: Students’ Feelings of Self-Doubt or Complacency………………….100
Theme 7: Students’ Alignment with the Mission of Sunshine High...…………101
Chapter Five: Summary………………….……………………………………………………..105
Implications for Practice and Policy…………………...……………………………110
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 6
Recommendations for Future Research…………………………...………………...115
References………………………………………………………………………………………119
Appendix A. Interview Participant Letter………………………………………………………135

Appendix B. Interview Protocol for Administrators……………………………………………136

Appendix C. Interview Protocol for Teachers and Counselors………………………………...138

Appendix D. Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions Aligned to Research Questions...…….140

Appendix E. Observation Protocol……………………………………………………………..141

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 7

List of Tables
Table Page
1. Increase in Enrollment and Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred
Between 2002 and 2013 By Race and Ethnicity……………..………………………………31

2. Research Questions as Instrumentation……………………………………………………...56
3. Participant Descriptions…………………………………………………………………...…62

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 8
List of Figures

Figure Page
1. Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………………………50
2. Creswell’s (2014) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis…………………………………….57
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Abstract

The main function of a school is to prepare students to become contributing members of
society. Individuals with a college degree have greater job opportunities, earn higher
incomes, actively participate in civic engagement, and have a better quality of life.
Education plays a particularly critical role in ending cycles of poverty and creating a
pathway to economic self-sustainability for low-income and under-represented students.
Yet, an achievement gap exists in college enrollment and graduation for the students who
need it most. Research clearly shows the need for high schools to establish college-going
cultures that encourage students to pursue post-secondary education. These cultures
promote college talk, build student social capital, provide counseling, challenge students
with rigorous work, and engage parents in the education process. Like other school
reform initiatives, establishing a college-going culture requires principal leadership.
School is one of many systems that influence the achievement of low-income and under-
represented students. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory provided an ideal model
for studying the interdependent systems that promote college-going cultures. The study
used a qualitative case-study design to examine the strategies of school leaders to
promote and sustain college-going culture at a California charter high school. The
research explored barriers and promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going
culture for low-income and under-represented students. Most important, this study
provided a roadmap for low-income and under-represented students to learn and thrive in
a college-going culture, providing access for these students to permanently end the
generational cycles of poverty for themselves and their children.
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Keywords: students, high school students, college-going, college talk, college culture,
social capital, principals, leadership, multigenerational change, low-SES,
underrepresented, strategies, practices, California, charter school, Bronfenbrenner

PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

The main function of a school is to prepare students to become contributing
members of society who lead productive lives (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2004; Malin &
Hackmann, 2017; Putnam, 2016). Therefore, primary and secondary schools must
provide students with the skills and knowledge they need for success in college and the
workplace (Malin & Hackmann, 2017; Putnam, 2016; Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca,
2009). District and school leaders hold the primary responsibility for creating learning
environments that ensure student success for all students.
Although the desire to attend college has increased significantly among high
school students over the years, a wide gap exists for low-income and under-represented
students compared to their White peers when it comes to college access, readiness, and
success (Chen, 2017; Malin & Hackmann, 2017; Roderick, Nagaoko & Coca, 2009). In
other words, more students aspire to college but are not college-ready.
Couturier (2006) argued that individuals with bachelor's degrees were more likely
to receive better employment benefits, earn higher incomes, enjoy better working
conditions, and have access to greater professional and personal opportunities than
individuals without a bachelor’s degree. U.S. Department of Education data from 2015
showed that 25 to 34-year-old college graduates earned double the salary compared to
adults of a similar age without a college degree (USDoE, 2017a). Additionally, 25 to 34-
year-old high school graduates earned 22% more than adults of a similar age without a
high school diploma. Level of education unequivocally impacts economic rewards and
financial status.
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Chen (2017) further revealed that people over 25 without a high school diploma
had the highest rates of unemployment. In 2016, the unemployment rate for those without
a high school diploma was 7.4%, nearly double the general unemployment rate of 4.0%.
The unemployment rate was 5.2% for those with a high school diploma and 2.7% for
those with a bachelor’s degree (Chen, 2017). Educational attainment has a strong
influence not just on financial rewards but on the access to employment itself.
In addition to economic opportunity, recipients of bachelor’s degrees experience a
better quality of life than those without degrees (Couturier, 2006; Malin & Hackmann,
2017; Putnam, 2016). Globally, people with college degrees are more likely to contribute
to a nation's workforce; pay taxes; and engage in social, civic, and charitable activities
(Couturier, 2006). The benefits of obtaining a high school diploma and college degree are
undisputable (Perna, 2015). Yet, not all high schools have a culture that promotes
college-going. While schools do not exist free from the constraints of the larger socio-
political and economic environments, the final responsibility for promoting college-going
culture and students success lies firmly with school leadership.
It is estimated that 22% of American businesses do not have enough qualified
applicants to fill open positions (Peterson, Woessmann, Hanushek, & Lastra-Anadon,
2011). Moreover, by the year 2020, 65% of jobs are estimated to require post-secondary
training and education, half of which will demand at least a four-year degree (Carnevale,
Smith, & Strohl, 2013; Dyce, Albold, & Long, 2013). Providing students with access to
post-secondary education is critical to their success in our increasingly competitive, 21st
century global workplace. The current trajectory of college graduation rates is projected
to lead to a shortage of 16 million to 23 million college-educated adults in the U.S.
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workforce by 2030 (Lumina, 2009; Moore, Bridgeland, & Dilulio, 2010; Johnson, Mejia,
& Bohn, 2015). This affects not just those without college degrees but the strength of the
American economy and our global competitiveness. School leaders would benefit
society as a whole if they were to more proactively take on the role of promoting college-
going culture and post-secondary degree attainment.
The Academic Achievement Gap
A historical achievement gap exists in high school completion rates for Whites
and their Black and Hispanic counterparts (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016; USDoE, 2017b).
Statistics from the United States Department of Education (2017a) revealed that 83% of
the freshman class from the 2013-2014 school year, the most recent cohort of graduating
high school students, graduated with a high school diploma in four-years. Broken down
by race and ethnicity, 88% of White students graduated compared to 76% of low-income
and under-represented students (USDoE, 2017a).
For the purposes of this study, low socio-economic status was defined as
qualifying for free or reduced school lunch. These guidelines are set by the United States
Department of Agriculture and the Federal government. Students living in a four-person
household with an annual income of $31,980 or less qualified for free meals. Students
living in a four-person household with an annual income between $38,981 and $45,510
qualified for reduced-price meals (FNS, 2017).
Low graduation rates coupled with high levels of poverty create barriers to the
future success of under-represented students and speak to the need for secondary schools
that promote a college-going culture to encourage post-secondary college enrollment,
college graduation, and career success. (Amaro-Jimenez & Hungerford-Kresser, 2013;
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

14
Bosworth, Convertino, & Hurwitz, 2014; Martinez & Welton, 2014). When school
leadership neglects to address these barriers to success, they are failing to lead
effectively. This is not to say that school leaders are entirely responsible for or have the
power to single-handedly battle poverty.
In 2015, the rate of college enrollment immediately following high school
graduation was 70% for Whites, 67% for Hispanics, and 63% for Blacks (Chen, 2017).
This disparity in college enrollment rates was impacted by the extent to which students
are prepared for entry into post-secondary education and students’ exposure to a college-
going culture in high school.
According to the United States Department of Education (USDoE, 2017a), 17
million undergraduates were enrolled in degree granting post-secondary institutions in
2017. Of the 17 million students enrolled, 9.3 million (54.7%) were White, 3 million
(17.6%) were Hispanic, and 2.3 (13.5%) were million Black. Although many students
were pursuing post-secondary education, many Black and Hispanic students, as well as
students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, were persistently not prepared for four-
year universities (USDOE, 2017b).
The Achievement Gap in California
Statistics from National Center of Education Statistics (Chen, 2017) demonstrated
that a similar gap existed in California for graduation rates between White students and
their low-income, under-represented peers. Analysis of statistics revealed that for the
graduating class of 2013-2014, 88% of White students graduated compared to just 78%
of their low-income, under-represented peers (Chen, 2017).
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The University of California system and the California State University system
have entrance requirements known as A-G requirements. Analysis of 2015 data from the
California Department of Education revealed that 52% of White high school graduates
completed all required courses for entrance into these systems compared to 34% of Black
graduates and 37% of Hispanic graduates. This represents a gap of 18 and 15 points,
respectively, between White students and their Black and Hispanic counterparts (CLAO,
2016). These disparities between White students and under-represented students parallels
national enrollment in post-secondary education.
Many efforts have been made to better prepare students for post-secondary
education, including college counseling and intervention programs. However, for low-
income and under-represented students, there has been little increase in college
enrollment (Bosworth et al., 2014; Nora & Crisp, 2009). Post-secondary school
enrollment rates for Whites have been higher than the rates for their under-represented
counterparts each year since 2005-2015 (Chen, 2017). The overall enrollment rate for
low-income students in post-secondary education in 2017 was only 67%, compared to
83% for their higher income counterparts (Chen, 2017). The White-Hispanic gap in post-
secondary enrollment rate decreased during the decade between 2005 and 2015, from
18% to 5% (Chen, 2017). However, there was no significant change in the White-Black
gap during this same period (Chen, 2017). Yet, college aspirations, the desire to attend
college, remained high for all students (Bosworth et al., 2014).
The Importance of a College-Going Culture
Research clearly shows the need for high schools to establish college-going
cultures in order to encourage students to pursue post-secondary education (Amaro-
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Jimenez & Hungerford-Kresser, 2013; Bosworth et al., 2014; Martinez & Welton, 2014).
These cultures are created in response to commitment from school leaders who have
taken personal and professional responsibility for creating cultures of high-achievement.
For the purposes of the current research study, a “college-going culture” is
defined as a school environment in which going to college is an expectation for all, and
students find help and encouragement from multiple sources to prepare them with the
knowledge needed to be successful in college (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Holland &
Farmer-Hinton, 2009; McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002). Students who are
raised in a college-going culture have the expectation that they will attend college. A
student may be prepared for college success but not pursue a post-secondary degree
because they have no expectation of going to college. These students may never achieve
their full human potential.
The terms “college-going culture” and “college readiness” are often interchanged.
However, “college readiness” is not just an expectation of going to college. It refers to
the level of preparation a student needs in order to enroll in college and succeed without
remediation (Conley, 2007). Students who are college-ready have the skills and
knowledge to be successful in college and, ideally, complete on-time graduation. A
student may have been raised in a college-going culture but lack the necessary college-
ready skills. These students are more at-risk for enrolling in college but failing to earn a
college degree or spending extra semesters in remedial classes. These students often
accumulate avoidable college debt, debt which is harder for them to pay off without the
extra income that typically comes with a college degree. This often limits their lifetime
earning potential and quality of life.
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Some researchers have approached college readiness with a framework that
promotes four college-going skills, academic and interpersonal, necessary to be
successful in college (Conley, 2007; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2009). These four
college-going skills are: (1) content-area knowledge and basic academic skills, which are
foundational skills needed to comprehend specific disciplines; (2) core academic skills,
those skills that allow students to engage analytically across a variety of disciplines; (3)
non-cognitive skills, like self-control and self-monitoring; and (4) college knowledge, or
the information, capital, skills, and capacity to look for and apply to college as well as to
understand the culture of college (Roderick et al., 2009). The current research study
focused on college-going culture in which the elements of college-readiness are
embedded.
The Impact of Schools on College Aspirations
Bosworth et al. (2014) posited that college aspiration was the first step in the
process of college planning. A survey of over 3,700 low-income 11th graders revealed
that between 89% and 100% reported an interest in attending college (Berzin, 2010).
According to Deil-Amen and Tevis (2010), most students, in spite of their backgrounds,
reported aspirations to attend college. However, low-income students often lack the
knowledge of the specific steps to achieve the goal of college enrollment (Deil-Amen &
Tevis, 2010). This is a significant foundation for school leaders to build upon in
promoting a college-going culture.
Schools play an enormous role in providing supports for low-income and under-
represented students who aspire to attend college (Carey, 2016). A culture that promotes
college-going can positively influence students’ college aspirations (Crow, 2011; Holland
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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& Farmer-Hinton, 2009). Most researchers agreed that the aspiration to attend college can
be influenced by school leadership and culture (Roderick et al., 2011). However, these
attempts to increase college-going have often focused only on individual students, rather
than on systemic changes to increase overall college readiness (Reid & Moore, 2008). A
school environment in which college-going structures and systems are accessible to all
students increases the likelihood that low-income, under-represented students will attend
post-secondary educational institutions (Amaro-Jimenez & Hungerford-Kresser, 2013).
Leadership plays a vital role in establishing the necessary college-going support systems.
The Role of Educational Leadership
Structures and processes that promote a college-going culture in high school are
the most effective means of increasing post-secondary attendance rates for low-income,
under-represented students (Amaro-Jimenez & Hungerford-Kresser, 2013). However,
there is limited research to inform school leadership on how to create such a culture.
Roderick et. al. (2011) found students from schools where school leaders reported a
strong college-going climate were 12% more likely to enroll in college. They went on to
suggest that, like all other school reform initiatives, establishing a college-going
culture requires principal leadership (Roderick et al., 2009). Deal and Peterson (2010)
asserted that the principal was responsible for facilitating school-wide initiatives for
supporting a college-going culture. Although the principal’s role was significant, it was
impossible for principals to do the work of promoting a college-going culture alone (Deal
and Peterson, 2010). Therefore, leadership was often distributed among many adults in
the school community, including assistant principals, counselors, and teachers (Bosworth
et al., 2014).
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Charter Schools and College-Going Culture
Charter schools are subject to a different accountability model from traditional
high schools. Although exempt from many state laws and regulations, charter schools are
typically established through a petition process approved by an educational authority. The
authorizing body is responsible for ongoing oversight, including regular review and
renewal. The steady growth in charter schools nationwide has provided an opportunity
for researchers to examine how low-income, under-represented students are achieving in
these alternative environments.
Charter schools were established in California in 1992. Charter schools must meet
three basic state requirements: (1) provide nonsectarian instruction; (2) charge no tuition;
and (3) admit all California students up to capacity (CLAO, 2016; Clark, Gleason, Tuttle,
& Silverberg, 2015; Fensterwald, 2015). In 2018, 547,800 students were being served by
approximately 1,200 California charter schools (CLAO, 2016). This represented a steady
increase in enrollment from 2005, when roughly 200,000 students were enrolled in
California charter schools.
Often, charter schools are able to exert greater control over innovation and the
creation of the learning environment and organizational culture. Their leaders have much
more flexibility than district and school leaders in public school systems (Bryk, Sebring,
Allensworth, Luppescu, & Easton, 2010; Gleason, 2014). Longer school days and the
autonomy to hire and release staff at will are but two examples of the flexibility afforded
to charter school leaders that public school leaders do not share due to bargaining
agreements (Berends, 2015; Bryk et al., 2010; Clark et al.,). This makes charter schools
an ideal environment in which to explore how schools and their leaders can create a
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systemic college-going culture that reaches all students. The current research study was
conducted at a charter school, known by the pseudonym of “Sunshine High School,” that
has shown evidence of promoting and sustaining a college-going culture.
Statement of the Problem
The benefits of post-secondary education attainment are well known for all
students. However, education plays a critical role in ending generational cycles of
poverty and creating a pathway to economic self-sustainability for low-income, under-
represented students (Perna, 2015). The lack of a college education can have
disproportionately negative consequences on the lives of under-represented students in
poverty.
For example, the overall unemployment rate in 2014 for 25 to 64-year-olds was
6%. The rate increased to 11% for those who did not complete high school compared to
just 3% for those who held at least a bachelor’s degree (Chen, 2017). The relationship
between lower unemployment rates and post-secondary educational attainment levels was
evident for all racial groups but more pronounced for Black adults (Chen, 2017). Twenty
two percent of Blacks who had not completed high school were unemployed, compared
with 13% for Whites without a high school diploma (Chen, 2017). Similarly, the
unemployment rate was 5% for Blacks who obtained at least a bachelor’s degree,
compared with 3% of Whites with at least a bachelor’s (Chen, 2017).
There is a 21% gap in post-secondary educational attainment between low-income
students and their high-income peers (Perna, 2015). Under-represented students from
low-income families are sometimes challenged by obstacles such as limited knowledge,
skills, and access to college information which decreases their ability effectively pursuit a
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post-secondary education (Bosworth et al., 2014; McDonough & Calderon, 2006;
McKillip, Godfrey, & Rawls, 2013). The gap in knowledge and college-readiness skills
can be narrowed for all students in an environment in which a college-going culture is
established (McClaffery, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002).
The environment or culture of a school has a substantial impact on student
achievement and aspirations (Bosworth et al., 2014; McClaffery & McDonough, 2002;
Savitz-Romer, 2012). The principal is the most important influencer of school culture.
Therefore, principal leadership is a crucial developer of a school’s culture (McClaffery &
McDonough, 2002). Hallinger (2003) stated that instructional leadership was one of only
two school administrative leadership models that explicitly focused on how the
educational leadership practiced by principals and teachers improved educational
outcomes. Perez and McDonough (2008) highlighted that although American students
spend the majority of their day in K-12 educational systems, very few teachers and
counselors are trained in how to help them think about and prepare for college. The
futures and economic competitiveness of low-income, under-represented students
depends on them attending schools with a college-going culture where they acquire
knowledge and college-readiness skills. Effective principal leadership is imperative for
creating the systems, structures, and environments conducive to a college-going culture
that encourages college attendance (Bosworth et al., 2014; McKillip et al., 2013;
Spillane, 2015).
Purpose of the Study
Low-income and under-represented students often encounter challenges while
seeking post-secondary education opportunities (Aud et al., 2010). The inequities in K-12
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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education continue to widen the college enrollment gap between White students and their
low-income and under-represented counterparts (Martinez & Welton, 2014). Martinez
and Welton (2014) argued that educational leaders must act to eliminate inequities
encountered by low-income and under-represented students in pursuit of a post-secondary
education. Furthermore, research has shown the impactful role that secondary schools can
play in reducing the college enrollment gap by providing a college-going culture
(McKillip et al., 2013). The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of
the promising practices utilized by a charter high school to promote and sustain a college-
going culture for low-income and under-represented students. Ideally, these promising
practices will inspire school leaders, in charter and public schools, to take on the
challenge of promoting a college-going culture in their schools, especially if they are
responsible for low-income and under-represented students.
Significance of the Study
Although research supports the theory that preparing students for college is
important, there is little evidence-based pedagogy around educational practices and
leadership strategies known to promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-
income and under-represented students. This was the gap that the current research study
aims to address. Theory indicates that schools that promote a college-going culture can
have a positive outcome on the trajectory of the lives of students, particularly low-income
and under-represented students. The information gathered in this study by examining the
pedagogy and leadership strategies utilized by principals and other school influencers to
promote a college-going culture will benefit educators, including school site principals,
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

23
counselors, teachers, students, district office staff, and policy makers as well as parents
who are actively engaged in their children’s education.
The findings of this study present promising practices for promoting and
sustaining a college-going culture in urban high schools with low-income, under-
represented populations. This study provides a framework for individual schools and their
leaders to use in setting a shared vision and creating a path to replicate the promising
practices utilized by Sunshine High School. District leadership can use the findings to
implement promising practices at high schools in their districts. District leadership and
policy makers can also learn from the barriers faced by Sunshine High School; they can
work to remove the roadblocks to creating a college-going culture in the schools they
supervise.
Most important, this study can provide a roadmap for low-income and under-
represented students to learn and thrive in a college-going culture. As more of these
students are able not just to aspire to college but to actually see a pathway for college
attendance, college enrollment will increase. Ideally, this increase in college enrollment
will be met with an increase in college graduation, providing access for these students to
permanently end the generational cycles of poverty for themselves and their children.
Research Questions
This study sought to better understand promising practices utilized by Sunshine
High School leaders to promote a college-going culture. Additionally, the study
examined the perceived challenges encountered by Sunshine High School leaders in
sustaining a college-going culture. The research questions developed for this study were
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created in collaboration with six members of a University of Southern California thematic
dissertation group. Two research questions guided the current research study:
1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Sunshine High School
employ to promote a college-going culture?
2. What perceived challenges do school leaders at Sunshine High School
encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
Limitations in the current research study included elements outside of the
researcher’s control that may have influenced results. One limitation in this study was
time. The structure of the Ed.D. program only allotted three months to conduct data
collection. Additionally, the study was limited to participants who volunteered; this had
the potential to introduce participant bias. Finally, the nature of qualitative research
necessitated the researcher being the main instrument for data collection and analysis,
thereby introducing personal bias that could have potentially influenced data collection
and interpretation (Creswell, 2014).
Delimitations
Delimitations in this study were factors which the researcher had control over.
Collaboratively, the researcher and members of the thematic dissertation group agreed
that school leaders, including principals, assistant principals, counselors, and teachers,
would be the unit of analysis for the case study. The current research project focused on
school leaders and principals. Additionally, selected schools were required to have a 90%
or better graduation rate and serve 80% or more students from low-income backgrounds.
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25
Organization of the Study
This study sought to identify promising practices utilized by school leaders to
promote a college-going culture and is organized into five chapters. An overview of the
study is provided in Chapter One. Chapter Two includes a comprehensive review of the
literature, focusing on examining strategies that school leaders used to promote college-
going cultures and challenges they encountered sustaining those culture. The theoretical
framework, based on Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems (1977), is also introduced in
Chapter Two. The methodology that was used to conduct this qualitative case study is
described in Chapter Three, followed by an analysis of the findings in Chapter Four.
Finally, in Chapter Five, a synthesis of the findings and discussion of implications for
practitioners and policy makers is presented along with recommendations for future
study.
Definition of Terms
Several terms are referenced throughout the current research study. The following
is a list of terms defined for the purpose of this study.
Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate (ACGR)
The indicator utilized by the United States Department of Education to calculate
the percentage of public high school students who graduate with a regular diploma within
four-years of beginning in ninth grade (Mc Farland, Stark, & Cui, 2016).
College and Career Ready
The level of preparation a student needs in order to 2) enroll and succeed-without
remediation in a credit-bearing general education course at a post-secondary institution
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

26
that offers a baccalaureate degree or 2) to transfer to a baccalaureate program (Conley,
2007).
College-going Culture
A culture that facilitates student learning, college readiness, and college
matriculation for all of its students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). A culture in which
students find encouragement and help from multiple sources to prepare them with
knowledge needed for college success (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Holland & Farmer-
Hinton, 2009; McKillip et al., 2013)
Low-income Students
Students whose family’s previous years taxable income did not exceed 150% of
the Federal poverty level threshold (Federal TRIO Program, 2017). Students living in a
four-person household with an annual income of $31,980 or less qualified for free meals;
students living in a four-person household with an annual income between $38,981 and
$45,510 qualified for reduced-price meals (FNS, 2017).
Under-represented Person or Group
A group or subset of people that comprises a smaller percentage of people within
a dominant group or general population.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The trajectory from high school graduation to the job market has steadily
increased the need for a college degree (Carnevale, Cheah, & Hanson, 2015). In the
decade between 2007 and 2016, the U.S. economy added 8.4 million jobs for workers
with a bachelor’s degree. Just 9% of total jobs created (80,000 jobs) were for workers
with a high school diploma or less (Carnevela, Jayasundera, & Gulish, 2016).
Consequently, highly educated and trained workers are in high demand in the
United States workforce to fill new and existing jobs (Carnevelaet al., 2016). Moreover,
the average lifetime earnings difference between a high school and college graduate is
$1,000,000 (Carnevale et al., 2015). The need for educated workers and the benefits of a
college education highlight the need for school leaders, administrators, counselors, and
teachers to create pathways from secondary education to post-secondary education for
low-income and under-represented students (Couturier, 2006; Malin & Hackmann, 2017;
Putnam, 2016). These pathways encompass not just academic achievement but the
building of social capital in school. Social capital in education consists of networks of
people who provide students with knowledge of campus values and environment, access
to financial and human resources, and awareness of the language and overall workings of
a college or university environment. For higher income students, this social capital is
provided by family and community. For many low-SES and under-represented students,
this social capital is not available from family or community; it must come from the
schools.
Couturier (2006) also suggested that individuals with bachelor’s degrees were
more likely to receive additional employment benefits, earn higher incomes, enjoy better
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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working conditions, and have access to more professional and personal opportunities than
individuals without a bachelor’s degree. Recipients of bachelor’s degrees experience a
better quality of life than those without degrees (Couturier, 2006; Malin & Hackmann,
2017; Putnam, 2016). Additionally, from a global perspective, there is a higher likelihood
that college graduates contribute to the nation's workforce; pay taxes; and engage in more
social, civic and charitable activities than those without bachelor’s degrees (Couturier,
2006). In other words, having a college degree creates benefits not just for the individual
but for society as well. And, when a low-income or under-represented student attains a
college degree, they become effective in building social capital for their children.
Schools that promote college-going cultures play a pivotal role in a student’s
decision to enter college and attain a degree (Crellin, Kelly, & Prince, 2012). The
creation of a college-going culture is a critical responsibility for school leaders (Perna,
2006; Perna et al., 2008). Access to post-secondary educational attainment for under-
represented and low-income students is largely determined by their exposure to college-
going practices (social capital) that leaders establish and model in secondary schools,
such as college talk and college knowledge (Bryan, Farmer-Hinton, Rawls, & Woods,
2017). The literature highlights how school leaders can build students’ social capital and
a college-going culture in which college information and expectations are shared with
low-income, under-represented students so that they can access post-secondary
educational institutions (Farmer-Hinton, 2011, 2008; Ross, McDonald, Alberg, &
McSparrin-Gallagher, 2007).
Undeniably, school leaders who establish college-going cultures nurture students’
college aspirations, build social capital, and create structures to provide college planning
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29
information (Alvarez & Mehan, 2006; Hill, Bregman, & Andrade, 2015; Holland &
Farmer-Hinton, 2009; McClafferty et al., 2002).
This chapter begins with the historical context of college access for low-income
and under-represented students. That is followed by a discussion of social capital and
college knowledge, leadership, and promising practices utilized in college-going culture.
The chapter concludes with the theoretical framework based on Brofenbrenner’s (1977)
Ecological Systems Theory.
Equity and College Access

Growing up outside of a college-going culture, low-income and under-represented
students and their families lack basic information (social capital) regarding the invisible
rules of high school that are often the gateway to college-preparedness (Farmer-Hinton
2009; Naylor, Wyatt-Nichol, & Brown; Roksa & Robinson, 2016). As a result, disparities
in college attendance persist for low-income African American and Latinx students
compared to their White counterparts (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis, Duong, Ruiz de
Velasco, & Henderson, 2014; Chen, 2017). These students find themselves shut out of
the explosive growth in enrollment in post-secondary institutions.
Many factors contribute to the lack of equity to college access for low-income and
under-represented students, including inadequate academic preparation, lack of role
models, lack of access to social capital, insufficient knowledge about the college and
scholarship application process, and limited financial resources (Belasco, 2013). The
absence of this vital information regarding the college preparation, planning, and
admission processes has increased the achievement gap for low-income, under-
represented students (Belasco, 2013).
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School leaders in college-going cultures put structures and systems in place
through social capital and social networks to change the trajectory for low-income and
under-represented students. This levels the playing field so that these students receive
equity in secondary education and access to college (Dukakis et al., 2014). Schools with a
college-going culture provide students with the knowledge they need for college, set
expectations for college-level work, ensure that students understand the admission and
selection process, and provide support in the application process (Dukakis et al., 2014;
Hooker & Brand, 2010). Schools with a college-going culture blur the distinction
between high school and post-secondary education, making college transitions easier
(Dukakis et al., 2014; Hooker & Brand, 2010).
College Enrollment and Degree Attainment
While disparities continue to persist for low-income and under-represented
students, the growth in post-secondary attainment for African American and Latinx
students is apparent. Chen (2016) revealed that African American and Latinx students
exhibited the largest surge of post-secondary enrollment growth for any demographic
group from 1990 and 2013. Total post-secondary school enrollments increased 11% for
Latinx and 5% for African Americans (Chen, 2016). The upward trend in enrollment was
mirrored by a gradual increase in college degrees conferred to Latinx and African
American students. Between 2002 and 2013, the number of degrees conferred doubled
for Latinx and increased by 54% for African Americans (Chen, 2016). In other words,
once these students gain access to post-secondary education, they disproportionately
complete their degree programs. Lowering or eliminating the barriers to post-secondary
education would likely narrow the achievement gap for low-income and under-
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31
represented students. Access is the key, and the key to access is attending a high school
that builds social capital and promotes a college-going culture. Table 1 shows the
increase in enrollment and degrees conferred by race and ethnicity.
Table 1
Increase in Enrollment and Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred Between 2002 and 2013 By
Race and Ethnicity (Chen, 2016)

Race or Ethnicity
Increase in
Enrollment
Increase in BA
Degrees Conferred
Hispanic 11% 100% +
African American 5% 54%
Asian/Pacific Islander 48%
White 23%
American Indian/Alaska Native 16%

Social Capital and Access to College
Although 89% of all students report aspirations to attend college, there is a
disparity between low-income, under-represented students and their White counterparts
in college knowledge and planning (Berzin, 2010; Bosworth et al., 2014; Farmer-Hinton,
2008). This disparity is magnified for first generation low-income and under-represented
students with regard to knowledge about and planning for college (Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
College educated parents are more likely to have social capital and access to
social networks to impart the importance of post-secondary degree attainment. This
includes access to knowledge-based resources such as tutoring, Advanced Placement
courses, summer academic programs, college test preparatory programs. It affects the
college application process including understanding terminology, selecting appropriate
colleges and universities, completing college applications and financial aid forms,
applying for scholarships, negotiating financial aid packages, and selecting majors.
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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Frequently, low-income under-represented students do not start to prepare for
college until they are juniors in high school, whereas their more affluent White peers
have been preparing for college since middle school. This early preparation includes
things like pursuing serious hobbies or extra-curricular activities, long-term engagement
in community service, internships, part-time employment, receiving tutoring and test-
prep, and attending summer academic programs.
Defining Social Capital
Social capital refers to the networks of relationships between people who live and
work together; robust social capital increases effectiveness and success in life and work.
As it pertains to college-going culture, it is the knowledge of campus values and
environment, access to financial and human resources, and awareness of the language and
overall workings of a college or university environment. Social capital is used to examine
how social agents, through the use of social networks, influence a students’ access to
college (Bourdieu, 1977; Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Welton & Martinez, 2014). Social capital
is of value only when the information or support garnered from the network provides the
student with an advantage and meets the student’s individual needs (Welton & Martinez,
2014).
Under-represented and low-income students depend on high schools for college
preparation and guidance because they often do not have direct access to adults with a
college education in their home or community. In other words, the adults in their lives, by
virtue of their socio-economic status, lack the social capital to provide these students with
a college-going culture and the resources that go along with that culture. Without the
ability to access necessary supports and resources from within these close familial and
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33
community networks, such as family and neighbors, students rely on their school
networks to gain access to the necessary social capital for college planning and support
(Ceja, 2000; Gonzalez, Stone & Jovel, 2003; Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
Unfortunately, the students who most need access to social capital are the ones
least able to access it. Underserved low-income and under-represented students too often
attend schools that fail to provide the resources necessary for college access and the skills
necessary for degree attainment. Failure to provide tangible resources and opportunities
to equip low-income and under-represented students for post-secondary education further
contributes to the gap in college-attendance rates for Black and Latinx students compared
to their White peers (Chen, 2017; Welton & Martinez, 2015).
In college-going cultures, school leaders ensure that opportunities and resources
are in place for under-represented and low-income students to successfully matriculate
into post-secondary education (Welton & Martinez, 2015). Moreover, school leaders in
college-going cultures provide students with tangible resources such as access to college
talk, college counseling, rigorous coursework, and higher-level courses. Faculty set clear
expectations that lead to positive student outcomes including higher academic
achievement, making post-secondary enrollment a viable option after high school
(Welton & Martinez 2015).
College Aspirations and Social Capital
The precursor to college planning is college aspiration (Bosworth et al., 2014).
Therefore, school leaders need to address the socio-emotional component of schooling in
order to nurture the college aspirations of low-income and under-represented (Bosworth
et al., 2014; Bryan et al., 2017).
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Research revealed the need to begin cultivating educational aspirations for low-
income and under-represented students as early as kindergarten. Literature highlighted
that prior to entering first grade, only 25% of African American boys believed success in
school was attainable for them, compared to 75% of their White peers (Dukakis et al.,
2014). This means that 75% of African American boys beginning their educational
journey in first grade did not believe that school success was an achievable goal (Dukakis
et al., 2014). This sets these young children up for cycles of educational failure, simply
because they do not believe in their own human potential.
Additionally, as these under-represented students progress through the school
system, social responses to school norms and behaviors are often misconstrued as non-
adaptive by teachers and school leaders (Noguera, 2009). Creating culturally responsive
education that encourages a college-going culture is critical for the success of low-
income and under-represented students. Nurturing college aspirations is the first step.
Facilitating “college talk” is the natural follow-up, supporting college-going aspirations
and providing college-readiness knowledge, skills, and experiences.
College Talk, Social Capital, and College-Going Culture
College talk is a key component embedded in college-going cultures. School
principals, teachers, coaches, parents, and other adults must talk with students about
topics such as SAT and ACT scores, which are an important part of college eligibility
requirements; study skills and readiness for college-level work; and college admission
requirements. They must help students understand college options and requirements for
admission to two-year versus four-year colleges (Bryan et al., 2017; Conley, 2007;
Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009; Martinez & Everman, 2017; McClafferty et al., 2002).
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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The Urban College Academy study: The role of symbolism and ritual.
Athanases, Achinstein, Curry, and Ogawa (2016) conducted a case study at a high school
committed to reversing the historic underrepresentation of low-income students in post-
secondary education. Urban College Academy described the use of symbolic displays of
college-going culture (Athanases et al., 2016). The Academy placed numerous college
banners throughout the halls. They held college gear days, “rituals” when staff wore their
college shirts and discussed their college experiences with students. They held “college
talk forums” during Friday assemblies, where teachers shared college stories with themes
of perseverance and persistence. A math teacher shared how he dropped out of college,
transferred, and started college all over again (Athanases et al., 2017).
Systemically, college talk was formalized in the advisory curriculum at the
Academy with an explicit focus on college access. For example, a college visit was
followed by a group discussion and a panel discussion with seniors sharing their thoughts
about pathways to college acceptance and completion (Athanases et al., 2017). College
talk was a key component embedded the Academy as a way of promoting a culture of
college-going. These strategies were viratuly cost-free, and yet had a significant impact in
creating a powerful, daily visual reminder of the Academy’s college-going culture and
commitment to post-secondary school attendance.
Bryan’s longitudinal college-going culture study. Bryan et al. (2017) studied
how immersion in a college-going culture and college discussions with teachers,
counselors, and coaches affected the success of students in post-secondary education.
They assessed the likelihood of students accessing college based on their exposure to a
variety of school-based, college-going cultural practices including college talk.
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

36
To examine the effects of access to resources and information, the survey asked if
students talked about college entrance information with a teacher, coach, or counselor.
Surveys were completed by 13,983 students in tenth grade (sophomore year) in 2002 as a
baseline year. The first follow-up was administered to these same students in 2004, their
senior year. The second follow-up was administered to these same students in 2006, two
years after their expected high school graduation.
Findings revealed that 34% of students reported speaking with one adult on
campus about college in 10th grade and 42% reported speaking with one adult in 12th
grade. The findings also revealed that even though 42% had not talked to any adult about
college in 10th grade, that number dropped to 17% by 12
th
grade (Bryan & Farmer-
Hinton, 2017). In other words, while just a third of students had engaged in college talk
in tenth grade, nearly all students (83%) had engaged in college talk by their senior year.
Ultimately, the Bryan et al. (2017) concluded that college talk in the students’ senior year
was more impactful on post-secondary enrollment.
The findings from this study suggested the need for school leaders to promote
college-going cultures for low-income and under-represented students. School leaders
need to prioritize and increase the variety of structures in place for tangible information-
sharing and guidance on college-going (Bryan & Farmer-Hinton, 2017). Additionally,
students needed 1) multiple adults 2) with whom to have clear and consistent discussions
3) in which accurate information was provided about higher-level course and college
entrance exams. Bryan et al. (2017) suggested that college talk should permeate college-
going culture and students in this culture should receive multiple, intersecting streams of
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

37
information to help with post-secondary school access. Again, this is a virtually cost-free
solution that can have an important impact in creating a college-going culture.
Comprehensive Counseling Support, Social Capital, and College-Going Culture
School-based college counseling support as apart of college-going culture is
essential to increasing post-secondary school enrollment and degree attainment for low-
income and under-represented students (Belasco, 2013). The literature suggested a
comprehensive counseling approach was promising in promoting college-going for
underserved students (Athanases et al., 2017; McKillip et al., 2012; Savitz- Romer,
2012).
The Urban College Academy study: The role of college counselors. The Urban
College Academy created a robust system of supports to promote college-going culture
(Athanases et al., 2017). In addition to the use of symbolism and ritual, the Academy
invested in a College Resource Center staffed by a counselor, a financial aid officer, and
an alumni coordinator. College talk was used to increase college knowledge and financial
literacy among students and parents. Other services were provided, including one-to-one
counseling, access to information, and school-sponsored college trips.
Relationship building between staff, students, and their families began early, in
the summer before students started at the Academy. Students were assigned to a College
Resource Center staff member who met with them one-to-one to monitor academic
performance and progress in the college and scholarship application process (Athanases
et al., 2017).
Staffing and financial resources are not always available to establish a college
resource center like the one created at the Academy. However, creative, resourceful
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

38
school leaders may implement some of the comprehensive supports by utilizing existing
staff and community members or diverting resources. Additionally, during the study
period, the Academy reported a 93% enrollment rate in post-secondary education,
virtually unheard of for low-income, under-represented students (Athanases et al., 2017,
p. 18). Even more surprising, 63% of seniors who matriculated into college enrolled in
four-year institutions; 37% enrolled in two-year institutions (Athanases et al., 2017, p.
18). This should be motivational for school districts and administrators who argue that
they don’t have the money for a college resource center.
Access to Rigorous Academics, Social Capital, and College-Going Culture
If low-income, under-represented students are to gain access to post-secondary
education, it is crucial for school leaders to put in place systemic equity-focused
structures (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et al., 2014; Welton & Martinez, 2014).
School leaders must create a college-going culture in which students receive accurate
information about and have access to rigorous academics.
The Welton and Martinez studies in Texas high schools. Welton and Martinez
(2014) conducted two studies that illustrated the inequitable practices low-income and
under-represented students encountered. In studying Advanced Placement and dual
enrollment courses, they determined that students depended on complicated resources
and processes to meet their aspirations of going to college.
Participants in the first study included ten Latinx high and ten Latinx school
seniors from two South Texas schools serving predominately low-income Latinx
students. Counselors and teachers selected Latinx high school seniors who aspired to
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

39
enroll into a post-secondary educational institution. Individual interviews on the
campuses took place before, during, or after the school day.
The second study focused on the networks of opportunities, such as connections
to college resources, available to under-represented students in a large, racially and socio-
economically diverse Central Texas high school. Six months of data collection included
1) individual semi-structured interviews with 17 students; and 2) 120 hours of
observations of staff meetings, parent and community meetings, and interactions between
students in the cafeteria and hallways. The selection criteria for student participants
included self-identified racial/ethnic backgrounds, social class, grade point average, AP
or non-AP course enrollment, grade level, previous school type attended or transferred
from, and involvement in extra-curricular activities. Of the 17 participants, one self-
identified as Vietnamese, three as multi-ethnic (Latinx/Chinese, Latinx/White,
Latinx/White), six as African American, and seven as Latinx.
The cross-case comparison showed that although the contextual circumstances
were different for the under-represented students at the three high schools, the ways in
which the students maneuvered their pathways to college were similar (Welton &
Martinez, 2014). The research found that low-income and under-represented students
were not provided with equitable information about or opportunities to enroll in rigorous
or advanced courses. Some of participants in the study were aware of dual enrollment or
AP courses, but most students did not have the basic knowledge of or the necessary
requirements to enroll in the courses.
One student shared the belief that AP courses “were not open to everybody.” The
study also revealed under-represented students’ perceptions of teachers as being more
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

40
likely to encourage White students to register in AP classes than African American or
Latinx students. In another interview, an African American student shared that she did
not believe that a teacher would see an African American student in a non-AP class and
say, “You know, I see your potential, you should take pre-AP classes.”
Both studies found instances of individual teachers who provided social capital
and served as agents to provide college information. However, there was no systematic
distribution of college information for low-income, under-represented students, including
knowledge around rigorous courses (Welton & Martinez, 2014).
This study demonstrated the need for school leaders to provide equity-focused
systemic structures for students to attain college knowledge, so low-income and under-
represented students are equipped to access post-secondary education (Bosworth et al.,
2014; Dukakis et al., 2014; Welton & Martinez, 2014). Like other forms of college talk,
making sure that low-income, under-represented students are knowledgeable about AP
courses and dual-enrollment are virtually cost-free. Yet, they have powerful impact on
the college-going culture and the trajectory from college aspiration to college enrollment.
Family Engagement, College-Going Culture, and College Attainment
Research has focused on the barriers low-income and under-represented students
face in accessing post-secondary education (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et al., 2014).
School leaders, administrators, counselors, and teachers have worked to remove these
barriers and close the college-going gap. They have worked to put supports in place and
implement best practices that promote college-going.
These promising practices include increasing family engagement and college
knowledge, facilitating and nurturing social networks, cultivating college aspirations, and
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

41
demystifying the financial aid process. Research reveals that such practices have positive
influences on college-going culture and college attainment for low-income and under-
represented students (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et al., 2014).
Defining family engagement. Family engagement in education encompasses
what families do at home and in their neighborhoods or communities to encourage their
children’s learning. It involves a partnership with the school, often with the school taking
the lead in helping families help their children pursue high school graduation and college
enrollment. Researchers often use parent involvement and family engagement
interchangeably; the term family engagement will be used in this study.
Decades of research has documented the benefits of family engagement in
creating positive outcomes for students (Collins, 2011; Conley, 2007; Epstein & Sheldon,
2006; Mapp & Kuttner, 2013). The influence of family engagement is significant for
secondary school children (Harris & Robinson, 2016; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes,
2005; Mapp & Kuttner, 2013). Research shows a significant, consistent relationship
between family engagement and academic achievement among urban students, an impact
that is evident even when disaggregated by racial under-represented status.
School leaders who promote college-going cultures use family engagement as a strategy
for increasing student outcomes (Collins, 2011; Conley, 2007; Mapp & Kuttner, 2013).
Family engagement has been shown to affect academic outcomes such as grades,
academic achievement, and increased post-secondary enrollment (Epstein & Sheldon,
2006; Harris & Robinson, 2016; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes, 2005; Mapp &
Kuttner, 2013). Although the benefits of family engagement are well established, the
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

42
methods by which school leaders leverage it as a strategy for low-income and under-
represented students influences post-secondary education enrollment and achievement.
Epstein’s spheres of influence. Epstein’s (1987) seminal work on family
engagement, based on Brofenbrenner’s (1977) Ecological Systems Theory, focused on
the effects of overlapping spheres of influence: family, school, and community. The more
these spheres were pushed together, the more they were identified as being positive in
creating collaborative school-family partnerships to enhance student outcomes. The more
they were pulled apart by environmental factors, the more they were identified as not
positive or impeding student outcomes.
The role a welcoming school environment plays is critical to engagement of
under-represented families. A positive sphere of influence occurs when schools create
environments in which families feel welcomed. Welcoming environments are essential
for promoting a college-going culture and creating partnerships with families. In contrast,
schools in which a welcoming environment does not exist create a culture that decreases
the likelihood of families engaging with the school. This pushes apart the spheres of
influence that support student success and access to post-secondary education (Harris &
Robinson, 2016; Mapp, Johnson, Strickland, & Mesa, 2008; Mapp & Kuttner, 2013).
For example, research reveals that low-income and under-represented families set
and communicate high expectations for their children, but those expectations may not
always be congruent with the expectations set by school leaders (Hill & Torres, 2010;
Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguiree, 2015). For example, parents may admonish children to
behave in school, but not enforce the teacher’s homework policy. Meanwhile, teachers,
while praising good behavior, are layering on expectations of academic achievement not
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

43
mirrored at home. One reason expectations for students are not congruent between home
and school is that families do not feel welcomed at school or invited into conversations
with school staff about expectations and school achievement; so, they shy away from the
school (Hill & Torres, 2010; Mapp et al., 2008; Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguiree, 2015;
Suizzo et al., 2012). School leaders who promote a college-going culture utilize strategies
to increase family engagement and the alignment of expectations. They promote college
knowledge through multiple systems and structures, such as having a dedicated space on
campus for families to learn, encouraging parent-to-parent interaction, and fostering
relationships between parents, teachers, and school leaders.
One promising practice school leadership is experimenting with is providing a
space, such as a parent/family center, designed to bring key stakeholders from multiple
spheres of influence on a student’s educational development together. Investing in a
designated space for families to interact with each other and with school personnel
signals that families are welcomed and valued (Harris & Robinson, 2016; Mapp, 2003;
Mapp et al., 2008).
Increasing college knowledge for families. Another method for positively
influencing college achievement for low-income and under-represented students is to
increase access to college knowledge. Many families of low-income students, under-
represented have little personal experience with post-secondary education and are
unfamiliar with what it means to be academically prepared for post-secondary education
(Oakes, 2014). Increasing college knowledge provides families with the necessary steps
for selecting, applying to, and choosing a college to attend, as well as accessing
scholarships and financial aid. School leaders who build and sustain college-going
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44
cultures work to bridge the college knowledge gap for students and their families
(Kimura-Walsh, Yamamura, Griffin, & Allen., 2009, Rodriguez et al., 2015). Just as
college resource centers are used for promoting a college-going culture for students, a
parent/family center is a place in which information can be learned, discussed and
disseminated to families to increase their college knowledge and develop their social
networks (Collins, 2011; Conley, 2007; McKillip et al., 2013).
Summary
Individuals with a college degree are more likely to have greater job
opportunities, earn higher incomes, actively participate in civic engagement, and have a
better quality of life. Research has shown that nearly all students aspire to achieve a
college education. However, significant, persistent disparities in college attendance exist
for low-income African American and Latinx students compared to their White
counterparts
Research has demonstrated how schools that establish college-going cultures are
effective in encouraging students to pursue post-secondary education. College-going
cultures promote college talk, build student social capital, provide counseling support,
challenge students with rigorous academic work, and engage parents in the education
process.
Like all other school reform initiatives, establishing a college-going
culture requires principal leadership. However, school is one of many systems that
influence the educational development and achievement of low-income and under-
represented students. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory provides an ideal model
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for studying college-going cultures that serve urban, low-income, under-represented
students.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Research unequivocally supports the effectiveness of a college-going culture in
preparing students for college. However, few evidence-based strategies and practices
exist to inform districts, principals, and teachers on how to promote and sustain a college-
going culture for low-income and under-represented students. Schools that promote a
college-going culture have a positive impact on the trajectory of the lives of vulnerable
students, particularly low-income and under-represented students. The goal of this study
was to gain a better understanding of the promising practices utilized by leaders at
Sunshine High School, a California charter high school with low-income and under-
represented students, to promote and sustain a college-going culture.
The chapter describes participant selection, instrumentation, data collection, and
data analysis. The efficacy of using Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems as the
theoretical framework is established; the conceptual framework is laid out. Finally, the
chapter concludes with ethical considerations taken into consideration for participants in
this study.
Research Questions
The primary purpose of this study was to understand promising practices utilized
by Sunshine High School leaders to promote a college-going culture. The study also
examined the perceived challenges encountered by Sunshine High School leaders in
sustaining a college-going culture. The research questions developed for this study were
collaboratively designed with six members of a University of Southern California Ed.D.
thematic dissertation group. Two research questions guided this study:
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1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Sunshine High School employ to
promote a college-going culture?
2. What perceived challenges do school leaders at Sunshine High School encounter
in sustaining a college-going culture?
Theoretical Framework
There is consensus that principals set the direction and tone of the school
environment (Bridges & Bridges, 2016; Malin & Hackmann, 2017; Roderick et al., 2009;
Sebastian & Allensworth, 2012). However, school is one of many systems that influence
the educational development and achievement of low-income and under-represented
students. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory (1977) examines how the innate
characteristics of a child and his or her environment work together to influence growth
and development. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory was used as the
theoretical framework for this study.
According to the Brofenbrenner’s model (1977), four ecological systems of
external influences surround the student: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem. Although the four systems are all important, the microsystem and
mesosystem were used to examine the experiences of the students in this study.
Four External Influences
Brofenbrenner’s model (1977) is comprised of the student, surrounded by four
ecological systems of external influences: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, and the macrosystem.
Microsystems. The microsystem is the closest system to the child. It consists of
structures the child has direct access to such as family, school, peer groups, child care
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

48
environments. and neighborhoods. The relationships between a teacher and student, or
counselor and student, are examples of microsystems.
Mesosystems. The mesosystem is the system that provides the connection
between the structures of the child’s microsystem. The connection between the child’s
parents and teacher or the relationships between the child’s peer group and family are
examples of the mesosystem.
Exosystems. The exosystem is a system with which the child has no direct
contact. However, this system impacts his or her development because of the interactions
with the child’s microsystem. Examples of exosystems include the child’s parents’
employment status, work schedule, socio-economic status, neighborhood, and
community-based family resources. Although the child is not involved directly with these
systems, the exosystem can have positive or negative impacts on the child, the child’s
microsystems, and the child’s mesosystems.
Macrosystems. The outermost system in the child’s environment is the
macrosystem. Although furthest from the child’s immediate environment, the
macrosystem remains influential in the child’s development on a larger scale.
Macrosystems include political culture, national economy, and cultural values. A child,
parents, and schools may have no influence in the macrosystem and yet be positively or
negatively influenced by it. The macrosystem can influence the child’s microsystems,
mesosystems, and exosystems.
The current research study utilized the Ecological System Theory as the
theoretical framework to explore how the strategies used by a principal to promote and
sustain a college-going culture influence low-income and under-represented students’
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49
post-secondary educational achievement. The framework helped the researcher discern
how multiple supports and people influence low-income, under-represented students post
-secondary education enrollment and achievement.
Conceptual Framework
The thematic dissertation group co-developed a conceptual framework based on
the emerging themes from the review of the literature (see Figure A). School leadership
was the overall umbrella for which the conceptual framework was designed. The
practices that school leaders—including administrators, teachers, and counselors—used
to promote and sustain a college-going culture were posited to influence students’ access
to post-secondary education.
The interactions and relationships between families, school leaders, resources, and
the school environment were hypothesized to have a direct impact on students’ access to
post-secondary education. A school environment that provided high expectations and a
rigorous curriculum were paramount in a college-going culture. Parental engagement and
resources such as academic support and college-knowledge were additional factors
included in such a culture.
Research Design
A qualitative design utilizing observations and interviews was an appropriate design for
this study. Qualitative studies provide descriptions of phenomena that cannot be
experienced any other way (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The use of a qualitative approach
allowed the researcher to better understand the experiences of the participants in
promoting and sustaining a college-going culture (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A case
study utilizing interviews, observations, and document analysis allowed for a full
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Figure A. Conceptual Framework

examination of the culture at Sunshine High School. It provided an opportunity to gain a
rich, in-depth understanding of the strategies employed by the principal and other school
leaders to promote a culture of college-going. Finally, it allowed an exploration of the
challenges and barriers, real and perceived, to building and sustaining a college-going
culture (Patton, 2002).
Interviews
Interviews were selected as a data collection technique for many reasons.
Interviews gave the researcher the opportunity to enter the world of the school leaders at
Sunshine High School to more fully understand their perspectives around the use of
strategies employed by their school that promoted and sustained a college-going culture
(Patton, 2002).
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51
Creswell (2014) posited that interviews are helpful when participants cannot
readily be observed and gives the interviewer control over the flow of questioning.
Interviews allowed participants to express their own understandings on their own terms.
Patton (2002) argued that participants provide information about what could not have
been observed by the researcher, including feelings, intentions, motivations, and mindsets
around promoting and sustaining a college-going culture. Additionally, interviews
allowed for deeper study into the practices employed by the school administrators and
other school leaders, including practices that enhanced and hindered the work. Finally,
interviews facilitated the development of rich, holistic descriptions of the experiences of
the principals and participants in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover,
interviewing made explicit the perspectives and experiences of the school leaders and
other participants (Patton, 2002).
Observations
Interviews were used to understand the perspectives of the school leaders
regarding strategies utilized to promote and sustain a college-going culture. Observations
were used as a way of learning about participant behaviors in the environment where the
behaviors occurred (Maxwell, 2013). Observations took place in the natural setting and
allowed for firsthand interaction with the phenomenon of interest, campus culture
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations provided information that might not have been
shared by those interviewed. Participants may have been reluctant to share what they
perceived to be private or negative information in the interviews. Participants’ awareness
of their actual behavior may not have aligned with the beliefs about their behavior.
Observation reduced these sources of bias. Moreover, observations provided the
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researcher with an opportunity to observe the practices utilized by the principal and
school leader and ask questions related to those actions.
Document Analysis
Documents were also collected and analyzed for this study. Collecting and
analyzing documents provided the researcher with the opportunity to access information
independent from a participant’s perceptions and the potential impact of an observer on
participant behavior (Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). The analysis of the documents allowed
for triangulation, which contributed to the validity of the study (Creswell, 2014).
Triangulation
Triangulation is a strategy for collecting and compiling data. It is a process that
compares data against each other, both as a means of building a more complete picture of
the variables being researched as well as a means to identify problems with validity. For
example, in the current research study, the researcher looked for discrepancies between
data reported in interviews and observations. The researcher looked for alignment
between statements reported in the interviews and documents that supported those
statements. With triangulation, the researcher obtains a better representation of the data
collected. This ensures both the quality and validity of data reported in the study.
Sample and Population
Internal Review Board Permission
Permission was obtained from the University of Southern California to conduct
research the current research study (see Appendix A). Participants in this study were
provided with an introductory letter informing them of the purpose of the study, the
protocols that would be used, and the role they would play in providing data for the
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research (Appendix B). Prospective participants were informed that the university had
approved the survey. Participation in the research was both voluntary and anonymous.
Participants were informed that the interviews would take about 45 minutes.
Sample Selection
The current research study examined the strategies utilized by school
administrators and other school leaders to promote and sustain a college-going culture at
Sunshine High School. The school was chosen using a purposeful sample to meet the
specific needs of the research design. Finding an information-rich school was important
to better answer the research questions and to gain greater insight into promising
practices. Sunshine High School was a charter secondary school that had led the effort to
promote and sustain a culture in which college was attainable for all students.
In selecting the charter high school, or unit of analysis, the following criteria were
utilized:
• a secondary school,
• a student population of at least 70% low-income students,
• a student population of at least 70% under-represented students,
• a graduation rate of at least 70%, and
• graduates who meet California’s A-G requirements.
Study Population at Sunshine High School
Located in a large urban city in California, Sunshine High School was home to
466 high school students in grades 9 to 12. The student population was 99% under-
represented and 84% low-income. The student body was 70% Hispanic, 24% Black, and
6% Asian or White. In June 2016, 100% of the senior class graduated on time and each
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received a minimum of one letter of acceptance from a four-year college or university.
The high level of success with college-going rates for low-income students was one of
the reasons Sunshine High School was selected for this case study.
Participant Recruitment
In addition to the principal, it was anticipated that purposeful sampling would
lead to the identification of and interview with 9 additional participants: two assistant
principals, two counselors, the English Department Chair, the Math Department Chair,
the Science Department Chair, the Parent Engagement Coordinator, and the Alumni
Coordinator.
Ethical and Data Security Considerations
Many ethical issues were considered throughout this study. The researcher’s first
responsibility was to cause no harm to the respondent. Every attempt was made to be
transparent and to ensure confidentiality. The participants were provided an introductory
letter that described the purpose and process of the study. Pseudonyms were used
throughout the research the school and the.
Opportunities were provided throughout the research for participants to ask
questions. Furthermore, Glense (2011) warned that researchers should consider the
unintended and intended consequences of their words. With that in mind, the researcher
was mindful of utilizing descriptive versus judgmental language. Findings were treated as
tentative rather than final.
Finally, this study was approved by the University of Southern California’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB) and complied with all ethical guidelines for conducting
research using human subjects. All interviews and data collected, including recordings,
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field notes, and transcriptions were secured in locked cabinets and all electronic files
were saved in password-protected files.
Instrumentation
Interview Protocols
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants. Semi-structured
interviews were described by Merriam and Tisdell (2009) as interviews that developed
from query of both structured and unstructured questions. The research study used three
different interview protocols: an interview protocol for administrators (see Appendix C);
and an interview protocol for teachers and counselors (see Appendix D).
The open-ended questions that followed the structured questions allowed the
participants freedom to respond to the questions more creatively. The open-ended
questions allowed for richer descriptions and more in-depth analysis by the participants
(Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). The thematic group developed a matrix that aligned the
interview protocol to the research questions to assure that the research questions were
addressed (Appendix E). To ensure that all participants’ thoughts, responses, and
perspectives were accurately captured, all interviews were recorded digitally and
transcribed.
Observation Protocols and Document Analysis
Observations were conducted to contribute to the reliability of the collected data
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). The observation protocol was created collaboratively with the
thematic dissertation group. Document analysis further added to the validity of the results
of this study.
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56
Interviews, observations, and document analysis were used to answer both
research questions. The multiple data sources allowed for triangulation of the data
collected, therefore, increasing the accuracy, validity, and reliability of the data
(Creswell, 2014). The research questions for this study and the appropriate
instrumentation used for data collection in response to the questions are described in
Table 2.
Table 2

Research Questions as Instrumentation
Research Question Interviews Observations Document Analysis
1. What perceived strategies do
school leaders at Sunshine High
School employ to promote a
college-going culture?
x x x
2. What are the perceived
challenges of school leaders at
Sunshine High School in
sustaining a college-going culture?
x x

Data Collection
The case study at Sunshine High School was conducted utilizing interviews,
observations, and document analysis to answer the research questions. Observations and
interviews were conducted using protocols developed by the thematic dissertation group.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with school leaders including assistant
principals, coordinators, teachers, and counselors.
A combination of general guidelines and standardized, open-ended, in-depth
interview approaches were used as part of the data collection process. Face-to-face
interviews were utilized. Questions in the interview protocol addressed the two research
questions developed by the thematic group. All questions and protocols were piloted
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prior to the study to ensure that questions were clear and responses answered the research
question (Creswell, 2014).
At the beginning of each interview, the researcher reviewed the consent and
confidentiality policies. The recording device was turned on and consent was again
confirmed. After the interview was completed, the recording device was turned off. The
participants were given the researcher’s contact information again, in case they had
questions.
Data Analysis
The data analysis process provided answers to the research questions (Merriam,
2009). Creswell’s (2014) six-step data analysis model was used to guide the process to
thoroughly answer the research questions. The process included the analysis of the data
collected from the documents, interviews, and observations. Figure B is a graphic
representation of Creswell’s six steps designed collaboratively by the thematic
dissertation group.

Figure B. Creswell’s (2014) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis.
As the model depicts, collecting raw data such as field notes and transcripts is the
first step in analysis of the data. The data is organized and prepared for analysis in step
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two. A thorough reading of all of the data occurs in step three. Next, the data is coded
and, then, chunked into categories. Themes and descriptions are developed in step four.
In step five, the themes and descriptions presented by the data are determined. Making
meaning of the findings and results takes place in step six.
Summary
Research unequivocally supports the effectiveness of a college-going culture in
preparing students for college. However, few evidence-based strategies and practices
exist to inform districts, principals, and teachers on how to promote and sustain a college-
going culture for low-income and under-represented students. The primary purpose of
this study was to understand promising practices utilized by Sunshine High School
leaders to promote a college-going culture.
Sunshine High School was chosen using a purposeful sample to meet the specific
needs of the research design. Brofenbrenner’s Model was used to provide a framework to
further understand how various people and systems influenced low-income and under-
represented students’ post-secondary education access.
A qualitative design utilizing observations and interviews was an appropriate
design for this study. The use of a qualitative approach allowed the researcher to better
understand the experiences of the participants in promoting and sustaining a college-
going culture.
Data was collected through interviews, observations, and document reviews. The
data was triangulated to confirm validity. Creswell’s (2014) six-step data analysis model
was used to guide the process to thoroughly answer the research questions.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Education plays a particularly critical role in ending cycles of poverty and
creating a pathway to economic self-sustainability for low-income and under-represented
students. Yet, an achievement gap exists in college enrollment and graduation for the
students who need it the most. Research clearly shows the need for high schools to
establish college-going cultures that encourage students to pursue post-secondary
education. Sunshine High School is an example of one such school.
The goal of this study was to examine promising practices utilized by school
leaders at Sunshine High School to promote a college-going culture for low-SES and
under-represented students. The study also sought to understand the perceived challenges
encountered by Sunshine High School leaders in sustaining a college-going culture. The
findings of this study were intended to provide school and district leaders with insights
into the barriers that impede sustaining a college-going culture. The aim was to support
leaders in education in creating a framework for nurturing college-going culture in their
schools. Additionally, the findings aimed to provide a roadmap for low-income and
under-represented students to gain greater access to college, thrive while in college, and
pursue increased opportunities in the workplace.
Chapters One, Two, and Three provided an introduction to the problem, a review
of the literature around college-going culture, and the methodology used to conduct this
study. Chapter Four describes the participants and reports on the findings that surfaced
from the data analysis framed by the following two research questions:
1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Sunshine High School employ
to promote a college-going culture?
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2. What perceived challenges do school leaders at Sunshine High School
encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
Overview of Participants
School leaders at Sunshine High School, including principals, assistant principals,
counselors, and teachers, were the unit of analysis for this case study. The commitment
to culture at Sunshine High School was reflected in the warmth of the school leadership
and staff. Their commitment to the mission of the school drove them to work long hours
and go beyond their job descriptions to create student success.
Mel was the principal and a founding teacher at Sunshine High School. He had
worked in larger public-school systems and served in the role of assistant principal at the
site for a year before being promoted to principal. Mel described himself as an advocate
for ALL students, especially those from challenging populations such as special
education, unmotivated, and lower performing students. Multiple attempts were made by
the researcher, but scheduling conflicts did not allow the interview to take place.
However, principal Mel was observed in multiple contexts at the school.
Jennifer taught for five years at the school before assuming her current role as
assistant principal for curriculum and instruction. She stated that she wanted to become a
teacher when she was young and was inspired to transition into leadership due to her
passion for Sunshine High, its community, her colleagues, and the students.
Jan served as assistant principal for student services. Although she imagined early
on that she would be a lifetime teacher, she never saw herself as an assistant principal.
Jan grew up in a small town in South Carolina and felt education was her “way out.”
While attending college, she found working with low income individuals to identify
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careers as a rewarding experience and it inspired her to become a teacher. While serving
as an administrator, she taught field work to students which helps them find their passion
and keeps her connected to teaching.
Ariel, a fourth-year teacher, chair of the math department and an advisor for 12th
grade, prided herself on preparing her students for entrance to Ivy League universities
having been an ACT tutor.
Javier, the Grade 9 English Language Arts Chair started his teaching career
teaching recent refugees in Miami. The strong alignment of his personal goals and the
mission of Sunshine High was the reason he sought to work at the school.
Selena, chair of the political science department, had been at Sunshine for five
years. While starting her college studies in the medical field and sciences, she became
passionate about education as a volunteer teaching science in middle schools. She also
identified herself as one that could serve as a role model to students.
Megan, the director of college counseling, had served at Sunshine for five years
and developed the college and career/college knowledge course. She lived on a Native
American reservation as a participant in an alternative spring quarter during college. She
found that students did not have any awareness of college, even though the tribe would
pay their tuition and living costs. She felt this was unfair that resources were available
and not being used.
Alfonso, the alumni coordinator, had been at Sunshine High School for three
years. He was well versed in the CSU system. As a first-generation college student, he
recognized his own lack of guidance in college-going and it inspired him to help others in
his position. He felt that high school graduation was the goal for students if their parents
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had not attended college; he was passionate about guiding these students, so they knew
they were capable of going to college and knew how to apply, earning acceptance.
Daisy wore two hats at Sunshine Elementary, social worker and guidance
counselor. Daisy worked with advisors developing curriculum for students to develop
resiliency skills and to know their “why.” A social worker identified her as a leader when
she was in high school; serving in this role was her dream job.
Nicole, a founding staff member, served as parent engagement and operations
coordinator; she had expertise working with college prep programs like AVID. She
served as a mentor and tutor in local under-served middle and high schools which led her
to education as a career. Participants demographics are highlighted in Table 3.
Table 3
Participant Descriptions
Name Position Age Race Years in
Education
Years at
Sunshine
Alfonso Alumni Coordinator 25-34 Hispanic/Latinx n/a n/a
Ariel Math Chair
12
th
Grade Advisor
25-34 White 6 4
Daisy Social
Worker/Guidance
Counselor
25-34 White 3.5 2.5
Jan Assistant Principal for
Student Services
25-34 White 7-10 4
Javier English Language Arts
Chair
25-34 Hispanic/Latinx n/a n/a
Jennifer Assistant Principal Hispanic/Latinx 9 6
Megan College Readiness
Director
25-34 African
American
7-10 3-5 years
Nicole Parent
engagement/Operations
Coordinator
25-34 Hispanic/Latinx 7
Selena
1
Political Science Chair 25-34 Asian/Pacific
Islander
5 years 5 years
Mel Principal n/a n/a n/a n/a
1
First generation college student
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Overview of the Organization
Sunshine High School was one of five comprehensive high schools in its charter
organization. At the time of the current research project, Sunshine High School was home
to 518 students located in an urban city nestled between social services buildings to the
left and right, and one block away from several strip malls with check cashing and bail
bond services.
The exterior of the building was non-descript, with just a buzzer on the door and
no signage on the outside. In spite of its unassuming exterior, once buzzed inside, visitors
were greeted with a warm smile by the receptionist. The colorful, spacious, intentionally-
designed open-air interior featured multiple spaces for collaboration and independent
work.
The commitment to meeting individual student needs at Sunshine High School
was reflected in the personalized college preparation students experienced. A strong
sense of community was fostered around the mission and a college-going permeated the
building. Everywhere you looked, there were reminders of the importance of college
attendance: posters and pennants for colleges, displays of the mission and school themes
and mission, and photos of graduations.
Findings for Research Question 1: What perceived strategies do school leaders
at Sunshine High School employ to promote a college-going culture?
The first research question sought to examine the promising practices utilized by
school leaders at Sunshine High School to create a college-going culture for under-
represented and low-SES students. Faculty set clear expectations that led to positive
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64
student outcomes, including higher academic achievement, making post-secondary
enrollment a viable option after high school.
Four themes emerged from the data collected in this study addressing Research
Question One. First, school leaders at Sunshine High School created a culture of college-
going with staff by establishing and communicating clear expectations based on clear
vision, mission, and goals. Second, Sunshine High School leaders ensured that all
stakeholders were equipped with college knowledge and the resources necessary for
students’ post-secondary attainment. Third, students at Sunshine High School were
provided with a rigorous curriculum, ensuring their readiness for high school completion
and college acceptance. Finally, social capital was built through relationships and
systemic, equity-focused structures.
Theme 1: Leader’s Role in Creating a School Culture
The first theme and the cornerstone of creating a college-going culture at
Sunshine High School was the commitment of school leaders to create a positive school
culture that was mission driven, with a heavy emphasis on teamwork and personalization.
This culture was realized by establishing and communicating a clear mission, vision, and
goals with all stakeholders.
Clear vision and mission—access for all. All participants in the study agreed on
the importance of clear expectations around the goal of a 100% graduation and college
admission rate. This goal guided the work of staff every day. Nicole framed the school’s
focus on making sure that all students graduated and had at least one college acceptance;
she emphasized that students had choice and that college-going was not the only
definition of success. She described it this way:
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We’re not sitting here and saying that every single kid has to go to college in
order to be successful. But we want our students to at least have the option. So,
the way that we do that is to make sure that 100% of our students graduate from
high school and get accepted into a four-year university.
The philosophy and core belief of school leaders at Sunshine High School was
that every student graduate with the preparation and opportunity to access college,
whether they decide to attend or not. School literature, including the student handbook
and website, clearly highlighted this information. When asked to describe the school’s
philosophy, Javier also emphasized the importance of choice and decision-making based
on understanding the positive implications of going to college.
The goal of creating a college-going culture for students—so they were prepared
for college, accepted into college, and equipped with options after high school—
permeated every interview. Assistant principal Jan reported that every student applied to
college and the school aimed to have every student accepted into at least one college.
Not going to college became a clear choice, because college attendance was an option.
Through interviews, observations, and artifacts, it was clear that everyone at
Sunshine High School believed that college was for everyone. College acceptance was
only one of the goals Sunshine High School leaders had for their students. Persistence in
college was just as important. On numerous occasions, leaders spoke of the challenge
faced by low-SES and under-represented students to persist in college.
Sunshine High School had a goal of 90% of students persisting in college in their
second year. Investment in this goal was evident in the creation of a position of Alumni
Coordinator, who supported and tracked data on alumni. Not only were school leaders at
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Sunshine High committed to graduating 100% of their students with a four-year college
acceptance, they also wanted their students to have purpose.
Transformational Multi-Generational change. Purpose was an important
element of the culture at Sunshine High School. School leaders at Sunshine High school
believed that when students graduate and enter college, the goal was for them to have a
profound personal purpose for being there. Staff believed that having a purpose helped
position students to persist through the obstacles of a rigorous college environment. The
overarching sentiment from school leaders interviewed for this study was that education
is a great equalizer and that all students should have access to a college education,
regardless of their lot in life.
More importantly, school leaders at Sunshine High School believed that a college
education was something that could be transformative, not just for the student themselves
but, also, for an entire family and even an entire community. At the core of their mission
was the philosophy known as Transformational Multi-Generational Change (TMC). The
premise was that after students achieved their college and career goals, they would lead
social and economic change in their families as well as making a positive impact in the
world that would last for generations to come. The mission to promote TMC was
prominent on the school website and in marketing brochures. It was integrated into town
halls, parent meetings, and the curriculum. Jennifer explained:
Our mission statement is, "We will use our college degrees and careers to make a
positive, multi-generational change.” So, the idea is, essentially, that the biggest
change that can come into our communities is when we pursue college, pursue our
careers. Because that, ultimately, is what spreads to younger siblings, family
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members, community members. That change, it becomes multi-generational, so
it's not just isolated to improving just yourself, it's something that also promotes
other people to be their best.
Communicating the values of the mission and vision. Having a mission was
important; however, communicating that mission to all stakeholders was critical to the
mission actually taking hold. School leaders at Sunshine High School were relentless in
communicating the mission, vision, and goals with all stakeholders. The mission was
prominent on the website, in their LCAP, and marketing materials. Parents and students
were exposed to the college-going mission at prospective enrollment events. It was
reviewed 1) with students at orientation, in advisory, in the curriculum, at town halls, and
through mandatory volunteering; 2) with parents at orientations, Coffee with the Principal
meetings, and teacher meetings and 3) with staff in staff meetings, department meetings,
and individual meetings with leadership. Starting with the principal, expectations were
clearly articulated to students and parents from the beginning, seeking mutual
commitment to the college-going process.
In fact, the messaging began long before the enrollment process. Javier explained
how Mel, the principal, shared the vision and mission with students and parents during
informational session:
So, from the very first day, the students are required to come into orientation in 8
th

grade. And from that, the very first thing parents hear is the mission statement. .
We tell them, this is a school that is going to prepare your student for college. If
that is not something that you want to do, you might not be looking at the right
school…they know that we have three years of data of 100% of the students
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having that option to go to college with the four-year university.
Annual themes. In terms of communicating the vision and mission, the word
alignment was mentioned often by the school leaders at Sunshine High School. Annual
themes, performance tasks, and town halls all provided opportunities to communicate
authentic alignment to the mission of educating students who will utilize their college
degrees and careers to create positive change in their communities, nation and world.
Yearlong themes were incorporated by teachers into courses, keeping the mission,
vision, and goal of TMC in front of students on a daily basis. This assisted students with
examining themselves and the world they wanted to live in, preparing them to create
transformational multigenerational change.
Interviews, observations, and a review of documents such as recruitment
PowerPoints and literature as well as student handbook indicated that Sunshine High
School leaders embedded the mission and vision into all aspects of the school.
Communication began with the principal sharing the information during recruitment,
information, and orientation sessions at the start of a student’s academic career at
Sunshine High. During these sessions, parents and students were also provided with
handbooks and literature.
Tasks. In California, the gateway to college is the American College Testing
(ACT) exam. Therefore, all leaders interviewed referenced that the mission of the school
was tied to the ACT. The school website and parent-student handbook made it clear that
the curriculum at Sunshine High was aligned to American College Testing (ACT)
standards. Students at Sunshine High were aware from the outset that they were going to
take an ACT and that the ACT was connected to college admission. Students were
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reminded that they were in a college going culture by the assessments they took. School
leaders created a testing structure in which students were given a pre-test aligned to the
ACT. This was followed by four interim assessments and a post-test. School leaders
ensured that students knew that six times a year they would be tested on skills relevant to
college admission.
Town halls. Every quarter school leaders scheduled grade level assemblies called
“Town Halls.” The principal opened and closed the assemblies by reviewing the mission,
vision, and expectations of Sunshine High with students. School leaders ensured
everything that occurred during Town Halls was used to reinforce the mission and vision
of the school’s college going culture and the importance of TMC.
An observation of ninth and eleventh grade Town Halls revealed the significant
energy around college-going displayed by school leaders was inspiring and motivating to
students. Staff and students clapped and cheered for award recipients as if they were
attending a sports event or lively concert. Medals and certificates became visual
reminders to students and parents of the importance of college-going culture beyond the
walls of the school and into the home environment.
Theme 2: Leader’s Role in Building College Knowledge
Preparing for college as early as possible has proven beneficial for students.
However, low-SES, under-represented students often do not start to prepare for college
until they are juniors in high school. Their more affluent peers have been preparing for
college since middle school, often earlier. This puts low-SES students at a significant
disadvantage.
The second theme that emerged involved ensuring that all stakeholders were
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equipped with college knowledge and the resources necessary for students’ post-
secondary attainment. These key stakeholders fell into three groups: staff, students, and
parents. Promising practices to create a college going culture for their under-represented
and low-SES students included putting into place systems, structures, and mechanisms
for students and families to access college knowledge through a college and career
course, college representative visits, college fairs, town halls, and systematic talk about
college.
Beginning in ninth grade, Sunshine High school leaders used a variety of
supports, resources, and activities to provide their students and parents with college
knowledge. Interviews revealed that college knowledge was built through college and
career courses, college representative visits, college fairs, and college talk. Early college
preparation at Sunshine High School, as revealed by interviews and document review,
included extra-curricular activities, long-term engagement in community service,
internships, part-time employment, tutoring and test-prep, and summer academic
programs.
Building teachers’ college-knowledge. Building teacher capacity to increase
their ability to teach students college knowledge was a task not taken lightly by school
leaders at Sunshine High. Professional development, backward planning, vertical
collaboration, and grade level collaboration were important components of the college-
going culture promoted by school leaders at Sunshine High. School calendars, meeting
agendas, and interview data revealed that leaders put practices in place for teachers to
constantly analyze data and their curricula to make sure both were aligned to produce
positive outcomes for students across the grade levels.
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School leaders had many systems in place for supporting teachers. The
administrative team met for daily check-ins followed by weekly meetings with
department chairs to plan the work they would be doing with their teams. Providing time
for staff to think about and talk about their needs in order to find success in a school
focused on a college-going culture was a priority of leaders at Sunshine High; 100% of
staff interviewed reported that this was important.
School leaders offered a variety of professional development topics each week for
two hours. Staff reported holding quarterly strategic plan analysis, which entailed the
examination of data aligned to the Annual College Readiness Indicators (ACRI’s) to
determine gaps and next steps for addressing the gaps. They consistently talked about
engaging in department and grade level meetings to discuss department and grade
specific needs.
Jennifer described quarterly conferences lasting 75 minutes focused on student
data. She explained how these meetings were used to determine the needs of the teachers
she supported:
The sole purpose is just to reflect on what went well quarter one, what your plans
are for quarter two, and if you're on the right track in terms of rigor, and in terms
of alignment to standards, and in terms of if we are looking at the right data. . . I
get a lot information about who needs what. So, I can prioritize my time for the
rest of the quarter.
Teachers described how they focused on the big picture in the beginning of the
school year. As the quarter progressed, discussions became more specific, focusing on a
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group of students or specific students who teachers needed to check in with, perhaps
because they were failing three or more classes. Selena shared:
We might be having conversations about our numbers of students passing our
classes, if we are seeing a trend or if we're seeing a little offset in terms of our
consistency. If one teacher has a little bit more students not passing their class,
maybe having communication on what's the gap in that, so we talk about those.
Interviews, calendars, and agendas indicated that many of the professional
development topics were aligned directly to instructional needs. For example, the college
team reported leading a session on how best to write letters of recommendations.
Teachers also shared things they learned from off-site conferences and professional
development workshops.
Building students’ college knowledge. Building students’ college knowledge
was the core of the curriculum, advisory, and the college course. Every school leader and
staff member owned their role of ensuring access to college knowledge for all. Leaders
designed the college course so that students were provided with plenty of resources and
information about various colleges and were held accountable for completing the college
application process with built in scaffolding. Alphonso described:
The majority of that will come in the college readiness course senior year….It is a
required part of their schedule and it starts at the college list building process,
doing research on institution types, which ones are good fits for them. And, then,
from there, they narrow down that list to figure out which institutions they want to
apply to. We guide them through all those application processed and everything
moving forward from that.
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School leaders talked about designing the college course to build student college
knowledge capacity to ensure that they were able to fulfill the mission of using their
college degrees and careers to make a transformational multigenerational change. This
triangulation of data offered evidence that intention, messaging, and actions were aligned
at Sunshine High School. Megan described how the school worked to raise students’
expectations of themselves:
Knowing that you are going to apply to four-year universities with me, them
knowing that and doing that, is, I think, big…They think that they might want
something else, but that’s only because it’s out of fear. I really think it’s
completely out of fear and unknowing.
The college course. A commitment to providing all students access to the
resources and knowledge to successfully prepare and plan for the college admission
process was evidenced by the creation of a yearlong college course for seniors. Leaders
and staff repeatedly talked with pride about the importance and effectiveness of the
course. A description of the course was also highlighted in the schools marketing
material. Younger students were exposed to the course through intentional scaffolding
throughout the curriculum, supported by town halls and advisories. Parents were
engaged in encouraging their children to take the course seriously through parent-teacher
meetings, coffees with the principals, and parent workshops. Daisy described the
messaging to parents about what to expect. “Sometimes parents are confused about why
[students] spend so much time on college applications versus their homework, so we
validate that by giving it a class. . . It's like a whole job. It's a full-time job applying.”
Through these actions, Sunshine High leadership and staff provided students and families
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with crucial missing pieces of college knowledge. Parents became advocates and partners
in their children’s academic success.
Seniors used the college class to identify best-fit colleges and universities. They
completed college applications with weekly assignments including FAFSA, personal
statements, resumes, and letters of recommendations. Class credit was contingent upon
students completing these assignments, thereby ensuring the college application process
was finished. Participants in this study unanimously agreed that for first-generation
college-going students, this in-school process was vital and served as a bridge between
college aspirations and college admission.
During a brief observation in this college course, taught by Megan, director of
college counseling, the researcher witnessed how the walls were filled with college
banners and large posters. One poster that was being used as part of the day’s lesson
contained the information for ten UC campuses: school name, ACT mid-range, GPA-
range, first year retention rate, graduation rate, campus size, location, admittance rate,
setting, admission notes, and alternate majors.
Megan reported that students were required to apply to at least one CSU; they
were encouraged to apply to six to 12 schools total - match, reach, and safety schools.
This was reinforced in classes and advisory as well as at parent support meetings. When
asked about the rationale for this, Megan again brought up the issue of fear and not
knowing. She discussed helping students overcome fear of rejection:
I always have a good chunk of students who are like, “I’m just going to a
community college…I’m going to apply [to a four-year school] because you’re
making me.” And then, they get in. Then, they’re like, “I’m so excited that I’m
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going to San Francisco State.”
In other words, the college course not only walked students through the process, it built
their confidence and a resilience that would carry forward into college.
Advisory. Interviews showed that teaching college knowledge did not rest solely
with the college counseling team but was owned by all staff at Sunshine High. Under
Mel’s leadership, Megan and the college counseling team—Daisy and Jan—developed an
advisory curriculum scaffolded into the four-years of high school which included lessons
on college knowledge, life skills, resiliency, and mental health taught during advisory.
School brochures, handbooks, and schedules showed two daily advisory periods
in every students’ schedule. Students were assigned to the same advisor for their entire
four years at Sunshine High. During the fifteen-minute morning check-in, students were
provided with logistical updates and given a pep talk around the mission. In order to
increase the amount of access the students had to gaining college knowledge, school
leaders incorporated an additional thirty-minute advisory period each afternoon.
Javier described how 11th graders also got time on Fridays to meet with the
college team, to build college knowledge through the advisory curriculum. Ariel
explained the advisory curriculum,
If it's suicide prevention week then we're talking about suicide prevention. If it's
ACT week then we're talking about ACTs. If it's majors. . . .we're talking about
what is a major. What does it mean to major in something?
Again, this alignment between the mission, vision, and implementation across interviews,
website, marketing materials, and curriculum resources showed consistency and
intentionality at Sunshine High.
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College-going activities. Systems, structures and activities such as visits from college
representatives, college field trips and fairs, clubs, and celebrations were utilized by
Sunshine High school leaders and staff so that students could access information and gain
college knowledge. Staff were very creative and intentional with planning and
scheduling college activities to provide students with access to resource-rich individuals
and organizations.
College representative visits. Like many other programs and initiatives, college
rep visits were unique, intensive, and intentional at Sunshine High School. Students in
every grade were encouraged to attend, ask questions, and perhaps hear from alumni who
had attended the school. Some teachers, like Javier, reported that he required his ninth
graders to attend a minimum of two for the year just to get exposure. According to
Javier, “They have to go to these college rep visits, just to get exposure to schools. Most
students attend many more.”
Unlike many high schools that have college rep visits during lunch or afterschool,
Principal Mel and his college team scheduled these visits during instructional time,
usually during afternoon advisory. They believed that using advisory time eliminated
students missing out on other activities. According to Megan, students had the freedom
to approach it from a place of curiosity, "I'm curious about that school. I'm not missing
out on anything else anywhere. I want to go learn about that school."
The college team frontloaded the students with general information about the
college, such as ACT requirements, location, alum who had attended, majors, fun facts,
and a virtual tour link. Document review revealed a student form to sign up for the
college rep visit, which went to the college director and was then shared with the
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advisors. This created a record for each visit, allowing them to know which students
attended each visit.
College fair. The college fair was a single event where students had access to
numerous college representatives to obtain college-specific information. Sunshine High’s
college fairs were unique in that they were entirely student led through the College Fair
Club. In 2017, the college fair hosted 72 colleges and universities. Jan boasted that
college professors even conducted lectures for seniors “so they can experience what a
lecture is like.” Selena explained the rationale for tenth graders taking the lead in the
college fair, pointing out that they can look into different colleges that they're interested
in and gain motivation and future outlook. She added that taking this early leadership
role helped them gain “a little bit more skills and competence speaking and reaching
out.” In other words, planning the college fair not only built tenth grade college
knowledge, it enhanced their life and resilience skills. Javier shared, “The reputation of
our school has kind of gotten out there. So, the schools are actually really happy to come
back, it’s become a really big, big affair.”
College field trips. In addition to the college fairs, every grade level went on a
college field trip and tour. True to being data-driven and intentional in providing a
college going culture, school leaders aligned college field trips with where students could
reasonably expect to be accepted. Jennifer shared the purpose of grouping students for
college tours based on their GPA and ACT scores, noting that it gave them “an accurate
picture of what they could experience, and where they want to push themselves.”
Building the college-knowledge capacity of families. Family engagement in
education encompasses what families do at home and in their neighborhoods or
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communities to encourage children’s learning. It typically involves a partnership with the
school, often with the school taking the lead in supporting families to help their children
pursue high school graduation, build college knowledge and matriculate in college.
Many families of low-income, under-represented students have little personal
experience with post-secondary education. They are unfamiliar with what it means to be
academically prepared for post-secondary education (Oakes, 2014). Increasing college
knowledge provides families with the necessary steps for selecting, applying to, and
choosing a college to attend as well as accessing scholarships and financial aid. School
leaders who build and sustain college-going cultures work to bridge the college
knowledge gap for students and their families (Kimura-Walsh, Yamamura, Griffin, &
Allen, 2009; Rodriguez et al., 2015).
Sunshine High School leaders put many supports in place for communicating and
building the college knowledge capacity of their families, including a monthly coffee
with the principal; hiring a parent engagement coordinator who facilitated workshops and
helped parents access resources; and encouraging participation in report card pick up and
parent workshops.
Coffee with the principal. “Coffee with the Principal” reiterated to parents on a
monthly basis the goals, mission, and vision of Sunshine High School. Mel shared data
and information, providing a powerful message that families played a critical role in
creating a college-going culture. Document review of the sign-ins revealed that upwards
of seventy-five parents attended the monthly forums.
Mel invited staff to share information and resources with families during the
coffees as well. Daisy, the guidance counselor and social worker, shared, “We start
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popping into those and talking about how they can help their students sustain a healthy
work-life balance and how they can support their student in making choices and having
courageous conversations with students.”
Those monthly forums also included the college counselor’s differentiated
messages to parents by grade level. Interviews and document review revealed an
alignment between the scaffolding designed for advisory and scaffolding built into parent
communication. For example, Megan reported sharing information with parents of
freshmen focused on successfully acclimatizing to high school, building good study
habits and creating a study space at home.
Parents of sophomore students were equipped with information linking their
child’s GPA and available financial aid. Mel and his staff emphasized the importance of
closely tracking GPA in the sophomore year for California Grants and Cal State schools.
The message was intentionally frank, as Megan described what school leaders shared
with parents, “Your student’s grades are literally tied to money in California. If they
don’t have a 3.0, they’re taking a significant chunk of money away from themselves. So
be aware”. In effect, this created a powerful “why” for parents to encourage their
students to do well in school and to see the value of carving out time at home for their
child to study.
For parents of juniors, Mel and staff focused on being optimistic yet realistic in
the choice of colleges students were applying for. Megan put it this way, "Don't let me
crush your dreams, but please start to be realistic. Ninth grade was the time to dream
about college, and 11th grade is when you need to have realistic goals, and so does your
child."
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School leaders also used this forum to offer practical advice and counter myths
about the college-going process. For example, some parents were under the impression
that college did not cost money. The college team incorporated a discussion during one
coffee to include the facts: 1) College does cost money; 2) Some colleges will be more
affordable than others; 3) Usually, that affordability is tied to your child's grades and test
scores; and 4) It costs money, save something.
School leaders agreed that, ultimately, the message for everyone, was to stay
focused, find your purpose, get involved, and stay involved. “Always get involved” was a
message the leadership team reported sharing during Coffee with the Principal. Coffee
with the Principal and workshops served Sunshine High well in building the college
knowledge capacity of parents. Workshops for parents of students completing their senior
year were equally important. Parent workshops addressed financial aid, understanding
college, and parenting college-age students.
Staff and leadership heard from alumni that they felt pressured by family to not
attend college or to drop out. They felt they needed to contribute financially to their
family household or watch younger siblings. The principal and the college team
determined the need for parents to receive guidance and advice on parenting transitions,
incorporating the topic into parent workshops. The goal was to bring this deficit thinking
into parents’ awareness as a precaution that they could unintentionally be preventing their
child from making progress.
Parents reported to staff through surveys that these workshops built their college
knowledge for their child enrolled at Sunshine High School as well as younger siblings
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and other children they had relationships with. In effect, these parent workshops were a
manifestation of the commitment to TMC.
Parent and family engagement coordinator. Nearly all of the staff interviewed
for this study applauded Mel for creating unique positions to fill unique needs, building a
college-going culture by hiring the right people for the right positions. The parent
engagement coordinator position was particularly important in reinforcing a college-
going culture with parents.
Nicole explained that a large part of her role as the parent engagement coordinator
was to build the capacity of parents and increase their college knowledge. She believed
doing this helped parents to become better equipped to advocate for and support their
child with the college-going process, from college planning through graduation and entry
into the professional workforce. Nicole described her job responsibilities, including
managing parent workshops, monitoring parent attendance to report card pick up, School
Site Council, and any other family events on campus.
Nicole also reported that she was responsible for ensuring that parent had access
to student data, allowing them to sign up for a parent portal and training them how to
track their child's progress. She also worked to increase communication between parents
and their child’s teachers. Daisy expanded on the role of the parent engagement
coordinator and how they collaborated:
When we have issues arise with a family, we have someone designated to help
support them…We always offer translation. It’s always in English, it’s always in
Spanish. If a parent ever came in with another language, we’d do our best to find
a translator some other way.
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Providing authentic college experiences in and out of Sunshine High School was
not reserved for just students. The parent coordinator held college fairs and organized
outside programs for parents. She also held a FAFSA night, field trips to colleges, and
attendance at conferences related to parenting and college going.
Parent conferences. School leaders reported systemically ensuring that the
college going conversations and building parent college knowledge was at the heart of
parent conferences. These conferences were also known as “report card pick-up.”
Although not mandatory, it was expected and highly encouraged that every parent
participate in one parent conference every quarter. Advisors were held accountable for
ensuring that at least 95% of their advisees’ parents attended. Parents were presented with
their students’ grades and a snapshot of how their student was doing in each of the
college readiness indicators at the conference; these indicators included GPA, test scores,
attendance, TMC, and volunteer hours, and Cal State eligibility. Report card pickup
ensured that parents were well informed about where their students were and where they
needed to be on their college path.
Parent conferences not only served to share information but also to build trusting
relationships between the advisor and the students’ family. Over the course of a high
school education at Sunshine High, parents had 16 opportunities to visit with their child’s
advisor. Javier explained:
They all have my number… they end up really confiding in you. . .. I’ve had
parents call me late at night saying, hey, I can't find X student, can you please
help me? …You just build that relationship very naturally. It just happens.
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Through systems, supports, and activities, Sunshine High school leaders provided
multiple opportunities for students to have a college experience, including club rushes
that mimic the university level, college rep visits, college field trips, and college fairs to
increase college knowledge and access to resources to better prepare students for post-
secondary attainment. Additional supports and activities were in place to build parent
college knowledge. The power and impact of these programs came through in all of the
interviews and the review of documents such as agendas, evaluations, and surveys.
Theme 3: Leader’s Role in Ensuring All Students Have Access to Rigorous
Academics
The third theme that surfaced from this study was that school leaders at Sunshine
High school put systemic, equity-focused structures in place to ensure that all students
had access to rigorous academics. Policies such as a requirement that all students take A-
G courses and pass with a C or better, data driven instruction, and curricula aligned to
ACT College and Career Standards ensured that students had access to rigorous
academics.
Access to A-G courses for all to ensure rigorous academics. School leaders
designed the curriculum so that all students took “A through G courses,” a requirement to
qualify for California State schools. Since the 2015-16 school year, every senior has
graduated Sunshine High having completed all required A-G courses; therefore, 100% of
students have been qualified to apply for any university in the state since 2016. This
assertion was corroborated by a review of the school’s Local Control and Accountability
Plan (LCAP) and interviews. Ariel commented that having 100% of students complete
the A-G requirement had inspired them to set a goal of 100% Cal State eligible, bringing
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it “to an even higher level . . .. getting the As and Bs to be eligible for a Cal State
[school], which is a very realistic college choice for a lot of our students.” A review of
the LCAP confirmed the interview reports.
Curriculum aligned to ACT college and career standards. To ensure students
at Sunshine High received rigorous academics that would prepare them for entrance to
and success in post-secondary education, school leaders required that curricula be aligned
to the ACT College and Career Readiness standards. The standards consist of essential
skills and knowledge that ACT believes students need to be ready for college and/or a
career path. Part of the rationale for school leaders aligning curriculum with ACT
standards was to provide students with the foundation to be successful on the ACT,
which is heavily weighted in the admission process for many California colleges and
universities.
Furthermore, the ACT also served as a way for school leaders to measure student
growth, provided them a means to compare student growth from year to year; and
allowed comparisons to other schools, districts, and states. Alphonso, Megan, and Daisy
all talked about the importance of the ACT standards and their benefits for students and
their families. Daisy noted:
A lot of our parents choose our school because we’re so college-focused and we
prepare students for all the hard tests. A lot of times, schools don’t provide
ACT/SAT prep, but it’s just built into our curriculum…They take it at the very
beginning of the year, and then at the end of each quarter. It is five times. We
benchmark them, and our goal is growth.
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Ariana, a former ACT tutor, discussed how she infused the ACT standards in her
curricula. She pushed students to move beyond the scores of 21 or 22 that everyone
achieved, working to get scores “as high as possible” and perhaps even into “Ivy League
scores” in the 30s.
Ensuring rigorous academics: accountability for all. Testing structures,
grade level department team meetings and goals, promotional standards, and college
readiness indicators were all part of the structures school leaders at Sunshine High used
to hold themselves and students accountable. Jennifer described how the school was
aligned with the ACT for accountability and benchmarking, "If they are not hitting that
benchmark, then we need to push. . .it's all backwards planned from that goal of a 21.
Because that's what we've found is the number that opens a huge amount of scholarship
opportunities.”
Sunshine High school leaders established multiple benchmarks to determine
where students should be in order to reach or exceed the goal of 21 on the ACT: 14 for
ninth graders, 16 for tenth graders, and 18 for eleventh graders. Student growth was
measured by the Pre-ACT and Post-ACT given to each student. Interim assessments were
given quarterly to monitor student progress. Again, document review of the LCAP and
student performance reports supported these interview reports.
Use of collaborative structures to ensure rigorous academics. School
leaders held staff accountable for students meeting college readiness indicators. Supports
were provided by administrators as well as team structures and systems of collaboration.
Jennifer commented on how staff would “constantly” give each other feedback about
curricula and individual students, growing throughout the year. She highlighted the
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importance of teamwork and team accountability. “Department teams are held
accountable for student GPA and ACT growth. Whereas, grade level teams are held
accountable for percentage of students in detentions. And, advisors are held accountable
for parents, who show up to parent conferences.”
During weekly meetings teachers allocated time to collaborate vertically in
department teams as well as horizontally by grade level teams. One example of vertical
articulation was the science department that determined evidence-based writing would be
the focus for the year in ninth through twelfth grade. They agreed that not only was
writing a big need in the sciences, it was very transferable to the other fields, helping
students to be successful across the disciplines.
A strategic investment in an alumni position, held by Alphonso, was another
strategy Sunshine utilized to promote a college going culture and ensure students had
access to rigorous academics. Alphonso tracked and checked-in with alumni throughout
their first year of college. He tracked how the students were doing, their GPAs, and the
classes they were taking. This data was brought back to school leaders and teachers to be
used as one point of data to assess and analyze how they were achieving the longitudinal
mission. He also was able to secure midterms and problem sets from college level
courses from former Sunshine High graduates. To ensure rigor in instruction, the science
teachers backward-planned and scaffolded using the assessments from the alumni.
Promotional requirements and college readiness. Students were required to
meet six benchmarks to be promoted to the next grade, collectively known as annual
college readiness indicators (ACRIs): (1) mastery, passing all classes, including A-G
courses; (2) meeting minimum college readiness skills as measured by ACT grade level
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benchmark targets; (3) scoring at least 1.5 on the common rubric on TMC performance
tasks to measure critical thinking and the journey towards the school’s college and career
the mission; (4) TMC hours, at least ten hours of unpaid internship, community service,
or volunteer hours each year; (5) discipline, measured by self-regulation (students
received merits by demonstrating maturity, self-control, and self-discipline and demerits
for not demonstrating self-regulation traits); and (6) attendance.
The ACRIs provided a summary of the students’ strengths and challenges
allowing teachers and administrators to look at the whole student. Not only did Sunshine
High school leaders use the ACRIs to articulate clear expectations, teachers were
expected to track ACRI data and use it when planning lessons and interventions for
students.
The determination school leaders had for data-driven decision making,
instruction, and accountability for all was evident in interviews, observations, and
document reviews. In order to make data more accessible for monitoring students,
leaders invested in a database which provided a user-friendly dashboard monitored by all
staff and utilized closely by advisors.
Advisory teachers were able to see real-time grades, college readiness score,
ACT’s, TMC hours, attendance, and detentions. Javier described how he used live data to
respond to students’ needs in real time, “My kids who are sitting in the front row with
paper packets? That's an intervention for students who struggled last quarter. And,
already, the result is my students who did very little last quarter are ahead now.”
Supports for students. Sunshine High leadership and staff supported students who
were not meeting their advancement goals, or who needed other supports in order to be
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college eligible. School leaders were also intentional and strategically mapped a cohort
of students to determine student needs and examine teacher practices that could impede
student success. Policies such as required summer school and extended school days were
examples of Sunshine High leaders embedding safety nets for students to be successful in
a college-going culture. Summer school was offered for up to four weeks for students not
passing all their classes and/or not on track to graduate. Students who did not meet the
ACT benchmark had additional summer resources to meet the benchmark.
A review of the school’s academic calendar and interview responses indicated
that the credit recovery program, run by the principal and selected teachers, was available
in Fall, Spring, and Summer. At the end of each quarter school leaders provided
strategies to enable students to catch up. Whatever the need, Sunshine leaders instituted
safeguards for students in need of supports to catch up or make up the ACRIs to be
eligible for high school graduation and college or university matriculation.
In addition to summer school and credit recovery, teacher office hours and
extended school hours ensured access to support for students. The bell schedule and
school calendar supported interview reports that the campus was open until 6:00 p.m.
every night of the week, two hours after the bell rang, for students to meet with teachers
for additional assistance, use the computer, or just have a quiet place to study.
The use of data played a significant role in the way school leaders designed
systems and strategies to support students meeting success. Ongoing communication as
well as one-to-one conferences with students and families were also utilized as a means
of support. This included conferences with teachers, students, and families as well as
advisor meetings with students. Javier described goal setting as a student support, making
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up for different exposure to goal-setting, planning, discipline, and expectations. He gave
the example of a student who was not passing all their classes, “Let's strategize. We talk a
lot about goal setting…let's focus on one class at a time. You have this grade, what's the
goal for next week?” He emphasized his own role in creating a plan, assigning
accountabilities, supporting the student, and following up. This laid an important
foundation for college success, following through a student-led cycle of planning and
accountability to reach a goal.
Celebrations. Students were acknowledged and celebrated for their hard work.
School leaders showed that as they celebrated what they valued. During Town Halls,
students were greeted with an inspirational welcome by Principal Mel imploring them to
be the best scholars they could be. The students recited the school mission statement and
their ACT goals by grade level. Students were acknowledged and celebrated for their
accomplishments monthly during Town Halls, and at various events such as College
Signing Day and ACT Day. Ariana described the energy when the eleventh graders took
the ACT:
We take the ACT day very seriously. . .we shut down the school. And, then, we
have a 21 piñata because we want our kids to average a 21. That's our big goal.
So, then, they hit the piñata to try to reach the goals 21. So, it sends the message,
“This is it. This is the day that you've been preparing for.”
Daisy described College Signing Day a big event not unlike college draft in
sports. “All of the seniors…get to walk across the stage and say what they're going to be
doing the next year. It's really cool. It's like graduation, but way better, because your
fellow classmates are celebrating you.”
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School leaders at Sunshine High School created a college-going culture by
requiring all students to pass A-G courses with a C or better; aligning the school curricula
to the ACT college and career standards; and using collaborative, data-driven instruction
and promotion to ensure that students had access to rigorous academics. Supports for
students who were not meeting benchmarks and celebrations for those who were
completed the Sunshine High’s lifecycle commitment to rigorous academics. There
practices were supported consistently in interviews and observations as well as through
document review.
Theme 4: Building Social Capital and Resilience
A fourth theme emerged that addressed the question of promising practices
utilized by school leaders at Sunshine High to create a college going culture. Leaders
provided resources, systems, and supports for student to build social capital. Social
capital encompasses the networks of people, resources, and knowledge that Sunshine
High School students need to gain access to and thrive in college, empowering a stable
and growth-oriented career path. Resilience is the ability to successfully manage
challenges.
The intentional building of a strong advisory culture in which students could talk
through challenges and learn strategies to self-advocate were important to school leaders.
Structures that provided students with opportunities to build relationships; personalize
learning; develop resiliency and life skills; and connect with outside mentors all
supported students in gaining access to college.
Sunshine High school leaders ensured that students had at least one “go to”
person who checked in on them, shared social networks, and assisted with navigating
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roadblocks in their lives, particularly on the road to college through advisories. School
leaders helped students build social capital through mentoring relationships. They
nurtured a sense of community through advisory, which provided students with the
opportunity to develop a relationship with an adult knowledgeable about their goals and
aspirations. Advisors acted as advocates on behalf of their students and their families.
Javier described how advisories were a part of the strong college-going culture
school leaders built for students at Sunshine High, providing students with tools to
increase social capital and resiliency. He described the intimacy and depth of those
conversations around social emotional health, the kinds of things that they might
encounter outside of school or in college. He reported how the advisory culture impacted
students beyond the walls of Sunshine High School, “I was texting [an alumnus] and he
was telling me he was really going a lot to his academic counselor, because he felt like he
was having trouble with test taking.” In other words, by modeling and providing practice
in asking for help and guidance in the sheltered environment of Sunshine High, graduates
were able to extend this learning to their college campuses, increasing their social capital
and networks or help.
Permeating the interviews were the descriptions of how advisories built strong
connections and became a family-like community. As Daisy put it, “They'll call advisors
family sometimes, because you're there every single day.” Many of the participants
interviewed for this study spoke of advisories as creating a space where candid
conversations happen that otherwise might not happen.
Increasing student social capital. School leaders encouraged staff to tap into
their own social networks to increase the social capital of Sunshine High School students.
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Students were exposed to different fields and career paths, helping them be better
equipped to make informed decisions about their future. Jan explained the importance of
early exposure, “They say they want to be an engineer, or they want to start their own
business, and they don't know what that means. A lot of our students haven't met an
engineer.” At the beginning of the year, students completed a survey of their interests and
staff completed a survey indicating people they had access to. Daisy described the team
approach to resources and networks, “We do a great job of utilizing networks. Whenever
someone has a question or wants a resource, we are all in and we're able to find resources
pretty easily.” During freshman year students were required to shadow or interview
someone in their chosen career area. School leaders took an “all hands-on deck” approach
in finding connections for students.
Advisory and mentors as a sounding board. During the interviews, school
leaders discussed challenges students faced: the difficulties of just being a teenager,
neighborhood problems, and societal adversities. Many of the students at Sunshine High
had parents who were immigrants; they were sometimes unable to help their children
manage life as teenagers in America, or the challenges students faced involved family
issues. Advisors provided a listening ear and words of encouragement or strategies to
overcome problems and challenges. Nicole commented on how advisory created a space
to safely deal with adversity, “What's going on in the country, growing up as a teenager,
what it’s like these days just mental health wise… this is probably the only place that
they have to be able to talk about things.”
Modeling and building resilience and grit. In addition to teaching college
knowledge through the advisory curriculum, school leaders ensured that teachers had
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time in class to talk with students, both one-to-one and as a group, to reinforce the
importance of grit, resiliency, and life skills. Modeling and teaching resilience and grit
was a norm established by school leaders to ensure students were competent, confident,
connected, and able to cope with challenges in high school and beyond. School leaders
invited graduates back to share and discuss their successes and challenges while attending
college.
As most students were first-generation college bound, school leaders were
relentless in their pursuit to build students' self-confidence and ability to persevere,
through words and action. Providing students with the right language to self-advocate and
navigate through bureaucracy, or simply remaining on hold while following up on their
college applications, were examples of school leaders teaching and modeling resilience
and perseverance. Daisy offered,
I’m really big on grit, and I know that our kids go through so much day in and day
out, and validating that for so many of them, even if it’s just seeing them in the
hall and telling them, wow, I can tell you’ve had a rough day, but you’re still here,
you’re still going on.
Ariana shared, “We also randomize lists to just check in with every single student. So, I
think that evert single student hopefully knows that they’re being thought of constantly
by their teachers.”
Megan modeled in class what it was like to stay on hold for an uncomfortable
amount of time; she modeled the self-talk of not giving up and having the determination
to get the answers she needed. Megan also described a time when a student was provided
erroneous information about the status of their college enrollment application. She
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empowered the student with simple language to reply and respectfully insist that the
mistake be resolved, “I need to speak with someone who can fix this problem for me. No,
I need someone who's going to help me resolve this issue, because I know it's one that
can be resolved, and needs to be resolved.”
To reinforce the mission of the Sunshine High and student resilience, school
leaders recognized the need for students to have a strong investment in their purpose or
“why.” Under the direction of the administrative team, the guidance counselor developed
a curriculum to help the students understand and be intentional about their passion and
purpose. A senior thesis, sometimes called a “passion project,” required students to select
a topic they were interested in related to a possible future goal. The students either
worked on their senior thesis or obtained an internship to enhance their ability to follow
through on things they were interested in. The senior thesis instilled a sense of curiosity
and motivation in students. Daisy shared how the school worked to instill intrinsic
motivation in students, so they did not need to constant rewards in order to work hard.
Their goal was to help students understand “you're learning because you enjoy learning
and make it fun.”
Discussion of Research Question 1
Four themes emerged from this study for Research Question 1, which examined
promising practices utilized by school leaders at Sunshine High to promote a college
going culture for under-represented and low-SES students. Aligned with
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1977), the findings illuminated the myriad
ways in which Sunshine High school leaders leveraged the systems that influenced
students’ educational development.
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Bronfenbrenner’s’ microsystem consists of structures a child has direct access to
such as family, school, peer groups, and neighborhoods. The relationships built with
students through the advisory program, linking advisee and advisor for four consecutive
years, as well as the bonds formed within the advisory between students, were examples
of how school leaders established supports to leverage the students’ microsystem.
Teachers acted as role models for trusted adults and problem-solvers, lessons students
took with them into college, as evidenced by interview dialogue with former students.
Staff provided supports for students who struggled to attain minimum college
competencies.
Understanding that most of their students were the first generation to attend
college in their families, school leaders were clear of the need to create systems for
students to build social capital and access social networks. This meant that resources that
were normally accessible only to those who had parents with social capital were made
available and that Sunshine High students were instilled with the confidence that social
capital brings (Bryan et al., 2017; Martinez & Everman, 2017). Sunshine High School
worked at the microsystem level in ensuring that students had access to as many
resources as possible to ensure their college success.
Bronfenbrenner’s mesosystem provides the connection between the structures of
the child’s microsystem. School leaders leveraged students’ mesosystems to bolster their
ability to access post-secondary education. Creating parent buy-in and engaging parents
as supporters of their children’s educational aspirations not only built parent’s social
capital, it helped parents to negotiate the child’s mesosystem in ways that benefitted their
child.
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Bronfenbrenner’s exosystem is a system which impacts a child’s development
because of the interactions with the child’s microsystem, but over which the child has no
control. Increasing college knowledge of all stakeholders was a priority of leaders of
Sunshine High, impacting the larger systems in which the students lived and learned.
Paramount to student success was the intentional, systemic, equity- focused structures put
in place by Sunshine High leaders to ensure all students had access to rigorous academics
(Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et al., 2014; Welton & Martinez, 2014). The exosystem
impact of these systems was deepened by the use of embedded, rich data tracking tools
and monitoring staff’s responsiveness to the data.
Bronfenbrenner’s outermost system in the child’s environment is the
macrosystem. Sunshine High School’s vision for TMC looked to impact the
macrosystem by directly influencing students and their parents to create a societal
change, or at least to have the tools to better manage the challenges of the macrosystem.
Whether students decided to go to college or pursue a career, the leaders at Sunshine
High instilled in students the need to, and the power of, utilizing those degrees and
careers unselfishly to make a positive impact not just in their own lives but also in the
lives of their families and communities for generations to come. Sunshine High leaders
promoted a cultural macrosystem in which all stakeholders were immersed in the mission
and goals purpose-transformational multigenerational change (TMC). By embedding the
mission, vision, and goals in all aspects of the culture of the school, leaders provided
everyone—staff, students, parents, and community members—with a blueprint of what
was expected of them along with systems, supports, and scaffolds for meeting the
expectations.
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Providing students with information and support to build their social capital was
an essential element of leaders promoting a college going culture (Welton & Martinez,
2014). Leaders at Sunshine High provided structures and utilized the social networks of
staff for students’ college preparation and planning to provide opportunities for students
to matriculate successfully into post-secondary education (Chen, 2017; Welton &
Martinez, 2015). Sunshine High School sought to create sustainable change at every
level of Brofenbrenner’s ecological model.
Findings for Research Question 2: What perceived challenges do school leaders
at Sunshine High School encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
The second research question sought to explore perceived challenges school
leaders encountered while sustaining a college-going culture for under-represented and
low-SES students at Sunshine High. Three themes emerged while examining the
perceptions of Sunshine High school leaders about sustaining a college going culture.
The first theme centered around workload demands of staff and the need to balance work
and home. The second theme focused on feelings of self-doubt or complacency by
students. Finally, the third theme identified the lack of student buy-in to the mission,
highlighting the challenge encountered by school leaders in sustaining a college-going
culture.
Theme 5: Workload Demands of Staff
School leaders’ perception of the amount of time and energy necessary to build
and sustain a college going culture, while also integrating college skills into all
coursework, permeated the interviews. Staff and teachers acknowledged their willingness
to take on extra challenges, but also perceived the workload demand to be a challenge.
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Jennifer talked about the magnitude of things they needed to master beyond their subject-
area expertise, things that staff in traditional high schools rarely worry about. For
example, teachers in most schools are not expected to be experts in the college admission
process, ACT testing strategies, or building student’s life skills. Interviews revealed the
depth to which staff had to be adept at helping teenagers manage the challenges of
school, family, and life. Playing the role of full-time teacher and full-time counselor
(advisor) is beyond the scope of most teachers. Staff and teachers frequently mentioned
the interplay of myriad complex pieces that impact college acceptance, enrollment, and
success for low-SES students.,
Additionally, Sunshine High School’s commitment to ensuring students were
provided a rigorous curriculum that would prepare them for success in college took extra
time. Curricula were designed with intricate backward planning and scaffolding across
four grade levels. As Jan described, “You're not just thinking about, like okay, what does
this science lab mean for high school, but how can I help to build them up to lab reports
that they will be doing in college.”
In order for teachers to be fully engaged and responsive to the needs of their
students, school leaders set an expectation that all curricula be fully planned for the entire
quarter before the start of each quarter. In an effort to assist teachers with adjusting to
some of the workload demands, school leaders incorporated two weeks of planning at the
end of each quarter.
Interview data as well as the student handbook and information available on the
website revealed the long days encountered by teachers at Sunshine High. The regular
school day ran from 8:00 a.m. until 4:00 p.m.; however, with clubs, sports, leadership
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meetings, and office hours, many school leaders and staff worked from 7:00 a.m. until
7:00 p.m. Moreover, being a small school, most staff members served in a leadership role
in addition to their teaching role. Teachers took on the roles of advisors, tutors, and
mentors. They advised clubs, like the College Fair Club, and coached sports and dance
teams.
Many of the very systems and strategies put in place by school leaders to promote
a college-going culture at Sunshine High created challenges in sustaining the culture. For
example, through interview data and school literature, advisory was credited with
enhancing a sense of community, building trusting relationships, providing a “go-to”
person for students and their families, and a means of increasing students’ social capital
by introducing them to the social networks of their advisors and other staff. However,
advisory added a significant amount of time to the work load of teachers and required a
high level of mental energy. In other words, the very systems and structures that enabled
student success also created an environment where teachers were more prone to burnout.
Many staff interviewed spoke of their love and passion for the work while also
expressed feels of exhaustion. When asked about sustainability, Selena responded:
We are all always very tired. Sustainability is something that we'll need to talk
about more because a lot of our staff members work more than we are contracted
to. We are here a lot, so that is definitely a challenge.
Sunshine High had a young staff. They discussed the possibility of starting
families and the challenge the demanding workload might pose for balancing work
priorities with life priorities. Staff members expressed concerns about sustainability,
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suggesting that it was a topic they needed to focus on. They realized the value and the
effectiveness of the systems, but also the hard work and the toll it took on staff.
Theme 6: Students’ Feelings of Self-Doubt or Complacency
Highlighted in the literature, under-represented students experience cycles of self-
doubt early in their educational journeys compared to their White counterparts (Dukakis
et al., 2014). The challenge of students not believing in their own ability to reach post-
secondary attainment also permeated the interviews with staff. Some students could not
conceive of themselves going to college because of their family, neighborhood, or
economic status. The challenge of helping students to overcome self-doubt was one
school leaders did not take lightly, knowing that belief in oneself was the foundation of
college-going success. Nicole spoke to the challenge of helping students overcome self-
doubt where teachers served as daily role models:
We start with ourselves and having staff members who are a representation of our
student demographic. And, so, that alone is huge, being able to sit here and say, "
I was born and raised in Homely Heights, a gang infested neighborhood, same
conditions as you are, and here I am."
Additionally, school leaders worked to put strategies in place to cultivate
students’ educational aspirations and feelings of self-efficacy. They provided space, such
as advisory, where students could be vulnerable and share their fears and feelings.
Other students, who by the very nature of being enrolled at Sunshine High,
believed that college acceptance was guaranteed by virtue of their attendance at Sunshine
High. School leaders touted their reputation of successfully graduating 100% of students
who received acceptance to a four-year university. An unintended consequence was
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students thinking that college would “just happen” for them, regardless of whether they
worked hard or not. Megan explained the student mindset of “Oh, I just get into college.
It’s just going to happen.”
School leaders struggled to convey the message to students that they were
responsible for getting themselves into college, with the assistance and guidance of staff
at Sunshine. Megan shared her messaging, "Sunshine High is a place where we will work
and support you to get into college, but it is your work and your record and your thought
and intention and time. That is what gets you into college."
Theme 7: Students’ Alignment with the Mission of Sunshine High
Aware of the needs of the community in which they served, school leaders
conducted many outreach and recruitment sessions for parents and students explaining
their goal of graduating 100% of students with acceptance to at least one four-year
university. Most parents of students who would be the first generation in their family to
attend college, desiring the best for their children, jumped at the opportunity to apply at
Sunshine High.
As a result, some students who enrolled at Sunshine High were forced to attend
the school but did not share their parents desire to go to college. Helping those students to
buy into the mission proved challenging for Sunshine High staff. Jan mentioned students
who “just don't like this mission” or simply “don’t want to go to college.” One student
challenged her, asking “Why don't you respect me for what I want to do? I want to go
into the military.” She acknowledged, “I think we're making a lot of progress towards
helping students understand we're about the choice; we're not about forcing you to go
places.
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Sunshine High leaders shifted from strictly college-going focus to one of
making choices. Through conversations with students and alumni, school leaders came to
realize that some students do not want to go to college, at least not immediately. Instead,
school leaders focus on equipping every student with the tools they needed to make an
educated decision about their future and to position themselves for success in whatever
they chose.
Workload demands, student mindsets of self-doubt or complacency, and lack of
student buy-in to the college going mission were challenges that emerged from the data
collected for Research Question Two. These challenges were recognized by leadership,
administrators, and staff.
Discussion of Research Question 2
Although interviews revealed high levels of job satisfaction at Sunshine High,
staff frequently use words and phrases like “exhaustion,” “long hours,” “a lot of work,”
and “huge responsibilities.” They talked about sustainability in terms of “feeling pressure
because we want students to be successful,” being “tireless,” and “working to the bone.”
What was notable in light of these comments was the longevity of leaders, teachers, and
staff at Sunshine High School.
Leadership strived to be responsive to the needs of staff by incorporating
planning weeks, one for planning and the other for time off, after the close of each
quarter. Planning weeks allowed teachers to work on curriculum and lessons while
students were on break. Time off allowed teachers to physically and mentally refresh,
offsetting feelings of work overload. But in the end, the balance tipped towards work
overload. And, yet, staff did not talk about leaving.
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School leaders modeled their passion, commitment, and love for the work.
They provided professional development and conducted team-building activities to keep
the “why” and “purpose” of the work at the forefront with staff and to keep their passion
alive. Throughout the interviews, staff consistently commented on the love of the work
and how hard the administrative team worked, which motivated staff to work hard as
well. Perhaps it was the lead-by-example strategy of Mel and his leadership team that
kept the entire staff focused, engaged, and motivated to excel.
Summary
Chapter Four provided the findings resulting from the two research questions. The
goal of Research Question 1 was to explore the promising practices used by school
leaders at Sunshine High to promote a college-going culture for under-represented and
low-SES students. Research Question 2 sought to illuminate perceived challenges school
leaders encountered while sustaining a college-going culture for under-represented and
low-SES students at Sunshine High.
The findings were clear and compelling. By articulating a clear vision and
mission for a comprehensive college-going culture, leaders engaged the entire staff in
creating, implementing, and utilizing supports and structures that provided students with
the necessary opportunities and resources to successfully matriculate into post-secondary
education. In ensuring that all stakeholders had access to college knowledge and by
providing rigorous academics, the various microsystems in the students’ lives were
integrated into a seamless system that prioritized moving students along the pathway
from college preparation to college planning to college admission processes. Building
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social capital and resilience provided students with critical relationships and networks to
thrive in high school, college, and beyond.
Leaders, teachers, and staff were challenged in managing work-life balance in the
high demand environment of a high performing school serving low-SES students. This
balance was made more difficult by student mindsets and attitudes that were not
compatible with student success.
Chapter 5 provides a summary of these findings. It makes recommendations for
future research using the themes and trends that emerged from the current research study.
Finally, it explores implications for practice and policies at schools committed to creating
a college going culture for underserved and low-SES students.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY
The ability of school leaders to build a college-going culture in secondary schools
is critical to ensuring that low-income and under-represented students have access to
post-secondary education (Crellin, Kelly, & Prince, 2012). Insufficient knowledge about
college preparation, planning, and admission processes have contributed to the lack of
equity in college access for low-socioeconomic status (SES) and under-represented
students (Bryan & Farmer-Hinton, 2017). Furthermore, the lack of a college education
can negatively and permanently impact the lives of under-represented and low-income
students (Carnevale, Malin, & Hackmann, 2017). Leadership plays a critical role in
creating an environment in which college-going supports and structures are put in place
so that resources and college knowledge are accessible to all students (Amaro-Jimenez &
Hungerford-Kresser, 2013).
Purpose of the Study
Schools and districts play key roles in eliminating inequities encountered by low-
SES and under-represented students in their pursuit of college access. Developing
college-going cultures in which opportunities and resources are in place for under-
represented and low-income students to successfully access and matriculate into post-
secondary education must be a priority. Critical to the success of a college-going culture
are the structures and strategies put in place by school leaders (Bryan et al., 2017).
The purpose of this study was to examine the promising practices utilized by
leaders at Sunshine High School to promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-
income and under-represented students. Additionally, the study examined the perceived
challenges encountered by Sunshine High School leaders in sustaining a college-going
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culture. This qualitative study was guided by the following collaboratively designed
research questions:
3. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Sunshine High School employ
to promote a college-going culture?
4. What perceived challenges do school leaders at Sunshine High School
encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
Summary of the Findings
Chapter Four presented this research study’s findings aligned with the research
questions. The results revealed that Sunshine High school leaders employed specific
strategies generalizable to other schools and districts that create a comprehensive
college-going culture for low-SES and under-represented students. Furthermore,
Sunshine High School leaders provided students with tangible resources such as access to
both college knowledge and college talk. They ensured students had access to rigorous
academics and opportunities to build social capital, which prepared all students for
college acceptance (Welton & Martinez, 2015). Moreover, the findings highlighted the
numerous methods school leaders utilized to leverage systems that influenced the
educational development of students (Brofenbrenner, 1977; Dukakis et al., 2014).
Sunshine High utilized strategies that equipped students with the resources, skills, and
tools necessary to matriculate into post-secondary education (Bryan et al., 2017; Farmer-
Hinton, 2011).
Findings showed that leaders at Sunshine High set and articulated a clear
mission and vision aligned to a college-going culture that was understood by all
stakeholders. Sunshine High’s mission of transformational multigenerational change
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(TMC), instilled in students the responsibility to use their college degrees and careers to
make positive changes not only in their own lives but in the lives of their families and
communities for generations to come.
Various strategies were established by school leaders to make certain on-going,
mission-driven communications and dialogue consistently occurred with students and
their families (Bryan et al., 2017; Martinez & Everman, 2017). School leaders
unequivocally conveyed the expectation that every student would be eligible for
admittance to a four-university. Although school leaders understood that college might
not be a choice for all students, they committed to ensuring that all students had the
option of attending college.
Data from this study revealed that school leaders at Sunshine High School
established structures, supports, and mechanisms to make college knowledge accessible
to all students and parents through the use of town halls, frequent visits from college
representatives, college fairs, systemic talk about college, workshops, and a college and
career course. Furthermore, school leaders prioritized equipping students and families
with crucial information concerning the preparation, planning, and admission processes
related to college matriculation to ensure all stakeholders had access to college
knowledge. (Belasco, 2013; Bosworth et al., 2014)
The implementation of strategies and policies that provided all students access to
rigorous academics was an essential component for ensuring 100% of their students
gained acceptance to a four-university. Aligning the curriculum to ACT college career
standards and requiring all students to take A-G courses established clear expectations for
teaching and learning. Data tracking systems, staff collaboration design, and systemic
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check-ins with students based on annual college readiness indicators constituted the
intentional structures that ensured rigorous academics and supports were available for all
students (Bosworth et al., 2014; Welton & Martinez, 2014). Moreover, leaders ensured
that every student’s progress towards meeting achievement goals was discussed regularly
by staff, weekly with students, and quarterly with parents.
Distinct strategies were put in place to build students’ social capital at Sunshine
High. A strong advisory culture provided students the chance to develop life skills and
resiliency as well as to build relationships and links to outside mentors to support
readiness. Advisory was viewed as a family and advisors were also mentors, ensuring
that each student had at least one caring adult to work with over their four years in high
school who was aware of their college aspirations and challenges.
Findings also illuminated how school leaders perceived the challenges and
adversities of sustaining a college-going culture with regard to staff workload and work-
life balance. In a study by Athaneses et al. (2017), the school invested in positions to
provide one-to-one monitoring of academic performance and progress in the college and
scholarship application process for students. Advisors provided the one-to-one focus on
student progress towards academic and college entrance goals. Illustrating the heavy
workload, leaders frequently served as both teachers and advisors, requiring significant
commitment to meet students’ academic and social-emotional needs (Athaneses et al.,
2017).
As with many schools and districts, the shortage of counselors was evident.
Leaders found building and sustaining a college going culture while also incorporating
college skills across the curriculum was effective but also very time consuming. Leaders
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at Sunshine High were reflective and responsive to challenges presented by staff. For
example, the principal implemented two planning weeks at the end of every quarter. This
allowed teachers a week to meet the expectation of being fully prepared upfront for the
entire quarter and a week to refresh and rejuvenate.
Also highlighted in the findings were strategies utilized by Sunshine High School
leaders and staff to address the challenge of dealing with student expectations. Student
attitudes spanned a continuum from students who didn’t believe in their own abilities to
earn college acceptance to those who believed that college acceptance was automatic by
virtue of their attendance at Sunshine High. Research posits that under-represented
students encounter cycles of self-doubt early in their educational journeys (Dukakis et al.,
2014). School leaders at Sunshine High put systems in place to mitigate students’
feelings of self-doubt, fostering college aspirations and self-efficacy. These efforts
included hiring a diverse staff, recruiting mentors who students could identify with, and
incorporating school-wide, culturally-responsive strategies (Chen, 2017). Additionally,
the strong relationships built through the advisory program linked students to a consistent
adult to help with problem-solving and to model grit and resiliency (Athanases et al.,
2017; Bryan et al., 2017).
Another challenge encountered by school leaders was that not all students bought
into the college-going mission. Some students were enrolled at Sunshine High School by
parents who believed in the mission, while the students themselves did not. Other
students did not want to attend college, instead planning to pursue other pathways such as
military service. School leaders addressed this challenge by creating differentiated
pathways for students not pursuing college right after high school. These pathways
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included internships and apprenticeships designed to help students explore their interests
and passions. Sunshine High leaders ensured that every student was properly prepared to
make informed decisions about their future.
Implications for Practice and Policy
This study’s findings generated significant implications for educators desiring to
create a college-going culture for low-SES and under-represented students. Implications
for practice and policy focused on district leaders, school leaders, counselors, and
teachers who will find the promising practices identified in this study immediately
actionable in creating a college-going.
Districts
Systemic change often emerges top down, from districts to schools to classrooms.
The current research study identified many promising practices at Sunshine High School
that would benefit other districts working to created college-going cultures for all
students.
Like most if not all schools, workload and burnout were factors that emerged as
barriers to quality education for the leaders and Staff at Sunshine High School. Workload
was particularly problematic for sustaining a college-going culture. Like many small
schools, Sunshine High required school leaders and staff to play multiple roles to ensure
all students gained college acceptance. Teachers had full-time teaching loads and were
also full-time advisors, which included responsibilities normally managed by a college
counselor. Documented in the research was the need for additional supports and
resources including counselors to focus on individual student’s college-going needs
(Athanases et al., 2017; McKillip et al., 2012). In addition to these needs, which might
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be argued to affect all high schools, leaders and staff at Sunshine High School were
expected to be adept at the entire college readiness lifecycle. Beyond academics, it was
critical that every leader and staff member understood testing strategies, application
processes, and financial aid as well as adolescent development and the basics of
counseling through challenge or trauma.
Athanases et al. (2017) described a school that created a robust system of supports
to promote a college going culture, including creating a college resource center staffed by
a counselor, a financial aid officer, and an alumni coordinator dedicated to supporting
students through their college-going journey. Districts could reduce teacher workloads
and improve college attendance by funding school staff positions such as grade-level
counselors dedicated to building college knowledge and guiding students through the
college planning and application process. This would allow more time for teachers to
focus on providing rigorous academics and supports for students who need it, as well as
fully utilizing a data-driven approach.
The use of data and the ability for school leaders and staff to monitor student
performance on college readiness indicators in real time was identified as an important
factor. While all students had access to rigorous academics at Sunshine High, the data
allowed leaders and staff to identify where access was not enough. Addressing these gaps
led to increased college acceptance for students. District leaders should consider
investing in real-time dashboards to enable schools and their staff to monitor student
achievement. This would enhance the ability of school leaders to ensure that all students
have access to and can make effective use of rigorous academics as well as providing
timely support to students who struggle. An equity focused database could provide
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school leaders, staff, students, and parents with information about student progress and
allow for support systems to be put in place as needed (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et
al., 2014).
Principals
Parents, teachers, and principals often look to districts for change. However, the
current research study identified many promising practices at Sunshine High School that
are immediately actionable by principals and other leaders at the school level.
Findings from this study suggested that the alignment of a school’s standards and
curriculum to college and career standards is effective in increasing the rigor of
classroom academics. Requiring A-G classes for all students for schools in California,
or similar standards for schools outside of California, improved classroom rigor and
better prepared underserved students for college. Additionally, strategic data analysis is
clearly a valuable strategy that principals could directly incorporate.
The intentional act of aligning standards and curriculum to ACT college readiness
standards and requiring all students to take A-G courses or comparable coursework,
constituted an important first step for school leaders at Sunshine High. This resulted in
mutual accountability for teachers and students. The research spoke to the critical need
for systemic equity-focused structures to be put in place. These standards significantly
influenced low-SES and under-represented students in gaining access to post-secondary
education (Bosworth et al., 2014; Dukakis et al., 2014; Welton & Martinez, 2014).
Furthermore, school leaders strategically designed vertical grade level and
horizontal department meetings and administrative data-chats. Student achievement data
was analyzed by teachers to inform their instructional practice from day one to
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graduation as well as to provide differentiated support to target the needs of students on a
weekly basis. A study by Welton and Martinez (2014) revealed the need for school
leaders to create a culture in which students receive accurate information and access to
rigorous curriculum. While Sunshine High School had the advantage of a sophisticated
dash board, this type of data-driven decision making could be done with a simple Excel
spreadsheet. And, there is no cost to focused staff meetings that collaboration instead of
silos.
Additionally, advisory check-ins, celebrations, town halls, and parents report card
pickups communicated progress to students and parents. Principals and other school
leaders would benefit by putting similar strategies and structures in place for staff to
analyze student achievement data to inform instruction as well as supports and
communication structures to communicate the data to students and parents. These
promising practices are not so substantive that they would require district-level
permissions or additional funding.
Teachers
Parents and teachers often look to principals for change. However, the current
research study identified many promising practices at Sunshine High School that are
immediately actionable by teachers in the classroom.
The literature documented the benefits of embedding college talk in a college-
going culture (Bryan et al., 2017; Conley, 2007; Martinez & Everman, 2017). This study
revealed the intentional use of designing an advisory period to build relationships,
resilience, life skills, and college talk. Advisory periods strengthened students’ ability to
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embed college talk in their lives. College talk could include college eligibility
requirements, college options, and study skills (Bryan et al., 2017).
Advisory periods and curriculum should be designed by school leaders; teachers
should integrate at least 15 minutes of college talk every day. The simple act of teachers
sharing their own college stories with themes of perseverance and persistence was shown
to be beneficial in increasing students’ social capital and college knowledge (Athanases,
2016). Even without a school-wide initiative or the implementation of advisory periods,
teachers have the opportunity to create college-going culture and build social capital
within their own classrooms utilizing the promising practices uncovered at Sunshine
High School.
Counselors
Like teachers, counselors have the capacity to initiate change without principal or
district support. The resourcefulness of school leaders and counselors at Sunshine High
enhanced systems to foster students’ social capital. These leaders and counselors served
as mentors themselves. They also developed partnerships with individuals and
organizations to serve as external mentors.
It would be advantageous for counselors to recruit mentors to serve as tutors and
role models using teacher networks, community partners, university staff, job sources,
and sororities and fraternities. Many communities understand the importance of
education; often, they fail to get engaged simply because they are not asked.
Furthermore, this study revealed that many college activities and rituals that built college
knowledge and developed community—such as town halls, college rep visits, and college
fairs— provided structures for students to receive tangible resources, guidance, and
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information on college-going (Bryan & Farmer Hinton, 2017). Again, these promising
practices are not something that need funding or require approvals.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study examined the promising practices utilized by leaders at Sunshine High
school to promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-income and under-
represented students. Additionally, this study examined the perceived challenges
encountered by Sunshine High School leaders in sustaining a college-going culture.
Although a thorough exploration was conducted into practices employed by school
leaders that created a college-going culture, questions outside the scope of this study
surfaced that should be considered for further examination.
School leaders from one high school in one charter organization comprised the
participants in this study. Valuable perceptions and promising strategies to promote and
sustain a college-going culture were revealed. These perceptions and strategies point to a
number of recommendations for future research.
More Comprehensive Research Across School Types
A comprehensive study including charter, private, and public high schools, would
provide school leaders with strategies for promoting college-going cultures district-wide.
It would not only catalog additional promising practices, it would begin to identify how
college-going culture is created across school types. Ideally, that research would lead to
the development of a roadmap that schools could follow to create a culture leading to
increased college acceptance for students. With the increasing focus nationwide on
accountability, this would be a valuable tool for leveling the college-access playing field.
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Furthermore, findings from such a study could compare perceived challenges that
hinder sustaining a college-going culture. These challenges likely vary across school
types. This kind of research could help district and state policymakers develop effective,
evidence-based policies and provide resources to mitigate the challenges.
Longitudinal Research
Time constraints limited the research to a single snapshot of a single school. A
longitudinal study, analyzing several schools across a district over time would be
advantageous. This would allow researchers to explore how promising practices evolve
over time. Researchers could explore timing of interventions; for example, does the
impact of a town hall wear off after two or three years? How does exposing freshmen to
college recruiters contribute to the college mentality of these young adolescents? When
and where do underserved students begin to question their ability to attend college or to
seek alternative pathways to successful adulthood?
Demonstrating Transformational Multigenerational Change (TMC)
Finally, the findings of this study indicated that strategies utilized by school
leaders to promote and sustain a college-going culture provided all students access to
college acceptance to a four-year university. A future longitudinal qualitative study
should track the students over time to explore whether or not the strategies used to help
them gain college acceptance also helped them to persist, thrive, and graduate from
college. What practices were transferrable to a college campus? What practices could be
transferrable if they were adapted in high school? What was the impact of building grit
and resilience for students in high school? And, how did these practices transcend high
school and college, transferring into the workplace, civic engagement, and life? In other
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117
words, do all of these promising practices actually create Transformational Multi-
generational change?
Summary
The main function of a school is to prepare students to become contributing
members of society who lead productive lives. Individuals with bachelor's degrees are
more likely to receive better employment benefits, earn higher incomes, enjoy better
working conditions, and have access to greater professional and personal opportunities
than individuals without a bachelor’s degree. In addition to economic opportunity,
recipients of bachelor’s degrees experience a better quality of life than those without
degrees. Globally, people with college degrees are more likely to contribute to a nation's
workforce; pay taxes; and engage in social, civic, and charitable activities.
The benefits of obtaining a high school diploma and college degree are
undisputable. Yet, not all high schools have a culture that promotes college-going. While
schools do not exist free from the constraints of the larger socio-political and economic
environments, the final responsibility for promoting college-going culture and students
success lies firmly with school leadership.
Providing students with access to post-secondary education is critical to their
success in our increasingly competitive, 21st century global workplace. The current
trajectory of college graduation rates is projected to lead to a shortage of 16 million to 23
million college-educated adults in the U.S. workforce by 2030. This affects not just those
without college degrees but the strength of the American economy and our global
competitiveness. School leaders would benefit society as a whole if they were to more
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proactively take on the role of promoting college-going culture and post-secondary
degree attainment.

PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

119
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Appendix A: Interview Participant Letter

To Whom It May Concern:
The purpose of this case study is to explore the perceived promising practices
implemented at Sunshine High School which promote and sustain a college-going culture
for minority and low-SES students. As a participant in this study, your contributions will
provide significant data to individuals interested in establishing a college-going culture
for low-SES and minority students.

The following research questions will guide the data collection for this study:

1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Sunshine High School employ to
promote a college-going culture for low-SES students?

2. What are the perceived challenges encountered by school leaders at Sunshine
High School in sustaining a college-going culture?

The methods chosen to collect relevant data for this study will be primarily interviews
conducted with school leaders at your school site. As a school leader your insights into
strategies implemented to promote and sustain a college-going culture are significant in
order to determine implications for practice.

Your participation in this study will take place over approximately 30-40 minutes in a
time and place of your choosing and will consist of one interview and a possible follow-
up observation.

The interview will be audio recorded to maintain accuracy of your responses.

Further, all information gathered in this interview will be confidential and a pseudonym
will be utilized in the final study analysis in order to maintain confidentiality.

Thank you in advance for your participation in this study. Please feel free to contact me
at (310) 384-4489 or tcalhoun@usc.edu to confirm a date and time that work best for
you.

Respectfully,

Traci L. Calhoun

PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Administrators

Date: Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer: Interviewee:

I will meet with the interviewee in a location the respondent comfortable with.

I will communicate with the respondent that the interview will be recorded for the
purpose of accuracy in their responses to the interview questions.

I will inform the respondent that all information gathered in this interview will be
confidential and that a pseudonym will be utilized in the final study analysis in order to
maintain confidentiality.

I will inform the respondent that the interview will be approximately 14 questions and
will last approximately 30-40 minutes.

Discussion Guidelines

Please respond directly to the question being asked. If you do not understand the
question, feel free to ask for clarification. If more information is needed, I will ask
follow-up questions to gain as much understanding about your perceptions as possible. If
you require a break at any time, please let me know.

Interview Questionnaire

Transition: We will now begin the interview questions. Let me begin by asking you
some background information questions.

Questions
1. What is your current job title and responsibilities?
2. How long have you been at this school?
3. What made you decide to pursue a career in this area?

Transition: Now I will ask you a series of questions regarding the college-going culture
at your school site.

Questions
1. What are the strengths of this school?
2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
A) How did your school site develop this organizational philosophy?
3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents, students, and teachers?
4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to your school’s
college-going culture?
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

137
5. What are the 3 most effective things you have done over the last 3-5 years to build
a college-going culture?
Probe: How did you prioritize these actions?
6. What other activities do you have on your campus that support a college-going
philosophy for students?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
7. In what ways do you support teachers in building a college-going culture?
Probe: What types of professional development do you offer to teachers
on building a college-going culture?
8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-going culture?
9. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the college-
going process?
10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
11. How do you address these challenges?
12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices are
producing the desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-attainment)?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college attainment
goals? What do you do when students aren’t?
14. Is there anything else that you want to share?

Closing

I want to thank you for your time in participating in this interview and for your thoughtful
responses. I want to reiterate that I will be utilizing a pseudonym in my study for you in
order to keep your identity confidential.

PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

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Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Teachers and Counselors

Date: Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer: Interviewee:

I will meet with the interviewee in a location the respondent comfortable with.

I will communicate with the respondent that the interview will be recorded for the
purpose of accuracy in their responses to the interview questions.

I will inform the respondent that all information gathered in this interview will be
confidential and that a pseudonym will be utilized in the final study analysis in order to
maintain confidentiality.

I will inform the respondent that the interview will be approximately 14 questions and
will last approximately 30-40 minutes.

Discussion Guidelines

Please respond directly to the question being asked. If you do not understand the
question, feel free to ask for clarification. If more information is needed, I will ask
follow-up questions to gain as much understanding about your perceptions as possible. If
you require a break at any time, please let me know.

Interview Questionnaire

Transition: We will now begin the interview questions. Let me begin by asking you
some background information questions.

Questions

1. What is your current job title and responsibilities?
2. How long have you been at this school?
3. What made you decide to pursue a career in this area?

Transition: Now I will ask you a series of questions regarding the college-going culture
at your school site.

Questions
1. What are the strengths of this school?
2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
3. Were you involved in developing this organizational philosophy? If so, how so?
4. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents and students?
5. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to your school’s
college-going culture?
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

139
6. What are the 3 most effective things you have done over the last 3-5 years to build
a college-going culture?
i. Probe: How did you prioritize these actions?
7. What other activities do you have on your campus that supports a college-going
philosophy for students?
i. Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-going culture?
9. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the college-
going process?
10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
11. How do you address these challenges?
12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices are
producing the desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-attainment)?
i. Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college attainment
goals? What do you do when students aren’t?
14. Is there anything else that you want to share?

Closing

I want to thank you for your time in participating in this interview and for your thoughtful
responses. I want to reiterate that I will be utilizing a pseudonym in my study for you in
order to keep your identity confidential.

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140
Appendix D: Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions Aligned to Research Questions

x 1. What are the strengths of this school?
x 2. What is your organization’s philosophy about going to college?
x 3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents, students,
and teachers?
x 4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to
your school’s college-going culture?
x 5. What are the 3 most effective things you have done over the last 3-5
years to build a college-going culture?
x 6. What other activities do you have on your campus that support a
college-going philosophy for students?
x 7. In what ways do you support teachers in building a college-going
culture?
x 8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-
going culture?
x 9. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about
the college-going process? Do you have a center or specific location
that students can go to?
x 10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-
going culture?
x 11. How do you address these challenges?
x 12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices
are producing the desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-
attainment)?
x 13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college
attainment goals? What do you do when students aren’t?
x x
14. Is there anything else that you want to share?
PROMISING PRACTICES COLLEGE GOING CULTURE

141

Appendix E: Observation Protocol

Observational Tool
Purpose:

Date: Start Time End Time Type of Observation
(Meeting, Classroom, Workshop,
etc.)

Observer (s):
Participant(s):

Descriptive Detail

Summary:

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Calhoun, Traci L. (author)

Core Title Promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going culture: a charter-school case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/26/2019

Defense Date 03/14/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,Bronfenbrenner,California,charter school,college culture,college talk,college-going,equity,High school students,leadership,low-SES,multigenerational change,OAI-PMH Harvest,practices,principals,social capital,strategies,Students,under-represented

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email tcal577132@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-151259

Unique identifier UC11660550

Identifier etd-CalhounTra-7294.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-151259 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CalhounTra-7294.pdf

Dmrecord 151259

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Calhoun, Traci L.

Type texts

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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